THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 1823 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
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in all countries subscribing to the
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THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXV
SHUVALOV to SUBLIMINAL SELF
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street
1911
R
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. G. REV. ALEXANDER BALLOCH GROSART, LL.D., D.D. /Stirling, William Alexander,
See the biographical article: GROSART, ALEXANDER BALI.OCH. \ Earl ol (in part).
A. C. McG. ARTHUR CUSHMAN McGnrjERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. f Socrates (Church Historian)
Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of I / . . ,\ .
History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historic. Ecclesia] ^ *jT, f \
of Eusebius. I Sozomen (in part).
A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D., D.C.L. / steele > Slr Richard (in part);
See the biographical article: DOBSON, H. AUSTIN. \Sterne, Laurence (in part).
A. De. ARTHUR DENDV, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S. f
Professor of Zoology in King's College, London. Zoological Secretary of the J Snonees
Linnean Society of London. Author of memoirs on systematic zoology, com- 1
parative anatomy, embryology, &c.
A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON.
Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the! Spain: History (in part).
Bourbons in Spain.
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J Sipunculoidea;
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, "j Smith, William Robertson.
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History.
A. F. E. ALLEN F. EVERETT. J Signal: Marine Signalling
Commander, R.N. Formerly Superintendent of the Signal School, H. M.S. "Victory, " 1 u n p ar f\
Portsmouth.
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc.
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the Uni- I Somerset, Edward Seymour,
versity of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, -| Dlllw of
1893-1901. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas
Cranmer; &c. L
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / _ .
Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. \ *' mus -
A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, D.PH. J So rat s
See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. ( tn
[ Sozomen (in part).
A. H. S. Rev. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LITT.D., LL.D. f
See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. "[ Sippara.
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. r
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J Smyth John
Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore 1
Educational Service. I
A. Ma. ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's J
College. Formerly Professor of Zoology in the University of Dublin. Author of 1
Text-Book of Human Anatomy; &c. I
A. Mel. ARTHUR MELLOR. f Silk: Spinning of "Silk
Of Messrs J. & T. Brocklehurst & Sons, Silk Manufacturers, Macclesfield. \ Waste."
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Smyth, Charles Piazzi;
See the biographical article: CLERKE, AGNES M. \ Stone, Edward James.
A. M. F.* ARTHUR MOSTYN FIELD, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.S. f
Vice-Admiral, R.N. Admiralty Representative on Port of London Authority. -I Bounding.
Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 1904-1909. I
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
V
1994
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. M.-Fa. ALFRED MOREL-FATIO. f .. ,
Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. Member of the I Spam: Language (tn part),
Institute of France; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Secretary of the Ecole 1 and Literature (in part).
des Charles, 1885-1906; &c. Author of L'Espagne au XVI' et au XVII' sticks. I
r Siskin; Skimmer; Skua;
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Snake-bird; Snipe; Sparrow:
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. I Spoonbill; Stilt; Stork.
A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P.
Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, c nll ti, Afripa-
1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa \ oo " 111 " !~
till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at \ ln port).
Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. L
A. S.* ARTHUR SCHUSTER, F.R.S. , PH.D., D.Sc. f
Professor of Physics at the University of Manchester, 1888-1907. President of ^he I
International Association of Seismology. Author of Theory of Optics and papers in | Spectroscopy.
the Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society. L
A. So. ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899). [ .... T , D.-/./.-../
Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tubingen. i
Author of Arabische Grammatik ; &c. L SttUt.
A. S. E. ARTHUR STANLEY EDDINGTQN, M.A., M.Sc., F.R.A.S.
Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, j Star.
Cambridge.
A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. |
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f oM mm ith Viscount
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ ol
A. W. P. ALFRED WALLIS PAUL, C.I.E.
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1870-1895. Political Officer, Sikkim Expedition. J Sikkim.
British Commissioner under Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1890. Deputy Com- I
missioner of Darjeeling.
f Signal: Army Signalling (in
B. B, A. BRAMAN BLANCHARD ADAMS. 4 part), and Railway Signal-
Associate Editor of the Railway Age Gazette, New York. L /j w U n p ar f)
B. K.* BENJAMIN KIDD, D.C.L. f Sociology.
Author of Social Evolution ; Principles of Western Civilization ; &c. L
B. W. G. BENEDICT WILLIAM GINSBURG, M.A., LL.D. [
St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. I Steamship Lines.
Formerly Editor of the Navy, and Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society. |
Author of Hints on the Legal Duties of Shipmasters ; &c. L
C. A. G. B. SIR CYPRIAN ARTHUR GEORGE BRIDGE, G.C.B. f c ._ .. ., . ,-,. .
Admiral R.N. Commander-in-Chief, China Station, 1901-1904. Director of J Sl 8 nal - Marine Signalling
Naval Intelligence, 1889-1894. Author of The Art of Naval Warfare; Sea-Power (in part),
and other Studies ; &c.
C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, LITT.D. (Oxon.). / Sorel, Albert.
See the biographical article: BEMONT, CHARLES. \
C. D. W. HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. f Strikes and Lock-outs:
See the biographical article: WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON. I United, States.
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Spanish Succession, War of
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (RoyaH /: j. nrl )
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor.
C. H.* SIR CHARLES HOLROYD, LITT. D. f strang, William.
See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR CHARLES. I
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. f Sixtus IV.;
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. Member of } Stilicho t Flavius.
the American Historical Association. \.
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST. Soc., F.S. A. f Somerset, Edmund Beaufort,
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor -! jjuke of
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. [
C. P.* CARL PULFRICH, PH.D. f
On the staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena. Formerly Privatdozent at the -i Stereoscope.
University of Bonn. Member of the Astronomical Societies of Brussels and Paris. L
C. Pa. CESARE PAOLI. / ,._
See the biographical article: PAOLI, CESARE. \ Sl ina
C. ft. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. f
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Sigebert, King.
Eludes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux; Le Duche merovingien d' Alsace et la legende |
de Sainte-Odile. \.
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LiTT., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hisi.S. f
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow I Simon of St Quentin;
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, i sindbad the Sailor Voyages of.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
c. s. s.
c. w. w.
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, M.A., D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S., LL.D. f
Professor of Physiology in the University of Liverpool. Author of The Integrative \ Spinal Cord' Phvsioloev
Action of the Nervous System. |_ ""
SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R S. (1836-1907). f
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- J . , .
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General] " lvas \ in
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of
Lord Clive; &c. [
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The Classical Concerto, The
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. [ Side; Sis;
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. J Sivas (in part)-
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and ] q mvrn a !! 4, n 'rf\-
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens,
1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. [SOU (Asia Minor).
I Sonata Forms;
1 Spohr, Ludwig.
D. H.
D. M. W.
E. A.
E. A. F.
E. C. B.
E. G.
E. H. M.
Ed. M.
E. Ma.
E. M. S.
E. M. T.
E.O.*
E. Pr.
E. W. H.
F. A. B.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.
Author of Short History of the Royal .
SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign
Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International
and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of the New Volumes
(loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the
Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c.
EDWARD ARBER, D.Lrrr., F.S.A. f
See the biographical article: ARBER, EDWARD.
EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A.
Rx. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius '
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
Sluys, Battle of;
Spain: History (in part);
Spanish Succession, War of:
Naval and Military Opera-
tions;
Spinola, Ambrose.
Shuvalov, Count.
Smith, John (1579-1631).
| Sicily: History (in part).
, J Silvestrines;
[ Simeon Stylites, St.
Song (Literary);
I Stanley, Thomas;
j Stevenson, Robert Louis;
[ Style.
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f Slavs;
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistants Slovaks;
Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. I Slovenes; Sorbs
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. f
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des ! Smerdis.
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. [_
EDWARD MANSON.
Barrister-at-Law. Joint-editor of the Journal of Comparative Legislation. Author
of Law of Trading Companies; Practical Guide to Company Law; &c.
ELEANOR MILDRED SIDGWICK (MRS HENRY SIDGWICK), D.LITT., LL.D.
Principal of Newnham College, Cambridge, 1892-1910. Hon. Secretary to the
Society for Psychical Research. Author of Papers in the Proceedings of the Society
for Psychical Research.
Stocks and Shares.
| Spiritualism.
SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., LITT.D., LL.D.
Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader
in Bibliography, Cambridge University, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University
College, Oxford. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor erf
the Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society
the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles!
EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal
Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c.
ERNEST WILLIAM HOBSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge. Stokes Lecturer in
Mathematics in the University.
FRANCIS ARTHUR BATHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892. ,
Author of " Echinoderma ' in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of
Bakony; &c.
j Stichometry.
(Skull: Cranial Surgery
Spinal Cord (Surgery) ;
Stomach.
(Silva, Antonio J. da;
Sousa, Luiz de.
-j Spherical Harmonics.
f
Starfish.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. C. S. S. FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc. f
Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Riddles of the -| Spencer, Herbert.
Sphinx; Studies in Humanism; &c-
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Sigurd;
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ Strathelyde.
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Skeleton;
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer onj Skin and Exoskeleton;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, 1 Skull;
London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. [ Spinal Cord (in part).
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. f
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of silures*
Brasenose College. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ -\ '
Church. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Spain: History, Ancient.
Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c.
F. J. S. FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A. f M _. . , . .,
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c. I Spenser, Edmund (in part).
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. r
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and .
Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial -i Sphinx (in part).
German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ;
&c.
F. L. L. LADY LUGARD.
See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D.
F. N. M. COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B.
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and ihe\ Strategy.
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign.
F. Po. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. f c*i,h n ci, t w
See the biographical article : POLLOCK : Family. \ ste P nen 5Ir J - F -
Siwa; Sobat (in part);
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
Somali land;
South Africa: Geography and
Statistics; History (in part),
and Bibliography;
Stanley, Sir Henry.
F. W.* FRANK WARNER. r
President of the Silk Association of Great Britain and Ireland ; Hon. Secretary J _... / . >
of the Ladies' National Silk Association. Chairman of the Silk Section, London 1 &IIK <"* P^t).
Chamber of Commerce, and of the Council of the Textile Institute. [
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Sinter;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902.-^ Spinel;
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Spodumene.
G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, D.D. r
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of
Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh
Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions ; &c.
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.Lrrr.
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of the Linguistic
Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice- ^ Sindhi and Lahnda.
President of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University.
Author of The Languages of India ; &c.
G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
Member of the Board of Advice to the Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly
Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of
Royal Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, -
1887. Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to
Commissioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Phila-
delphia and Melbourne.
Stawell, Sir William.
G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Lrrr.D. C
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J q mar * i n hn
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition 1 a
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I
G. E. H. GEORGE ELLERY HALE, LL.D., Sc.D. [
Director of the Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton at Pasadena, California. Director of the Yerkes Observatory, Chicago, 1895- I SpectrohelioTaph.
1905. Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London. Inventor of the Spectro- j
heliograph. Author of Papers on solar and stellar physics in the Astrophysical
Journal; &c. [
G. G. B. VERY REV. GEORGE GRANVILLE BRADLEY, D.D. /Stanley, Dean (in part).
See the biographical article: BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE. \
G. G. C. GEORGE GOUDIE CHISHOLM, M.A. f oj-nv r *i, A
Lecturer on Geography in the University of Edinburgh. Secretary of the Royal J ' '.... l ,? n
Scottish Geographical Society. Author of Handbook of Commercial Geography.] Statistics (in part).
Editor of Longman's Gazetteer of the World. I
G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. [ Stirling, William Alexander,
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Author of The -j Earl of (in part)
Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c. L
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden -j SOK6.
Society.
G. Mo. GAETANO MOSCA. / Sicily: Geography and Statistics
Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Turin. I (in part).
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L., LL.D. J stagl m aaame fl e
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B.
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. J _.,,,...
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old ] Slbawaihi.
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. f
Fellow of the British Academy. Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (
(Oxford). Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c.
H. Cl. SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G.
Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly) Singapore;
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author 1 o, raif ,
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India, &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language.
H. E. S.* HORACE ELISHA SCUDDER (d. 1902).
Formerly Editor of the Atlantic Monthly. Author of Life of James Russell Lowell; ~\ otowe, Mrs Beecner.
History of the United States ; &c. I _ _
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. f . ;. ' n , ,
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.-^
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. I Spnenodon.
H. H. F. H. HAMILTON FYFE. f
Special Correspondent of the Daily Mail; Dramatic critic of The World. Author of J Slepniak, Sergius.
A Modern Aspasia; The New Spirit in Egypt; &c. |_
H. Ja. HENRY JACKSON, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D., O.M. f Socrates;
Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity I Sophists'
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to illustrate the History *
of Greek Philosophy from Tholes to Aristotle. - SpeusippUS.
H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. f Signal: Army Signalling (in
Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering -( part) and Railway Signalling
Supplement. Author of British Railways. (j n p a rl).
H. M. Wo. HAROLD MELLOR WOODCOCK, D.Sc.
Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- J gporozoa
versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Sir E. Ray Lankester's
Treatise of Zoology, and of various scientific papers.
H. 0. F. HENRY OGG FORBES, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Director of Museums to the Corporation of Liverpool. Reader in Ethnography in
the University of Liverpool. Explorer of Mount Owen Stanley, New Guinea, J Sokotra (in part).
Chatham Islands and Sokotra. Author of A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern
Archipelago; Editor and part-author of Natural History of Sokotra and Abd-el-
Kuri; &c.
H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. J~ Societies, Learned.
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. I.
H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. J Space and Time.
Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \_
H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British I gtrabo.
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. |
Author of The Roman Empire; &c.
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f simpon of Durham-
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, , K |1_ f p' , and
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. I ^P 11611 ' Km S OI *<ngiana.
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f simon Ben Yo & ai;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. I Singer, Simeon;
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short j Smolenskin, Perez;
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Steinschneider, M.
J. A. Co. HON. SIR JOHN ALEXANDER COCKBURN, K.C.M.G., M.D. r
Knight of Grace of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Premier and Chief Secretary, J c ou th Australia' Hislorv
South Australia, 1889-1890; Minister of Education and Agriculture, 1893-1898; 1
Agent-General in London, 1898-1901. Author of Australian Federation; &c. (_
J. A. E. JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E. j" Siemens, Sir William;
Director of (British) Naval Education. Hon. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. I Steam Engine;
Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, 1 gt ren gt n O f Materials.
1890-1903. Author of The Strength of Materials; &c.
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE. [ .,, , _
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -j
Geology of Building Stones.
J. B. JAMES BONAR, M.A., LL.D. f
Master of the Royal Mint, Ottawa. Senior Examiner to the Civil Service Com- J Socialism.
mission, 1895-1907. Author of Malthus and his Work; Philosophy and Political j
Economy; &c.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. Bra. JOSEPH BRAUN, S.J. -fstolp
Author of Die Liturgische Geuiandung ; &c. \ oioie.
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. r staircase: Construction;
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at Kings! c*~.,i r/>nc*iitin.
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior 1
Engineers. I Stone.
J. C. Br. JOHN CASPER BRANNER, PH.D., LL.D., F.G.S. r
Vice- President and Professor of Geology in Leland Stanford University, California.
Director of the Branner-Agassiz Expedition to Brazil, 1899. State Geologist of-< South America.
Arkansas, 1887-1893. Author of numerous works on the geology of Brazil, Arkansas
and California.
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. fSilistria'
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J c n a . '
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 *
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. 1. Stambolov, Stefan.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisi.S. f
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Spaln: Language (in part), and
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. -{ , .. . f - . Z
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of ^terature (in part).
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.
J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSQN, M.A. f
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College. ^ Sinope.
Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. [
J. G. M. JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S. (Edin.). f Sleep;
Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Physi- -j gmell
ology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c. I
J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. f c ihv ii inB orapips
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. \ B1Dyl11
J. H. P. JOHN HENRY POYNTING, D.Sc., F.R.S. r
Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science in the University of |
Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Joint-author of *i Sound.
Text-Book of Physics.
3. H. R. JOHN ^RACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. r Stafford: Family
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and J c*anio.,. p ; /-
Family History; Peerage and Pedigree; &c. \ Stanle y- P**9 (*
3. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. r
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Sieyes, Emmanuel Joseph;
University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic "] Stein, Baron.
Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c.
3. H. van't H. JACOBUS HENDRICUS VAN'T HOFF, LL.D., D.Sc., f _.
See the biographical article VAN'T HOFF, JACOBUS HENDRICUS. nensm.
J. K. I. JOHN KEIXS INGRAM, LL.D. i Slavery (in part);
See the biographical article: INGRAM, JOHN ,KELLS. -} Smith, Adam (in part).
J. L. M. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A.
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of f
Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient J Soli (Cyprus).
Geography in the University of Liverpool, and Lecturer on Classical Archaeology
in the University of Oxford.
J. L. H. J. LANE-NOTTER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.MED. f
Colonel (retired), Royal Army Medical Corps. Formerly Professor of Military J c n ;i- c,,7i .> r>;,*,
Hygiene, Army Medical School at Netley. Author of The Theory and Practice of]
Hygiene; &c. [_
3. M. SIR JOHN MACDONELL, C.B., M.A., LL.D. ,-
Master of the Supreme Court, London. Formerly Counsel to the Board of Trade
and the London Chamber of Commerce. Quain Professor of Comparative Law, J Sovereignty;
and Dean of the Faculty of Law, University College, London. Editor of State ] Spheres of Influence.
Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political JLconomy;
The Land Question ; &c. I
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Solon;
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London J Sphinx (in part) ;
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. StrategUS.
J. 0. N. REV. JAMES OKEY NASH, M.A. r
Hertford College, Oxford. Headmaster of St John's College, Johannesburg. J Sisterhoods.
Formerly Missionary of the S.P.G. in Johannesburg.
J. Pe. JOHN PERCIVAL, M.A. r
St. John's College, Cambridge. Professor of Agricultural Botany at University -| Soil.
College, Reading. Author of Text-Book of Agricultural Botany; &c.
J. P. E. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J ctatoc rpnoral-
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit 1
fran$ais; &c. L
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. r ,,,.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J
on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of 1 5late:
Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. [ Spherulites.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.M., LITT.D., LL.D. f
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Cambridge and Fellow and Tutor J
of Gonville and Caius College. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of | Statius.
Christ's College. Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amtcitia; &c.
{Siberia (in part);
Simbirsk (in part);
Qmnlanclr (S* *>nrt\-
omoienss \y* pan),
Stavropol (in part).
J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. [
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic^ Stephen, St.
Age; &c. L
J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. f
All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -! Statute.
College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Law of the Universities ; &c. [
J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J c ,. . .-a--..,.. /-. ,
Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart] Soutl1 Australia. Geology,
of Australia; &c. L
J. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly 1
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History at H Stephan, Heinrieh von.
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
Empire; &c. L
K. G. J. KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. f g { Q eoerat ^ and
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903.-! p ' * * y
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. L Statistics.
K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. j"
Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J onHon TTormonn n
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- 1 ooaen > M mann von -
ment ; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ ; &c. L
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. foi**, ,. Cn i; n . c-:-
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the < &lslrum Q > bpmet,
Orchestra. [ Stringed Instruments.
L. C. REV. LEWIS CAMPBELL, D.C.L., LL.D. f c . ,
See the biographical article : CAMPBELL, LEWIS. \ & P n( Iles '
L. D.* Louis DUCHESNE. f Siricius;
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, Louis M. O. LSixtus I -III
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. Sillimanite; Smaltite;
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of J Sodalite; Sphene' Stannite;
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralo- | ifcJLi*.
gical Maeazine. Staurolite; Stephamte;
Istibnite; Stilbite; Strontianite.
L. W. Ch. LAURENCE WENSLEY CHUBB. f
Secretary of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society, and of the Commons and Foot- J Smoke (in part).
paths Preservation Society.
M. Ca. MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D. r
Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. Hofrat of the -{ stevinus Simon.
German Empire. Author of Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Mathematik ; &c.
M. G. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. f
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Ilchester Lecturer at
Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President of the -j gturdza (family)
Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author
of History of Rumanian Popular Literature ; &c.
H. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. r
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion -I Sin (Moon-god),
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c.
M. M. MAX ARTHUR MACAULIFFE. r
Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of The Sikh Religion: its Gurus, J Sikh;
Sacred Writings and Authors; &c. Editor of Life of Guru Nanak, in the Punjabi] Sikhism.
language. L
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. r
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy, -j Sparta.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. f
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- J Sicyon.
ham University, 1905-1908.
H. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. c
Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's J Stephen Bar Sudhaile.
College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint.
0. A. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. r
H.M. Divisional Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J Sidney, Algernon;
Education, London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles | Somers, Lord.
//. ; &c. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c.
0. H. DAVID ORME MASSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on chemistry in -I Smoke (in part).
the transactions of various learned societies.
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
0. T. OLDFIELD THOMAS, F.R.S., F.Z.S. I"
Senior Assistant, Natural History Department of the British Museum. Author of -j Skunk (in part).
Catalogue of Marsupialia in the British Museum. I
P. A. A. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., D. JURIS. f
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History \ Simson, Martin E. von.
of the English Constitution. \_
{ Siberia (in part);
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. ] Simbirsk (in bart)
See the biographical article : KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. 1 Smolensk V' * /)'
[Stavropol (in part).
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in J
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. 1 Species.
Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. I
P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. f
Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England \ atranor( -
P. S. PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ, PH.D., F.C.S. f
Member of the Council, Institute of Brewing; Member of the Committee of Society J Spirits
of Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry anal
Technology of Brewing, Distilling, &c.
P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. isocaee
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. \
R. LORD RAYLEIGH. f
See the biographical article: RAYLEIGH, 3RD BARON. \ "*?
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. [
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- -| Sodom and Gomorrah.
ploration Fund. [
R. D. H. ROBERT DREW HICKS, M.A. f . .
Fellow, formerly Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. "j_
R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. r
Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, -< Solomon, The Psalms of.
Trinity College, Dublin. Author of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life;
Book of Jubilees; &c. I
R. H. L. ROBIN HUMPHREY LEGGE. f
Principal Musical Critic for the Daily Telegraph. Author of Annals of the Norwich < Strauss, Richard.
Festivals; &c.
R. H. V. ROBERT HAMILTON VETCH, C.B. r
Colonel R.E. Employed on the defences of Bermuda, Bristol Channel, Plymouth
Harbour and Malta, 1861-1876. Secretary of R.E. Institute, Chatham, 1877-1883. I ,. .
Deputy Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1889-1894. Author of Gordon 's 1 ottatnnairn, Lord.
Campaign in China; Life of Lieutenant-General Sir Gerald Graham. Editor of the
R.E. Journal, 1877-1884.
R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. / c -H
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ a P 1Qers -
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's
Sidney, Sir Henry;
Simnel, Lambert;
Smith, Sir Henry;
Somerset, Earls and Dukes of;
Stone, Archbishop.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Sifaka; Sirenia;
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Skunk (in part);
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer 1 Souslik; Squirrel;
of all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. [ Squirrel Monkey.
R. Mu. ROBERT MUNRO, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Dalrymple Lecturer on Archaeology in the University of Glasgow for 1910. Rhind
Lecturer on Archaeology, 1888. Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, J Stonenenge;
1888-1899. Founder of the Munro Lectureship on Anthropology and Prehistoric 1 Stone Monuments.
Archaeology in the University of Edinburgh. Author of The Lake-dwellings of
Europe ; Prehistoric Scotland, and its place in European Civilization ; &c.
R. M. B. F. K. RICHARD MAKDOUGALL BRISBANE FRANCIS KELLY, D.S.O. f
Colonel R.A. Commanding R.G.A., Southern Defences, Portsmouth. Served J Sights
through the South African War, 1899-1902. Chief Instructor at the School of 1
Gunnery, 1904-1908. L
Sigismund L, II. and III. of
Poland;
Skarga, Piotr; Skram, Peder;
Skrzynecki, Jan Zygmunt;
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs,
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from
1469 to 1706 ; &c.
Sophia Aleksyeevna;
Sprengtporten, Count Goran;
Sprengtporten, Jakob;
Stanislaus I. and II. of Poland;
Stephen I. and V. of Hungary;
Stephen Bathory;
Struensee, Johan F.;
Sture (family).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
x
R. P. S.
R. Sn.
R. S. C.
S. A. C.
S. Bl.
S. F. M.
St G. S.
S.N.
T.As.
T. A. A.
T. A. C.
T. Ba.
T. F. C.
T.Se.
T. W.-D.
T. W. F.
T. W. R. D.
V. W.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. G.
W. A. J. F.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. f
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past! Stair;
President of the Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, | Staircase: Architecture;
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Spire.
e. {
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
CH Ex?mine7n Silk Throwing and Spinning for the City and Guilds of London Institute
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lixx. f
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. I QI BI .I
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville | BICUU
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. I
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, J Simeon;
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of~) Solomon
Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical
Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
SIGFUS BLONDAL.
Librarian of the University of Copenhagen.
SIR SHIRLEY FORSTER MURPHY, F.R.C.S.
Medical Officer of Health for the County of London.
ST GEORGE STOCK, M.A.
Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham.
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D.
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.
Silk: Trade and Commerce.
,
~)
l
I
/ o iffurf > sson jA n
I blgur n ' J0n>
f
\ Slaughter-house
f simon MO,,,,,
\ OI
f -. <? v <itpm
\ oolar y slem -
Sicily: Geography
(in part), and
part);
Siena (in part);
Signia; Soluntum
Sora; Spoleto;
Stabiae; Subiaco.
Silvester II.
A <..,, i;.,.
! al . la -
ana Statistics.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lirr.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of 1
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography
of the Roman Campagna.
THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. f
Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. \
TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O. r
Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales,
1886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth J.
and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account of Australia and New
Zealand ; &c.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. f
Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour, j Spy (in part);
Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black-
burn, 1910.
THEODORE FREYLINGHUY"SEN COLLIER, PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. r
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J Smollett;
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 1 Stephen Sir Leslie.
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. I
WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON. f
See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE. |_ Sonnet.
THOMAS WILLIAM Fox. ("
Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of-l Spinning.
Weaving.
THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of Pali and Buddhist
Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. Secretary and Librarian of | Slgiri.
Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the
Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c.
THE HON. LADY WELBY.
Formerly Maid of Honour to Queen Victoria.
Sense; What is Meaning?
and Statistics
History (in
Spy (in
State.
c- T * ns
alxlus
Author of Links and Clues; Grains of < Signifies.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., Pn.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide an Haul Dauphine; The Range of
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.
f Simler, Josias;
Simplon Pass; Sion (town);
Soleure (canton);
Soleure (town);
Splugen Pass; Stans;
Stumpf, Johann.
WALTER ARMSTRONG GRAHAM.
Adviser to his Siamese Majesty's Minister for Agriculture. Commander, Order of I
the White Elephant. Member of the Burma Civil Service, 1889-1903. Author of A Siam.
The French Roman Catholic Mission in Siam ; Kelantan, a Handbook ; &c.
WALTER ARMITAGE JUSTICE FORD. f
Sometime Scholar of King's College, Cambridge. Teacher of Singing at the Royal \ Song (in music).
College of Music, London.
XIV
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
W. A. P.
W. C. D. W.
W. E. G.
W. Ho.
W. Hu.
W. L. C.*
W. L. G.
W.M.
W. MacC.
W. McD.
W. M. F. P.
W. H. R.
W. M. Ra.
W. H. S.
W. W. F.*
[Sir;
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. I Spain: History (in part) ;
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, 1 States-General*
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ;&c. [Stole (in parti .
WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S. I"
Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Theory of Solution ; -I Solution.
Recent Development of Physical Science; The Family and the Nation; &c. L
SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. J" .
British Government Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of~i Sobat (in part).
Irrigation, Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L
WYNNARD HOOPER, M.A. / Statistics;
Clare College, Cambridge. Financial Editor of The Times, London. I Stock Exchange.
REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., Lrrr.D. ("
President of the Royal Historical Society, 1905-1900. Author of History of the >. Stubbs, William.
English Church, 597-1666; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; &c. [
WILLIAM LEE CORBIN, A.M. f Sparks, Jared.
Associate Professor of English, Wells College, Aurora, New York State. I
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. f
Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly I Strathcona and Mount Royal,
Beit Lecturer in Cojonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 Lord.
Council (Canadian Series).
WILLIAM MINTO, M.A.
See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM.
SIR WILLIAM MACCORMAC, BART.
See the biographical article: MACCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM, BART.
WILLIAM McDouGALL, M.A.
Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford,
of St John's College, Cambridge.
WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LITT.D.
See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L., D.LITT.
See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W. MITCHELL.
WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Director of the Meteorological Office, London. Reader in Meteorology in the
University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological
Committee. Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of
Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1906; Senior
Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint author of Text Book of Practical Physics; &c.
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans;
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c.
f Spenser, Edmund (in part);
< Steele, Sir Richard (in part) ;
[ Sterne, Laurence (in part).
-! Simon, Sir John.
Formerly Fellow 4 Subliminal Self.
| Sinai: The Peninsula.
I Signorelli, Luca;
I Sodoma, II.
[ Smyrna (in part).
Squall.
' Silvanus.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Sibyls.
Sierra Leone.
Sign-board.
Sikh Wars.
Silesia.
Silicon.
Silver.
Simony.
Sind.
Skating.
Ski.
Skin Diseases.
Skye.
Sligo.
Smallpox.
Smithsonian Institution.
Snail.
Soap.
Sodium.
Soissons.
Solanaceae.
Solicitor.
Solomon Islands.
Somersetshire.
Somme.
Somnambulism.
Sorbonne.
Southampton.
South Carolina.
South Dakota.
South Sea Bubble.
Southwark.
Sowing.
Spalato.
Spanish-American War.
Spanish Reformed Church.
Speaker.
Spectacles.
Speranski, Count.
Sphere.
Spitsbergen.
Springfield.
Staff.
Stafford.
Staffordshire.
Stalactites.
Stamford.
Stammering.
Stamp.
Starch.
Star- Chamber.
Staten Island.
State Rights.
Steenkirk,
Stem.
Stettin.
Stickleback.
Stirling.
Stirlingshire.
Stockholm.
Stoichiometry.
Stolen Goods.
Strassburg.
Stratford-on-Avon.
Straw and Straw Manufactures.
Strawberry.
Strontium.
Strophanthus.
Strychnine.
Sturgeon.
Stuttgart.
Styria.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXV
SHUVALOV (sometimes written SCHOUVALOFF), PETER
ANDREIVICH, COUNT (1827-1889), Russian diplomatist, was
born in 1827 of an old Russian family which rose to distinction
and imperial favour about the middle of the i8th century.
Several of its members attained high rank in the army and the
civil administration, and one of them may be regarded as the
founder of the Moscow University and the St Petersburg Academy
of the Fine Arts. As a youth Count Peter Andreivich showed
no desire to emulate his distinguished ancestors. He studied
just enough to qualify for the army, and for nearly twenty years
he led the agreeable, commonplace life of a fashionable officer
of the Guards. In 1864 Court influence secured for him the
appointment of Governor-General of the Baltic Provinces, and
in that position he gave evidence of so much natural ability and
tact that in 1866, when the revolutionary fermentation in the
younger section of the educated classes made it advisable to
place at the head of the political police a man of exceptional
intelligence and energy, he was selected by the emperor for the
post. In addition to his regular functions, he was entrusted by
his Majesty with much work of a confidential, delicate nature,
including a mission to London in 1873. The ostensible object
of this mission was to arrange amicably certain diplomatic
difficultiesXcreated by the advance of Russia in Central Asia,
but he was instructed at the same time to prepare the way for
the marriage of the grand duchess Marie Alexandrovna with the
duke of Edinburgh, which took place in January of the following
year. At that time the emperor Alexander II. was anxious
to establish cordial relations with Great Britain, and he thought
this object might best be attained by appointing as his diplo-
matic representative at the British Court the man who had con-
ducted successfully the recent matrimonial negotiations. Count
Shuvalov was accordingly appointed ambassador to London;
and he justified his selection by the extraordinary diplomatic
ability he displayed during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78
and the subsequent negotiations, when the relations between
Russia and Great Britain were strained almost to the point of
rupture. After the publication of the treaty of San Stefano,
which astonished Europe and seemed to render a conflict inevit-
able, he concluded with Lord Salisbury a secret convention
which enabled the two powers to meet in congress and find
a pacific solution for all the questions at issue. In the delibera-
tions and discussions of the congress he played a leading part,
and defended the interests of his country with a dexterity which
excited the admiration of his colleagues; but when it became
known that the San Stefano arrangements were profoundly
modified by the treaty of Berlin, public opinion in Russia con-
xxv. i
demned him as too conciliatory, and reproached him with having
needlessly given up many of the advantages secured by the war.
For a time Alexander II. resisted the popular clamour, but in
the autumn of 1879, when Prince Bismarck assumed an attitude
of hostility towards Russia, Count Shuvalov, who had been
long regarded as too amenable to Bismarckian influence, was
recalled from his post as ambassador in London; and after
living for nearly ten years in retirement, he died at St Petersburg
in 1889. (D. M. W.)
SHUYA, a town in the government of Vladimir, 68 m. by rail
N.E. of the town of Vladimir. It is one of the chief centres of
the cotton and linen industries in middle Russia. It is built on
the high left bank of the navigable Teza, a tributary of the
Klyazma, with two suburbs on the right bank. Annalists men-
tion princes of Shuya in 1403. Its first linen manufactures were
established in 1755; but in 1800 its population did not exceed
1300. In 1882 it had 19,560 inhabitants, and 18,968 in 1897.
Tanneries, especially for the preparation of sheepskins widely
renowned throughout Russia still maintain their importance,
although this industry has migrated to a great extent to the
country 'districts. The cathedral (1799) is a large building, with
five gilt cupolas. Nearly every village in the vicinity has a
specialty of its own bricks, pottery, wheels, toys, packing-
boxes, looms and other weaving implements, house furniture,
sieves, combs, boots, gloves, felt goods, candles, and so on. The
manufacture of linen and cotton in the villages, as well as the
preparation and manufacture of sheepskins and rough gloves,
occupies about 40,000 peasants. The Shuya merchants carry
on an active trade in these products all over Russia, and in corn,
spirits, salt and other food stuffs, imported.
SH WEBO, a town and district in the Sagaing division of Upper
Burma. The town is situated in the midst of a rice plain, 53 m.
by rail N.E. from Mandalay: pop. (1901) 9626. It is of historic
interest as the birthplace and [capital of Alompra, the founder
of the last Burmese dynasty. After British annexation it became
an important military cantonment; but only the wing of a
European regiment is now stationed here. The area of the
district is 5634 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 286,891, showing an increase
of 24% in the decade. It lies between the Katha, Upper and
Lower Chindwin and Mandalay districts. The Irrawaddy forms
the dividing line on the east. The physical features of the
district vary considerably. The Minwun range runs down
the whole eastern side, skirting the Irrawaddy. In the north
it is a defined range, but at Sheinmaga, in the south, it sinks
to an undulation. West of the Mu river, in the centre of the
district, there is a gradual ascent to the hills which divide
5
SIALKOT SIAM
Sagaing from the Upper Chindwin. Between these ranges and
on both sides of the Mu is a plain, unbroken except for some
isolated hills in the north and north-east and the low Sadaung-gyi
range in the south-east. The greater part of this plain is a rice-
growing tract, but on the sloping ground maize, millets, sesamum,
cotton and peas are raised. A good deal of sugar is also produced
from groves of the tari palm. The Mu river is navigable for
three months in the year, from June to August, but in the dry
season it can be forded almost anywhere. A good deal of salt
is produced in a line which closely follows the railway. Coal
has been worked at Letkokpin, near the Irrawaddy.
The Ye-u reserved forests are much more valuable than those
to the east on the Minwun and the Mudein. Extensive irrigation
works existed in Shwebo district, but they fell into disrepair
in King Thibaw's time. Chief of these was the Mahananda Lake.
The old works have recently been in process of restoration, and
in 1906 the main canal was formally opened. The rainfall
follows the valleys of the Mu and the Irrawaddy, and leaves the
rest of the district comparatively dry. It varies from an average
of 29 to 49 in. The average temperature is 90 in the hot season,
and falls to 60 or 61 in the cold season, the maximum and
minimum readings being 104 and 56.
SIALKOT, or SEALKOTE, a town and district of British India,
in the Lahore division of the Punjab. The town, which has a
station on the North-Western railway, is 7 2 m. N.E. of Lahore.
Pop. (1901) S7,9S6- It is a military cantonment, being the
headquarters of a brigade in the 2nd division of the northern
army. There are remains of a fort dating from about the loth
century; but the mound on which they stand is traditionally
supposed to mark the site of a much earlier stronghold, and some
authorities identify it with the ancient Sakala or Sagal. Other
ancient buildings are the shrine of Baba Nanak, the first Sikh
Guru, that of the Mahommedan Imam Ali-ul-hakk and Raja
Tej Singh's temple. The town has an extensive trade, and
manufactures of sporting implements, boots, paper, cotton,
cloth and shawl-edging. There are Scottish and American
missions, a Scottish mission training institution and an arts
college.
The DISTRICT of SIALKOT has an area of 1991 sq. m. It is
an oblong tract of country occupying the submontane portion
of the Rechna (Ravi-Chenab) Doab, fringed on either side by a
line of fresh alluvial soil, above which rise the high banks that
form the limits of the river-beds. The Degh, which rises in the
Jammu hills, traverses the district parallel to the Ravi, and is
likewise fringed by low alluvial soil. The north-eastern boundary
is 20 m. distant from the outer line of the Himalayas; bjit about
midway between the Ravi and the Chenab is a high dorsal tract,
extending from beyond the border and stretching far into the
district. Sialkot is above the average of the Punjab in fertility.
The upper portion is very productive; but the southern portion,
farther removed from the influence of the rains, shows a marked
decrease of fertility. The district is also watered by numerous
small torrents; and several swamps or jhils, scattered over the
face of the country, are of considerable value as reservoirs of
surplus water for purposes of irrigation. Sialkot is reputed to
be healthy; it is free from excessive heat, judged by the common
standard of the Punjab; and its average annual rainfall varies
from 35 in. near the hills to 22 in. in the parts farthest from them.
The population in 1901 was 1,083,909, showing a decrease of 3 %
as against an increase of 1 1 % in the previous decade. This is
explained by the fact that Sialkot contributed over 100,000
persons to the Chenab colony (<?.!>.). The principal crops are
wheat, barley, maize, millets and sugar-cane. The district
is crossed by a branch of the North-Western railway from
Wazirabad to Jammu.
The early history of Sialkot is closely interwoven with that of
the rest of the Punjab. It was annexed by the British after the
second Sikh war in 1849; since then its area has been consider-
ably reduced, assuming its present proportions in 1867. During
the Mutiny of 1857 the native troops plundered the treasury
and destroyed all the records, when most of the European
residents took refuge in the fort.
SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai), an inde-
pendent kingdom of the Indo-Chinese peninsula or Further
India. It lies between 4 20' and 20 15' N. and between 96 30'
and 106 E., and is bounded N. by the British Shan States and
by the French Laos country, E. by the French Laos country
and by Cambodia, S. by Cambodia and by the Gulf of Siam,
and W. by the Tenasserim and Pegu divisions of Burma. A part
of Siam which extends down the Malay Peninsula is bounded
E. by the Gulf of Siam and by the South China Sea, S. by British
Malaya and W. by the lower part of the Bay of Bengal. The
total area is about 220,000 sq. m. (For map, see INDO-CHINA.)
The country may be best considered geographically in four
parts: the northern, including the drainage area of the four
rivers which unite near Pak-Nam Po to form the Menam Chao
Phaya; the eastern, including the drainage area of the Nam Mun
river and its tributaries; t,he central, including the drainage
area of the Meklong, the Menam Chao Phaya and the Bang
Pakong rivers; and the southern, including that part of the
country which is situated in the Malay Peninsula. Northern
Siam is about 60,000 sq. m. in area. In general appearance
it is a series of parallel ranges of hills, lying N. and S., merely
gently sloping acclivities in the S., but rising into precipitous
mountain masses in the N. Between these ranges flow the
rivers Meping, Mewang, Meyom and Menam, turbulent shallow
streams in their upper reaches, but slow-moving and deep where
they near the points of junction. The longest of them is over
250 m. from its source to its mouth. The Meping and Mewang
on the W., rising among the loftiest ranges, are rapid and
navigable only for small boats, while the Meyom and Menam,
the eastern pair, afford passage for large boats at all seasons
and for deep draught river-steamers during the flood-time. The
Menam is the largest, deepest and most sluggish of the four,
and in many ways resembles its continuation, the Menam Chao-
Phaya lower down. On the W. the river Salween and its tributary
the Thoung Yin form the frontier between the Siam and Burma for
some distance, draining a part of northern Siam, while in the
far north-east, for a few miles below Chieng Sen, the Mekong
does the same. The districts watered by the lower reaches of
the four rivers are fertile and are inhabited by a considerable
population of Siamese. Farther north the country is peopled
by Laos, scattered in villages along all the river banks, and by
numerous communities of Shan, Karen, Kamoo and other tribes
living in the uplands and on the hilltops.
Eastern Siam, some 70,000 sq. m. in area, is encircled by
well-defined boundaries, the great river Mekong dividing it
clearly from French Laos on the N. and E., the Pnom Dang Rek
hill range from Cambodia on the S. and the Dom Pia Fai range
from central Siam on the W. The right bank of the Mekong
being closely flanked by an almost continuous hill range, the
whole of this part of Siam is practically a huge basin, the bottom
of which is a plain lying from 200 to 300 ft. above sea-level, and
the sides hill ranges of between 1000 and 2000 ft. elevation.
The plain is for the most part sandy and almost barren, subject
to heavy floods in the rainy season, and to severe drought in the
dry weather. The hills are clothed with a thin shadeless growth
of stunted forest, which only here and there assumes the character-
istics of ordinary jungle. The river Nam Mun, which is perhaps
200 m. long, has a large number of tributaries, chief of which
is the Nam Si. The river flows eastward and falls into the Mekong
at 15 20' N. and 105 40' E. A good way farther north two
small rivers, the Nam Kum and the Nam Song Kram, also
tributaries of the Mekong, drain a small part of eastern Siam.
Nearly two million people, mixed Siamese, Lao and Cambodian,
probably among the poorest peasantry in the world, support
existence in this inhospitable region.
Central Siam, estimated at 50,000 sq. m. in area, is the heart
of the kingdom, the home of the greater part of its population,
and the source of nine-tenths of its wealth. In general appear-
ance it is a great plain flanked by high mountains on its western
border, inclining gently to the sea in the S. and round the inner
Gulf of Siam, and with a long strip of mountainous sea-board
stretching out to the S.E. The mountain range on the W. is a
SIAM
continuation of one of the ranges of northern Siam, which,
extending still farther southward, ultimately forms the backbone
of the Malay Peninsula. Its ridge is the boundary between
central Siam and Burma. The highest peak hereabouts is
Mogadok, 5000 ft., close to the border. On the E. the Dom
Pia Fai throws up a point over 4000 ft., and the south-eastern
range which divides the narrow, littoral, Chantabun and Krat
districts from Cambodia, has the Chemao, Saidao and Kmoch
heights, between 3000 and 5000 ft. The Meklong river, which
drains the western parts of central Siam, rises in the western
border range, follows a course a little E. of S., and runs into the
sea at the western corner of the inner gulf, some 200 m. distant
from its source. It is a rapid, shallow stream, subject to sudden
rises, and navigable for small boats only. The Bang Pakong
river rises among the Wattana hills on the eastern border,
between the Battambong province of Cambodia and Siam. It
flows N., then W., then S., describing a semicircle through the
fertile district of Pachim, and falls into the sea at the north-east
corner of the inner gulf. The whole course of this river is about
100 m. long; its current is sluggish, but that of its chief tributary,
the Nakhon Nayok river, is rapid. The Bang Pakong is navi-
gable for steamers of small draught for about 30 m. The Menam
Chao Phaya, the principal river of Siam, flows from the point
where it is formed by the junction of the rivers of northern Siam
almost due S. for 154 m., when it empties itself into the inner
gulf about midway between the Meklong and Bang Pakong
mouths. In the neighbourhood of Chainat, 40 m. below Paknam
Poh, it throws off three branches, the Suphan river and the
Menam Noi on the right, and the Lopburi river on the left bank.
The latter two rejoin the parent stream at points considerably
lower down, but the Suphan river remains distinct, and has an
outlet of its own to the sea. At a point a little more than half-
way down its course, the Menam Chao Phaya receives the waters
of its only tributary, the Nam Sak, a good-sized stream which
rises in the east of northern Siam and waters the most easterly
part (the Pechabun valley) of that section of the country. The
whole course of the Menam Chao Phaya lies through a perfectly
flat country. It is deep, fairly rapid, subject to a regular rise
and flood every autumn, but not to sudden freshets, and is
affected by the tide 50 m. inland. For 20 m. it is navigable
for vessels of over 1000 tons, and were it not for the enormous
sand bar which lies across the mouth, ships of almost any size
could lie at the port of Bangkok about that distance from the
sea (see BANGKOK). Vessels up to 300 tons and 12 ft. draught
can ascend the river 50 m. and more, and beyond that point
large river-boats and deep-draught launches can navigate for
many miles. The river is always charged with a great quantity
of silt which during flood season is deposited over the surrounding
plain to the great enhancement of its fertility. There is prac-
tically no forest growth in central Siam, except on the slopes of
the hills which bound this section. The rest is open rice-land,
alternating with great stretches of grass, reed jungle and bamboo
scrub, much of which is under water for quite three months of
the year.
Southern Siam, which has an area of about 20,000 sq. m.,
consists of that part of the Malay Peninsula which belongs to the
Siamese kingdom. It extends from 10 N. southwards to
6 35' N. on the west coast of the peninsula, and to 6 25' N. on
the east coast, between which points stretches the frontier of
British Malaya. It is a strip of land narrow at the north end
and widening out towards the south, consisting roughly of the
continuation of the mountain range which bounds central Siam
on the W., though the range appears in certain parts as no more
than a chain of hillocks. The inhabitable part of the land
consists of the lower slopes of the range with the valleys and
small alluvial plains which lie between its spurs. The remainder
is covered for the most part with dense forest containing several
kinds of valuable timber. The coast both east and west is. much
indented, and is studded with islands. The rivers are small
and shallow. The highest mountain is Kao Luang, an almost
isolated projection over 5000 ft. high, round the base of which
lie the most fertile lands of this section, and near which are
situated the towns of Bandon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Lakhon)
and Patalung, as well as many villages.
Geology. 1 Very little is known of the geology of Siam. It appears
to be composed chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks, concealed, in the plains,
by Quaternary, and possibly Tertiary, deposits. Near Luang
Prabang, just beyond the border, in French territory, limestones
with Productus and Schwagerina, like the Productus limestone of
the Indian Salt Range, have been found; also red clays and grau-
wacke with plants similar to those of the Raniganj beds; and violet
clays with Dicynodon, supposed to be the equivalents of the Panche
series of India. , All these beds strike from north-east to south-west
and must enter the northern part of Siam. Farther south, at Vien-
Tiane, the Mekong passes through a gorge cut in sandstone, arkose
and schists with a similar strike; while at Lakhon there are steeply
inclined limestones which strike north-west.
Climate. Although enervating, the climate of Siam, as is natural
from the position of the country, is not one of extremes. The wet
season May to October corresponds with the prevalence of the
south-west monsoon in the Bay of Bengal. The full force of the
monsoon is, however, broken by the western frontier hills; and
while the rainfall at Mergui is over 180, and at Moulmein 240 in.,
that of Bangkok seldom exceeds 54, and Chiengmai records an
average of about 42 in. Puket and Chantabun, being both on a iee
shore, in this season experience rough weather and a heavy rainfall ;
the latter, being farther from the equator, is the worse off in this
respect. At this period the temperature is generally moderate,
65 to 75 F. at night and 75 to 85 by day ; but breaks in the
rains occur which are hot and steamy. The cool season begins with
the commencement of the north-east monsoon in the China Sea in
November. While Siam enjoys a dry climate with cool nights (the
thermometer at night often falling to 40 50 F., and seldom being
over 90 in the shade by day), the eastern coast of the Malay Penin-
sula receives the full force of the north-easterly gales from the sea.
This lasts into February, when the northerly current begins to lose
strength, and the gradual heating of the land produces local sea
breezes from the gulf along the coast-line. Inland, the thermometer
rises during the day to over 100 F., but the extreme continental
heats of India are not known. The comparative humidity of the
atmosphere, however, makes the climate trying for Europeans.
Flora. In its flora and fauna Siam combines the forms of Burma
and the Shan States with those of Malaya, farther south, and of
Cambodia to the south-east. The coast region is characterized by
mangroves, Pandanus, rattans, and similar palms with long flexible
stems, and the middle region by the great rice-fields, the coco-nut
and areca palms, and the usual tropical plants of culture. In the
temperate uplands of the interior, as about Luang Prabang, Hima-
layan and Japanese species occur oaks, pines, chestnuts, peach
and great apple trees, raspberries, honeysuckle, vines, saxifrages,
Cichoraceae, anemones and Violaceae; there are many valuable
timber trees teak, sappan, eagle- wood, wood-oil (Hopea), and
other Dipterocarpaceae, Cedrelaceae, Pterocarpaceae, Xylia, iron-
wood and other dye-woods and resinous trees, these last forming
in many districts a large proportion of the more open forests, with
an undergrowth of bamboo. The teak tree grows all over the hill
districts north of latitude 15, but seems to attain its best develop-
ment on the west, and on the east does not appear to be found
south of 17. Most of the so-called Burma teak exported from
Moulmein is floated down from Siamese territory. Among other
valuable forest products are thingan wood (Hopea odorata), largely
used for boat-building; damar oil, taken throughout Indo-China
from the Dipterccarpus levis; agilla wood, sapan, rosewood, iron-
wood, ebony, rattan. Among the chief productions of the plains
are rice (the staple export of the country); pepper (chiefly from
Chantabun); sirih, sago, sugar-cane, coco-nut and betel, Palmyra or
sugar and attap palms; many forms cf banana and other fruit,
such as durian, orange-pommelo, guava, bread-fruit, mango, jack
fruit, pine-apple, custard-apple and mangosteen.
Fauna. Few countries are so well stocked with big game as is
Siam. Chief of animals is the elephant, which roams wild in large
numbers, and is extensively caught and tamed by the people for
transport. The tiger, leopard, fishing-cat, leopard-cat, and other
species of wild-cat, as well as the honey-bear, large sloth-bear, and
one- and two-horned rhinoceros, occur. Among the great wild
cattle are the formidable gaur, or seladang, the banting, and the
water-buffalo. The goat antelope is found, and several varieties
of deer. Wild pig, several species of rats, and many bats one of
the commonest being the flying-fox, and many species of monkey
especially the gibbon are also met with. Of snakes, 56 species are
known, but only 12 are poisonous, and of these 4 are sea-snakes.
The waters of Siam are particularly rich in fish. The crocodile is
common in many of the rivers and estuaries of Siam, and there are
many lizards. The country is rich in birds, a large number of which
appear to be common to Burma and Cambodia.
1 See E. Joubert in F. Gamier, Voyage d' exploration en Indo-
Chine (Paris, 1873), vol. ii. ; Counillon, Documents pour seruir A
I' etude geologique des environs de Luang Prabang ( Coch inching) ,
Comptes rendus (1896), cxxiii. 1330-1333.
SIAM
Inhabitants. A census of the rural population was taken for
the first time in 1905. The first census of Bangkok and its
suburbs was taken in 1909. Results show the total population
of the country to be about 6,230,000. Of this total about
3,000,000 are Siamese, about 2,000,000 Laos, about 400,000
Chinese, 115,000 Malay, 80,000 Cambodian and the rest Burmese,
Indian, Mohn, Karen, Annamite, Kache, Lawa and others. Of
Europeans and Americans there are between 1300 and 1500,
mostly resident in Bangkok. Englishmen number about 500;
Germans, 190; Danes, 160; Americans, 150, and other nation-
alities are represented in smaller numbers. The Siamese inhabit
central Siam principally, but extend into the nearer districts
of all the other sections. The Laos predominate in northern
and eastern Siam, Malays mingle with the Siamese in southern
Siam, and the Chinese are found scattered all over, but keeping
mostly to the towns. Bangkok, the capital, with some 650,000
inhabitants, is about one-third Chinese, while in the suburbs are
to be found settlements of Mohns, Burmese, Annamites and
Cambodians, the descendants of captives taken in ancient wars.
The Eurasian population of Siam is very small compared with
that of other large cities of the East. Of the tribes which occupy
the mountains of Siam some are the remnants of the very ancient
inhabitants of the country, probably of the Mohn-Khmer family,
who were supplanted by a later influx of more civilized Khmers
from the south-east, the forerunners and part-ancestors of the
Siamese, and were still farther thrust into the remoter hills
when the Lao-Tai descended from the north. Of these the
principal are the Lawa, Lamet, Ka Hok, Ka Yuen and Kamoo,
the last four collectively known to the Siamese as Ka. Other
tribes, whose presence is probably owing to immigration at
remote or recent periods, are the Karens of the western frontier
range, the Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur of northern Siam.
The Karens of Siam number about 20,000, and are found as
far south as 13 N. They are mere offshoots from the main
tribes which inhabit the Burma side of the boundary range,
and are supposed by some to be of Burmo-Tibetan origin. The
Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur have Yunnanese charac-
teristics, are met with in the Shan States north of Siam and in
Yun-nan, and are supposed to have found their way into northern
Siam since the beginning of the igth century. In the mountains
behind Chantabun a small tribe called Chong is found, and in
southern Siam the Sakei and Semang inhabit the higher ranges.
These last three have Negrito characteristics, and probably
represent a race far older even than the ancient Ka.
The typical Siamese is of medium height, well formed, with
olive complexion, darker than the Chinese, but fairer than the
Malays, eyes well shaped though slightly inclined to the oblique,
nose broad and flat, lips prominent, the face wide across the
cheek-bones and the chin short. A thin moustache is common,
the beard, if present, is plucked out, and the hair of the head is
black, coarse and cut short. The lips are usually deep red and
the teeth stained black from the habit of betel-chewing. The
children are pretty but soon lose their charm, and the race,
generally speaking, is ugly from the European standpoint.
The position of women is good. Polygamy is permitted, but is
common only among the upper classes, and when it occurs the
first wife is acknowledged head of the household. In disposition
the Siamese are mild-mannered, patient, submissive to authority,
kindly and hospitable to strangers. They are a light-hearted,
apathetic people, little given to quarrelling or to the commission
of violent crime. Though able and intelligent cultivators they
do not take kindly to any form of labour other than agricultural,
with the result that most of the industries and trades of the
country are in the hands of Chinese.
The national costume of the Siamese is the panune, a piece of
cloth about I yd. wide and 3 yds. long. The middle of it is passed
round the body, which it covers from the waist to the knees, and is
hitched in front so that the two ends hang down in equal length
before; these being twisted together are passed back between the
legs, drawn up and tucked into the waist at the middle of the back.
The panung is common to both sexes, the women supplementing it
with a scarf worn round the body under the arms. Among the better
classes both sexes wear also a jacket buttoned to the throat, stockings
and shoes, and all the men, except servants, wear hats.
The staple food of the Siamese is rice and fish. Meat is eaten,
but, as the slaughter of animals is against Buddhist tenets, is not
often obtainable, with the exception of pork, killed by Chinese.
The men smoke, but the women do not. Everybody chews betel.
The principal pastimes are gambling, boat-racing, cock- and fish-
fighting and kite-flying, and a kind 01 football.
Slavery, once common, has been gradually abolished by a series of
laws, the last of which came into force in 1905. No such thing as
caste exists, and low birth is no insuperable bar to the attainment of
the highest dignities. There are no hereditary titles, those in use being
conferred foi' life only and being attached to some particular office.
Towns. There are very few towns with a population of over
10,000 inhabitants in Siam, the majority being merely scattered
townships or clusters of villages, the capitals of the provinces
(muang) being often no more than a few houses gathered round the
market-place, the offices and the governor's residence. The more
important places of northern Siam include Chieng Mai (q.v.), the
capital of the north, Chieng Rai, (near the northern frontier;
Lampun, also known as Labong (originally Haribunchai), the first
Lao settlement in Siam; Lampangr, Tern, Nan and Pre, each the
seat of a Lao chief and of |a Siamese commissioner; Utaradit,
Pichai, Pichit, Pechabun and Raheng, the last of importance as a
timber station, with Phitsnulok, Sukhotai, Swankalok, Kampeng
Pet and Nakhon Sawan, former capitals of Khmer- Siamese king-
doms, and at present the headquarters of provincial governments.
In eastern Siam the only towns of importance are Korat and Ubon,
capitals of divisions, and Nong Kai, an ancient place on the Mekong
river. In central Siam, after Bangkok and Ayuthia, places of im-
portance on the Menam Chao Phaya are Pak-Nam at the river
mouth, the seat of a governor, terminus of a railway and site of
modern fortifications; Paklat, the seat of a governor, a town of
Mohns, descendants of refugees from Pegu ; Nontaburi, a few miles
above Bangkok, the seat of a governor and possessing a large market ;
Pratoomtani, Angtong, Prom, Inburi, Cnainat and Saraburi, all
administrative centres; and Lopburi, the last capital before Ayuthia
and the residence of kings during the Ayuthia period, a city of ruins
now gradually reawakening as a centre of railway traffic. To the
west of the Menam Chao Phaya lie Suphanburi and Ratburi, ancient
cities, now government headquarters; Pechaburi (the Piply of
early travellers), the terminus of the western railway; and Phrapa-
toom, with its huge pagoda on the site of the capital of Sri Wichaiya,
a kingdom of 2000 years ago, and now a place of military, agricultural
and other schools. To the east, in the Bang Pakong river-basin
and down the eastern shore of the gulf, are Pachim, a divisional
headquarters; Petriou (q.v.); Bang Plasoi, a fishing centre, with
Rayong, Chantabun (q.v.) and Krat, producing gems and pepper.
In southern Siam the chief towns are Chumpon; Bandon, with a
growing timber industry; Nakhon Sri Tammarat (q.v.); Singora
(q.v.) ; Puket (q.v.) ; Patani.
Communications. Central Siam is supplied with an exceptionally
complete system of water communications; for not only has it the
three rivers with their tributaries and much-divided courses, but all
three are linked together by a series of canals which, running in
parallel lines across the plain from E. to W., make the farthest
corners of this section of the kingdom easily accessible from the
capital. The level of the land is so low, the soil so soft, and stone
suitable for metal so entirely absent, that the making and upkeep of
roads would here be ruinously expensive. Former rulers have
realized this and have therefore confined themselves to canal making.
Some of the canals are very old, others are of comparatively recent
construction. In the past they were often allowed to fall into dis-
repair, but in 1903 a department of government was formed to
control their upkeep, with the result that most of them were soon
furnished with new locks, deepened, and made thoroughly service-
able. The boat traffic on them is so great that the collection of a
small toll more than suffices to pay for all maintenance expenses.
In northern and southern Siam, where the conditions are different,
roads are being slowly made, but natural difficulties are great, and
travelling in those distant parts is still a matter of much discomfort.
In 1909 there were 640 miles of railway open. All but 65 miles
was under state management. The main line from Bangkok to the
north had reached Pang Tone Phung, some distance north of
Utaradit and 10 m. south of Meh Puak, which was selected as
the terminus for the time being, the continuation to Chieng Mai,
the original objective, being postponed pending the construction of
another and more important line. This latter was the continuation
through southern Siam of the line already constructed from Bangkok
south-west to Petchaburi (no m.), with funds borrowed, under a
recent agreement, from the Federated (British) Malay States
government, wh'ich work, following upon surveys made in 1907,
was begun in 1909 under the direction of a newly constituted
southern branch of the Royal Railways department. From Ban
Paji on the main line a branch extends north-eastwards no m. to
Korat. To the east of Bangkok the Bangkok- Petriew line (40 m.)
was completed and open for traffic.
The postal service extends to all parts of the country and is fairly
efficient. Siam joined the Postal Union in 1885. The inland tele-
graph is also widely distributed, and foreign lines communicate with
Saigon, the Straits Settlements and Moulmein.
Agriculture. The cultivation of paddi (unhusked rice) forms the
SIAM
occupation of practically the whole population of Siam outside the
capital. Primitive methods obtain, but the Siamese are efficient
cultivators and secure good harvests nevertheless. The sowing and
planting season is from June to August, and the reaping season
from December to February. Forty or fifty varieties of paddi are
grown, and Siam rice is of the best in the world. Irrigation is
rudimentary, for no system exists for raising the water of the in-
numerable canals on to the fields. Water-supply depends chiefly,
therefore, on local rainfall. In 1905 the government started pre-
liminary surveys for a system of irrigation. Tobacco, pepper,
coco-nuts and maize are other agricultural products. Tobacco of
good quality supplies local requirements but is not exported ; pepper,
grown chiefly in Chantabun and southern Siam, annually yields
about 900 tons for export. From coco-nuts about 10,000 tons of
copra are made for export each year, and maize is used for local
consumption only. Of horned cattle statistical returns show over
two million head in the whole country.
Mining. The minerals of Siam include gold, silver, rubies,
sapphires, tin, copper, iron, zinc and coal. Tin-mining is a flourish-
ing industry near Puket on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula,
and since 1905 much prospecting and some mining has been done
on the east coast. The export of tin in 1908 exceeded 5000 tons,
valued at over 600,000. Rubies and sapphires are mined in the
Chantabun district in the south-east. The Mining Department of
Siam is a well-organized branch of the government, employing
several highly-qualified English experts.
Timber. The extraction of teak from the forests of northern Siam
employs a large number of people. The industry is almost entirely
in the hands of Europeans, British largely predominating. The
number of teak logs brought out via the Salween and Menam Chao
Phaya rivers average 160,000 annually, Siam being thus the largest
teak-producing country of the world. A Forest Department, in
which experienced officers recruited from the Indian Forest Service
are employed, has for many years controlled the forests of Siam.
Technology. The government has since 1903 given attention to
sericulture, and steps have been taken to improve Siamese silk with
the aid of scientists borrowed from the Japanese Ministry of
Agriculture. Surveying and the administration of the land have
for a long time occupied the attention of the government. A
Survey Department, inaugurated about 1887, has completed the
general survey of the whole country, and has made a cadastral
survey of a large part of the thickly inhabited and highly cultivated
districts of central Siam. A Settlement Commission, organized in
1901, decided the ownership of lands, and, on completion, handed
over its work to a Land Registration Department. Thus a very
complete settlement of much of the richest agricultural land in the
country has been effected. The education of the youth of Siam in
the technology of the industries practised has not been neglected.
Pupils are sent to the best foreign agricultural, forestry and mining
schools, and, after going through the prescribed course, often with
distinction, return to Siam to apply their knowledge with more or
less success. Moreover, a college under the control of the Ministry
of Lands and Agriculture, which was founded in 1909, provides locally
courses of instruction in these subjectsand also in irrigation engineer-
ing, sericulture and surveying.
Commerce. Rice-mills, saw-mills and a few distilleries of locally
consumed liquor, one or two brick and tile factories, and here and
there a shed in which coarse pottery is made, are all Siam has in
the way of factories. All manufactured articles of daily use are
imported, as is all ironware and machinery. The foreign commerce
of Siam is very ancient. Her commerce with India, China and
probably Japan dates from the beginning of the Christian era or
earlier, while that with Europe began in the i6th century. Trade
with her immediate neighbours is now insignificant, the total value
of annual imports and exports being about 400,000; but sea-
borne commerce is in a very flourishing condition. Bangkok, with
an annual trade valued at 13,000,000, easily overtops all the rest
of the country, the other ports together accounting for a total of
imports and exports not exceeding 3,000,000. On both the east
and west coasts of southern Siam trade is increasing rapidly, and is
almost entirely wjth the Straits Settlements. The trade of the
west coast is carried in British ships exclusively, that on the east
coast by British and Siamese.
Art. The Siamese are an artistic nation. Their architecture,
drawing, goldsmith's work, carving, music and dancing are all highly
developed in strict accordance with the traditions of Indo-Chinese
art. Architecture, chiefly exercised in connexion with religious
buildings, is clearly a decadent form of that practised by the ancient
Khmers, whose architectural remains are among the finest in the
world. The system of music is elaborate but is not written, vocalists
and instrumentalists performing entirely by ear. The interval corre-
sponding to the octave being divided into seven equal parts, each
about 1 1 semitone, it follows that Siamese music sounds strange in
Western ears. Harmony is unknown, and orchestras, which include
fiddles, flutes, drums and harmonicons, perform in unison. The
goldsmith's work of Siam is justly celebrated. Repouss6 work in
silver, which is still practised, dates from the most ancient times.
Almost every province has its special patterns and processes, the
most elaborate being those of Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore),
Chantabun and the Laos country. In the Ligore ware the hammered
ground-work is inlaid with a black composition of sulphides of baser
metals which throws up the pattern with distinctness.
Government. The government of Siam is an absolute monarchy.
The heir to the throne is appointed by the king, and was formerly
chosen from among all the members of his family, collateral as
well as descendants. The choice was sometimes made early
in the reign when the heir held the title of " Chao Uparach "
or " Wang Na," miscalled " Second King " in English, and
sometimes was left until the death of the king was imminent.
The arrangement was fraught with danger to the public tran-
quillity, and one of the reforms of the last sovereign was the
abolition of the office of " Chao Uparach " and a decree that the
throne should in future descend from the king to one of his sons
born of a queen, which decree was immediately followed by the
appointment of a crown prince. There is a council consisting
of the ten ministers of state for foreign affairs, war, interior,
finance, household, justice, metropolitan government, public
works, public instruction and for agriculture together with the
general adviser. There is also a legislative council, of which
the above are ex officio members, consisting of forty-five persons
appointed by the king. The council meets once a week for the
transaction of the business of government. The king is an
autocrat in practice as well as in theory, he has an absolute
power of veto, and the initiative of measures rests largely
with him. Most departments have the benefit of European
advisers. The government offices are conducted much on
European lines. The Christian Sunday is observed as a holiday
and regular hours are prescribed for attendance. The numerous
palace and other functions make some demand upon ministers'
time, and, as the king transacts most of his affairs at night,
high officials usually keep late office hours. The Ministry of
Interior and certain technical departments are recruited from
the civil service schools, but many appointments in government
service go by patronage. For administrative purposes the
country is divided into seventeen montons (or divisions) each
in charge of a high commissioner, and an eighteenth, including
Bangkok and the surrounding suburban provinces, under the
direct control of the minister for metropolitan government (see
BANGKOK). The high commissioners are responsible to the
minister of interior, and the montons are furnished with a very
complete staff for the various branches of the administration.
The montons consist of groups of the old rural provinces (muang),
the hereditary chiefs of which, except in the Lao country in the
north ajid in the Malay States, kave been replaced by governors
trained in administrative work and subordinate to the high
commissioner. Each muang is subdivided into ampurs under
assistant commissioners, and these again are divided into village
circles under headmen (kamnans), which circles comprise villages
under the control of elders. The suburban provinces of the
metropolitan monton are also divided as above. The policing
of the seventeen montons is provided for by a gendarmerie of
over 7000 men and officers (many of the latter Danes), a
well-equipped and well-disciplined force. That of the sub-
urban provinces is effected by branches of the Bangkok civil
police.
Finance. The revenue administration is controlled by the
ministers of the interior, of metropolitan government and of finance,
by means of well-organized departments and with expert European
assistance. The total revenue of the country for 1908-1909 amounted
to 58,000,000 ticals, or, at the prevailing rate of exchange, about
4,300,000, made up as follows :
Farms and monopolies (spirits, gambling, &c.) 783,000
Opium revenue .... 823,000
Lands, forests, mines, capitation. 1,330,000
Customs and octroi . . . ' 653,000
Posts, telegraphs and railways . 331,000
Judicial and other fees . . . 270,000
Sundries 110,000
Total 4,300,000
The unit of Siamese currency is the tical, a silver coin about equal
in weight and fineness to the Indian rupee. In 1902, owing to the
serious depreciation of the value of silver, the Siamese mint was closed
to free coinage, and an arrangement was made providing for the
gradual enhancement of the value of the tical until a suitable value
should be attained at which it might be fixed. This measure was
6
SIAM
successful, the value of the tical having thereby been increased from
i lid. in 1902 to is. 5{|d. in 1909, to the improvement of the
national credit and of the value of the revenues. A paper currency
was established in 1902, and proved a financial success. In 1905
Siam contracted her first public loan, 1,000,000 being raised in
London and Paris at 95 J and bearing 4! % interest. This sum was
employed chiefly in railway construction, and in 1907 a second loan
of 3,000,000 was issued in London, Paris and Berlin at 931 for the
same purpose and for extension of irrigation works. A further sum
of 4,000,000 was borrowed in 1909 from the government of the
Federated (British) Malay States at par and bearing interest at
4 %, also for railway construction.
Weights and Measures. In accordance with the custom formerly
prevalent in all the kingdoms of Further India, the coinage of Siam
furnishes the standard of weight. The tical (baht) is the unit of
currency and also the unit of weight. Eighty ticals equal one
chang and fifty chang equal one haph, equivalent to the Chinese
picul, or I33jlb avoirdupois. For the weighing of gold, gems, opium,
&c., the/Mang, equal to i tical, and the salung, equal to J tical, are
used. The unit of linear measure is the wah, which is subdivided into
i wah or sauk, \ wah or kup, and into fa wah or mew. Twenty wah
equal one sen and 400 sen equal one yote. The length of the wah
has been fixed at two metres. The unit of land measure is the rai,
which is equal to 400 square wah, and is subdivided into four equal
ngan. Measures of capacity are the tang or bucket, and the sat or
basket. Twenty tanan, originally a half coco-nut shell, equal one
tang, and twenty-five of the same measure equal one sat. The tang
is used for measuring rice and the sat for paddi and other grain.
One sat of paddi weighs 42 J ft avoirdupois.
Army and Navy. By a law passed in 1903, the ancient system
of recruiting the army and navy from the descendants of former
prisoners of war was abolished in favour of compulsory service by
all able-bodied men. The new arrangement, which is strictly terri-
torial, was enforced in eight montons by the year 1909, resulting in a
standing peace army of 20,000 of all ranks, in a marine service of
about 10,000, and in the beginnings of first and second reserves.
The navy, many of the officers of which are Danes and Norwegians,
comprises a steel twin-screw cruiser of 2500 tons which serves as
the royal yacht, four steel gunboats of between 500 and 700 tons all
armed with modern quick-firing guns, two torpedo-boat destroyers
and three torpedo boats, with other craft for river and coast work.
Justice. Since the institution of the Ministry of Justice in 1892
very great improvements have been effected in this branch of the
administration. The old tribunals where customary law was
administered by ignorant satellites of the great, amid unspeakable
corruption, have all been replaced by organized courts with qualified
judges appointed from the Bangkok law school, and under the
direct control of the ministry in all except the most outlying parts.
The ministry is well organized, and with the assistance of European
and Japanese officers of experience has drafted a large number of
laws and regulations, most of which have been brought into force.
Extra-territorial jurisdiction was for long secured by treaty for the
subjects of all foreign powers, who could therefore only be sued in
the courts maintained in Siam by their own governments, while
European assessors were employed in cases where foreigners sued
Siamese. An indication, however, foreshadowing the disappearance
of extra-territorial rights, appeared in the treaty of 1907 between
France and Siam, the former power therein surrendering all such
rights where Asiatics are concerned so soon as the Siamese penal and
Erocedure codes should have become law, and this was followed
y a much greater innovation in 1909 when Great Britain closed her
courts in Siam and surrendered her subjects under certain temporary
conditions to the jurisdiction of the Siamese courts. When it is
understood that there _are over 30,000 Chinese, Annamese, Burmese
and other Asiatic foreign subjects living in Siam, the importance to
the country of this change will be to some extent realized.
Religion. While the pure-blooded Malays of the Peninsula are
Mahommedans, the Siamese and Lao profess a form of Buddhism
which is tinged by Cingalese and Burmese influences, and, especially
in the more remote country districts, by the spirit-worship which is
characteristic of the imaginative and timid Ka and other hill peoples
of Indo-China. In the capital a curious admixture of early Brah-
minical influence is still noticeable, and no act of public importance
takes place without the assistance of the divinations of the Brahmin
priests. The Siamese, as southern Buddhists, pride themselves on
their orthodoxy; and since Burma, like Ceylon, has lost its inde-
pendence, the king is regarded in the light of the sole surviving
defender of the faith. There is a close connexion between the laity
and priesthood, as the Buddhist rule, which prescribes that every
man should enter the priesthood for at least a few months, is almost
universally observed, even young princes and noblemen who have
been educated in Europe donning the yellow robe on their return to
Siam. A certain amount of scepticism prevails among the educated
classes, and political motives may contribute to their apparent
orthodoxy, but there is no open dissent from Buddhism, and those
who discard its dogmas still, as a rule, venerate it as an ethical
system. The accounts given by some writers as to the profligacy
and immorality in the monasteries are grossly exaggerated. Many
of the temples in the cap-tal are under the direct supervision of the
king, and in these a stricter rule of life is observed. Some of the
priests are learned in the Buddhist scriptures, and most of the Pali
scholarship in Siam is to be found in monasteries, but there is no
learning of a secular nature. There is little public worship in the
Christian sense of the word. On the day set apart for worship (Wan
Phra, or " Day of the Lord ") the attendance at the temples is small
and consists mostly of women. Religious or semi-religious cere-
monies, however, play a great part in the life of the Siamese, and
few weeks pass without some great function or procession. Among
these the cremation ceremonies are especially conspicuous. The
more exalted the personage the longer, as a rule, is the body kept
before cremation. The cremations of great people, which often last
several days, are the occasion of public festivities and are celebrated
with processions, theatrical shows, illuminations and fireworks.
The missionaries in Siam are entirely French Roman Catholics and
American Protestants. They have done much to help on the general
work of civilization, and the progress of education has been largely
due to their efforts.
Education. As in Burma, the Buddhist monasteries scattered
throughout the country carry on almost the whole of the elementary
education in the rural districts. A provincial training college was
established in 1903 for the purpose of instructing priests and laymen
in the work of teaching, and has turned out many qualified teachers
whose subsequent work has proved satisfactory. By these means,
and with regular government supervision and control, the monastic
schools are being brought into line with the government educational
organization. They now contain not far short of 100,000 pupils.
In the metropolitan monton there are primary, secondary and special
schools for boys and girls, affording instruction to some 10,000
pupils. There are also the medical school, the law school, the civil
service school, the military schools and the agricultural college,
which are entered by students who have passed through the secondary
grade for the purpose of receiving professional instruction. Many
of the special schools use the English language for conveying
instruction, and there are three special schools where the whole
curriculum is conducted in English by English masters. Two
scholarships of 300 a year each for four years are annually com-
peted for by the scholars of these schools, the winners of which
proceed to Europe to study a subject of their own selection which
shall fit them for the future service of their country. Most of the
special schools also give scholarships to enable the best of their
pupils to complete their studies abroad. The result of the wide-
spread monastic school system is that almost all men can read and
write a little, though the women are altogether illiterate.
History.
Concerning the origin of the name " Siam " many theories
have been advanced. The early European visitors to the
country noticed that it was not officially referred to by any such
name, and therefore apparently conceived that the term must
have been applied from outside. Hence the first written accounts
give Portuguese, Malay and other derivations, some of which
have continued to find credence among quite recent writers.
It is now known, however, that " Siam " or " Sayam " is one
of the most ancient names of the country, and that at least
a thousand years ago it was in common use, such titles as
Swankalok-Sukhotai, Shahr-i-nao, Dwarapuri, Ayuthia, the last
sometimes corrupted to " Judea," by which the kingdom has
been known at various periods of its history, being no more than
the names of the different capital cities whose rulers in turn
brought the land under their sway. The Siamese (Thai) call
their country Muang Thai, or " the country of the Thai race,"
but the ancient name Muang Sayam has lately been revived.
The gradual evolution of the Siamese (Thai) from the fusion of
Lao-Tai and Khmer races has been mentioned above. Their
language, the most distinctively Lao-Tai attribute which they
have, plainly shows their very close relationship with the latter
race and its present branches, the Shans (Tai L6ng) and the
Ahom of Assam, while their appearance, customs, written
character and religion bear strong evidence of their affinity with
the Khmers. The southward movement of the Lao-Tai family
from their original seats in south-west China is of very ancient
date, the Lao states of Luang Prabang and Wieng Chan on the
Mekong having been founded at least two thousand years ago.
The first incursions of Lao-Tai among the Khmers of northern
Siam were probably later, for the town of Lampun (Labong or
Haribunchai) , the first Lao capital in Siam, was founded about
A.D. 575. The fusion of races may be said to have begun then,
for it was during the succeeding centuries that the kings of
Swankalok-Sukhotai gradually assumed Lao characteristics,
and that the Siamese language, written character and other
racial peculiarities were in course of formation. But the finishing
SIAM
touches to the new race were supplied by the great expulsion of
Lao-Tai from south-west China by Kublai Khan in A.D. 125)
which profoundly affected the whole of Further India. There-
after the north, the west and the south-west of Siam, comprising
the kingdom of Swankalok-Sukhotai, and the states of Suphan
and Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore), with their sub-feudatories,
were reduced by the Siamese (Thai), who, during their southern
progress, moved their capital from Sukhotai to Nakhon Sawan,
thence to Kampeng Pet, and thence again to Suvarnabhumi
near the present Kanburi. A Sukhotai inscription of about
1284 states that the dominions of King Rama Kamheng ex-
tended across the country from the Mekong to Pechaburi, and
thence down the Gulf of Siam to Ligore; and the Malay annals
say that the Siamese had penetrated to the extremity of the
peninsula before the first Malay colony from Menangkabu
founded Singapore, i.e. about 1160. Meanwhile the ancient
state of Lavo (Lopburi), with its capital at Sano (Sornau or
Shahr-i-nao), at one time feudatory to Swankalok-Sukhotai,
remained the last stronghold of the Khmer, although even here
the race was much modified by Lao-Tai blood; but presently
Sano also was attacked, and its fall completed the ascendancy
of the Siamese (Thai) throughout the country. The city of
Ayuthia which rose in A.D. 1350 upon the ruins of Sano was the
capital of the first true Siamese king of all Siam. This king's
sway extended to Moulmein, Tavoy, Tenasserim and the whole
Malacca peninsula (where among the traders from the west
Siam was known as Sornau, i.e. Shahr-i-nau, long after Sano
had disappeared Yule's Marco Polo, ii. 260), and was felt even
in Java. This is corroborated by Javan records, which describe
a " Cambodian " invasion about 1340; but Cambodia was
itself invaded about this time by the Siamese, who took Angkor
and held it for a time, carrying off 90,000 captives. The great
southward expansion here recorded is confirmed by the Chinese
annals of the period. The wars with Cambodia continued with
varying success for some 400 years, but Cambodia gradually
lost ground and was finally shorn of several provinces, her
sovereign falling entirely under Siamese influence. This, how-
ever, latterly became displeasing to the French, now in Cochin
China, and Siam was ultimately obliged to recognize the pro-
tectorate forced on Cambodia by that power. Vigorous attacks
were also made during this period on the Lao states to the north-
west and north-east, followed by vast deportation of the people,
and Siamese supremacy was pretty firmly established in Chieng-
mai and its dependencies by the end of the i8th century, and over
the great eastern capitals, Luang Prabang and Vien-chang,
about 1828. During the I5th and i6th centuries Siam was
frequently invaded by the Burmese and Peguans, who, attracted
probably by the great wealth of Ayuthia, besieged it more than
once without success, the defenders being aided by Portuguese
mercenaries, till about 1555, when the city was taken and Siam
reduced to dependence. From this condition, however, it was
raised a few years later by the great conqueror and national
hero Phra Naret, who after subduing Laos and Cambodia
invaded Pegu, which was utterly overthrown in the next century
by his successors. But after the civil wars of the i8th century
the Burmese, having previously taken Chieng-mai, which
appealed to Siam for help, entered Tenasserim and took Mergui
and Tavoy in 1764, and then advancing simultaneously from
the north and the west captured and destroyed Ayuthia after
a two years' siege (1767).
The intercourse between France and Siam began about 1680
under Phra Narain, who, by the advice of his minister, the
Cephalonian adventurer Constantine Phaulcon, sent an embassy
to Louis XIV. When the return mission arrived, the eagerness
of the ambassador for the king's conversion to Christianity,
added to the intrigues of Phaulcon with the Jesuits with the
supposed intention of establishing a French supremacy, led to
the death of Phaulcon, the persecution of the Christians, and
the cessation of all intercourse with France. An interesting
episode was the active intercourse, chiefly commercial, between
the Siamese and Japanese governments from 1592 to 1632.
Many Japanese settled in Siam, where they were much employed.
They were dreaded as soldiers, and as individuals commanded
a position resembling that of Europeans in most eastern countries.
The jealousy of their increasing influence at last led to a massacre,
and to the expulsion or absorption of the survivors. Japan
was soon after this, in 1636, closed to foreigners; but trade
was carried on at all events down to 1745 through Dutch and
Chinese and occasional English traders. In 1752 an embassy
came from Ceylon, desiring to renew the ancient friendship and
to discuss religious matters. After the fall of Ayuthia a great
general, Phaya Takh Sin, collected the remains of the army
and restored the fortunes of the kingdom, establishing his
capital at Bangkok; but, becoming insane, he was put to
death, and was succeeded by another successful general, Phaya
Chakkri, who founded the present dynasty. Under him Tenas-
serim was invaded and Tavoy held for the last time by the
Siamese in 1792, though in 1825, taking advantage of the Bur-
mese difficulty with England, they bombarded some of the towns
on that coast. The supremacy of China is indicated by occasional
missions sent, as on the founding of a new dynasty, to Peking,
to bring back a seal and a calendar. But the Siamese now
repudiate this supremacy, and have sent neither mission nor
tribute for sixty years, while no steps have been taken by the
Chinese to enforce its recognition. The sovereign, Phra Para-
mendr Maha Mongkut, was a very accomplished man, an en-
lightened reformer and devoted to science; his death, indeed,
was caused by fatigue and exposure while observing an eclipse.
Many of his predecessors, too, were men of different fibre from
the ordinary Oriental sovereign, while his son Chulalong Korn,
who succeeded him in 1868, showed himself an administrator of
the highest capacity. He died on the 23rd of October 1910.
Of European nations the Portuguese first established inter-
course with Siam. This was in 1511, after the conquest of
Malacca by D'Albuquerque, and the intimacy lasted over a
century, the tradition of their greatness having hardly yet died
out. They were supplanted gradually in the i7th century by
the Dutch, whose intercourse also lasted for a similar period; but
they have left no traces of their presence, as the Portuguese
always did in these countries to a greater extent than any other
people. English traders were in Siam very early in the i7th
century; there was a friendly interchange of letters between
James I. and the king of Siam, who had some Englishmen in his
service, and, when the ships visited " Sia " (which was " as
great a city as London ") or the queen of Patani, they were
hospitably received and accorded privileges the important
items of export being, as now, tin, varnish, deer-skins and
" precious drugs." Later on, the East India Company's servants,
jealous at the employment of Englishmen not in their service,
attacked the Siamese, which led to a massacre of the English
at Mergui in 1687, and the factory at Ayuthia was abandoned
in 1688. A similar attack is said to have been made in 1719
by the governor of Madras. After this the trade was neglected.
Pulo Penang, an island belonging to the Siamese dependency
of Kedah, was granted on a permanent lease to the East India
Company in 1786, and treaties were entered into by the sultan
of Kedah with the company. In 1822 John Crawfurd was sent
to Bangkok to negotiate a treaty with the suzerain power, but
the mission was unsuccessful. In 1824, by treaty with the
Dutch, British interests became paramount in the Malay
Peninsula and in Siam, and, two years later, Captain Burney
signed the first treaty of friendship and commerce between
England and Siam. A similar treaty was effected with America
in 1833. Subsequently trade with British possessions revived,
and in time a more elaborate treaty with England became
desirable. Sir J. Brooke opened negotiations in 1850 which
came to nothing, but in 1855 Sir J. Bowring signed a new treaty
whereby Siam agreed to the appointment of a British consul in
Bangkok, and to the exercise by that official of full extra-
territorial powers. Englishmen were permitted to own land in
certain defined districts, customs and port dues and land revenues
were fixed, and many new trade facilities were granted. This
important arrangement was followed at intervals by similar
treaties with the other powers, the last two being those with
8
SIAM
Japan in 1898 and Russia in 1899. A further convention
afterwards provided for a second British consular district in
northern Siam, while England and France have both appointed
vice-consuls in different parts of the country. Thus foreigners
in Siam, except Chinese who have no consul, could only be tried
for criminal offences, or sued in civil cases, in their own consular
courts. A large portion of the work of the foreign consuls,
especially the British, was consequently judicial, and in 1901
the office of judge was created by the British government, a
special judge with an assistant judge being appointed to this
post. Meanwhile, trade steadily increased, especially with
Great Britain and the British colonies of Hong Kong and
Singapore.
The peaceful internal development of Siam seemed also likely
to be favoured by the events that were taking place outside her
frontiers. For centuries she had been distracted by wars with
Cambodians, Peguans and Burmans, but the incorporation of
Lower Cochin China, Annam and Tongking by the French, and
the annexation of Lower and Upper Burma successively by the
British, freed her from all further danger on the part of her old
rivals. Unfortunately, she was not destined to escape trouble.
The frontiers of Siam, both to the east and the west, had always
been vague and ill-defined, as was natural in wild and unexplored
regions inhabited by more or less barbarous tribes. The frontier
between Siam and the new British possessions in Burma was
settled amicably and without difficulty, but the boundary
question on the east was a much more intricate one and was
still outstanding. Disputes with frontier tribes led to complica-
tions with France, who asserted that the Siamese were occupying
territory that rightfully belonged to Annam, which was now
under French protection. France, while assuring the British
Government that she laid no claim to the province of Luang
Prabang, which was situated on both banks of the upper
Mekong, roughly between the i8th and zoth parallels, claimed
that farther south the Mekong formed the true boundary between
Siam and Annam, and demanded the evacuation of certain
Siamese posts east of the river. The Siamese refused to yield,
and early in 1893 encounters took place in the disputed area,
in which a French officer was captured and French soldiers were
killed. The French then despatched gunboats from Saigon to
enforce their demands at Bangkok, and these made their way
up to the capital in spite of an attempt on the part of the Siamese
naval forces to bar their way. In consequence of the resistance
with which they had met, the French now greatly increased
their demands, insisting on the Siamese giving up all territory
east of the Mekong, including about half of Luang Prabang,
on the payment of an indemnity and on the permanent with-
drawal of all troops and police to a distance of 25 kilometres
from the right bank of the Mekong. Ten days' blockade of the
port caused the Siamese government to accede to these demands,
and a treaty was made, the French sending troops to occupy
Chantabun until its provisions should have been carried out.
In 1895 lengthy negotiations took place between France and
England concerning their respective eastern and western frontiers
in Farther India. These negotiations bore important fruit
in the Anglo-French convention of 1896, the chief provision of
which was the neutralization by the contracting parties of the
central portion of Siam, consisting of the basin of the river
Menam, with its rich and fertile land, which contains most of the
population and the wealth of the country. Neither eastern nor
southern Siam was included in this agreement, but nothing was
said to impair or lessen in any way the full sovereign rights of
the king of Siam over those parts of the country. Siam thus has
its independence guaranteed by the two European powers who
alone- have interests in Indo-China, England on the west and
France on the east, and has therefore a considerable political
interest similar to that of Afghanistan, which forms a buffer state
between the Russian and British possessions on the north of
India. Encouraged by the assurance of the Anglo-French
convention, Siam now turned her whole attention to internal
reform, and to such good purpose that, in a few years, improved
government and expansion of trade aroused a general interest
in her welfare, and gave her a stability which had before been
lacking. With the growth of confidence negotiations with
France were reopened, and, after long discussion, the treaty of
1893 was set aside and Chantabun evacuated in return for the
cession of the provinces of Bassac, Melupre, and the remainder
of Luang Prabang, all on the right bank of the Mekong, and of
the maritime district of Krat. These results were embodied
in a new treaty signed and ratified in 1904.
Meanwhile, in 1899, negotiations with the British government
led to agreements denning the status of British subjects in Siam,
and fixing the frontier between southern Siam and the British
Malay States, while in 1900 the provisions of Sir J. Bowring's
treaty of 1855, fixing the rates of land revenue, were abrogated
in order to facilitate Siamese financial reform.
In 1907 a further convention was made with France, Siam
returning to the French protectorate of Cambodia the province
of Battambang conquered in 1811, and in compensation receiving
back from France the maritime province of Krat and the district
of Dansai, which had been ceded in 1904. This convention also
modified the extra-territorial rights enjoyed by France in Siam,
and disclosed an inclination to recognize the material improve-
ments of the preceding years. In 1907 also negotiations were
opened with Great Britain, the objects of which were to modify
the extra-territorial rights conceded to that power by the
treaty of 1855, and to remove various restrictions regarding
taxation and general administration, which, though diminished
from time to time by agreement, still continued to hamper the
government very much. These negotiations continued all
through 1908 and resulted in a treaty, signed and ratified in
1909, by which Siam ceded to Great Britain her suzerain rights
over the dependencies of Kedah, Kelantan, Trengganu and
Perlis, Malay states situated in southern Siam just north of
British Malaya, containing in all about a million inhabitants
and for the most part flourishing and wealthy, and obtained the
practical abolition of British jurisdiction in Siam proper as well
as relief from any obligations which, though probably very
necessary when they were incurred, had long since become mere
useless and vexatious obstacles to progress towards efficient
government. This treaty, a costly one to Siam, is important
as opening up a prospect of ultimate abandonment of extra-
territorial rights by all the powers. Administrative reform
and an advanced railway policy have made of Siam a market
for the trade of Europe, which has become an object of keen
competition. In 1908 the British empire retained the lead, but
other nations, notably Germany, Denmark, Italy and Belgium,
had recently acquired large interests in the commerce of the
country. Japan also, after an interruption of more than two
hundred years, had resumed active commercial relations with
Siam.
AUTHORITIES. H. Alabaster, Wheel of the Law (London, 1871);
Dr Anderson, English Intercourse with Siam in the l?th Century
(London, 1890) ; W. J. Archer, Journey in the Mekong Valley (1892) ;
C. Bock, Temples and Elephants; Sir John Bowring, The Kingdom
and People of Siam (London, 1857) ; J. G. D. Campbell, Siam in
the Twentieth Century (London, 1902) ; A. C. Carter, The Kingdom
of Siam (New York, 1904) ; A. R. Colquhoun, Amongst the Shans
(London, 1885); J. Crawfurd, Journal of an Embassy to Siam
(London, 1829); Lord Curzon, Nineteenth Century (July, 1893);
H.R.H. Prince Damrong, " The Foundation of Ayuthia," Siam
Society Journal (1905) ; Diplomatic and Consular Reports for
Bangkok and Chien Mai (1888-1907); Directory for Bangkok and
Siam (Bangkok Times Office Annual); Francis Garnier, Voyage
d' exploration en Indo-Chine (Paris, 1873); Geographical Journal,
papers by J. S. Black, Lord Curzon, Lord Lamington, Professor
H. Louis, T. M'Carthy, W. H. Smythe; Colonel G. E. Gerini," The
Tonsure Ceremony," " The Art of War in Indo-China "; " Siam's
Intercourse with China," Asiatic Quarterly Review (1906) ; " Historical
Retrospect of Junkceylon Island," Siam Society's Journal (1905);
W. A. Graham, " Brief History of the R.C. Mission in Siam," Asiatic
Quarterly Review (1901); Mrs Grindrod, Siam: a Geographical
Summary; H. Hallet, A Thousand Miles on an Elephant (London,
1890) ; Captain Hamilton, A New Account of the East Indies (1688-
I7 2 3); Prince Henri d'Orleans, Around Tonquin and Siam (London,
1894); Professor A. H. Keane, Eastern Geography: Asia; Dr Keith,
Journal Royal Asiatic Society (1892); C. S. Leckie, Journal Society
of Arts (1894), vol. xlii.; M. de la Loubere, Description du royaume
de Siam (Amsterdam, 1714); Captain Low, Journal Asiatic Society,
SIAM
vol. vii.; J. M'Carthy, Surveying and Exploring in Siam (London,
1900); Henri Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China (London, 1844);
F. A. Neale, Narrative of a Residence in Siam (London, 1852); Sir
H. Norman, The Far East (London, 1904); Bishop Pallegoix,
Description du royaume Thai ou Siam (Paris, 1854); H. W. Smythe,
Five Years in Siam (London, 1898); J. Thomson, Antiquities of
Cambodia, Malacca, Indo-China and China (London, 1875); P. A.
Thompson, Lotus Land (London, 1906); Turpin, Histoire de Siam
(Paris, 1719); F. Vincent, Land of the White Elephant; E. Young,
The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (London, 1898).
Language and Literature.
Siamese belongs to the well-defined Tai group of the Siamese-
Chinese family of languages. Its connexion with Chinese is
clear though evidently distant, but its relationship with the other
languages of the Tai group is very close. It is spoken throughout
central Siam, in all parts of southern Siam except Patani Monton,
in northern Siam along the river-banks as far up as Utaradit
and Raheng, and in eastern Siam as far as the confines of the
Korat Monton. In Patani the common language is still Malay,
while in the upper parts of northern, and the outlying parts of
eastern, Siam the prevailing language is'Lao, though the many
hill tribes which occupy the ranges of these parts have distinct
languages of their own.
Originally Siamese was purely monosyllabic, that is, each true
word consisted of a single vowel sound preceded by, or followed by,
a consonant. Of such monosyllables there are less than two thousand,
and therefore many syllables have to do duty for the expression of
more than one idea, confusion being avoided by the tone in which
they are spoken, whence the term tonal," which is applied to all
the languages of this family. The language now consists of about
15,000 words, of which compounds of two monosyllabic words and
appropriations from foreign sources form a very large part. Bali,
the ancient language of the kingdom of Magadha, in which the
sacred writings of Buddhism were made, was largely instrumental
in forming all the languages of Further India, including Siamese
a fact which accounts for the numerous connecting links between
the M&n, Burmese and Siamese languages of the present time,
though these are of quite separate origin. When intercourse with
the West began, and more especially when Western methods of
government and education were first adopted in Siam, the tendency
to utilize European words was very marked, but recently there
has been an effort to avoid this by the coining of Siamese or Bali
compound words.
The current Siamese characters are derived from the more monu-
mental Cambodian alphabet, which again owes its origin to the
alphabet of the inscriptions, an offshoot of the character found on
the stone monuments of southern India in the 6th and 8th centuries.
The sacred books of Siam are still written in the Cambodian
character.
The Siamese alphabet consists of 44 consonants, in each of which
the vowel sound " aw " is inherent, and of 32 vowels all marked
not by individual letters, but by signs written above, below, before
or after the consonant in connexion with which they are to be pro-
nounced. It may seem at first that so many as 44 consonants can
scarcely be necessary, but the explanation is that several of them
express each a slightly different intonation of what is practically
the same consonant, the sound of " kh," for instance, being repre-
sented by six different letters and the sound of " t " by eight. More-
over, other letters are present only for use in certain words imported
from Bali or Sanskrit. The vowel signs have no sound by them-
selves, but act upon the vowel sound " aw " inherent in the con-
sonants, converting it into " a," " i," " o," " ee," " ow," &c. Each
of the signs has a name, and some of them produce modulations so
closely resembling those made by another that at the present day
they are scarcely to be distinguished apart. A hard-and-fast rule
the
at
anything else is simply suppressed or is pronounced as though it
were a letter naturally producing one or other of those sounds.
Thus many of the words procured from foreign sources, not ex-
cluding Bali and Sanskrit, are more or less mutilated in pronuncia-
tion, though the entirely suppressed or altered letter is still retained
in writing.
Siamese is written from left to right. In manuscript there is
usually no space between words, but punctuation is expressed by
intervals isolating phrases and sentences.
The greatest difficulty with the Siamese language lies in the tonal
system. Of the simple tones there are five the even, the circumflex,
the descending, the grave and the high any one of which when
applied to a word may give it a quite distinct meaning. Four of
the simple tones are marked in the written character by signs
placed over the consonant affected, and the absence of a mark
implies that the one remaining tone is to be used. A complication
is caused by the fact that the consonants are grouped into three
classes, to each of which a special tone applies, and consequently
the application of a tonal sign to a letter has a different effect, accord-
ing to the class to which such letter belongs. Though many syllables
have to do duty for the expression of more than one idea, the
majority have only one or at most two meanings, but there are some
which are used with quite a number of different inflections, each
of which gives the word a new meaning. Thus, for example, the
syllable khao may mean " they," " badly," " rice," " white,"
" old," or " news," simply according to the tone in which the word
is spoken. Words are unchangeabje and incapable of inflection.
There is no article, and no distinction of gender, number or case.
These, when it is necessary to denote them, are expressed by ex-
planatory words after the respective nouns; only the dative and
ablative are denoted by subsidiary words, which precede the nouns,
the nominative being marked by its position before, the objective
by its position after, the verb, and the genitive (and also the ad-
jective) by its place after the noun it qualifies. Occasionally, how-
ever, auxiliary nouns serve that purpose. Words like " mother,"
" son," " water " are often employed in forming compounds to
express ideas for which the Siamese have no single words, e.g. luk
can, " the son of hire," a labourer; me mu, " the mother of the hand,"
the thumb. The use of class words with numerals obtains in Siamese
as it does in Chinese, Burmese, Anamese, Malay and many other
Eastern languages. As in these, so in Siamese the personal pronouns
are mostly represented by nouns expressive of the various shades
of superior or lower rank according to Eastern etiquette. The verb
is, like the noun, perfectly colourless person, number, tense and
mood being indicated by auxiliary words only when they cannot be
inferred from the context. Such auxiliary words are y&, " to be,"
" to dwell " (present) ; dai, " to have," leas, " end " (past) ; ca,
" also " (future) ; the first and third follow, the second and fourth
precede, the verb. Hai, " to give " (prefixed), often indicates the
subjunctive. As there are compound nouns, so there are compound
verbs; thus, e.g. pai, " to go," is joined to a transitive verb to
convert it into an intransitive or neuter; and thuk, " to touch,"
and long, " to be compelled," serve to form a sort of passive voice.
The number of adverbs, single and compound, is very large. The
prepositions mostly consist of nouns.
The construction of the sentence in Siamese is straightforward
and simple. The subject of the sentence precedes the verb and the
object follows it. The possessive pronoun follows the object. The
adverb usually follows the verb. In compound sentences the verbs
are placed together as in English, not separated by the object as in
German. When an action is expressed in the past the word which
forms with the verb the past tense is divided from the verb itself by
the object. Examples are :
Rao (We) dekchai (boy) sam (three) kon (persons) cha (will) pai (go)
chap (catch) pla (fish) samrap (for) hai (give) paw (father) kin (eat).
Me (Mother) tan (you) yu (live) ti (place) nai (where), or "Where is
your mother?"
Me (Mother) pai (go) talat (bazaar) leao (finish), or " (My) mother
has gone to the bazaar."
The difficulties of the Siamese language are increased by the fact
that in addition to the ordinary language of the people there is a
completely different set of words ordained for the use of royalty.
This " Palace language " appears to have come into existence from
a desire to avoid the employment in the presence of royalty of
downright expressions of vulgarity or of words which might be
capable of conveying an unpleasant or indelicate idea other than
the meaning intended. In the effort to escape from the vulgar,
words of Sanskrit origin have been freely adopted and many Cam-
bodian words are also used. The language is so complete that the
dog, pig, crow and other common or unclean animals are all ex-
pressed by special words, while the actions of royalty, such as
eating, sleeping, walking, speaking, bathing, dying, are spoken of
in words quite distinct from those used to describe similar actions
of ordinary people.
The prose literature of Siam consists largely of mythological
and historical fables, almost all of which are of Indian origin,
though many of them have come to Siam through Cambodia.
Their number is larger than is usually supposed, many of them
being known to few beyond the writers who laboriously copy
them and the professional " raconteurs " who draw upon them
to replenish their stock-in-trade. The best known have all been
made into stage-plays, and it is in this form that they usually
come before the notice of the general public. Amongst them
are Ramakien, taken from the great Hindu epic Ramayana;
Wetyasunyin, the tale of a king who became an ascetic after
contemplation of a withered tree; Worawongs, the story of a
prince who loved a princess and was kiUed by the thrust of a
magic spear which guarded her; Chalawan, the tale of a princess
beloved by a crocodile; Unarud, the life story of Anuruddha,
a demigod, the grandson of Krishna; Phumhon, the tale of a
princess beloved by an elephant; Prang tong, a story of a
princess who before birth was promised to a " yak " or giant in
10
SIBAWAIHI SIBERIA
return for a certain fruit which her mother desired to eat.
Mahasot is an account of the wars of King Mahasot. Nok Khum
is one of the theories of the genesis of mankind, the Nok Khum
being the sacred goose or " Hansa " from whose eggs the first
human beings were supposed to have been hatched. A consider-
able proportion of the romances are founded upon episodes
in the final life, or in one of the innumerable former existences,
of the Buddha. The Patlama Sompothiyan is the standard
Siamese life of the Buddha. Many of the stories have their
scene laid in Himaphan, the Siamese fairyland, probably origin-
ally the Himalaya.
A great many works on astrology and the casting of horoscopes,
on the ways to secure victory in war, success in love, in business
or in gambling, are known, as also works on other branches
of magic, to which subject the Siamese have always been partial.
On the practice of medicine, which is in close alliance with magic,
there are several well-known works.
The Niti literature forms a class apart. The word Niti is
from the Bali, and means " old saying," " tradition," " good
counsel." The best known of such works are Rules for the
Conduct of Kings, translated from the Bali, and The Maxims
of Phra Ruang, the national hero-king, on whose wonderful
sayings and doings the imagination of Siamese youth is fed.
In works on history the literature of Siam is unfortunately rather
poor. There can be little doubt that, as in the case of a!l the other
kingdoms of Further India, complete and detailed chronicles were
compiled from reign to reign by order of her kings, but of the more
ancient of these, the wars and disturbances which continued with
such frequency down to quite recent times have left no trace. The
Annals of the North, the Annals ofKrung Kao (Ayuthia) and the Book
of the Lives of the Four Kings (of the present dynasty) together
form the only more or less connected history of the country from
remote times down to the beginning of the present reign, and these,
at least so far as the earlier parts are concerned, contain much that
is inaccurate and a good deal which is altogether untrue. Foreign
histories include a work on Pegu, a few tales of Cambodian kings and
recently published class-books on European history compiled by
the educational department.
The number of works on law is considerable. The Laksana Phra
Thamasat, the Phra Tamra, Phra Tamnon, Phra Racha Kamnot
and Intkapat are ancient works setting forth the laws of the country
in their oldest form, adapted from the Dharmacastra and the Classifi-
cation of the Law of Manu. These, and also many of the edicts
passed by kings of the Ayuthia period which have been preserved,
are now of value more as curiosities of literature and history than
anything else, since, for all practical purposes, they have long been
superseded by laws more in accordance with modern ideas. The
laws of the sovereigns who have reigned at Bangkok form the most
notable part of this branch of Siamese literature. They include a
great number of revenue regulations, laws on civil matters such as
mortgage, bankruptcy, rights of way, companies, &c., and laws
governing- the procedure of courts, all of which adhere to Western
principles in the main. The latest addition is the P^nal Code, a
large and comprehensive work based upon the Indian, Japanese
and French codes and issued in 1908.
Poetry is a very ancient art in Siam and has always been held in
high honour, some of the best-known poets being, indeed, members
of the royal family. There are several quite distinct forms of metre,
of which those most commonly used are the Klong, the Kap and the
Klon. The Klong is rhythmic, the play being on the inflection of the
voice in speaking the words, which inflection is arranged according
to fixed schemes; the rhyme, if it can so be called, being sought
not in the similarity of syllables but of intonation. The Kap is
rhythmical and also has rhyming syllables. The lines contain an
equal number of syllables, and are arranged in stanzas of four lines
each. The last syllable of the first line rhymes with the third
syllable of the second line, the last of the second with the last of
the third and also with the first of the fourth line, and the last syllable
of the fourth line rhymes with the last of the second line of the next
succeeding stanza. The number of poems in one or other of these
two metres is very great, and includes verses on almost every theme.
In the Nirat poetry, a favourite form of verse, both are often used, a
stanza in Klong serving as a sort of argument at the head of a set of
verses in Kap. This Nirat poetry takes the form of narrative
addressed by a traveller to his lady-love, of a journey in which every
object and circumstance serves but to remind the wanderer of some
virtue or beauty of his correspondent. In most of such works the
journey is of course imaginary, but in some cases it is a true record
of travelling or campaigning, and has been found to contain in-
formation of value concerning the condition at certain times of out-
lying parts of the kingdom. Of the little love songs in Klon metre,
called Klon pet ton, there are many hundreds. These follow a
prescribed form, and consist of eight lines divided into two stanzas
of four lines each, every line containing eight syllables. The last
syllable of the first line rhymes with the third syllable of the second,
and the final of the second line with the final of the third. The
songs treat of all the aspects of love. A fourth poetical metre is
Chan, which, however, is not so much used as the others.
The introduction of printing in the Siamese character has re-
volutionized the literature of the country. Reading has become a
general accomplishment, a demand for reading matter has arisen,
and bookshops stocked with books have appeared to satisfy it. The
historical works above referred to have been issued in many editions,
and selections from the ancient fables and romances are continually-
being edited and reissued in narrative form or as plays. The
educational department has done good work in compiling volumes
of prose and verse which have found much favour with the public.
All the laws, edicts and regulations at present in force are to be had
in print at popular prices. Printing, in fact, has supplied a great
incentive to the development of literature, the output has increased
enormously, and will doubtless, continue to do so for a long time to
come. (W. A. G.)
SlBAWAIHI [Abu Bishr, or Abu-1 Hasan' Amr ibn'Uthman ibn
Qanbar, known as SIBAWAIHI or SIBUYA] (c. 753-793), Arabian
grammarian, was by origin a Persian and a freedman. Of his
early years nothing is known. At the age of thirty-two he went
to Basra, where he was a pupil of the celebrated grammarian
Khalll. Later he went to Bagdad, but soon left, owing to a
dispute with the Kufan grammarian Kisa'i, and returned to
Persia, where he died at the age of about forty. His great
grammar of Arabic, known simply as The Book, is not only the
earliest systematic presentation of Arabic grammar, but is
recognized among Arabs as the most perfect. It is not always
clear, but is very full and valuable for its many illustrations
from the Koran and the poets.
The Book was published by H. Derenbourg (2 vols., Paris, 1881-
1889), and a German translation, with extracts from the commentary
of Sira.fi (d. 978) and others, was published by G. Jahn (Berlin, 189";-
1900). (G. W. T.)
SIBBALD, SIR ROBERT (1641-1722), Scottish physician and
antiquary, was born in Edinburgh on the isth of April 1641.
Educated at Edinburgh, Leiden and Paris, he took his doctor's
degree at Angers in 1662, and soon afterwards settled as a
physician in Edinburgh. In 1667 with Sir Andrew Balfour
he started the botanical garden in Edinburgh, and he took a
leading part in establishing the Royal College of Physicians of
Edinburgh, of which he was elected president in 1684. In
1685 he was appointed the first professor of medicine in the
university. He was also appointed geographer-royal in 1682,
and his numerous and miscellaneous writings deal effectively
with historical and antiquarian as well as botanical and medical
subjects. He died in August 1722.
Amongst Sibbald's historical and antiquarian works may be
mentioned A History Ancient and Modern of the Sheriffdoms of Fife
and Kinross (Edinburgh, 1710, and Cupar, 1803), An Account of the
Scottish Atlas (folio, Edinburgh, 1683), Scotia tllustrata (Edinburgh,
1684) and Description of the Isles of Orkney and Shetland (folio,
Edinburgh, 1711 and 1845). The Remains of Sir Robert Sibbald,
containing his autobiography, memoirs of the Royal College of
Physicians, portion of his literary correspondence and account of
his manuscripts, was published at Edinburgh in 1833.
SIBERIA. This name (Russ. Sibir) in the i6th century
indicated the chief settlement of the Tatar khanKuchum Isker
on the Irtysh. Subsequently the name was extended
to include the whole of the Russian dominions in Asia.
Geographically, Siberia is now limited by the Ural
Mountains on the VV., by the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans
on the N. and E. respectively, and on the S. by a line running
from the sources of the river Ural to the Tarbagatai range (thus
separating the steppes of the Irtysh basin from those of the Aral
and Balkash basins), thence along the Chinese frontier as far as
the S.E. corner of Transbaikalia, and then along the rivers
Argun, Amur and Usuri to the frontier of Korea. This wide
area is naturally subdivided into West Siberia (basins of the Ob
and the Irtysh) and East Siberia (the remainder of the region).
The inhabited districts are well laid down on the best maps;
but the immense areas between and beyond them are mapped only
along a few routes hundreds of miles apart. The inter- nnrraphy
mediate spaces are filled in according to information
derived from various hunters. With regard to a great many rivers
we know only the position of their mouths and their approximate
lengths estimated by natives in terms of a day's march. Even the
Name and
extent.
SIBERIA
1 1
hydrographical network is very imperfectly known, especially in the
uninhabited hilly tracts. 1
Like other plateaus, the great plateau of the centre of Asia,
stretching from the Himalayas to Bering Strait, 2 has on its surface
a number of gentle eminences (angehaufte Gebirge of K. Ritter),
which, although reaching great absolute altitudes, are relatively
low. 3 These heights for the most part follow a north-easterly direc-
tion in Siberia. On the margins of the plateau there are several
gaps or indentations, which can best be likened to gigantic trenches,
like railway cuttings, as with an insensible gradient they climb to a
higher level. These trenches have for successive geological periods
been the drainage valleys of immense lakes (probably also of glaciers)
which formerly extended over the plateau or fiords of the seas which
surrounded it. And it is along these trenches that the principal
commercial routes have been made for reaching the higher levels of
the plateau itself. In the plateau there are in reality two terraces
a higher and a lower, both very well defined in Transbaikalia and in
Mongolia. The Yablonoi range and its south-western continuation
the Kentei are border-ridges of the upper terrace. Both rise very
gently above it, but have steep slopes towards the lower terrace,
which is occupied by the Nerchinsk steppes in Transbaikalia and by
the great desert of Gobi in Mongolia (2000 to 2500 ft. above the sea).
They rise 5000 to 7000 ft. above the sea; the peak of Sokhondo in
Transbaikalia (m E.) reaches nearly 8050 ft. Several low chains
of mountains have their base on the lower terrace and run from
south-west to north-east; they are known as the Nerchinsk Moun-
tains in Transbaikalia, and their continuations reach the northern
parts of the Gobi. 4
The great plateau is fringed on the north-west by a series of lofty
border-ranges, which have their southern base on the plateau and
their northern at a much lower level. They may be traced from
the Tian-shan to the Arctic Circle, and have an east-north-easterly
direction in lower latitudes and a north-easterly direction farther
north. The Alai range of the Pamir, continued by the Kokshaltau
range and the Khan-tengri group of the Tian-shan, and the Sailughem
range of the Altai, which is continued in the unnamed border-range
of West Sayan (between the Bei-kem and the Us), belong to this
category. There are, however, among these border-ranges several
breaches of continuity broad depressions or trenches leading from
Lake Balkash and Lake Zaisan to the upper parts of the plateau.
On the other hand, there are on the western outskirts of the plateau
a few mountain chains which take a direction at right angles to the
above (that is, from north-west to south-east), and parallel to the
great line of upheavals in south-west Asia. The Tarbagatai Moun-
tains, on the borders of Siberia, as well as several chains in Turkestan,
are instances. The border-ridges of the Alai Mountains, the Khan-
tengri group, the Sailughem range and the West Sayan contain the
highest peaks of their respective regions. Beyond 102 E. the
configuration is complicated by the great lateral indentation of
Lake Baikal. But around and north-east of this lake the same well-
marked ranges fringe the plateau and turn their steep north-western
slope towards the valleys of the Irkut, the Barguzin, the Muya and
the Chara, while their southern base lies on the plateaus of the
Selenga (nearly 4000 ft. high) and the Vitim. The peaks of the
Sailughem range reach 9000 to 11,000 ft. above the sea, those of
West Sayan about 10,000. In East Sayan is Munku-Sardyk, a peak
11,450 ft. high, together with many others from 8000 to 9000 ft.
Farther east, on the southern shore of Lake Baikal, Khamar-daban
rises to 6900 ft., and the bald dome-shaped summits of the Barguzin
and southern Muya Mountains attain elevations of 6000 to 7000 ft.
above sea-level. The orography of the Aldan region is little known ;
but travellers who journey from the Aldan (tributary of the Lena)
to the Amur or to the Sea of Okhotsk have to cross the same plateau
and its border-range. The former becomes narrower and barely
attains an average altitude of 3200 ft.
A typical feature of the north-eastern border of the high plateau
is a succession of broad longitudinal 5 valleys along its outer base,
'The wide area between the middle Lena and the Amur, as well
as the hilly tracts west of Lake Baikal, and the Yeniseisk mining
region are in this condition.
2 The great plateau of North America, also turning its narrower
point towards Bering Strait, naturally suggests the idea that there
was a period in the history of our planet when the continents turned
their narrow extremities towards the northern pole, as now they turn
them towards the southern.
'See " General Sketch of the Orography of Siberia," with map
and " Sketch of the Orography of Minusinsk, &c.," by Prince P. A.
Kropotkin, in Mem. Russ. Geogr. Soc., General Geography (vol. v.,
I875)-
'The lower terrace is obviously continued in the Tarim basin
of East Turkestan ; but in the present state of our knowledge we
cannot determine whether the further continuations of the border-
ridge of the higher terrace (Yablonoi, Kentei) must be looked for
in the Great Altai or in some other range situated farther south.
There may be also a breach of continuity in some depression towards
Barkul.
'The word "longitudinal" is here used in an orographical ,
not a geological sense. These valleys are not synclinal foldings of
rocks; they seem to be erosion-valleys.
shut in on the outer side by rugged > mountains having a very steep
slope towards them. Formerly filled with alpine lakes, these valleys
are now sheeted with flat alluvial soil and occupied by human
settlements, and are drained by rivers which flow along them before
they make their way to the north through narrow gorges pierced
in the mountain-walls. This conformation is seen in the valley of
the Us in West Sayan, in that of the upper Oka and Irkut in East
Sayan, in the valley of the Barguzin, the upper Tsipa, the Muya
and the Chara, at the foot of the Vitim plateau, as also, probably,
in the Aldan. 6 The chains of mountains which border these valleys
on the north-west contain the wildest parts of Siberia. They are
named the Usinsk Mountains in West Sayan and the Tunka Alps
in East Sayan; the latter, pierced by the Angara at Irkutsk, are in
all probability continued north-east in the Baikal Mountains, which
stretch from Irkutsk to Olkhon Island and the Svyatoi Nos peninsula
of Lake Baikal, thus dividing the lake into two parts. 7
An alpine region, too to 150 m. in breadth, fringes the plateau on
the N. W., outside of the ranges just mentioned. This constitutes
what is called in East Siberia the taiga: it consists of
separate chains of mountains whose peaks rise 4800 to
6500 ft. above the sea, beyond the upper limits of forest
vegetation; while the narrow valleys afford difficult means of
communication, their floors being thickly strewn with boulders, or
else swampy. The whole is clothed with impenetrable forest.
The orography of this alpine region is very imperfectly known ;
but the chains have a predominant direction from south-west to
north-east. They are described under different names in Siberia
the Altai Mountains in West Siberia, the Kuznetskiy Ala-tau and
the Us and Oya Mountains in West Sayan, the Nizhne-Udinsk taiga
or gold-mine district, several chains pierced by the Oka river, the
Kitoi Alps in East Sayan, the mountains of the upper Lena and
Kirenga, the Olekminsk gold-mine district, and the unnamed
mountains which project* north-east between the Lena and the
Aldan.
Outside of these alpine regions comes a broad belt of elevated
plains, ranging between 1200 and 1700 ft. above the sea. These
plains, which are entered by the great Siberian highway Elevated
about Tomsk and extend south-west to the Altai Moun- oMna
tains, are for the most part fertile, though sometimes dry,
and are rapidly being covered with the villages of the Russian
immigrants. About Kansk in East Siberia they penetrate in the
form of a broad gulf south-eastwards as far as Irkutsk. Those on
the upper Lena, having a somewhat greater altitude and being
situated in higher latitudes, are almost wholly unfitted for agriculture.
The north-western border of these elevated plains cannot be deter-
mined with exactitude. In the region between Viluisk (on the Vilui)
and Yenise_isk a broad belt of alpine tracts, reaching their greatest
elevation in the northern Yeniseisk taiga (between the Upper
Tunguzka and the Podkamennaya Tunguzka) and continued to the
south-west in lower upheavals, separates the elevated plains from
the lowlands which extend towards the Arctic Ocean. In West
Siberia these high plains seem to form a narrower belt towards
Barnaul and Semipalatinsk, and are bordered by the Aral-Caspian
depression.
Farther to the north-west, beyond these high plains, comes a
broad belt of lowlands. This vast tract, which is only a few dozen
feet above the sea, and most probably was covered by the p{ ort i, era
sea during the Post-Pliocene period, stretches from the lowlaads
Aral-Caspian depression to the lowlands of the Tobol,
Irtysh and Ob, and thence towards the lower parts of the Yenisei
and the Lena. Only a few detached mountain ranges, like the
Byrranga on the Taymyr peninsula, the Syverma Mountains, the
Verkhoyansk and the Kharaulakh (E. of the Lena) ranges, diversify
these monotonous lowlands, which are covered with a thick sheet of
black earth in the south and assume the character of barren tundras
in the north.
The south-eastern slope of the great plateau of Asia cannot
properly be reckoned to Siberia, although parts of the province of
Amur and the Maritime Province are situated on it; south-
they have quite a different character, climate and vege-
tation, and ought properly to be reckoned to the Man-
churian region. To the east of the Yablonoi border-range
lies the lower terrace of the high plateau, reaching 2000
to 2500 ft. in Transbaikalia and extending farther south-west
through the Gobi to East Turkestan. The south-eastern edge of this
lower terrace is fringed by a massive border-range the Khingan
which runs in a north-easterly direction from the Great Wall of
China to the sources of the Nonni-ula.
A narrow alpine region (40 to 50 m.), consisting of a series of short
secondary chains parallel to the border-range, fringes this latter on
its eastern face. Two such folds maybe distinguished, correspond-
ing on a smaller scale to 'the belt of alpine tracts which fringe the
plateau on the north-west. The resemblance is further sustained by
a broad belt of elevated plains, ranging from 1200 to 1700 ft., which
"The upper Bukhtarma valley in the Sailughem range of the
Altai system appears to belong to the same type.
'The deep fissure occupied by Lake Baikal, would thus appear
to consist of two longitudinal valleys connected together by the
passage between Olkhon and Svyatoi Nos.
eastern
slope of
plateau.
12
SIBERIA
accompany the eastern edge of the plateau. The eastern Gobi, the
occasionally fertile and occasionally sandy plains between the Nonni
and the Sungari, and the rich plains of the Bureya and Silinji in the
Amur province belong to this belt, 400 m. in breadth, the surface of
which is diversified by the low hills of Ilkhuri-alin, Khulun and
Turana. These high plains are bordered on the south-east by a
picturesque chain the Bureya Mountains, which are to be identified
with the Little Khingan. It extends, with unaltered character,
from Mukden and Kirin to Ulban Bay in the Sea of Okhotsk (close
by the Shantar Islands), its peaks clothed from top to bottom
with luxuriant forest vegetation, ascending 4500 to 6000 ft. A
lowland belt about 200 m. broad runs in the same direction along
the outer margin of the above chain. The lower Amur occupies
the northern part of this broad valley. These lowlands, dotted over
with numberless marshes and lakes, seem to have emerged from the
sea at a quite recent geological period; the rivers that meander
across them are still excavating their valleys.
Volcanic formations, so far as is known, occur chiefly along the
north-western border-range of the great plateau. Ejections of
y . basaltic lava have been observed on the southern slope
***' of this range, extending over wide areas on the plateau
itself, over a stretch of more than 600 m. namely, in East Sayan
about Lake Kosso-gol and in the valley of the Tunka (river Irkut),
in the vicinity of Selenginsk, and widely distributed on the Vitim
plateau (rivers Vitim and Tsipa). Deposits of trap stretch for more
than 1 200 m. along the Tunguzka; they appear also in the Noril
Mountains on the Yenisei, whence they extend towards the Arctic
Ocean. Basaltic lavas are reported to have been found in the Aldan
region. On the Pacific slope extinct volcanoes (mentioned in
Chinese annals) have been reported in the Ilkhuri-alin mountains
in northern Manchuria.
The mineral wealth of Siberia is considerable. Gold-dust is found
in almost all the alpine regions fringing the great plateau. The
... . principal gold-mining regions in these tracts are the
' Altai, the upper (or Nizhne-Udinsk) and the lower (or
Yeniseisk) taigas, and the Olekma region. Gold is found on the
high plateau in the basin of the upper Vitim, on the lower plateau
in the Nerchinsk district, and on the upper tributaries of the Amur
(especially the Oldoi) and the Zeya, in the north-east continuation
of the Nerchinsk Mountains. It has been discovered also in the
Bureya range, and in its north-east continuation in the Amgun
region. Auriferous sands, but not very rich, have been discovered
in the feeders of Lake Hanka and the Suifong river, as also on the
smaller islands of the Gulf of Peter the Great. Mining is the next
most important industry after agriculture. In East Siberia gold is
obtained almost exclusively from gravel-washings, quartz mining
being confined to three localities, one near Vladivostok and two in
Transbaikalia. In West Siberia, however, quartz-mining is steadily
increasing in importance: whereas in 1900 the output of gold from
this source was less than 10,000 oz., in 1904 it amounted to close
upon 50,000 oz. On the other hand gravel-washing gives a declining
yield in West Siberia, for while in 1900 the output from this source
was approximately 172,000 oz., in 1904 it was only 81,000 oz.
The districts of Maninsk and Achinsk are the most successful
quartz-mining localities. Altogether West Siberia yields annually
130,000 oz. of gold. The gold-bearing gravels of East Siberia,
especially those of the Lena and the Amur, are relatively more
prolific than those of West Siberia. The total yield annually amounts
to some 700,000 oz., the largest quantity coming from the Olekminsk
district in the province of Yakutsk, and this district is followed by
the Amur region, the Maritime province, and Nerchinsk and Trans-
baikalia. Silver and lead ores exist in the Altai and the Nerchinsk
Mountains, as well as copper, cinnabar and tin. Iron-ores are known
at several places on the outskirts of the alpine tracts (as about
Irkutsk), as well as in the Selenginsk region and in the Altai. The
more important iron-works of the Urals are situated on the Siberian
slope of the range. Coal occurs in many Jurassic fresh-water
basins, namely, on the outskirts of the Altai, in south Yeniseisk,
about Irkutsk, in the Nerchinsk district, at many places in the
Maritime province, and on the island of Sakhalin. Beds of excellent
graphite have been found in the Kitoi Alps (Mount Alibert) and in
the Turukhansk district in Yenisei. Rock-salt occurs at several
places on the Lena and in Transbaikalia, and salt-springs are
numerous those of Ust-kutsk on the Lena and of Usolie near
Irkutsk being the most noteworthy. A large number of lakes,
especially in Transbaikalia and in Tomsk, yield salt. Lastly, from
the Altai region, as well as from the Nerchinsk Mountains, precious
stones, such as jasper, malachite, beryl, dark quartz, and the like,
are exported. The Ekaterinburg stone-polishing works in the Urals
and those of Kolyvan in the Altai are well known.
The orography sketched above explains the great development
of the river-systems of Siberia and the uniformity of their course.
Rivera ^e three principal rivers the Ob, the Yenisei, and the
_Lena take their rise on the high plateau or in the alpine
regions fringing it, and, after descending from the plateau and
piercing the alpine regions, flow for many hundreds of miles across
the high plains and lowlands before they reach the Arctic Ocean.
The three rivers of north-eastern Siberia the Yana, Indigirka and
Kolyma have the same general character, their courses being,
however, much shorter, as in these latitudes the plateau approaches
nearer to the Arctic Ocean. The Amur, the upper tributaries of
which rise on the eastern border-range of the high plateau, is similar.
The Shilka and the Argun, which form it, flow first towards the
north-east along the windings of the lower terrace of the great
plateau; from this the Amur descends, cutting through the Great
Khingan and flowing down the terraces of the eastern versant
towards the Pacific. A noteworthy feature of the principal Siberian
rivers is that each is formed by the confluence of a pair of rivers.
Examples are the Ob and the Irtysh, the Yenisei and the Angara
(itself a double river formed by the Angara and the Lower Tunguzka),
the Lena and the Vitim, the Argun and the Shilka, while the Amur
in its turn receives a tributary as large as itself the Sungari. Owing
to this twinning and the general direction of their courses, the rivers
of Siberia offer immense advantages for inland navigation, not only
from north to south but also from west to east. It is this
circumstance that facilitated the rapid invasion of Siberia Waier
by the Russian Cossacks and hunters; they followed the co "" aual -
courses of the twin rivers in their advance towards the catioa '
east, and discovered short portages which permitted them to transfer
their boats from the system of the Ob to that of the Yenisei, and
from the latter to that of the Lena, a tributary of which the Aldan
brought them close to the Sea of Okhotsk. At the present day
steamers ply from Tyumen, at the foot of the Urals, to Semipalatinsk
on the border of the Kirghiz steppe and to Tomsk in the very heart
of West Siberia. Uninterrupted water communication could readily
be established from Tyumen to Yakutsk, Aldansk, and the gold-
mines of the Vitim. Owing to the fact that the great plateau
separates the Lena from the Amur, no easy water communication
can be established between the latter and the other Siberian rivers.
The tributaries of the Amur (the Shilka with its affluent the Ingoda)
become navigable only on the lower terrace of the plateau. But
the trench of the Uda, to the east of Lake Baikal, offers easy access
for the Great Siberian railway up to and across the high plateau.
Unfortunately all the rivers are frozen for many months every year.
Even in lower latitudes (52 to 55 N.) they are ice-bound from the
beginning of November to the beginning of May; 1 while in 65 N.
they are open only for 90 to 120 days, and only for 100 days (the
Yenisei) or even 70 days (the Lena) in 70 N. During the winter the
smaller tributaries freeze to the bottom, and about 1st January
Lake Baikal becomes covered with a solid crust of ice capable of
bearing files of loaded sledges.
Numberless lakes occur in both East and West Siberia. There are
wide areas on the plains of West Siberia and on the high plateau of
East Siberia, which, virtually, are still passing through
the Lacustrine period; but the total area now under
water bears but a trifling proportion to the vast surface which the
Jakes covered even at a very recent period, when Neolithic man
inhabited Siberia. All the valleys and depressions bear traces of
immense post-Pliocene lakes. Even within historical times and
during the igth century the desiccation of the lakes has gone on at
a very rapid rate. 2 The principal lake is Lake Baikal, more than
400 m. long, and 20 to 50 broad. Another great lake, Lake Kosso-
gol, on the Mongolian frontier, is 120 m. long and 50 broad. Vast
numbers of small lakes stud the Vitim and upper Selenga plateaus ;
the lower valley of the latter river contains the Goose Lake(Gusinoye).
In the basin of the Amur are Lake Hanka (1700 sq. m.), connected
with the Usuri; Lakes Kada and Kidzi, by which the lower Amur
once flowed to the Pacific ; and very many smaller ones on the left
side of the lower Amur. Numerous lakes and extensive marshes
diversify the low plains of West Siberia ; the Baraba steppe is dotted
with lakes and ponds Lake Chany (1400 sq. m.) and the innumer-
able smaller lakes which surround it being but relatively insignificant
remains of the former lacustrine basins; while at the confluence of
the Irtysh and the Ob impassable marshes stretch over many
thousands of square miles. Several alpine lakes, of which the
picturesque Teletskoye may be specially mentioned, occupy the
deeper parts of the valleys of the Altai.
The coast-line of Siberia is very extensive both on the Arctic
Ocean and on the Pacific. The former ocean is ice-bound for at
least ten months out of twelve; and, though Nordensk-
jold and Captain Wiggins demonstrated (1874-1900) the
possibility of navigation along its shores, it is exceedingly f ". .
doubtful whether it can ever become a commercial route
of any importance. The coast-line has few indentations, the chief
being the double gulf of the Ob and the Taz, separated from the
Sea of Kara by an elongated peninsula (Samoyede), and from the
bay of the Yenisei by another. The immense peninsula of Taymyr
a barren tundra intersected by the wild Byrranga Hills-projects
in Cape Chelyuskin as far north as 77 46' N. The bay of the Yana,
east of the delta of the Lena, is a wide indentation sheltered on the
north by the islands of New Siberia. The bays of the Kolyma, the
Chaun and Kolyuchin are of little importance. The New Siberia
islands are occasionally visited by hunters, as is also the small
group of the Bear Islands opposite the mouth of the Kolyma.
Wrangel or Kellett Island is still quite unknown. Bering Strait, at
1 The Lena at Verkholensk is navigable for 170 days, at Yakutsk
for 153 days: the Yenisei at Krasnoyarsk for 196 days.
2 See Yadrintsev, in Izvestia of the Russian Geogr. Soc. (1886,
No. i, with maps).
SIBERIA
the north-east extremity of Siberia, and Bering Sea between the
land of the Chukchis and Alaska, with the Gulf of Anadyr, are often
visited by seal-hunters, and the Commander Islands off Kamchatka
are valuable stations for this pursuit. The Sea of Okhotsk, separated
from the Pacific by the Kurile Archipelago and from the Sea of
Japan by the islands of Sakhalin and Yezo, is notorious as one of
the worst seas of the world, owing to its dense fogs and its masses of
floating ice. The Shantar Islands in the bay of the Uda possess
geological interest. The double bay of Gizhiga and Penzhina, as
well as that of Taui, would be useful as harbours were they not
frozen seven or eight months in the year and persistently shrouded
in dense fogs in summer. The northern part of the Sea of Japan,
which washes the Usuri region, has, besides the smaller bays of
Olga and Vladimir, the beautiful Gulf of Peter the Great, on
which stands Vladivostok, the Russian naval station on the
Pacific. Okhotsk and Ayan on the Sea of Okhotsk, Petropav-
lovsk on the east shore of Kamchatka, Nikolayevsk, and Vladivo-
stok on the Sea of Japan, and Dui on Sakhalin are the only ports of
Siberia.
Climate. The climate is extremely severe, even in the southern
parts. This arises chiefly from the orographical structure; the
vast plateau of Central Asia prevents the moderating influence of the
sea from being felt. The extensive lowlands which stretch over
more than one half of the area, as well as the elevated plains, lie
open to the Arctic Ocean. Although attaining altitudes of 6000 to
10,000 ft., the mountain peaks of East Siberia do not reach the
snow-line, which is found only on the Munku-Sardyk in East Sayan,
above 10,000 ft. Patches of perpetual snow occur in East Siberia
only on the mountains of the far north. On the Altai Mountains
the snow-line runs at about 7000 ft. The air, after being chilled
on the plateaus during the winter, drifts, owing to its greater density,
down upon the lowlands; hence in the region of the lower Lena
there obtains an exceedingly low temperature throughout the winter,
and Verkhoyansk, in 67N., is the pole of cold of the eastern hemi-
sphere. The average temperature of winter (December to February)
at Yakutsk is -40-2 F., at Verkhoyansk -53-1. At the polar
meteorological station of Sagastyr, in the delta of the Lena (73
23' N.), the following average temperatures have been observed:
January -34-3 F. (February -43-6 ), July 40-8, year 2-1. The
lowest average temperature of a day is 61-6 F. Nevertheless
owing to the dryness of the climate, the unclouded sun fully warms
the earth during the long summer days in those high latitudes, and
gives a short period of warm and even hot weather in the immediate
neighbourhood of the pole of cold. Frosts of -13 to -18 F. are
not uncommon at Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk and Nerchinsk; even in the
warmer southern regions of West Siberia and of the Amur the average
winter temperature is 2-4 F. and -10-2 respectively; while at
Yakutsk and Verkhoyansk the thermometer occasionally falls as
low as -75 and -85 F. The minimum temperatures recorded
at these two stations are -84 F. and -90 respectively; the
minimum at Krasnoyarsk is -67 F., at Irkutsk -51", at Omsk
-56, and at Tobolsk -58" F. The soil freezes many feet deep over
immense areas even in southern Siberia. More dreaded than the
frosts are the terrible burans or snowstorms, which occur in early
spring and destroy thousands of horses and cattle that have been
grazing on the steppes throughout the winter. Although very
heavy falls of snow take place in the alpine tracts ^especially about
Lake Baikal-^-on the other side, in the steppe regions of the Altai
and Transbaikalia and in the neighbourhood of Krasnoyarsk, the
amount of snow is so small that travellers use wheeled vehicles,
and cattle are able to find food in the steppe. Spring sets in with
remarkable rapidity and charm at the end of April; but in the
second half of May come the " icy saints' days," so blighting that
it is impossible to cultivate the apple or pear. After this short
period of frost and snow summer comes in its full beauty; the
days are very hot, and, although they are always followed by cold
nights, vegetation advances at an astonishing rate. Corn sown
about Yakutsk in the end of May is ripe in the end of August.
Still, at many places night frosts set in as early as the second half
of July. They become quite common in August and September.
Nevertheless September is much warmer than May, and October
than April, even in the most continental parts of Siberia. The
isotherms are exceedingly interesting. That of 32" F. crosses the
middle parts of West Siberia and the southern parts of East Siberia.
The summer isotherm of 68 F., which in Europe passes through
Cracow and Kaluga, traverses Omsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk,
whence it turns north to Yakutsk, and then south again to Vladivo-
stok. Even the mouths of the Ob, Yenisei, Lena and Kolyma in
70 N. have in July an average temperature of 40 to 50. Quite
contrary is the course of the January isotherms. That of 14 F.,
which passes in Europe through Uleaborg in Finland only touches
the southern part of West Siberia in the Altai Mountains. That of
-4" F., which crosses Novaya Zemlya in Europe, passes through
Tobolsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, and touches 45 N. at
Urga in Mongolia, turning north in the Amur region and reaching
the Pacific at Nikolayevsk. The isotherm of -22 F., which touches
the north point of Novaya Zemlya, passes in Siberia through Turuk-
hansk (at the confluence of the Lena and the Lower Tunguzka) and
descends as low as 55" N. in Transbaikalia, whence it turns north
to the Arctic Ocean.
Most rain falls in summer, especially in July and August. During
the summer an average of 8 in. falls on a zone that stretches from
Moscow and St Petersburg through Perm to Tobolsk and, after a
dry belt as far as Tomsk, continues in a narrower strip as far as the
S. end of Lake Baikal, then it broadens out so as to include the
whole of the Amur basin, the total summer precipitation there being
about 12 in. North of this zone the rainfall decreases towards the
Arctic.
Flora. The flora of Siberia presents very great local varieties, not
only on account of the diversity of physical characteristics, but also
in consequence of the intrusion of new species from the neighbouring
regions, as widely different as the arctic littoral, the arid steppes of
Central Asia, and the wet monsoon regions of the Pacific littoral.
Siberia is situated for the most part in what Grisebach describes as
the " forest region of the Eastern continent." 1 The northern limit
of this region, must, however, be drawn nearer to the Arctic Ocean.
A strip 60 to 200 m. wide is totally devoid of tree vegetation. The
last trees which struggle for existence on the verge of the tundras are
crippled dwarfs and almost without branches, and trees a hundred
years old are only a few feet high and a few inches through and
thickly encrusted with lichens. 2 The following species, none of
which are found in European Russia, are characteristic of the tundras
arbutus (Arctostaphilus alpina), heaths or andomedas (Cassiope
tetragona and C. hypnoides), Phyllodoce taxifolia, Loiseleuria pro-
cumbens, a species of Latifolium, a Polar azalea (Osmothamnus
fragrans) and a Polar willow (Salix arctica). In Yakutsk the tundra
vegetation consists principally of mosses of the genera Polytrichum,
Bryum and Hypnum. Some two hundred species of flowering plants
struggle for a precarious existence in the tundra region, the frozen
ground and the want of humus militating against them more than
the want of warmth. 3 From this northern limit to the Aral-Caspian
and Mongolian steppes stretches all over Siberia the forest region;
the forests are, however, very unequally distributed, covering from
50 to 99 % of the area in different districts. In the hill tracts and
the marshy depression of the Ob they are unbroken, except by the
bald summits of the loftier mountains (goltsy) ; they have the aspect
of agreeable bosquets in the Baraba steppe, and they are thinly
scattered through south-eastern Transbaikalia, where the dryness of
the Gobi steppe makes its influence appreciably felt. Immense
marshy plains covered with the dwarf birch take their place in the
north as the tundras are approached. Over this immense area the
trees are for the most part the same as we are familiar with in
Europe. The larch becomes predominant chiefly in two new species
(Larix sibirica and L. dahurica). The fir appears in the Siberian
varieties Picea obovata and P. ayanensis. The silver fir (Abies
sibirica, Pinus pectinata) and the stone-pine (P. Cembra) are quite
common; they reach the higher summits, where the last-named is
represented by a recumbent species (Cembra pumila). The birch in
the loftier alpine tracts and plateaus becomes a shrub (Betula nana,
B. fruticosa), and in Transbaikalia assumes a new and very elegant
aspect with a dark bark (B. daurica). In the deeper valleys and on
the lowlands of West Siberia the larches, pines and silver firs, inter-
mingled with birches and aspens, attain a great size, and the streams
are fringed with thickets of poplar and willow. The alpine rose
(Rhododendron dauricum) clusters in masses on the higher mountains ;
juniper, spiraea, sorbus, the pseudo-acacia (Caragana sibirica and
C. arborescens, C. jubata in some of the higher tracts), various
Rosaceae Potentilla fruticosa and Cotoneaster wniflora the wild
cherry (Prunus Padus), and many other shrubs occupy the spaces
between the trees. Berry-yielding plants are found everywhere,
even on the goltsy, at the upper limit of tree vegetation ; on the lower
grounds they are an article of diet. The red whortleberry or cow-
berry (Vaccinium Vitis idaea), the bog whortleberry (V. uliginosum,
the bilberry (V. myrtillus) and the arctic bramble (Rubus arcticus)
extend very far northward ; raspberries and red and black currants
form a luxuriant undergrowth in the forests, together with Ribes
dikusha in East Siberia. The oak, elm, hazel, ash, apple, lime and
maple disappear to the east of the Urals, but reappear in new varieties
on the eastern slope of the border-ridge of the great plateau. 4 There
we encounter the oak (Q. mongolica), maple (Acerginala, Max.), ash
(Fraxinus manchurica), elm (Ulmus montana), hazel (Corylus hetero-
phylla) and several other European acquaintances. Farther east,
in the Amur region, a great number of new species of European
1 According to A. Engler's Versuch einer Entwickelungsgeschichte
der Pflanzenwelt (Leipzig, 18791882), we should have in Siberia (a)
the arctic region; (b) the sub-arctic or coniferous region north
Siberian province ; (c) the Central-Asian domain Altai and Daurian
mountainous regions; and (d) the east Chinese, intruding into the
basin of the Amur.
2 See Middendorff's observations on vegetable and animal life
in the tundras, attractively told in vol. iv. of his Sibirische Reise.
3 Kjellmann, Vega Expeditionens Vetenskapliga lakttagelser (Stock-
holm, 1872-1887) reckons their number at 182; 124 species were
found by Middendorff on the Taymyr peninsula, 219 along the
borders of the forest region of Olenek, and 344 species within the
forest region of the same; 470 species were collected by Maack in
the Vilui region.
4 Nowhere, perhaps, is the change better seen than on crossing
the Great Khingan.
SIBERIA
trees, and even new genera, such as the cork-tree (Phellodendron
amurense, walnut (Jugtans manchurica), acacia (Maackia amurensis),
the graceful climber Maximowiczia amurensis, the Japanese Trocho-
stigma and many others all unknown to Siberia proper are met
with.
On the high plateau the larch predominates over all other species
of conifers or deciduous trees; the wide, open valleys are thickly
planted with Betula nana and B. fruticosa in the north and with
thick grasses (poor in species) in the southern and drier parts. The
Siberian larch predominates also in the alpine tracts fringing the
plateau on the north, intermingled with the fir, stone-pine, aspen
and birch. In the drier parts the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris) makes
its appearance. In the alpine tracts of the north the narrowness of
the valleys and the steep stony slopes strewn with debris, on which
only lichens and mosses are able to grow, make every plot of green
grass (even if it be only of Carex) valuable. For days consecutively
the horse of the explorer can get no other food than the dwarf birch.
But even in these districts the botanist and the geographer can
easily distinguish between the chern or thick forest of the Altai and
the taiga of East Siberia. The lower plateau exhibits, of course,
new characteristics. Its open spaces are lovely prairies, on which
the Daurian flora flourishes in full beauty. In spring the traveller
crosses a sea of grass above which the flowers of the paeony, aconite,
Orobtis, Carallia, Saussurea and the like wave 4 or 5 ft. high. As the
Gobi desert is approached the forests disappear, the ground becomes
covered chiefly with dry Gramineae, ana Salsolaceae make their
appearance. The high plains of the west slope of the plateau are
also rich prairies diversified with woods. Nearly all the species of
plants which grow on these prairies are common to Europe (paeonies,
HemerocaUis, asters, pinks, gentians, violets, Cypripedium, Aquilegia,
Delphinium, aconites, irises and so on) ; but here the plants attain
a much greater size; a man standing erect is often hidden by the
grasses. The flora of Minusinsk the Italy of Siberia is well known ;
the prairies on the Ishim and of the Baraba steppe are adorned with
the same rich vegetation, so graphically described by Middendorff
and O. Finsch. Farther north we come to the urmans of West
Siberia, dense thickets of trees often rising from a treacherous carpet
of thickly interlaced grasses, which conceals deep marshes, where
even the bear has learnt to tread circumspectly.
Fauna. The fauna of Siberia is closely akin to that of central
Europe; and the Ural Mountains, although the habitat of a few
species which warrant the naturalist in regarding the southern Urals
as a separate region, are not so important a boundary zoologically
as they are botanically. As in European Russia, so in Siberia, three
principal zones the arctic, the boreal and the middle may be
distinguished, and these may be subdivided into several sub-regions.
The Amur region shares the characteristics of the north Chinese
fauna. On the whole, we may say that the arctic and boreal faunas
of Europe extend over Siberia, with a few additional species in the
Ural and Baraba region a number of new species also appearing in
East Siberia, some spreading along the high plateau and others
along the lower plateau from the steppes of the Gobi. The arctic
fauna is very poor. According to Nordenskjold * it numbers only
twenty-nine species of mammals, of which seven are marine and
seventeen or eighteen may be safely considered as living beyond the
forest limit. Of these, again, four are characteristic of the land of
the Chukchis. The reindeer, arctic fox (Cants lagopus), hare, wolf,
lemming (Myodes obensis), collar lemming (Cuniculus torquatus) and
two species of voles (Anricolae) are the most common on land. The
avifauna is very rich in migratory water and marsh fowl (Grattatores
and Nalalores), which come to breed in the coast region; but only
five land birds the ptarmigan (Lagopus alpinus), snow-bunting,
Iceland falcon, snow-owl and Vaven are permanent inhabitants of
the region. The boreal fauna is, of course, much more abundant;
but here also the great bulk of the species, both mammals and birds,
are common to Europe and Asia. The bear, badger, wolverine, pole-
cat, ermine, common weasel, otter, wolf, fox, lynx, mole, hedgehog,
common shrew, water-shrew and lesser shrew (Sorex vulgaris, S.
fodiens and S. pygmaeus), two bats (the long-eared and the boreal),
three species of Vespertilio (V. daubentoni, V. natlereri and V. mysta-
cinus), the flying and the common squirrel (Tamias striatus), the
brown, common, field and harvest mouse (Mus decumanus, M.
musculus, M. sylvaticus, M. agrarius and M. minutus), four voles
(Arvicola amphibius, A. rufocanus, A. rutilus and A. schistocolor) ,
the beaver, variable hare, wild boar, roebuck, stag, reindeer, elk and
Phoca annelata of Lake Baikal all these are common alike to
Europe and to Siberia ; while the bear, musk-deer (Moschus moschi-
ferus), ermine, sable, pouched marmot or souslik (Spermophilus
eversmani), Arvicola obscurus and Lagomys hyperboraeus, distributed
over Siberia, may be considered as belonging to the arctic fauna.
In addition to the above we find in East Siberia Mustela alpina,
Canis alpinus, the sable antelope (Aegocerus sibiricus), several species
of mouse (Mus gregatus, M. oeconomus and M. saxatilus), two voles
(Arvicola russatus and A. macrotus), Syphneus aspalax and the alpine
Lagomys from the Central Asian plateaus; while the tiger makes
incursions not only into the Amur region but occasionally as far as
Lake Baikal. On the lower terrace of the great plateau we find an
In Vega Exped. Vetensk. lakttagelser., vol. ii.
admixture of Mongolian species, such as Canis corsac, Felis manul,
Spermophilus dauricus, the jerboa (Dipus jaculus), two hamsters
(Cricetus songarus and C. furunculus), three new voles (Aruicolae),
the Tolai hare, Ogotona hare (Lagomys ogotona), Aegocerus argali,
Antilope gutturosa and Equus hemionus (jighitai). Of birds no less
than 285 species have been observed in Siberia, but of these forty-five
only are absent from Europe. In south-east Siberia there are forty-
three new species belonging to the north Manchurian or Amur fauna ;
and in south-east Transbaikalia, on the borders of the Gobi steppe,
only 103 species were found by G. F. R. Radde, among which the
most numerous are migratory birds and the birds of prey which
pursue them. The rivers and lakes of Siberia abound in fish; but
little is known of their relations with the species of neighbouring
regions. 2
The insect fauna is very similar to that of Russia; but a few
genera, as the Tentyria, do not penetrate into the steppe region of
West Siberia, while the tropical Colasposoma, Popilia and Languria
are found only in south-eastern Transbaikalia, or are confined to
the southern Amur. On the other hand, several American genera
(Cephalaon, Opnryastes) extend into the north-eastern parts of
Siberia. 8 As in all uncultivated countries, the forests and prairies
of Siberia become almost uninhabitable in summer because of the
mosquitoes. East Siberia suffers less from this plague than the
marshy Baraba steppe ; but on the Amur and the Sungari large gnats
are an intolerable plague. The dredgings of the " Vega " expedition
in the Arctic Ocean disclosed an unexpected wealth of marine fauna,
and those of L. Schrenck in the north of the Japanese Sea led to the
discovery of no fewer than 256 species (Gasteropods, Brachiopods
and Conchifers). Even in Lake Baikal Dybowski and Gpdlewski
discovered no fewer than ninety-three species of Gammarides and
twenty-five of Gasteropods. 4 The Sea of Okhotsk is very interesting,
owing to its local species and the general composition of its fauna
(70 species of Molluscs and 21 of Gasteropods). The land Molluscs,
notwithstanding the unfavourable conditions of climate, number
about seventy species Siberia in this respect being not far behind
north Europe. The increase of many animals in size (becoming
twice as large as in Europe) ; the appearance of white varieties
among both mammals and birds, and their great prevalence among
domesticated animals (Yakut horses) ; the migrations of birds and
mammals over immense regions, from the Central Asian steppes to
the arctic coast, not only in the usual rotation of the seasons but also
as a result of occasional climacteric conditions are not yet fully
understood (e.g. the migration of thousands and thousands of roe-
buck from Manchuria across the Amur to the left bank of the river,
or the migration of reindeer related by Baron F. von Wrangel) ;
the various coloration of many animals according to the composition
of the forests they inhabit (the sable and the squirrel are well-known
instances) ; the intermingling northern and southern faunas in the
Amur region and the remarkable consequences of that intermixture
in the struggle for existence; all these render the study of the
Siberian fauna most interesting. Finally, the laws of distribution
of animals over Siberia cannot be made out until the changes under-
gone by its surface during the Glacial and Lacustrine periods are
well established and the Post-Tertiary fauna is better known. The
remarkable finds of Quaternary mammals about Omsk and their
importance for the history of the Equidae are merely a slight indi-
cation of what may be expected in this field.
Population. In 1906 the estimated population was 6,740,600.
In 1897 the distribution was as follows. Geographically, though
not administratively, the steppe provinces of Akmolinsk and
Semipalatinsk belong to Siberia. They are described under
STEPPES.
Governments and Provinces.
Area in
sq. m.
Population
in
1897.
Density
per
sq. m. .
Tobolsk
Tomsk.
Irkutsk f Yeniseisk .
(general- -i Irkutsk
government) t Yakutsk
(Transbaikalia
Amur .
Maritime
Sakhalin .
535,739
327,173
981,607
280,429
1,530,253
229,520
172,826
712,585
14,700
1,444,470
1,947,021
572,847
515,132
271,830
676,407
119,909
209,516
27,250
2-7
5'i
0-6
1-8
0-2
3-o
0-6
0-7
1-9
4,784,832
5,784.382
Av. 1-2
2 Czekanowski (Izvestia Sib. Geog. Soc., 1877) has described fifty
species from the basin of the Amur ; he considers that these constitute
only two-thirds of the species inhabiting that basin.
s See L. Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amurlande (1858-
1891).
4 See Mem. de I'academie des sciences de St-Petersbourg, vol. xxii.
(1876).
SIBERIA
Of the total in 1897, 81-4% were Russians, 8-3% Turko-Tatars,
5 % Mongols and 0-6 % " indigenous " races, i.e. Chukchis, Koryaks,
Ghilyaks, Kamchadales and others. Only 8% of the
Kussiaas. tota j are c [ asse( j as ur ban. The great bulk of the popula-
tion are Russians, whose number increased with great rapidity
during the igth century; although not exceeding 150,00x3 in 1709
and 500,000 a century later, they numbered nearly 6,500,000 in
1904. Between 1870 and 1890 over half a million free immigrants
entered Siberia from Russia, and of these 80 % settled in the govern-
ment of Tobolsk; and between 1890 and 1905 it is estimated that
something like a million and a half free immigrants entered the
country. These people came for the most part from the northern
parts of the black earth zone of middle Russia, and to a smaller
extent from the Lithuanian governments and the Ural governments
of Perm and Vyatka. The Russians, issuing from the middle Urals,
have travelled as a broad stream through south Siberia, sending
branches to the Altai, to the Hi river in Turkestan and to Minusinsk,
as well as down the chief rivers which flow to the Arctic Ocean, the
banks of which are studded with villages 15 to 20 m. apart. As
Lake Baikal is approached the stream of Russian immigration
becomes narrower, being confined mostly to the valley of the Angara,
with a string of villages up the Irkut; but it widens out again in
Transbaikalia, and sends branches up the Selenga and its tributaries.
It follows the course of the Amur, again in a succession of villages
some 20 m. apart, and can be traced up the Usuri to Lake Khangka
and Vladivostok, with a string of villages on the plains between
the Zeya and the Silinji. Small Russian settlements are planted on
a few bays of the North Pacific and the Sea of Okhotsk, as well as
on Sakhalin.
Colonization. Siberia has been colonized in two different ways.
On the one hand, the government sent parties (l) of Cossacks to
settle on the frontiers, (2) of peasants who were bound to settle at
appointed places and maintain communication along the routes,
(3) of stryeltsy (i.e. Moscow imperial guards) to garrison forts, (4) of
yamshiks a special organization of Old Russia entrusted with the
maintenance of horses for postal communication, and finally (5) of
convicts. A good deal of the Amur region was peopled in this way.
Serfs in the imperial mines were liberated and organized in Cossack
regiments (the Transbaikal Cossacks) ; some of these were settled
on the Amur, forming the Amur and Usuri Cossacks. Other parts
of the river were colonized by peasants who emigrated with govern-
ment aid, and were bound to settle in villages, along the Amur, at
spots designated by officials. As a rule, this kind of colonization has
not produced the results that were expected. On the other hand,
free colonization has been more successful and has been undertaken
on a much larger scale. Soon after the first appearance (1580) of
the Cossacks of Yermak in Siberia thousands of hunters, attracted
by the furs, immigrated from north Russia, explored the country,
traced the first footpaths and erected the first houses in the wilder-
ness. Later on serfdom, religious persecutions and conscription were
the chief causes which led the peasants to make their escape to
Siberia and build their villages in the most inaccessible forests, on
the prairies and even on Chinese territory. But the severe measures
adopted by the government against such " runaways " were power-
less to prevent their immigration into Siberia. While governmental
colonization studded Siberia with forts, free colonization filled up
the intermediate spaces. Since the emancipation of the serfs in
1 86 1, it has been steadily increasing, the Russian peasants of a
village often emigrating en bloc. 1
Siberia was for many years a penal colony. Exile to Siberia began
in the first years of its discovery, and as early as 1658 we read of the
Exiles Nonconformist priest Awakum 2 following in chains the ex-
ploring party of Pashkov on the Amur. Raskolniks or Non-
conformists in the second half of the 1 7th century, rebel stryeltsy under
Peter the Great, courtiers of rank during the reigns of the empresses,
Polish confederates under Catherine II., the " Decembrists " under
Nicholas I., nearly 50,000 Poles after the insurrection of 1863, and
later on whole generations of socialists were sent to Siberia; while
the number of common-law convicts and exiles transported thither
increased steadily from the end of the 1 8th century. No exact
statistics of Siberian exile were kept before 1823. But it is known
that in the first years of the igth century nearly 2000 persons were
transported every year to Siberia. This figure reached an average
of 18,250 in 1873-1877, and from about 1880 until the discontinuance
of the system in 1900 an average of 20,000 persons were annually
exiled to Siberia. After liberation the hard-labour convicts are
settled in villages; but nearly all are in a wretched condition, and
more than one-third have disappeared without being accounted
for. Nearly 20,000 men (40,000 according to other estimates) are
Jiving in Siberia the life of brodyagi (runaways or outlaws), trying to
make their way through the forests to their native provinces in
Russia.
Asiatic Races. The Ural- Altaians consist principally of Turko-
Tatars, Mongols, Tunguses, Finnish tribes and Samoyedes. The
Samoyedes, who are confined to the province of Tobolsk, Tomsk
1 See Yadrintsev, Siberia as a Colony (in Russian, 2nd ed., St
Petersburg, 1892).
2 The autobiography of the protopope Avvakum is one of the
most popular books with Russian Nonconformists.
and Yeniseisk, do not exceed 12,000 in all. The Finns consist
principally of Mordvinians (18,500), Ostiaks (20,000) and Voguls
(5000). Survivals of Turkish blood, once much more numerous,
are scattered all over south Siberia as far as Lake Baikal. Their
territories are being rapidly occupied by Russians, and their settle-
ments are cut in two by the Russian stream the Baraba Tatars
and the Yakuts being to the north of it, and the others having been
driven back to the hilly tracts of the Altai and Sayan Mountains.
In all they number nearly a quarter of a million. The Turkish stock
of the Yakuts in the basin of the Lena numbers 227,400. Most of
these Turkish tribes live by pastoral pursuits and some by agriculture,
and are a most laborious and honest population.
The Mongols (less than 300,000) extend into West Siberia from
the high plateau nearly 20,000 Kalmucks living in the eastern
Altai. In East Siberia the Buriats occupy the Selenga and the Uda,
parts of Nerchinsk, and the steppes between Irkutsk and the upper
Lena, as also the Baikal Mountains and the island of Orknon;
they support themselves chiefly by live-stock breeding, but some,
especially in Irkutsk, are agriculturists. On the left of the Amur
there are some 60,000 Chinese and Manchurians about the mouth
of the Zeya, and 26,000 Koreans on the Pacific coast. The Tunguses
(nearly 70,000) occupy as their hunting-grounds an immense region
on the high plateau and its slopes to the Amur, but their limits are
yearly becoming more and more circumscribed both by Russian
gold-diggers and by Yakut settlers. In the Maritime Province,
before the Boxer uprising of 1900, 26% of the population in the
N. Usuri district and 36 % in the S. Usuri district were Koreans and
Chinese, and in the Amur province there were nearly 15,000 Manchus
and Koreans. Jews number 32,650 and some 5000 gipsies wander
about Siberia.
At first the indigenous populations were pitilessly deprived of
their hunting and grazing grounds and compelled to resort to
agriculture a modification exceedingly hard for them, not only on
account of their poverty but also because they were compelled to
settle in the less favourable regions. European civilization made
them familiar with all its worst sides and with none of its best.
Taxed with a tribute in furs from the earliest years of the Russian
conquest, they often revolted in the 1 7th century, but were cruelly
reduced to obedience. In 1824 the settled indigenes had to pay the
very heavy rate of n roubles (about ij per head, and the arrears,
which soon became equal to the sums levied, were rigorously exacted.
On the other hand the severe measures taken by the government
prevented the growth of anything like legalized slavery on Siberian
soil ; but the people, ruined as they were both by the intrusion of
agricultural colonists and by the exactions of government officials,
fell into what was practically a kind of slavery to the merchants.
Even the best-intentioned government measures, such as the
importation of corn, the prohibition of the sale of spirits, and
so on, became new sources of oppression. The action of mission-
aries, who cared only about nominal Christianizing, had no better
effect.
Social Features. In West Siberia there exist compact masses of
Russians who have lost little of their primitive ethnographical
features: but the case is otherwise on the outskirts. M. A. Castren
characterized Obdorsk (mouth of the Ob) as a true Samoyedic town,
although peopled with " Russians." The Cossacks of West Siberia
have the features and customs and many of the manners of life of
the Kalmucks and Kirghiz. Yakutsk is thoroughly Yakutic;
marriages of Russians with Yakut wives are common, and in the
middle of the igth century the Yakut language was predominant
among the Russian merchants and officials. At Irkutsk and in
the valley of the Irkut the admixture of Tungus and Burial blood
is obvious, and still more in the Nerchinsk district and among the
Transbaikal Cossacks settled on the Argun. They speak the Burial
language as often as Russian, and in a Buriat dress can hardly be
distinguished from ihe Buriats. In different parts of Siberia, on
Ihe borders of ihe hilly tracts, intermarriage of Russians with
Tatars was quite common. Of course it is now rapidly growing
less, and the settlers who entered Siberia in the igth century married
Russian wives and remained thoroughly Russian. There are
accordingly parts of Siberia, especially among the Raskolniks or
Nonconformists, where the north Russian, the Great Russian and
the Ukrainian (or soulhern) lypes have maintained themselves in
their full purity, and only some differences in domestic architecture,
in the disposition of Iheir villages and in ihe language and character
of the population remind the Iraveller lhat he is in Siberia. The
special features of the language and partly also of the nalional
character are due to the earliest settlers, who came mostly from
northern Russia.
The natural rate of increase of population is very slow as a rule,
and does not exceed 7 or 8 per 1000 annually. The great mortality,
especially among the children, is one of the causes of this, the birth-
rate being also lower lhan in Russia. The climate of Siberia, how-
ever, cannot be called unhealthy, except in certain localities where
goitre is common, as it is on the Lena, in several valleys of Nerchinsk
and in the Altai Mountains. The rapid growth of the actual popula-
lion is chiefly due lo immigration.
Towns. Only 8-1 % of the population live in towns (6-4% only
in the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk). There are seventeen
towns with a population of 10,000 or more, namely, Tomsk (63,533
i6
SIBERIA
in 1900) and Irkutsk (49,106) the capitals of West and East Siberia
respectively; Blagpvyeshchensk (37,368), Vladivostok (38,000).
Tyumen (29,651) in West Siberia, head of Siberian navigation;
Barnaul (29,850), capital of the Altai region; Krasnoyarsk (33,337)
and Tobolsk (21,401), both mere administrative centres; Biysk
(17,206), centre of the Altai trade; Khabarovsk (15,082), adminis-
trative centre of the Amur region; Chita (11,480), the capital of
Transbaikalia; Nikolsk (22,000); Irbit (20,064); Kolyvan (11,703).
the centre of the trade of southern Tomsk; Yeniseisk (11,539),
the centre of the gold-mining region of the same name; Kurgan
(10,579), a growing town in Tobolsk; and Minusinsk (10,255), i the
southern part of the Yeniseisk province, trading with north-west
Mongolia.
Education. Education stands at a very low level. The chief
town of every province is provided witW a classical gymnasium for
boys and a gymnasium or progymnasium for girls; but the education
there received is not of a high grade, and the desire of the local
population for " real schools ' is not satisfied. Primary education
is in a very unsatisfactory state, and primary schools very scarce.
The petitions for a university at Irkutsk, the money required for
which has been freely offered to the government, have been refused,
and the imperative demands of the local tradesmen for technical
instruction have likewise met with little response. The Tomsk
University remains incomplete, and has only 560 students. There
are nevertheless eighteen scientific societies in Siberia, which issue
publications of great value. Twelve natural history and ethnological
museums have been established by the exiles the Minusinsk
museum being the best. There are also twenty public libraries.
Agriculture. Agriculture is the chief occupation both of the
settled Russians and of the native population. South Siberia has a
very fertile soil and yields heavy crops, but immense tracts of the
country are utterly unfit for tillage. Altogether it is estimated that
not more than 500,000 sq. m. are suitable for cultivation. The
aggregate is thus distributed 192,000 sq. m. in West Siberia, 20,000
in Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk, 100,000 in East Siberia, 85,000 in
Transbaikalia, 40,000 in Amur, and 63,000 in Usuri. In the low-
lands of West Siberia cultivation is carried on up to 61 N. 1 On the
high plains fringing the alpine tracts on the north-west it can be
carried on only in the south, farther north only in the valleys,
reaching 62 N. in that of the Lena, and in the alpine tracts in only
a few valleys, as that of the Irkut. On the high plateau all attempts
to grow cereals have failed, the wide trenches alone (Uda, Selenga,
Jida) offering encouragement to the agriculturist. On the lower
plateau, in Transbaikalia, grain is successfully raised in the Ner-
chinsk region, with serious risks, however, from early frosts in the
valleys. South-east Transbaikalia suffers from want of water, and
the Buriats have to irrigate their fields. Although agriculture is
carried on on the upper Amur, where land has been cleared from
virgin forests, it really prospers only below Kumara and on the
fertile plains of the Zeya and Silinji. In the depression between the
Bureya range and the coast ranges it suffers greatly from the heavy
July and August rains, and from inundations, while on the lower
Amur the agriculturists barely maintain themselves by growing
cereals in clearances on the slopes of the hills, so that the settlements
on the lower Amur and Usuri continually require help from govern-
ment to save them from famine. The chief grain-producing regions
of Siberia are the Tobol and Ishim region, -the Baraba, the region
about Tomsk and the outskirts of the Altai. The Minusinsk district,
one of the richest in Siberia (45,000 inhabitants, of whom 24,000 are
nomadic), has more than 45,000 acres under crops. Mining, the
second industry in point of importance, is dealt with above.
Land Tenure. Out of the total area of over 3,000,000,000 acres of
land in Siberia, close upon 96 % belong to the state, while the cabinet
of the reigning emperor owns 114,700,000 acres (112,300,000 in the
Altai and 2,400,000 in Nerchinsk) or nearly 4%. Private property
is insignificant in extent purchase of land being permitted only
in the Amur region. (In West Siberia it was only temporarily per-
mitted in 1860-1868.) Siberia thus offers an example of the nationali-
zation of land unparalleled throughout the world. Any purchase of
land within a zone 67 m. wide on each side of the trans-Siberian
railway was absolutely prohibited in 1895, and the extent of crown
lands sold to a single person or group of persons never exceeds 1080
acres unless an especially usefuj industrial enterprise is projected,
and in that case the maximum is fixed at 2700 acres. The land is
held by the Russian village communities in virtue of the right of
occupation. Industrial surveys, having for their object the granting
of land to the peasants to the extent of 40 acres per each male head,
with 8 additional acres of wood and 8 acres as a reserve,- were started
many years ago, and after being stopped in 1887 were commenced
again in 1898. At the present time the land allotments per male
head vary greatly, even in the relatively populous region of southern
Siberia. In the case of the peasants the allotments vary on an average
from 32 to 102 acres (in some cases from 21-6 to 240 acres); the
Transbaikal Cossacks have about in acres per male head, and the
indigenous population 108 to 154 acres.
1 The northern limits of agriculture are 60 N. on the Urals,
62 at Yakutsk, 61 at Aldansk, 54 30' at Udskoi, and 53
to 54^ in the interior of Kamchatka (Middendorff, Sibirische Reise,
vol. iv.).
The'total cultivated area and the average area under crops every
year have been estimated by A. Kaufmann as follows 2 :
Under Crops (Acres).
Province or
Government.
Area
cultivated,
Acres.
Total.
Average
per House-
hold.
Average
per 100
Inhabit-
ants.
Tobolsk
5,670,000
3,270,000
13-2
243
Tomsk .
8,647,000
5,259,000
15-7
310
Yeniseisk
1,830,000
977,000
13-0
267
Irkutsk
1,800,000
910,000
13-2
265
Transbaikalia .
1,415,000
872,000
9-4
'59
Yakutsk
81,000
43,000
0-8
16
Amur (Russians)
143,000
143,000
19-4
275
South Usuri
(peasants only)
151,000
151,000
24-0
375
19,737,000
11,625,000
Live
stock.
Bee-
keeping,
These figures are somewhat under-estimated, but the official figures
are still lower, especially for Tomsk. Tillage is conducted on very
primitive methods. After four to twelve years' cultivation the land
is allowed to lie fallow for ten years or more. In the Baraba district
it is the practice to sow four different grain crops in five to seven
years and then to let the land rest ten to twenty-five years. The
yield from the principal crops fluctuates greatly; indeed in a very
good year it is almost three times that in a very bad one. The
southern parts of Tobolsk, nearly all the government of Tomsk
(exclusive of the Narym region), southern Yeniseisk and southern
Irkutsk, have in an average year a surplus of grain varying from
35 to 40% of the total crop, but in bad years the crop falls short
of the actual needs of the population. There is considerable move-
ment of grain in Siberia 'tself, the populations of vast portions of
the territory, especially of the mining regions, having to rely upon
imported corn. The forest area under supervision is about 30,000,000
acres (in Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yeniseisk and Irkutsk), out of a total
area of forest land of 63,000,000 acres.
As an independent pursuit, live-stock breeding is carried on by
the Russians in eastern Transbaikalia, by the Yakuts in the province
of Yakutsk, and by the Buriats in Irkutsk and Trans-
baikalia, but elsewhere it is secondary to agriculture.
Both cattle-breeding and sheep-grazing are more profit-
able than dairying; but the Kirghiz herds are not well tended, being
left to graze on the steppes all the year, where they perish from wild
animals and the cold. The live stock includes some 180,000 camels.
Bee-keeping is widelycarried on, especially in Tomsk and
the Altai. Honey is exported to Russia. The seeds of
the stone-pine are collected for oil in West Siberia.
Hunting. Hunting is a profitable occupation, the male population
of whole villages in the hilly and woody tracts setting out in October
for a month's hunting. The sable, however, which formerly con-
stituted the wealth of Siberia, is now exceedingly scarce. Squirrels,
bears, foxes, arctic foxes, antelopes and especially deer in spring are
the principal objects of the chase. The forests on the Amur yielded
a rich return of furs during the first years of the Russian occupation,
and the Amur sable, although much inferior to the Yakutsk and
Transbaikalian, was largely exported.-
Fishing. Fishing is a valuable source of income on the lower
courses of the great rivers, especially the Ob. The fisheries on Lake
Baikal supply cheap food (the omul) to the poorer classes of Irkutsk
and Transbaikalia. The native populations of the Amur Golds
and Gilyaks support themselves chiefly by fishing, when the salmon
enters the Amur and its tributaries in dense masses. Fish (e.g. the
heta, salmon and sturgeon) are a staple article of diet in the north.
Manufactures. Though Siberia has within itself all the raw
produce necessary for prosperous industries, it continues to import
from Russia all the manufactured articles it uses. Owing to the
distances over which they are carried and the bad organization of
trade, all manufactured articles are exceedingly dear, especially in
the east. The manufactories of Siberia employ less than 25,000
workmen, and of these some 46% are employed in West Siberia.
Nearly one-third of the total value of the output represents wine-
spirit, 23% tanneries, 18% tallow-melting and a considerable sum
cigarette-making.
It is estimated that about one-half of the Russian agricultural
population supplement their income by engaging in non-agricultural
pursuits, but not more than 18 to 22% carry on domestic trades,
the others finding occupation in the carrying trade which is still
important, even since the construction of the railway in hunting
(chiefly squirrel-hunting) and in work in the mines. Domestic and
petty trades are therefore developed only round Tyumen, Tomsk and
Irkutsk. The principal of these trades are the weaving of carpets
about Tyumen; the making of wire sieves; the painting of
ikons or sacred images; the making of wooden vessels and of the
necessaries for the carrying trade about Tomsk (sledges, wheels, &c). ;
2 Russian Encyclopaedic Dictionary, vol. lix. (1900).
SIBERIA
the preparation of felt boots and sheepskins; and the manufacture
of dairy utensils and machinery. Weaving is engaged in for domestic
purposes. But all these trades are sporadic, and are confined to
limited areas, and often only to a few separate villages.
Commerce. There are no figures from which even an approximate
idea can be gained as to the value of the internal trade of Siberia,
but it is certainly considerable. The great fair at Irbit retains its
importance, and there are, besides, over 500 fairs in Tobolsk and
over loo in other parts of the region. The aggregate returns of all
these are estimated at 2,643,000 annually. The trade with the
natives continues to be mainly the sale of spirits.
In the external trade the exports to Russia consist chiefly of grain,
cattle, sheep, butter and other animal products, furs, game, feathers
and down. The production of butter for export began only in
1894, but grew with great rapidity. In 1902 some 1800 dairies were
at work, the greater number in West Siberia, and 40,000 tons of butter
were exported. The total trade between Russia and China amounts
to about 5,500,000 annually, of which 87 % stands for imports
into Russia and 13% for exports to China. Tea makes up nearly
one-half of the imports, the other commodities being silks, cottons,
hides and wool; while cottons and other manufactured wares
constitute considerably over 50% of the exports. Part of this
commerce (textiles, sugar, tobacco, steel goods) is conveyed by sea
to the Pacific ports. The principal centre for the remainder (textiles
and petroleum), conveyed by land, is Kiakhta on the Mongolian
frontier. Prior to the building of the trans-Siberian railway a fairly
active trade was carried on between China and the Amur region;
but since the opening of that railway (in 1902-1905) the Amur
region has seriously and rapidly declined in all that concerns trade,
industry, general prosperity and civilization. There is further an
import trade amounting to between two and three-quarters and three
millions sterling annually with Manchuria, to over one million sterling
with the United States, and to a quarter to half a million sterling
with Japan. As nearly as can be estimated, the total imports into.
Siberia amount approximately to 5,000,000, the amount having
practically doubled between 1890 and 1962; the total exports
average about 9,000,000. In the Far East the chief trade centres
are Vladivostok and Nikolayevsk on the Amur, with Khabarovsk
and Blagovyeshchensk, both on the same river. For some years a
small trade was carried on by the British Captain Wiggins with the
mouth of the river Yenisei through the Kara Sea, and after his death
in 1905 the Russians themselves endeavoured to carry farther the
pioneer work which he had begun.
Communications. Navigation on the Siberian rivers has developed
both as regards the number of steamers plying and the number of
branch rivers traversed. In 1900, one hundred and thirty private
and several crown steamers plied on the Ob-Irtysh river system as
far as Semipalatinsk on the Irtysh, Biysk on the Ob, and Achinsk
on the Chulym. The Ob- Yenisei canal is ready for use, but its actual
usefulness is impaired by the scarcity of water in the smaller streams
forming part of the system. On the Yenisei steamers ply from
Minusinsk to Yeniseisk, and to Ghilghila at its mouth; on its
tributary, the Angara, of which some rapids have been cleared,
though the Padun rapids have still to be rounded by land; and on
the Selenga. On the Lena and the Vitim there are steamers, and a
small railway connects the Bodoibo river port with the Olekma
gold-washings. In the Amur system, the Zeya, the Bureya and the
Argun are navigated.
The main line of communication is the great Moscow road. It
starts from Perm on the Kama, and, crossing the Urals, reaches
Ekaterinburg the centre of mining industry and Tyumen on the
Tura, whence steamers ply via Tobolsk to Tomsk. From Tyumen
the road proceeds to Omsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk,
sending off from Kolyvan a branch south to Barnaul in the Altai
and to Turkestan. From Irkutsk it proceeds to Transbaikalia,
Lake Baikal being crossed either by steamer or (when frozen) on
sledges, in either case from Listvinichnoe to Misovaya. A route
was laid out about 1868 round the south shore of Lake Baikal in
order to maintain communication with Transbaikalia during the
spring and autumn, and in 1905 the great Siberian railway was com-
pleted round the same extremity of the lake. From Lake Baikal
the road proceeds to Verkhne-udinsk, Chita and Stryetensk on the
Shilka, whence steamers ply to the mouth of the Amur and up the
Usuri and Sungacha to Lake Khangka. When the rivers are
frozen communication is maintained by sledges on the Amur; but
in spring and autumn the only continuous route down the Shilka
and the Amur, to its mouth, is on horseback along a mountain
path (very difficult across the Bureya range). On the lower Amur
and on the Usuri the journey is also difficult even on horseback.
When the water in the upper Amur is low, vessels are sometimes
unable to reach the Shilka. Another route of importance before the
conquest of the Amur is that which connects Yakutsk with Okhotsk
or Ayan. Regular postal communication is maintained by the
Russians between Kiakhta and Kalgan (close by Peking) across the
desert of Gobi.
The first railway to reach Siberia was built in 1878, when a line
was constructed between Perm, at which point travellers for Siberia
Pall a a used to strike off from the Kama eastwards, and Ekaterin-
' burg, on the eastern slope of the Urals. In 1884 this line
was continued as far as Tyumen, the head of navigation on the
Siberian rivers. It was supposed at that time that this line would
form part of the projected trans-Siberian railway ; but it was finally
decided, in 1885, to give a more southerly direction to the railway
and to continue the Moscow-Samara line to Ufa, Zlatoust in the
Urals, and Chelyabinsk on the west Siberian prairies, at the head
of one of the tributaries of the Ob. Thence the line was continued
across the prairies to Kurgan and Omsk, and from there it followed
the great Siberian highway to Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, and on
round Lake Baikal to Chita and Stryetensk on the Shilka. From
that place it was intended to push it down the Amur to Khabarovsk,
and finally to proceed up the Usuri to Vladivostok. The building
of the railway was begun at several points at once in 1892; it had,
indeed, been started a year before that in the Usuri section. For
reasons indicated elsewhere (see RUSSIA: Railways) it was found
inadvisable to continue the railroad along the Shilka and the Amur
to Khabarovsk, and arrangements were made in 1 896 with the Chinese
government for the construction of a trans-Manchurian railway.
This line connects Kaidalovo, 20 m. below Chita, with Vladivostok,
and sends off a branch from Kharbin, on the Sungari, to Dalny and
Port Arthur. Those parts of it which run through Russian territory
(in Transbaikalia 230 m.; in the neighbourhood of Vladivostok
67 m.) were opened in 1902, and also the trans-Manchurian line
(1000 m.), although not quite completed. A line was constructed
from Vladivostok to the Amur before it became known that the
idea of following the latter part of the route originally laid down
would have to be abandoned. This line, which has been in working
order since 1898, is 479 m. long, and proceeds first to Grafskaya,
across the fertile and populous south Usuri region, then down the
Usuri to Khabarovsk at the confluence of that river with the Amur.
Returning westwards, Chelyabinsk has been connected with
Ekaterinburg (153 m.); and a branch line has been built from the
main Siberian line to Tomsk (54 m.). Altogether the entire railway
system, including the cost of the Usuri line, the unfinished Amur
line, the circum- Baikal line and the eastern Chinese railway, is put
down at a total of 87,555,760, and the total distance, all branches
included, is 5413 m., of which 1070 m. are in Chinese territory.
History. The shores of all the lakes which filled the depressions
during the Lacustrine period abound in remains dating from the
Neolithic Stone period; and numberless kurgans (tumuli), furnaces
and so on bear witness to a much denser population than the present.
During the great migrations in Asia from east to west many popula-
tions were probably driven to the northern borders of the great
plateau and thence compelled to descend into Siberia; succeeding
waves of immigration forced them still farther towards the barren
grounds of the north, where they melted away. According to
Radlov, the earliest inhabitants of Siberia were the Yeniseians,
who spoke a language different from the Ural-Altaic; some few
traces of them (Yeniseians, Sayan-Ostiaks, and Kottes) exist among
the Sayan Mountains. The Yeniseians were followed by the Ugro-
Samoyedes, who also came originally from the high plateau and
were compelled, probably during the great migration of the Huns
in the 3rd century B.C., to cross the Altai and Sayan ranges and to
enter Siberia. To them must be assigned the very numerous remains
dating from the Bronze period which are scattered all over southern
Siberia. Iron was unknown to them; but they excelled in bronze,
silver and gold work. Their bronze ornaments and implements,
often polished, evince considerable artistic taste; and their irrigated
fields covered wide areas in the fertile tracts. On the whole, their
civilization stood much higher than that of their more recent suc-
cessors. Eight centuries later the Turkish stocks of " Tukiu " (the
Chinese spelling for "Turks"), Khagases and Uigurs also com-
pelled to migrate north-westwards from their former seats subdued
the Ugro-Samoyedes. These new invaders likewise left numerous
traces of their sojourn, and two different periods may be easily
distinguished in their remains. They were acquainted with iron,
and learned from their subjects the art of bronze-casting, which
they used for decorative purposes only, and to which they gave a
still higher artistic stamp. Their pottery is much more perfect and
more artistic than that of the Bronze period, and their ornaments
are accounted among the finest of the collections at the St Petersburg
museum of the Hermitage. This Turkish empire of the Khagases
must have lasted until the 1 3th century, when the Mongols, under
Jenghiz Khan, subdued them and destroyed their civilization. A
decided decline is shown by the graves which have been discovered,
until the country reached the low level atwhich it was found by the
Russians on their arrival towards the close of the l6th century. In
the beginning of the i6th century Tatar fugitives from Turkestan
subdued the loosely associated tribes inhabiting the lowlands to the
east of the Urals. Agriculturists, tanners, merchants and mollahs
(priests) were called from Turkestan, and small principalities sprang
up on the Irtysh and the Ob. These were united by Khan Ediger,
and conflicts with the Russians who were then colonizing the Urals
brought him into collision with Moscow; his envoys came to Moscow
in !555 an d consented to a yearly tribute of a thousand sables. As
early as the nth century the Novgorodians had occasionally pene-
trated into Siberia; but the fall of the republic and the loss of its
north-eastern dependencies checked the advance of the Russians
across the Urals. On the defeat of the adventurer Stenka Razin
(1667-1671) many who were unwilling to submit to the iron rule of
Moscow made their way to the settlements of Stroganov in Perm,
i8
SIBI SIBSAGAR
and tradition has it that, in order to get rid of his guests, Stroganov
suggested to their chief, Yermak, that he should cross the Urals
into Siberia, promising to help him with supplies of food and arms.
Yermak entered Siberia in 1580 with a band of 1636 men, following
the Tagil and Tura rivers. Next year they were on the Tobol, and
500 men successfully laid siege to Isker, the residence of Khan
Kuchum, in the neighbourhood of what is now Tobolsk. Kuchum
fled to the steppes, abandoning his domains to Yermak, who, accord-
ing to tradition, purchased by the present of Siberia to Ivan IV.
his own restoration to favour. Yermak was drowned in the Irtysh
in 1584 and the Cossacks abandoned Siberia. But new bands of
hunters and adventurers poured every year into the country, and
were supported by Moscow. To avoid conflicts with the denser
populations of the south, they preferred to advance eastwards along
higher latitudes; meanwhile Moscow erected forts and settled
labourers around them to supply the garrisons with food. Within
eighty years the Russians had reached the Amur and the Pacific.
This rapid conquest is accounted for by the circumstance that neither
Tatars nor Turks were able to offer any serious resistance. In 1607
1610 the Tunguses fought strenuously for their independence, but
were subdued about 1623. In 1628 the Russians reached the Lena,
founded the fort of Yakutsk in 1637, and two years later reached
the Sea of Okhotsk at the mouth of the Ulya river. The Burials
offered some opposition, but between 1631 and 1641 the Cossacks
erected several palisaded forts in their territory, and in 1648 the
fort on the upper Uda beyond Lake Baikal. In 1643 Poyarkov's
boats descended the Amur, returning to Yakutsk by the Sea of
Okhotsk and the Aldan, and in 1649-1650 Khabarov occupied the
banks of the Amur. The resistance of the Chinese, however, obliged
the Cossacks to quit their forts, and by the treaty of Nerchinsk
(1689) Russia abandoned her advance into the basin of the river.
In 1852 a Russian military expedition under Muraviev explored the
Amur, and by 1857 a chain of Russian Cossacks and peasants were
settled along the whole course of the river. The accomplished fact
was recognized by China in 1857 and 1860 by a treaty. In the same
year in which Khabarov explored the Amur (1648) the Cossack
Dejnev, starting from the Kolyma, sailed round the north-eastern
extremity of Asia through the strait which was rediscovered and
described eighty years later by Bering (1728). Cook in 1778, and
after him La Perouse, settled definitively the broad features of the
northern Pacific coast. Although the Arctic Ocean had been reached
as early as the first half of the 1 7th century, the exploration of its
coasts by a series of expeditions under Ovtsyn, Minin, Pronchishev,
Lasinius and Laptev whose labours constitute a brilliant page in
the annals of geographical discovery was begun only in the 1 8th
century (1735-1739)-
The scientific exploration of Siberia, begun in the period ^1733 to
1742 by Messerschmidt, Gmelin, and De Lisle de la Crpyere, was
followed up by Miiller, Fischer and Georgi. Pallas, with several
Russian students, laid the first foundation of a thorough exploration
of the topography, fauna, flora and inhabitants of the country.
The journeys of Hansteen and Erman (1828-1830) were a most
important step in the exploration of the territory. Humboldt,
Ehrenberg and Gustav Rose also paid in the course of these years
short visits to Siberia, and gave a new impulse to the accumulation
of scientific knowledge; while Ritter elaborated in his Asien (1832-
1859) the foundations of a sound knowledge of the structure of
Siberia. Middendorff's journey (1844-1845) to north-eastern Siberia
contemporaneous with Castren's journeys for the special study
of the Ural-Altaian languages directed attention to the far north
and awakened interest in the Amur, the basin of which soon became
the scene of the expeditions of Akhte and Schwarz (1852), and later
on (1854-1857) of the Siberian expedition to which we owe so marked
an advance in our knowledge of East Siberia. The Siberian branch
of the Russian Geographical Society was founded at the same time
at Irkutsk, and afterwards became a permanent centre for the ex-
ploration of Siberia; while the opening of the Amur and Sakhalin
attracted Maack, Schmidt, Glenn, Radde and Schrenck, whose
works on the flora, fauna and inhabitants of Siberia have become
widely known.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. T. von Middendorff, Sibirische Reise (St
Petersburg, 1848-1875); L. Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im
Amurgebiet (St Petersburg, 1858-1891); Trudy of the Siberian
expedition mathematical part (also geographical) by Schwarz, and
physical part by Schmidt, Glehn and Brylkin (1874, seq.); G.
Kennan, Tent Life in Siberia (1870); Paplov, Siberian Rivers
(1878); A. E. Nordenskjoid, Voyage of the Vega (1881) and Vega
Exped. Vetensk. lakttagelser (5 vols., Stockholm, 1872-1887);
P. P. Semenov, Geogr. and Stat. Dictionary of the Russian Empire
(in Russian, 5 vols., St Petersburg, 1863-1884) a most valuable
source of information, with full bibliographical details under each
article; Picturesque Russia (in Russian), ed. by P. Semenov, vol. xi.
(West Siberia) and xii. (East Siberia) ; Schegflov, Chronology of Sib.
Hist, from 1032 to 1882; Yadrintsev, Siberia (St Petersburg, 2nd
ed., 1892, in Russian); Vagin, " Historical Documents on Siberia,"
in the collection Sibir, vol. i. ; Yadrintsev, Siberia as a Colony
(new ed., 1892); F. M. Dostoievsky's novel, Buried Alive (1881);
Baron A. von Rosen, Memoiren eines russischen Dekabristen (Leipzig,
1870). Consult further Materials for the Study of the Economic
Conditions of West Siberia (22 vols., St Petersburg, 1889-1898),
condensed in Peasant Land-Tenure and -Husbandry in Tobolsk and
Tomsk (St Petersburg, 1894), both in Russian. Similar Materials
for the Altai region, published at St Petersburg by the Cabinet of the
emperor, and for Irkutsk and Yeniseisk (12 fasc., Irkutsk, 1889
1893); Materials for Transbaikalia (16 vols., St Petersburg, 1898),
summed up in Transbaikalia, by N. Razumov (St Petersburg, 1899).
Other works deserving special mention are: Ermolov, Siberia as a
Colony (3rd ed., 1894) ; Jarilow, Ein Beitrag zur Landwirtschaft in
Sibirien (Leipzig, 1896). Among books of more recent publication
must be mentioned G. Krahmer, Russland in Asien (3 vols., Lejpzig,
1898-1900) and Sibirien und die grosse sibirische Eisenbahn (2nd ed.,
1900); Wirt Gerrare, Greater Russia (London 1903); J. F. Fraser,
The Real Siberia (London, 1902) ; P. Kropotkin, Orographie de la
Siberie (Brussels, 1904); P. Leroy-Beaulieu, La Renovation de I' Asie
centrale (Paris, 1900); J. Stadling, Through Siberia (London, 1901);
S. Turner, Siberia (London, 1906) ; G. F. Wright, Asiatic Russia
(2 vols., London, 1903) ; L. Deutsch, Sixteen Years in Siberia
(Eng. trans., London, 1905) ; V. Dolgorukov, Guide through Siberia
(3rd ed., Tomsk, 1898, in Russian, with summaries in French) ;
A. N. de Koulomzine, Le Trans-siberien (Paris, 1904) ; Bishop of
Norwich, My Life in Mongolia and Siberia (London, 1903); S.
Patkanov, Essai d'une statistique el d'une geographic des peuples
paleoasiatigues de la Siberie (St Petersburg, 1903) ; M. P. de Semenov,
La Russie extra-europeenne et polaire (Paris, 1900) ; I. W. Bookwalter,
Siberia and Central Asia (Springfield, Ohio, 1899); Siberia and the
Great Siberian Railway, by Ministry of Finance (Eng. trans., ed. by
J. M. Crawford, St Petersburg, 1893, vol. v. for flora). Climatological
Atlas of the Russian Empire, by the Physical Observatory (St
Petersburg, 1900), gives data and observations covering the period
1849-1899. A full bibliography will be found in the Russian Ency-
clopaedic Dictionary, as also in Mezhov, Siberian Bibliography (3 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1891-1892), and in A. Pypin's History of Russian
Ethnography, vol. iv. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
SIBI, a town and district of Baluchistan. The town is now
an important junction on the Sind-Peshin railway, where
the Harnai line and the Quetta loop line meet, near the entrance
of the Bolan pass, 88 m. S.E. of Quetta. Pop. (1901) 4551.
The district, which was constituted in 1903, has an area of
4iS2sq.m.; pop. (1901) 74,555. The greater part became British
territory by the treaty of Gandamak in 1879; the rest is ad-
ministered under a perpetual lease from the khan of Kalat.
Political control is also exercised over the Marri-Bugti country,
with an additional area of 7129 sq. m.: pop. (1901) 38,919.
Besides the town of Sibi, the district contains the sanatorium
of Ziarat, the summer residence of the government.
See Sibi District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1907).
SIBONGA, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu,
Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, 30 m. S.W. of Cebu, the
capital. Pop. (1903) 25,848. Sibonga is an agricultural town
with a port for coasting vessels, and is served by a railway.
The principal products are Indian corn and tobacco. The climate
is hot, but healthy. The language is Cebu-Visayan.
SIBPUR, a town of British India, in the Hugli district of
Bengal, on the right bank of the river Hugli, opposite Calcutta.
It is a suburb of Howrah. It contains jute-mills, a flour-mill,
rope- works, brick-works and other industrial establishments;
the royal botanical garden; and the engineering college with
electrical and mining departments and a boarding-house.
The college, of gothic architecture, was originally built for a
missionary institution, as the Bishop's College, in 1824. It has
recently been decided to remove it to Ranchi, in Chota Nagpur.
SIBSAGAR, a town and district of British India, in eastern
Bengal and Assam. The town is situated on the Dikhu river,
about 9 m. from the left bank of the Brahmaputra, being pictur-
esquely built round a magnificent tank, covering an area of
114 acres. Pop. (1901) 5712. In 1907 the transfer of the
district headquarters to Jorhak (pop. 2899), on the Disai river,
was sanctioned.
The DISTRICT OF SIBSAGAR has an area of 4996 sq. m. It
consists of a level plain, much overgrown with grass and jungle,
and intersected by numerous tributaries of the Brahmaputra.
It is divided by the little river Disai into two tracts, which differ
in soil and general appearance. The surface of the eastern
portion is very flat, the general level being broken only by the
long lines of embankments raised by the Ahom kings to serve
both as roadways and as a protection against floods. The soil
consists of a heavy loam of a whitish colour, which is well adapted
for rice cultivation. West of the Disai, though the surface
soil is of the same character, the general aspect is diversified
SIBTHORP SIBYLS
by the protrusion of the subsoil, which consists of a stiff clay
abounding in iron nodules, and is furrowed by frequent ravines
and water-courses, which divide the cultivable fields into
innumerable small sunken patches or kolas. The chief river is
the Brahmaputra, which is navigable throughout the year by
steamers. The tributaries of the Brahmaputra comprise the
Dhaneswari, the Dihing, the Disang and the Dikhu, all flowing
in a northerly direction from the Naga Hills. Included within
the district is the island of Maguli, formed by the silt brought
down by the Subansiri river from the Himalayas and deposited
in the wide channel of the Brahmaputra. Coal, iron, petroleum
and salt are found. The climate, like that of the rest of the
Assam valley, is comparatively mild and temperate, and the
annual rainfall averages about 94 in.
In 1901 the population was 597,969, showing an increase of
24 % in the decade. Sibsagar is the chief centre of tea cultivation
in the Brahmaputra valley, which was introduced by the Assam
Company in 1852. It contains a large number of well-managed
tea-gardens, which bring both men and money into the province.
There are also several timber mills. The Assam-Bengal railway
serves the southern part of the district, and a light railway
connects this line with Kalikamukh on the Brahmaputra, itself
an important highway of communication.
On the decline of the Ahom dynasty Sibsagar, with the rest
of the Assam valley, fell into the hands of the Burmese. As
a result of the first Burmese war (1824-1826) the valley was
annexed to British India, and the country now forming Sibsagar
district, together with the southern portion of Lakhimpur,
was placed under the rule of Raja Purandhar Singh, on his
agreeing to pay a tribute of 5000. Owing to the raja's misrule,
Sibsagar was reduced to a state of great poverty, and, as he was
unable to pay the tribute, the territories were resumed by the
government of India, and in 1838 were placed under the direct
management of a British officer.
See Sibsagar District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1906).
SIBTHORP, JOHN (1758-1796), English botanist, was born
at Oxford on the 28th of October 1758, and was the youngest
son of Dr Humphrey Sibthorp (1713-1797), who from 1747
to 1784 was Sherardian professor of botany at Oxford. He
graduated at Oxford in 1777, and then studied medicine at
Edinburgh and Montpellier. In 1784 he succeeded his father in
the Sherardian chair. Leaving his professional duties to a
deputy he left England for Gb'ttingen and Vienna, in preparation
for a botanical tour in Greece (1786). Returning to England
at the end of the following year he took part in the foundation
of the Linnaean Society in 1788, and set to work on a flora of
Oxfordshire, which was published in 1794 as Flora Oxoniensis.
He made a second journey to Greece, but developed consumption
on the way home and died at Bath on the 8th of February 1796.
By his will he bequeathed his books on natural history and
agriculture to Oxford university, where also he founded the
Sibthorpian professorship of rural economy, attaching it to
the chair of botany. He directed that the endowment should
first be applied to the publication of his Flora Graeca and Florae
Graecae Prodromus, for which, however, he had done little
beyond collecting some three thousand species and providing
the plates. The task of preparing the works was undertaken
by Sir J. E. Smith, who issued the two volumes of'the Prodromus
in 1806 and 1813, and six volumes of the Flora Graeca between
1806 and 1828. The seventh appeared in 1830, after Smith's
death, and the remaining three were produced by John Lindley
between 1833 and 1840.
Another member of the family, RALPH WALDO SIBTHORP
(1792-1879), a grandson of Dr Humphrey Sibthorp, was a
well-known English divine. He was educated at Oxford and
took Anglican orders in 1815. He became known as a prominent
" evangelical " in London, but in 1841 was received into the
Roman Church. Two years later he returned to the Anglican
Church, though he was not readmitted to the ministry till 1857.
Finally he re-entered the Roman communion in 1865, but on
his death in 1879 he was, by his own request, buried according
to the service of the English Church. His elder brother, COLONEL
CHARLES DE LAET WALDO SIBTHORP (1783-1855), represented
Lincoln in parliament from 1826 until his death, except for a
short period in 1833-1834, and was notorious for the vigour with
which he expressed his opinions and for his opposition to the
Catholic Emancipation Bill and the Reform Bill. The eldest
son of Colonel Sibthorp, GERVAISE TOTTENHAM WALDO SIB-
THORP (1815-1861), was also M.P. for Lincoln.
SIBYLLINE ORACLES, a collection of Apocalyptic writings,
composed in imitation of the heathen Sibylline books (see
SIBYLS) by the Jews and, later, by the Christians in their efforts
to win the heathen world to their faith. The fact that they
copied the form in which the heathen revelations were conveyed
(Greek hexameter verses) and the Homeric language is evidence
of a degree of external Hellenization, which is an important fact
in the history of post-exilic Judaism. Such was the activity
of these Jewish and Christian missionaries that their imitations
have swamped the originals. Even Virgil in his fourth Eclogue
seems to have used Jewish rather than purely heathen oracles.
The extant fragments and conglomerations of the Sibylline
oracles, heathen, Jewish and Christian, were collected, examined,
translated and explained by C. Alexandre in a monumental
edition full of exemplary learning and acumen. On the basis
of his results, as they have been scrutinized by scholars like
Schiirer and Geffcken, it is possible to disentangle some of the
different strata with a certain degree of confidence.
1. Book III. contains Jewish oracles relative to the Golden
Age established by Roman supremacy in the East about the
middle of the 2nd century B.C. (especially 175-181: cf. i Mace,
viii. 1-16). The evacuation of Egypt by Antiochus Epiphanes
at the bidding of the Roman ambassadors suits the warning
addressed to " Greece " (732-740) against overweening ambition
and any attempt upon the Holy City, which is somewhat
strangely enforced by the famous Greek oracle, " Let Camarina
be, 'tis best unstirred." Older ihan these are the Babylonian
oracle (97-154) and the Persian (381-387). A later Jewish
oracle (46-62) refers to the wars of the second Triumvirate of
Rome, and the whole compilation seems to come from a Christian
redactor.
2. Book IV. is a definite attack upon the heathen Sibyl
the Jews and Christians did not attempt to pass off their
" forgeries " as genuine as the mouthpiece of Apollo by a Jew
who speaks for the Great God and yet uses a Greek review (49-
114) of ancient history from the Assyrian empire. There are
references to the legendary escape of Nero to Parthia (119-124)
and the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (130-136).
3. Book V. contains a more developed form of the myth of
Nero redivivus in which a panegyric on him (137-141) has bee
brought up to date by some Jew or Christian, and eulogies of
Hadrian and his successors (48-51) side by side with the legend
of the miserable death of Titus in quittance of his destruction
of Jerusalem (411-413) which probably represents the hope of
the zealots who survived it.
4. The remaining books appear to be Christian (some heretical)
and to belong to the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
EDITIONS. C. Alexandre (Paris, 1841, 2 vols. ; 1869, i vol.);
Rzach (Prague, 1891; text and appendix of sources); Geffcken
(Leipzig, 1902; text with full apparatus of variants, sources and
parallel passages) ; see also his Komposilion und Entstehungszeit des
Oracula Sibyllina (Leipzig, 1902). An annotated Eng. trans, was
undertaken in 1910 by H. C. O. Lanchester. For references to
modern literature see Schiirer, Geschichle des jiidischen Volkes, iii.
( 4 th ed.), 555-592- (J. H. A. H.)
SIBYLS l (Sibyllae), the name given by the Greeks and Romans
to certain women who prophesied under the inspiration of a
deity. The inspiration manifested itself outwardly in distorted
features, foaming mouth and frantic gestures. Homer does not
refer to a Sibyl, nor does Herodotus. The first Greek writer,
so far as we know, who does so is Heraclitus (c. 500 B.C.). As
to the number and native countries of the Sibyls much diversity
of opinion prevailed. Plato only speaks of one, but in course
of time the number increased to ten according to Lactantius
1 The word is usually derived from Zto-0oXXa, the Doric form of
0eoO 0ov\t (=will of God).
20
SICANI SICILY
(quoting from Varro): the Babylonian or Persian, the Libyan,
the Cimmerian, the Delphian, the Erythraean, the Samian, the
Cumaean, the Hellespontine, the Phrygian and the Tiburtine.
The Sibyl of whom we hear most is the Erythraean, generally
identified with the Cumaean, whom Aeneas consulted before his
descent to the lower world (Aeneid, vi. 10); it was she who sold
to Tarquin the Proud the Sibylline books. She first offered him
nine; when he refused tLem, she burned three and offered him
the remaining six at the same price; when he again refused
them, she burned three more and offered him the remaining
three still at the same price. Tarquin then bought them (Dion.
Halic. iv. 62). He entrusted them to the care of two patricians;
after 367 B.C. ten custodians were appointed, five patricians
and five plebeians; subsequently (probably in the time of Sulla)
their number was increased to fifteen. These officials, at the
command of the senate, consulted the Sibylline books in order
to discover, not exact predictions of definite future events, but
the religious observances necessary to avert extraordinary
calamities (pestilence, earthquake) and to expiate prodigies in
cases where the national deities were unable, or unwilling, to
help. Only the interpretation of the oracle which was con-
sidered suitable to the emergency was made known to the public,
not the oracle itself. An important effect of these books was
the grecizing of Roman religion by the introduction of foreign
deities and rites (worshipped and practised in the Troad) and
the amalgamation of national Italian deities with the correspond-
ing Greek ones (fully discussed in J. Marquardt, Staatsver-
wallung, iii., 1885, pp. 42, 350, 382). They were written in hexa-
meter verse and in Greek; hence the college of curators was
always assisted by two Greek interpreters. The bocks were
kept in the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol and shared the
destruction of the temple by fire in 83. After the restoration
of the temple the senate sent ambassadors in 76 to Erythrae to
collect the oracles afresh and. they brought back about 1000
verses; others were collected in Ilium, Samos, Sicily, Italy and
Africa. In the year 12 B.C. Augustus sought out and burned
a great many spurious oracles and subjected the Sibylline books
to a critical revision; they were then placed by him in the
temple of Apollo Patroiis on the Palatine, where we hear of them
still existing in A.D. 363. They seem to have been burned by
Stilicho shortly after 400. According to the researches of R. H.
Klausen (Aeneas und die Penaten, 1839), the oldest collection of
Sibylline oracles appears to have been made about the time of
Solon and Cyrus at Gergis on Mount Ida in the Troad; it was
attributed to the Hellespontine Sibyl and was preserved in the
temple of Apollo at Gergis. Thence it passed to Erythrae,
where it became famous. It was this very collection, it would
appear, which found its way to Cumae and from Cumae to
Rome.
Some genuine Sibylline verses are preserved in the Book of Marvels
(ttcpi OavnaaUav) of Phlegon of Tralles (and century A.D.). See
H. Diels, Sibyllinische Blatter (1890). On the subject generally
see J. Marquardt as above; A. Bouch<5-Leclerq, La Divination
dans I'antiquite (1879-1882); E. Maass, De Sibyllarum indicibus
(1879); C. Schultess, Die sibyllinischen Bucher in Rom (1895;
with references to authorities in notes).
SICANI, in ancient geography, generally regarded (together
with the Elymi) as the oldest inhabitants of Sicily. Sicania
(the country of the Sicani) and the Siculi (q.v.) or Siceli are
mentioned in Homer (Odyssey, xx. 383, xxiv. 307), the latter
apparently being known to the Greeks as slave-dealers. There
existed considerable difference of opinion among the ancients as
to the origin of the Sicani. From the similarity of name, it
would be natural to identify them with the Siculi, but ancient
authorities expressly state that they were two distinct peoples
(see SICILY: History, ad init.). At first the Sicani occupied
nearly the whole of the island, but were gradually driven by the
Siceli into the interior and the N. and N.W. They lived chiefly
in small towns and supported themselves by agriculture. These
towns were not subject to a single king, but each had its own
ruler and constitution. The most important of the towns to
which a Sicanian origin can be with certainty assigned and
whose site can be determined, are: Hyccara (Muro di Carini),
taken and plundered by the Athenians during the Sicilian
expedition (41 5 B.C.); Omphake, between Agrigentum (Girgenti)
and Gela ( Terranova) ; and Camicus (site unknown) , the residence
of the mythical Sicanian king Cocalus, constructed for him by
Daedalus (q.v.), to whom he had given shelter when pursued by
Minos, king of Crete.
SICARD, ROCH-AMBROISE CUCURRON (1742-1822), French
abbe and instructor of deaf-mutes, was born at Le Fousseret,
Haute-Garonne, on the 2oth of September 1742. Educated
as a priest, he was made principal of a school of deaf-mutes at
Bordeaux in 1786, and in 1789, on the death of the Abbe de
1'Epee (see EPEE), succeeded him at Paris. His chief work was
his Cours d 'instruction d'un sourd-muet de naissance (1800).
See DEAF AND DUMB. The Abbe Sicard managed to escape any
serious harm in the political troubles of 1792, and became a
member of the Institute in 1795, but the value of his educational
work was hardly recognized till shortly before his death at Paris
on the loth of May 1822.
SICILY (Ital. Sicilia), an island of the Mediterranean Sea
belonging to the kingdom of Italy, and separated from the
nearest point of the mainland of Italy only by the Straits of
Messina, which at their narrowest part are about 2 m. in width.
It is nearly bisected by the meridian of 14 E., and by far the
greater part lies to the south of 38 N. Its southernmost point,
however, in 36 38' N. is 40' to the north of Point Tarifa, the
southernmost point of Spain and of the continent of Europe.
In shape it is roughly triangular, 1 whence the ancient poetical
name of Trinacria, referring to its three promontories of Pelorum
(now Faro) in the north-east, Pachynum (now Passero) in the
south-east, and Lilybaeum (now Boeo) in the west. Its area,
exclusive of the adjacent small islands belonging to the comparti-
mento, is, according to the calculations of the Military Geographi-
cal Institute of Italy, 9860 sq. m.; while the area of the whole
compartimento is 9936 sq. m.
The island occupies that part of the Mediterranean in which
the shallowing of the waters divides that sea into two basins,
and in which there are numerous indications of frequent changes
in a recent geological period. The channel between Cape Bon
in Tunis and the south-west of Sicily (a distance of 80 m.) is,
on the whole, shallower than the Straits of Messina, being for
the most part under 100 fathoms in depth, and exceeding 200
fathoms only for a very short interval, while the Straits of
Messina, have almost everywhere a depth exceeding 1 50 fathoms.
The geological structure in the neighbourhood of this strait
shows that the island must originally have been formed by a
rupture between it and the mainland, but that this rupture must
have taken place at a period long antecedent to the advent of
man, so that the name Rhegium cannot be based even on the
tradition of any such catastrophe. The mountain range that
runs out towards the north-east of Sicily is composed of crystal-
line rocks precisely similar to those forming the parallel range
of Aspromonte in Calabria, but both of these are girt about by
sedimentary strata belonging in part to an early Tertiary epoch.
That a subsequent knd connexion took place, however, by the
elevation of the sea-bed there is abundant evidence to show;
and the occurrence of the remains of African Quaternary
mammals, such as Elephas meridionalis, E. antiquus, Hippo-
potamus pentlandi, as well as of those of still living African forms,
such as Elephas africanus and Hyaena crocuta, makes it probable
that there was a direct post-Tertiary connexion also with the
African continent.
The north coast is generally steep and cliff-bound, and
abundantly provided with good harbours, of which that of
Palermo is the finest. In the west and south, and in the south
part of the east side, the hills are much lower and recede farther
from the sea. The coast is for the most part flat, more regular
in outline and less favourable to shipping, while in the east,
1 The name Tpivanpla was no doubt suggested by the Qpivaxlii
of Homer (which need not, however, be Sicily), and the geography
was then fitted to the apparent meaning given to the name Dy the
change. But of these three so-called promontories the last is not a
true promontory, and it is more accurate to treat Sicily as having a
fourth side on the west.
SICILY
where the sea-bottom sinks rapidly down towards the eastern
basin of the Mediterranean, steep rocky coasts prevail except
opposite the plain of Catania. In the northern half of this coast
the lava streams of Mount Etna stand out for a distance of about
20 m. in a line of bold cliffs and promontories. At various points
on the east, north and west coasts there are evidences of a rise
of the land having taken place within historical times, at Trapani
on the west coast even within the igth century. As in the rest
of the Mediterranean, tides are scarcely observable; but at
several points on the west and south coasts a curious oscillation
in the level of the waters, known to the natives as the marrobbio
(or marobia), is sometimes noticed, and is said to be always
preceded by certain atmospheric signs. This consists in a sudden
rise of the sea-level, occasionally to the height of 3 ft., sometimes
occurring only once, sometimes repeated at intervals of a minute
for two hours, or even, at Mazzara, where it is most frequently
observed, for twenty-four hours together.
The surface of Sicily lies for the most part more than 500 ft.
above the level of the sea. Caltanissetta, which occupies the
middle point in elevation as well as in respect of geographical
situation, stands 1900 ft. above sea-level. Considerable mount-
ains occur only in the north, where the lower slopes of all the
heights form one continuous series of olive-yards and orangeries.
Of the rest of the island the greater part forms a plateau varying
in elevation and mostly covered with wheat-fields. The only
plain of any great extent is that of Catania, watered by the
Simeto, in the east; to the north of this plain the active volcano
of Etna rises with an exceedingly gentle slope to the height of
10,868 ft. from a base 400 sq. m. in extent. This is the highest
elevation of the island. The steep and narrow crystalline ridge
which trends north-eastwards, and is known to geographers by
the name of the Peloritan Mountains, does not reach 40x30 ft.
The Nebrodian Mountains, a limestone range connected with
the Peloritan range and having an east and west trend, rise to a
somewhat greater height, and farther west, about the middle
of the north coast, the Madonie (the only one of the groups
mentioned which has a native name) culminate at the height
of nearly 6500 ft. From the western end of the Nebrodian
Mountains a lower range (in some places under 1500 'it, in height)
winds on the whole south-eastwards in the direction of Cape
Passaro. With the exception of the Simeto, the principal
perennial streams the Salso, the Platani and the Belice enter
the sea on the south coast.
Geology. 1 In general, the older beds occur along the northern
coast, and progressively newer and newer beds are found towards
the south. Folding, however, has brought some of the older beds
to the surface in the hills which lie to the north and north-east of
Sciacca. The Monti Peloritani at the north-eastern extremity of the
island consists of gneiss and crystalline schists; but with this ex-
ception the whole of Sicily is formed of Mesozoic and later deposits,
the Tertiary beds covering by far the greater part. Triassic rocks
form a discontinuous band along the northern coast, and are especially
well developed in the neighbourhood of Palermo. They rise again
to the surface in the southern part of the island, in the hills which
lie to the north of Sciacca and Bivona. In both areas they are
accompanied by Jurassic, and occasionally by Cretaceous, beds;
but of the latter there are only a few small patches. In the south-
eastern part of the island there are also a few very small outcrops
of Mesozoic beds. The Eocene and Oligocene form a broad belt
along the northern coast, very much more continuous than the
Mesozoic band, and from this belt a branch extends southwards to
Sciacca. Another patch of considerable size lies to the east of
Piazza-Armerina. Miocene and Pliocene deposits cover nearly the
whole of the country south of a line drawn from Etna to Marsala ;
and there is also a considerable Miocene area in the north about
Mistretta. Volcanic lavas and ashes of a recent geological period
form not only the whole of Etna but also a large part of the Monti
Iblei in the south. Small patches occur also at Pachino and in the
hills north of Sciacca.
Climate. The climate of Sicily resembles that of the other lands
in the extreme south of Europe. As regards temperature, it has the
warm and equable character which belongs to most of the Mediter-
ranean region. At Palermo (where continuous observations have
been made since 1791) the range of temperature between the mean of
1 A general account of the geology of the island will be found in
L. Baldacci, Descrizione geologica dell' isola di Sicilia (Rome, 1886),
with map. For fuller and later information reference should be
made to the publications of the Reale Comitato Geologico d'ltalia.
21
the coldest and that of the hottest month is little greater than at
Greenwich. The mean temperature of January (51? F.) is nearly
as high as that of October in the south of England, that of July
(77 F-) about 13 warmer than the corresponding month at Green-
wich. In only seven of the thirty years, 1871-1900, was the ther-
mometer observed to sink below the freezing-point; frost thus
occurs in the island even on the low grounds, though never for more
than a few hours. On the coast snow is seldom seen, but it does fall
occasionally. On the Madonie it lies till June, on Etna till July.
The annual rainfall except on the higher mountains does not reach
30 in., and, as in other parts of the extreme south of Europe, it
occurs chiefly in the winter months, while the three months
(June, July and August) are almost quite dry. During these months
the whole rainfall does not exceed 2 in., except on the slopes of the
mountains in the north-east. Hfence most of the streams dry up in
summer. The chief scourge is the sirocco, which is experienced in its
most characteristic form on the north coast, as an oppressive, parch-
ing, hot, dry wind, blowing strongly and steadily from the south, the
atmosphere remaining through the whole period of its duration
leaden-coloured and hazy in consequence of the presence of immense
quantities of reddish dust. It occurs most frequently in April, and
then in May and September, but no month is entirely free from it.
Three days are the longest period for which it lasts. The same name
is sometimes applied to a moist and not very hot, but yet oppressive,
south-east wind which blows from time to time on the east coast.
Malaria occurs in some parts of the island.
Flora. The flora of Sicily is remarkable for its wealth of species;
but, comparing Sicily with other islands that have been long separ-
ated from the mainland, the number of endemic species is not great.
The orders most abundantly represented are the Compositae, Cruci-
ferae, Labiatae, Caryophyllaceae and Scrophulariaceae. The Rosaceae
are also abundantly represented, and among them are numerous
species of the rose. The general aspect of the vegetation of Sicily,
however, has been greatly affected, as in other parts of the Mediter-
ranean, by the introduction of plants within historical times. Being
more densely populated than any other large Mediterranean island,
and having its population dependent chiefly on the products of the
soil, it is necessarily more extensively cultivated than any other of
the larger islands referred to, and many of the objects of cultivation
are not originally natives of the island. Not to mention the olive,
which must have been introduced at a remote period, all the members
of the orange tribe, the agave and the prickly pear, as well as other
plants highly characteristic of Sicilian scenery, have been introduced
since the beginning of the Christian era. With respect to vegetation
and cultivation three zones may be distinguished. The first reaches
to about 1600 ft. above sea-level, the upper limit of the members
of the orange tribe; the second ascends to about 3300 ft., the limit
of the growth of wheat, the vine and the hardier evergreens; and
the third, that of forests, reaches from about 3300 ft. upwards.
But it is not merely height that determines the general character
of the vegetation. _The cultivated trees of Sicily mostly demand such
an amount of moisture as can be obtained only on the mountain
slopes, and it is worthy of notice that the structure of the mountains
is peculiarly favourable to the supply of this want. The limestones
of which they are mostly composed act like a sponge, absorbing
the rain-water through their innumerable pores and fissures, and thus
storing it up in the interior, afterwards to allow it to well forth in
springs at various elevations lower down. In this way the irrigation
which is absolutely indispensable for the members of the orange tribe
during the dry season is greatly facilitated, and even those trees
for which irrigation is not so indispensable receive a more ample
supply of moisture during_ the rainy season. Hence it is that,
while the plain of Catania is almost treeless and tree-cultivation is
comparatively limited in the west and south, where the extent of land
under 1600 ft. is considerable, the whole of the north and north-east
coast from the Bay of Castellammare round to Catania is an endless
succession of orchards, in which oranges, citrons and lemons alternate
with olives, almonds, pomegranates, figs, carob trees, pistachios,
mulberries and vines. The limit in height of the olive is about
2700 ft., and that of the vine about 3500 ft. The lemon is really grown
upon a bitter orange tree, grafted to bear the lemon. A consider-
able silk production depends on the cultivation of the mulberry in
the neighbourhood of Messina and Catania. Among other trees and
shrubs may be mentioned the sumach, the date-palm, the plantain,
various bamboos, cycads and the dwarf-palm, the last of which
grows in some parts of Sicily more profusely than anywhere else,
and in the desolate region in the south-west yields almost the only
vegetable product of importance. The Arundo Donax, the tallest of
European grasses, is largely grown for vine-stakes.
Population. The area and population of the several provinces
are shown in the table on the next page. Thus between 1881 and
1901 the population increased at the rate of 20-5%. The
average density is extremely high for a country which lives
almost exclusively by agriculture, and is much higher than the
average for Italy in general, 293 per sq. m. In 1905 the popula-
tion was 3,368,124, the rate of increase being only 4-4% per
annum; the low rate is due to emigration.
22
SICILY
Province.
Area in
sq. m.
Population
1881.
Population
1901.
No. of
Communes.
Density
per sq. m.
1901.
Caltanissetta .
Catania .
Girgenti .
Messina .
Palermo .
Syracuse .
Trapani .
1263
1917
1172
1246
1948
1442
948
266,379
563-457
312,487
460,924
699,151
341,526
283,977
329,449
703,598
380,666
550,895
796,151
433,796
373,569*
28
63
4 1
97
76
32
20
262
371
317
440
43
296
373
9936
'2,927,901
3,568,124
357
Av. 352
* In 1861, 2,392,414; in 1871, 2,584,099.
The chief towns in each of these provinces, with their communal
populations in 1901, are as follow: Callanissetta (43,023), Castro-
giovanni (26,081), Piazza Armerina (24,119), Terranova (22,019),
San Cataldo (18,090); Catania (146,504), Caltagirone (44,527),
Acireale (35,203), Giarre (26,194), Paterno (22,857), Leonforte
(21,236), Bronte (20,166), Vizzini (18,013), Agira (17,634), Nicosia
(15,811), Grammichele (15,017); Girgenti (24,872), Canicatti
(24,687), Sciacca (24,64^5), Licata (22,993), Favara (20,403) ; Messina
(147,106), Racalmuto (16,028), Palma (14,384), Barceltona (24,133),
Milazzo (16,214), Mistretta (14,041); Palermo (305,716), Partinico
(23,668), Monreale (23,556), Termini Imerese (20,633), Bagheria
(18,329), Corleone (16,350), Cefalu (14,518); Syracuse (31,807)
Modica (49,951), Ragusa (32,453), Vittoria (32,219), Comiso (25,837)
Noto (22,284), Lentini (17,100), Avola (16,301), Scicli (16,220)
Palazzolo Acreide (15,106); Trapani (61,448), Marsala (57,824)
Alcamo (51,798), Monte S. Giuliano (29,824), Castelvetrano (24,510)
Castellammare del Golfo (20,665), Mazzara del Vallo (20,044) , Salemi
(17,159).
The archiepiscopal sees (the suffragan sees, if any, being placed
after each in brackets) are Catania (Acireale), Messina (Lipari,
Nicosia, Patti), Monreale (Caltanissetta, Girgenti), Palermo (Cefalu,
Mazara, Trapani), Syracuse (Caltagirone, Noto, Piazza Armerina).
Agriculture. Sicily, formerly called the granary of Italy, ex-
ported grain until the end of the 1 8th century. Now, although the
island still produces every year some 15 million bushels, the supply
barely suffices for the consumption of a population of which bread
is almost the exclusive diet. The falling-off in the exportation of
cereals is not a consequence of any decadence in Sicilian agriculture,
but rather of the increase of population, which nearly doubled
within the igth century. Two types of agriculture prevail in
Sicily the extensive and the intensive. The former covers mainly
the interior of the island and half the southern coast, while the
latter is generally adopted on the eastern and northern coasts.
Large holdings of at least 500 hectares *(a hectare equals about
2j acres) are indispensable to the profitable pursuit of extensive
agriculture. These holdings are usually called feudi or latifondi.
Their proprietors alternate the cultivation of wheat with that of
barley and beans. During the years in which the soil is allowed to
lie fallow, the grass and weeds which spring up serve as pasture for
cattle, but the poverty of the pasture is such that at least two
hectares are required for the maintenance of every animal. This
poverty is due to the lack of rain, which, though attaining an annual
average of 29 in. at Palermo, reaches only 21 in. at Syracuse on the
east coast, and about igi in. at Caltanissetta, on the central high
plateau. The system of extensive cultivation proper to the latifondi
gives an annual average gross return of about 200 lire per hectare
(3, 4s- 5.d. per acre).
Intensive agriculture in Sicily is limited to fruit trees and fruit-
bearing plants, and is not combined with the culture of cereals and
vegetables, as in central and parts of northern Italy. Originally
the Sicilian system was perhaps due to climatic difficulties, but
now it is recognized in most cases to be more rational than com-
bined culture. Large extents of land along the coasts are therefore
exclusively cultivated as vineyards, or as olive, orange, and lemon
groves. Vineyards give an annual gross return of between 11
and 13 per acre, and orange and lemon groves between 32 and
48 per acre. The by-products of the citrus-essences, citrate of
lime, &c. are also of some importance. Much damage is done by
the olive fly. Vegetables are grown chiefly in the neighbourhood
of large cities. Almonds are freely cultivated, and they seem to be
the only trees susceptible also of cultivation upon the latifondi
together with grain. A large export trade in almonds is carried on
with north and central Europe. Hazel nuts are grown in woods
at a level of more than 1200 ft. above the sea. These also are largely
exported to central Europe for use in the manufacture of chocolate.
The locust bean (used for forage), figs, and peaches are widely grown,
while in certain special zones the pistachio and the manna-ash yield
rich returns. On the more barren soil the sumach shrub, the leaves
of which are used for tanning, and the prickly pear grow freely. The
latter fruit constitutes, with bread, the staple food of the poorest
part of the rural population for several months in the year. The
cultivation of cotton, which spread during the American War of
Secession, is now rare, since it has not been able to withstand the
competition of more favoured countries. All these branches of
intensive cultivation yield a higher gross return than
that of the extensive system. Along the coast landed
property is as a rule broken up into small holdings,
usually cultivated by their owners. There is possibility
of great development of market-gardening.
Climatic conditions prevent cattle-raising in Sicily
from being as prosperous an undertaking as in central
Italy. The total number of bullocks in the island is
calculated to be less than 200,000; and although the
ratio of consumption of meat is low in proportion to
the population, some of the cattle for slaughter have
to be imported. Sheep and goats, which subsist more
easily on scanty pasturage, are relatively more
numerous, the total number being calculated at
700,000. Yet the wool harvest is scarce, and the pro-
duction of butter a negligible quantity, though there
is abundance of the principal product of Sicilian pasture lands,
cheese of various kinds, for which there is a lively local demand.
The Sicilian race of horses would be good but that it is not prolific,
and has degenerated in consequence of insufficient nourishment and
overwork. A better breed of horses is being obtained by more care-
ful selection, and by crossing with Arab and English stallions imported
by the government. Donkeys and mules of various breeds are good,
and would be better were they not so often weakened by heavy work
before attaining full maturity.
Forests. The absence of forests, which cover hardly 3% of the
total area of the island, constitutes a serious obstacle to the pros-
perity of Sicilian pastoral and agrarian undertakings. The few
remaining forests are almost all grouped around Etna and upon the
high zone of the Madonian Mountains, a range which rises 40 m.
west of Palermo, running parallel to the northern coast almost as
far as Messina, and of which many peaks reach nearly 6000 ft. above
the sea. Here they are chiefly composed of oaks and chestnuts.
In that part of the island which is cultivated intensively some
100 million gallons of wine are annually produced. Had not the
phylloxera devastated the vineyards during the last decade of the
igth century, the production would be considerably higher; 7,700,000
gallons of olive oil and 2500 million oranges and lemons are also
produced, besides the other minor products above referred to. The
zone of the latifondi, or extensive culture, yields, besides wheat,
nearly 8,000,000 bushels of barley and beans every year.
Mining. The most important Sicilian mineral is undoubtedly
sulphur, which is mined principally in the provinces of Caltanissetta
and Girgenti, and in minor quantities in those of Palermo and
Catania. Up to 1896 the sulphur industry was in a state of crisis
due to the competition of pyrites, to the subdivision of the mines,
to antiquated methods, and to a series of other causes which oc-
casioned violent oscillations in and a continual reduction of prices.
The formation of the Anglo-Italian sulphur syndicate arrested the
downward tendency of prices and increased the output of sulphur,
so that the amount exported in 1899 was 424,018 tons, worth
1,738,475, whereas some years previously the value of sulphur
exported had hardly been 800,000. Nineteen-twentieths of the
sulphur consumed in the world was formerly drawn from Sicilian
mines, while some 50,000 persons were employed in the extrac-
tion, manufacture, transport and trade in the mineral. But the
development of the United States sulphur industry at the beginning
of the 2Oth century created considerable difficulties, including the
practical loss of the United States market. In 1906, when the con-
cession to the Anglo-Sicilian Sulphur Company was about to expire,
the government decreed that it should be formed into an obligatory
syndicate for a term of twelve years for the control of all sulphur
produced in Sicily, and exempted from taxation and_ legal dues,
foreign companies established in Italy to exploit industries in which
sulphur is a principal element. The Bank, of Sicily was further
obliged to make advances to the sulphur industry up to four-fifths
of the value of the sulphur deposited in the warehouses. The ex-
ports of sulphur in December 1906 were 17,534 tons, as compared
with 40,713 tons in 1905; in the year 1904 the total production was
3,291,710 tons (value about 1,522,229) and the total exports
508,980 tons, as compared with 470,341 tons in 1905.
Another Sicilian mineral industry is that of common salt and rock-
salt. The former is distilled from sea-water near Trapani, and the
latter obtained in smaller quantities from mines. The two branches
of the industry yielded in 1899 about 180,000 tons per annum, worth
80,000, while in 1906 about 200,000 tons were made at Trapani
alone. About half this quantity is exported, principally to Norway.
Besides salt, the asphalt mining industry may be mentioned. Its
centre is the province of Syracuse. The value of the annual output
is about 40,000, and the exports in 1906 amounted to nearly 103,000
tons. Pumice stone is also exported from Lipari (11,010 tons in
1904).
Other Industries. Deep-sea fisheries give employment to some
twenty thousand Sicilians, who exercise their calling not only off the
coasts of their island, but a)ong the north African shore, from
Morocco to Tripoli. In 1894 (the last year for which accurate
statistics have been issued) 350 fishing smacks were.in active service,
giving a catch of 2480 tons of fish. Approximately, the value of the
annual catch may be reckoned at from 600,000 to 800,000. During
1904 the coral fisheries employed 98 vessels with 1138 men: the
SICILY
profits were about 75,264, the expenses being 64,664. The sponge
divers brought up sponges valued at 24,630. The estimated hauls
of tunny fish were 5534 tons, valued at 110,324.
The majority of the scanty Sicilian industries are directly con-
nected with various branches of agriculture. Such, for instance,
is the preparation of the elements of citric acid, which is manu-
factured at an establishment at Messina. Older and more flourishing
is the Marsala industry. Marsala wine is a product of the western
vineyards situated slightly above sea-level. In 1899, wine was
exported to the value of more than 120,000, while in 1906, 24,080
pipes of the value of 361 ,200 were shipped. The quantity consumed
in Italy is far greater than that exported abroad.
Another flourishing Sicilian industry carried on by_ a large number
of small houses is that of preserving vegetables in tins. Artichokes
and tomato sauce are the principal of these products, of which
several dozen million tins are annually exported from Sicily to the
Italian mainland, to Germany and to South America. Manu-
factories of furniture, carriages, gloves, matches and leather exist
in large number in the island. They are, as a rule, small in extent,
and are managed by the owners with the help of five, ten or at most
twenty workmen. There are several glass works at Palermo, a
cotton dyeing works at Messina, and a large metal foundry at
Palermo. Large shipbuilding yards and a yard for the construction
of trams and railway carriages have been constructed in the latter
city. There are dry docks both at Palermo and Messina.
Communications. Before 1860 there was no railway in Sicily.
The total length of Sicilian railways is now 890 m., all single lines.
Their construction was rendered very costly by the mountainous
character of the island. They formed a separate system (the Rete
Sicula) until in 1906, like the rest of the railways of Italy, they passed
into the hands of the state, with the exception of the line round
Mount Etna and the line from Palermo to Corleone. Messina is
connected with the railway system of the mainland by ferry-boats
from Villa S. Giovanni and Reggio, on which the through carriages
are conveyed across the straits. From Messina lines run along the
northern coast to Palermo, and along the east coast via Catania to
Syracuse: the latter line is prolonged along the south of the island
(sometimes approaching, sometimes leaving the coast) via Canicatti
as far as Aragona Caldare, Girgenti and Porto Empedocle. From
Catania another line runs westward through the centre of the island
via S. Caterina Xirbi (with a branch to Canicatti) to Roccapalumba
(with a branch to Aragona Caldare) and thence northwards to
Termini, on the line between Messina and Palermo. This is the
direct route from Catania to Palermo. From Catania begins the
line round Etna following its south, west and northern slopes, and
ending at Giarre Riposto on the east coast railway. From Valsavoia
(14 m. S. of Catania on the line to Syracuse) a branch line runs to
Caltagirone. From Palermo a line runs southwards to Corleone and
S. Carlo (whence there are diligences to Sciacca on the south coast)
and another to Castelvetrano, Marsala and Trapani, going first
almost as far as the south coast and then running first west and then
north along the west coast. The only part of the coast of the island
which has no railways is that portion of the south coast between
Porto Empedocle and Castelvetrano (Sciacca lies about midway
between these two points), where a road already exists, and a railway
is projected, and the precipitous north coast between Palermo and
Trapani. A steam tramway runs from Messina to the Faro at the
north-east extremity of the island, and thence along the north coast
to Barcelona, and another along the east coast from Messina to
Giampilieri : while the island is fairly well provided with high roads,
but is very backward in rural communications, there being only
244 yds. of road per sq. m., as compared with 1480 yds. in north
Italy. The communications by sea, however, are at least as important
as those by land, even for passengers. A steamer leaves Naples
every night for Palermo, and vice versa, the journey (208 m.)
being done in II hours, while the journey by rail (438 m.), including
the crossing of the Straits of Messina takes 19 J hours; and the
weekly steamer from Naples to Messina (216 m.) takes 12 hours,
while the journey by rail and ferry boat (292 m.) takes 14 hours.
Palermo, Messina and Catania are the most important harbours,
the former being one of the two headquarters (the other, and the
main one, is Genoa) of the Navigazione Generate Italiana, and a port
of call for the steamers from Italy to New York. Emigrants to the
number of 37,638 left Palermo direct for New York in 1906, and
no less than 46,770 in 1905, while others embarked at Messina and
Naples.
The movement of trade in these three ports may be shown by the
following table:
Palermo.
Messina. 1
Catania.
1900
1904
1906
Tonnage of shipping
,, goods landed
shipping
,, goods landed
,, shipping
1,658,848
398,718
2,298,054
445.036
2, 403 ,85 1 2
1,683,244
213,624
2,265,381
315,414
2,574,872
1,245,954
235,575
i,5 Q 3,678
309,514
1,542,520
1 The high proportion of shipping entering Messina is due to its
position in the Straits. * Steamships only.
Of the other harbours, Porto Empedocle and Licata share with
Catania most of the sulphur export trade, and the other ports of
note are Marsala, Trapani, Syracuse (which shares with the road-
stead of Mazzarelli the asphalt export trade). The total importation
of coal in 1906 amounted to 519,478 tons, practically all British.
In 1904, 75,779 Sicilians were registered as seamen, and no
steamships with a gross tonnage of 145,702 were registered in Sicily.
Economic, Intellectual, and Moral Conditions. As a general rule,
trade and the increase of production have not kept pace with the
development of the ways of communication. The poverty of the
Sicilian population is accentuated by the unequal distribution
of wealth among the different classes of society. A small but
comparatively wealthy class composed principally of the owners
of latifondi resides habitually in the large cities of the island,
or even at Naples, Rome or Paris. Yet even if all the wealthy
landowners resided on their estates, their number would not be
sufficient to enable them to play in local public life a part corre-
sponding to that of the English gentry. On the other hand, the class
which would elsewhere be called the middle class is in Sicily ex-
tremely poor. The origin of most of the abuses which vitiate Sicilian
political life, and of the frequent scandals in the representative local
administrations, is to be found in the straitened condition of the
Sicilian middle classes.
Emigration only attained serious proportions within the last
decade of the igth century. In 1897 the permanent emigration
from the island was 15,994, in J 898, 21,320, and in 1899, 24,604.
Since then it has much increased: in 1905 the emigrants numbered
106,000, and in 1906, 127,000 (3-5% of the population). Of these
about three-fourths would be adults; but the population has in-
creased so fast as more than to cover the deficiency with the dis-
advantage, however, that in three years 220,000 workers were replaced
by 320,000 infants.
The moral and intellectual defects of Sicilian society are in
part results of -the economic difficulties, and in part the effect
of bad customs introduced or maintained during the long period
of Sicilian isolation from the rest of Europe. When, in 1860,
Sicily was incorporated in the Italian kingdom, hardly a tenth of
the population could read and write. Upon the completion of unity,
elementary schools were founded everywhere; but, though education
was free, the indigence of the peasants in some regions prevented
them from taking full advantage of the opportunities offered.
Thus, even now, 60% of the Sicilian conscripts come up for military
service unable either to read or to write. Secondary and superior
education is more diffused. The pupils of the secondary schools in
Sicily number 3-94 per 1000, the maximum being 6-60 in Liguria
and the minimum 1-65 in Basilicata.
Brigandage of the classical type has almost disappeared from
Italy. The true brigands haunt only the most remote and most
inaccessible mountains. Public security is better in the east than
in the west portion of the island. Criminal statistics, though slowly
diminishing, are still high murders, which are the most frequent
crimes, having been 27 per 100,000 inhabitants in 1897-1898 and
25-23 per 100,000 in 1903, as against 2-57 in Lombardy, 2-00 in the
district of Venetia, 4^50 in Tuscany and 5-24 in Piedmont. Violent
assaults with infliction of serious wounds are also frequent. This
readiness to commit bloodshed is largely attributable to the senti-
ment of the Mafia (q.v.). (G. G. C.; G. Mo.; T. As.)
HISTORY
The geographical position of Sicily led almost as a matter of
necessity to its historical position, as the meeting-place of the
nations, the battle-field of contending races and creeds. For
this reason, too, Sicily was never in historic times (nor, it seems,
in prehistoric times either) the land of a single nation: her
history exists mainly in its relation to the history of other lands.
Lying nearer to the mainland of Europe and nearer to Africa
than any other of the great Mediterranean islands, Sicily is,
next to Spain, the connecting-link between those two quarters
of the world. It stands also as a breakwater between the eastern
and western divisions of the Mediterranean Sea. In prehistoric
times those two divisions were two vast lakes, and Sicily is a
surviving fragment of the land which once united the two
continents. That Sicily and Africa were once joined we know
only from modern scientific research; that Sicily and Italy were
once joined is handed down in legend. Sicily then, compara-
tively near to Africa, but much nearer to Europe, has been a
European land, but one specially open to invasion and settlement
from Africa. It has been a part of western Europe, but a part
which has had specially close relations with eastern Europe.
It has stood at various times in close connexion with Greece,
Africa and Spain; but its closest connexion has been with
Italy. Still the history of Sicily should never be looked on as
simply part of the history of Italy. Lying thus between Europe
SICILY
and Africa, Sicily has been the battle-field of Europe and Africa.
That is to say, it has been at two separate periods the battle-field
of Aryan and Semitic man. In the later stage of the strife it
has been the battle-field of Christendom and Islam. This history
Sicily shares with Spain to the west of it and with Cyprus to the
east. And with Spain the island has had several direct points
of connexion. There was in all likelihood a near kindred between
the earliest inhabitants of the two lands. In later times Sicily
was ruled by Spanish kings, both alone and in union with other
kingdoms. The connexion with Africa has consisted simply
in the settlement of conquerors from Africa at two periods,
first Phoenician, then Saracen. On the other hand, Sicily has
been more than once made the road to African conquest and
settlement, both by Sicilian princes and by the Roman masters
of Sicily. The connexion with Greece, the most memorable of
all, has consisted in the settlement of many colonies from old
Greece, which gave the island the most brilliant part of its
history, and which made the greater part practically Greek.
This Greek element was strengthened at a later time by the long
connexion of Sicily with the Eastern, the Greek-speaking, division
of the Roman empire. And the influence of Greece on Sicily
has been repaid in more than one shape by Sicilian rulers who
have at various times held influence and dominion in Greece
and elsewhere beyond the Adriatic. The connexion between
Sicily and Italy begins with the primitive kindred between some
of the oldest elements in each. Then came the contemporary
Greek colonization in both lands. Then came the tendency
in the dominant powers in southern Italy to make their way
into Sicily also. Thus the Roman occupation of Sicily ended
the struggle between Greek and Phoenician. Thus the Norman
occupation ended the struggle between Greek and Saracen.
Of this last came the long connexion between Sicily and southern
Italy under several dynasties. Lastly comes the late absorption
of Sicily in the modern kingdom of Italy. The result of these
various forms of Italian influence has been that all the other
tongues of the island have died out before the advance of a
peculiar dialect of Italian. In religion again both Islam and the
Eastern form of Christianity have given way to its Italian form.
Like the British Isles, Sicily came under a Norman dynasty;
under Norman rule the intercourse between the two countries
was extremely close, and the last time that Sicily was the seat
of a separate power it was under British protection.
The Phoenician, whether from old Phoenicia or from Carthage,
came from lands which were mere strips of sea-coast with a
boundless continent behind them. The Greek of old Hellas
came from a land of islands, peninsulas and inland seas. So
did the Greek of Asia, though he had, like the Phoenician, a
vast continent behind him. In Sicily they all found a strip
of sea-coast with an inland region behind; but the strip of sea-
coast was not like the broken coast of Greece and Greek Asia,
and the inland region was not a boundless continent like Africa
or Asia. In Sicily therefore the Greek became more continental,
and the Phoenician became more insular. Neither people
ever occupied the whole island, nor was either people ever
able to spread its dominion over the earlier inhabitants very
far inland. Sicily thus remained a world of its own, with
interests and disputes of its own, and divided among inhabitants
of various nations. The history of the Greeks of Sicily is con-
stantly connected with the history of old Hellas, but it runs
a separate course of its own. The Phoenician element ran an
opposite course, as the independent Phoenician settlements
in Sicily sank into dependencies of Carthage. The entrance
of the Romans put an end to all practical independence on the
part of either nation. But Roman ascendancy did not affect
Greeks and Phoenicians in the same way. Phoenician life
gradually died out. But Roman ascendancy nowhere crushed
out Greek life where it already existed, and in some ways it
strengthened it. Though the Greeks never spread their dominion
over the island, they made a peaceful conquest of it. This
process was in no way hindered by the Roman dominion.
The question now comes, Who were the original inhabitants
of Sicily? The island itself, SueXta, Sicilia, plainly takes
its name from the Sicels (SuceXot, Siculi), a people whom we
find occupying a great part of the island, chiefly east of the
river Gela. They appear also in Italy (see SICULI),
in the toe of the boot, and older history or tradition Original
spoke of them as having in earlier days held a large g n ^
place in Latium and elsewhere in central Italy. They
were believed to have crossed the strait into the island about
300 years before the beginning of the Greek settlements, that is
to say in the nth century B.C. They found in the island a
people called Sicans (cf. Odyssey, xxiv. 306), who claimed to be
avroxOovts (i.e. to have originated in the island itself) , but whose
name, we are told, might pass for a dialectic form of their own,
did not the ancient writers expressly affirm them to be a wholly
distinct people, akin to the Iberians. Sicans also appear with
the Ligurians among the early inhabitants of Italy (Virg. Aen.
vii. 795, viii. 328, xi. 317, and Servius's note). That the Sicels
spoke a tongue closely akin to Latin is plain from several Sicel
words which crept into Sicilian Greek, and from the Siceliot
system of weights and measures utterly unlike anything in
old Greece. When the Greek settlements began, the Sicans,
we are told, had hardly got beyond the life of villages on hill-tops
(Dion. Hal. v. 6). Hyccara, on the north coast, is the one
exception; it was probably a fishing settlement. The more
advanced Sicels had their hill-forts also, but they had learned
the advantages of the sea, and they already had settlements
on the coast when the Greeks came. As we go on, we hear of
both Sicel and Sican towns; 1 but we may suspect that any
approach to true city life was owing to Greek influences. Neither
people grew into any form of national unity. They were there-
fore partly subdued, partly assimilated, without much effort.
The investigations of Professor Orsi, director of the museum
at Syracuse, have thrown much light on the primitive peoples
of south-eastern Sicily. Of palaeolithic man hardly any traces
are to be found; but, though western Sicily has been com-
paratively little explored, and the results hardly published at
all, in several localities neolithic remains, attributable to the
Sicani, have been discovered. The later Siculi do not appear
to be a distinct race (cf. P. Orsi in Notizie degli scavi, 1898, 223),
and probably both are branches of the Libyco-Iberian stock.
Whereas other remains attributable to their villages or settle-
ments are rare, their rock-hewn tombs are found by the thousand
in the limestone cliffs of south-eastern Sicily. Those of the
earliest period, the lower limit of which is put about 1500 B.C.,
are aeneolithic, metal being, however, rare and only found in the
form of small ornaments; pottery with linear decoration is
abundant. The second period (1500-1000 B.C.) shows a great
increase in the use of bronze, and the introduction of gold and
silver, and of imported Mycenaean vases. The chief cemeteries
of this period have been found on Plemmyrium, the promontory
south of Syracuse, at Cozzo Pantano, at Thapsus, at Pantalica
near Palazzolo, at Cassibile, south of Syracuse, and at Molinello
near Augusta. The third period (1000-500 B.C.) in its first
phase (1000-700) shows a continual increase of the introduction
of objects of Greek origin; the pottery is at first imported
geometric, and then vases of local imitation appear. Typical
cemeteries are those of Monte Finocchito near Noto, of Noto
itself, of Pantalica and of Leontini. In the second phase (700-
500 B.C.), sometimes called the fourth period, proto-Corinthian
and Attic black figured vases are sometimes, though rarely,
found, while local geometric pottery develops considerably. But
the form of the tombs always remains the same, a small low
chamber hewn in the rock, with a rectangular opening about
2 by 2j ft., out of which open other chambers, each with its
separate doorway; and inhumation is adopted without excep-
tion, whereas in a Greek necropolis a low percentage of cases of
1 Leontini, Megara, Naxos, Syracuse, Zancle are all recorded as
sites where the Sicel gave way to the Greek (in regard to Syracuse
[q.v.] this has recently been proved to be true), while many other
towns remained Sicel longer, among them Abacaenum, Agyrium,
Assorus, Centuripae, Cephaloedium, Engyum, Hadranum, Halaesa,
Henna, Herbessus, Herbita, Hybla Galeatis, Inessa, Kale Akte,
Menaenum, Morgantina. The sites of several of these towns are
doubtful.
SICILY
cremation is always present. Typical cemeteries of this period
have been found at Licodia Eubea, Ragusa and Grammichele.
After the failure of Ducetius to re-establish the Sicel nation-
ality, Greek civilization triumphed over that of the Sicels
entirely, and it has not yet been possible to trace the survivals
of the latter. See Orsi in Romische Mitteilungen, 1898, 305
sqq., and Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche
(Rome, April 1903); also Archeologia (Rome, 1904, 167-191).
In the north-west corner of the island we find a small territory
occupied by a people who seem to have made much greater
advances towards civilized life. The Elymi were a people of
uncertain origin, but they claimed a mixed descent, partly
Trojan, partly Greek. Thucydides, however, unhesitatingly
reckons them among barbarians. They had considerable towns,
as Segesta and Eryx, and the history, as well as the remains, of
Segesta, shows that Greek influences prevailed among them
very early, while at Eryx Phoenician influence was stronger.
But, as we have already seen, the Greeks were not the first
colonizing people who were drawn to the great island. As in
Cyprus and in the islands of the Aegean, the Phoenicians
were before them. And it is from this presence of the highest
forms of Aryan and of Semitic man that the history of Sicily
draws its highest interest. Of Phoenician occupation there are
Early two > or ratner three, marked periods. We must always
Phoenician remember that Carthage the new city was one of
settle- the latest of Phoenician foundations, and that the days
meats. Q f ^ e Carthaginian dominion show us only the latest
form of Phoenician life. Phoenician settlement in Sicily began
before Carthage became great, perhaps before Carthage came
into being. A crowd of small settlements from the old Phoenicia,
settlements for trade rather than for dominion, factories rather
than colonies, grew up on promontories and small islands all
round the coast (Thuc. vi. 2). These were unable to withstand
the Greek settlers, and the Phoenicians of Sicily withdrew step
by step to form three considerable towns in the north-west corner
of the island near to the Elymi, on whose alliance they relied,
and at the shortest distance by sea from Carthage Motya,
Solous or Soluntum, and Panormus (see PALERMO).
Our earlier notices of Sicily, of Sicels and Sicans, in the Homeric
poems and elsewhere, are vague and legendary. Both races
appear as given to the buying and selling of slaves
nreek (QJ xx _ ^83, xxiv. 21). The intimate connexion be-
tween old Hellas and Sicily begins with the foundation
of the Sicilian Naxos by Chalcidians of Euboea under
Theocles, which is assigned to 735 B.C. (Thuc. v. 3-5). The site, a
low promontory on the east coast, immediately below the height
of Tauromenium, marks an age which had advanced beyond
the hill-fortress and which thoroughly valued the sea. The next
year Corinth began her system of settlement in the west: Corcyra,
the path to Sicily, and Syracuse on the Sicilian coast were
planted as parts of one enterprise. From this time, for about
150 years, Greek settlement in the island, with some intervals,
goes steadily on. Both Ionian and Dorian colonies were planted,
both from the older Greek lands and from the older Sicilian
settlements. The east coast, nearest to Greece and richest in
good harbours, was occupied first. Here, between Naxos and
Syracuse, arose the Ionian cities of Leontini and Catana (728
B.C.), and the Dorian Megara Hyblaea (726 B.C.). Settlement on
the south-western coast began about 688 B.C. with the joint
Cretan and Rhodian settlement of Gela, and went on in the
foundation of Selinus (the most distant Greek city on this side),
of Camarina, and in 582 B.C. of the Geloan settlement of Acragas
(Agrigentum, Girgenti), planted on a high hill, a little way from
the sea, which became the second city of Hellenic Sicily. On
the north coast the Ionian Himera (founded in 648 B.C.) was
the only Greek city in Sicily itself, but the Cnidians founded
Lipara in the Aeolian Islands. At the north-east corner,
opposite to Italy, and commanding the strait, arose Zancle, a
city of uncertain date (first quarter of the 7th century B.C.) and
mixed origin, better known as Messana (Messene, Messina).
Thus nearly all the east coast of Sicily, a great part of the
south coast, and a much smaller part of the north, passed into
the hands of Greek settlers Siceliots (SiwXuorat), as dis-
tinguished from the native Sicels. This was one of the greatest
advances ever made by the Greek people. The Greek element
began to be predominant in the island. Among the earlier
inhabitants the Sicels were already becoming adopted Greeks.
Many of them gradually sank into a not wholly unwilling subjec-
tion as cultivators of the soil under Greek masters. But there
were also independent Sicel towns in the interior, and there was
a strong religious intercommunion between the two races. Sicel
Henna (Enna, Castrogiovanni) is the special seat of the worship
of Demeter and her daughter.
The Phoenicians, now shut up in one corner of the island,
with Selinus on one side and Himera on the other founded right
in their teeth, are bitter enemies; but the time of
their renewed greatness under the headship of Carthage Prosperous
has not yet come. The 7th century B.C. and the p ; o A
early part of the 6th were a time in which the Greek
cities of Sicily had their full share in the general prosperity
of the Greek colonies everywhere. For a while they outstripped
the cities of old Greece. Their political constitutions were
aristocratic; that is, the franchise was confined to the descend-
ants of the original settlers, round whom an excluded body
(ftjjuos or plebs) was often growing .up. The ancient kingship
was perhaps kept on or renewed in some of the Siceliot and
Italiot towns; but it is more certain that civil dissensions led
very early to the rise of tyrants. The most famous if not the
first * is Phalaris (q.v.) of Acragas (Agrigentum), whose exact
date is uncertain, whose letters are now cast aside, and whose
brazen bull has been called in question, but who clearly rose to
power very soon after the foundation of Acragas. Under his
rule the city at once sprang to the first place in Sicily, and he
was the first Siceliot ruler who held dominion over two Greek
cities, Acragas and Himera. This time of prosperity was also
a time of intellectual progress. To say nothing of lawgivers
like Charondas, the line of Siceliot poets began early, and the
circumstances of the island, the adoption of many of its local
traditions and beliefs perhaps a certain intermingling of
native blood gave the intellectual life of Sicily a character in
some things distinct from that of old Hellas. Stesichorus of
Himera (c. 632-556 B.C.) holds a great place among the lyric
poets of Greece, and some place in the political history of Sicily
as the opponent of Phalaris. The architecture and sculpture
of this age have also left some of their most remarkable monu-
ments among the Greek cities of Sicily. The remains of the old
temples of Selinus, with- their archaic metopes, attributed to the
6th century B.C., show us the Doric style in its earlier state. In
this period, too, begins the fine series of Sicilian coins (see
NUMISMATICS: Sicily).
This first period of Sicilian history lasts as long as Sicily remains
untouched from any non-Hellenic quarter outside, and as long
as the Greek cities in Sicily remain as a rule independent
of one another. A change begins in the 6th century
and is accomplished early in the sth. The Phoe-
nician settlements in Sicily become dependent on Carthage,
whose growing power begins to be dangerous to the Greeks
of Sicily. Meanwhile the growth of tyrannies in the Greek
cities was beginning to group several towns together under a
single master, and thus to increase the greatness of particular
cities at the expense of their freedom. Thus Thero of Acragas
(488-472), who bears a good character there, acquired also,
like Phalaris, the rule of Himera. One such power held dominion
both in Italy and Sicily. Anaxilaus of Rhegium, by a long and
strange tale of treachery, occupied Zancle and changed its name
to Messana. But the greatest of the Siceliot powers, that of
the Deinomenid dynasty, began at Gela in 505, and was in 485
translated by Gelo (q.v.) to Syracuse. That city now Og]o
became the centre of a greater dominion over both
Greeks and Sicels than the island had ever before seen. But
Gelo, like several later tyrants of Syracuse, takes his place
and it is the redeeming point in the position of all of them as
' ' Panaetius of Leontini (608 B.C.) is said to have been the earliest
tyrant in Sicily.
SICILY
the champion of Hellas against the barbarian. The great double
invasion of 480 B.C. was planned in concert by the barbarians
of the East and the West (Diod. xi. i; schol. on Find., Pyth. i.
146; Grote v. 294). While the Persians threatened old Greece,
Carthage threatened the Greeks of Sicily. There were Siceliots
who played the part of the Medizers in Greece : Selinus was on
the side of Carthage, and the coming of Hamilcar was immediately
brought about by a tyrant of Himera driven out by Thero. But
the united power of Gelo and Thero, whose daughter Damarete
Gelo had married, crushed the invaders in the great battle of
Himera, won, men said, on the same day as Salamis, and the
victors of both were coupled as the joint deliverers of Hellas
(Herod, vii. 165-167; Diod. xx. 20-25; Find. Pyth. i. 147-156;
Simonides, fr. 42; Polyaenus i. 27). But, while the victory
of Salamis was followed by a long war with Persia, the peace
which was now granted to Carthage stayed in force for seventy
years. Gelo was followed by his brother Hiero (478-467), the
special subject of the songs of Pindar. Acragas
meanwhile flourished under Thero; but a war between
him and Hiero led to slaughter and new settlement at Himera.
These transplantings from city to city began under Gelo and
went on under Hiero (q.v.). They made speakers in old Greece
(Thuc. vi. 17) contrast the permanence of habitation there with
the constant changes in Sicily.
None of these tyrannies was long-lived. The power of Thero
fell to pieces under his son Thrasydaeus. When the power of
Hiero passed in 467 B.C. to his brother Thrasybulus the freedom
of Syracuse was won by a combined movement of Greeks and
Sicels, and the Greek cities gradually settled down as they had
been before the tyrannies, only with a change to democracy
in their constitutions. The mercenaries who had received
citizenship from the tyrants were settled at Messana. About
fifty years of great prosperity followed. Art, science, poetry had
all been encouraged by the tyrants. To these was added the
special growth of freedom the art of public speaking, in which
the Sicilian Greeks became especially proficient, Corax being
the founder of the rhetorical school of Sicily. Epicharmus
(540-450), carried as a babe to Sicily, is a link between native
Siceliots and the stranger's invited by Hiero; as the founder of
the local Sicilian comedy, he ranks among Siceliots. After
him Sophron of Syracuse gave the Sicilian mimes a place among
the forms of Greek poetry. But the intellect of free Sicily
struck out higher paths. Empedocles of Acragas is best known
from the legends of his miracles and of his death in the fires
of Aetna; but he was not the less philosopher, poet and physician,
besides his political career. Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini had a still
more direct influence on Greek culture, as father of the technical
schools of rhetoric throughout Greece. Architecture too ad-
vanced, and the Doric style gradually lost somewhat of its ancient
massiveness. The temple at Syracuse, which is now the metro-
politan church, belongs to the earlier days of this time. It is
followed by the later temples at Selinus, among them the temple
of Apollo, which is said to have been the greatest in Sicily, and
by the wonderful series at Acragas (see AGRIGENTUM) .
During this time of prosperity there was no dread of
Carthaginian inroads. Diodorus's account of a war between
Segesta and Lilybaeum is open to considerable suspicion. We
have, on the other hand, Pausanias's evidence for the exist-
ence in his day at Olympia of statues offered by Acragas
out of spoil won from Motya, assigned to Calamis, an artist of
this period (Freeman ii. 552), and the evidence of contemporary
Condition inscriptions (i) for a Selinuntine victory over some un-
of siceis known enemy (possibly over Motya also),(2)for dealings
* aa between Athens and Segesta with reference to Halicyae,
a Sican town. The latter is important as being the
first appearance of Athens in Sicily. As early as 480 (Freeman
iii. 8) indeed Themistocles seems to have been looking westward.
Far more important are our notices of the earlier inhabitants.
For now comes the great Sicel movement under Ducetius, who,
between force and persuasion, came nearer towards uniting his
people into one body than had ever been done before. From
his native hill-top of Menae, rising above the lake dedicated to
the Palici, the native deities whom Sicels and Greeks alike
honoured, he brought down his people to the new city of Palicae
in the plain. His power grew, and Acragas could withstand
him only by the help of Syracuse. Alternately victorious and
defeated, spared by the Syracusans on whose mercy he cast
himself as a suppliant (451), sent to be safe at Corinth, he came
back to Sicily only to form greater plans than before. War
between Acragas and Syracuse, which arose on account of his
return, enabled him to carry out his schemes, and, with the
help of another Sicel prince of Herbita, who bore the Greek name
of Archonides, he founded Kale Akte on the northern coast.
But his work was cut short by his death in 440; the hope of
the Sicel people now lay in assimilation to their Hellenic neigh-,
bours. Ducetius's own foundation of Kale Akte lived on, and
we presently hear of Sicel towns under kings and tyrants, all
marking an approach to Greek life. Roughly speaking, while
the Sicels of the plain country on the east coast became subject
to Syracuse, most of those in other parts of the island remained
independent. Of the Sicans we hear less; but Hyccara in the
north-west was an independent Sican town on bad terms with
Segesta. .On the whole, setting aside the impassable barrier
between Greek and Phoenician, other distinctions of race within
the island were breaking down through the spread of the Hellenic
element, but among the Greek cities themselves the distinction
between the Dorian and the Ionian or Chalcidian settlements
was still keenly felt.
Up to this time the Italiot and Siceliot Greeks have formed
part of the general Greek world, while within that world they
have formed a world of their own, and Sicily has again
formed a world of its own within that. Wars and l te
conquests between Greeks and Greeks, especially on the Athens.
part of Syracuse, though not wanting, have been on the
whole less constant than in old Greece. It is even possible to
appeal to a local Sicilian patriotism (Thuc. vi. 64, 74). Presently
this state of Sicilian isolation was broken in upon by the great
Peloponnesian War. The Siceliot cities were drawn into alliance
with one side or the other, till the main interest of Greek history
gathers for a while round the Athenian attack on Syracuse. At
the very beginning of the war the Lacedaemonians looked for
help from the Dorian Siceliots. But the first active inter-
vention came from the other side. Conquest in Sicily was a
favourite dream at Athens (see PELOPONNESIAN WAR). But
it was only in 427 an opportunity for Athenian interference
was found in a quarrel between Syracuse and Leontini and
their allies. Leontini craved help from Athens on the ground
of Ionian kindred. Her envoy was Gorgias; his peculiar style
of rhetoric was now first heard in old Greece (Diod. xii. 53, 54),
and his pleadings were successful. For several years from this
time (427-422) Athens plays a part, chiefly unsuccessful, in
Sicilian affairs. .But the particular events are of little import-
ance, except as leading the way to the greater events that follow.
The far more memorable interference of Athens in Sicilian
affairs in the year 415 was partly in answer to the cry of the
exiles of Leontini, partly to a quite distinct appeal from the
Elymian Segesta. That city, an ally of Athens, asked for
Athenian help against its Greek neighbour Selinus. In a dispute,
partly about boundaries, partly about the right of intermarriage
between the Hellenic and the Hellenizing city, Segesta was hard
pressed. She vainly asked for help at Acragas some say at
Syracuse (Diod. xii. 82) and even at Carthage. The last
appeal was to Athens.
The details of the great Athenian expedition (415-413) belong
partly to the political history of Athens (q.v.), partly to that
of Syracuse (q.v.). But its results make it a marked
epoch in Sicilian history, and the Athenian plans, if e *idlfioa.
successful, would have changed the whole face of the
West. If the later stages of the struggle were remarkable for the
vast number of Greek cities engaged on both sides, and for the
strange inversion of relations among them on which Thucydides
(vii. 57, 58) comments, the whole war was yet more remarkable
for the large entrance of the barbarian element into the Athenian
reckonings. The war was undertaken on behalf of Segesta;
SICILY
27
the Sicels gave Athens valuable help; the greater barbarian
powers out of Sicily also came into play. Some help actually
came from Etruria. But Carthage was more far-sighted. If
Syracuse was an object of jealousy, Athens, succeeding to her
dominion, creating a power too nearly alike to her own, would
have provoked far greater jealousy. So Athens found no active
support save at Naxos and Catana, though Acragas, if she would
not help the invaders, at least gave no help to her own rival.
But after the Spartan Gylippus came, almost all the other Greek
cities of Sicily were on the side of Syracuse. The war is instruc-
tive in many ways. It reminds us of the general conditions of
Greek seamanship when we find that Corcyra was the meeting-
place for the allied fleet, and that Syracuse was reached only by
a coasting voyage along the shores of Greek Italy. We are
struck also by the low military level of the Sicilian Greeks. The
Syracusan heavy-armed are as far below those of Athens as those
of Athens are below those of Sparta. The gwaw-continental
character of Sicily causes Syracuse, with its havens and its
island, to be looked on, in comparison with Athens, as a land
power (Tjirtipwrai, Thuc. vii. 21). That is to say, the Siceliot
level represents the general Greek level as it stood before the
wars in which Athens won and defended her dominion. The
Greeks of Sicily had had no such military practice as the Greeks
of old Greece; but an able commander could teach both Siceliot
soldiers and Siceliot seamen to out-manoeuvre Athenians. The
main result of the expedition, as regards Sicily, was to bring the
island more thoroughly into the thick of Greek affairs. Syracuse,
threatened with destruction by Athens, was saved by the zeal
of her metropolis Corinth in stirring up the Peloponnesian rivals
of Athens to help her, and by the advice of Alcibiades after
his withdrawal to Sparta. All chance of Athenian dominion in
Sicily or elsewhere in the west came to an end. Syracuse repaid
the debt by good service to the Peloponnesian cause, and from
that time the mutual influence of Sicily and old Greece is
far stronger than in earlier times.
But before the war in old Greece was over, seventy years
after the great victory of Gelo (410), the Greeks of Sicily
had to undergo barbarian invasion on a vaster scale than
Phoenician ever. The disputes between Segesta and Selinus
invasion called in these enemies also. Carthage, after a long
under period of abstention from intervention in Sicilian
Hannibal. a ff a j rs> anc j tne observance of a wise neutrality during
the war between Athens and Syracuse, stepped in as the ally of
Segesta, the enemy of her old ally Selinus. Her leader was
Hannibal, -grandson and avenger of the Hamilcar who had died
at Himera. In 409, at the head of a vast mercenary host, he
sailed to Sicily, attacked Selinus (q.v.), and stormed the town
after a murderous assault of nine days. Thence he went to
Himera, with the object of avenging his grandfather. By this
time the other Greek cities were stirred to help, while Sicels
and Sicans joined Hannibal. At last Himera was stormed, and
3000 of its citizens were solemnly slaughtered on the spot where
Hamilcar had died. Hannibal then returned to Carthage after
an absence of three months only. The Phoenician possessions in
Sicily now stretched across the island from Himera to Selinus.
The next victim was Acragas, against which another expedition
sailed in 406 under Hannibal and Himilco; the town was sacked
and the walls destroyed.
Meanwhile the revolutions of Syracuse affected the history
of Sicily and of the whole Greek world. Dionysius (q.v.) the
tyrant began his reign of thirty-eight years in the first
montns o f 4O j Almost at the same moment, the new
Carthaginian commander, Himilco, attacked Gela and
Camarina. Dionysius, coming to the help of Gela, was defeated,
and was charged (no doubt with good ground) with treachery. He
now made the mass of the people of both towns find shelter at
Syracuse. But now a peace, no doubt arranged at Gela, was
formally concluded (Freeman iii. 587). Carthage was confirmed
in her possession of Selinus, Himera and Acragas, with some
Sican districts which had opposed her. The people of Gela
and Camarina were allowed to occupy their unwalled towns as
tributaries of Carthage. Leontini, latterly a Syracusan fort, as
Dioaysius
well as Messana and all the Sicels, were declared independent,
while Dionysius was acknowledged as master of Syracuse
(Diodorus xiii. 114). No war was ever more grievous to freedom
and civilization. More than half Sicily was now under barbarian
dominion; several of its noblest cities had perished, and a
tyrant was established in the greatest. The 5th century B. c.,
after its central years of freedom and prosperity, ended in far
deeper darkness than it had begun. The minuter account of
Dionysius belongs to Syracusan history; but his position, one
unlike anything that had been before seen in. Sicily or elsewhere
in Hellas, forms an epoch in the history of Europe. His only
bright side is his championship of Hellas against the Phoenician,
and this is balanced by his settlements of barbarian mercenaries
in several Greek cities. Towards the native races his policy
varied according to momentary interests; but on the whole
his reign tended to bring the Sicels more and more within the
Greek pale. His dominion is Italian as well as Sicilian; his
influence, as an ally of Sparta, is important in old Greece; while,
as a hirer of mercenaries everywhere, he had wider relations
than any earlier Greek with the nations of western Europe. He
further opened new fields for Greek settlement on both sides of
the Adriatic. In short, under him Sicily became for the first
time the seat of a great European power, while Syracuse, as its
head, became the greatest of European cities. His reign was
unusually long for a Greek tyrant, and his career furnished a
model for other rulers and invaders of Sicily. With him in
truth begins that wider range of Greek warfare, policy and
dominion which the Macedonian kingdoms carry on.
The reign of Dionysius (405-367) is divided into marked
periods by four wars with Carthage, in 398-397, 392, 383-378
and 368. Before the first war his home power was all
but overthrown; he was besieged in Syracuse itself "'* ft war
in 403; but he lived through the storm, and extended Carthage.
his dominion over Naxos, Catana and Leontini. All
three perished as Greek cities. Catana was the first Siceliot
city to receive a settlement of Campanian mercenaries, while
others settled in non-Hellenic Entella. Naxos was settled by
Sicels; Leontini was again merged in Syracuse. Now begin the
dealings of Dionysius with Italy, where the Rhegines, kinsmen
of Naxos and Catana, planned a fruitless attack on him in
common with Messana. He then sought a wife at Rhegium,
but was refused with scorn, while Locri gladly gave him Doris.
The two cities afterwards fared accordingly. In the first war with
Carthage the Greek cities under Carthaginian dominion or
dependence helped him; so did Sicans and Sicels, which last
had among them some stirring leaders; Elymian Segesta clave
to Carthage. Dionysius took the Phoenician stronghold of
Motye; but Himilco recovered it, destroyed Messana, founded
the hill-town of Tauromenium above Naxos for Sicels who had
joined him, defeated the fleet of Dionysius off Catana and besieged
Syracuse. Between invasion and home discontent, the tyrant
was all but lost; but the Spartan Pharacidas stood his friend;
the Carthaginians again suffered from pestilence in the marshes
of Lysimelia; and after a masterly combined attack by land
and sea by Dionysius Himilco went away utterly defeated,
taking with him his Carthaginian troops and forsaking his allies.
Gela, Camarina, Himera, Selinus, Acragas itself, became subject
allies of Dionysius. The Carthaginian dominion was cut down
to what it had been before Hannibal's invasion. Dionysius
then planted mercenaries at Leontini, conquered some Sicel
towns, Henna among them, and made alliances with others. He
restored Messana, peopling it with motley settlers, among whom
were some of the old Messenians from Peloponnesus. But the
Spartan masters of the old Messenian land grudged this possible
beginning of a new Messenian power. Dionysius therefore
moved his Messenians to a point on the north coast, where
they founded Tyndaris. He clearly had a special eye to that
region. He took the Sicel Cephaloedium (Cefalii), and even
the old Phoenician border-fortress of Solous was betrayed to him.
He beat back a Rhegine expedition; but his advance was
checked by a failure to take the new Sicel settlement of Tauro-
menium. His enemies of all races now declared themselves.
SICILY
Many of the Sicels forsook him; Acragas declared herself
independent ; Carthage herself again took the field.
The Carthaginian war of 392-391 was not very memorable.
Both sides failed in their chief enterprises, and the main interest
of the story comes from the glimpses which we get of the Sicel
states. Most of them joined the Carthaginian leader Mago;
but he was successfully withstood at Agyrium by Agyris, the
ally of Dionysius, who is described as a tyrant second in power
to Dionysius himself. This way of speaking would imply that
Agyrium had so far advanced in Greek ways as to run the usual
course of a Greek commonwealth. The two tyrants drove
Carthage to a peace by which she abandoned all her Sicel allies
to Dionysius. This time he took Tauromenium and settled
it with his mercenaries. For new colonists of this kind the
established communities of all races were making way. Former
transportations had been movements of Greeks from one Greek
site to another. Now all races are confounded.
Dionysius, now free from Phoenician warfare, gave his mind
to enterprises which raised his power to its greatest height.
In the years 390-387 he warred against the Italiot cities in alliance
with their Lucanian enemies. Rhegium, Croton, the whole toe
of the boot, were conquered. Their lands were given to Locri;
their citizens were taken to Syracuse, sometimes as slaves,
sometimes as citizens. The master of the barbarians fell below
the lowest Hellenic level when he put the brave Rhegine general
Phyton to a lingering death, and in other cases imitated the
Carthaginian cruelty of crucifixion. Conqueror of southern
Italy, he turned his thoughts yet further, and became the first
ruler of Sicily to stretch forth his hands towards the eastern
peninsula. In the Adriatic he helped Hellenic extension, desiring
no doubt to secure the important trade route into central
Europe. He planted directly and indirectly some settlements
in Apulia, while Syracusan exiles founded the more famous
Ancona. He helped the Parians in their settlements of Issa and
Pharos; he took into his pay Illyrian warriors with Greek arms,
and helped the Molossian Alcetas to win back part of his kingdom.
He was even charged with plotting with his Epirot ally to
plunder Delphi. This even Sparta would not endure; Dionysius
had to content himself with sending a fleet along the west coast
of Italy, to carry off the wealth of the great temple of Caere.
In old Greece men now said that the Greek folk was hemmed
in between the barbarian Artaxerxes on the one side and
Dionysius, master and planter of barbarians, on the other.
These feelings found expression when Dionysius sent his embassy
to the Olympic games of 384, and when Lysias bade Greece rise
against both its oppressors. Dionysius vented his wrath on
those who were nearest to him, banishing many, among them
his brother Leptines and his earliest friend Philistus, and putting
many to death. He was also once more stirred up to play the
part of a Hellenic champion in yet another Punic war.
In this war (383-378) Dionysius seems for once to have had
his head turned by a first success. His demand that Carthage
should altogether withdraw from Sicily was met by a crushing
defeat. Then came a treaty by which Carthage kept Selinus
and part of the land of Acragas. The Halycus became the
boundary. Dionysius had also to pay 1000 talents, which
caused him to be spoken of as becoming tributary to the bar-
barians. In the last years of his reign we hear dimly of both
Syracusan and Carthaginian operations in southern Italy.
He also gave help to Sparta against Thebes, sending Gaulish
and Iberian mercenaries to take part in Greek warfare. His
last war with Carthage, which began with an invasion of western
Sicily, and which was going on at his death in 367 B.C., was ended
by a peace by which the Halycus remained the boundary.
The tyranny of Dionysius fell, as usual, in the second genera-
tion; but it was kept up for ten years after his death by the
energy of Philistus, now minister of his son Dionysius
the Younger. It fell with the coming back of the
exile Dion in 357. The tyranny had lasted so long
that it was less easy than at the overthrow of the
elder tyrants to fall back on an earlier state of things. It had
been a time of frightful changes throughout Sicily, full of breaking
Dion.
up of old landmarks, of confusion of races, and of movements
of inhabitants. But it also saw the foundation
of new cities. Besides Tyndaris and Tauromenium, .
the foundation of Halaca marks another step in
Sicel progress towards Hellenism, while the Carthaginians
founded their strong town and fortress of Lilybaeum in place
of Motya. Among these changes the most marked is the settle-
ment of Campanian mercenaries in Greek and Sicel towns.
Yet they too could be brought under Greek influences; they
were distant kinsfolk of the Sicels, and the forerunners of Rome.
They mark one stage of migration from Italy into Sicily.
The reign of Dionysius was less brilliant in the way of art
and literature than that of Hiero. Yet Dionysius himself
sought fame as a poet, and his success at Athens shows that his
compositions did not deserve the full scorn of his enemies.
The dithyrambic poet Philoxenus, by birth of Cythera, won his
fame in Sicily, and other authors of lost poems are mentioned
in various Siceliot cities. One of the greatest losses in all Greek
history is thatjof the writings of Philistus (436-356), the Syracusan
who had seen the Athenian siege and who died in the warfare
between Dion and the younger Dionysius. Through the time
of both tyrants, he was, next to the actual rulers, the first man
in Sicily; but of his record of his own times we have only what
filters through the recasting of Diodorus. But the most remark-
able intellectual movement in Sicily at this time was the influence
of the Pythagorean philosophy, which still lived on in southern
Italy. It led, through Dion, to the several visits of Plato to
Sicily under both the elder and the younger Dionysius.
The time following the Dionysian tyranny was at Syracuse a
time full of the most stirring local and personal interest, under
her two deliverers Dion and Timoleon. It is less easy _.
to make out the exact effect on the rest of Sicily of
the three years' career of Dion. Between the death of Dion
in 354 and the coming of Timoleon in 344 we hear of a time of
confusion in which Hellenic life seemed likely to die out. The
cities, Greek and Sicel, were occupied by tyrants. The work of
Timoleon (q.v.), whose headquarters were first at Tauromenium,
then at Hadranum, was threefold the immediate deliverance
of Syracuse, the restoration of Sicily in general to freedom and
Greek life, and the defence of the Greek cities against Carthage.
The great victory of the Crimissus in 339 led to a peace with
Carthage with the old frontier; but all Greek cities were to be
free, and Carthage was to give no help to any tyrant. Timoleon
drove out all the tyrants, and it specially marks the fusion of the
two races that the people of the Sicel Agyrium were admitted
to the citizenship of free Syracuse. From some towns he drove
out the Campanians, and he largely invited Greek settlement,
especially from the Italiot towns, which were hard pressed by
the Bruttians. The Corinthian deliverer gave, not only Syracuse,
but all Greek Sicily, a new lease of life, though a short one.
We have unluckily no intelligible account of Sicily during
the twenty years after the death of Timoleon (337-317). His
deliverance is said to have been followed by great
immediate prosperity, but wars and dissensions very
soon began again. The Carthaginians played off one
city and party against another, and Agathocles, 1 following the
same policy, became in 317, by treachery and massacre, undis-
puted tyrant of Syracuse, and spread his dominion over many
other cities. Acragas, strengthened by Syracusan exiles, now
stands out again as the rival of Syracuse. The Carthaginian
Hamilcar won many Greek cities to the Punic alliance.
Agathocles, however, with Syracuse blockaded by a Carthaginian
fleet, formed the bold idea of carrying the war into Africa.
For more than three years (310-307) each side carried on
warfare in the land of the other. Carthage was hard pressed
by Agathocles, while Syracuse was no [less hard pressed by
Hamilcar. The force with which Agathocles invaded Africa
was far from being wholly Greek; but it was representatively
European. Gauls, Samnites, Tyrrhenians, fought for him, while
mercenary Greeks and Syracusan exiles fought for Carthage. He
won many battles and towns; he quelled mutinies of his own
1 See Tillyard, Agathocles (1908)
SICILY
29
troops; by inviting and murdering Ophelias, lord of Cyrene,
he doubled his army and brought Carthage near to despair.
Meanwhile Syracuse, all but lost, had driven back Hamilcar,
and had taken him prisoner in an unsuccessful attack on
Euryelus, and slain him when he came again with the help of
the Syracusan exile Deinocrates. Meanwhile Acragas, deeming
Agathocles and the barbarians alike weakened, proclaimed
freedom for the Sicilian cities under her own headship. Many
towns, both Greek and Sicel, joined the confederacy. It has
now become impossible to distinguish the two races; Henna and
Herbessus are now the fellows of Camarina and Leontini. But
the hopes of Acragas perished when Agathocles came back from
Africa, landed at Selinus, and marched to Syracuse, taking one
town after another. A new scheme of Sicilian union was taken
up by Deinocrates, which cut short his dominion. But he now
relieved Syracuse from the Carthaginian blockade; his mer-
cenaries gained a victory over Acragas; and he sailed again for
Africa, where fortune had turned against his son Archagathus,
as it now did against himself. He left his sons and his army
to death, bondage or Carthaginian service, and came back to
Sicily almost alone. Yet he could still gather a force which
enabled him to seize Segesta, to slay or enslave the whole
population, and to settle the city with new inhabitants. This
change amounts to the extinction of one of the elements in the
old population of Sicily. We hear no more of Elymi; indeed
Segesta has been practically Greek long before this. Deinocrates
and Agathocles came to a kind of partnership in 304, and a peace
with Carthage, with the old boundary, secured Agathocles in
the possession of Syracuse and eastern Sicily (301).
At some stage of his African campaigns Agathocles had
taken the title of king. Earlier tyrants were well pleased to
be spoken of as kings; but no earlier rulers of Sicily put either
their heads or their names on the coin. Agathocles now put his
name, first without, and then with, the kingly title, though
never his own likeness Hiero II. was the first to do this. This
was in imitation of the Macedonian leaders who divided the
dominion of Alexander. The relations between the eastern
and western Greek worlds are drawing closer. Agathocles in
his old age took a wife of the house of Ptolemy; he gave his
daughter Lanassa to Pyrrhus, and established his power east of
Hadria, as the first Sicilian ruler of Corcyra. Alike more daring
and more cruel than any ruler before him, he made the island
the seat of a greater power than any of them.
On the death of Agathocles tyrants sprang up in various
cities. Acragas, under its king Phintias, won back for the
Period moment somewhat of its old greatness. By a new
after depopulation of Gela, he founded the youngest of
Agatho- Siceliot cities, Phintias, by the mouth of the southern
des. Himera. And Hellas was cut short by the seizure
of Messana by the disbanded Campanian mercenaries of
Agathocles (c. 282), who proclaimed themselves a new people in
a new city by the name of Mamertines, children of Mamers or
Mars. Messana became an Italian town " Mamertina civitas."
The Campanian occupation of Messana is the first of the
chain of events which led to the Roman dominion in Sicily. As
Pvrrhus y e ' R me nas hardly been mentioned in Sicilian story.
The Mamertine settlement, the war with Pyrrhus,
bring us on quickly. Pyrrhus (q.v.) came as the champion of
the western Greeks against all barbarians, whether Romans
in Italy or Carthaginians in Sicily. His Sicilian war (278-276)'
was a mere interlude between the two acts of his war with Rome.
As son-in-law of Agathocles, he claimed to be specially king
of Sicily, and he held the Sicilian conquest of Corcyra as the
dowry of Lanassa. With such a deliverer, deliverance meant
submission. Pyrrhus is said to have dreamed of kingdoms of
Sicily and of Italy for his two sons, the grandsons of Agathocles,
and he himself reigned for two years in Sicily as a king who came
to be no less hated than the tyrants. Still as Hellenic champion
in Sicily he has no peer.
The Greek king, on his way back to fight for Tarentum against
Rome, had to cut his way through Carthaginians and Mamertines
1 For the ensuing years cf. ROME: History, II. "The Republic."
in Roman alliance. His saying that he left Sicily as a wrestling-
ground for Romans and Carthaginians was the very truth of the
matter. Very soon came the first war between Rome and
Carthage (the " First Punic War "). It mattered much, now
that Sicily was to have a barbarian master, whether that
master should be the kindred barbarian of Europe or the bar-
barian of Asia transplanted to the shore of Africa.
Sicily in truth never had a more hopeful champion than
Hiero II. of Syracuse. The established rule of Carthage in
western Sicily was now something that could well be tHentti
endured alongside of the robber commonwealth at
Messana. The dominion of the freebooters was spreading.
Besides the whole north-eastern corner of the island, it reached
inland to Agyrium and Centoripa. The Mamertines leagued
with other Campanian freebooters who had forsaken the service
of Rome to establish themselves at Rhegium. But a new
Syracusan power was growing up to meet them. Hiero, claiming
descent from Gelo, pressed the Mamertines hard. He all but
drove them to the surrender of Messana; he even helped Rome
to chastise her own rebels at Rhegium. The wrestling-ground
was thus opened for the two barbarian commonwealths. Car-
thaginian troops held the Messanian citadel against Hiero,
while another party in Messana craved the help of the head of
Italy. Rome, chastiser of the freebooters of Rhegium, saw
Italian brethren in the freebooters of Messana.
The exploits of Hiero had already won him the kingly title
(270) at Syracuse, and he was the representative of Hellenic life
and independence throughout the island. Partly in this char-
acter, partly as direct sovereign, he was virtual ruler of a large
part of eastern Sicily. But he could not aspire to the dominion
of earlier Syracusan rulers. The advance of Rome after the
retreat of Pyrrhus kept the new king from all hope of their
Italian position. And presently the new kingdom exchanged
independence for safety. When Rome entered Sicily as the
ally of the Mamertines, Hiero became the ally of Carthage. But
in the second year of the war (263) he found it needful to change
sides. His alliance with Rome marks a great epoch in the
history of the Greek nation. The kingdom of Hiero was the
first-fruits out of Italy of the system by which alliance with
Rome grew into subjection to Rome. He was the first of
Rome's kingly vassals. His only burthen was to give help to
the Roman side in war; within his kingdom he was free, and
his dominions flourished as no part of Sicily had flourished
since the days of Timoleon.
During the twenty-three years of the First Punic War (264-
241) the rest of the island suffered greatly. The war for Sicily
was fought in and round Sicily, and the Sicilian cities
were taken and retaken by the contending powers
(see PUNIC WARS). The highest calling of the Greek
had now, in the western lands, passed to the Roman.
By the treaty which ended the war in 241 Carthage ceded to
Rome all her possessions in Sicily. As that part of the island
which kept a national Greek government became the
first kingdom dependent on Rome, so the share of BiC<
Carthage became the first Roman province. Messana
alone remained an Italian ally of Rome on Sicilian soil.
We have no picture of Sicily in the first period of Roman
rule. One hundred and seventy years later, several towns
within the original province enjoyed various degrees of freedom,
which they had doubtless kept from the beginning. Panormus,
Segesta, with Centoripa, Halesa and Halikye, once Sicel but now
Hellenized, kept the position of free cities (liberae et immunes,
Cic. Verr. iii. 6). The rest paid tithe to the Roman people as
landlord. The province was ruled by a praetor sent yearly
from Rome. It formed, as it had even from the Carthaginian
period, a closed customs district. Within the Roman province
the new state of things called forth much discontent; but
Hiero remained the faithful ally of Rome through a long life.
On his death (216) and the accession of his grandson Hieronymus,
his dynasty was swept away by the last revolution of Greek
Syracuse. The result was revolt against Rome, the great siege
and capture of the city, the addition of Hiero's kingdom to the
war.
SICILY
Roman province. Two towns only, besides Messana, which
had taken the Roman side, Tauromenium and Netos, were
admitted to the full privileges of Roman alliance. Tauromenium
indeed was more highly favoured than Messana. Rome had a
right to demand ships of Messana, but not of Tauromenium.
Some towns were destroyed; the people of Henna were
massacred. Acragas, again held for Carthage, was for four
years (214-210) the centre of an active campaign. The story
of Acragas ended in plunder, slaughter and slavery; three
years later, the story of Agrigentum began.
The reign of Hiero was the last time of independent Greek
culture in Sicily. His time marks the growth of a new form of
local Sicilian genius. The spread of Hellenic culture among the
Sicels had in return made a Greek home for many Sicel beliefs,
traditions and customs. Bucolic poetry is the native growth of
Sicily; in the hands of Theocritus it grew out of the germs
supplied by Epicharmus and Sophron into a distinct and finished
form of the art. The poet, himself of Syracuse, went to and fro
between the courts of Hiero and Ptolemy Philadelphus; but his
poetry is essentially Sicilian. So is that of his successors,
both the Syracusan Moschus and Bion of Smyrna, who came
to Sicily as to his natural school.
With the incorporation of the kingdom of Hiero into the
Roman province independent Sicilian history comes to an
end for many ages. In one part of the island the
S Romaa Roman people stepped into the position of Carthage, in
another part into that of King Hiero. The allied cities
kept their several terms of alliance; the free cities kept their
freedom; elsewhere the land paid to the Roman people, accord-
ing to the law of Hiero, the tithe which it had paid to Hiero.
But, as the tithe was let out to publicani, oppression was easy.
The praetor, after the occupation of Syracuse, dwelled there in
the palace of Hiero, as in the capital of the island. But, as a
survival of the earlier state of things, one of his two quaestors
was quartered at Eryx, the other being in attendance on himself.
Under the supreme dominion of Rome even the unprivileged
cities kept their own laws, magistrates and assemblies, provision
being made for suits between Romans and Sicilians and between
Sicilians of different cities (Verr. ii. 16). In Latin the one name
Siculi takes in all the inhabitants of the island; no distinction
is drawn between Greek and Sicel, or even between Greek and
Phoenician cities. It is assumed that all Siculi are Greeks (Verr.
ii. 3, 29, 49, 52, 65; iii. 37, 40, 73). Even in Greek, 2tKeXoi is
now sometimes used instead of Si/ceXuoroi. All the persons
spoken of by Cicero have Greek names save a most speaking
exception Gaius Heius of Mamertina civitas. Inscriptions too
from Sicel and Phoenician cities are commonly Greek, even when
they commemorate men with Phoenician names, coupled perhaps
with Greek surnames. The process of Hellenization which had
been so long going on had at last made Sicily thoroughly Greek.
Roman conquest itself, which everywhere carried a Greek
element with it, would help this result. The corn of the fertile
island was said even then to feed the Roman people. It was this
character of Sicily which led to its one frightful piece of local
history. The wars of Rome, and the systematic piracy
and kidnapping that followed them, filled the Mediter-
ranean lands with slaves of all nations. Sicily stood
out before the rest as the first land to be tilled by slave-gangs,
on the estates both of rich natives and of Roman settlers. It
became the granary of Rome and the free population naturally
degenerated and died out. The slaves were most harshly treated,
and even encouraged by their masters to rob. The land was
full of disorder, and the praetors shrank from enforcing the law
against offenders, many of whom, as Roman knights, might be
their own judges. Of these causes came the two great slave-
revolts of the second half of the 2nd century B.C. The first lasted
from 134 to 132, the time of Tiberius Gracchus and the fall of
Numantia. Enna and Tauromenium were the headquarters of
the revolt. The second (the centre of which was Triocala, the
modern S. Anna, 9 m. N.E. of Sciacca) lasted from 102 to 99,
the time of the Cimbrian invasion. At other times the power of
Rome might have quelled the revolt more speedily.
Slave
revolts.
The slave wars were not the only scourge that fell on Sicily.
The pirates troubled the coast, and all other evils were out-
done by the three years' government of Verres (73-70 Later
B.C.). Besides the light which the great impeachment Roman
throws on the state of the island, his administration rule la
seems really to have dealt a lasting blow to its Sicily.
prosperity. The slave wars had not directly touched the great
cities; Verres plundered and impoverished everywhere, re-
moving anything of value, especially works of art, that took his
fancy, and there is hardly a city that had not to complain of
what it suffered at his hands. Another blow was the occupation
of Messana by Sextus Pompeius in 43 B.C. He was master of
Sicily for seven years, and during this period the corn supply of
Rome was seriously affected, while Strabo (vi. 2, 4) attributed
to this war the decayed state of several cities. To undo this
mischief Augustus planted Roman colonies at Palermo, Syracuse,
Tauromenium, Thermae, Tyndaris and Catana. The island
thus received another Italian infusion; but, as elsewhere, Latin
in no way displaced Greek; it was simply set up alongside of it
for certain purposes. Roman tastes now came in; Roman
buildings, especially amphitheatres, arose. The Mamertines
were Roman citizens, and Netum, Centuripae and Segesta had
become Latin, perhaps by a grant of Caesar himself, but in any
case before the concession of Latin rights to the rest of Sicily;
this was followed by M. Antonius's grant of full citizenship to
the whole island. But Sicily never became thoroughly Roman;
no roads were constructed, so that not a single Roman milestone
has been found in the whole island. In the division of provinces
between Augustus and the senate, Sicily fell to the latter. Under
the empire it has practically no history. Few emperors visited
Sicily; Hadrian was there, as everywhere, in A.D. 126, and
ascended Etna, and Julian also (C.D. 10). In its provincial
state Sicily fell back more than some other provinces. Ausonius
could still reckon Catana and fourfold Syracuse (" quadruplices
Syracusas ") among the noble cities; but Sicily is not, like
Gaul, rich in relics of later Roman life, and it is now Egypt
rather than Sicily that feeds Rome. The island has no internal
history beyond a very characteristic fact, a third revolt of slaves
and bandits, which was quelled with difficulty in the days of
Gallienus. External history there could be none in the central
island, with no frontier open to Germans or Persians. There
was a single Prankish attack under Probus (276-282). In the
division of Constantine, when the word " province " had lost its
meaning, when Italy itself was mapped out into provinces,
Sicily became one of these last. Along with Africa, Raetia and
western Illyricum, it became part of the Italian praefecture;
along with the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, it became part of
the Italian diocese. It was now ruled by a corrector, afterwards
by a consular under the authority of the vicar of the Roman
city (Not. Imp. 14, 5).
Sicilian history began again when the wandering of the
nations planted new powers, not on the frontier of the empire,
but at its heart. The powers between which Sicily
now passed to and fro were Teutonic powers. The mas ters
earlier stages of Teutonic advance could not touch
Sicily. Alaric thought of a Sicilian expedition, but a storm
hindered him. Sicily was to be reached only by a Teutonic
power which made its way through Gaul, Spain and Africa. The
Vandal now dwelt at Carthage instead of the Canaanite. Gaiseric
(429-477) subdued the great islands for which Roman and
Phoenician had striven. Along with Sardinia, Corsica and
the Balearic Isles, Sicily was again a possession of a naval power
at Carthage. Gaiseric made a treaty with Odoacer almost like
that which ended the First Punic War. He gave up (Victor
Vitensis i. 4) the island on condition of a tribute, which was
hardly paid by Theodoric. Sicily was now ruled by a Gothic
count, and the Goths claimed to have treated the land with
special tenderness (Procopius, Bell. Goth. iii. 16). The island,
like the rest of Theodoric's dominions, was certainly well looked
after by the great king and his minister; yet we hear darkly of
disaffection to Gothic rule (Cass. Var. i. 3). Theodoric gave
back Lilybaeum to the Vandal king Thrasamund as the dowry
SICILY
of his sister Analafrida (Proc. Bell. Vand. i. 8). Yet Lilybaeum
was a Gothic possession when Belisarius, conqueror of Africa,
demanded it in vain as part of the Vandal possessions (Proc.
Bell. Vand. ii. 5; Bell. Goth. i. 3). In the Gothic war Sicily
was the first land to be recovered for the empire, and that with
the good will of its people (535). Panormus alone was stoutly
defended by its Gothic garrison. In 550 Totila took some
fortresses, but the great cities all withstood him, and the Goths
were driven out the next year.
Sicily was thus won back to the Roman dominion. Belisarius
Sicily was Pyrrhus and Marcellus in one. For 430 years
under the some part of Sicily, for 282 years the whole of it,
Eastern again remained a Roman province. To the Gothic
Empire. coun t again succeeded, under Justinian, a Roman
praetor, in Greek orpariiyos. That was the official title;
we often hear of a patrician of Sicily, but patrician (q.v.)
was in strictness a personal rank. In the later mapping out of
the empire into purely military divisions, the theme (0eyua) of
Sicily took in both the island and the nearest peninsula of the
mainland, the oldest Italy. The island itself was divided for
financial purposes, almost as in the older times, into the two
divisions of Syracuse and Lilybaeum. The revolutions of Italy
hardly touched a land which looked steadily to the eastern Rome
as its head. The Lombard and Prankish masters of the peninsula
never fixed themselves in the island. When the Frank took
the imperial crown of the west, Sicily still kept its allegiance to
the Augustus who reigned at Constantinople, and was only
torn away piecemeal from the empire by the next race of
conquerors.
This connexion of Sicily with the eastern division of the
empire no doubt largely helped to keep up Greek life in the
Efcksi- island. This was of course strengthened by union with
astical a power which had already a Greek side, and where the
relations Greek side soon became dominant. Still the connexion
with Italy. ^^ Italy was close, especially the ecclesiastical
connexion. Some things tend to make Sicily look less Greek
than it really was. The great source of our knowledge of
Sicily in the century which followed the reconquest by Beli-
sarius is the Letters of Pope Gregory the Great, and they naturally
show the most Latin side of things. The merely official use of
Latin was, it must be remembered, common to Sicily with
Constantinople. Gregory's Letters are largely occupied with the
affairs of the great Sicilian estates held by the Roman church,
as by the churches of Milan and Ravenna. But they deal with
many other matters. Saint Paul's visit to Syracuse naturally
gave rise to many legends; but the Christian church undoubtedly
took early root in Sicily. We hear of Manichaeans (C.D. 163);
Jews were plentiful, and Gregory causes compensation to be
made for the unlawful destruction of synagogues. Many
Christian catacombs and Byzantine rock-cut villages, churches
and tombs have been explored of recent years. See the compre-
hensive work by the late J. Fiihrer and V. Schultze, " Die
altchristlichen Grabstatte Siziliens " (Berlin, 1907, Jahrbuch
des K.D. archdologischen Insiiluts, Erganzungsheft vii.): and
several articles by P. Orsi in the Notizie degli scavi, and in
Byzantinische Zeitschrift (1898, i; 1899, 613). Of paganism
we find no trace, save that pagan slaves, doubtless not natives
of the island, were held by Jews (C.D. 127). Herein is a contrast
between Sicily and Sardinia, where, according to a letter from
Gregory to the empress Constantina, wife of the emperor
Maurice (594-595), praying for a lightening of taxation in both
islands, paganism still lingered (C.D. 121). Sicily belonged to
77 829 tne Latin patriarchate; but we already (C.D. 103)
see glimmerings of the coming disputes between the
Eastern and Western Churches. Things were changed when
Leo the Isaurian confiscated the Sicilian and Calabrian estates
of the Roman Church (Theoph. i. 631).
In the gth, loth and nth centuries the old drama of Sicily
was acted again. The island is again disputed between Europe
and Asia, transplanted to Africa between Greek and Semitic
dwellers on her own soil. Panormus and Syracuse are again
the headquarters of races and creeds, of creeds yet more than
Saracen
conquest.
of races. The older religious differences were small compared
with the strife for life and death between Christendom and
Islam. Gregory and Mahomet were contemporaries,
and, though Saracen occupation did not begin in Early
Sicily till more than two centuries after Gregory's inroads.
death, Saracen inroads began much sooner. In
655 (Theoph. i. 532) part of Sicily was plundered, and its
inhabitants carried to Damascus. Then came the strange
episode of the visit of Constans II. (641-668), the first emperor,
it would seem, who had set foot in Sicily since Julian. After a
war with the Lombards, after twelve days' plunder of Rome,
he came on to Syracuse, where his oppressions led to his murder
in 668. Sicily now saw for the first time the setting up of a
tyrant in the later sense. Mezetius, commander of the Eastern
army of Constans, revolted, but Sicily and Roman Italy kept
their allegiance to the new emperor Constantine Pogonatus,
who came in person to destroy him. Then came another Saracen
inroad from Alexandria, in which Syracuse was sacked (Paul.
Diac. v. 13). Towards the end of the 8th century, though Sicily
itself was untouched, its patricians and their forces play a part
in the affairs of southern Italy as enemies of the Frankish power.
Charlemagne himself was believed (Theoph. i. 736) to have
designs on Sicily; but, when it came to Saracen invasion, the
sympathies of both pope and Caesar lay with the invaded
Christian land (Mon. Car. 323, 328).
In 813 a peace for ten years was made between the Saracens
and the patrician Gregory. A few years after it expired Saracen
settlement in the island began. About this time Crete
was seized by Spanish adventurers. But the first
Saracen settlers in Sicily were the African neighbours
of Sicily, and they were called to the work by a home treason.
The story has been tricked out with many romantic details
(Chron. Salem. 60, ap. Pertz, iii. 498; Theoph. Cent. ii. 272;
George Cedrenus, ii. 97); but it seems plain that Euphemius
or Euthymius of Syracuse, supported by his own citizens,
revolted against Michael the Stammerer (820-829), and, when
defeated by an imperial army, asked help of Ziyadet Allah, the
Aghlabite prince of Ifairawan, an d offered to hold the island of
him. The struggle of 138 years now began. Euphemius, a
puppet emperor, was led about by his Saracen allies much as
earlier puppet emperors had been led about by Alaric and
Ataulf, till he was slain in one of the many sieges. The second
Semitic conquest of Sicily began in 827 at Mazzara on the old
border of Greek and Phoenician. The advance of the invaders
was slow. In two years all that was done was to occupy
Mazzara and Mineum the old Menae cf Ducetius strange
points certainly to begin with, and seemingly to destroy
Agrigentum, well used to destruction. Attacks on Syracuse
failed; so did attacks on Henna Caslrum Ennae,
now changing into Caslrum Johannis (perhaps Kaorpo-
Lavvrj), Castrogiovanni. The actual gain was small; but the
invaders took seizin alike of the coast and of the island.
A far greater conquest followed when new invaders came from
Spain and when Theodotus was killed in 830. The next year
Panormus pased away for ever from Roman, for 230 years from
Christian, rule. Syracuse was for fifty years, not only, as of old,
the bulwark of Europe, but the bulwark of Christendom. By
the conquest of Panormus the Saracens were firmly rooted in
the island. It became the seat of the amir or lord of Sicily.
We hear dimly of treasonable dealings with them on the part
of the strategos Alexius, son-in-law of the emperor Theophilus;
but we see more clearly that Saracen advance was largely
hindered by dissensions between the African and the Spanish
settlers. In the end the Moslem conquests in Sicily became
an Aghlabite principality owning at best a formal superiority
in the princes of ijairawan. With the Saracen occupation
begins a new division of the island, which becomes convenient
in tracing the progress of Saracen conquest. This is into three
valleys, known in later forms of language as Val di Mazzara
or Mazza in the N.W., Val di Noto in the S.E. and Val
Demone (a name of uncertain origin) in the N.E. (see Amari,
Musulmani in Sicilia, i. 465). The first Saracen settlement
829-1060.
SICILY
of Val di Mazzara answers roughly to the old Carthaginian
possessions. From Panormus the amir or lord of Sicily,
Mahommed ibn Abdallah, sent forth his plunderers throughout
Sicily and even into southern Italy. There, however, they made
no lasting settlements.
The chief work of the next ten years was the conquest of the
Val di Noto, but the first great advance was made elsewhere.
In 843 the Saracens won the Mamertine city, Messana, and thus
stood in the path between Italy and Sicily. Then the work
of conquest, as described by the Arabic writers, went on, but
slowly. At last, in 859, the very centre of the island, the strong-
hold of Henna, was taken, and the main part of Val di Noto
followed. But the divisions among the Moslems helped the
Christians; they won back several towns, and beat off all
attacks on Syracuse and Tauromenium. It is strange that the
reign of Basil the Macedonian (867), a time of such renewed
vigour in the empire, was the time of the greatest of all losses
in Sicily. In Italy the imperial frontier largely advanced;
in Sicily imperial fleets threatened Panormus. But in 875 the
accession of Ibrahim ibn Ahmad in Africa changed the face of
things. The amir in Sicily, Ja'far ibn Ahmad, received strict
orders to act vigorously against the eastern towns. In 877
began the only successful Semitic siege of Syracuse. The next
year the city passed for the first time under the yoke of
strangers to the fellowship of Europe.
Thus in fifty-one years the imperial and Christian territory in
Sicily was cut down to a few points on or near the eastern coast,
to the Val Demone in short without Messana. But between
Moslem dissension and Christian valour the struggle had still
to be waged for eighty-seven years. Henna had been the chief
centre of Christian resistance a generation earlier; its place
was now taken by the small fort of Rametta not far from Messina.
The Moslems of Sicily were busy in civil wars; Arabs fought
against Berbers, both against the African overlord. In 900
Panormus had to be won by a son of Ibrahim from Moslem rebels
provoked by his father's cruelty. But when Ibrahim himself
came into Sicily, renewed efforts against the Christians led to the
first taking of Tauromenium (908), of Rametta and of other
points. The civil war that followed his death, the endless
revolutions of Agrigentum, where the weaker side did not scruple
to call in Christian help, hindered any real Saracen occupation
of eastern Sicily. The emperors never gave up their claims to
Sicily or their hopes of recovering it. Besides the struggle with
the Christians in the island, there was often direct warfare
between the empire and the Saracens; but such warfare was
more active in Italy than in Sicily. In 956 a peace or truce was
made by the emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. A few
years later, Otho the Great, the restorer of the Western empire,
looked to Sicily as a land to be won back for Christendom.
It had not yet wholly passed away; but the day soon came.
Strange to say, as Syracuse fell in the reign of Basil the Mace-
donian, the Saracen occupation was completed in the reign of
Nikephoros Phokas (Nicephorus Phocas), the deliverer of Crete.
In the year of his accession (963) Tauromenium was taken, and
became for a hundred years a Mahommedan possession. Rametta
was the last stronghold to fall (965).
Thus in 138 years the Arab did what the Canaanite had never
done. The whole island was a Semitic, that is a Mahommedan,
possession. Yet the complete Saracen possession of Sicily
may seem a thing of a moment. Its first and longest period
lasted only 73 years. In that time Mahommedan Sicily was
threatened by a Western emperor; the Arabic writers claim
Kecoa- tne Saracen army by which Otho II. was beaten back
quest by in 982 as a Sicilian army. A mightier enemy was
Eastern threatening in the East. Basil II. planned the recovery
Empire. o f gj c jjy j n g OO( j earnest. In 1027 he sent a great army ;
but his death stopped their progress before they reached the
island. But the great conqueror had left behind him men
trained in his school, and eleven years later the eagles of the new
Rome again marched to Sicilian victories. The ravages of
the Sicilian Saracens in the Greek islands were more frightful
than ever, and George Maniaces, the first captain of his time,
la 1038.
was sent to win back the lost land. He too was helped by Saracen
dissensions. The amir Abul-afar became a Roman vassal, and,
like Alaric of old, became magister militum in the
Roman army. His brother and rival Abuhaf as brought
help from Africa; and finally all joined against the Christians.
Four years of Christian victory (1038-1042) followed. In the
host of Maniaces were men of all races Normans, who had
already begun to show themselves in south Italy, and the
Varangian guard, the best soldiers of the empire, among whom
Harold Hardrada himself is said to have held a place. Town
after town was delivered, first Messana, then Syracuse, then a
crowd of others. The exact extent of the reconquest is uncertain ;
Byzantine writers claim the deliverance of the whole island;
but it is certain that the Saracens never lost Panormus. But
court influence spoiled everything: Maniaces was recalled;
under his successor Stephen, brother-in-law of the emperor
Michael, the Saracens won back what they had lost. Messana
alone held out, for how long a time is uncertain. But a con-
queror came who had no empresses to thwart him. In 1060
began the thirty years' work of the first Roger.
Thus for 263 years the Christian people of some part or other
of Sicily were in subjection to Moslem masters. But that
subjection differed widely in different times and places. gictty
The land was won bit by bit. One town was taken under
by storm; another submitted on terms harsher or Saracen
more favourable. The condition of the Christians ruje '
varied from that of personal slaves to that of communities
left free on the payment of tribute. The great mass were in the
intermediate state usual among the non-Mahommedan subjects
of a Mahommedan power. The dhimmi of Sicily were in
essentially the same case as the rayahs of the Turk. While
the conquest was going on, the towns that remained unconquered
gained in point of local freedom. They became allies rather
than subjects of the distant emperor. So did the tributary
districts, as long as the original terms were kept. But, as ever,
the condition of the subject race grew worse. After the complete
conquest of the island, while the mere slaves had turned Mahom-
medans, 'there is nothing more heard of tributary districts. At
the coming of the Normans the whole Christian population
was in the state of rayahs. Still Christianity and the Greek
tongue never died out; churches and monasteries received
and held property; there still are saints and scholars. It
would be rash to deny that traces of other dialects may not have
lingered on; but Greek and Arabic were the two written tongues
of Sicily when the Normans came. The Sicilian Saracens were
hindered by their internal feuds from ever becoming a great
power; but they stood high among Mahommedan nations.
Their advance in civilization is shown by their position
under the Normans, and above all by their admirable style
of architecture (see PALERMO). They had a literature which
Norman kings studied and promoted. The Normans in short
came into the inheritance of the two most civilized nations of
the time, and allowed them to flourish side by side.
The most brilliant time for Sicily as a power in the world
begins with the coming of the Normans. Never before or after
was the island so united or so independent. Some of
the old tyrants had ruled out of Sicily; none had
ruled over all Sicily. The Normans held all Sicily as
the centre of a dominion which stretched far beyond it. The
conquest was the work of one man, Count Roger of the
house of Hauteville (see ROGER I.). The conquests of the
Normans in Italy and Sicily form part of one enterprise; but
they altogether differ in character. In Italy they overthrew the
Byzantine dominion; their own rule was perhaps not worse,
but they were not deliverers. In Sicily they were welcomed
by the Christians as deliverers from infidel bondage.
As in the Saracen conquest of Sicily, as in the Byzantine
recovery, so in the Norman conquest, the immediate occasion was
given by a home traitor. Count Roger had already m ade {g6g Jg9g
a plundering attack, when Becumen of Catania, driven
out by his brother, urged him tb serious invasion. Messina was
taken in 1060, and became for a while the Norman capital. The
Norman
conquest.
SICILY
33
Christians everywhere welcomed the conqueror. But at Troina
they presently changed their minds, and joined with the Saracens
to besiege the count in their citadel. At Catania Becumen was
set up again as Roger's vassal, and he did good service till he
was killed. Roger soon began to fix his eye on the Saracen
capital. Against that city he had Pisan help, as the inscription
on the Pisan duomo witnesses (cf. Geoff. Mai. ii. 34). But
Palermo was not taken until 1071, and then only by the
help of Duke Robert, who kept the prize to himself. Still
its capture was the turning-point in the struggle. Taormina
(Tauromenium) was won in 1078. Syracuse, under its amir
Benarvet, held out stoutly. He retook Catania by the help
of a Saracen to whom Roger had trusted the city, and whom
he himself punished. Catania was won back by the count's
son Jordan. But progress was delayed by Jordan's rebellion
and by the absence of Roger in his brother's wars. In
1085 Syracuse was won. Next year followed Girgenti and
Castrogiovanni, whose chief became a Christian. Noto held
out till 1090. Then the whole island was won, and Roger
completed his conquest by a successful expedition to Malta.
Like the condition of the Greeks under the Saracens, so the
condition of the Saracens under the Normans differed in different
Saraceas pl aces according to the circumstances of each conquest.
under The Mahommedan religion was everywhere tolerated,
Norman in many places much more. But it would seem that,
/e> just as under the Moslem rule, conversions from
Christianity to Islam were forbidden. On the other hand,
conversions from Islam to Christianity were not always en-
couraged; Saracen troops were employed from the beginning,
and Count Roger seems to have thought them more trustworthy
when unconverted. At Palermo the capitulation secured to
the Saracens the full enjoyment of their own laws; Girgenti
was long mainly Saracen; in Val di Noto the Saracens kept
towns and castles of their own. On the other hand, at Messina
there were few or none, and we hear of both Saracen and Greek
villeins, the latter doubtless abiding as they were in Saracen
times. But men of both races were trusted and favoured accord-
ing to their deserts. The ecclesiastical relations between Greeks
and Latins are harder to trace. At the taking of Palermo the
Greek bishop was restored; but his successors were Latins, and
Latin prelates were placed in the bishoprics which Count Roger
founded. Urban II. visited Sicily to promote the union of the
church, and he granted to the count those special ecclesiastical
powers held by the counts and kings of Sicily as hereditary
legates of the Holy See which grew into the famous Sicilian
monarchy (Geoff. Mai. iv. 29). But Greek worship went on; at
Messina it lingered till the i$th century (Pirro, Sicilia sacra,
i. 420, 431, 449), as it has been since brought back by the
Albanian colonists. But the Greeks of Sicily have long been
united Greeks, admitting the authority of the see of Rome.
In its results the Norman conquest of Sicily was a Latin
conquest far more thorough than that which had been made
by the Roman commonwealth. The Norman princes
Linguistic protected all the races, creeds and tongues of the
island, Greek, Saracen and Jew. But new races came
to settle alongside of them, all of whom were Latin
as far as their official speech was concerned. The Normans
brought the French tongue with them; it remained the
court speech during the i2th century, and Sicily was thrown
open to all speakers of French, many of whom came from
England. There was constant intercourse between the two
great islands, both ruled by Norman kings, and many natives of
England filled high places in Sicily. But French was only a
language of society, not of business or literature. The languages
of inscriptions and documents are Greek, Arabic and Latin, in
private writings sometimes Hebrew. The kings understood
Greek and Arabic, and their deeds and works were commemorated
in both tongues. Hence'Comes the fact, at first sight so strange,
that Greek, Arabic and French have all given way to a dialect
of Italian. But the cause is not far to seek. The Norman
conquest opened Sicily to settlers from Italy, above all from
the Norman possessions in Italy. Under the name of Lombards,
XXV. 2
elements
In Sicily.
they became an important, in some parts a dominant, element.
Thus at Messina, where we hear nothing of Saracens, we hear
much of the disputes between Greeks and Lombards. The
Lombards had hardly a distinct language to bring with them.
At the time of the conquest, it was already found out that French
had become a distinct speech from Latin; Italian hardly was
such. The Lombard element, during the Norman reign, shows
itself, not in whole documents or inscriptions, but in occasional
words and forms, as in some of the mosaics at Monreale. And,
if any element, Latin or akin to Latin, had lingered on through
Byzantine and Saracen rule, it would of course be attracted to
the new Latin element, and would help to strengthen it. It
was this Lombard element that had the future before it. Greek
and Arabic were antiquated, or at least isolated, in a land which
Norman conquest had made part of western Europe and Latin
Christendom. They could grow only within the island; they
could gain no strength from outside. Even the French element
was in some sort isolated, and later events made it more so. But
the Lombard element was constantly strengthened by settlement
from outside. In the older Latin conquest, the Latin carried
Greek with him, and the Greek element absorbed the Latin.
Latin now held in western Europe the place which Greek had
held there. Thus, in the face of Italian, both Greek and Arabic
died out. Step by step, Christian Sicily became Latin in speech
and in worship. But this was not till the Norman reigns were
over. Till the end of the i2th century Sicily was the one land
where men of divers creeds and tongues could live side by side.
Hence came both the short-lived brilliancy of Sicily and its
later decay. In Sicily there were many nations all protected
by the Sicilian king; but there was no Sicilian nation. Greek,
Saracen, Norman, Lombard and Jew could not be fused into
one people; it was the boast of Sicily that each kept his laws
and tongue undisturbed. Such a state of things could live on
only under an enlightened despotism; the discordant elements
could not join to work out really free and national institutions.
Sicily had parliaments, and some constitutional principles
were well understood. But they were assemblies of barons,
or at most of barons and citizens; they could only have repre-
sented the Latin elements, Norman and Lombard, in the island.
The elder races, Greek and Saracen, stand outside the relations
between the Latin king and his Latin subjects. Still, as long
as Greek and Saracen were protected and favoured, so long
was Sicily the most brilliant of European kingdoms. But its
greatness had no groundwork of national life; for lack of it
the most brilliant of kingdoms presently sank below the level
of other lands.
Four generations only span the time from the birth of Count
Roger, about 1030, to the death of the emperor Frederick II.
in 1250. Roger, great count of Sicily, was, at his
death in 1101, succeeded by his young son Simon,
and he in 1105 by the second Roger, the first king. He inherited
all Sicily, save half Palermo the other half had been given up
and part of Calabria. The rest of Palermo was soon granted;
the Semitic capital became the abiding head of Sicily. On the
death of his cousin Duke William of Apulia, Roger gradually
founded (1127-1140) a great Italian dominion. To the Apulian
duchy he added (1136) the Norman principality of Capua,
Naples (1138), the last dependency of the Eastern empire in
Italy, and (1140) the Abruzzi, an undoubted land of the Western
empire. He thus formed a dominion which has been divided,
united and handed over from one prince to another oftener than
any other state in Europe, but whose frontier has hardly changed
at all. In 1130 Roger was crowned at Palermo, by authority
of the antipope Anacletus, taking the strange title of " king of
Sicily and Italy." This, on his reconciliation with Pope Innocent
II., he exchanged for " king of Sicily and of the duchy of Apulia
and of the principality of Capua." By virtue of the old relations
between the popes and the Normans of Apulia, he held bis
kingdom in fief of the Holy See, a position which on the whole
strengthened the royal power. But his power, like that of
Dionysius and Agathocles, was felt in more distant regions.
His admiral George of Antioch, Greek by birth and creed, warred
34
SICILY
Tancred.
against the Eastern empire, won Corfu (Korypho; the name of
Korkyra is forgotten) for a season, and carried off the silk-workers
from Thebes and Peloponnesus to Sicily. But Manuel Comnenus
ruled in the East, and, if Roger threatened Constantinople,
Manuel threatened Sicily. In Africa the work of Agathocles was
more than renewed; Mahdia and other points were won and kept
as long as Roger lived. These exploits won him the name of
the " terror of Greeks and Saracens." To the Greeks, and still
more to the Saracens, of his own island he was a protector and
something more. His love for mathematical science, geography,
&c., in which the Arabs excelled, is noteworthy.
Roger's son William, surnamed the Bad, was crowned in his
father's lifetime in 1151. Roger died in 1154, and William's
sole reign lasted till 1 166. It was a time of domestic re-
rrtlltatn /. i n i i i I
anil u. Demons, chiefly against the king s unpopular ministers,
and it is further marked by the loss of Roger's African
conquests. After William the Bad came (1166-1189) ms son
William the Good. Unlike as were the two men in themselves,
in their foreign policy they are hardly to be distinguished. The
Bad William has a short quarrel with the pope; otherwise
Bad and Good alike appear as zealous supporters of Alexander
III. and as enemies of both empires. The Eastern warfare of the
Good is stained by the frightful sack of Thessalonica; it is
marked also by the formation of an Eastern state under Sicilian
supremacy (1186). Corfu, the possession of Agathocles and
Roger, with Durazzo, Cephalonia and Zante, was granted by
William to his admiral Margarito with the strange title of king
of the Epeirots. He founded a dynasty, though not of kings,
in Cephalonia and Zante. Corfu and Durazzo were to be more
closely connected with the Sicilian crown.
The brightest days of Sicily ended with William the Good.
His marriage with Joanna, daughter of Henry of Anjou and
England, was childless, and William tried to procure
the succession of his aunt Constance and her husband,
King Henry VI. of Germany, son of the emperor Frederick I.
But the prospect of German rule was unpopular, and on William's
death the crown passed to Tancred, an illegitimate grandson
of King Roger, who figures in English histories in the story of
Richard III.'s crusade. In 1191 Henry, now emperor, asserted
his claims; but, while Tancred lived, he did little, in Sicily
nothing, to enforce them. On the death of Tancred (1194)
and the accession of his young son William III., the emperor
came and conquered Sicily and the Italian possessions, with
an amount of cruelty which outdid any earlier war or
revolution. First of four Western emperors who wore
the Sicilian crown, Henry died in 1197, leaving the
kingdom to his young son Frederick, heir of the Norman kings
through his mother.
The great days of the Norman conquest and the Norman
reigns have been worthily recorded by contemporary historians.
For few times have we richer materials. The oldest is Aime
or Amato of Monte Cassino, who exists only in an Old-French
translation. We have also for the Norman conquest the halting
hexameters of William of Apulia, and for the German conquest
the lively and partial verses of Peter of Eboli. 1 Of prose writers
we have Geoffrey Malaterra, Alexander abbot of Telesia, Romuald
archbishop of Salerno, Falco of Benevento, and above all Hugo
Falcandus, one of the very foremost of medieval writers. Not
one of these Latin writers was a native of the island, and we have
no record from any native Greek. Occasional notices we of
course have in the Byzantine writers, and Archbishop Eustathius's
account of the taking of Thessalonica is more than occasional.
And the close connexion between Sicily and England leads to
many occasional references to Sicilian matters in English writers.
The relations between the various races of the islands are most
instructive. The strong rule of Roger kept all in order. He
called himself the defender of Christians; others, on account
of his favour to the Saracens, spoke of him as a pagan. He
certainly encouraged Saracen art and literature in every shape.
1 Petri Ansplini de Ebtilo de rebus Siculis carmen (republished in
the new edition of Muratori's Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, by
E. Rota, torn, xxxi., Citta di Castello, 1904).
'
His court was full of eunuchs, of whom we hear still more under
William the Bad. Under William the Good the Saracens,
without any actual oppression, seem to be losing their position.
Hitherto they had been one element in the land, keeping their
own civilization alongside of others. By a general outbreak
on the death of William the Good, the Saracens, especially those
of Palermo, were driven to take shelter in the mountains, where
they sank into a wild people, sometimes holding points of the
island against all rulers, sometimes taking military service under
them. The Jews too begin to sink into bondmen. Sicily is
ceasing to be the land of many nations living side by side on
equal terms.
The Germans who helped Henry to win the Sicilian crown
did not become a new element in the island, but only a source
of confusion during the minority of his son. Frederick
presently to be the renowned emperor Frederick II., Bm P er r
.... .,.,.' Frederick
Fndencus stupor mundi et immutator mirabilis u
was crowned at Palermo in 1198; but the child,
deprived of both parents, was held to be under the protection
of his lord Pope Innocent III. During his minority the land was
torn in pieces by turbulent nobles, revolted Saracens, German
captains seeking settlements, the maritime cities of Italy, and
professed French deliverers. In 1210 the emperor Otto IV.,
who had overrun the continental dominions, threatened the
island. In 1212, just when Frederick was reaching an age to be
of use in his own kingdom, he was called away to dispute the
crown of Germany and Rome with Otto. Eight years more of
disorder followed; in 1220 the emperor-king came back. He
brought the Saracens of the mountains back again to a life in
plains and cities, and presently planted a colony of them on the
mainland at Nocera, when they became his most trusty soldiers.
His necessary absences from Sicily led to revolts. He came back
in 1 233 from his crusade to suppress a revolt of the eastern '
cities, which seem to have been aiming at republican indepen-
dence. A Saracen revolt in 1243 is said to have been followed
by a removal of the whole remnant to Nocera. Some, however,
certainly stayed or came back; but their day was over.
Under Frederick the Italian or Lombard element finally
prevailed in Sicily. Of all his kingdoms Sicily was the
best-beloved. He spoke all its tongues; he protected,
as far as circumstances would allow, all its races. The
heretic alone was persecuted; he was the domestic rebel
of the church; Saracen and Jew were entitled to the rights
of foreigners. Yet Frederick, patron of Arabic learning, sus-
pected even of Moslem belief, failed to check the decline of the
Saracen element in Sicily. The Greek element had no such
forces brought against it. It was still a chief tongue of the island,
in which Frederick's laws were put forth as well as in Latin.
But it was clearly a declining element. Greek and Saracen were
both becoming survivals in an island which was but one of the
many kingdoms of its king. The Italian element advanced at
the cost of all others. Frederick chose it as the court speech
of Sicily, and he made it the speech of a new-born literature.
Sicily, strangely enough, became the cradle of Italian song.
Two emperors had now held the Sicilian crown. On
Frederick's death in 1250 the crown passed to his son Conrad,
not emperor indeed, but king of the Romans. He was
nominally succeeded by his son Conradin. The real
ruler under both was Frederick's natural son Manfred. In 1258,
on a false rumour of the death of Conradin, Manfred was himself
crowned king of Palermo. He had to found the kingdom afresh.
Pope Innocent IV. had crossed into Sicily, to take advantage
of the general discontent. The cities, whose growing liberties
had been checked by Frederick's legislation, strove for practical,
if not formal, independence, sometimes for dominion over their
fellows. The 5th century B.C. seemed to have come back.
Messina laid waste the lands of Taormina, because Taormina
would not obey the bidding of Messina. Yet, among these and
other elements of confusion, Manfred succeeded in setting up
again the kingly power, first for his kinsmen and then for himself.
His reign continued that of his father, so far as a mere king
could continue the reign of such an emperor. The king of Sicily
Maatred.
SICILY
35
was the first potentate of Italy, and came nearer than any prince
since Louis II. to the union of Italy under Italian rule. He
sought dominion too beyond the Adriatic: Corfu, Durazzo, and
a strip of the Albanian coast became Sicilian possessions as the
dowry of Manfred's Greek wife. But papal enmity was too
much for him. His overlord claimed to dispose of his crown,
and hawked it about among the princes of the West. Edmund
of England bore the Sicilian title for a moment. More came of
the grant of Urban IV. (1264) to Charles, count of Anjou, and
through his wife sovereign count of Provence. Charles,
Charles of ju u j * * i
Aoiou crowned by the pope m 1266, marched to take posses-
sion of his lord's grant. Manfred was defeated and
slain at Benevento. The whole Sicilian kingdom became the
spoil of a stranger who was no deliverer to any class of its people.
The island sank yet lower. Naples, not Palermo, was the head
of the new power; Sicily was again a province. But a province
Sicily had no mind to be. In the continental lands Charles
founded a dynasty; the island he lost after sixteen years. His
rule was not merely the rule of a stranger king surrounded by
stranger followers; the degradation of the island was aggravated
by gross oppression, grosser than in the continental lands. The
continental lands submitted, with a few slight efforts at resist-
ance. The final result of the Angevin conquest of Sicily was its
separation from the mainland.
Sicilian feeling was first shown in the support given to the
luckless expedition of Conradin in 1268. Frightful executions
in the island followed his fall. The rights of the Swabian house
were now held to pass to Peter (Pedro), king of Aragon, husband
of Manfred's daughter Constance. The connexion with Spain,
which has so deeply affected the whole later history of Sicily,
now begins. Charles held the Greek possessions of Manfred
and had designs both on Epeiros and on Constantinople. The
emperor Michael Palaeologus and Peter of Aragon became allies
against Charles; the famous John of Procida acted as an agent
between them; the costs of Charles's eastern warfare caused
great discontent, especially in an island where some might still
look to the Greek emperor as a natural deliverer. Peter and
Michael were doubtless watching the turn of things in Sicily;
but the tale of a long-hidden conspiracy between them and the
whole Sicilian people has been set aside by Amari. The actual
outbreak of 1282, the famous Sicilian Vespers, was stirred up by
the wrongs of the moment. A gross case of insult offered by a
Frenchman to a Sicilian woman led to the massacre at Palermo,
and the like scenes followed elsewhere. The strangers were cut
off; Sicily was left to its own people. The towns and districts
left without a ruler by no means designed to throw off the
authority of the overlord; they sought the good will of Pope
Martin. But papal interests were on the side of Charles; and
he went forth with the blessing of the church to win back his
lost kingdom.
Angevin oppression had brought together all Sicily in a
common cause. There was at last a Sicilian nation, a nation
for a while capable of great deeds. Sicily now stands out as a
main centre of European politics. But the land has lost its
character; it is becoming the plaything of powers, instead of
the meeting-place of nations. The tale, true or false, that
Frenchmen and Provencals were known from the natives by
being unable to frame the Italian sound of c shows how
thoroughly the Lombard tongue had overcome the other tongues
of the island. In Palermo, once city of threefold speech, a Greek,
a Saracen, a Norman who spoke his own tongue must have died
with the strangers.
Charles was now besieging Messina; Sicily seems to have
put on some approach to the form of a federal commonwealth.
Meanwhile Peter of Aragon was watching and pre-
Aragon. paring. He now declared himself. 'To all, except
the citizens of the great cities, a king would be accept-
able; Peter was chosen with little opposition in a parliament at
Palermo, and a struggle of twenty-one years began, of which
Charles and Peter saw only the first stage. In fact, after Peter
had helped the Sicilians to relieve Messina, he was very little
in Sicily; he had to defend his kingdom of Aragon, which Pope
Martin had granted to another French Charles. He was repre-
sented by Queen Constance, and his great admiral Roger de
Loria kept the war away from Sicily, waging it wholly in Italy,
and making Charles, the son of King Charles, prisoner. In 1285
both the rival kings died. Charles had before his death been
driven to make large legislative concessions to his subjects to
stop the tendency shown, especially in Naples, to join the
revolted Sicilians. By Peter's death Aragon and Sicily were
separated; his eldest son Alphonso took Aragon, and his second
son James took Sicily, which was to pass to the third j ames
son Frederick, if James died childless. James was
crowned, and held his reforming parliament also. With the
popes no terms could be made. Charles, released in 1 288 under
a deceptive negotiation, was crowned king of Sicily by Honorius
IV.; but he had much ado to defend his continental dominions
against James and Roger. In 1291 James succeeded Alphonso
in the kingdom of Aragon, and left Frederick not king, according
to the entail, but only his lieutenant in Sicily.
Frederick was the real restorer of Sicilian independence. He
had come to the island so young that he felt as a native. He
defended the land stoutly, even against his brother.
For James presently played Sicily false. In 1295 he "**'
was reconciled to the church and released from all French
claims on Aragon, and he bound himself to restore Sicily to
Charles. But the Sicilians, with Frederick at their head, dis-
owned the agreement, and in 1296 Frederick was crowned king.
He had to defend Sicily against his brother and Roger de Loria,
who forsook the cause, as did John of Procida. Hitherto the
war had been waged on. the mainland; now it was transferred
to Sicily. King James besieged Syracuse as admiral of the
Roman Church; Charles sent his son Robert in 1299 as his
lieutenant in Sicily, where he gained some successes. But in the
same year the one great land battle of the war, that of Falconaria,
was won for Sicily. The war, chiefly marked by another great
siege of Messina, went on till 1302, when both sides were
thoroughly weakened and eager for peace. By a treaty, con-
firmed by Pope Boniface VIII. the next year, Frederick was
acknowledged as king of Trinacria for life. He was to marry
the daughter of the king of Sfcily, to whom the island kingdom
was to revert at his death. The terms were never meant to be
carried out. Frederick again took up the title of king pgfer
of Sicily, and at his death in 1337 he was succeeded
by his son Peter. VThere were thus two Sicilian kingdoms and
two kings of Sicily. The king of the mainland is often spoken
of for convenience as king of Naples, but that description was
never borne 'as a formal title save in the i6th century by Philip,
king of England and Naples, and in the igth by Joseph Buona-
parte and Joachim Murat. The strict distinction was between
Sicily on this side the Pharos (of Messina) and Sicily beyond it.
Thus the great island of the Mediterranean again became
an independent power. And, as far as legislation could make it,
Sicily became one of the freest countries in Europe. By the
laws of Frederick parliaments were to be regularly held, and
without their consent the king could not make war, peace or
alliance. The treaty of 1302 was not confirmed by parliament,
and in 1337 parliament called Peter to the crown. But Sicily
never rose to the greatness of its Greek or its Norman days,
and its old character had passed away. Of Greeks and Saracens
we now hear only as a degraded remnant, to be won over, if it
may be, to the Western Church. The kingdom had no foreign
possessions; yet faint survivals of the days of Agathocles and
Roger lingered on. The isle of Gerba off the African coast was
held for a short time, and traces of the connexion with Greece
went on in various shapes. If the kings of Sicily on this side the
Pharos kept Corfu down to 1386, those beyond the Pharos
became in 1311 overlords of Athens, when that duchy was
seized by Catalan adventurers, disbanded after the wars of Sicily.
In 1530 the Sicilian island of Malta became the shelter of the
Knights of Saint John driven by the Turk from Rhodes, and
Sicily has received several colonies of Christian Albanians, who
have replaced Greek and Arabic by yet another tongue. (See
NAPLES, KINGDOM OF.) (E. A. F.; T. As.)
SICKINGEN SICULI
SICKINGEN, FRANZ VON (1481-1523), German knight, one
of the most notable figures of the first period of the Reformation,
was born at Ebernburg near Worms. Having fought for the
emperor Maximilian I. against Venice in 1508, he inherited large
estates on the Rhine, and increased his wealth and reputation by
numerous private feuds, in which he usually posed as the friend
of the oppressed. In 1513 he took up the quarrel of Balthasar
Schlor, a citizen who had been driven out of Worms, and attacked
this city with 7000 men. In spite of the imperial ban, he devas-
tated its lands, intercepted its commerce, and only desisted
when his demands were granted. He made war upon Antony,
duke of Lorraine, and compelled Philip, landgrave of Hesse,
to pay him 35,000 gulden. In 1518 he interfered in a civil
conflict in Metz, ostensibly siding with the citizens against the
governing oligarchy. He led an army of 20,000 men against the
city, compelled the magistrates to give him 20,000 gold gulden
and a month's pay for his troops. In 1518 Maximilian released
him from the ban, and he took part in the war carried on by the
Swabian League against Ulrich I., duke of Wiirttemberg. In the
contest for the imperial throne upon the death of Maximilian in
1519, Sickingen accepted bribes from Francis I., king of France,
but when the election took place he led his troops to Frankfort,
where their presence assisted to secure the election of Charles V.
For this service he was made imperial chamberlain and councillor,
and in 1521 he led an expedition into France, which ravaged
Picardy, but was beaten back from Mezieres and forced to
retreat. About 1517 Sickingen became intimate with Ulrich
von Hutten, and gave his support to Hutten's schemes. In
1519 a threat from him freed John Reuchlin from his enemies,
the Dominicans, and his castles became in Hutten's words a refuge
for righteousness. Here many of the reformers found shelter,
and a retreat was offered to Martin Luther. After the failure
of the French expedition, Sickingen, aided by Hutten, formed,
or revived, a large scheme to overthrow the spiritual princes
and to elevate the order of knighthood. He hoped to secure this
by the help of the towns and peasants, and to make a great
position for himself. A large army was soon collected, many
nobles from the upper Rhineland joined the standard, and
at Landau, in August 1522, Sickingen was formally named
commander. He declared war against his old enemy, Richard of
Greiffenklau, archbishop of Trier, and marched against that
city. Trier was loyal to the archbishop, and the landgrave of
Hesse and Louis V., count palatine of the Rhine, hastened to his
assistance. Sickingen, who had not obtained the help he wished
for, was compelled to fall back on his castle of Landstuhl, near
Kaiserslautern, collecting much booty on the way. On the
22nd of October 1522 the council of regency placed him under
the ban, to which he replied, in the spring of 1523, by plundering
Kaiserslautern. The rulers of Trier, Hesse and the Palatinate
decided to press the campaign against him, and having obtained
help from the Swabian League, marched on Landstuhl. Sickingen
refused to treat, and during the siege was seriously wounded.
This attack is notable as one of the first occasions on which
artillery was used, and by its aid breaches were soon made in an
otherwise impregnable fortress. On the 6th of May 1523 he was
forced to capitulate, and on the following day he died. He was
buried at Landstuhl, and in 1889 a splendid monument was
raised at Ebernburg to his memory and to that of Hutten.
His son Franz Conrad was made a baron of the empire (Reichs-
freiherr) by Maximilian II., and a descendant was raised in 1773
to the rank of count (Reichsgraf). A branch of the family still
exists in Austria and Silesia.
See H. Ulmann, Franz von Sickingen (Leipzig, 1872); F. P.
Bremer, Sickingens Fehde gegen Trier (Strassburg, 1885); H. Prutz,
" Franz von Sickingen " in Der neue Plutarch (Leipzig, 1880), and the
" Flersheimer Chronik " in Hutten's Deutsche Schriften, edited by
O. Waltz und Szamatolati (Strassburg, 1891).
SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825- ), American soldier
and diplomatist, was born in New York City on the 2oth of
October 1825. He learned the printer's trade, studied in the
university of the City of New York (now New York University),
was admitted to the bar in 1846, and was a member of the state
Assembly in 1847. In 1853 he became corporation counsel of
New York City, but resigned soon afterward to become secretary
of the U.S. legation in London, under James Buchanan. He
returned to America in 1855, was a member of the state Senate
in 1856-1857, and from 1857 to 1861 was a Democratic repre-
sentative in Congress. In 1859 he was tried on a charge of
murder, having shot Philip Barton Key, U.S. attorney for the
District of Columbia, whom Sickles had discovered to have a
liaison with his wife; but was acquitted after a dramatic trial
lasting twenty days. At the outbreak of the Civil War Sickles
was active in raising United States volunteers in New York, and
was appointed colonel of a regiment. He became a brigadier-
general of volunteers in September 1 861 , led a brigade of the Army
of the Potomac with credit up to the battle of Antietam, and then
succeeded to a divisional command. He took part with dis-
tinction in the battle of Fredericksburg, and in 1863 as a major-
general commanded the III. army corps. His energy and
ability were conspicuous in the disastrous battle of Chancellors-
ville (q.v.); and at Gettysburg (q.v.) the part played by the III.
corps in the desperate fighting around the Peach Orchard was one
of the most noteworthy incidents in the battle. Sickles himself
lost a leg and his active military career came to an end. He was,
however, employed to the end of the war, and in 1867 received the
brevets of brigadier-general U.S.A. and major-general U.S.A.
for his services at Fredericksburg and Gettysburg respectively.
General Sickles was one of the few successful volunteer generals
who served on either side. Soon after the close of the Civil War
he was sent on a confidential mission to Colombia to secure its
compliance with a treaty agreement (of 1846) permitting the
United States to convey troops across the Isthmus of Panama.
In 1866-1867 ne commanded the department of the Carolinas.
In 1866 he was appointed colonel of the 42nd infantry (Veteran
Reserve Corps), and in 1869 he was retired with the rank of
major-general. He was minister to Spain from 1869 to 1873, and
took part in the negotiations growing out of the " Virg'inius
Affair " (see SANTIAGO, CUBA). General Sickles was president of
the New York State Board of Civil Service Commissioners in
1888-1889, was sheriff of New York in 1890, and was again a
representative in Congress in 1893-1895.
SICULI, an ancient Sicilian tribe, which in historical times
occupied the eastern half of the island to which they gave their
name. It plays a large though rather shadowy part in the early
traditions of pre-Roman Italy. There is abundant evidence that
the Siculi once lived in Central Italy east and even north of
Rome (e.g. Servius ad Aen. vii. 795; Dion. Hal. i. 9. 22; Thucy-
dides vi. 2). Thence they were dislodged by the Umbro-Safme
tribes, and finally crossed to Sicily. Archaeologists are not yet
agreed as to the particular stratum of remains in Italy to which
the name of the Siculi should be attached (see for instance
B. Modestov, Introduction a I'histoire romaine, Paris, 1907,
pp. 135 sqq.). They were distinct from the Sicani (q.v.; Virg.
Aen. viii. 328) who inhabited the western half of the island,
and who according to Thucydides came from Spain, but whom
Virgil seems to recognize in Italy. Both traditions may be true
(cf. W. Ridgeway, Who were the Romans? London, 1908, p. 23).
Of the language of the Siculi we know a very little from glosses
preserved to us by ancient writers, most of which were collected
by E. A. Freeman (Sicily, vol. i. App. note iv.), and from an
inscription upon what is presumably an ornamental earthen-
ware wine vessel, which has very much the shape of a tea-pot,
preserved and transcribed by R. S. Conway in the Collection of
the Grand Duke of Baden at Karlsruhe (Winnefeld, Grossherzogl.
vereinigte Sammlungen, 1887, 120), which has been discussed by
R. Thurneysen (Kuhn's Zeitschrift, xxxv. 214). The inscription
was found at Centuripa, and the alphabet is Greek of the sth or
6th century B.C. We have not enough evidence to make a
translation possible, despite Thurneysen's valiant effort, but the
recurrence of the phrase hemiton esti durom in a varied order
(durom hemiton esti) presumably a drinking song or proverb,
" half a cup is sorry cheer," though it is possible that the sign
read as m may really denote some kind of i makes the division
of these three words quite certain, and renders it highly probable
that we have to do with an Indo-European language. None of
SICYON SIDDONS
37
the groups of sounds occurring in the rest of the inscription,
nor any of the endings of words so far as they may be guessed,
present any reason for doubting this hypothesis; and the glosses
already mentioned can one and all be easily connected with Greek
or Latin words (e.g. noirov, mutuum) ; in fact it would be
difficult to rebut the contention that they should all be regarded
as mere borrowings. (R. S. C.)
The towns of the Siculi, like those of the Sicani, formed no
political union, but were under independent rulers. They played
an important part in the history of the island after the arrival of
the Greeks (see SICILY). Their agricultural pursuits and the
volcanic nature of the island made them worshippers of the gods
of the nether world, and they have enriched mythology with
some distinctly national figures. The most important of these
were the Palici, protectors of agriculture and sailors, who had a
lake and temple in the neighbourhood of the river Symaethus,
the chief seat of the Siceli; Adranus, father of the Palici, a god
akin to Hephaestus, in whose temple a fire was always kept
burning; Hybla (or Hyblaea), after whom three towns were
named, whose sanctuary was at Hybla Gereatis. The connexion
of Demeter and Kore with Henna (the rape of Proserpine) and of
Arethusa with Syracuse is due to Greek influence. The chief
Sicel towns were: Agyrium (San Filippo d' Argiro); Centuripa
(or Centuripae; Centorbi)', Henna (Caslrogiovanni, a corruption
of Castrum Hennae through the Arabic Casr-janni) ; Hybla,
three in number, (a) Hybla Major, called Geleatis or Gereatis, on
the river Symaethus, probably the Hybla famous for its honey,
although according to others this was (b) Hybla Minor, on the E.
coast N. of Syracuse, afterwards the site of the Dorian colony of
Megara, (c) Hybla Heraea in the S. of the island.
For authorities see SICILY.
SICYON, or SECYON (the latter being the older form used by
the natives), an ancient Greek city situated in northern Pelopon-
nesus between Corinthia and Achaea. It was built on a low
triangular plateau about 2 m. from the Corinthian Gulf, at the
confluence of the Asopus and the Helisson, whose sunken beds
protected it on E. and W. Between the city and its port lay a
fertile plain with olive-groves and orchards. Sicyon's primitive
name Aegialeia indicates that its original population was Ionian;
in the Iliad it appears as a dependency of Agamemnon, and its
earjy connexion with Argos is further proved by the myth and
surviving cult of Adrastus. After the Dorian invasion the com-
munity was divided anew into the ordinary three Dorian tribes
and an equally privileged tribe of lonians, besides which a class
of Kopvvii<l>6poi or Ka.TC>jva.Ko<j>6pm lived on the land as serfs. For
some centuries Sicyon remained subject to Argos, whence its
Dorian conquerors had come; as late as 500 B.C. it acknowledged
a certain suzerainty. But its virtual independence was estab-
lished in the yth century, when a line of tyrants arose and initiated
an anti-Dorian policy. This dynasty, known after its founder
Orthagoras as the Orthagoridae, exercised a mild rule, and there-
fore lasted longer than any other succession of Greek tyrants
(about 665-565 B.C.). Chief of these rulers was the founder's
grandson Cleisthenes the uncle of the Athenian legislator of that
name (see CLEISTHENES, 2). Besides reforming the city's con-
stitution to the advantage of the lonians and replacing Dorian
cults by the worship of Dionysus, Cleisthenes gained renown as
the chief instigator and general of the First Sacred War (590)
in the interests of the Delphians. From Herodotus' famous
account of the wooing of Agariste it may be inferred that he
held intercourse with many commercial centres of Greece and
south Italy. About this time Sicyon developed the various
industries for which it was noted in antiquity. As the abode of
the sculptors Dipoenus and Scyllis it gained pre-eminence in wood-
carving and bronze work such as is still to be seen in the archaic
metal facings found at Olympia. Its pottery, which resembled
the Corinthian ware, was exported with the latter as far as
Etruria. In Sicyon also the art of painting was supposed to have
been " invented." After the fall of the tyrants their institutions
survived till the end of the 6th century, when the Dorian supre-
macy was re-established, perhaps by the agency of Sparta, and
the city was enrolled in the Peloponnesian League. Henceforth
its policy was usually determined either by Sparta or by its
powerful neighbour Corinth. During the Persian wars Sicyon
could place 3000 heavy-armed men in the field; its school of
bronze sculptors still flourished, and produced in Canachus (q.v.)
a master of the late archaic style. In the 5th century it suffered
like Corinth from the commercial rivalry of Athens in the western
seas, and was repeatedly harassed by flying squadrons of Athenian
ships. In the Peloponnesian war Sicyon followed the lead of
Sparta and Corinth. When these two powers quarrelled after the
peace of Nicias it remained loyal to the Spartans; but the
latter thought it prudent to stiffen the oligarchic government
against a nascent democratic movement. Again in the Corinthian
war Sicyon sided with Sparta and became its base of operations
against the allied troops round Corinth. In 369 it was captured
and garrisoned by the Thebans in their successful attack on the
Peloponnesian League. On this occasion a powerful citizen
named Euphron effected a democratic revolution and established
himself tyrant by popular support. His deposition by the
Thebans and subsequent murder freed Sicyon for a season, but
new tyrants arose with the help of Philip II. of Macedon. Never-
theless during this period Sicyon reached its zenith as a centre
of art: its school of painting gained fame under Eupompus
and attracted the great masters Pamphilus and Apelles as
students; its sculpture was raised to a level hardly surpassed in
Greece by Lysippus and his pupils. After participating in the
Lamian war and the campaigns of the Macedonian pretenders the
city was captured (303) by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who trans-
planted all the inhabitants to the Acropolis and renamed the site
Demetrias. In the 3rd century it again passed from tyrant to
tyrant, until in 251 it was finally liberated and enrolled in the
Achaean League by Aratus (q.v.). The destruction of Corinth
( 1 46) brought Sicyon an acquisition of territory and the presidency
over the Isthmian games; yet in Cicero's time it had fallen deep
into debt. Under the empire it was quite obscured by the re-
stored cities of Corinth and Patrae; in Pausanias' age (A.D. 150)
it was almost desolate. In Byzantine times it became a bishop's
seat, and to judge by its later name" Hellas " it served as a refuge
for the Greeks from the Slavonic immigrants of the 8th century.
The village of Vasiliko which now occupies the site is quite
insignificant. On the plateau parts of the ancient fortifications
are still visible, including the wall between town and Acropolis
near the southern apex. A little north of this wall are remains
of a theatre and stadium, traces of aqueducts and foundations
of buildings. The theatre, which was excavated by the American
School of Archaeology in 1886-1887, 1891 and 1898, was built in
the slope towards the Acropolis, probably in the first half of the
4th century, and measured 400 ft. in diameter; the stage was
rebuilt in Roman times. The side entrances to the auditorium
were covered in with vaults of Greek construction; a curious
feature is a tunnel from below the stage into the middle of the
auditorium.
AUTHORITIES. Strabo, pp. 382, 389; Herodotus v. 67-68, vi. 92,
ix. 28; Thucydides i. 108, in; iv. 70, 101 ; v. 52, 82; Xenophon,
Hellenica, iv., vi., vii. ; Diodorus xviii. II, xx. 102 ; Pausanias
ii. 5-11; W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea (London, 1830), iii.
PP- 35!-38l; E. Curtius, Peloponnesos (Gotha, 1851), ii. pp.
482-505; American Journal of Archaeology, v. (1889) pp. 267-303,
viii. (1893) PP- 288-400, xx. (1905) pp. 263-276; L. Dyer in the
Journal of Hellenic Studies (1906), pp. 76-83; for coins, B. V. Head,
Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 345-346; also NUMIS-
MATICS, section Greek, " Patrae, Sicyon." (M. O. B. C.)
SIDDONS, SARAH (1755-1831), English actress, the eldest
of twelve children of Roger Kemble, was born in the
" Shoulder of Mutton " public-house, Brecon, Wales, on the sth
of July 1755. Through the special care of her mother in sending
her to the schools in the towns where the company played,
Sarah Kemble received a remarkably good education, although
she was accustomed to make her appearance on the stage while
still a child. She became attached to William Siddons, an
actor of the company; but this was discountenanced by her
parents, who wished her to accept the offer of a squire. Siddons
was dismissed from the company, and she was sent to a situation
as lady's maid to Mrs Greathead at Guy's Cliff in Warwickshire.
Here she recited Shakespeare, Milton and Rowein the servants'
SIDE SIDEBOARD
hall, and occasionally before aristocratic company, and here also
she began to develop a capacity for sculpture which was sub-
sequently developed (between 1789 and 1790), and of which
she provided samples in busts of herself and of her son. The
necessary consent to her union with Siddons was at last obtained,
and the marriage took place at Trinity Church, Coventry, on the
a6th of November 1773. It was while playing at Cheltenham
in the following year that Mrs Siddons met with the earliest
decided recognition of her powers as an actress, when by her
representation of Belvidera in Otway's Venice Preserved she
moved to tears a party of " people of quality " who had come
to scoff. Her merits were made known by them to Garrick, who
sent his deputy to Cheltenham to see her as Calista in Rowe's
Fair Penitent, the result being that she was engaged to appear
at Drury Lane at a salary of 5 a week. Owing to inex-
perience as well as other circumstances, her first appearances as
Portia and in other parts were unfortunate, and when, after
playing with success in Birmingham, she was about to return to
town she received a note from the manager of Drury Lane stating
that her services would not be required. Thus, in her own words,
" banished from Drury Lane as a worthless candidate for fame
and fortune," she again in the beginning of 1777 went on " the
circuit " in the provinces. After a very successful engagement at
Bath, beginning in 1778 and lasting five years, she again accepted
an offer from Drury Lane, when her appearance as Isabella ih
Garrick's version of Southerne's Fatal Marriage, on the loth of
October 1782, was a triumph, only equalled in the history of the
English stage by that of Garrick's first night at Drury Lane in
1741 and that of Edmund Kean's in 1814. In her earlier years
it was in scenes of a tender and melting character that she
exercised the strongest sway over an audience; but in the
performance of Lady Macbeth, in which she appeared on the
and of February 1785 for the first time in London, it was the
grandeur of her exhibition of the more terrible passions as related
to one awful purpose that held them spellbound. In Lady
Macbeth she found the highest and best scope for her gifts.
It fitted her as no other character did, and as perhaps it will never
fit another actress. Her extraordinary and peculiar physical
endowments tall and striking figure, brilliant beauty, power-
fully expressive eyes, and solemn dignity of demeanour en-
abled her to confer a weird majesty on the character which in-
expressibly heightened the tragic awe surrounding her fate.
After Lady Macbeth she played Desdemona, Rosalind and
Ophelia, all with great success; but it was in Queen Catherine
which she first played on the occasion of her brother John
Kemble's spectacular revival of Henry VIII. in 1788 that she
discovered a part almost as well adapted to her peculiar powers
as that of Lady Macbeth. As Volumnia in Kemble's version of
Coriolanus she also secured a triumph. In her early life she had
attempted comedy, but her gifts in this respect were very limited.
It was of course inevitable that comparisons should be made
between her and her only peer, Rachel, who undoubtedly
excelled her in intensity and the portrayal of fierce passion, but
was a less finished artist and lacked Mrs Siddons' dignity and
pathos. Though Mrs Siddons' minute and systematic study
perhaps gave a certain amount of stiffness to her representations,
it conferred on them a symmetry and proportion to which
Rachel never attained. Mrs Siddons formally retired from the
stage in 1812, but occasionally appeared on special occasions even
when advanced in years. Her last appearance was on the oth of
June 1819 as Lady Randolph in Home's Douglas, for the benefit
of Mr and Mrs Charles Kcmble. Her most striking impersona-
tions, besides the r61es already mentioned, were those of Zara in
Congreve's Mourning Bride, Constance in King John, Mrs
Haller in The Stranger, and Elvira in Pizarro. In private life
Mrs Siddons enjoyed the friendship and respect of many of the
most eminent persons of her time. Horace Walpole at first
refused to join the fashionable chorus of her praise, but he was
ultimately won over. Dr Johnson wrote his name on the hem
of her garment in the famous picture of the actress as the Tragic
Muse by Reynolds (now in the Dulwich Gallery). " I would not
lose," he said, " the honour this opportunity afforded to me for
my name going down to posterity on the hem of your garment."
Mrs Siddons died in London on the 8th of June 1831, and was
buried in Paddington churchyard.
On the 1 4th of June 1897 Sir Henry Irving unveiled at Pad-
dington Green a marble statue of her by Chavalliaud, after the
portrait by Reynolds. There is also a large statue by Chantrey
in Westminster Abbey. Portraits by Lawrence and Gains-
borough are in the National Gallery, and a portrait ascribed to
Gainsborough is in the Garrick Club, London, which also possesses
two pictures of the actress as Lady Macbeth by George Henry
Harlow.
See Thomas Campbell, Life of Mrs Siddons (2 vols., 1834); Fitz-
gerald, The Kembles ( 3 vols., 1871); Frances Ann Kemble, Records
of a Girlhood (3 vols., 1878).
SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia), an ancient city on the Pamphylian
coast about 12 m. E. of the mouth of the Eurymedon. Possessing
a good harbour in the days of small craft, it was the most im-
portant place in Pamphylia. Alexander visited and occupied it,
and there the Rhodian fleet defeated that of Antiochus the Great,
and in the succeeding century the Cilician pirates established
their chief seat. An inscription found on the site shows it to
have had a considerable Jewish population in early Byzantine
times. The great ruins, among the most notable in Asia Minor,
have been re-occupied by some 200 families of Cretan Moslems.
They cover a large promontory, fenced from the mainland by a
ditch and wall which has been repaired in medieval times and is
singularly perfect. Within this is a maze of structures out of
which rises the colossal ruin of the theatre, built up on arches
like a Roman amphitheatre for lack of a convenient hill-side
to be hollowed out in the usual Greek fashion. The auditorium
is little less perfect than that of Aspendus and very nearly as
large; but the scena wall has collapsed over stage and proscenium
in a cataract of loose blocks. The arches now afford shelter and
stabling for the Cretans. Besides the theatres, three temples,
an aqueduct and a nymphaeum are noticeable.
See C. Lanckorouski, Les Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie, i.
(1890). (D. G..H.)
SIDEBOARD, a high oblong table fitted with drawers, cup-
boards or pedestals, and used for the exposition or storage of
articles required in the dining-room. Originally it was what
its name implies a side- table, to which the modern dinijer-
wagon very closely approximates. Then two- or three-tiered
sideboards were in use in the Tudor period, and were perhaps the
ancestors, or collaterals, of the court-cupboard, which in skeleton
they much resembled. Early in the i8th century they began to
be replaced by side-tables properly so called. They were one of
the many revolutions in furniture produced by the introduction
of mahogany, and those who could not afford the new and costly
wood used a cheap substitute stained to resemble it. In the
beginning these tables were entirely of wood and comparatively
slight, but before long it became the fashion to use a marble slab
instead of a wooden top, which necessitated a somewhat more
robust construction; here again there was a field for imitation,
and marble was sometimes replaced by scagliola. Many of the
sideboard tables of this period were exceedingly handsome,
with cabriole legs, claw or claw and bill feet, friezes of acanthus,
much gadrooning and mask pendants. Many such tables came
from Chippendale's workshops, but although that great genius
beautified the type he found, he had no influence upon the
evolution of the sideboard. That evolution was brought about
by the growth of domestic needs. Save upon its surface, the side-
board-table offered no accommodation; it usually lacked even
a drawer. Even, however, in the period of Chippendale's zenith
separate " bottle cisterns " and " lavatories " for the convenience
of the butler in washing the silver as the meals proceeded were,
sparsely no doubt, in use. By degrees it became customary to
place a pedestal, which was really a cellarette or a plate-warmer,
at each end of the sideboard-table. One of them would contain
ice and accommodation for bottles, the other would be a cistern.
Sometimes a single pedestal would be surmounted by a wooden
vase lined with metal and filled with water, and fitted with a
tap. To whom is due the brilliant inspiration of attaching the
SIDGWICK SIDI-BEL-ABBES
39
pedestals to the table and creating a single piece of furniture out
of three components there is nothing to show with certainty.
It is most probable that the credit is due to Shearer, who unques-
^ionably did much for the improvement of the sideboard;
Hepplewhite and the brothers Adam distinguished themselves
in the same field. The pedestals, when incorporated as an integral
part of the piece, became cupboards and the vases knife-boxes,
and, with the drawers, which had been occasionally used much
earlier, the sideboard, in what appears to be its final form, was
completed. Pieces exist in which the ends have been cut away
to receive the pedestals. If Shearer and Hepplewhite laid its
foundations, it was brought to its full floraison by Sheraton.
By the use of fine exotic woods, the deft employment of satin
wood and other inlays, and by the addition of gracefully orna-
mented brass- work at the back, sometimes surmounted by candles
to light up the silver, Sheraton produced effects of great elegance.
But for sheer artistic excellence in the components of what
presently became the sideboard, the Adams stand unrivalled,
some of their inlay and brass mounts being almost equal to the
first work of the great French school. By replacing the straight
outline with a bombe front, Hepplewhite added still further to
the grace of the late 18th-century sideboard. No art remains
long at its apogee, and in less than a quarter of a century the
sideboard lost its grace, and, influenced by the heavy feeling of
the Empire manner, grew massive and dull. Since the end of
the 1 8th century there has indeed been no advance, artistically
speaking, in this piece of furniture.
SIDGWICK, HENRY (1838-1900), English philosopher, was
born at Skipton in Yorkshire, where his father, the Rev. W.
Sidgwick (d. 1841), was headmaster of the grammar-school, on
the 3ist of May 1838. He was educated at Rugby (where his
cousin, subsequently his brother-in-law, E. W. Benson after-
wards archbishop was a master), and at Trinity, Cambridge,
where his- career was a brilliant one. In 1859 he was senior
classic, 33rd wrangler, chancellor's medallist and Craven scholar.
In the same year he was elected to a fellowship at Trinity, and
soon afterwards appointed to a classical lectureship there. This
post he held for ten years, but in 1869 exchanged his lectureship
for one in moral philosophy, a subject to which he had been turn-
ing his attention more and more. In the same year, finding that
he could no longer declare himself a member of the Church of
England, he resigned his fellowship. He retained his lectureship,
and in 1881 was elected an honorary fellow. In 1874 he published
his Method of Ethics (6th ed. 1901, containing emendations written
just before his death), which first won him a reputation outside
his university. In 187 5 he was appointed praclector on moral and
political philosophy at Trinity, in 1883 he was elected Knight-
bridge professor of moral philosophy, and in 1885, the religious
Jest having been removed, his college once more elected him to a
fellowship on the foundation. Besides his lecturing and literary
labours, Sidgwick took an active part in the business of the
university, and in many forms of social and philanthropic work.
He was a member of the General Board 'of Studies from its
foundation in 1882 till 1899; he was also a member of the Council
of the Senate of the Indian Civil Service Board and the Local
Examinations and Lectures Syndicate, and chairman of the
Special Board for Moral Science. He was one of the founders and
first president of the Society for Psychical Research, and was a
member of the Metaphysical Society. None of his work is more
closely identified with his name than the part he took in pro-
moting the higher education of women. He helped to start the
higher local examinations for women, and the lectures held at
Cambridge in preparation for these. It was at his suggestion and
with his help that Miss Clough opened a house of residence for
students; and when this had developed into Newnham College,
and in 1880 the North Hall was added, Mr Sidgwick, who had
in 1876 married Eleanor Mildred Balfour (sister of A. J. Balfour),
went with his wife to live there for two years. After Miss Clough 's
death in 1892 Mrs Sidgwick became principal of the college,
and she and her husband resided there for the rest of his life.
During this whole period Sidgwick took the deepest interest in
the welfare of the college. In politics he was a Liberal, and
became a Liberal Unionist in 1886. Early in 1900 he was forced
by ill-health to resign his professorship, and he died on the
28th of August of the same year.
Though in many ways an excellent teacher he was primarily
a student, and treated his pupils as fellow-learners. He was
deeply interested in psychical phenomena, but his energies were
primarily devoted to the study of religion and philosophy.
Brought up in the Church of England, he gradually drifted from
orthodox Christianity, and as early as 1862 he described himself
as a theist. For the rest of his life, though he regarded Chris-
tianity as " indispensable and irreplaceable looking at it from a
sociological point of view," he found himself unable to return to
it as a religion. In political economy he was a Utilitarian on
the lines of Mill and Bentham; his work was the careful investiga-
tion of first principles and the investigation of ambiguities
rather than constructive. In philosophy he devoted himself
to ethics, and especially to the examination of the ultimate
intuitive principles of conduct and the problem of free will.
He gave up the psychological hedonism of Mill, and adopted
instead a position which may be described as ethical hedonism,
according to which the criterion of goodness in any given action
is that it produces the greatest possible amount of pleasure.
This hedonism, however, is not confined to the self (egoistic),
but involves a due regard to the pleasure of others, and is,
therefore, distinguished further as universalistic. Lastly, Sidg-
wick returns to the principle that no man should act so as to
destroy his own happiness, and leaves us with a somewhat
unsatisfactory dualism.
His chief works are Principles of Political Economy (1883, 3rd ed.
1901) ; Scope and Method of Economic Science (1885) ; Outlines of the
History of Ethics (1886, 5th ed. 1902), enlarged from his article
ETHICS in the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Elements of Politics (1891,
2nd ed. 1897), an attempt to supply an adequate treatise on the
subject starting from the old lines of Bentham and Mill. The
following were published posthumously: Philosophy; its Scope and
Relations (1902) ; Lectitres on the Ethics of T. H. Green, Mr Herbert
Spencer and J. Martineau (1902); The Development of European
Polity (1903); Miscellaneous Essays and Addresses (1904); Lectures
on the Philosophy of Kant (1905).
His younger brother, ARTHUR SIDGWICK, had a brilliant school
and university career, being second classic at Cambridge in 1863
and becoming fellow of Trinity; but he devoted himself thence-
forth mainly to work as a teacher. After being for many years
a master at Rugby, he became in 1882 fellow and tutor of Corpus,
Oxford; and from 1894 to 1906 was Reader in Greek in the uni-
versity. He published a number of admirable classical school-
books, including Greek Prose (1876) and Greek Verse (1882),
and texts (Virgil, 1890; Aeschylus, 1880-1903), and was well
known as a consummate classical scholar, remarkable for literary
taste and general culture. In the college life of Corpus he took
the deepest interest and had the most stimulating influence;,
and he also played an active part in social and political move-
ments from an advanced Liberal point of view.
A Memoir of Henry Sidgwick, written by his brother with the
collaboration of his widow, was published in 1906.
SIDI-BEL-ABBES, chief town of an arrondissement in the
department of Oran, Algeria, 48 m. by rail S. of Oran, 1552 ft.
above the sea, on the right bank of the Mekerra. Pop. (1906) of
the town, 24,494 (of whom three-fourths are French or Spaniards) ;
of the commune, 29,088; of the arrondissement, which includes
17 communes, 98,309. The town, which occupies an important
strategic position in the plain dominated by the escarpments of
Mount Tessala, has barrack accommodation for 6000 troops, and
is the headquarters of the i er regiment etranger, one of the two
regiments known as the Foreign Legion. It is encircled by a
crenellated and bastioned wall with a fosse, and has four gates,
named after Oran, Daia, Mascara and Tlemcen respectively.
Starting from the gates, two broad streets, shaded by plane trees,
traverse the town east to west and north to south, the latter
dividing the civil from the military quarters. There are numerous
fountains fed by the Mekerra. Sidi-bel-Abbes is also an im-
portant agricultural centre, wheat, tobacco and alfa being the
chief articles of trade. There are numerous vineyards and olive-
SIDMOUTH, IST VISCOUNT- -SIDNEY, A.
groves in the vicinity. The town, founded by the French,
derives its name from the kubba (tomb) of a marabout named
Sidi-bel-Abbes, near which a redoubt was constructed by General
Bedeau in 1843. The site of the town, formerly a swamp, has
been thoroughly drained. The surrounding country is healthy,
fertile and populous.
SIDMOUTH, HENRY ADDINGTON, IST VISCOUNT (1757-
1844), English statesman, son of Dr Anthony Addington,
was born on the 3Oth of May 1757. Educated at Winchester
College and Brasenose College, Oxford, he graduated in 1778,
and took the chancellor's prize for an English essay in 1779.
Owing to his friendship with William Pitt he turned his attention
to politics, and after his election as member of parliament for
Devizes in 1784 gave a silent but steady support to the ministry
of his friend. By close attention to his parliamentary duties,
he obtained a wide knowledge of the rules and procedure of the
House of Commons, and this fact together with his intimacy
with Pitt, and his general popularity, secured his election as
Speaker in June 1789. Like his predecessors, Addington con-
tinued to be a partisan after his acceptance of this office, took
part at times in debate when the house was in committee; and
on one occasion his partiality allowed Pitt to disregard the
authority of the chair. He enjoyed the confidence of George III.,
and in the royal interest tried to induce Pitt to withdraw his
proposal for a further instalment of relief to Roman Catholics.
Rather than give way on this question Pitt resigned office early
in 1801, when both he and the king urged Addington to form
a government. Addington consented, and after some delay
caused by the king's illness, and by the reluctance of several
of Pitt's followers to serve under him, became first lord of the
treasury and chancellor of the exchequer in March 1801. The
new prime minister, who was specially acceptable to George,
was loyally supported by Pitt; and his first important work,
the conclusion of the treaty of Amiens in March 1802, made him
popular in the country. Signs, however, were not wanting that
the peace would soon be broken, and Pitt, dissatisfied with the
ministry for ignoring the threatening attitude of Napoleon, and
making no preparations for a renewal of the war, withdrew his
support. Addington then took steps to strengthen the forces of
the crown, and suggested to Pitt that he should join the cabinet
and that both should serve under a new prime minister. This
offer was declined, and a similar fate befell Addington's subsequent
proposal to serve under Pitt. When the struggle with France
was renewed in May 1803, it became evident that as a war
minister Addington was not a success; and when Pitt became
openly hostile, the continued confidence of the king and of a
majority in the House of Commons was not a sufficient counter-
poise to the ministry's waning prestige. Although careful and
industrious, Addington had no brilliant qualities, and his medi-
ocrity afforded opportunity for attack by his enemies. Owing
to his father's profession he was called in derision " the doctor,"
and George Canning, who wrote satirical verses at his expense,
referred to him on one occasion as " happy Britain's guardian
gander." Without waiting for defeat in the House he resigned
office in April 1804, and became the leader of the party known
as the " king's friends." Pitt, who now returned to office, was
soon reconciled with his old friend; in January 1805 Addington
was created Viscount Sidmouth, and became lord president of
the council. He felt aggrieved, however, because his friends
were not given a larger share of power, and when Pitt complained
because some of them voted against the ministry, Sidmouth left
the cabinet in July 1805. In February 1806 he became lord privy
seal in the ministry of Fox and Grenville, but resigned early in
1807 when the government proposed to throw open commissions
in the army and navy to Roman Catholics and Protestant
dissenters; in 1812 he joined the cabinet of Spencer Perceval as
lord president of the council, becoming home secretary when the
ministry was reconstructed by the earl of Liverpool in the follow-
ing June. The ten years during which he held this office coincided
with much misery and unrest among the labouring classes, and
the government policy, for which he was mainly responsible,
was one of severe repression. In 1817 the Habeas Corpus Act
was suspended, and Sidmouth issued a circular to the lords-
lieutenant declaring that magistrates might apprehend and hold
to bail persons accused on oath of seditious libels. For this step
he was severely attacked in parliament, and was accused of
fomenting rebellion by means of his spies. Although shaken by
the acquittal of William Hone on a charge of libel the govern-
ment was supported by parliament; and after the " Manchester
massacre " in August 1819 the home secretary thanked the
magistrates and soldiers for their share in quelling the riot. He
was mainly responsible for the policy embodied in the " Six Acts "
of 1819. In December 1821 Sidmouth resigned his office, but
remained a member of the cabinet without official duties until
1824, when he resigned owing to his disapproval of the recognition
of the independence of Buenos Aires. Subsequently he took
very little part in public affairs; but true to his earlier principles
he spoke against Catholic emancipation in April 1829, and voted
against the Reform Bill in 1832. He died at his residence in Rich-
mond Park on the i$th of February 1844, and was buried at
Mortlake. In 1781 he married Ursula Mary, daughter of Leonard
Hammond of Cheam, Surrey, who died in 1811, leaving a son,
William Leonard, who succeeded his father as Viscount Sidmouth,
and four daughters. In 1823 he married secondly Marianne,
daughter of William Scott, Baron Stowell (d. 1836), and widow
of Thomas Townsend of Honington, Warwickshire. Sidmouth
suffers by comparison with the great men of his age, but he was
honest and courageous in his opinions, loyal to his friends, and
devoted to church and state.
The 2nd Viscount Sidmouth (1794-1864) was a clergyman of
the Church of England; he was succeeded as 3rd Viscount by his
son, William Wells Addington (b. 1824).
See Hon. G. Pellew, Life of Sidmouth (London, 1847); Lord John
Russell, Life and Times of C. J. Fox (London, 1859-1866); Earl
Stanhope, Life of Pitt (London, 1861-1862); Sir G. C. Lewis, Essays
on the Administrations of Great Britain (London, 1864) ; Spencer
Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886). (A. W. H.*)
SIDMOUTH, a market town and watering-place in the Honiton
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the river Sid
and the English Channel, 167! m. W. by S. of London, by the
London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
4201. Lying in a hollow, the town is shut in by hills which ter-
minate in the forelands of Salcombe and High Peak, two sheer cliffs
of a deep red colour. The shore line curves away, beyond these,
westward to the Start and eastward to Portland both visible
from Sidmouth beach. The restored church of St Nicholas,
dating from the i3th century, though much altered in the i$th,
contains a window given by Queen Victoria in 1866 in memory
of her father, the duke of Kent, who lived at Woolbrook Glen,
close by, and died there in 1820. An esplanade is built along the
sea-wall, and the town possesses golf links and other recreation
grounds. The bathing is good, the climate warm. Formerly o(
some importance, the harbour can no longer be entered by large
vessels, and goods are transhipped into flat-bottomed lighters
for conveyance ashore. Fishing is extensively carried on and
cattle fairs are held. In the i3th century Sidmouth was a borough
governed by a port-reeve. Tradition tells of an older town
buried under the sea; and Roman coins and other remains have
been washed up on the beach. Traces of an ancient camp exist
on High Peak.
SIDNEY (or SYDNEY), ALGERNON (1622-1683), English
politician, second son of Robert, 2nd earl of Leicester, and of
Dorothy Percy, daughter of Henry, gth earl of Northumberland,
was born at Penshurst, Kent, in 1622. As a boy he showed
much talent, which was carefully trained under his father's eye.
In 1632 with his elder brother Philip he accompanied his father
on his mission as ambassador extraordinary to Christian IV. of
Denmark, whom he saw at Rendsburg. In May 1636 Sidney
went with his father to Paris, where he became a general favourite,
and from there to Rome. In October 1641 he was given a troop
in his father's regiment in Ireland, of which his brother, known
as Lord Lisle, was in command. In August 1643 the brothers
returned to England. At Chester their horses were taken by the
Royalists, whereupon they again put out to sea and landed
at Liverpool. Here they were detained by the Parliamentary
SIDNEY, A.
commissioners, and by them sent up to London for safe custody.
Whether this was intended by Sidney or no, it is certain that
from this time he ardently attached himself to the Parliamentary
cause. On the loth of May 1644 he was made captain of horse in
Manchester's army, under the Eastern Association. He was
shortly afterwards made lieutenant-colonel, and charged at the
head of his regiment at Marston Moor (2nd July), where he was
wounded and rescued with difficulty. On the 2nd of April 1645
he was given the command of a cavalry regiment in Cromwell's
division of Fairfax's army, was appointed governor of Chichester
on loth May, and in December was returned to parliament for
Cardiff. In July 1646 he went to Ireland, where his brother
was lord-lieutenant, and was made lieutenant-general of horse
in that kingdom and governor of Dublin. Leaving London on
ist of February 1647, Sidney arrived at Cork on the 22nd. He
was soon (8th April), however, recalled by a resolution of the
House passed through the interest of Lord Inchiquin. On the
7th of May he received the thanks of the House of Commons*
On the I3th of October 1648 he was made lieutenant of Dover
castle, of which he had previously been appointed governor. He
was at this time identified with the Independents as opposed to
the Presbyterian party. He was nominated one of the com-
missioners to try Charles I., but took no part in the trial, retiring
to Penshurst until sentence was pronounced. That Sidney
approved of the trial, though not of the sentence, there can,
however, be little doubt, for in Copenhagen he publicly and
vigorously expressed his concurrence. On the i$th of May 1649
he was a member of the committee for settling the succession
and for regulating the election of future parliaments. Sidney lost
the governorship of Dover, however, in March 1651, in conse-
quence, apparently, of a quarrel with his officers. He then went
to the Hague, where he quarrelled with Lord Oxford at play,
and a duel was only prevented by their friends. He returned to
England in the autumn, and henceforward took an active share
in parliamentary work. On the 25th of November Sidney was
elected on the council of state and was evidently greatly con-
sidered. In the usurpation of Cromwell, however, he utterly re-
fused all concurrence, nor would he leave his place in parliament
except by force when Cromwell dispersed it on the 2oth of April
1653. He immediately retired to Penshurst, where he was con-
cerned chiefly with family affairs. In 1654 he again went to the
Hague, and there became closely acquainted with De Witt.
On his return he kept entirely aloof from public affairs, and it is
to this period that the Essay on Love is ascribed.
Upon the restoration of the Long Parliament, in May 1659,
Sidney again took his seat, and was placed on the council of state.
He showed himself in this office especially anxious that the
military power should be duly subordinated to the civil. In June
he was appointed one of three commissioners to mediate for a
peace between Denmark, supported by Holland, and Sweden.
He was probably intended to watch the conduct of his colleague,
Admiral Montagu (afterwards ist earl of Sandwich), who was in
command of the Baltic squadron. Of his character we have
an interesting notice from Whitelocke, who refused to accompany
him on the ground of his " overruling temper and height."
Upon the conclusion of the treaty he went to Stockholm as
plenipotentiary ; and in both capacities he behaved with
resolution and address. When the restoration of Charles II. took
place Sidney left Sweden, on the 28th of June 1660, bringing
with him from the king of Sweden a rich present in testimony
of the estimation in which he was held. Sidney went first to
Copenhagen, and then, being doubtful of his reception by the
English court, settled at Hamburg. From there he wrote a
celebrated letter vindicating his conduct, which will be found in
the Somers Tracts. He shortly afterwards left Hamburg, and
passed through Germany by way of Venice to Rome. His stay
there, however, was embittered by misunderstandings with his
father and consequent straits for money. Five shillings a day,
he says, served him and two men very well for meat, drink and
firing. He devoted himself to the study of books, birds and trees,
and speaks of his natural delight in solitude being largely in-
creased. In 1663 he left Italy, passed through Switzerland,
xxv. 2 a
where he visited Ludlow, and came to Brussels in September,
where his portrait was painted by van Egmondt; it is now at
Penshurst. He had thoughts of joining the imperial service,
and offered to transport from England a body of the old Common-
wealth men; but this was refused by the English court. It is
stated that the enmity against him was so great that now, as on
other occasions, attempts were made to assassinate him. On the
breaking out of the Dutch war, Sidney, who was at the Hague,
urged an invasion of England, and shortly afterwards went to
Paris, where he offered to raise a rebellion in England on receipt
of 100,000 crowns. Unable, however, to come to terms with the
French government, he once more went into retirement in 1666,
this time to the south of France. In August 1670 he was again in
Paris, and Arlington proposed that he should receive a pension
from Louis; Charles II. agreed, but insisted that Sidney should
return to Languedoc. In illustration of his austere principles it
is related that, Louis having taken a fancy to a horse belonging to
him and insisting on possessing it, Sidney shot the animal, which,
he said, " was born a free creature, had served a free man, and
should not be mastered by a king of slaves." His father was now
very ill, and after much difficulty Sidney obtained leave to come
to England in the autumn of 1677. Lord Leicester died in
November; and legal business connected with other portions
of the succession detained Sidney from returning to France as he
had intended. He soon became involved in political intrigue,
joining, in general, the country party, and holding close com-
munication with Barillon, the French ambassador. In the
beginning of 1679 he stood for Guildford, and was warmly
supported by William Penn, with whom he had long been in-
timate, and to whom he is said (as is now thought, erroneously)
to have afforded assistance in drawing up the constitution of
Pennsylvania. He was defeated by court influence, and his
petition to the House, complaining of an undue return, never
came to a decision. His Letters to Henry Savile, written at this
period, are of great interest. He was in Paris, apparently only
for a short while, in November 1679. I nto tne prosecution of the
Popish Plot Sidney threw himself warmly, and was among those
who looked to Monmouth, rather than to Orange, to take the
place of James in the succession, though he afterwards dis-
claimed all interest in such a question. He now stood for
Bramber (Sussex), again with Penn's support, and a double
return was made. He is reported on the loth of August 1679 as
being elected for Amersham (Buckingham) with Sir Roger Hill.
When parliament met, however, in October 1680, his election was
declared void. But now, under the idea that an alliance between
Charles and Orange would be more hostile to English liberty
than would the progress of the French arms, he acted with
Barillon in influencing members of parliament in this sense, and
is twice mentioned as receiving the sum of 500 guineas from the
ambassador. Of this there is no actual proof, and it is quite
possible that Barillon entered sums in his accounts with Louis
which he never paid away. In any case it is to be remembered
that Sidney is not charged with receiving money for advocating
opinions which he did not enthusiastically hold.
Upon the dissolution of the last of Charles's parliaments
the king issued a justificatory declaration. This was at once
answered by a paper entitled A Just and Modest Vindication,
&c., the first sketch of which is imputed to Sidney. It was then,
too, that his most celebrated production, the Discourses con-
cerning Government, was concluded, in which he upholds the
doctrine of the mutual compact and traverses the High Tory
positions from end to end. In especial he vindicates the pro-
priety of resistance to kingly oppression or misrule, upholds the
existence of an hereditary nobility interested in their country's
good as the firmest barrier against such oppression, and main-
tains the authority of parliaments. In each point the English
constitution, which he ardently admires, is, he says, suffering:
the prerogatives of the crown are disproportionately great;
the peerage has been degraded by new creations; and parlia-
ments are slighted.
For a long while Sidney kept himself aloof from the duke of
Monmouth, to whom he was introduced by Lord Howard. After
SIDNEY, SIR HENRY
the death of Shaftesbury, however, in November 1682, he entered
into the conferences held between Monmouth, Russell, Essex,
Hampden and others. That treasonable talk went on seems
certain, but it is probable that matters went no further. The
watchfulness of the court was, however, aroused, and on the
discovery of the Rye House Plot, Sidney, who had always been
regarded in a vague way as dangerous, was arrested while at
dinner on the 26th of June 1683. His papers were carried off,
and he was sent at once to the Tower on a charge of high treason.
For a considerable while no evidence could be found on which
to establish a charge. Jeffreys, however, was made lord chief-
justice in September; a jury was packed; and, after consulta-
tions between the judge and the crown lawyers, Sidney was
brought to listen to the indictment on the 7th of November.
The trial began on the 2ist of November: Sidney was refused a
copy of the indictment, in direct violation of law, and he was
refused the assistance of counsel. Hearsay evidence and the
testimony of the perjured informer Lord Howard, whom Sidney
had been instrumental in introducing to his friends, were first
produced. This being insufficient, partial extracts from papers
found in Sidney's study, and supposed only to be in his hand-
writing, in which the lawfulness of resistance to oppression was
upheld, were next relied on. He was indicted for " conspiring
and compassing the death of the king/' Sidney conducted his
case throughout with great skill; he pointed especially to the
fact that Lord Howard, whose character he easily tore to shreds,
was the only witness against him as to treason, whereas the law
required two, that the treason was not accurately defined, that
no proof had been given that the papers produced were his,
and that, even if that were proved, these papers were in no way
connected with the charge. Against the determination to secure
a conviction, however, his courage, eloquence, coolness and skill
were of no avail, and the verdict of " guilty " was given. On
the 25th of November Sidney presented a petition to the king,
praying for an audience, which, however, under the influence of
James and Jeffreys, Charles refused. On the 26th he was brought
up for judgment, and again insisted on the illegality of his con-
viction. Upon hearing his sentence he gave vent to his feelings
in a few noble and beautiful words. Jeffreys having suggested
that his mind was disordered, he held out his hand and bade the
chief-justice feel how calm and steady his pulse was. By the
advice of his friends he presented a second petition, offering,
if released, to leave the kingdom at once and for ever. The
supposed necessity, however, of checking the hopes of Mon-
mouth's partisans caused the king to be inexorable. The last
days of Sidney's life were spent in drawing up his Apology and
in discourse with Independent ministers. He was beheaded on
the morning of the 7th of December 1683. His remains were
buried at Penshurst. (O. A.)
SIDNEY, SIR HENRY (1520-1586), lord deputy of Ireland,
was the eldest son of Sir William Sidney, a prominent politician
and courtier in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI.,
from both of whom he received extensive grants of land, in-
cluding the manor of Penshurst in Kent, which became the
principal residence of the family. Henry was brought up at court
as the companion of Prince Edward, afterwards King Edward
VI.; and he continued to enjoy the favour of the sovereign
throughout the reigns of Edward and Mary. In 1 556 he went to
Ireland with the lord deputy, the earl of Sussex, who in the
previous year had married his sister Frances Sidney; and from
the first he had a large share in the administration of the country,
especially in the military measures taken by his brother-in-law
for bringing the native Irish chieftains into submission to the
English Crown. In the course of the lord deputy's Ulster
expedition in 1557 Sidney devastated the island of Rathlin; and
during the absence of Sussex in England in the following year
Sidney was charged with the sole responsibility for the govern-
ment of Ireland, which he conducted with marked ability and
success. A second absence of the lord deputy from Ireland,
occasioned by the accession of Queen Elizabeth, threw the chief
control into Sidney's hands at the outbreak of trouble with Shane
O'Neill, and he displayed great skill in temporizing with that
redoubtable chieftain till Sussex reluctantly returned to his
duties in August 1559. About the same time Sidney resigned
his office of vice-treasurer of Ireland on being appointed president
of the Welsh Marches, and for the next few years he resided
chiefly at Ludlow Castle, with frequent visits to the court in
London.
In 1565 Sidney was appointed lord deputy of Ireland in place
of Sir Nicholas Arnold, who had succeeded the earl of Sussex in
the previous year. He found the country in a more impoverished
and more turbulent condition than when he left it, the chief
disturbing factor being Shane O'Neill in Ulster. With difficulty
he persuaded Elizabeth to sanction vigorous measures against
O'Neill; and although the latter successfully avoided a decisive
encounter, Sidney restored O'Neill's rival Calvagh O'Donnell
to his rights, and established an English garrison at Derry which
did something to maintain order. In 1567 Shane was murdered
by the MacDonnells of Antrim (see O'NEILL), and Sidney was
then free to turn his attention to the south, where with vigour
and determination he arranged the quarrel between the earls of
Desmond and Ormonde, and laid his hand heavily on other dis-
turbers of the peace; then, returning to Ulster, he compelled
Turlough Luineach O'Neill, Shane's successor in the clan chief-
tainship, to make submission, and placed garrisons at Belfast
and Carrickfergus to overawe Tyrone and the Glynns. In the
autumn of 1567 Sidney went to England, and was absent from
Ireland for the next ten months. On his return he urged upon
Cecil the necessity for measures to improve the economic con-
dition of Ireland, to open up the country by the construction of
roads and bridges, to replace the Ulster tribal institutions by a
system of freehold land tenure, and to repress the ceaseless
disorder prevalent in every part of the island. In pursuance of
this policy Sidney dealt severely with the unruly Butlers in
Munster. At Kilkenny large numbers of Sir Edmund Butler's
followers were hanged, and three of Ormonde's brothers were
attainted by an actof thelrish parliament in 1570. Enlightened
steps were taken for the education of the people, and encourage-
ment was given to Protestant refugees from the Netherlands to
settle in Ireland.
Sidney left Ireland in 1 5 7 1 , aggrieved by the slight appreciation
of his statesmanship shown by the queen; but he returned thither
in September 1575 with increased powers and renewed tokens
of royal approval, to find matters in a worse state than before,
especially in Antrim, where the MacQuillins of the Route and
Sorley Boy MacDonnell (q.v.) were the chief fomenters of disorder.
Having to some extent pacified this northern territory, Sidney
repaired to the south, where he was equally successful in making
his authority respected. He left his mark on the administrative
areas of the island by making shire divisions on the English model.
At an earlier period he had already in the north combined the
districts of the Ardes and Clandeboye to form the county of
Carrickfergus, and had converted the country of the O'Farrells
into the county of Longford; he now carried out a similar
policy in Connaught, where the ancient Irish district of Thomond
became the county Clare, and the counties of Galway, Mayo,
Sligo and Roscommon were also delimited. He suppressed a
rebellion headed by the earl of Clanricarde and his sons in 1576,
and hunted Rory O'More to his death two years later. Meantime
Sidney's methods of taxation had caused discontent among
the gentry of the Pale, who carried their grievances to Queen
Elizabeth. Greatly to Sidney's chagrin the queen censured his
extravagance, and notwithstanding his distinguished services
to the crown he was recalled in September 1578, and was coldly
received by Elizabeth. He lived chiefly at Ludlow Castle for
the remainder of his life, performing his duties as president of
the Welsh Marches, and died there on the sth of May 1 586.
Sir Henry Sidney was the ablest statesman charged with the
government of Ireland in the i6th century; and the meagre
recognition which his unrewarded services received was a con-
spicuous example of the ingratitude of Elizabeth. Sidney
married in 1551 Mary, eldest daughter of John Dudley, duke of
Northumberland, by whom he had three sons and four daughters.
His eldest son was Sir Philip Sidney (q.v.), and his second was
SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP
43
Robert Sidney, ist earl of Leicester (?..); his daughter Mary
married Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, and by reason of
her association with her brother Philip was one of the most
celebrated women of her time (see PEMBROKE, EARLS OF).
See Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, Henry VIII.-
Elizabelh; Calendar of the Carew MSS.; J. O'Donovan's edition of
The Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (7 vols., Dublin, 1851)'
Holinshed's Chronicles, vol. iii. (6 vols., London, 1807); Richard
Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885) ; Calendar
of Ancient Records of Dublin, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert, vols. i. and ii.
(Dublin, 1889) ; Sir J. T. Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland
(Dublin, 1865); J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London,
1856-1870). (R. J. M.)
SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP (1554-1586), English poet, statesman
and soldier, eldest son of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife Mary
Dudley, was born at Penshurst on the 3oth of November 1554.
His father, Sir Henry Sidney (1529-1586), was three times lord
deputy of Ireland, and, in 1560 became lord president of Wales.
Philip Sidney's childhood was spent at Penshurst; and before he
had completed his tenth year he was nominated by his father
lay rector of Whitford, Flintshire. A deputy was appointed, and
Philip enjoyed the revenue of the benefice for the rest of his life.
On the 1 7th of October 1 564 he was entered at Shrewsbury school,
not far from his father's official residence at Ludlow Castle, on the
same day with his life-long friend and first biographer, Fulke
Greville. An affectionate letter of advice from his father and
mother, written about 1565, was preserved and printed in 1591
(A Very Godly Letter . . . ). In 1568 Sidney was sent to Christ
Church, Oxford, where he formed lasting friendships with
Richard Hakluyt and William Camden. But his chief companion
was Fulke Greville, who had gone to Broadgates Hall (Pembroke
College). Sir Henry Sidney was already anxious to arrange
an advantageous marriage for his son, who was at that time heir
to his uncle, the earl of Leicester; and Sir William Cecil agreed
to a betrothal with his daughter Anne. But in 1571 the match
was broken off, and Anne Cecil married Edward Vere, i7th
earl of Oxford. In that year Philip left Oxford, and, after some
months spent chiefly at court, received the queen's leave in 1572
to travel abroad " for his attaining the knowledge of foreign
languages."
He was attached to the suite of the earl of Lincoln, who was
sent to Paris in that year to negotiate a marriage between Queen
Elizabeth and the due d'Alencon. He was in the house of Sir
Francis Walsingham in Paris during the massacre of Saint
Bartholomew, and the events he witnessed no doubt intensified
his always militant Protestantism. In charge of Dr Watson,
dean, and afterwards bishop, of Winchester, he left Paris for
Lorraine, and in March of the next year had arrived in Frankfort
on the Main. He lodged there in the house of the learned printer
Andrew Wechel, among whose guests was also Hubert Languet.
Fulke Greville describes Philip Sidney when a schoolboy as
characterized by " such staidness of mind, lovely and familiar
gravity, which carried grace and reverence far above greater
years." " Though I lived with him, and knew him from a child,"
he says, " yet I never knew him other than a man." These
qualities attracted to him the friendship of grave students of
affairs, and in France he- formed close connexions with the
Huguenot leaders. Languet, who was an ardent supporter of
the Protestant cause, conceived a great affection for the younger
man, and travelled in his company to Vienna. In October Sidney
left for Italy, having first of all entered into a compact with his
friend to write every week. This arrangement was not strictly
observed, but the extant letters, more numerous on Languet's
side than on Sidney's, afford a considerable insight into Sidney's
moral and political development. Languet's letters abound
with sensible and affectionate advice on his studies and his
affairs generally.
Sidney settled for some time in Venice, and in February 1574
he sat to Paolo Veronese for a portrait, destined for Languet.
His friends seem to have feared that his zeal for Protestantism
might be corrupted by his stay in Italy, and Languet exacted
from him a promise that he would not go to Rome. In July he
was seriously ill, and immediately on his recovery started for
Vienna. From there he accompanied Languet to Poland, where
he is said to have been asked to become a candidate for the vacant
crown. On his return to Vienna he fulfilled vague diplomatic
duties at the imperial court, perfecting himself meanwhile,
in company with Edward Wotton, in the art of horsemanship
under John Pietro Pugliano, whose skill and wit he celebrates
in the opening paragraph of the Defence of Poesie. He addressed
a letter from Vienna on the state of affairs to Lord Burghley,
in December 1574. In the spring of 1575 he followed the court
to Prague, where he received a summons to return home, appar-
ently because Sir Francis Walsingham, who was now secretary of
state, feared that Sidney had leanings to Catholicism.
His sister, Mary Sidney, was now at court, and he had an
influential patron in his uncle, the earl of Leicester. He accom-
panied the queen on one of her royal progresses to Kenilworth, and
afterwards to Chartley Castle, the seat of Walter Devereux, earl
of Essex. There he met Penelope Devereux, the " Stella " of the
sonnets, then a child of twelve. Essex went to Ireland in 1576 to
fill his office as earl marshal, and in September occurred his
mysterious death. Philip Sidney was in Ireland with his father at
the time. Essex on his deathbed had desired a match between
Sidney and his daughter Penelope. Sidney was often harassed
with debt, and seems to have given no serious thought to the
question for some time, but Edward Waterhouse, an agent of
Sir Henry Sidney, writing in November 1576, mentions " the
treaty between Mr Philip and my Lady Penelope " (Sidney
Papers, i. p. 147). In the spring of 1577 Sidney was sent to con-
gratulate Louis, the new elector Palatine, and Rudolf II., who
had become emperor of Germany. He received also general in-
structions to discuss with various princes the advancement of the
Protestant cause.
After meeting Don John of Austria at Louvain, March 1577,
he proceeded to Heidelberg and Prague. He persuaded the
elector's brother, John Casimir, to consider proposals for a
league of Protestant princes, and also for a conference among
the Protestant churches. At Prague he ventured on a harangue
to the emperor, advocating a general league against Spain and
Rome. This address naturally produced no effect, but does not
seem to have been resented as much as might have been expected.
On the return journey he visited William of Orange, who formed
a high opinion of Sidney. In April 1577 Mary Sidney married
Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, and in the summer
Philip paid the first of many visits to her at her new home at
Wilton. But later in the year he was at court defending his
father's interests, particularly against the earl of Ormonde, who
was doing all he could to prejudice Elizabeth against the lord
deputy.
Sidney drew up a detailed defence of his father's Irish govern-
ment, to be presented to the queen. A rough draft of four of the
seven sections of this treatise is preserved in the British Museum
(Cotton MS., Titus B, xii. pp. 557-559), and even in its frag-
mentary condition it justifies the high estimate formed of it
by Edward Waterhouse (Sidney Papers, p. 228). Sidney watched
with interest the development of affairs in the Netherlands, but
was fully occupied in defending his father's interests at court. He
came also in close contact with many men of letters. In 1578 he
met Edmund Spenser, who in the next year dedicated to him
his Shepherdes Calendar. With Sir Edward Dyer he was a
member of the Areopagus, a society which sought to introduce
classical metres into English verse, and many strange experi-
ments were the result. In 1578 the earl of Leicester entertained
Elizabeth at Wanstead, Essex, with a masque, The Lady oj the
May, written for the occasion by Philip Sidney. But though
Sidney enjoyed a high measure of the queen's favour, he was not
permitted to gratify his desire for active employment. He was
already more or less involved in the disgrace of his uncle
Leicester, following on that nobleman's marriage with Lettice,
countess of Essex, when, in 1579, he had a quarrel on the tennis-
court at Whitehall with the earl of Oxford. Sidney proposed
a duel, which was forbidden by Elizabeth. There was more in
the quarrel than appeared on the surface. Oxford was one of the
chief supporters of the queen's proposed marriage with Alencon,
44
SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP
now due d'Anjou, and Sidney, in giving the lie to Oxford,
affronted the leader of the French party. In January 1580 he
went further in his opposition to the match, addressing to Eliza-
beth a long letter in which the arguments against the alliance
were elaborately set forth. This letter (Sidney Papers, pp. 287-
292), in spite of some judicious compliments, was regarded,
not unnaturally, by the queen as an intrusion. Sidney was
compelled to retire from court, and some of his friends feared
for his personal safety. A letter from Languet shows that he
had written to Elizabeth at the instigation of " those whom he
was bound to obey," probably Leicester and Walsingham.
Sidney retired to Wilton, or the neighbouring village of
Ivychurch, where he joined his sister in writing a paraphrase
of the Psalms. Here too he began his Arcadia, for his sister's
amusement and pleasure. In October 1580 he addressed a long
letter of advice, not without affectionate and colloquial inter-
ruptions, to his brother Robert, then about to start on his con-
tinental tour. This letter (Sidney Papers, p. 283) was printed in
Profitable Instructions for Travellers (1633). It seems that a
promise was exacted from him not to repeat his indiscretions
in the matter of the French marriage, and he returned to court.
In view of the silence of contemporary authority, it is hardly
possible to assign definite dates to the sonnets of Astrophel and
Stella. Penelope Devereux was married against her will to
Robert, Lord Rich, in 1581, probably very soon after the letter
from Penelope's guardian, the earl of Huntingdon, desiring the
queen's consent. The earlier sonnets are not indicative of over-
whelming passion, and it is a reasonable assumption that Sidney's
liking for Penelope only developed into passion when he found
that she was passing beyond his grasp. Mr A. W. Pollard assigns
the magnificent sequence beginning with No. 33
" I might! unhappy word O me, I might,
And then would not, or could not, see my blisse,"-
to the period following on Stella's reappearance at court as Lady
Rich. It has been argued that the whole tenor of Philip's life
and character was opposed to an overmastering passion, and
that there is no ground for attaching biographical value to these
sonnets, which were merely Petrarchan exercises. That Sidney
was, like his contemporaries, a careful and imitative student
of French and Italian sonnets is patent. He himself confesses
in the first of the series that he " sought fit words to paint the
blackest face of woe," by " oft turning others' leaves " before he
obeyed the command of his muse to " look in his heart and write."
The account of his passion is, however, too circumstantial to be
lightly regarded as fiction. Mr Pollard sees in the sonnets a
description of a spiritual struggle between his sense of a high
political mission and a disturbing passion calculated to lessen his
efforts in a larger sphere. It seems certain, at any rate, that he
was not solely preoccupied with scruples against his love for
Stella because she was already married. He had probably been
writing sonnets to Stella for a year or more before her marriage,
and he seems to have continued to address her after his own
marriage. Thomas Nash defined the general argument epigram-
matically as " cruel chastity the prologue Hope, the epilogue
Despair." But after Stella's final refusal Sidney recovered his
earlier serenity, and the sonnet placed by Mr Pollard at the
end of the series " Leave me, O Love, which reachest but to
dust " expresses the triumph of the spirit.
Meanwhile he prosecuted his duties as a courtier and as member
for Kent in parliament. On the isth and i6th of May 1581
he was one of the four challengers in a tournament arranged in
honour of the visit of the duke of Anjou. In 1579 Stephen
Gosson had dedicated to Sidney his School of Abuse, an attack
on the stage, and incidentally on poetry. Sidney was probably
moved by this treatise to write his own Apologie for Poetrie,
dating from about 1581. In 1583 he was knighted in order that
he might act as proxy for Prince John Casimir, who was to be
installed as Knight of the Garter, and in the autumn of that year
he married Frances, daughter of his friend and patron Sir Francis
Walsingham, a girl of fourteen or fifteen years of age. In 1584
he met Giordano Bruno at the house of his friend Fulke Greville,
and two of the philosopher's books are dedicated to him.
Sidney was employed about this time in the translation from
the French of his friend Du Plessis Mornay's treatise on the
Christian religion. He still desired active service and took an
eager interest in the enterprises of Martin Frobisher, Richard
Hakluyt and Walter Raleigh. In 1584 he was sent to France to
condole with Henry III. on the death of his brother, the duke of
Anjou, but the king was at Lyons, and unable to receive the
embassy. Sidney's interest in the struggle of the Protestant
princes against Spain never relaxed. He recommended that
Elizabeth should attack Philip II. in Spain itself. So keen an
interest did he take in this policy that he was at Plymouth about
to sail with Francis Drake's fleet in its expedition against the
Spanish coast (1585) when he was recalled by the queen's orders.
He was, however, given a command in the Netherlands, where he
was made governor of Flushing. Arrived at his post, he con-
stantly urged resolute action on his commander, the earl of
Leicester, but with small result. In July 1586 he made a success-
ful raid on Axel, near Flushing, and in September he joined the
force of Sir John Norris, who was operating against Zutphen.
On the 22nd of the month he joined a small force sent out to
intercept a convoy of provisions. During the fight that ensued
he was struck in the thigh by a bullet. He succeeded in riding
back to the camp. The often-told story that he refused a cup
of water in favour of a dying soldier, with the words, " Thy need
is greater than mine," is in keeping with his character. He owed
his death to a quixotic impulse. Sir William Pelham happening
to set out for the fight without greaves, Sidney also cast off his
leg-armour, which would have defended him from the fatal wound.
He died twenty-five days later at Arnheim, on the i7th of October
1 586. The Dutch desired to have the honour of his funeral, but
the body was taken to England, and, after some delay due to the
demands of Sidney's creditors, received a public funeral in St
Paul's Cathedral on the i6th of February 1587.
Sidney's death was a personal grief to people of all classes.
Some two hundred elegies were produced in his honour. Of all
these tributes the most famous is Astrophel, A Pastoral Elegie,
added to Edmund Spenser's Colin Clout's Come Home Again
(1595). Spenser wrote the opening poem; other contributors
are Sidney's sister, the countess of Pembroke, Lodowick Bryskett
and Matthew Roydon. In the bare enumeration of Sidney's
achievements there seems little to justify the passionate admira-
tion he excited. So calm an observer as William of Orange desired
Fulke Greville to give Elizabeth " his knowledge and opinion of a
fellow-servant of his, that (as he heard) lived unemployed under
her. . . . If he could judge, her Majesty had one of the ripest and
greatest counsellors of estate in Sir Philip Sidney, that this day
lived in Europe " (Fulke Greville, Life of Sidney, ed. 1816, p. 21).
His fame was due first of all to his strong, radiant and lovable
character. Shelley placed him in Adonais among the " inheritors
of unfulfilled renown," as " sublimely mild, a spirit without
spot."
Sidney left a daughter Frances (b. 1584), who married Roger
Manners, earl of Rutland. His widow, who, in spite of the
strictures of some writers, was evidently sincerely attached to him,
married in 1590 Robert Devereux, second earl of Essex, and,
after his death in 1601, Richard de Burgh, earl of Clanricarde.
Sidney's writings were not published during his lifetime. A
Worke concerning the trewnesse of the Christian Religion, trans-
lated from the French of Du Plessis Mornay, was completed
and published by Arthur Golding in 1587.
The Countesse of Pembroke's Arcadia written by Philippe Sidnei
(1590), in quarto, is the earliest edition of Sidney's famous
romance. 1 A folio edition, issued in 1593, is stated to have been
revised and rearranged by the countess of Pembroke, for whose
delectation the romance was written. She was charged to destroy
the work sheet by sheet as it was sent to her. The circumstances
of its composition partly explain the difference between its
intricate sentences, full of far-fetched conceits, repetition and
antithesis, and the simple and dignified phrase of the Apologie for
Poetrie. The style is a concession to the fashionable taste in
1 For a bibliography of this and subsequent editions see the fac-
simile reprint (1891) of this quarto, edited by Dr Oskar Sommer.
SIDNEY SIDON
45
literature which the countess may reasonably be supposed to
have shared; but Sidney himself, although he was no friend to
euphuism, was evidently indulging his own mood in this highly
decorative prose. The main thread of the story relates how the
princes Musidorus and Pyrocles, the latter disguised as a woman,
Zelmane, woo the princesses Pamela and Philoclea, daughters of
Basilius and Gynaecia, king and queen of Arcady. The shepherds
and shepherdesses occupy a humble place in the story. Sidney
used a pastoral setting for a romance of chivalry complicated
by the elaborate intrigue of Spanish writers. Nor are these
intrigues of a purely innocent and pastoral nature. Sidney
described the passion of love under many aspects, and the guilty
queen Gynaecia is a genuine tragic heroine. The loose frame-
work of the romance admits of descriptions of tournaments,
Elizabethan palaces and gardens and numerous fine speeches.
It also contains some lyrics of much beauty. Charles I. recited
and copied out shortly before his death Pamela's prayer, which
is printed in the Eikon Basilike. Milton reproached him in the
Eikonoklastes with having " borrowed to a Christian use prayers
offered to a heathen god . . . and that in no serious book, but
in the vain amatorious poem of Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia."
Professor Courthope (Hist, of English Poetry, i. 215) points out
that the tragedy of Sidney's life, the divorce between his ideals
of a nobly active life and the enforced idleness of a courtier's
existence, is intimately connected with his position as a pioneer
in fiction, in which the life represented is tacitly recognized as
being contrary to the order of existence. Sidney's wide acquaint-
ance with European literature is reflected in this book, but he
was especially indebted to the Arcadia of Jacopo Sannazaro, and
still more to George Montemayor's imitation of Sannazaro, the
Diana Enamorada. The artistic defects of the Arcadia in no way
detracted from its popularity. Both Shakespeare and Spenser
were evidently acquainted with it. John Day's lie of Guls, and
the plots of Beaumont and Fletcher's Cupid's Revenge, and of
James Shirley's Arcadia, were derived from it. The book had
more than one supplement. Gervase Markham, Sir William
Alexander (earl of Stirling) and Richard Beling wrote con-
tinuations.
The series of sonnets to Stella were printed in 1591 as Sir P.S.:
His Astrophel and Stella, by Thomas Newman, with an intro-
ductory epistle by T. Nash, and some sonnets by other writers.
In the same year Newman issued another edition with many
changes in the text and without Nash's preface. His first
edition was (probably later) reprinted by Matthew Lownes.
In 1598 the sonnets were reprinted in the folio edition of Sidney's
works, entitled from its most considerable item The Countesse
of Pembroke's Arcadia, edited by Lady Pembroke, with con-
siderable additions. The songs are placed in their proper position
among the sonnets, instead of being grouped at the end, and two
of the most personal poems (possibly suppressed out of con-
sideration for Lady Rich in the first instance), which afford the
best key to the interpretation of the series, appear for the first
time. Sidney's sonnets adhere more closely to French than to
Italian models. The octave is generally fairly regular on two
rhymes, but the sestet usually terminates with a couplet. The
Apologie for Poetrie was one of the " additions " to the countess
of Pembroke's Arcadia (1598), where it is entitled " The Defence
of Poesie." It first appeared separately in 1594 (unique copy
in the Rowfant Library, reprint 1904, Camb. Univ. Press).
Sidney takes the word " poetry " in the wide sense of any imagina-
tive work, and deals with its various divisions. Apart from the
subject matter, which is interesting enough, the book has a
great value for the simple, direct and musical prose in which it is
written. The Psalmes of David, the paraphrase in which he
collaborated with his sister, remained in MS. until 1823, when it
was edited by S. W. Singer. A translation of part of the Divine
Sepmaine of G. Salluste du Bartas is lost. There are two pastorals
by Sidney in Davison's Poetical Rhapsody (1602).
Letters and Memorials of State . . . (1746) is the title of an in-
valuable collection of letters and documents relating to the Sidney
family, transcribed from originals at Penshurst and elsewhere by
Arthur Collins. Fulke Greville's Life of the Renowned Sir Philip
Sidney is a panegyric dealing chiefly with his public policy. The
Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet was trans-
lated from the Latin and published with a memoir by Steuart A.
Pears (1845). The best biography of Sidney is A Memoir of Sir
Philip Sidney by H. R. Fox Bourne (1862). A revised life by the
same author is included in the " Heroes of the Nations " series (1891).
Critical appreciation is available in J. A. Symonds's Sir Philip
Sidney (1886), in the " English Men of Letters " series; in J. J. A.
Jusserand's English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare (1890) ; and in
modern editions of Sidney's works, among which may be mentioned
Mr A. W. Pollard's edition (1888) of Astrophel and Stella, Professor
Arbor's reprint (1868) of An Apologie for Poetrie, and Mr Sidney Lee's
Elizabethan Sonnets (1904) in the re-issue of Professor Arber's English
Garner, where the sources of Sidney's sonnets are fully discussed.
See also a collection of Sidneiana printed for the Roxburghe Club in
1837, a notice by Mrs Humphry Ward in Ward's English Poets,
i. 341 seq., and a dissertation by Dr K. Brunhuber, Sir Philip
Sidney's Arcadia und ihre Nachlaufer (Niirnberg, 1903). A com-
plete text of Sidney's prose and poetry, edited by Albert Feuillerat,
is to be included in the Cambridge English Classics.
SIDNEY, a city and the county-seat of Shelby county, Ohio,
U.S.A., on the Miami river, about 33 m. S. by W. of Lima.
Pop. (1890) 4850; (1900) 5688, including 282 foreign-born and
108 negroes; (1910) 6607. Sidney is served by the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton, and the Western Ohio (electric) railways. The city is
situated on an elevated tableland, in an agricultural region.
Sidney has a public library, and a monumental building, a
memorial, erected in 1875, to the soldiers in the American Civil
War, and now devoted to various public uses. The river here
provides some water-power, and the city has various manu-
factures. Sidney was laid out as the county-seat in 1819, was
incorporated as a village in 1831 and first chartered as a city
in 1897.
SIDON (Phoen. px, Hebrew p-s, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt.
Diduna), formerly the principal city of Phoenicia, now a small
town of about 15,000 inhabitants, situated on the Syrian coast
between Beirut and Sur (Tyre). The name, which the Arabs
now pronounce Saida, has been explained as meaning " fish-
town " (cf. Hebr. iis " to hunt," in Phoen. perhaps " to fish ");
more likely it is connected with the god Sid, who is known only
as an element in proper names (see Cooke, North-Sent. Inscrr.
p. 91); possibly both town and people were named after him.
The ancient city extended some 800 yds. inland from the shore
over ground which is now covered by fruit-gardens. From a
series of inscriptions, all giving the same text, discovered at
Bostan esh-Shekh, a little way to the N. of Saida, we learn that
the ancient city was divided into three divisions at least, one of
which was called " Sidon by the sea," and another " Sidon on the
plain " (?) (see N.-Sem. Inscrr. App. i.). In front of the flat
promontory to which the modern Sidon is confined there stretches
northwards and southwards a rocky peninsula; at the northern
extremity of this begins a series of small rocks enclosing the
harbour, which is a very bad one. The port was formerly pro-
tected on the north by the Qal'at el-Bahr (" Sea Castle "), a
building of the i3th century, situated on an island still connected
with the mainland by a bridge. On the S. side of the town lay
the so-called Egyptian harbour, which was filled up in the I7th
century in order to keep out the Turks. The wall by which
Sidon is at present surrounded is pierced by two gates; at the
southern angle, upon a heap of rubbish, stand the remains of the
citadel. The streets are very narrow, and the buildings of any
interest few; most prominent are some large caravanserais
belonging to the period of Sidon's modern prosperity, and the
large mosque, formerly a church of the knights of St John.
The inhabitants support themselves mainly on the produce of
their luxuriant gardens; but the increasing trade of Beirut
has withdrawn the bulk of the commerce from Sidon. In earlier
days Phoenicia produced excellent wine, that of Sidon being
specially esteemed; it is mentioned in an Aramaic papyrus from
Egypt (4th century B.C., N.S.I, p. 213). One of the chief in-
dustries of Sidon used to be the manufacture of glass from the
fine sand of the river Belus. To the S.E. of the town lies the
Phoenician necropolis, which has been to a great extent investi-
gated. The principal finds are sarcophagi, and next to these
sculptures and paintings. It was here that the superb Greek
4 6
SIEBENGEBIRGE SIEDLCE
sarcophagi, which are now in the Imperial Museum at Constanti-
nople, were found, and the sarcophagi of the two Sidonian kings
Eshmunazar (Louvre) and Tabnith (Imperial Museum, Con-
stantinople) , both of them with important Phoenician inscriptions.
The ancient history of Sidon is discussed in the article
PHOENICIA. In A.D. 325 a bishop of Sidon attended the Council
of Nicaea. In 637-638 the town was taken by the Arabs.
During the Crusades it was alternately in the possession of the
Franks and the Mahommedans, but finally fell into the hands of
the latter in 1291. As the residence of the Druse Amir Fakhr
ud-Din, it rose to some prosperity about the beginning of the
1 7th century, but towards the close of the i8th its commerce again
passed away and has never returned. The biblical references to
Sidon are Gen. x. 15 (the people), xlix. 13; Is. xxiii. 1-14;
Ezek. xxvii. 8; Acts xxvii. 3. Sidon is nearly always mentioned
along with Tyre Jer. xxvii. 3, xlvii. 4; Ezra iii. 7; Joel iii. 4;
Mark iii. 8 and Luke vi. 17; Mark vii. 24, 31, and Matt. xv. 21 ;
Matt. xi. 21 and Luke x. 13 f. ; Acts xii. 20. In the Old Testa-
ment, as frequently in Greek literature, " Sidonians " is used
not in a local but in an ethnic sense, and means " Phoenicians,"
hence the name of Sidon was familiar to the Greeks earlier than
that of Tyre, though the latter was the more important city
(ed. Meyer, Encycl. Bibl. col. 4505).
See Robinson, Bibl. Res. ii. 478 ff. ; Prutz, Aus Phonicien (1876),
98 ff. ; Pietschmann, Gesch. d. Phonizier (1889), 53-58; Hamdy Bey
and T. Reinach, Necropole royale a Sidon (1892-1896); A. Socin in
Baedeker, Pal. u. Syrien. (G. A. C.*)
SIEBENGEBIRGE (" The Seven Hills "), a cluster of hills in
Germany, on the Rhine, 6 m. above Bonn. They are of volcanic
origin, and form the north-western spurs of the Westerwald.
In no part of the Rhine valley is the scenery more attractive ;
crag and forest, deep dells and gentle vine-clad slopes, ruined
castles and extensive views over the broad Rhine and the plain
beyond combine to render the Siebengebirge the most favourite
tourist resort on the whole Rhine. The hills are as follows:
the steep Drachenfels (1067 ft.), abutting on the Rhine and
surmounted by the ruins of an old castle; immediately behind it,
and connected by a narrow ridge, the Wolkenburg (1076 ft.);
lying apart, and to the N. of these, the Petersberg (1096 ft.),
with a pilgrimage chapel of St Peter; then, to the S. of these
three, a chain of four viz. the Olberg (1522 ft.), the highest of
the range; the Lowenburg (1506 ft.); the Lohrberg (1444 ft.),
and, farthest away, the Nonnenstromberg (1107 ft.). At the
foot of the Drachenfels, on the north side, lies the little town
of Konigswinter, whence a mountain railway ascends to the
summit, and a similar railway runs up the Petersberg. The
ruins which crown almost every hill are those of strongholds of
the archbishops of Cologne and mostly date from the 1 2th century.
See von Dechen, Geognostischer Fiihrer in das Siebengebirge
(Bonn, 1861); von Stiirtz, Fiihrer durch das Siebengebirge (Bonn,
1893); Laspeyres, Das Siebengebirge am Rhein (Bonn, 1901).
SIEBOLD, CARL THEODOR ERNST VON (1804-1883),
German physiologist and zoologist, the son of a physician and a
descendant of what Lorenz Oken called the " Asclepiad family
of Siebolds," was born at Wiirzburg on the i6th of February
1804. Educated in medicine and science chiefly at the university
of Berlin, he became successively professor of zoology, physiology
and comparative anatomy in Konigsberg, Erlangen, Freiburg,
Breslau and Munich. In conjunction with F. H. Stannius he
published (1845-1848) a Manual of Comparative Anatomy, and
along with R. A. Kolliker he founded in 1848 a journal which
soon took a leading place in biological literature, Zeitschrift fiir
wissenschaftliche Zoologie. He was also a laborious and successful
helminthologist and entomologist, in both capacities contributing
many valuable papers to his journal, which he continued to
edit until his death at Munich on the 7th of April 1885. In these
ways, without being a man of marked genius, but rather an
industrious and critical observer, he came to fill a peculiarly
distinguished position in science, and was long reckoned, what
his biographer justly calls him, the Nestor of German zoology.
See Ehlers, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. (1885).
SIEBOLD, PHILIPP FRANZ VON (1796-1866), scientific
explorer of Japan, elder brother of the physiologist, was born
at Wiirzburg, Germany, on the i7th of February 1796. He
studied medicine and natural science at Wiirzburg, and obtained
his doctor's diploma in 1820. In 1822 he entered the service
of the king of the Netherlands as medical officer to the East
Indian Army. On his arrival at Batavia he was attached to a
new mission to Japan, sent by the Dutch with a view to improve
their trading relations with that country. Siebold was well
equipped with scientific apparatus, and he remained in Japan
for six years, with headquarters at the Dutch settlement on the
little island of Deshima. His medical qualifications enabled him
to find favoui with the Japanese, and he gathered a vast amount
of information concerning a country then very little known,
especially concerning its natural history and ethnography. He
had comparatively free access to the interior, and his reputation
spreading far and wide brought him visitors from all parts of
the country. His valuable stores of information were enriched
by trained natives whom he sent to collect for him in the interior.
In 1824 he published De historiae naluralis in Japonia statu
and in 1832 his splendid Fauna Japonica. His knowledge of the
language enabled him also in 1826 to issue from Batavia his
Epitome linguae Japonicae. In Deshima he also laid the founda-
tion of his Catalogus librorum Japonicorum and Isagoge in
bibliothecam Japonicam, published after his return to Europe,
as was his Bibliolheca Japonica, which, with the co-operation of
J. Hoffmann, appeared at Leiden in 1833. During the visit
which he was permitted to make to Yedo (Tokio), Siebold made
the best of the rare opportunity; his zeal, indeed, outran his
discretion, since, for obtaining a native map of the country, he
was thrown into prison and compelled to quit Japan on the ist of
January 1830. On his return to Holland he was raised to the
rank of major, and in 184? to that of colonel. After his arrival
in Europe he began to give to the world the fruits of his researches
and observations in Japan. His Nippon; Archiv zur Beschrei-
bung von Japan und dessen Neben- und Schulz-Landern was issued
in five quarto volumes of text, with six folio volumes of atlas and
engravings. He also issued many fragmentary papers on various
aspects of Japan. In 1854 he published at Leiden Urkundliche
Darstellung der Bestrebungen Nicderlands und Russlands zur
Erojfnung Japans. In 1859 Siebold undertook a second journey
to Japan, and was invited by the emperor to his court. In 1861
he obtained permission from the Dutch government to enter the
Japanese service as negotiator between Japan and the powers of
Europe, and in the same year his eldest son was made interpreter
to the English embassy at Yedo. Siebold was, however, soon
obliged by various intrigues to retire from his post, and ultimately
from Japan. Returning by Java to Europe in 1862, he set up his
ethnographical collections, which were ultimately secured by
the government of Bavaria and removed to Munich. He con-
tinued to publish papers on various Japanese subjects, and
received honours from many of the learned societies of Europe.
He died at Munich on the i8th of October 1866.
See biography by Moritz Wagner, in Allgemeine Zeilung, I3th to
i6th of November 1866.
SIEDLCE (Russian Syedlets), a government of Russian Poland,
between the Vistula and the Bug, having the governments of
Warsaw on the W., Lomza on the N., Grodno and Volhynia on
the E., Lublin on the S., and Radom on the S.W. Its area is
5533 sq. m. The surface is mostly flat, only a few hilly tracts
appearing in the middle, around Biala, and in the east on the
banks of the Bug. Extensive marshes occur in the north and in
the south-east. Cretaceous, Jurassic and Tertiary strata cover
the surface, and are overlain by widely spread Glacial deposits.
The valley of the Vistula is mostly wide, with several terraces
covered with sand-dunes or peat-bogs. Siedlce is drained by the
Vistula, which borders it for 50 m. on the west ; by the Bug, which
is navigable from Opalin in Volhynia and flows for 170 m. on
the east and north-east borders; by the Wieprz, a tributary
of the Vistula, which is also navigable, and flows for 25 m. along
the southern boundary; and by the Liwiec, a tributary of the
Bug, which is navigable for some 30 m. below Wegrow. Of
the total area only 5-2% is unproductive; 48-1% is under
crops and 17-2 under meadows and pasture land. The estimated
SIEDLCE SIEMENS
47
population in 1906 was 907,700. The inhabitants consist of
Little Russians (40%), Poles (43%), Jews (155%) and Germans
(15%). The government is divided into nine districts, the chief
towns of which are the capital Siedlce, Biala, Konstantinow,
Garwolin, Lukow, Radzyn, Sokolow, VVegrow, Wlodawa. The
main occupation is agriculture, the principal crops being rye,
wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. The area under forests
amounts to 19-6% of the total. Live-stock breeding is second
in importance to agriculture. Manufactures and trade are in-
significant.
SIEDLCE, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, 56 m. E.S.E. of the city of Warsaw, on the Brest-
Litovsk railway. It is a Roman Catholic episcopal see. The
Oginskis, to whom it belonged, have embellished it with a palace
and gardens; but it is nothing more than a large village. Pop.
23,714 (1897), two-thirds Jews.
SIEGBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, on the river Sieg, 16 m. by rail S.E. of Cologne by the
railway to Giessen. Pop. (1905) 14,878. It has a royal shell
factory, calico-printing mills, lignite mines, stone quarries and
pottery and tobacco factories. The parish church, dating from
the i3th century, possesses several richly decorated reliquaries
of the 1 2th to 1 5th centuries. The buildings of the Benedictine
abbey, founded in 1066, are now used as a prison. The town,
which was founded in the nth century, attained the height of
its prosperity in the i$th and i6th centuries owing to its pottery
wares. Siegburg pitchers (Siegburgcr Krtige) were widely famed.
Their shape was often fantastic and they are now eagerly sought
by collectors.
See R. Heinekamp, Siegburgs Vergangenheit und Gcgenwart
(Siegburg, 1897); and Renard, Die Kunstdenkmdler des Siegkreises
(Dusseldorf, 1907).
SIEGE (O. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from
sedere, to sit, cf . Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege), the " sitting down "
of an army or military force before a fortified place for the purpose
of taking it, either by direct military operations or by starving
it into submission (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT). A
special form of coin is known as a " siege-piece." These are
coins that were struck during a siege of a town when the ordinary
mints were closed or their issues were not available. Such coins
were commonly of special shape to distinguish them from the
normal coinage, and were naturally of rough workmanship.
A common shape for the siege pieces which were issued during the
Great Rebellion was the lozenge. A noteworthy example is a
shilling siege-piece struck at Newark in 1645 (see TOKEN MONEY).
SIEGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, situated 63 m. E. of Cologne by rail, on the Sieg,
a tributary entering the Rhine opposite Bonn. Pop. (1905)
25,201. The town contains two palaces of the former princes
of Nassau-Siegen, a technical and a mining school. The sur-
rounding district, to which it gives its name, abounds in iron-
mines, and iron founding and smelting are the most important
branches of industry in and near the town. Large tanneries
and leather works, and factories for cloth, paper and machinery,
are among the other industrial establishments.
Siegen was the capital of an early principality belonging to the
house of Nassau; and from 1606 onwards it gave name to the
junior branch of Nassau-Siegen. Napoleon incorporated Siegen
in the grand-duchy of Berg in 1806; and in 1815 the congress of
Vienna assigned it to Prussia, under whose rule it has nearly
quintupled its population. Rubens is said to have been born here
in 1577.
See Cuno, Geschichte der Stadt Siegen (Dillenburg, 1873).
SIEMENS, ERNST WERNER VON (1816-1892), German
electrician, was born on the i3th of December 1816 at Lenthe
in Hanover. After attending the gymnasium at Lubeck, he
entered the Prussian army as a volunteer, and for three years was
a pupil in the Military Academy at Berlin. In 1838 he received
a commission as lieutenant in the artillery, and six years later
he was appointed to the responsible post of superintendent of the
artillery workshops. In 1848 he had the task of protecting the
port of Kiel against the Danish fleet, and as commandant of
Friedrichsort built the fortifications for the defence, of Eckern-
fb'rde harbour. In the same year he was entrusted with the
laying of the first telegraph line in Germany, that between
Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main, and with that work his military
career came to an end. Thenceforward he devoted his energies
to furthering the interests of the newly founded firm of Siemens
and Halske, which under his guidance became one of the most
important electrical undertakings in the world, with branches
in different countries that gave it an international influence; in
the London house he was associated with Sir William Siemens,
one of his younger brothers. Although he had a decided pre-
dilection for pure research, his scientific work was naturally
determined to a large extent by the demands of his business, and,
as he said when he was admitted to the Berlin Academy of
Sciences in 1874, the filling up of scientific voids presented itself
to him as a technical necessity. Considering that his entrance
into commercial life was almost synchronous with the introduc-
tion of electric telegraphy into Germany, it is not surprising that
many of his inventions and discoveries relate to telegraphic
apparatus. In 1847, when he was a member of the committee
appointed to consider the adoption of the electric telegraph
by the government, he suggested the use of gutta-percha as
a material for insulating metallic conductors. Then he in-
vestigated the electrostatic charges of telegraph conductors and
their laws, and established methods for testing underground
and submarine cables and for locating faults in their insula-
tion; further, he carried out observations and experiments on
electrostatic induction and the retardation it produced in the
speed of the current. He also devised apparatus for duplex and
diplex telegraphy, and automatic recorders. In a somewhat less
specialized sphere, he was an early advocate of the desirability of
establishing some easily reproducible basis for the measurement
of electrical resistance, and suggested that the unit should be
taken as the resistance of a column of pure mercury one metre
high and one square millimetre in cross-section, at a temperature
of o C. Another task to which he devoted much time was the
construction of a selenium photometer, depending on the property
possessed by that substance of changing its electrical resistance
according to the intensity of the light falling upon it. He also
claimed to have been, in 1866, the discoverer of the principle of
self-excitation in dynamo-electric machines, in which the residual
magnetism of the iron of the electro-magnets is utilized for
excitation, without the aid of permanent steel magnets or of a
separate exciting current. In another brancn of science he wrote
several papers on meteorological subjects, discussing among other
things the causation of the winds and the forces which produce,
maintain and retard the motions of the air. In 1886 he devoted
half a million marks to the foundation of the Physikalisch-
Technische Reichsanstalt at Charlottenburg, and in 1888 he
was ennobled. He died at Berlin on the 6th of December 1892.
His scientific memoirs and addresses were collected and pub-
lished in an English translation in 1892, and three years later a
second volume appeared, containing his technical papers.
SIEMENS, SIR WILLIAM [KARL WILHELM] (1823-1883),
British inventor, engineer and natural philosopher, was born
at Lenthe in Hanover on the 4th of April 1823. After being
educated in the polytechnic school of Magdeburg and the uni-
versity of Gottingen, he visited England at the age of nineteen,
in the hope of introducing a process in electroplating invented
by himself and his brother Werner. The invention was adopted
by Messrs Elkington, and Siemens returned to Germany to enter
as a pupil the engineering works of Count Stolberg at Magdeburg.
In 1844 he was again in England with another invention, the
" chronometric " or differential governor for steam engines.
Finding that British patent laws afforded the inventor a pro-
tection which was then wanting in Germany, he thenceforth made
England his home; but it was not till 1859 that he formally
became a naturalized British subject. After some years spent
in active invention and experiment at mechanical works near
Birmingham, he went into practice as an engineer in 1851.
He laboured mainly in two distinct fields, the applications
of heat and the applications of electricity, and was characterized
4 8
SIENA
in a very rare degree by a combination of scientific comprehension
with practical instinct. In both fields he played a part which
would have been great in either alone; and, in addition to this,
he produced from time to time miscellaneous inventions and
scientific papers sufficient in themselves to have established a
reputation. His position was recognized by his election in 1862
to the Royal Society, and later to the presidency of the Institu-
tion of Mechanical Engineers, the Society of Telegraph Engineers,
the Iron and Steel Institute, and the British Association; by
honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford, Glasgow,
Dublin and Wurzburg; and by knighthood (in 1883). He died
in London on the igth of November 1883.
In the application of heat Siemens's work began just after J. P.
Joule's experiments had placed the doctrine of the conservation of
energy on a sure basis. While Rankine, Clausius and Lord Kelvin
were developing the dynamical theory of heat as a matter of physical
and engineering theory, Siemens, in the light of the new ideas, made
a bold attempt to improve the efficiency of the steam engine as a
converter of heat into mechanical work. Taking up the regenerator
a device invented by Robert Stirling twenty years before, the im-
portance of which had meanwhile been ignored he applied it to the
steam engine in the form of a regenerative condenser with some
success in 1847, and in 1855 engines constructed on Siemens's plan
were worked at the Paris exhibition. Later he also attempted to
apply the regenerator to internal combustion or gas engines. In
1856 he introduced the regenerative furnace, the idea of his brother
Friedrich (1826-1904), with whom he associated himself in directing
its applications. In an ordinary furnace a very large part of the heat
of combustion is lost by being carried off in the hot gases which pass
up the chimney. In the regenerative furnace the hot gases pass
through a regenerator, or chamber stacked with loose bricks, which
absorb the heat. When the bricks are well heated the hot gases are
diverted so to pass through another similar chamber, while the air
necessary for combustion, before it enters the furnace, is made to
traverse the heated chamber, taking up as it goes the heat which has
been stored in the bricks. After a suitable interval the air currents
are again reversed. The process is repeated periodically, with the
result that the products of combustion escape only after being
cooled, the heat which they take from the furnace being in great part
carried back in the heated air. But another invention was required
before the regenerative furnace could be thoroughly successful.
This was the use of gaseous fuel, produced by the crude distillation
and incomplete combustion of coal in a distinct furnace or gas-pro-
ducer. From this the gaseous fuel passes by a flue to the regenerative
furnace, and it, as well as the entering air, is heated by the regenerative
method, four brick-stacked chambers being used instead of two.
The complete invention was applied at Chance's glass-works in
Birmingham in 1861, and furnished the subject of Faraday's farewell
lecture to the Royal Institution. It was soon applied to many
industrial processes, but it found its greatest development a few years
later at the hands of Siemens himself in the manufacture of steel.
To produce steel directly from the ore, or by melting together
wrought-iron scrap with cast-iron upon the open hearth, had been
in his mind from the first, but it was not till 1867, after two years of
experiment in " sample steel works " erected by himself for the
purpose, that he achieved success. The product is a mild steel of
exceptionally trustworthy quality, the use of which for boiler-plates
has done much to make possible the high steam-pressures that are
now common, and has consequently contributed, indirectly, to that
improvement in the thermodynamic efficiency of heat engines which
Siemens had so much at heart. Just before his death he was again
at work upon the same subject, his plan being to use gaseous fuel
from a Siemens producer in place of solid fuel beneath the boiler, and
to apply the regenerative principle to boiler furnaces. His faith in
gaseous fuel led him to anticipate that it would in time supersede
solid coal for domestic and industrial purposes, cheap gas being
supplied either from special works or direct from the pit; and among
his last inventions was a house grate to burn gas along with coke,
which he regarded as a possible cure for city smoke.
In electricity Siemens's name is closely associated with the growth
of land and submarine telegraphs, the invention and development
of the dynamo, and the application of electricity to lighting and to
locomotion. In 1860, with his brother Werner, he invented the
earliest form of what is now known as the Siemens armature; and in
1867 he communicated a paper to the Royal Society " On the Con-
version of Dynamical into Electrical Force without the aid of Per-
manent Magnetism," in which he announced the invention by
Werner Siemens of the dynamo-electric machine, an invention which
was also reached independently and almost simultaneously by Sir
Charles Wheatstone and by S. A. Varley. The Siemens-Alteneck or
multiple-coil armature followed in 1873. While engaged in con-
structing a trans-Atlantic cable for the Direct United States Tele-
graph Company, Siemens designed the very original and successful
ship " Faraday," by which that and other cables were laid. One of
the last of his works was the Portrush and Bushmills electric tram-
way, in the north of Ireland, opened in 1883, where the water-power
of the river Bush drives a Siemens dynamo, from which the electric
energy is conducted to another dynamo serving as a motor on the
car. In the Siemens electric furnace the intensely hot atmosphere
of the electric arc between carbon points is employed to melt re-
fractory metals. Another of the uses to which he turned electricity
was to employ light from arc lamps as a substitute for sunlight in
hastening the growth and fructification of plants. Among his
miscellaneous inventions were the differential governor already
alluded to, and a highly scientific modification of it, described to the
Royal Society in 1866; a water-meter which acts on the principle of
counting the number of turns made by a small reaction turbine
through which the supply of water flows; an electric thermometer
and pyrometer, in which temperature is determined by its effect on
the electrical conductivity of metals; an attraction meter for de-
termining very slight variations in the intensity of a gravity; and
the bathometer, by which he applied this idea to the problem of
finding the depth of the sea without a sounding line. In a paper
read before the Royal Society in 1882, " On the Conservation of Solar
Energy," he suggested a bold but unsatisfactory theory of the sun's
heat, in which he sought to trace on a cosmic scale an action similar
to that of the regenerative furnace. His fame, however, does not
rest on his contributions to pure science, valuable as some of these
were. His strength lay in his grasp of scientific principles, in his
skill to perceive where and how they could be applied to practical
affairs, in his zealous and instant pursuit of thought with action,
and in the indomitable persistence with which he clung to any basis of
effort that seemed to him theoretically sound.
Siemens's writings consist for the most part of lectures and papers
scattered through the scientific journals and the publications of the
Royal Society, the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, the Iron and Steel Institute, the British
Association, &c. A biography by Dr William Pole was published in
1888. (J. A. E.)
SIENA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Tuscany, Italy,
capital of the province of Siena, 59 m. by rail S. of Florence and
31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 25,539 (town); 40,423 (commune).
The area of the city within the walls is about 23 sq. m., and the
height above sea-level 1115 ft. The plan, spreading from the
centre over three hills, closely resembles that of Perugia. The
city possesses a university, founded in 1263 and limited to the
faculties of law and medicine. Among the other public institu-
tions the following are the more important: the town library,
first opened to students in the I7th century; the Archivio, a
record office, instituted in 1858, containing a valuable and
splendidly arranged collection of documents; the Fine Arts
Institution, founded in 1816; and the natural history museum
of the Royal Academy of the Physiocritics, inaugurated in the
same year. There are also many flourishing charities, including
an excellent hospital and a school for the deaf and dumb. The
chief industries are weaving and agriculture.
The public festivals of Siena known as the " Palio delle Con-
trade " have a European celebrity. They are held in the public
square, the curious and historic Piazza del Campo (now Piazza
di Vittorio Emanuele) in shape resembling an ancient theatre, on
the 2nd of July and the i6th of August of each year; they date
from the middle ages and were instituted in commemoration of
victories and in honour of the Virgin Mary (the old title of Siena,
as shown by seals and medals, having been " Sena vetus civitas
Virginis "). In the isth and i6th centuries the celebrations
consisted of bull-fights. At the close of the i6th century these
were replaced by races with mounted buffaloes, and since
1650 by (ridden) horses. Siena is divided into seventeen
contrade (wards), each with a distinct appellation and a
chapel and flag of its own; and every year ten of these
contrade, chosen by lot, send each one horse to compete for
the prize palio or banner. The aspect of Siena during these
meetings is very characteristic, and the whole festivity bears
a medieval stamp in harmony with the architecture and history
of the town.
Among the noblest fruits of Sienese art are the public buildings
adorning the city. The cathedral, one of the" finest examples
of Italian Gothic architecture, obviously influenced in plan by
the abbey of S. Galgano (infra}, built in black and white marble,
was begun in the early years of the I3th century, but interrupted
by the plague of 1248 and wars at home and abroad, and in 1317
its walls were extended to the baptistery of San Giovanni;
a further enlargement was begun in 1339 but never carried out,
and a few ruined walls and arches alone remain to show the
SIENA
49
magnificence of the uncompleted design, which would have
produced one of the largest churches in the world.
The splendid west front, of tricuspidal form, enriched with a
multitude of columns, statues and inlaid marbles, is said to have been
begun by Giovanni Pisano, but really dates from after 1370; it
was finished in 1380, and closely resembles that of Orvieto, which is
earlier in date (begun in 1310). Both facades have been recently
restored, and the effect of them not altogether improved by modern
mosaics. The fine Romanesque campanile belongs to the first halt
of the 1 4th century. Conspicuous among the art treasures ot the
interior is the well-known octagonal pulpit by Niccola Pisano, dating
from 1266-1268. It rests on columns supported by lions, and i
finely sculptured. Numerous statues and bas-reliefs by Renaissance
artists adorn the various altars and chapels. The cathedral pave-
ment is almost unique. It is inlaid with designs in colour and black
and white, representing Biblical and legendary subjects, and is
supposed to have been begun by Duccio della Buoninsegna. But the
finest portions beneath the domes, with scenes from the history ol
Abraham, Moses and Elijah, are by Domenico Beccafumi and are
executed with marvellous boldness and effect. The choir stalls also
deserve mention: the older ones (remains of the original choir) are
in tarsia work; the others, dating from the l6th century, are carved
from Riccio's designs. The Piccolomini Library, adjoining the
duomo, was founded by Cardinal Francesco Piccolomini (afterwards
Pius III.) in honour of his uncle, Pius II. Here are Pinturicchio s
famous frescoes of scenes from the life of the latter pontiff, and the
collection of choir books (supported on sculptured desks) with
splendid illuminations by Sienese and other artists. The church of
San Giovanni, the ancient baptistery, beneath the cathedral is ap-
proached by an outer flight of marble steps built in 1451. It has a
beautiful but incomplete facade designed by Giovanni di Mino del
Pellicciaio in 1382, and a marvellous font with bas-reliefs by Dona-
tello, Ghiberti, Jacopo della Quercia and other 1 5th-century sculptors.
The Opera del Duomo contains Duccio's famous Madonna, painted
for the cathedral in 1308-131 1 , and other works of art.
Among the other churches are S. Maria di Provenzano, a vast
baroque building of some elegance, designed by Schifardini (1594);
Sant' Agostino, rebuilt by Vanvitelli in 1755, containing a Cruci-
fixion and Saints by Perugino, a Massacre of the Innocents by
Matteo di Giovanni, the Coming of the Magi by Sodoma, and a
St Anthony by Spagnoletto (?); the beautiful church of the Servites
(i5th century), which contains another Massacre of the Innocents by
Matteo di Giovanni and other good examples of the Sienese school ;
San Francesco, designed by Agostino and Agnolo about 1326, and
now restored, which once possessed many fine paintings by Duccio
Buoninsegna, Lorenzetti, Sodoma and Beccafumi, some of which
perished in the great fire of 1655 ; San Domenico, a fine 13th-century
building with a single nave and transept, containing Sodoma's
splendid fresco the Swoon of St Catherine, the Madonna of Guido da
Siena, 1281, and a crucifix by Sano di Pietro. This church crowns the
Fontebranda hill above the famous fountain of that name im-
mortalized by Dante, and in a steep lane below stands the house of
St Catherine, now converted into a church and oratory, and main-
tained at the expense of the inhabitants of the Contrada dell' Oca.
It contains some good pictures by_ Pacchia and other works of art,
but is chiefly visited for its historic interest and as a striking memorial
of the characteristic piety of the Sienese. The Accademia di Belle
Arti contains a good collection of pictures of the Sienese school,
illustrating its development.
The communal palace in the Piazza del Campo was begun in 1288
and finished in 1309. It is built of brick, is a fine specimen of Pointed
Gothic, and was designed by Agostino and Agnolo. The light and
elegant tower (Torre del Mangla) soaring from one side of the palace
was begun in 1338 and finished after 1348, and the chapel standing
at its foot, raised at the expense of the Opera del Duomwas a public
thank-offering after the plague of 1348, begun in 1352 and com-
pleted in 1376. This grand old palace has other attractions besides
the beauty of its architecture, for its interior is lined with works of art.
The atrium has a fresco by Bartolo di Fredi and the two ground-floor
halls contain a Coronation of the Virgin by Sano di Pietro and a
splendid Resurrection by Sodoma. In the Sala del Nove or della
Pace above are the noble allegorical frescoes of Ambrogio Lorenzett
representing the effects of just and unjust government; the Sala
delle Balestre or del Mappamondo is painted by Simone di Martino
(Memmi) and others, the Cappella della Signoria by Taddeo d'
Bartolo, and the Sala del Consistorio by Beccafumi. Another hall
the Sala di Balia, has frescoes by Spinello Arctino (1408) with scenes
from the life of Pope Alexander III., while yet another has been
painted by local artists with episodes in recent Italian history. An
interesting exhibition of Sienese art, including many objects from
neighbouring towns and villages, was held here in 1904. The former
hall of the grand council, built in 1327, was converted into the chie
theatre of Siena by Riccio in 1560, and, after being twice burnt, was
rebuilt in 1753 from Bibbiena's designs. Another Sienese theatre
that of the Rozzi, in Piazza San Pellegrino, designed by A. Doveri anc
erected in 1816, although modern, has an historic interest as the work
of an academy dating from the 1 6th century, called the Congrega
de' Rozzi, that played an important part in the history of the Italian
comic stage.
The city is adorned by many other noble edifices both public
u d private, among which the following palaces may be mentioned
Tolomei (1205); Buonsignori, formerly Tegliacci, an elegant 14th-
century construction, restored in 1848; Grottanelli, formerly Pecci
ind anciently the residence of the captain of war, recently restored
n its original style; Sansedoni; Marsilii; Piccolomini, now be-
onging to the Government and containing the state archives; 1
'iccolomini delle Papesse, like the other Piccolomini mansion,
designed by Bernardo Rossellino, and now the Banca d' Italia;
:he enormous block of the Monte de' Paschi, a bank of considerable
wealth and antiquity, enlarged and partly rebuilt in the original style
jetween 1877 and 1881, the old Dogana and Salimbeni palaces; the
?alazzo Spannochi, a fine early Renaissance building by Giuliano da
Vlaiano (now the post office) ; the Loggia di Mercanzia (i 5th century),
now a club, imitating the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence, with sculp-
tures of the I5th century; the Loggia del Papa, erected by Pius II.;
and other fine buildings. We may also mention the two celebrated
buntains, Fonte Gaia and Fontebranda; the former, in the Piazza
del Campo, by Jacopo della Quercia (1409-1419), but freely restored
in 1868, the much-damaged original reliefs being now in the Opera
del Duomo; the Fonte Nuova, near Porta Ovile, by Camaino di
Crescentino also deserves notice (1298). Thanks to all these archi-
tectural treasures, the narrow Sienese streets with their many wind-
ngs and steep ascents are full of picturesque charm, and, _ together
with the collections of excellent paintings, foster the local pride of the
inhabitants and preserve their taste and feeling for art. The medieval
walls and gates are still in the main preserved. The ruined Cistercian
abbey of S. Galgano, founded in 1201, with its fine church (1240-
1268) is interesting and imposing. It lies some 20 m. south-west of
;na.
History. Siena was probably founded by the Etruscans
(a few tombs of that period have been found outside Porta
Camellia), and then, falling under the Roman rule, became a
colony in the reign of Augustus, or a little earlier, and was
distinguished by the name of Saena Julia. It has the same arms
as Rome the she-wolf and twins. But its real importance dates
from the middle ages. Few memorials of the Roman era 2 or of
the first centuries of Christianity have been preserved (except
the legend of St Ansanus), and none at all of the interval pre-
ceding the Lombard period. We have documentary evidence
that in the 7th century in the reign of Rotaris (or Rotari), there
was a bishop of Siena named Mauro. Attempts to trace earlier
bishops as far back as the sth century have yielded only vague
and contradictory results. Under the Lombards the civil
government was in the hands of a gastaldo, under the Carolingians
of a count, whose authority, by slow degrees and a course of
events similar to what took place in other Italian communes,
gave way to that of the bishop, whose power in turn gradually
diminished and was superseded by that of the consuls and the
commonwealth.
We have written evidence of the consular government of
Siena from 1125 to 1212; the number of consuls varied from
three to twelve. This government, formed of gentiluomini
or nobles, did not remain unchanged throughout the whole period,
but was gradually forced to accept the participation of the
popolani or lower classes, whose efforts to rise to power were
continuous and determined. Thus in 1137 they obtained a third
part of the government by the Teconstitution of the general
council with 100 nobles and 50 popolani. In 1199 the institution
of a foreign podestd (a form of government which became per-
manent in 1212) gave a severe blow to the consular magistracy,
which was soon extinguished; and in 1233 the people again rose
against the nobles in the hope of ousting them entirely from
office.
The strife was largely economic, the people desiring to
deprive the nobles of the immunity of taxation which they had
enjoyed. The attempt was not completely successful; but the
government was now equally divided between the two estates by
the creation of a supreme magistracy of twenty-four citizens
twelve nobles and twelve popolani. During the rule of the nobles
and the mixed rule of nobles and popolani the commune of
Siena was enlarged by fortunate acquisitions of neighbouring
lands and by the submission of feudal lords, such as the Scialenghi,
Aldobrandeschi, Pannocchieschi, Visconti di Campiglia, &c.
1 In these are especially interesting the painted covers of the books
of the bicchierna and gabella, or revenue and tax offices.
2 There are, however, remains of baths some 2j m. to the east; see
P. Piccolomini in Bullettino Senesede storia patria, vi. (1899).
SIENA
Before long the reciprocal need of fresh territory and frontier
disputes, especially concerning Poggibonsi and Montepulciano,
led to an outbreak of hostilities between Florence and Siena.
Thereupon, to spite the rival republic, the Sienese took the
Ghibelline side, and the German emperors, beginning with
Frederick Barbarossa, rewarded their fidelity by the grant of
various privileges.
During the i2th and I3th centuries there were continued
disturbances, petty wars, and hasty reconciliations between
Florence and Siena, until in 1254-1255 a more binding peace and
alliance was concluded. But this treaty, in spite of its apparent
stability, led in a few years to a fiercer struggle; for in 1258 the
Florentines complained that Siena had infringed its terms by giv-
ing refuge to the Ghibellines they had expelled, and on the refusal
of the Sienese to yield to these just remonstrances both states
made extensive preparations for war. Siena applied to Manfred,
obtained from him a strong body of German horse, under the
command of Count Giordano, and likewise sought the aid of its
Ghibelline allies. Florence equipped a powerful citizen army,
of which the original registers are still preserved in the volume
entitled 77 Libra di Montaperti in the Florence archives. This
army, led by the podesta of Florence and twelve burgher captains,
set forth gaily on its march towards the enemy's territories in the
middle of April 1260, and during its first campaign, ending on
the 1 8th of May, won an insignificant victory at Santa Petronilla,
outside the walls of Siena. But in a second and more important
campaign, in which the militia of the other Guelf towns of
Tuscany took part, the Florentines were signally defeated at
Montaperti on the 4th of September 1260. This defeat crushed
the power of Florence for many years, reduced the city to desola-
tion, and apparently annihilated the Florentine Guelfs. But
the battle of Benevento (1266) and the establishment of the
dynasty of Charles of Anjou on the Neapolitan throne put an
end to the Ghibelline predominance in Tuscany. Ghibelline
Siena soon felt the effects of the change in the defeat of its army
at Colle di Valdelsa (1269) by the united forces of the Guelf
exiles, Florentines and French, and the death in that battle of
her powerful citizen Provenzano Salvani (mentioned by Dante),
who had been the leading spirit of the government at the time
of the victory of Montaperti. For some time Siena remained
faithful to the Ghibelline cause; nevertheless Guelf and demo-
cratic sentiments began to make head. The Ghibellines were
on several occasions expelled from the city, and, even when a
temporary reconciliation of the two parties allowed them to
return, they failed to regain their former influence.
Meanwhile the popular party acquired increasing power in
the state. Exasperated by the tyranny of the Salimbeni and
other patrician families allied to the Ghibellines, it decreed in
1277 the exclusion of all nobles from the supreme magistracy
(consisting since 1270 of thirty-six instead of twenty-four
members) , and insisted that this council should be formed solely
of Guelf traders and men of the middle class. This constitution
was confirmed in 1 280 by the reduction of the supreme magistracy
to fifteen members, all of the humbler classes, and was definitively
sanctioned in 1285 (and 1287) by the institution of the magistracy
of nine. This council of nine, composed only of burghers,
carried on the government for about seventy years, and its rule
was sagacious and peaceful. The territories of the state were
enlarged; a friendly alliance was maintained with Florence;
trade flourished; in 1321 the university was founded, or rather
revived, by the introduction of Bolognese scholars; the principal
buildings now adorning the town were begun; and the charitable
institutions, which are the pride of modern Siena, increased and
prospered. But meanwhile the exclusiveness of the single
class of citizens from whose ranks the chief magistrates were
drawn had converted the government into a close oligarchy
and excited the hatred of every other class. Nobles, judges,
notaries and populace rose in frequent revolt, while the nine
defended their state (1295-1309) by a strong body of citizen
militia divided into terzieri (sections) and contrade (wards),
and violently repressed these attempts. But in 1355 the arrival
of Charles IV. in Siena gave fresh courage to the malcontents,
who, backed by the imperial authority, overthrew the government
of the nine and substituted a magistracy of twelve drawn from
the lowest class. These new rulers were to some extent under
the influence of the nobles who had fomented the rebellion, but
the latter were again soon excluded from all share in the govern-
ment.
This was the beginning of a determined struggle for supre-
macy, carried on for many years, between the different classes of
citizens, locally termed ordini or monti the lower classes striving
to grasp the reins of government, the higher classes already in
office striving to keep all power in their own hands, or to divide it
in proportion to the relative strength of each monte. As this
struggle is of too complex a nature to be described in detail, we
must limit ourselves to a summary of its leading episodes.
The twelve who replaced the council of nine (as these had
previously replaced the council of the nobles) consisted both
as individuals and as a party of ignorant, incapable, turbulent
men, who could neither rule the state with firmness nor confer
prosperity on the republic. They speedily broke with the nobles,
for whose manoeuvres they had at first been useful tools, and
then split into two factions, one siding with the Tolomei, the
other, the more restless and violent, with the Salimbeni and the
novcschi (partisans of the nine), who, having still some influence
in the city, probably fomented these dissensions, and, as we shall
see later on, skilfully availed themselves of every chance likely
to restore them to power. In 1368 the adversaries of the twelve
succeeded in driving them by force from the public palace, and
substituting a government of thirteen ten nobles and three
noveschi.
This government lasted only twenty-two days, from the
2nd to the 24th September, and was easily overturned by the
dominant faction of the dodicini (partisans of the twelve), aided
by the Salimbeni and the populace, and favoured by the emperor
Charles IV. The nobles were worsted, being driven from the
city as well as from power; but the absolute rule of the twelve
was brought to an end, and right of participation in the govern-
ment was extended to another class of citizens. For, on the
expulsion of the thirteen from the palace, a council of 124
plebeians created a new magistracy of twelve difensori (defenders) ,
no longer drawn exclusively from the order of the twelve, but
composed of five of the popolo minuto, or lowest populace (now
first admitted to the government), four of the twelve, and three of
the nine. But it was of short duration, for the dodicini were
ill satisfied with their share, and in December of the same year
(1368) joined with the popolo minuto in an attempt to expel the
three noveschi from the palace. But the new popular order,
which had already asserted its predominance in the council of
the riformatori, now drove out the dodicini, and for five days
(nth to i6th December) kept the government in its own hands.
Then, however, moved by fear of the emperor, who had passed
through Siena two months before on his way to Rome, and who
was about, to halt there on his return, it tried to conciliate its
foes by creating a fresh council of 150 riformatori, who replaced
the twelve defenders by a new supreme magistracy of fifteen,
consisting of eight popolani, four dodicini, and three noveschi,
entitled respectively " people of the greater number," " people
of the middle number," and " people of the less number. "
From this renewal dates the formation of the new order or monle
dei riformatori, the title henceforth bestowed on all citizens, of
both the less and the greater people, who had reformed the
government and begun to participate in it in 1368. The turbulent
action of the twelve and the Salimbeni, being dissatisfied with
these changes, speedily rose against the new government. This
'time they were actively aided by Charles IV., who, having
returned from Rome, sent his militia, commanded by the
imperial vicar Malatesta da Rimini, to attack the public palace.
But the Sienese people, being called to arms by the council of
fifteen, made a most determined resistance, routed the imperial
troops, captured the standard, and confined the emperor in the
Salimbeni palace. Thereupon Charles came to terms with the
government, granted it an imperial patent, and left the city,
consoled for his humiliation hy the gift of a large sum of money.
SIENA
In spite of its wide basis and great energy, the monte del
riformatori, the heart of the new government, could not satisfac-
torily cope with the attacks of adverse factions and treacherous
allies. So, the better to repress them, it created in 1369 a chief
of the police, with the title of esecutore, and a numerous associa-
tion of popolani the company or casata grande of the people
as bulwarks against the nobles, who had been recalled from
banishment, and who, though fettered by strict regulations, were
now eligible for offices of the state. But the appetite for power
of the " less people " and the dregs of the populace was whetted
rather than satisfied by the installation of the riformatori in
the principal posts of authority. Among the wool-carders men
of the lowest class, dwelling in the precipitous lanes about the
Porta Ovile there was an association styling itself the "company
of the worm." During the famine of 1371 this company rose
in revolt, sacked the houses of the rich, invaded the public palace,
drove from the council of fifteen the four members of the twelve
and the three of the nine, and replaced them by seven tatter-
demalions. Then, having withdrawn to its own quarter, it was
suddenly attacked by the infuriated citizens (noveschi and
dodicini), who broke into houses and workshops and put numbers
of the inhabitants to the sword without regard for age or sex.
Thereupon the popular rulers avenged these misdeeds by many
summary executions in the piazza. These disorders were only
checked by fresh changes in the council of fifteen. It was now
formed of twelve of the greater people and three noveschi, to
the total exclusion of the dodicini, who, on account of their grow-
ing turbulence, were likewise banished from the city.
Meanwhile the government had also to contend with difficulties
outside the walls. The neighbouring lords attacked and ravaged
the municipal territories; grave injuries were inflicted by the
mercenary bands, especially by the Bretons and Gascons. The
rival claims to the Neapolitan kingdom of Carlo di Durazzo and
Louis of Anjou caused fresh disturbances in Tuscany. The
Sienese government conceived hopes of gaining possession of the
city of Arezzo, which was first occupied by Durazzo's men,
and then by Enguerrand de Coucy for Louis of Anjou; but
while the Sienese were nourishing dreams of conquest the French
general unexpectedly sold the city to the Florentines, whose
negotiations had been conducted with marvellous ability and
despatch (1384). The gathering exasperation of the Sienese,
and notably of the middle class, against their rulers was brought
to a climax by this cruel disappointment. Their discontent had
been gradually swelled by various acts of home and foreign
policy during the sixteen years' rule of the riformatori, nor had
the concessions granted to the partisans of the twelve and the
latter's recall and renewed eligibility to office availed to conciliate
them. At last the revolt broke out and gained the upper hand,
in March 1385. The riformatori were ousted from power and
expelled the city, and the trade of Siena suffered no little injury
by the exile of so many artisan families. The fifteen were
replaced by a new supreme magistracy of ten priors, chosen in
the following proportions four of the twelve, four of the nine,
and two of the people proper, or people of the greater number,
but to the exclusion of all who had shared in the government or
sat in council under the riformatori. Thus began a new order or
monte del popolo, composed of families of the same class as the
riformatori, but having had no part in the government during
the latter's rule. But, though now admitted to power through
the burgher reaction, as a concession to democratic ideas, and to
cause a split among the greater people, they enjoyed very limited
privileges. 1
In 1387 fresh quarrels with Florence on the subject of Monte-
pulciano led to an open war, that was further aggravated by
the interference in Tuscan affairs of the ambitious duke of Milan,
Gian Galeazzo Visconti. With him the Sienese concluded an
alliance in 1389 and ten years later accepted his suzerainty and
resigned the liberties of their state. But in 1402 the death of
1 The following are the ordini or monti that held power in Siena
for any considerable time gentiluomini, from the origin of there-
public; nme, from about 1285; dodici,irom 1355; riformatori, from
1368; popolo, from 1385.
Gian Galeazzo lightened their yoke. In that year the first plot
against the Viscontian rule, hatched by the twelve and the
Salimbeni and fomented by the Florentines, was violently re-
pressed, and caused the twelve to be again driven from office;
but in the following year a special balia, created in consequence
of that riot, annulled the ducal suzerainty and restored the
liberties of Siena. During the interval the supreme magistracy
had assumed a more popular form. By the partial readmission
of the riformatori and exclusion of the twelve, the permanent
balm was now composed of nine priors (three of the nine, three
of the people, and three of the riformatori) and of a captain of the
people to be chosen from each of the three monti in turn. On
nth April peace was made with the Florentines and Siena en-
joyed several years of tranquil prosperity.
But the great Western schism then agitating the Christian
world again brought disturbance to Siena. In consequence of the
decisions of the council of Pisa, Florence and Siena had declared
against Gregory XII. (1409); Ladislaus of Naples, therefore, as
a supporter of the pope, seized the opportunity to make incursions
on Sienese territory, laying it waste and threatening the city.
The Sienese maintained a vigorous resistance till the death of
this monarch in 1414 freed them from his attacks. In 1431
a fresh war with Florence broke out, caused by the latter's
attempt upon Lucca, and continued in consequence of the
Florentines' alliance with Venice and Pope Eugenius IV., and
that of the Sienese with the duke of Milan and Sigismund, king
of the Romans. This monarch halted at Siena on his way to
Rome to be crowned, and received a most princely welcome.
In 1433 the opposing leagues signed a treaty of peace, and,
although it was disadvantageous to the Sienese and temptations to
break it were frequently urged upon them, they faithfully adhered
to its terms. During this period of comparative tranquillity
Siena was honoured by the visit of Pope Eugenius IV. (1443) and
by that of the emperor Frederick III., who came there to receive
his bride, Eleanor of Portugal, from the hands of Bishop Aeneas
Sylvius Piccolomini, his secretary and historian (1452). This
meeting is recorded by the memorial column still to be seen outside
the Camollia gate. In 1453 hostilities against Florence were
again resumed, on account of the invasions and ravages of Sienese
territory committed by Florentine troops in their conflicts with
Alphonso of Naples, who since 1447 had made Tuscany his battle-
ground. Peace was once more patched up with Florence in 1454.
Siena was next at war for several years with Aldobrandino
Orsini, count of Pitigliano, and with Jacopo Piccinini, and
suffered many disasters from the treachery of its generals. About
the same time the republic was exposed to still graver danger by
the conspiracy of some of its leading citizens to seize the reins of
power and place the city under the suzerainty of Alphonso,
as it had once been under that of the duke of Milan. But the
plot came to light; its chief ringleaders were beheaded, and
many others sent into exile (1456); and the death of Alphonso
at last ended all danger from that source. During those critical
times the government of the state was strengthened by a new
executive magistracy called the balia, which from 1455 began
to act independently of the priors or consistory. Until then
it had been merely a provisional committee annexed to the latter.
But henceforward the balia had supreme jurisdiction in all affairs
of the state, although always, down to the fall of the republic,
nominally preserving the character of a magistracy extraordinary.
The election of Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini to the papal chair
in ^458 caused the utmost joy to the Sienese; and in compliment
to 'their illustrious fellow-citizen they granted the request of the
nobles and readmitted them to a share in the government.
But this concession, grudgingly made, only remained in force
for a few years, and on the death of the pope (1464) was revoked
altogether, save in the case of members of the Piccolomini house,
who were decreed to be popolani and were allowed to retain all
their privileges. Meanwhile fresh discords were brewing among
the plebeians at the head of affairs.
The conspiracy of the Pazzi in 1478 led to a war in which
Florence and Milan were opposed to the pope and the king of
Naples, and which was put an end to by the peace of i3th
SIENA
March 1480. Thereupon Alphonso, duke of Calabria, who was
fighting in Tuscany on the side of his father Ferdinand, came
to an agreement with Siena and, in the same way as his
grandfather Alphonso, tried to obtain the lordship of the city and
the recall of the exiled rebels in 1456. The noveschi (to whose order
most of the rebels belonged) favoured his pretensions, but the
riformatori were against him. Many of the people sided with the
noveschi, rose in revolt on 22nd June 1480 and, aided by the
duke's soldiery, reorganized the government to their own advant-
age. Dividing the power between their two orders of the nine and
the people, they excluded the riformatori and replaced them by
a new and heterogeneous order styled the aggregati, composed
of nobles, exiles of 1456 and citizens of other orders who had
never before been in office. But this violent and perilous upset
of the internal liberties of the republic did not last long. A decree
issued by the Neapolitan king (1482) depriving the Sienese of
certain territories in favour of Florence entirely alienated their
affections from that monarch. Meanwhile the monte of the nine,
the chief promoters of the revolution of 1480, were exposed to the
growing hatred and envy of their former allies, the monte del
popolo, who, conscious of their superior strength and numbers,
now sought to crush the noveschi and rise to rJbwer in their
stead. This change cf affairs was accomplished by a series of
riots between 7th June 1482 and 2oth February 1483. The
monte del popolo seized the lion's share of the government; the
riformatori were recalled, the aggregati abolished and the
noveschi condemned to perpetual banishment from the govern-
ment and the city. But " in perpetuo " was an empty form of
words in those turbulent Italian republics. The noveschi, being
" fat burghers " with powerful connexions, abilities and tradi-
tions, gained increased strength and influence in exile; and five
years later, on 22nd July 1487, they returned triumphantly
to Siena, dispersed the few adherents of the popolo who offered
resistance, murdered the captain of the people, reorganized the
state, and placed it under the protection of the Virgin Mary.
And, their own predominance being assured by their numerical
strength and influence, they accorded equal shares of power to the
other monti.
Among the returned exiles was Pandolfo Petrucci, chief of the
noveschi and soon to be at the head of the government. During
the domination of this man (who, like Lorenzo de' Medici, was
surnamed " the Magnificent ") Siena enjoyed many years of
splendour and prosperity. We use the term " domination "
rather than " signory " inasmuch as, strictly spaking, Petrucci
was never lord of the state, and left its established form of govern-
ment intact; but he exercised despotic authority in virtue of his
strength of character and the continued increase of his personal
power. He based his foreign policy on alliance with Florence and
France, and directed the internal affairs of the state by means of
the council (collegia) of the balia, which, although occasionally
reorganized for the purpose of conciliating rival factions, was
always subject to his will. He likewise added to his power by
assuming the captainship of the city guard (1495) , and later by the
purchase from the impoverished commune of several outlying
nasties (1507)- Nor did he shrink from deeds of bloodshed and
revenge; the assassination of his father-in-law, Niccolo Borghesi
(1500), is an indelible blot upon his name. He successfully
withstood all opposition within the state, until he was at last
worsted in his struggle with Cesare Borgia, who caused his ex-
pulsion from Siena in 1502. But through the friendly mediation
of the Florentines and the French king he was recalled from
banishment on 2gth March 1503. He maintained his power
until his death at the age of sixty on 2ist May 1512, and
was interred with princely ceremonials at the public expense.
The predominance of his family in Siena did not last long after
his decease. Pandolfo had not the qualities required to found
a dynasty such as that of the Medici. He lacked the lofty
intellect of a Cosimo or a Lorenzo, and the atmosphere of liberty-
loving Siena with its ever-changing factions was in no way suited
to his purpose. His eldest son, Borghese Petrucci, was incapable,
haughty and exceedingly corrupt; he only remained three years
at the head of affairs and fled ignominiously in 1515. Through
the favour of Leo X., he was succeeded by his cousin Raffaello
Petrucci, previously governor of St Angelo and afterwards a
cardinal.
This Petrucci was a bitter enemy to Pandolfo's children.
He caused Borghese and a younger son named Fabio to be
proclaimed as rebels, while a third son, Cardinal Alphonso,
was strangled by order of Leo X. in 1518. He was a tyrannical
ruler, and died suddenly in 1522. In the following year Clement
VII. insisted on the recall of Fabio Petrucci; but two years later
a fresh popular outbreak drove him from Siena for ever. The
city then placed itself under the protection of the emperor
Charles V., created a magistracy of " ten conservators of the
liberties of the state" (December 1524), united the different
monti in one named the " monte of the reigning nobles," and,
rejoicing to be rid of the last of the Petrucci, dated their public
books, ab instaurata libertate year I., II., and so on.
The so-called free government subject to the empire lasted
for twenty-seven years; and the desired protection of Spain
weighed more and more heavily until it became a tyranny.
The imperial legates and the captains of the Spanish guard in
Siena crushed both government and people by continual ex-
tortions and by undue interference with the functions of the
balm. Charles V. passed through Siena in 1535, and, as in all
the other cities of enslaved Italy, was received with the greatest
pomp; but he left neither peace nor liberty behind him. From
1 5 2 7 to 1 545 the city was torn by faction fights and violent revolts
against the noveschi, and was the scene of frequent bloodshed,
while the quarrelsomeness and bad government of the Sienese
gave great dissatisfaction in Tuscany. The balia was recon-
stituted several times by the imperial agents in 1 530 by Don
Lopez di Soria and Alphonso Piccolomini, duke of Amalfi, in
1540 by Granvella (or Granvelle) and in 1548 by Don Diego di
Mendoza; but government was carried on as badly as before, and
there was increased hatred of the Spanish rule. When in 1549
Don Diego announced the emperor's purpose of erecting a
fortress in Siena to keep the citizens in order, the general hatred
found vent in indignant remonstrance. The historian Orlando
Malavolti and other special envoys were sent to the emperor
in 1550 with a petition signed by more than a thousand citizens
praying him to spare them so terrible a danger; but their mission
failed: they returned unheard. Meanwhile Don Diego had laid
the foundation of the citadel and was carrying on the work
with activity. Thereupon certain Sienese citizens in Rome,
headed by Aeneas Piccolomini (a kinsman of Pius II.), entered
into negotiations with the agents of the French king and, having
with their help collected men and money, marched on Siena and
forced their way in by the new gate (now Porta Romana) on
26th July 1552. The townspeople, encouraged and reinforced
by this aid from without, at once rose in revolt, and, attacking
the Spanish troops, disarmed them and drove them to take
refuge in the citadel (28th July). And finally by an agreement
with Cosimo de' Medici, duke of Florence, the Spaniards were sent
away on the 5th August 1552 and the Sienese took possession
of their fortress.
The government was now reconstituted under the protection
of the French agents; the balia was abolished, its very name
having been rendered odious by the tyranny of Spain, and was
replaced by a similar magistracy styled capitani del popolo e
reggimento. Siena exulted in her recovered freedom; but her
sunshine was soon clouded. First, the emperor's wrath was
stirred by the influence of France in the counsels of the republic;
then Cosimo, who was no less jealous of the French, conceived
the design of annexing Siena to his own dominions. The first
hostilities of the imperial forces in Val di Chiana (1552-1553) did
little damage; but when Cosimo took the field with an army
commanded by the marquis of Marignano the ruin of Siena
was at hand. On 26th January Marignano captured the
forts of Porta Camellia (which the whole population of Siena,
including the women, had helped to construct) and invested the
city. On the 2nd of August of the same year, at Marciano in
Val di Chiana, he won a complete victory over the Sienese and
French troops under Piero Strozzi, the Florentine exile and
SIENA
53
marshal of France. Meanwhile Siena was vigorously besieged,
and its inhabitants, sacrificing everything for their beloved city,
maintained a most heroic defence. A glorious record of their
sufferings is to be found in the Diary of Sozzini, the Sienese
historian, and in the Commentaries of Blaise de Monluc, the
French representative in Siena. But in April 1555 the town
was reduced to extremity and was forced to capitulate to the
emperor and the duke. On 2ist April the Spanish troops
entered the gates; thereupon many patriots abandoned the city
and, taking refuge at Montalcino, maintained there a shadowy
form of republic until 1559.
Cosimo I. de' Medici being granted the investiture of the
Sienese state by the patent of Philip II. of Spain, dated 3rd
July 1557, took formal possession of the city on the ipth of
the same month. A lieutenant-general was appointed as repre-
sentative of his authority; the council of the balia was recon-
stituted with twenty members chosen by the duke; the con-
sistory and the general council were left in existence but deprived
of their political autonomy. Thus Siena was annexed to the
Florentine state under the same ruler and became an integral
part of the grand-duchy of Tuscany. Nevertheless it retained
a separate administration for more than two centuries, until the
general reforms of the grand-duke Pietro Leopoldo, the French
domination, and finally the restoration swept away all differences
between the Sienese and Florentine systems of government.
In 1859 Siena was the first Tuscan city that voted for annexation
to Piedmont and the monarchy of Victor Emmanuel II., this
decision (voted 26th June) being the initial step towards the
unity of Italy.
Literary History. The literary history of Siena, while recording
no gifts to the world equal to those bequeathed by Florence, and
without the power and originality by which the latter became the
centre of Italian culture, can nevertheless boast of some illustrious
names. Of these a brief summary, beginning with the department
of general literature and passing on to history and science, is sub-
joined. Many of them are also dealt with in separate articles, to
which the reader is referred.
As early as the I3th century the vulgar tongue was already well
established at Siena, being used in public documents, commercial
records and private correspondence. The poets flourishing at that
period were Folcacchiero, Cecco Angiolieri a humorist of a very
high order and Bindo Bonichi, who belonged also to the following
century. The chief glory of the I4th century was St Catherine
Benincasa. The year of her death (1380) was that of the birth of St
Bernardino Albizzeschi (S Bernardino of Siena), a popular preacher
whose sermons in the vulgar tongue are models of style and diction.
To the I5th century belongs Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.),
humanist, historian and political writer. In the i6th century we
find another Piccolomini (Alexander), bishop of Patras, author of
a curious dialogue, Delia bella creanza delle donne; another bishop,
ClaudioTolomei, diplomatist, poet and philologist, who revived the
use of ancient Latin metres ; and Luca Contile, a writer of narratives,
plays and poems. Prose fiction had two representatives in this
century -Scipione Bargagli, a writer of some merit, and Pietro
Fortini, whose productions were trivial and indecent. In the iyth
century we find Ludovico Sergardi (Quinto Settano), a Latinist and
satirical writer of much talent and culture; but the most original
and brilliant figure in Sienese literature is that of Girolamo Gigli
(1660-1722), author of the Gazzetlino, La Sorellinadi Don Pilone, II
Vocabolario cateriniano and the Diario ecclesiastico. As humorist,
scholar and philologist, Gigli would take a high place in the literature
of any land. His resolute opposition to all hypocrisy whether
religious or literary exposed him to merciless persecution from the
Jesuits and the Delia Cruscan Academy.
In the domain of history we have first the old Sienese chronicles,
which down to the I4th century are so confused that it is almost
impossible to disentangle truth from fiction or even to decide the
personality of the various authors. Three 14th-century chronicles,
attributed to Andrea Dei, AgnolodiTura, called II Grasso, and Neri
di Donati, are published in Muratori (vol. xy.). To the I5th century
belongs the chronicle of Allegretto Allegretti, also in Muratori (vol.
xxiii.) ; and during the same period flourished Sigismondo Tizio (a
priest of Siena, though born at Castiglione Aretino), whose volumin-
ous history written in Latin and never printed (now among the MSS.
of the Chigi Library in Rome), though devoid of literary merit, con-
tains much valuable material. The best Sienese historians belong to
the 1 6th century. They are Orlando Malavolti (151 5-1 596) , a man of
noble birth, the most trustworthy of all; Antonio Bellarmati;
Alessandro Sozzini di Girolamo, the sympathetic author of the Diario
dell' ultima guerra senese; and Giugurta Tommasi, of whose tedious
history ten books, down to 1354, have been published, the rest being
still in manuscript. Together with these historians we must mention
the learned scholars Celso Cittadini (d. 1627), Ulberto Benvoglienti
(d. 1 733), one of Muratori's correspondents, and Gio. Antonio Picci
(d. 1768), author of histories of Pandolfo Petrucci and the bishopric
of Siena. In the same category may be classed the librarian C. F.
Carpellini (d. 1872), author of several monographs on the origin of
Siena and the constitution of the republic, and Scipione Borghesi
(d. 1877), who has left a precious store of historical, biographical and
bibliographical studies and documents.
In theology and philosophy the most distinguished names are :
Bernardino Ochino and Lelio and Fausto Soccini (i6th century) ;
in jurisprudence, three Soccini: Mariano senior, Bartolommeo and
Mariano junior (isth and i6th centuries); and in political economy,
Sallustio Bandini (1677-1760), author of the Discorso sulla Ma-
remma. In physical science the names most worthy of mention are
those of the botanist Pier Antonio Mattioli (1501-1572), of Pirro
Maria Gabrielli (1643-1705), founder of the academy of the Physio-
critics, and of the anatomist Paolo Mascagni (d. 1825).
Art. Lanzi happily designates Sienese painting as " Lieta scuola
fra lieto popolo " (" the blithe school of a blithe people "). The
special characteristics of its masters are freshness of colour, vivacity
of expression and distinct originality. The Sienese school of painting
owes its origin to the influence of Byzantine art ; but it improved
that art, impressed it with a special stamp and was for long inde-
pendent of all other influences. Consequently Sienese art seemed
almost stationary amid the general progress and development of
the other Italian schools, and preserved its medieval character
down to the end of the 15th century, when the influence of the Um-
brian and to a_ slighter degree^of the Florentine schools began to
penetrate into Siena, followed a little later by that of the Lombard.
In the 1 3th century we find Guido (da Siena), painter of the well-
known Madonna in the church of S Domenico in Siena. The I4th
century gives us Ugolino, Ducciodi Buoninsegna, Simone di Martino
(or Memmi), Lippo Memmi, Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Andrea
di Vanni (painter and statesman), Bartolo di Fredi and Taddco di
Bartolo. In the I5th century we have Domenico di Bartolo, Sano di
Pietro, Giovanni di Paolo, Stefano di Giovanni (II Sassetta) and
Matteo and Benvenuto di Giovanni Bartoli, who fell, however, behind
their contemporaries elsewhere, and made indeed but little progress.
The 1 6th century boasts the names of Bernardino Fungai, Guidoccio
Cossarelli, Giacomo Pacchiarotto, Girolamo del Pacchia and especi-
ally Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1537), who while especially celebrated
for his frescoes and studies in perspective and chiaroscuro was also
an architect of considerable attainments (see ROME); Giovanni
Antonio Bazzi, otherwise known as II Sodoma (1477-1549), who,
born at Vercelli in Piedmont, and trained at Milan in the school of
Leonardo da Vinci, came to Siena in 1504 and there produced some of
his finest works, while his influence on the art of the place was con-
siderable; Domenico Beccafumi, otherwise known as Micharino
(1486-1550), noted for the Michelangelesque daring of his designs;
and Francesco Vanni.
There may also be mentioned many sculptors and architects, such
as Lorenzo Maitani, architect of Orvieto cathedral (end of I3th
century) ;CamainodiCrescentino;Tinodi Camaino, sculptor of the
monument to Henry VII. in the Campo Santo of Pisa; Agostino
and Agnolo, who in 1330 carved the fine tomb of Bishop Guido
Tarlati in the cathedral of Arezzo; Lando di Pietro (i4th century),
architect, entrusted by the Sienese commune with the proposed en-
largement of the cathedral (1339), and perhaps author of the famous
Gothic reliquary containing the head of S Galgano in the Chiesa del
Santuccio, which, however, is more usually attributed to Ugolino di
Vieri, author of the tabernacle in the cathedral at Orvieto ; Giacopo
(or Jacopo) della Quercia, whose lovely fountain, the Fonte Gaia, in
the Piazza, del Campo has been recently restored ; Lorenzo di Pietro
(II Vecchietta), a pupil of Della Quercia and an excellent artist in
marble and bronze; Francesco d'Antonio, a skilful goldsmith of the
l6th century; Francesco di Giorgio Martini (14391502), painter,
sculptor, military engineer and writer on art; Giacomo Cozzarelli
(i5th century); and Lorenzo Mariano, surnamed II Marrina (i6th
century). Wood-carving also flourished here in the 15th and l6th
centuries, and so also did the ceramic art, though few of its products
are preserved. According to the well-known law, however, the
Renaissance, made for the people of the plains, never fully took root
in Siena, as in other parts of Tuscany, and the loss of its independ-
ence and power in 1 555 led to a suspension of building activity, which
to the taste of the present day is most fortunate, inasmuch as the
baroque of the 1 7th and the false classicism of the i8th centuries
have had hardly any effect here ; and few towns of Italy are so un-
spoilt by restoration or the addition of incongruous modern buildings,
or preserve so many characteristics and so much of the real spirit
(manifested to-day in the grave and pleasing courtesy of the inhabi-
tants) of the middle ages, which its narrow and picturesque streets
seem to retain. Siena is indeed unsurpassed for its examples of I3th
and I4th century Italian Gothic, whether in stone or in brick.
See W. Heywood, Our Lady of August and the Palio (Siena, 1899)
and other works ; R. H. Hobart Cust, The Pavement Masters of Siena
(London, 1901) ; Langton Douglas, History of Siena (London, 1902);
E. G. Gardner, The Story of Siena (London, 1902) ; St Catherine of Siena
(London, 1908) ; W. Heywood and L. Olcott, Guide to Siena (Siena,
1603) ; A. Jahn Rusconi, Siena (Bergamo, 1904). (C. PA. ; T. As.)
SIENETJO SIERRA LEONE
SIENETJO, one of the Shangalla tribes living in south-west
Abyssinia near the Sudan frontier, who claim to be a remnant
of the primitive population. They are apparently a Hamitic
people, and their skin is of a yellowish tint. Their women
never intermarry with the Negroes or Arabs. Sienet jo villages
are usually built on hilltops. They are an industrious people,
skilful jewellers, weavers and smiths.
SIENKIEWICZ, HENRYK (1846- ), Polish novelist, was
born in 1846 at Wola Okrzeska near Lukow, in the province of
Siedlce, Russian Poland. He studied philosophy at Warsaw
University. His first work, a humorous novel entitled A Prophet
in his own Country, appeared in 1872. In 1876 Sienkiewicz
visited America, and under the pseudonym of " Litwos, " con-
tributed an account of his travels to the Gazeta Polska, a Warsaw
newspaper. Thenceforward his talent as a writer of historical
novels won rapid recognition, and his best-known romance,
Quo Vadis? a study of Roman society under Nero, has been
translated into more than thirty languages. Originally pub-
lished in 1895, Quo Vadis? was first translated into English in
1896, and dramatized versions of it have been produced in
England, the United States, France and Germany. Remarkable
powers of realistic description, and a strong religious feeling
which at times borders upon mysticism, characterize the best
work of Sienkiewicz. Hardly inferior to Quo Vadis? in popu-
larity, and superior in literary merit, is the trilogy of novels
describing 17th-century society in Poland during the wars with
the Cossacks, Turks and Swedes. This trilogy comprises Ogniem
i mieczem (" With Fire and Sword, " London, 1890, 1892 and
1895), Potop (" The Deluge, " Boston, Mass., 1891) and Pan
Woxodjowski (" Pan Michael," London, 1893). Among other
very successful novels and collections of tales which have been
translated into English are Bez Dogmatu (" Without Dogma, "
London, 1893; Toronto, 1899), Janko muzykant: nowele (" Yanko
the Musician and other Stories," Boston, Mass., 1893), Krzyzacy
(" The Knight of the Cross, " numerous British and American
versions), Hania (" Hania, " London, 1897) and Ta Trzecia
(" The Third Woman, " New York, 1898). Sienkiewicz lived
much in Cracow and Warsaw, and for a time edited the Warsaw
newspaper Slowo; he also travelled in England, France, Italy,
Spain, Greece, Africa and the East, and published a description
of his journeys in Africa. In 1905 he received the Nobel prize for
literature.
A German edition of his collected works was published at Graz
(1906, &c.), and his biography was written in Polish by P. Chmiel-
owski (Lemberg, 1901) and J. Nowinski (Warsaw, 1901).
SIERADZ, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of
Kalisz, situated on theWarta, no m. S.W. of the city of Warsaw.
Pop. (1897) 7019. It is one of the oldest towns of Poland,
founded prior to the introduction of Christianity, and was
formerly known asSyra orSyraz. The annals mention it in 1139.
Several seims, or diets, of Poland were held there during the i3th
to 1 5th centuries, and it was a wealthy town until nearly destroyed
by % fire in 1447. The old castle, which suffered much in the
Swedish war of 1702-1711, was destroyed by the Germans in
1800. There are two churches, dating from the i2th and i4th
centuries respectively.
SIERO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, on
the river Nora, and on the Oviedo-Trifiesto railway. Pop. (1900)
22,503. Siero is in the centre of a fertile agricultural district, in
which live-stock is extensively reared. There are coal mines in
the neighbourhood, and the local industries include tanning and
manufactures of soap, coarse linen and cloths.
SIERRA LEONE, a British colony and protectorate on the
west coast of Africa. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. and
E. by French Guinea and S. by Liberia. The coast-line,
following the indentations, is about 400 m. in length, extending
from 9 2' N. to 6 55' N. It includes the peninsula of Sierra
Leone 23 m. long with an average breadth of 14 m. Sherbro
Island, Bance, Banana, Turtle, Plantain and other minor islands,
also Turner's Peninsula, a narrow strip of land southward of
Sherbro Island, extending in a S.E. direction about 60 m. Except
in the Sierra Leone peninsula, Sherbro Island and Turner's
Peninsula, the colony proper does not extend inland to a greater
depth than half a mile. The protectorate, which adjoins the
colony to the north and east, extends from 7 N. to 10 N. and
from 10 40' W. to 13 W., and has an area of rather more
than 30,000 sq. m., being about the size of Ireland. (For
map, see FRENCH WEST AFRICA.) The population of the
colony proper at the 1901 census was 76,655. The popula-
tion of the protectorate is estimated at from 1,000,000 to
1,500,000.
Physical Features. Sierra Leone is a well-watered, well-wooded
and generally hilly country. The coast-line is deeply indented in its
northern portion. Here the sea has greatly eroded the normal
regular, harbourless line of the west coast of Africa, forming bold
capes and numerous inlets or estuaries. The Sierra Leone peninsula
is the most striking result of this marine action. North of it are the
Sierra Leone and Scarcies estuaries; to the south is Yawry Bay.
Then in 7 30' N. Sherbro Island is reache-1. This is succeeded by
Turner's Peninsula (in reality an island). The seaward faces of these
islands are perfectly regular and indica e the original continental
coast-line. They have been detached fr'.m the mainland partly by
a marine inlet, partly by the lagoon-like creeks formed by the rivers.
In the Sierra Leone peninsula the hills come down to the sea, else-
where a low coast plain extends inland 30 to 50 m. The plateau
which forms the greater part of the protectorate has an altitude
varying from 800 to 3000 ft. On the north-east border by the Niger
sources are mountains exceeding 5000 ft. The most fertile parts of
the protectorate are Sherbro and Mendiland in the south-west. In
the north-west the district between the Great Scarcies and the Rokell
rivers is flat and is named Bullom (low land). In the south-east
bordering Liberia is a belt of densely forested hilly country extending
50 m. S. to N. and very sparsely inhabited.
The hydrography of the country is comparatively simple. Six
large rivers 300 to 500 m. long rise in the Futa Jallon highlands
in or beyond the northern frontier of the protectorate and in whole or
in part traverse the country with a general S.W. course; the Great
and Little Scarcies in the north, the Rokell and Jong in the centre
and the Great Bum and Sulima in the south. These rivers are navi-
gable for short distances, but in general rapids or cataracts mark their
middle courses. The Great Scarcies, the Rio dos Carceres of the
Portuguese, rises not far from the sources of the Senegal. Between
9 50' and 9 15' N. it forms the boundary between the protectorate
and French Guinea; below that point it is wholly in British territory.
The Little Scarcies enters Sierra Leone near Yomaia, in the most
northerly part of the protectorate. Known in its upper course as the
Kabba, it flows through wild rocky country, its banks in places being
900 ft. high. After piercing the hills it runs parallel with the Great
Scarcies. In their lower reaches the two rivers both large streams
traverse a level plain, separated by no obstacles. The mouth of the
Little Scarcies is 20 m. S. of that of the Great Scarcies. South of the
estuary of the Scarcies the deep inlet known as the Sierra Leone
river forms a perfectly safe and commodious harbour accessible to the
largest vessels. At its entrance on the southern shore lies Freetown.
Into the estuary flows, besides smaller streams, the Rokell, known
in its upper course as the Seli. The broad estuary which separates
Sherbro Island from the mainland, and is popularly called the
Sherbro river, receives the Bagru from the N.W. and the Jong river,
whose headstream, known as the Taia, Pampana and Sanden, flows
for a considerable distance east of and parallel to the Rokell. The
sources of the Taia, and those of the Great Bum, are near to those of
the Niger, the watershed between the coast streams and the Niger
basin here forming the frontier. The main upper branch of the Great
Bum (or Sewa) river is called the Bague or Bagbe (white river). It
flows east of and more directly south than the Taia. In its lower
course the Bum passes through the Mendi country and enters the
network of lagoons and creeks separated from the ocean by the long
low tract of Turner's Peninsula. The main lagoon waterway goes by
the name of the Bum-Kittam river, and to the north opens into the
Sherbro estuary. Southward it widens out and forms Lake Kasse
(20 m. long), before reaching the ocean just north of the estuary of
the Sulima. The Wanje or upper Kittam joins this creek, and is
also connected with Lake Mabessi, a sheet of water adjacent to Lake
Kasse. The Sulima or Moa is a magnificent stream and flows through
a very fertile country. One of its headstreams, the Meli, rises in
French Guinea in 10 30' W. 9 17' N. and flows for some distance
parallel to the infant Niger, but in the opposite direction. It joins
the Moa within Sierra Leone. The main upper stream of the Moa
separates French Guinea and Liberia and enters British territory in
10 40' W. 8 20' N. Only the lower course is known as the Sulima.
Between 7 40' and 7 20' are lacustrine reaches. Six miles S. of the
mouth of the Sulima the Mano or Bewa river enters the sea. It
rises in Liberia, and below 7 30' N. forms the frontier between that
republic and the protectorate.
The Sierra Leone peninsula, the site of the oldest British settle-
ment, lies between the estuary of the same name and Yawry Bay to
the south. It is traversed on its seaward face by hills attaining a
height of 1700 ft. in the Sugar Loaf, and nearly as much in Mount
Herton farther south. The hills consist of a kind of granite and of
SIERRA LEONE
55
beds of red sandstone, the disintegration of which has given a dark-
coloured ferruginous soil of moderate fertility. Sugar Loaf is
timbered to the top, and the peninsula is verdant with abundant
vegetation.
Climate. The coast lands are unhealthy and have earned for Sierra
Leone the unenviable reputation of being " the white man's grave."
The mean annual temperature is above 8p, the rainfall, which varies
a great deal, is from 150 to 180 or more inches per annum. In 1896
no fewer than 203 in. were recorded. In 1894 , a " dry " year, only
144 in. of rain fell. In no other part of West Africa is the rainfall so
heavy. December, January, February and March are practically
rainless; the rains, beginning in April or May, reach their maximum
in July, August and September, and rapidly diminish in October
and November. During the dry season, when the climate is very
much like that of the West Indies, there occur terrible tornadoes
and long periods of the harmattan a north-east wind, dry and
desiccating, and carrying with it from the Sahara clouds of fine dust,
which sailors designate " smokes." The dangers of the climate are
much less in the interior; 40 or 50 m. inland the country is tolerable
for Europeans.
Flora. The characteristic tree of the coast districts is the oil-
palm. Other palm trees found are the date, bamboo, palmyra, coco
and dom. The coast-line, the creeks and the lower courses of the
rivers are lined with mangroves. Large areas are covered with
brushwood, among which are scattered baobab, shea-butter, bread
fruit, corkwood and silk-cotton trees. The forests contain valuable
timber trees such as African oak or teak (Oldfieldia Africana), rose-
wood, ebony, tamarind, camwood, odum whose wood resists the
attacks of termites and the tolmgah or brimstone tree. The
frankincense tree (Daniellia thurifera) reaches from 50 to 150 ft., the
negro pepper (Xylopia Aethiopica) grows to about 60 ft., the fruit
being used by the natives as pepper. There are also found the black
pepper plant (Piper Clusii), a climbing plant abundant in the moun-
tain districts; the grains of paradise or melegueta pepper plant
(Amomum Melegueta) and other Amomums whose fruits are prized.
Of the Apocynaceae the rubber plants are the most important.
Both Landolphia florida and Landolphia owaricnsis are found. Of
several fibre-yielding plants the so-called aloes of the orders Amaryl-
lidaceae and Liliaceae are common. The kola (Cola acuminata) and
the bitter kola (Garcinia cola), the last having a fruit about the size
of an apple, with a flavour like that of green coffee, are common.
Of dye-yielding shrubs and plants camwood and indigo may be
mentioned ; of those whence gum is obtained the copal, acacia and
African tragacanth (Sterculia tragacantha). Besides the oil-palm, oil
is obtained from many trees and shrubs, such as the benni oil plant.
Of fruit trees there are among others the blood-plum (Haematostaphis
Barteri) with deep crimson fruit in grape-like clusters, and the Sierra
Leone peach (Sarcocephalus esculentus). The coffee and cotton plants
are indigenous; of grasses there are various kinds of millet, including
Paspalum exile, the so-called hungry rice or Sierra Leone millet.
Ferns are abundant in the marshes. Bright coloured flowers are
somewhat rare.
Fauna. The wild animals include the elephant, still found in large
numbers, the leopard, panther, chimpanzee, grey monkeys, antelope
of various kinds, the buffalo, wild hog, bush goat, bush pig, sloth,
civet and squirrel. The hippopotamus, manatee, crocodile and
beaver are found in the rivers, and both land and fresh-water tortoises
are common. Serpents, especially the boa-constrictor, are numerous.
Chameleons, lizards and iguanas abound, as do frogs and toads.
Wild birds are not very common ; among them are the hawk, parrot,
owl, woodpecker, kingfisher, green pigeon, African magpie, the
honey-sucker and canary. There are also wild duck, geese and other
water fowl, hawk's bill, laggerheads and partridges. Mosquitoes,
termites, bees, ants, centipedes, millipedes, locusts, grasshoppers,
butterflies, dragonflies, sandflies and spiders are found in immense
numbers. Turtle are common on the southern coast-line, sand and
mangrove oysters are plentiful. Fish abound; among the common
kinds are the bunga (a sort of herring), skate, grey mullet and tarpon.
Sharks infest the estuaries.
Inhabitants. Sierra Leone is inhabited by various negro
tribes, the chief being the Timni, the Sulima, the Susu and the
Mendi. From the Mendi district many curious steatite figures
which had been buried have been recovered and are exhibited
in the British Museum. They show considerable skill in carving.
Of semi-negro races the Fula inhabit the region of the Scarcies.
Freetown is peopled by descendants of nearly every negro tribe,
and a distinct type known as the Sierra Leoni has been evolved ;
their language is pidgin English. Since 1900 a considerable
number of Syrians have settled in the country as traders. Most
of the negroes are pagans and each tribe has its secret societies
and fetishes. These are very powerful and are employed often
for beneficent purposes, such as the regulation of agriculture
and the palm-oil industry. There are many Christian converts
(chiefly Anglicans and Wesleyans) and Mahommedans. In the
protectorate are some Mahommedan tribes, as for instance the
Susu. The majority of the Sierra Leonis are nominally Christian.
The European population numbers about 500.
Towns. Besides Freetown (q.v.) the capital (pop., 1901,
34,463), the most important towns for European trade are Bonthe,
the port of Sherbro, Port Lokko, at the head of the navigable
waters of a stream emptying itself into the Sierra Leone estuary,
and Songo Town, 30 m. S.E. of Freetown, with which it is con-
nected by railway. In the interior are many populous centres.
The most noted is Falaba, about 190 m. N.E. of Freetown on the
Fala river, a tributary of the Little Scarcies. It lies about 1600 ft.
above the sea. Falaba was founded towards the end of the i8th
century by the Sulima who revolted from the Mahommedan Fula,
and its warlike inhabitants soon attained supremacy over the
neighbouring villages and country. Like many of the native
towns it is surrounded by a loopholed wall, with flank defences for
the gates. The town is the meeting-place of many trade routes,
including some to the middle Niger. Kambia on the Great
Scarcies is a place of some importance. It can be reached by
boat from the sea. On the railway running S.E. from Freetown
are Rotifunk, Mano, and Bo, towns which have increased greatly
in importance since the building of the railway.
Agriculture and Trade. Agriculture is in a backward condition,
but is being developed. The wealth of the country consists, however,
chiefly in its indigenous trees of economic value the oil-palm, the
kola-nut tree and various kinds of rubber plants, chiefly the Land-
olphia owariensis. The crops cultivated are rice, of an excellent
quality, cassava, maize and ginger. The cultivation of coffee and of
native tobacco has been practically abandoned as unremunerative.
The sugar cane is grown in small quantities. The ginger is grown
mainly in the colony. proper. Minor products are benni seeds, pepper
and piassava. The oil-palm and kola-nut tree are especially abundant
in the Sherbro district and its hinterland, the Mendi country. The
palms, though never planted, are in practically unlimited numbers.
The nuts are gathered twice a year. Formerly groundnuts were
largely cultivated, but this industry has been superseded by exports
from India. Its place has been taken to some extent by the extrac-
tion of rubber.
The cotton plant grows freely throughout the protectorate and the
cloth manufactured is of a superior kind. Exotic varieties of cotton
do not thrive. Experiments were made during 1903-1906 to intro-
duce the cultivation of Egyptian and American varieties, but they did
not succeed. Cattle are numerous but of a poor breed ; horses do
not thrive. The chief export is palm kernels, the amount of palm oil
exported being comparatively slight. Next to palm products the
most valuable articles exported are kola-nuts which go largely to
neighbouring French colonies rubber and ginger. The imports are
chiefly textiles, food and spirits. Nearly three-fourths of the imports
come from Great Britian, which, however, takes no more than some
35% of the exports. About 10% of the exports go to other British
West African colonies. Germany, which has but a small share of the
import trade, takes about 45 % of the exports. The value of the
trade increased in the ten years 1896-1905 from 943,000 to
1,265,000. In 1908 the imports were valued at 813,700, the ex-
ports at 736,700.
The development of commerce with the rich regions north and
east of the protectorate has been hindered by the diversion of trade
to the French port of Konakry, which in 1910 was placed in railway
communication with the upper Niger. Moreover, the main trade
road from Konakry to the middle Niger skirts the N.E. frontier of the
protectorate for some distance. Sierra Leone is thus forced to look-
to its economic development within the bounds of the protectorate.
Communications. Internal communication is rendered difficult
by the denseness of the " bush " or forest country. The rivers,
however, afford a means of bringing country produce to the seaports.
A railway, state owned and the first built in British West Africa,
runs S.E. from Freetown through the fertile districts of Mendiland
to the Liberian frontier. Begun in 1896, the line reached Bo (136 m.)
in the oil-palm district in 1903, and was completed to Baiima, 15 m.
from the Liberian frontier total length 221 m. in 1905. The
gauge throughout is 2 ft. 6 in. The line cost about 4300 per mile,
a total of nearly 1,000,000. Tramways and " feeder roads " have
been built to connect various places with the railway; one such
road goes from railhead to Kailahun in Liberia.
Telegraphic communication with Europe was established in 1886.
Steamers run at regular intervals between Freetown and Liverpool,
Hamburg, Havre and Marseilles. In the ten years 1899-1908 the
tonnage of shipping entered and cleared rose from 1,181,000 to
2,046,000.
Administration, Revenue, &fc. The country is administered as a
crown colony, the governor being assisted by an executive and a
Iceislative council; on the last-named a minority of nominated un-
official members have scats. The law of the colony is the common
law of England modified by local ordinances. There is a denomina-
tional system of primary and higher education. The schools are
SIERRA LEONE
inspected by government and receive grants in aid. In 1907 there
were 75 assisted elementary schools with nearly 8000 scholars.
Furah Bay College is affiliated to Durham University. There is a
Wesleyan Theological College; a government school (established
1906) at Bo for the sons of chiefs, and the Thomas Agricultural
Academy at Mabang (founded in 1909 by a bequest of 60,000 from
S. B. Thomas, a Sierra Leonian). Since 1901 the government has
provided separate schools for Mahommedans. Revenue is largely
derived from customs, especially from the duties levied on spirits.
In the protectorate a house tax is imposed. In 1899-1908 revenue
increased from 168,000 to 321,000, and the expenditure from
145,000 to 341,000. In 1906 there was a public debt of 1,279,000.
Freetown is the headquarters of the British army in West Africa,
and a force of infantry, engineers and artillery is maintained there.
The colony itself provides a battalion of the West African Frontier
Force, a body responsible to the Colonial Office.
The protectorate is divided for administrative purposes into
districts, each 'under a European commissioner. Throughout the
protectorate native law is administered by native courts, subject
to certain modifications. Native courts may not deal with murder,
witchcraft, cannibalism or slavery. These cases are tried by the
district commissioners or referred to the supreme court at Freetown.
The tribal system of government is maintained, and the authority
of the chiefs has been strengthened by the British. Domestic slavery
is not interfered with.
History. Sierra Leone (in the original Portuguese form
Sierra Leona) was known to its native inhabitants as Romarong,
or the Mountain, and received the current designation from the
Portuguese discoverer Pedro deSintra (i462),eitheronaccount of
the " lion-like " thunder on its hill-tops, or to a fancied resem-
blance of the mountains to the form of a lion. Here, as elsewhere
along the coast, the Portuguese had-" factories "; and though
none existed when the British took possession, some of the natives
called themselves Portuguese and claimed descent from colonists
of that nation. An English fort was built on Bance Island in the
Sierra Leone estuary towards the close of the i7th century, but
was soon afterwards abandoned, though for a long period the
estuary was the haunt of slavers and pirates. English traders
were established on Bance and the Banana islands as long as
the slave trade was legal. The existing colony has not, however,
grown out of their establishments, but owes its birth to the
philanthropists who sought to alleviate the lot of those negroes
who were victims of the traffic in human beings. In 1786 Dr
Henry Smeathman, who had lived for four years on the west
coast, proposed a scheme for founding on the peninsula a colony
for negroes discharged from the army and navy at the close of the
American War of Independence, as well as for numbers of run-
away slaves who had found an asylum in London. In 1787 the
settlement was begun with 400 negroes and 60 Europeans, the
whites being mostly women of abandoned character. In the
year following, 1788, Nembana, a Timni chief, sold a strip of land
to Captain John Taylor, R.N., for the use of the " free community
of settlers, their heirs and successors, lately arrived from England,
and under the protection of the British government." Owing
mainly to the utter shiftlessness of the settlers and the great
mortality among them, but partly to an attack by a body of
natives, this first attempt proved a complete failure. In 1791
Alexander Falconbridge (formerly a surgeon on board slave
ships) collected the surviving fugitives and laid out a new settle-
ment (Granville's Town) ; and the promoters of the enterprise
Granville Sharp, William Wilberforce, Sir Richard Carr Glyn,
&c. hitherto known as the St George's Bay Company, obtained
a charter of incorporation as the Sierra Leone Company, with
Henry Thornton as chairman. In 1792 John Clarkson, a lieu-
tenant in the British navy and brother to Thomas Clarkson the
slave trade abolitionist, brought to the colony noo negroes-
from Nova Scotia. In 1794 the settlement, which had been
again transferred to its original site and named Freetown, was
plundered by the French. The governor at the time was Zachary
Macaulay, father of Thomas Babington, Lord Macaulay. In
1807, when the inhabitants of the colony numbered 1871, the
company, which had encountered many difficulties, transferred
its rights to the crown. The slave trade having in the same year
been declared illegal by the British parliament, slaves captured
by British vessels in the neighbouring seas were brought to
Freetown, and thus the population of the colony grew. Its
development was hampered by the frequent changes in the
governorship. Sydney Smith's jest that Sierra Leone had always
two governors, one just arrived in the colony, and the other iust
arrived in England, is but a slight exaggeration. In twenty-two
years (1792-1814) there were seventeen changes in the governor-
ship. After that date changes, although not quite so rapid, were
still frequent. Several of the governors, like Zachary Macaulay,
Colonel Dixon Denham, the explorer, and Sir Samuel Rowe,
were men of distinction. Colonel Denham, after administering
the colony for five weeks, died at Freetown of fever on the 9th
of June 1828. Sir Charles M'Carthy was, however, governor
for ten years (1814-1824), an unprecedented period, during
which he did much for the development of the country. Sir
Charles fell in battle with the Ashanti on the 2ist of January
1824. Whilst the governors found great difficulty in building
up an industrious and agricultural community out of the medley
of Africans brought to Sierra Leone, they had also to contend
with the illicit slave trade which flourished in places close to the
colony. To stop the traffic in Sherbro Island General Charles
Turner concluded in 1825 a treaty with its rulers putting the
island, Turner's Peninsula and other places under British pro-
tection. (This treaty was not ratified by the crown, but was
revived by another agreement made in 1882.)
At .this time 1826 measures were taken to ensure that
the liberated slaves should become self-supporting. Many
colonists took to trade, and notwithstanding numerous collisions
with neighbouring tribes the settlement attained a measure of
prosperity. Among the leading agents in spreading civilization
were the missionaries sent out from 1804 onwards by the Church
Missionary Society. Despite the anxiety of the British govern-
ment not to increase their responsibilities in West Africa, from
time to time various small territories were purchased, and by
1884 all the land now forming the colony had been acquired.
The Los Islands (q.v.) which were ceded by the natives to Great
Britain in 1818 were transferred to France in 1904. In 1866
Freetown was made the capital of the new general government
set up for the British settlements on the West Coast of Africa
(comprising Sierra Leone, Gambia, the Gold Coast and Lagos,
each of which was to have a legislative council). In 1874 the
Gold Coast and Lagos were detached from Sierra Leone, and the
Gambia in 1888.
British influence was gradually extended over the hinterland,
chiefly with the object of suppressing intertribal wars, which
greatly hindered trade. In this work the British
authorities enlisted the services of Dr Edward W. g tma
Blyden (a pure-blooded negro), who in 1872 visited incident.
Falaba and in 1873 Timbo, both semi-Mahommedan
countries, being cordially received by the ruling chiefs. Falaba
which had been visited in 1869 by Winwood Reade on his journey
to the Niger came definitely under British protection, but Timbo,
which is in Futa Jallon, was allowed to become French territory
through the supineness of the home government. The area for
expansion on the north was in any case limited by the French
Guinea settlements, and on the south the territory of Liberia 1
hemmed in the colony. In the east and north-east British
officers also found themselves regarded as trespassers by the
French. The necessity for fixing the frontier in this direction
was emphasized by the Waima incident. Both French and
British military expeditions had been sent against the Sofas
Moslem mercenaries who, under the chieftainship of Fulas or
Mandingos like Samory, ravaged the hinterland both of Sierra
Leone and French Guinea. On the 23rd of December 1893 a
British' force was encamped at Waima. At dawn it was attacked
by a French force which mistook the British troops for Samory's
Sofas (save the officers the soldiers of both parties were negroes).
Before the mistake was discovered the British had lost in killed
three officers Captain E. A. W. Lendy, Lieut. R. E. Listen
and Lieut. C. Wroughton and seven men, besides eighteen
wounded. The French also suffered heavily. Their leader Lieut.
Maritz was brought into the British camp mortally wounded,
1 The Anglo-Liberian frontier, partly defined by treaty in 1885,
was not delimitated until 1903 (see LIBERIA).
SIERRA MORENA SIEVES
57
and was buried by the British. Steps were taken to prevent the
occurrence of any further conflicts, and an agreement denning the
frontier was signed in January 1895. This agreement finally
shut out Sierra Leone from its natural hinterland. In 1896
the frontier was delimitated, and in the same year (26th of
August 1896) a proclamation of a British protectorate was issued.
To this extension of authority no opposition was offered at the
time by any of the chiefs or tribes. Travelling commissioners
were appointed to explore the hinterland, and frontier police
were organized. The abolition of the slave trade followed; and
with the introduction of the protectorate ordinance in 1897 a
house tax of 53. each was imposed, to come into operation in three
districts on the ist of January 1898. Chief Bai Bureh, in the
Timni country, broke out into open war, necessitating a military
punitive expedition. After strenuous fighting, in which the
British casualties, including sick, reached 600, he was captured
(i4th of November 1898) and deported. Meantime (in April
1898) the Mendi tribes rose, and massacred several British and
American missionaries, including four ladies, at Rotifunk and
Taiama, some native officials (Sierra Leonis) in the Imperri
district, and a large number of police throughout the country.
Speedy retribution followed, which effectually put down the
revolt. Sir David P. Chalmers was appointed (July 1898) royal
commissioner to inquire into the disturbances. He issued a
report, July 1899, deprecating the imposition cf the house tax,
which was not, however, revoked. The disturbances would
appear to have arisen not so much from dislike of the house tax
per se as irritation at the arbitrary manner in which it was
collected, and from a desire on the part of the paramount chiefs
(who chafed at the suppression of slave trading and slave raiding,
and who disseminated a powerful fetish "swear," called "Poro,"
to compel the people to join) to cast off British rule. After
the suppression of the rising (January 1899) confidence in
the British administration largely increased among the tribes,
owing to the care taken to preserve the authority of the chiefs
whilst safeguarding the elementary rights of the people. The
building of the railway and the consequent development of trade
and the introduction of European ideas tended largely to modify
native habits. The power of fetishism seemed, however, un-
affected.
See H. C. Lukach, A Bibliography of Sierra Leone (Oxford
1911); Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies,
vol. iii. (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900); T. J. Alldridge, The Sherbro and its
Hinterland (London, 1901), and A Transformed Colony (London,
1910) the last with valuable notes on secret societies and fetish;
Winwood Reade, The African Sketch Book, vol. ii. (London, 1873);
Colonel J. K. Trotter, The Niger Sources (London, 1898) ; Major J. J.
Crook, History of Sierra Leone (Dublin, 1903) a concise account of
the colony to the end of the igth century. For fuller details of the
foundation and early history of the settlement consult Sierra Leone
after a Hundred Years (London, 1894) by E. G. Ingham, bishop of
the diocese, and The Rise of British West Africa (London, 1904)
by Claude George. Bishop Ingham's book contains long extracts
from the diary of Governor Clarkson, which vividly portray the
conditions of life in the infant colony. For the rising in 1898 see
The Advance of our West African Empire (London, 1903) by C. B.
Wallis. A Blue Book on the affairs of the colony is published yearly
at Freetown and an Annual Report by the Colonial Office in London.
Maps on the scale of I : 250,000 are published by the War Office.
SIERRA MORENA, THE, a range of mountains in southern
Spain. The Sierra Morena constitutes the largest section of the
mountain system called the Cordillera Marianica (anc. Monies
mariani) , which also includes a number of minor Spanish ranges,
together with the mountains of southern Portugal. The mean
elevation of the range is about 2500 ft., but its breadth is certainly
not less than 40 m. It extends eastward as far as the steppe
region of Albacete, and westward to the valley of the lower
Guadiana. Its continuity is frequently interrupted, especially
in the west; in the eastern and middle portions it is composed
of numerous irregularly disposed ridges. Many of these bear
distinctive names; thus the easternmost and loftiest is called
the Sierra de Alcaraz (5900 ft.), while some of the component
ridges in the extreme west are classed together as the Sierras
de Aracena. The great breadth of the Sierra Morena long
rendered it a formidable barrier between Andalusia and the
north; as such it has played an important part in the social,
economic and military history of Spain. Its configuration and
hydrography are also important from a geographical point of
view, partly because it separates the .plateau region of Castile
and Estremadura from the Andalusian plain and the highlands
of the Sierra Nevada system, partly because it forms the water-
shed between two great rivers, the upper Guadiana on the north
and the Guadalquivir on the south. Parts of the Sierra Morena
are rich in minerals; the central region yields silver, mercury and
lead, while the Sierras de Aracena contain the celebrated copper
mines of Tharsis and Rio Tinto (<?..).
SIERRA NEVADA (Span, for " snowy range "), a mountain
range, about 430 m. long, in the eastern part of California,
containing Mt Whitney (14,502 ft.), the highest point in the
United States, excluding Alaska. (See CALIFORNIA.)
SIERRA NEVADA, THE, a mountain range of southern Spain,
in the provinces of Granada and Almeria. The Sierra Nevada
is a well-defined range, about 55 m. long and 25 m. broad,
situated to the south of the Guadalquivir valley, and stretching
from the upper valley of the river Genii or Jenil eastwards to the
valley of the river Almeria. It owes its name, meaning "the
snowy range, " to the fact that several of its peaks exceed 10,000
feet in height and are thus above the limit of perpetual snow.
Its culminating point, the Cerro de Mulhacen or Mulahacen
(11,421 ft.) reaches an altitude unequalled in Spain, while one of
the neighbouring peaks, called the Picacho de Veleta (11,148 ft.),
is only surpassed by Aneto (11,168 ft.), the loftiest summit of
the Pyrenees. The Sierra Nevada is composed chiefly of soft
micaceous schists, sinking precipitously down on the north, but
sloping more gradually to the south and south-east. On both
sides deep transverse valleys (barrancas) follow one another in
close succession, in many cases with round, basin-shaped heads
like the cirques of the Pyrenees (q.v.). In many of these cirques
lie alpine lakes, and in one of them, the Corral de Veleta, there
is even a small glacier, the most southerly in Europe. The
transverse valleys open on the south into the longitudinal
valleys of the Alpujarras (q.v.). On the north, east and west there
are various minor ranges, such as the Sierras of Parapanda,
Harana, Gor, Baza, Lucena, Cazorla, Estancias, Filabres, &c.,
which are connected with the main range, and are sometimes
collectively termed the Sierra Nevada system. The coast ranges,
or Sierra Penibetica, are not included in this group. The Sierras
de Segura form a connecting link between the Sierra Morena
and the Nevada system. *
SIEVE (O.E. sife, older sibi, cf. Dutch zeef, Ger. Sieb; from
the subst. comes O.E. si] tan, to sift), an instrument or apparatus
for separating finer particles from coarser. The common sieve
is a net of wires or other material stretched across a frame-
work with raised edges; the material to be sifted is then shaken
or pressed upon the net so that the finer particles pass through
the mesh and the coarser remain. The word " screen " is usually
applied to such instruments with large mesh for coarse work,
and " strainer " for those used in the separation of liquids or
semi-liquids from solid 'matter. In the separation of meal
from bran " bolting-clothes " are used. There was an early
form of divination known as coscinomancy (Gr. Kbamvov,
sieve, fiavrela, divination), where a sieve was hung or attached
to a pair of shears, whence the name sometimes given to it of
" sieve and shears "; the turning or movement of the sieve
at the naming of a person suspected of a crime or other act,
coupled with the repetition of an incantation or other magic
formula, decided the guilt or innocence of the person.
SIEVES, EMMANUEL-JOSEPH (1748-1836), French abbe
and statesman, one of the chief theorists of the revolutionary and
Napoleonic era, was born at Frejus in the south of France on the
3rd of May 1748. He was educated for the church at the
Sorbonne; but while there he eagerly imbibed the teachings
of Locke, Condillac, and other political thinkers, in preference
to theology. Nevertheless he entered the church, and owing
to his learning and subtlety advanced until he became vicar-
general and chancellor of the diocese of Chartres. In 1788 the
excitement caused by the proposed convocation of the States
SIFAKA SIGALON
General of France after the interval of more than a century and
a half, and the invitation of Necker to writers to state their
views as to the constitution of the Estates, enabled Sieves to
publish his celebrated pamphlet, "What is the Third Estate?"
He thus begins his answer, " Everything. What has it been
hitherto in the political order? Nothing. What does it desire?
To be something." For this mot he is said to have been indebted
to Chamfort. In any case, the pamphlet had a great vogue, and
its author, despite doubts felt as to his clerical vocation, was
elected as the last (the twentieth) of the deputies of Paris to the
States General. Despite his failure as a speaker, his influence
became great; he strongly advised the constitution of the
Estates in one chamber as the National Assembly, but he opposed
the abolition of tithes and the confiscation of church lands.
Elected to the special committee on the constitution, he opposed
the right of " absolute veto " for the king, which Mirabeau
unsuccessfully supported. For the most part, however, he
veiled his opinions in the National Assembly, speaking very
rarely and then generally with oracular brevity and ambiguity.
He had a considerable influence on the framing of the depart-
mental system, but after the spring of 1790 his influence was
eclipsed by men of more determined character. Only once was
he elected to the post of fortnightly president of the Constituent
Assembly. Excluded from the Legislative Assembly by Robes-
pierre's self-denying ordinance, he reappeared in the third
National Assembly, known as the Convention (September 1792-
September 1795); but there his self-effacement was even more
remarkable; it resulted partly from disgust, partly from timidity.
He even abjured his faith at the time of the installation of the
goddess of reason; and afterwards he characterized his conduct
during the reign of terror in the ironical phrase, J'ai tiecu. He
voted for the death of Louis XVI., but not in the contemptuous
terms La mart sans phrases sometimes ascribed to him. He is
known to have disapproved of many of the provisions of the
constitutions of the years 1791 and 1793, but did little or nothing
to improve them.
In 1795 he went on a diplomatic mission to the Hague, and
was instrumental in drawing up a treaty between the French and
Batavian republics. He dissented from the constitution of 1795
(that of the Directory) in some important particulars, but without
effect, and thereupon refused to serve as a Director of the
Republic. In May 1798 he went as the plenipotentiary of France
to the court of Berlin in order to try to induce Prussia .to make
common cause with France against the Second Coalition. His
conduct was skilful, but he failed in his main object. The
prestige which encircled his name led to his being elected a
Director of France in place of Rewbell in May 1799. Already
he had begun to intrigue for the overthrow of the Directory, and
is said to have thought of favouring the advent to power at Paris
of persons so unlikely as the Archduke Charles and the duke of
Brunswick. He now set himself to sap the base of the con-
stitution of 1795. With that aim he caused the revived Jacobin
Club to be closed, and made overtures to General Joubert for
a coup d'etat in the future. The death of Joubert at the battle
of Novi, and the return of Bonaparte from Egypt marred his
schemes; but ultimately he came to an understanding with the
young general (see NAPOLEON I.). After the coup d'etat of
Brumaire, SieyeSs produced the perfect constitution which he
had long been planning, only to have it completely remodelled
by Bonaparte. Sieyes soon retired from the post of provisional
consul, which he accepted after Brumaire; he now became one
of the first senators, and rumour, probably rightly, connected
this retirement with the acquisition of a fine estate at Crosne.
After the bomb outrage at the close of 1800 (the affair of Niv6se)
Sieyes in the senate defended the arbitrary and illegal proceedings
whereby Bonaparte rid himself of the leading Jacobins. During
the empire he rarely emerged from his retirement, but at the
time of the Bourbon restorations (1814 and 1813) he left
France. After the July revolution (1830) he returned; he
died at Paris on the 2oth of June 1836. The thin, wire-drawn
features of Sieyes were the index of his mind, which was keen-
sighted but narrow, dry and essentially limited. His lack
of character and wide sympathies was a misfortune for the
National Assemblies which he might otherwise have guided
with effect.
See A. Neton, Sieyes (1748-1836) d'apres documents inedits (Paris,
1900); also the chief histories on the French Revolution and the
Napoleonic empire. (J. HL. R.)
SIFAKA, apparently the name of certain large Malagasy lemurs
nearly allied to the INDRI (q.v.) but distinguished by their long-
tails, and hence referred to a genus apart Propithecus, of which
three species, with several local races, are recognized. Sifakas
are very variable in colouring, but always show a large amount
of white. They associate in parties and are mainly arboreal,
leaping from bough to bough with an agility that suggests flying
through the air. When on the ground, to pass from one clump
of trees to another, they do not run on all fours, but stand erect,
The Crowned Sifaka (Propithecus diadema coronatus). From
Milne-Edwards and Grandidier.
and throwing their arms above their heads, progress by a series
of short jumps, producing an effect which is described by
travellers as exceedingly ludicrous. They are not nocturnal, but
most active in the morning and evening, remaining seated or
curled up among the branches during the heat of the day. In
disposition they are quiet and gentle, and do not show
much intelligence; they are also less noisy than the true
lemurs, only when alarmed or angered making a noise which
has been compared to the clucking of a fowl. Like all
their kindred they produce only one offspring at a birth (see
PRIMATES). (R. L.*)
SIGALON, XAVIER (1788-1837), French painter, born at
Uzes (Card) towards the close of 1788, was one of the few leaders
of the romantic movement who cared for treatment of form
rather than of colour. The son of a poor rural schoolmaster,
he had a terrible struggle before he was able even to reach Paris
and obtain admission to Guerin's studio. But the learning
offered there did not respond to his special needs, and he tried
to train himself by solitary study of the Italian masters in the
gallery of the Louvre. The "Young Courtesan" (Louvre),
SI-GAN FU SIGEBERT
59
which he exhibited in 1822, at once attracted attention and was
bought for the Luxembourg. The painter, however, regarded
it as but an essay in practice and sought to measure himself with
a mightier motive; this he did in his " Locusta " (Nimes), 1824,
and again in " Athaliah's Massacre " (Nantes), 1827. Both
these works showed incontestable power; but the "Vision of
St Jerome " (Louvre), which appeared at the salon of 1831,
together with the " Crucifixion " (Issengeaux), was by far the
most individual of all his achievements, and that year he received
the cross of the Legion of Honour. The terrors and force of his
pencil were not, however, rendered attractive by any charm of
colour; his paintings remained unpurchased, and Sigalon found
himself forced to get a humble living at times by painting
portraits, when Thiers, then minister of the interior, recalled him
to Paris and entrusted him with the task of copying the Sistine
fresco of the " Last Judgment " for a hall in the Palace of the
Fine Arts. On the exhibition, in the Baths of Diocletian at
Rome, of Sigalon's gigantic task, in which he had been aided by
his pupil Numa Boucoiran, the artist was visited in state by
Gregory XVI. But Sigalon was not destined long to enjoy his
tardy honours and the comparative ease procured by a small
government pension; returning to Rome to copy some pendants
in the Sistine, he died there of cholera on the gth of August 1837.
SI-GAN FU (officially Sian Fu), the capital of the province of
Shen-si, N.W. China, in 34 17' N., 108 58' E. Shi Hwang-ti
(246-210 B.C.), the first universal emperor, established his capital
at Kwan-chung, the site of the modern Si-gan Fu. Under the
succeeding Han dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 25) this city was called
Wei-nan and Nui-shi; under the eastern Han (A.D. 25-221) it
was known as Yung Chow; under the T'ang (618-907) as Kwan-
nui; under the Sung (960-1127) as Yung-hing; under the Yuan
and Ming (1260-1644) as Gan-si. During the Ts'in, Han and
T'ang dynasties the city was usually the capital of the empire,
and in size, population and wealth it is still one of the most
important cities of China. It was to Si-gan Fu that the
emperor and dowager empress retreated on the capture of
Peking by the allied armies in August 1900; and it was once
again constituted the capital of the empire until the following
spring when the court returned to Peking, after the conclusion of
peace. The city, which is a square, is prettily situated on ground
rising from the river Wei, and includes within its limits the two
district cities of Ch'ang-gan and Hien-ning. Its walls are little
inferior in height and massiveness to those of Peking, while its
gates are handsomer and better defended than any at the capital.
The population is said to be 1,000,000, of whom 50,000 are
Mahommedans. Situated in the basin of the Wei river, along
which runs the great road which connects northern China with
Central Asia, at a point where the valley opens out on the plains
of China, Si-gan Fu occupies a strategical position of great
importance, and repeatedly in the annals of the empire has
history been made around and within its walls. During the
Mahommedan rebellion it was besieged by the rebels for two
years (1868-70), but owing to the strength of the fortifications
it defied the efforts of its assailants. It is admirably situated
as a trade centre and serves as a depot for the silk from Cheh-
kiang and Szech'uen, the tea from Hu-peh and Ho-nan, and the
sugar from Szech'uen destined for the markets of Kan-suh,
Turkestan, Kulja and Russia. Marco Polo, speaking of Kenjanf u ,
as the city was then also called, says that it was a place " of great
trade and industry. They have great abundance of silk, from
which they weave cloths of silk, and gold of divers kinds, and
they also manufacture all sorts of equipments for an army.
They have every necessary of man's life very cheap."
Several of the temples and public buildings are very fine, and
many historical monuments are found within and about the
walls. Of these the most notable is the Nestorian tablet, which
was accidentally discovered in 1625 in the Ch'ang-gan suburb
The stone slab which bears the inscription is 7^ ft. high by ;
wide.
The contents of this Nestorian inscription, which consists of 1780
characters, may be described as follows. ( I ) An abstract of Christian
doctrine of a vague and figurative kind. (2) An account of the arnva
the missionary Olopan (probably a Chinese form of Rabban =
vlonk) from Tats'in in the year 635, bringing sacred books and
mages; of the translation of the said books; of the imperial
ipproval of the doctrine and permission to teach it publicly. Then
ollows a decree of the emperor (T'ait-sung, a very famous prince),
ssued in 638, in favour of the new doctrine, and ordering a church
o be built in the square of justice and peace (Ining fang) in the
capital. The emperor's portrait was to be placed in this church.
After this comes a description of Tats'in, and then some account of
the fortunes of the church in China. Kaotsung (650-683, the devout
matron also of the Buddhist traveller and doctor, Hsiian Ts'ang),
t is added, continued to favour the new faith. In the end of the
:entury Buddhism got the upper hand, but under Yuen-tsung
^713755) the church recovered its prestige, and Kiho, a new
missionary, arrived. Under Tih-tsung (780-783) the monument
was erected, and this part of the inscription ends with a eulogy
of I-sze, a statesman and benefactor of the church. (3) Then follows
a recapitulation of the above in octosyllabic verse. The Chinese
nscription, which concludes with the date of erection, viz. 781, is
ollowed by a series of short inscriptions in Syriac and the Estrangelo
character, containing the date of the erection, the name of the reigning
Nestorian patriarch, Mar Hanan Ishua, that of Adam, bishop and
jope of China, and those of the clerical staff of the capital. Then
ollow sixty-seven names of persons in Syriac characters, most of
whom are characterized as priests, and sixty-one names of persons
n Chinese, all priests but one.
The stone one of a row of five memorial tablets stood
within the enclosure of a dilapidated temple. It appears at one
:ime to have been embedded in a brick niche, and about 1891
a shed was placed over it, but in 1907 it stood in the open entirely
unprotected. In that year Dr Frits v. Holm, a Danish traveller,
bad made an exact replica of the tablet, which in 1908 was
deposited in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The
tablet itself was in October 1907 removed by Chinese officials
into the city proper, and placed in the Pei Lin or " forest of
tablets," a museum in which are collected tablets of the Han,
T'ang, Sung, Yuen and Ming dynasties, some of which bear
historical legends, notably a set of stone tablets having the
thirteen classics inscribed upon them, while others are symbolical
or pictorial; among these last is a full-sized likeness of Confucius.
Antiquities are constantly being discovered in the neighbourhood
of the city, e.g. rich stores of coins and bronzes, bearing dates
ranging from 200 B.C. onwards.
See Yule, Marco Polo (1903 ed.) ; A. Williamson, Journeys in North
China (London, 1870), S. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom
(London, 1883); Pere Havret, La Stele de Si-ngan Fou (Shanghai,
1895-1902); F. v. Holm, The Nestorian Monument (Chicago,
1909).
SIGEBERT (d. 575), king of the Franks, was one of the four
sons of Clotaire I. At the death of Clotaire in 561 the Frankish
kingdom was divided among his sons, Sigebert's share comprising
the Rhine and Meuse lands and the suzerainty over the Germanic
tribes beyond the Rhine as far as the Elbe, together with
Auvergne and part of Provence. At the death of his brother
Charibert in 567 Sigebert obtained the cities of Tours and
Poitiers, and it was he who elevated to the see of Tours the
celebrated Gregory, the historian of the Franks. Being a
smoother man than his brothers (who had all taken mates of
inferior rank), Sigebert married a royal princess, Brunhilda,
daughter of Athanagild, the king of the Visigoths;. the nuptials
were celebrated with great pomp at Metz, the Italian poet
Fortunatus composing the epithalamium. Shortly afterwards
Sigebert's brother Chilperic I. married Brunhilda's sister, Gals-
wintha; but the subsequent murder of this princess embroiled
Austrasia and Neustria, and civil war broke out in 573. Sigebert
appealed to the Germans of the right bank of the Rhine, who
attacked the environs of Paris and Chartres and committed
frightful ravages. He was entirely victorious, and pursued
Chilperic as far as Tournai. But just when the great nobles of
Neustria were raising Sigebert on the shield in the villa at Vitry,
near Arras, he was assassinated by two bravoes in the pay of
Fredegond, Chilperic's new wife. At the beginning of his reign
Sigebert had made war on the Avars, who had attacked his
Germanic possessions, and he was for some time a prisoner in
their hands.
See Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, book iv.; Aug.
Thierry, Recits des temps merovingiens (Brussels, 1840), and Aug.
Digot, Histoire du royaume d'Austrasie (Nancy, 1863). (C. PF.)
6o
SIGEBERT OF GEMBLOUX SIGHTS
SIGEBERT OF GEMBLOUX (c. 1030-1112), medieval chron-
icler, became in early life a monk in the Benedictine abbey of
Gembloux. Later he was a teacher at Metz, and about 1070 he
returned to Gembloux, where, occupied in teaching and writing,
he lived until his death on the 5th of October 1112. As an enemy
of the papal pretensions he took part in the momentous contest
between Pope Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry IV., his
writings on this question being very serviceable to the imperial
cause; and he also wrote against Pope Paschal II. Sigebert's
most important work is a Chronographia, or universal chronicle,
according to Molinier the best work of its kind, although it
contains many errors and but little original information. It
covers the period between 381 and mi, and its author was
evidently a man of much learning. The first of many editions
was published in 1513 and the best is in Band vi. of the Monu-
menta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, with valuable introduction
by L. C. Bethmann. The chronicle was very popular during
the later middle ages; it was used by many writers and found
numerous continuators. Other works by Sigebert are a history
of the early abbots of Gembloux to 1048 (Gesta abbalum Gem-
blacensium) and a life of the Prankish king Sigebert III. ( Vita
Sigeberti III. regis Austrasiae). Sigebert was also a hagiographer.
Among his writings in this connexion may be mentioned the
Vila Deoderici, Mettensis episcopi, which is published in Band
iv. of the Monumenta, and the Vita Wicberti, in Band viii.
of the same collection. Dietrich, bishop of Metz (d. 984) was
the founder of the abbey of St Vincent in that city, and
Wicbert or Guibert (d. 962) was the founder of the abbey
of Gembloux.
See S. Hirsch, De vita et scriptis Sigiberti Gemblacensis (Berlin,
1841); A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tomes ii. and
v. (1902-1904); and W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts-
quellen. Band ii. (Berlin, 1894).
SIGEL, FRANZ (1824-1902), German and American soldier,
was born at Sinsheim, in Baden, on the i8th of November 1824.
He graduated at the military school at Carlsruhe, and became an
officer in the grand ducal service. He soon became known for
revolutionary opinions, and in 1847, after killing an opponent in
a duel, he resigned his commission. When the Baden insurrection
broke out, Sigel was a leader on the revolutionary side in the
brief campaign of 1848, and then took refuge in Switzerland.
In the following year he returned to Baden and took a con-
spicuous part in the more serious operations of the second
outbreak under General Louis Mieroslawski (1814-1878.) Sigel
subsequently lived in Switzerland, England and the United
States, whither he emigrated in 1852, the usual life of a political
exile, working in turn as journalist and schoolmaster, and both
at New York and St Louis, whither he removed in 1858, he
conducted military journals. When the' American Civil War
broke out in 1861, Sigel was active in raising and training
Federal volunteer corps, and took a prominent part in the
struggle for the possession of Missouri. He became in May a
brigadier-general U.S.V., and served with Nathaniel Lyon at
Wilson's Creek and with J. C. Fremont in the advance on Spring-
field in the autumn. In 1862 he took a conspicuous part in the
desperately fought battle of Pea Ridge, which definitely secured
Missouri for the Federals. He was promoted to be major-general
of volunteers, was ordered to Virginia, and was soon placed in
command of the I. corps of Pope's " Army of Virginia." In
this capacity he took part in the second Bull Run campaign,
and his corps displayed the utmost gallantry in the unsuccessful
attacks on Bald Hill. Up to the beginning of 1863, when bad
health obliged him to take leave of absence, Sigel remained in
command of his own (now called the XI.) corps and the XII.,
the two forming a " Grand Division." In June 1863 he was in
command of large forces in Pennsylvania, to make head against
Lee's second invasion of Northern territory. In 1864 he was
placed in command of the corps in the Shenandoah Valley, but
was defeated by General John C. Breckinridge at Newmarket
(i5th of May), and was superseded. Subsequently he was in
command of the Harper's Ferry garrison at the time of Early's
raid upon Washington and made a brilliant defence of his post
(July 4-5, 1864). He resigned his commission in May 1865, and
became editor of a German journal in Baltimore, Maryland.
In 1867 he removed to New York City, and in 1869 was the
unsuccessful Republican candidate for secretary of state of New
York. He was appointed collector of internal revenue in May
1871, and in the following October he was elected register of
New York City by Republicans and " reform Democrats."
From 1885 to 1889, having previously become a Democrat,
he was pension agent for New_ York City, on the appointment
of President Cleveland. General Sigel's last years were de-
voted to the editorship of the New York Monthly, a German-
American periodical. He died in New York City on the
2ist of August 1902. A monument (by Karl Bitter) in his
honour was unveiled in Riverside Drive, New York City, in
October 1907.
SIGER DE BRABANT [SIGHIER, SIGIERI, SYGERITJS], French
philosopher of the i3th century. About the facts of his life
there has been much difference of opinion. In 1266 he was
attached to the Faculty of Arts in the University of Paris at the
time when there was a great conflict between the four " nations."
The papal legate decided in 1266 that Siger was the ringleader,
and threatened him with death. During the succeeding ten
years he wrote the six works which are ascribed to him and were
published under his name by P. Mandonnet in 1899. The titles
of these treatises are: De anima intellectiva (1270); Quaestiones
logicales; Quaestiones naturales; De aeternitate mundi;
Quaestio utrum haec sit iiera; Homo est animal nullo homine
existente; Impossibilia. In 1271 he was once more involved in
a party struggle. The minority among the " nations " chose
him as rector in opposition to the elected candidate, Aubri de
Rheims. For three years the strife continued, and was probably
based on the opposition between the Averroists, Siger and Pierre
Dubois, and the more orthodox schoolmen. The matter was
settled by the Papal Legate, Simon de Brion, afterwards Pope
Martin IV. Siger retired from Paris to Liege. In 1277 a general
condemnation of Aristotelianism included a special clause directed
against Boetius of Denmark and Siger of Brabant. Again
Siger and Bernier de Nivelles were summoned to appear on a
charge of heresy, especially in connexion with the Impossibilia,
where the existence of God is discussed. It appears, however,
that Siger and Boetius fled to Italy and, according to John
Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury, perished miserably. The
manner of Siger's death, which occurred at Orvieto, is not known.
A Brabantine chronicle says that he was killed by an insane
secretary (a clerico suo quasi dementi). Dante, in the Paradiso
(x. 134-6), says that he found " death slow in coming," and some
have concluded that this indicates death by suicide. A 13th-
century sonnet by one Durante (xcii. 9-14) says that he was
executed at Orvieto: a ghiado il fe' morire a gran dolore, Nella
corte di Roma ad Orbivieto. The date of this may have beeri
1283-1284 when Martin IV. was in residence at Orvieto. In
politics he held that good laws were better than good rulers, and
criticised papal infallibility in temporal affairs. The importance
of Siger in philosophy lies in his acceptance of Averroism in its
entirety, which drew upon him the opposition of Albertus Magnus
and Aquinas. In December 1270 Averroism was condemned
by ecclesiastical authority, and during his whole life Siger was
exposed to persecution both from the Church and from purely
philosophic opponents. In view of this, it is curious that Dante
should place him in Paradise at the side of Aquinas and Isidore
of Seville. Probably Dante knew of him only from the chronicler
as a persecuted philosopher.
See P. Mandonnet, Siger de Brabant et I'Averroisme latin du
XIII' siecle (Fribourg, 1899); G. Paris, " Siger de Brabant " in La
Poesie du moyen Age (1895); and an article in the Revue de Paris
(Sept. 1st, 1900).
SIGHTS, the name for mechanical appliances for directing the
axis of the bore of a gun or other firearm on a point whose position
relative to the target fired at is such that the projectile will
strike the target.
Gun Sights. Until the igth century the only means for
sighting cannon was by the " line of metal " a line scored
SIGHTS
61
along the top of the gun, which, owing to the greater thickness
of metal at the breech than at the muzzle, was not parallel to
the axis. " Some allowance had to be made for the inclination
of the line of metal to the axis" (Lloyd and Hadcock, p. 32).
The line of metal does not come under the definition of sights
given above. In the year 1801 a proposal to use sights was
sent to Lord Nelson for opinion, and elicited the following
reply: " As to the plan for pointing a gun, truer than we do at
present, if the person comes, I shall, of course, look at it, or be
happy, if necessary, to use it; but I hope we shall be able, as
usual, to get so close to our enemies that our shot cannot miss
the object " (letter to Sir E. Berry, March 9, 1801). Three
weeks later the fleet under Sir Hyde Parker and Nelson sailed
through the Sound on its way to Copenhagen. In replying to
the guns of Fort Elsinore no execution was done, as the long
range made it impossible to lay the guns (Lloyd and Hadcock,
P- 33)-
The necessity for sights follows directly on investigation of the
forces acting on a projectile during flight. In a vacuum, the pro-
jectile acted on by the force of projection begins to fall under the
action of gravity immediately it leaves the bore, and under the
combined action of these two forces the path of the projectile is a
parabola. It passes over equal spaces in equal times, but falls with
an accelerating velocity according to the formula h ^gP, where h
is the height fallen through, g the force of gravity, and / the time of
flight. From fig. I it will be seen that in three seconds the projectile
would have fallen 144 ft. to G; therefore to strike T the axis must be
raised to a point 144 ft. vertically above G. This law holds good
FIG. I Elevation.
also in air for very low velocities, but, where the velocities are high,
the retardation is great, the projectile takes longer to traverse each
succeeding space, and consequently the time of flight for any range is
longer; the axis must therefore be directed still higher above the
point to be struck. The amount, however, still depends on the time
of flight, as the retardation of the air to the falling velocity may be
neglected in the case of flat trajectory guns. Owing to the conical
shape of the early muzzle-loading guns, if one trunnion were higher
than the other, the " line of metal ' would no longer be in the same
vertical plane as the axis; in consequence of this, if a gun with, say,
one wheel higher than the other were layed by this line, the axis would
point off the target to the side of the lower wheel. Further, the in-
clination of the line of metal to the axis gave the gun a fixed angle of
elevation varying from i in light guns to 2j in the heavier natures.
To overcome this a " dispart sight " (D) was introduced (fig. 2) to
bring the line of sight (A'DG') parallel to the axis (AG).
FIG. 2. Dispart and Tangent Sights.
AG is the axis of the bore, ab the dispart, A'DG' is parallel to AG.
D is the dispart sight, S the tangent sight, A'DS the clearance angle.
At greater elevations than this the muzzle notch is used ; to align on
the target at lesser angles the dispart sight is so used. Guns without
dispart sights cannot be layed at elevations below the clearance
angle.
The earliest form of a hind or breech sight was fixed, but in the early
part of the igth century Colonel Thomas Blomefield proposed a mov-
able or tangent sight. It was not, however, till 1829 that a tangent
sight (designed by Major-General William Millar) was introduced
Gradua-
tion of
tangent
sights.
FIG. 3.
Early Tangent
Sight.
I into the navy; this was adopted by the army in 1846. In the case
| of most guns it was used in conjunction with the dispart sight above
I referred to. The tangent sight (see fig. 3) was graduated in degrees
only. There were three patterns, one of brass and two of wood.
As the tangent sight was placed in the line of metal, hence directly
over the cascable, very little movement could be given to it, so-
that a second sight was required for long ranges. This was of wood ;
the third sight, also of wood, was for guns without a dispart patch,
which consequently could not be layed at elevations below the dispart
angle.
Referring to fig. I it will be seen that in order to strike T the axis
must be directed to G' at a height above T equal to TG, while the
line of sight or line joining the notch of the tangent
sight and apex of the dispart or foresight must be
directed on T. In fig. 4 the tangent sight
has been raised from O to S, the line of
sight is SMT, and the axis produced is
AG'. D is the dispart, M the muzzle sight,
OM is parallel to AG'. Now the height to
which the tangent sight has been raised in order to
direct the axis on G' is evidently proportional to the
tangent of the angle QMS = AXS. This angle is called
the angle of elevation; OM is constant and is
called the sighting radius. If the dispart sight were
being used, the sighting radius would be OD, but, as
at the range in fig. 4, the line of sight through D fouls
the metal of the gun, the muzzle sight M is used. The formula for
length of scale is, length = sighting radius X tangent of the angle
of elevation. In practice, tangent sights were graduated graphic-
ally from large scale drawings. It will be seen from fig. 4 that
if the gun and target are on the same horizontal plane the axis
can be equally well directed by inclining it to the horizontal
through the requisite number of degrees. This is called " quadrant
elevation," and the proper inclination was given by means of
the " gunner's quadrant," a quadrant and plumb bob, one leg
being made long to rest in the bore, or by bringing lines scribed
on the breech of the gun in line with a pointer on the carriage ; these
were called " quarter sights."
Such were the sights in use with smooth-bore guns in the first half
of the last century. Tangent sights were not much trusted at
first. Captain Haultain, R.A., says in his description of test-
ing sights (Occa-
sio nal Papers,
R.A. Institute, vol.
i.): " Raise the
sight, and if it
keeps in line with
a plumb bob, it
can be as confi-
dently relied upon
as the line of metal,
if the trunnions
are horizontal. If
FIG. 4. Theory of Tangent Sight.
the scale is only slightly out of the perpendicular, a few taps of the
hammer will modify any trifling error."
The introduction of rifling necessitated an improvement in sights
and an important modification in them. It was found that projectiles
fired from a rifled gun deviated laterally from the line of
fire owing to the axial spin of the projectile, and that if the s 'X" ts for
spin were right-handed, as in the British service, the ed
deviation was to the right. This deviation or derivation *""**
is usually called drift (for further details see BALLISTICS). The
amount of drift for each nature of gun at different ranges was
determined by actual firing. To overcome drift the axis must be
pointed to the left of the target, and the amount will increase with
the range.
In fig. 5(plan) at a range HT, if the axis were directed on T, drift
would carry the shot to D, therefore the axis must be directed on a
point D' such that D'T = DT. HFT is the line of sight without any
allowance for drift, causing the projectile to fall at D. Now if the
notch of the tan-
gent sight be
carried to H' in
order to lay on T,
the fore-sight, and
with it the axis,
will be moved to
F', the line of fire
will be HF'D', and
the shot will strike
T since D'T = DT.
Left deflection has
been put on ; this
FIG. 5. Drift.
could be done by noting the amount of deflection for each range and
applying it by means of a sliding leaf carrying the notch, and it is
so done in howitzers; in most guns, however, it is found more
convenient and sufficiently accurate to apply it automatically
by inclining the socket through which the tangent scale rises
to the left, so that as the scale rises, i.e., as the range increases,
the notch is carried more and more to the left, and an increasing
SIGHTS
amount of left deflection given the amount can easily be
determined thus :
The height of tangent scale for any degree of elevation is given
with sufficient accuracy by the rough rule for circular measure
A = where a is the angle of elevation in minutes, h the height
of the tangent scale, and R the sighting radius; thus for
i i fc = 62*J^ = Jl. Now supposing the sight isinclinedl to the left,
which will move the notch from H to H' (see fig. 6); as before
HH' = J, but in thiscaseR=A=^.'.HH'=g^ 5 , the resultant
angle of deflection is HFH', and this can be determined by the
same formula fl = * x " X3 , but in this caseft = H'
R ' L "" 60X60
' a ~ R X6 = i '. so that if the sight is inclined to the left I it will
give i' deflection for every degree of elevation. By the same
Noleli
*
Chmp
FIG. 7.
FIG. 6. Correction for Drift.
formula it can be shown that i' deflection will alter the point of
impact by I in. for every loo yds. of range; thus the proper in-
clination to give a mean correction for drift can be determined. In
the early R.B.L. guns this angle was 2 16'. With rifled guns
deflection was also found necessary to allow for effect of wind,
difference of level of trunnions, movement of target, and for the
purpose of altering the point of impact later-
ally. This was arranged for by a movable
leaf carrying the sighting V, worked by
means of a mill-headed screw provided with
a scale in degrees and fractions to the same
radius as the elevation scale, and an arrow-
head for reading. Other improvements were :
the gun was sighted on each side, tangent
scales dropping into sockets in a sighting ring
on the breech, thus enabling a long scale for
all ranges to be used, and the foresights
screwing into holes or dropping into sockets
in the trunnions, thus obviating the fouling
of the line of sight, and the damage to
which a fixed muzzle sight was liable.
The tangent sight was graduated in yards
as well as degrees and had also a fuze scale. The degree scale
was subdivided to 10' and a slow-motion screw at the head
enabled differences of one minute to be given; a clamping screw
and lever were provided (see fig. 7).
Fore-sights varied in pattern. Some screwed in, others dropped
into a socket and were secured by a bayonet joint. Two main shapes
were adopted for the apex the acorn and the hogsback. Instruction
in the use of sights was based on the principle of securing uniformity
in laying; for this reason fine sighting was ^discountenanced and
laying by full sight enjoined. " The
centre of the line joining the two
highest points of the notch of the
,. tangent sight, the point of the fore-
FIG. 8. Laying by Full sigh s t and t " he targe f must be ; n Hne "
(Field Artillery Training, 1902) (see
fig. 8). Since the early days of rifled guns tangent sights have
been improved in details, but the principles remain the same.
Except for some minor differences the tangent sights were the
same for all natures of guns, and for all services, but the develop-
ment of the modern sight has 'followed different lines according
to the nature and use of the gun, and must be treated under
separate heads.
Sights for Mobile A rtillery.
With the exception of the addition of a pin-hole to the tangent sight
and cross wires to the fore-sight, and of minor improvements, and
of the introduction of French's crossbar sight and the
reciprocating sight, of which later, no great advance was
made until the introduction of Scott's telescopic sight.
This sight (see Plate, fig. 9) consists of a telescope mounted
in a steel frame, provided with longitudinal trunnions fitting into
V's in the gun. These V's are so arranged that the axis of the sight
frame is always parallel to that of the gun. By means of a cross-level
the frame can be so adjusted that the cross axis on which the tele-
scope is mounted is always truly horizontal. Major L. K. Scott, R.E.,
thus described how he was led to think of the sight : " I had read in
the Daily News an account of some experimental firing carried out by
H.M.S. ' Hotspur ' against the turret of H.M.S. ' Glatton,' At a
Field
artillery
sights.
range of 200 yds. on a perfectly calm day the ' Hotspur ' fired several
rounds at the ' Glatton's ' turret and missed it." Major Scott attri-
buted this to tilt in the sights due to want of level of mounting
(R.A.I. Proceedings, vol. xiii.). Tilt of sights in field guns owing to
the sinking of one wheel had long been recognized as a source of error,
and allowed for by a rule-of-thumb correction, depending on the fact
that the track of the wheels of British field artillery gun-carriages
is 60", so that, for every inch one wheel is lower than the other, the
whole system is turned through one degree
Referring to the calculations given above, this is equivalent to i'
deflection for every degree of elevation, which amount had to be
given towards the higher wheel. This complication is eliminated in
Scott's sight by simply levelling the cross axis of the telescope.
Other advantages are those common to all telescopic sights. Personal
error is to a great extent eliminated, power of vision extended, the
sight is self-contained, there is no fore-sight, a fine pointer in the
telescope being aligned on the target. It can be equally well used
for direct or indirect, forward or back laying. A micrometer drum
reads to 2', while the vernier reads to single minutes so that very
fine adjustments can be made.
Disadvantages of earlier patterns were, the telescope was inverting,
the drum was not graduated in yards, and drift not allowed for.
These defects were all overcome in later patterns and an Scott's
important addition made, viz. means of measuring the sight
angle of sight. In speaking of quadrant elevation a brief
reference was made to the necessity for making an allowance for
difference of level of gun and target. Figs. 10 to 13 explain this more
fully, and show that for indirect laying the angle of sight must be
Target
' " ItCngle'of eleuation\ Horizontal line <
~~ T' f s '9*t
Horizontal tine
FIGS. 10, ii, 12, 13.
added to the angle of elevation if the target is above the gun, and
subtracted if vice versa. In Scott's sight, mark iv., there is a longi-
tudinal level pivoted at one end and provided with a degree scale up
to 4; the level is moved by a spindle and micrometer screw reading
to 2'. If now the telescope be directed on the target and this level
be brought to the centre of its run, the angle of sight can be read
if afterwards any range ordered is put on the sight and the gun
truly layed, this bubble will be found in the centre of its run so
that if thereafter the target becomes obscured the gun can be relayed
by elevating till the bubble is in the centre of its run, or at a com-
pletely concealed target the angle of sight can, if the range and
difference of level are known or can be measured from somewhere
near the gun, be put on by means of the micrometer screw, and the
gun subsequently layed by putting the range in yards or degrees on
the sight drum and elevating or depressing till the bubble is central.
The disadvantages that still remain are that the sight has to be re-
moved every time the gun is fired, and the amount of deflection is
limited and has to be put on the reverse way to that on a tangent
scale. Scott's sight, though no longer used with quick-firing guns,
is the precursor of all modern sights.
SIGHTS
PLAIE.
y
o
u
H
1/1
ON
d
XXV. 62.
SIGHTS
The introduction of trunnionless guns recoiling axially through
a fixed cradle enabled sights to be attached to the non-recoil pa
of the mounting, so that the necessity of removing
Modern delicate telescopic sight every round disappeared, anc
h> telescope sights on the rocking-bar principle (see below)
were introduced for 4'7-in. Q.F. guns on field mountings
these sights admit of continuous laying, i.e. the eye need no1
be removed when the gun is fired. The increased importance ol
concealment for one's own guns and the certainty of being called
upon to engage concealed targets, brought indirect laying into great
prominence (see also ARTILLERY). This form of laying is of two
kinds: (i) that in which the gun can be layed for direction over the
sight on the target itself, or on some aiming point close by, but from
indistinctness or other causes quadrant elevation is pre-
ferred; and (2) that used when the target is completely
hidden and an artificial line of fire laid out and the guns
layed for direction on pointers, or the line transferred to a distant
aiming point. The old method of giving quadrant elevation by
clinometer was obviously too slow. Scott's sight (see above) was
the first attempt to obtain indirect laying for elevation by means
of the sight itself, and in that sight the angle of sight was taken into
account ; in modern guns this is effected by what is technically
called the "independent line of sight" (see ORDNANCE: Field
Equipments). It is obtained by different means in different countries,
but the principle is the same. There must be two sets of elevating
gears, one which brings the axis of the gun and the sights together
on to the target, thus finding the angle of sight and also pointing
the axis of the gun at the target, and a second by which, independent
of the sight which remains fixed, the elevation due to the range can
be given to the gun and read by means of a pointer and dial marked
in yards for range. This latter is shown in the Krupp equipment
(Plate, fig. 14), in which the sight is attached to the cradle, but
does not move with it. The hand-wheel that screws the gun and
cradle down at the same time screws the sight up, and vice versa.
When the target is completely concealed it is necessary to lay the
gun on an aiming point more or less out of the line of fire, or to lay
on a " director ' with a large amount of deflection, and to align
aiming posts with the sights at zero to give the direction of the
target, and afterwards perhaps to transfer the line of sight to some
other distant object, all of which require a far greater scope of
deflection than is afforded by the deflection leaf. In the South
African war improvised detachable deflection scales of wood or iron
placed over the fore-sight, called gun arcs, were used, but this device
was clumsy, inaccurate and insufficient, as it only gave about 30
right or left deflection, and only a sight that admitted of all-round
laying could really satisfy the requirements. " The goniometric
sight in' its simplest form is a circular graduated base plate on which
a short telescope or sighted ruler is pivoted. Besides the main
graduations there is usually a separate deflection scale " (Bethell).
In this form, which is found in British field artillery, the goniometric
or dial sight is used for picking up the line of fire. In the pillar sight
used in the French 80- and go-mm. Q.F. guns it is used for laying for
direction.
The collimateur, or sight proper, has a lateral movement of 9,
and is actuated by the drum on the right turned by the mill-
headed screw. The drum is divided into 100 graduations, each
equal to 5-4'. The gonio plate below is divided into 4 quadrants,
and each quadrant into 10 spaces of 9 each
numbered in hundreds from o to 900. The
stem is turned by pressing down on the mill-
headed screw. The collimateur which is used
in many sights is a rectangular box closed
at one end by a darkened glass with a
bright cross. Its use is graphically described
in a French text-book thus: " The layer,
keeping his eye about a foot from the
collimateur and working the elevating wheel,
makes the horizontal fine dance about the
landscape until it dances on to the target;
then working the traversing gear he does
the same with the vertical line; then
bringing his eye close, he brings the inter-
section on to the target." In the Krupp arc
sight (see Plate, fig. 14), the goniometric
sight is placed on the top of the arc. In
the French field Q.F. artillery the inter-
mediate carriage (see description and dia-
gram in article ORDNANCE: Field Equipments) carries the sight.
tig. 15 shows the reciprocating sight for the 2-5-in. gun. The
sight drops through a socket in a pivoted bracket which is provided
Mountain w ' lt ^ a ' eve ' anc ' a cl am P ; the level is fixed at the correct
artillery an g le for drift ; if the sight (as is especially liable to be
sights. ^ e case on stee P hillsides) is tilted away from the angle
it can be restored by moving the bracket till the bubble
of the spirit-level is central, and then clamping it.
With howitzers indirect laying is the rule, elevation being usually
given by clinometer, direction by laying on banderols marking out
the line of fire; then, when the direction has been established,
an auxiliary mark, usually in rear, is selected and the line transferred
to it. At night this mark is replaced by a lamp installed in rear
From Treatise on Service
Ordnance.
FIG. 15.
and in line with the sights. The normal method of laying these is
from the fore-sight over the tangent sight to a point in rear
bpecial sights were designed for this purpose by Colonel
Sir E. H. French, called cross-bar sights, and were in the slege
year 1908 still in use with British 6-in. B.L. howitzers artillery
The principle of these sights (see fig. 16) is that the slghts -
tangent sight has a steel horizontal bar which can slide through the
head of the tangent scale for deflection, and is graduated for 3 left
and I right deflection. One end of the bar is slotted to take the
sliding leaf; this end of the bar is graduated from o to 6, and in
conjunction with the fore-sight affords a lateral scope of 6 on either
side of the normal for picking up an auxiliary mark. The fore-
FIG. 16.
sight has a fixed horizontal bar slotted and graduated similarly to
the slotted portion of the tangent sight. The leaves are reversible,
and provided with a notch at one end and a point at the other, so
that they can be used for either forward or reverse laying. The
leaf of the fore-sight has a pinhole, and that of the tangent sight
cross-wires for fine reverse laying. Fore-sights are made right and
left; tangent sights are interchangeable, the graduations are cut
on the horizontal edges above and below, so that the sight can be
changed from right to left or vice versa by removing and reversing
the bar. Howitzer sights are vertical and do not allow for drift;
they are graduated in degrees only. Goniometric sights have
recently been introduced into British siege artillery. The pattern
is that of a true sight, that is to say, the base plate is capable of
movement about two axes, one parallel to and the other at right
angles to the axis of the gun, and has cross spirit-levels and a graduated
elevating drum and independent deflection scale, so that compensa-
tion for level of wheels can be given and quadrant elevation.
In smooth-bore days the term mortar meant a piece of ordnance
of a peculiar shape resting on a bed at a fixed angle of quadrant
elevation of 45. It was ranged by varying the charge,
and layed for line by means of a line and plumb bob Laying
aligned on a picket. The term mortar, though not used Mortars.
in the British service, is still retained elsewhere to signify very short,
large-calibre howitzers, mounted on a bed with a minimum angle of
elevation of 45, which with the full charge would give the maximum
range. Range is reduced by increasing the angle of elevation (by
:linometer) or by using reduced charges. In the g-45-in. Skoda
howitzer, which is really a mortar as defined above, direction is
given by means of a pointer on the mounting and a graduated
arc on the bed. For a description of Goerz panoramic. " ghost "
and other forms of sights, see Colonel H. A. Bethell, Modern
Suns and Gunnery (Woolwich, 1907), and for sights used in the
United States, Colonel O. M. Lissak, Ordnance and Gunnery (New
York and London, 1907).
Sights for Coast Defence Artillery (Fixed Armaments').
In coast defence artillery, owing to the fact that the guns are on
ixed mountings at a constant height (except for rise and fall ol
:ide) above the horizontal plane on which their
targets move, and that consequently the angle
of sight and quadrant elevation for every range
can be calculated, developments in sights, in a
measure, gave way to improved means of giving
quadrant elevation. Minor improvements in
tangent sights certainly were made, notably an
automatic clamp, but quadrant elevation was
mainly used, and in the case of guns equipped
with position-finders (see RANGE-FINDER) the
guns could be layed for direction by means of
a graduated arc on the emplacement- and a
winter on the mounting. A straight-edge or
vertical blade (see fig. 17) was placed above the
eaf of the tangent sight, and in some cases on
he fore-sight as well, to facilitate laying for
ine. This enabled the gun to be layed from
iome little distance behind, so that the layer
puld be clear of recoil, and continuous laying was thus pos-
ible. The arrangements for giving quadrant elevation con-
isted of an arc, called index plate (see fig. 18), on the gun,
graduated in degrees read by a " reader " on the carriage. A
I'ard scale of varnished paper, made out locally for quadrant eleva-
ion with regard to height of site, was usually pasted over this. A
orrection for level of tide was in many cases necessary, and was
From Treatise on.
Service Ordnance.
FIG. 17.
SIGHTS
Rocklng-
bar sight.
telescope.
entered in a table or mounted on a drum which gave several correc-
tions that had to be applied to the range for various causes. One
great drawback to this system was that elevation was given with
reference to the plane of the racers upon which the mounting moved,
and as this was not always truly horizontal grave errors were intro-
duced. To overcome this Colonel H. S. Watkin, C.B., introduced a
hydroclinometer fixed on the trunnion. It was provided with a yard
scale calculated with reference to height
i of site, and elevation was read by the
' intersection of the edge of the liquid
with the graduation for the particular
1 range. Special sights were introduced
j to overcome the difficulties of dis-
| appearing guns, large guns firing
through small ports, &c. Such were
the Moncrieff reflecting sights, and the
FlG. 18. Sketch of Index " chase sights " for the lo-in. gun in
Plate and Reader. which the rear sight, equipped with a
mirror, was placed on the chase, and the
fore-sight on the muzzle, &c. In the early days of B.L. guns very
little change was made in the pattern of sights. Shield sights were in-
troduced for disappearing mountings to admit of continuous laying
for line, and a disk engraved for yards of range duly corrected for
height, and called an " elevation indicator," replaced the index plate
and reader. As in mobile artillery, the introduction of trunnionless
guns brought about a revolution in laying and sights. Smokeless
powder also made rapid firing a possibility and a necessity. Con-
tinuous laying and telescopic sights became possible. The reduction of
friction by improved mechanical arrangements, and the introduction
of electric firing, enabled the layer not only to train and elevate the
gun himself, but also to fire it the moment it was truly " on " the
target. The rocking-bar sight, which had been for some time in use
in the navy, was introduced. In this sight both hind and fore
sights are fixed on a rigid bar pivoted about the centre; the rear
end is raised or depressed by a rack worked by a hand- wheel ; ranges
are read from the periphery of a drum ; the fore-sight and leaf of the
hind-sight are provided with small electric glow lamps for night
firing. In addition to these open sights the bar also carries a
sighting telescope. The advantages compared with a tangent sight
are that only half the movement is ' required to raise the
sight for any particular range; the ranges on the drum
are easier to read, and if necessary can be set by another
man, so that the layer need not take his eye from the
The pattern of telescope used in coast defence is that
designed by Dr Common. It is an erecting telescope with a field of
view of 10 and a magnification of 3 diameters, and admits plenty
of light. The diamond-shaped pointer is always in focus; focusing
for individual eyesight is effected by turning the eye-piece, which
is furnished with a scale for readjustment. A higher power glass
has since been introduced for long ranges.
The improvements in gun mountings mentioned above led the
way to the introduction of the automatic sight. The principle of
combined sight and range-finder had long been known,
Automatic am j was emrx) died in the so-called " Italian" sight, but,
sights. on a( ; COunt O f t jj e s i ow ra t e O f fi re imposed by black
powder, the rapidity of laying conferred by its use was of no great
advantage, and it was unsuited to the imperfect mechanical arrange-
ments of the gun mountings of the time. When cordite replaced
black powder, and the gun sights and all in front of the gun were
no longer obscured by hanging clouds of smoke, it became a de-
sideratum, and, as the automatic sight, it was reintroduced by Sir
G. S. Clarke, when he, as superintendent of the Royal Carriage
Factory, had brought gun mountings to such a pitch of perfection
that it could be usefully employed.
An automatic sight is a sight connected in such a manner with the
elevating gear of the gun, that when the sight is directed on the
water-line of a target at
A
any range the gun will
have the proper quadrant
elevation for that range.
Colonel H. S. Watkin,
C.B., describes the theory
of the sight thus (Pro-
ceedings R.A.I. 1898).
Conditions. The gun
FlG. 19. Theory of the Automatic Sight, must be at a certain
known height above
sea-level the greater the height the greater the accuracy. The
racer path must be level. Let FB (fig. 19) represent a gun at height
BD above water-level DC, elevated to such an angle that a shot
would strike the water at C. Draw EB parallel to DC. It is clear
that under these conditions, if a tangent sight AF be raised to a
height F representing the elevation due to the range BC, the object C
will be on the line of sight. Then ABF=angle of elevation; EFB
= quadrant angle; BCD =angle of sight; EBF = ABF-ABE; and
sinceABE = BCD.it also equals ABF- BCD. BCD can always be cal-
culated from the formula, angle of sight in minutes = k ^ fe et ^ X J \ 46
R (in yards)
</i = height of gun above sea-level; R=range). An automatic
sight based on the Italian sight was tried in 1878-1879. In this
(see fig. 20) a rack I, fixed to the carriage, caused a pinion H on the
gun to revolve. Fixed to the pinion were three cams, for high,
low and mean tides. The tangent scale moved freely in a socket
fixed to the gun; its lower end rested on one of the cams, cut to a
correct curve. It followed
that when the gun was ele-
vated or depressed, the rack
caused the pinion to revolve,
and the sight was thus raised
or lowered to the proper
height to fulfil the conditions
given above; but, as Colonel
Watkin said, owing to want
of level of platform and
other causes it was not
satisfactory.
With the introduction of
quick-firing guns it was felt
that the layer should have
the same control over his
gun as a marksman had over
'his rifle, and this would be Proceedings R.A. Institute.
afforded by a satisfactory FlG 2O _.. Italian -. s; ht
automatic sight. The prin-
ciple of the modern automatic sight is made clear in figs. 21 and
22, which show a combined rocking-bar and automatic sight.
The rocking-bar consists of a carrier a fixed to the cradle, a rocking-
bar d pivoted to the carrier at e, a sight bar/ carrying the sights and
sighting telescope. The rocking-bar is moved by a rack g into which
a pinion on a cross-spindle j gears ; the cross-spindle is moved by
means of a worm-wheel into which a worm on the longitudinal
Enlargement
of A
From War Office Handbook.
FIG. 21.
spindle of the hand-wheel gears ; one end of the cross-spindle moves
the range drum 2'. The worm and hand-wheel are thrown into
and out of gear by means of the clutch /. When the hand-wheel
is thrown out of gear the sights can only be moved by means of the
elevating gear of the gun. The line of sight and the elevation of the
gun henceforth are inseparable. The automatic sight consists of
a bent lever roller cam m, also secured by the bolt e to the carrier;
the lower end of the lever carries the
cam roller n, which is constrained to
move in the cam p by means of the
spring in the spring-box g; the rear
end of the horizontal arm of the lever
is formed into jaws v ; the same action
of the clutch t which releases the worm
and hand-wheel forces a catch on a
vertical stem u into the jaws of the
lever, and fixes the rocking and sight
bars rigidly to it. The movement of
the sights can now only be effected by
means of the elevating gear of the
gun,' acting by means of the move-
ment of the vertical arm of the bent
lever, and its movement is constrained
to follow the cam, which is cut in such
a way that for any given elevation of
the gun the sight bar is depressed to
the angle of sight for the range corre-
sponding to the elevation; V is a
lever for making allowance for state
of tide, and c' is the scale on which the rise and fall m feet above
and below mean sea-level are marked. In later patterns, the
sight is automatic pure and simple, the lever is rigidly attached to
the rocking-bar, and the range scale and gear for raising the sights
dispensed with, much as shown in fig. 23. In the larger natures of
From War Office Handbook.
FIG. 22.
SIGHTS
gun there is a rocking-bar sight on one side and an automatic sight
on the other. The automatic sight has, however, distinct limitations ;
it depends for its accuracy on height of site, and at long ranges
even from a high site
it cannot compare for
accuracy with indepen-
dent range-finding and
careful laying or accur-
ately applied quadrant
elevation; it is also use-
less when the water line
of the target is obscured,
as may often be the case
from the splashes caused
by bursting shell. Im-
proved communications
between range - finder
and gun, range and
p ' training dials placed on
the mountings where
they can be read by the layers, and more accurate elevation indicators
have made laying by quadrant elevation, and in certain cases giving
direction by means of graduated arc and pointer, both accurate and
rapid, so that once more this system of laying is coming into favour
for long ranges.
Naval Sights.
In the navy the conditions of an unstable platform rendered
quadrant elevation of little use, and necessitated a special pattern of
tangent sight to facilitate firing the moment the roll of the ship
brought the sights on the target. A diagram of the Foote-Arbuthnot,
or H, or naval tangent sight, is given below (fig. 24).
The fore-sight was a small globe, and in the original patterns
this was placed on a movable leaf on which deflection for speed of
one's own ship was given, while deflection for speed of enemy's
ship and wind were given on the tangent sight. The yard scales
were on detachable strips, so that fresh strips
could be inserted for variations in velocity. In
subsequent patterns all the deflection was given
on the tangent sight, which was provided with
two scales, the upper one graduated in knots
for speed of ship, and the lower one in degrees.
Night sights were introduced by Captain
McEvoy in 1884. They consist of an electric
battery cable and lamp-holders and small glow
lamps; that for the hind-sight is coloured.
Turret Sights. In turrets or barbettes two
sets of sights are provided, one for each gun.
They are geared so as to work simultaneously and
alike. Toothed gearing connected with the gun
mountings actuates a rack attached to the
standards carrying the sights, so that any move-
ment of the gun mounting is communicated to
the sights. The sights themselves fit into
sockets cut at the proper angle for drift, and
are raised in their sockets the requisite amount
for the range by means of a small hand-wheel;
they are thus non-recoiling sights. The layer
has under his control the hand-wheel for setting
the range on the sights, another hand-wheel for
elevating the gun and the sights on to the
D ,, oc j o( ,,, target, and a third for traversing the turret.
im.i/unh'i' The introduction of trunnionless guns was
followed by that of rocking-bar sights (described
above). Sighting telescopes were also intro-
FIG. 24. duced. In the navy one of the first essentials
is rapidity of fire; to attain this the duties of
laying are subdivided; one man laying for elevation, elevating and
firing, a second laying for line and traversing, and a third putting
on the elevation ordered or communicated by electric dial. To
ensure the sights on each side reading together they are connected
by rods. To facilitate the setting of the range the ranges are shown
on a dial which can be read from the side of the mounting, from
where also the sight can be set. (R. M. B. F. K.)
Military Rifle Sights.
With smooth-bore arms of short range, the soldier needed little
more, in the way of sights, than the rough equivalent of the dis-
part of cannon, viz. patches at the breech and muzzle with notch
and blade (fig. 25). But some form of sight was almost invariably
employed with rifled firearms, even of early date, and when about
1780-1800 the rifle came into use as a military weapon, sights were
introduced with it. The sights of the Baker, Brunswick, and other
rifles did not differ in principle from the now common form of
elevating back-sight (fig. 29), that is, the elevation was given on an
upright adjustable back sight. But this refinement was long looked
upon as a mere fad, both by the soldiers who used the smooth-bore
(or converted rifle) musket, and by experienced short-range snap-
shooters. In this connexion Maior-General John Gibbon, U.S.A.,
records that in the American Civil War hunters and others who
xxv. 3
served in the western regiments habitually knocked off the back-
sights of the rifles that were issued to them, preferring to do without
them. But, as rifles improved and came into general use for all
troops, sights became indispensable, and to-day as much care is
foresight
FIG. 25. FIG. 27.
taken over the sighting as over the " proof " of a military rifle. The
modern rifle has invariably a back-sight and a fore-sight. The
latter is, as a general rule, fixed and unalterable, its size, position
on the barrel, &c., being practically ascertained, as accurately as
possible, for the lowest elevation on the back-sight. Some fore-
sights have, however, a lateral motion giving within narrow limits the
deflection found to be necessary for the variation of each rifle from
the average. The shape of the part seen through the notch or
FIG. 29.
FIG. 28.
aperture of the back-sight in aiming varies a good deal. Two of
the commonest forms are shown in fig. 26, called the " barleycorn,"
and 27, called the " bead." The fore-sight of the Krag-Jorgensen
rifle, used in the United States army until 1906, consisted of a blade
with parallel sides. The shape of the part seen when aiming indicates
whether the proper amount of the fore-sight is taken up into the
line of vision from the back-sight to the target. A " full " sight is
shown in fig. 8 above. The position of the fore-sight at or near
FIG. 32.
the end of the barrel renders it peculiarly liable to injury, and in
some rifles therefore it is provided with guards or ears; these,
however, have the disadvantage that more or less of the light that
would otherwise light up the sight is intercepted by the guards.
The fore-sight of the British service " short " Lee-Enfield (1903)
has guards and also a lateral adjustment of the barleycorn. Back-
sights are of many different patterns, almost any two being
66
SIGIRI SIGISMUND
unlike. Examples taken, except fig. 28, by permission from the
Text Book of Small Arms (1909), are given in fig. 28 (German Mauser
pattern), fig. 29 (" long " hand-loader Lee-Enfield), fig. 30 (" short "
Lee-Enfield), fig. 31 (Dutch service rifle), and fig. 32 (Russian
" three-line " rifle). Fine lateral adjustments are provided on the
" short " Lee-Enfield, and on many other military sights of modern
date. See for further details RIFLE.
AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. Owen, Modern Artillery; Lloyd and
Hadcock, Artillery, its Progress and Present Position; Lissak,
Ordnance and Gunnery; Colonel H. A. Bethell, Modern Guns and
Gunnery; Proceedings and Occasional Papers, R.A. Institute, and
War Office publications.
SIGIRI, the Lion's Rock, the ruin of a remarkable stronghold
7 59' N., and 81 E., 14 m. N.E. of Dambulla, and about 17 m.
nearly due W. of Pulasti-pura, the now ruined ancient capital
of Ceylon. There a solitary pillar of granite rock rises to a great
height out of the plain, and the top actually overhangs the sides.
On the summit of this pencil of rock there are five or six acres of
ground; and on them, in A.D. 477, Kasyapa the Parricide built
his palace, and thought to find an inaccessible refuge from his
enemies. His father Dhatu Sena, a country priest, had, after
many years of foreign oppression, roused his countrymen, in 459,
to rebellion, led them to victory, driven out the Tamil oppressors,
and entered on his reign as a national hero. . He was as successful
in the arts of peace as he had been in those of war; and carried
to completion, among other good works, an ambitious irrigation
scheme probably the greatest feat of engineering that had then
been accomplished anywhere in the world. This was the cele-
brated Kala Wewa, or Black Reservoir, more than 50 m. in
circumference, which gave wealth to the whole country for two
days' journey north of the capital, Anuradha-pura, and provided
that city, also with a constant supply of water. Popular with
the people, the king could not control his own family; and as the
outcome of a palace intrigue in 477 his son Kasyapa had declared
himself king, and taken his father prisoner. Threatened with
death on his refusing to say where his treasure lay hid, the old
king told them to take him to the tank. They took him there,
and while bathing in the water he let some of it drop through his
fingers, and said, " This is my treasure; this, and the love of my
people." Then Kasyapa had his father built up alive into a wall.
Meanwhile Kasyapa's brother had escaped to India and was
plotting a counter revolution. It was then that the parricide
prepared his defence. He utilized his father's engineers in the
construction of a path or gallery winding up round the Sigiri
rock. Most of it was made, by bursting the rock by means of
wooden wedges, through the solid granite, and its outside parapet
was supported by walls of brick resting on ledges far below.
It is a marvellous piece of work. Abandoned since 495 for
Kasyapa was eventually slain during a battle fought in the plain
beneath it has, on the whole, well withstood the fury of tropical
storms, and is now used again to gain access to the top. When
rediscovered by Major Forbes in 1835 the portions of the gallery
where it had been exposed for so many centuries to the south-west
monsoon, had been carried away. These gaps have lately been
repaired, or made passable with the help of iron stanchions;
the remains cf the buildings at the top and at the foot of the
mountain have been excavated; and the entrance to the gallery,
between the outstretched paws of a gigantic lion, has been laid
bare. The fresco paintings in the galleries are -perhaps the most
interesting of the extant remains. They are older than any
others found in India, and have been carefully copied, and, as
far as possible, preserved.
See Major Forbes, Eleven Years in Ceylon (London, 1841);
H. C. P. Bell, Archaeological Reports (Colombo, 1892-1906); Rhys
Davids, " Sigiri, the Lion Rock," in Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society (1875), pp. 191-220; H. W. Cave, Ruined Cities of Ceylon
(London, 1906). (T. W. R. D.)
SIGISMUND (1368-1437), Roman emperor and king of Hungary
and Bohemia, was a son of the emperor Charles IV. and Elizabeth,
daughter of'Bogislaus V., duke of Pomerania. He was born on
the isth of February 1368, and in 1374 was betrothed to Maria,
the eldest daughter of Louis the Great, king of Poland and
Hungary. Having become margrave of Brandenburg on his
father's death in 1378, he was educated at the Hungarian court
from his eleventh to his sixteenth year, becoming thoroughly
magyarized and entirely devoted to his adopted country. His
wife Maria, to whom he was married in 1385, was captured
by the rebellious Horvathys in the following year, and only
rescued by her young husband with the aid of the Venetians in
June 1387. Sigismund had been crowned king of Hungary on
the 3 ist of March 1387, and having raised money by pledging
Brandenburg to his cousin Jobst, margrave of Moravia, he was
engaged for the next nine years in a ceaseless struggle for the
possession of this unstable throne. The bulk of the nation
headed by the great Garay family was with him; but in the
southern provinces between the Save and the Drave, the
Horvathys with the support of the Bosnian king Tvrtko, pro-
claimed as their king Ladislaus, king of Naples, son of the
murdered Hungarian king, Charles II. (see HUNGARY). Not
until 1395 did the valiant Miklos Garay succeed in sup-
pressing them. In 1396 Sigismund led the combined armies of
Christendom against the Turks, who had taken advantage of the
temporary helplessness of Hungary to extend their dominion to
the banks of the Danube. This crusade, preached by Pope
Boniface IX., was very popular in Hungary. The nobles flocked
in thousands to the royal standard, and were reinforced by
volunteers from nearly every part of Europe, the most important
contingent being that of the French led by John, duke of Nevers,
son of Philip II., duke of Burgundy. It was with a host of about
90,000 men and a flotilla of 70 galleys that Sigismund set out.
After capturing Widdin, he sat down before the fortress of Nico-
polis, to retain which Sultan Bajazid raised the siege of Con-
stantinople and at the head of 140,000 men completely overthrew
the Christian forces in a battle fought between the 25th and 28th
of September 1396. Deprived of his authority in Hungary,
Sigismund then turned his attention to securing the succession
in Germany and Bohemia, and was recognized by his childless
step-brother Wenceslaus as vicar-general of the whole empire.
He remained, however, powerless when in 1400 Wenceslaus was
deposed and Rupert III., elector palatine of the Rhine, was
elected German king in his stead. During these years he was
also involved in domestic difficulties out of which sprang a second
war with Ladislaus of Naples; and on his return to Hungary
in 1401 he was once imprisoned and twice deposed. This struggle
in its turn led to a war with Venice, as Ladislaus before departing
to his own land had sold the Dalmatian cities to the Venetians for
100,000 ducats. In 1401 Sigismund assisted a rising against
Wenceslaus, during the course of which the German and Bohemian
king was made a prisoner, and Sigismund ruled Bohemia for
nineteen months. In 1410 the German king Rupert died, when
Sigismund, ignoring his step-brother's title, was chosen German
king, or king of the Romans, first by three of the electors on the
zoth of September 1410, and again after the death of his rival,
Jobst of Moravia, on the 2ist of July 1411; but his coronation
was deferred until the 8th of November 1414, when it took
place at Aix-la-Chapelle.
During a visit to Italy the king had taken advantage of the
difficulties of Pope John XXIII. to obtain a promise that a council
should be called to Constance in 1414. He took a leading part
in the deliberations of this assembly, and during the sittings
made a journey into France, England and Burgundy in a vain
attempt to secure the abdication of the three rival popes (see
CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF). The complicity of Sigismund in
the death of John Huss is a matter of controversy. He had
granted him a safe-conduct and protested against his imprison-
ment; and it was during his absence that the reformer was
burned. An alliance with England against France, and an
attempt to secure peace in Germany by a league of the towns,
which failed owing to the hostility of the princes, were the main
secular proceedings of these years. In 1419 the death of Wences-
laus left Sigismund titular king of Bohemia, but he had to wait
for seventeen years before the Czechs would acknowledge him.
But although the two dignities of king of the Romans and king
of Bohemia added considerably to his importance, and indeed
made him the nominal head of Christendom, they conferred no
increase of power and financially embarrassed him. It was only
SIGISMUND I.
67
as king of Hungary that he had succeeded in establishing his
authority and in doing anything for the order and good govern-
ment of the land. Entrusting the government of Bohemia to
Sophia, the widow of Wenceslaus, he hastened into Hungary;
but the Bohemians, who distrusted him as the betrayer of Huss,
were soon in arms; and the flame was fanned when Sigismund
declared his intention of prosecuting the war against heretics
who were also communists. Three campaigns against the Hussites
ended in disaster; the Turks were again attacking Hungary;
and the king, unable to obtain support from the German princes,
was powerless in Bohemia. His attempts at the diet of Nurem-
berg in 1422 to raise a mercenary army were foiled by the re-
sistance of the towns; and in 1424 the electors, among whom
was Sigismund's former ally, Frederick I. of Hohenzollern,
margrave of Brandenburg, sought to strengthen their own
authority at the expense of the king. Although the scheme failed,
the danger to Germany from the Hussites led to fresh proposals,
the result of which was that Sigis'mund was virtually deprived
of the leadership of the war and the headship of Germany. In
1431 he went to Milan where on the 25th of November he re-
ceived the Lombard crown; after which he remained for some
time at Siena, negotiating for his coronation as emperor and for
the recognition of the Council of Basel by Pope Eugenius IV.
He was crowned emperor at Rome on the 3ist of May 1433, and
after obtaining his demands from the pope returned to Bohemia,
where he was recognized as king in 1436, though his power was
little more than nominal. On the pth of December 1437 he died
at Znaim, and was buried at Grosswardein. By his second wife,
Barbara of Cilli, he left an only daughter, Elizabeth, who was
married to Albert V., duke of Austria, afterwards the German
king Albert II., whom he named as his successor. As he left no
sons the house of Luxemburg became extinct on his death.
Sigismund was brave and handsome, courtly in his bearing,
eloquent in his speech, but licentious in his manners. He was
an accomplished knight and is said to have known seven
languages. He was also one of the most far-seeing statesmen
of his day, and steadily endeavoured to bring about the ex-
pulsion of the Turks from Europe by uniting Christendom
against them. As king of Hungary he approved himself a born
political reformer, and the military measures which he adopted
in that country enabled the kingdom to hold its own against
the Turks for nearly a hundred years. His sense of justice and
honour was slight ; but as regards the death of Huss he had to
choose between condoning the act and allowing the council to
break up without result. He cannot be entirely blamed for the
misfortunes of Germany during his reign, for he showed a willing-
ness to attempt reform; but he was easily discouraged, and
was hampered on all sides by poverty, which often compelled him
to resort to the meanest expedients for raising money.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The more important works to be consulted are
Reperlorium Germanicum; Regesten aus den pdpstlichen Archiven zur
Geschichte des deutschen Reichs im XIV. und X V. Jahrhundert (Berlin,
1897); E. Windecke, Denkwurdigkeiten zur Geschichte des Zeitalters
Kaisers Sigmund (Berlin, 1893), and Das Leben Konigs Siegmund
(Berlin, 1886); J. Aschbach, Geschichte Kaiser Sigrnunds (Hamburg,
18381845) ; W. Berger, Johannes Hus imd Konig Sigmund (Augs-
burg, 1871); G. Schonherr, The Inheritors of the House of Anjou
(Buda-Pesth, 1895) ; and J. Acsady, History of the Hungarian Realm,
vol. i. (Buda-Pcsth, 1903). Of the German books Aschbach is
the fullest, and Windecke the most critical. Schonherr is the
best Hungarian authority. Acsady is too indulgent to the vices of
Sigismund. See also A. Main, The Emperor Sigismund (1903).
SIGISMUND I. (1467-1548), king of Poland, the fifth son of
Casimir IV. and Elizabeth of Austria, was elected grand-duke
of Lithuania on the 2ist of October 1505 and king of Poland on
the 8th of January 1506. Sigismund was the only one of the six
sons of Casimir IV. gifted with extraordinary ability. He had
served his apprenticeship in the art of government first as prince
of Glogau and subsequently as governor of Silesia and margrave
of Lusatia under his elder brother Wladislaus of Bohemia and
Hungary. Silesia, already more than half Germanized, had for
generations been the battle-ground between the Luxemburgers
and the Piasts, and was split up into innumerable principalities
which warred incessantly upon their neighbours and each other.
Into the midst of this region of banditti Sigismund came as a sort
of grand justiciar, a sworn enemy of every sort of.,disorder. His
little principality of Glogau soon became famous as a model state,
and as governor of Silesia he suppressed the robber knights with
an iron hand, protected the law-abiding classes, and revived
commerce. In Poland also his thrift and businesslike qualities
speedily remedied the abuses caused by the wastefulness of his
predecessor Alexander. His first step was to recover control of
the mint, and place it in the hands of capable middle-class
merchants and bankers, like Caspar Beer, Jan Thurzo, Jan
Boner, the Betmans, exiles for conscience' sake from Alsace,
who had sought refuge in Poland under Casimir IV., Justus
Decyusz, subsequently the king's secretary and historian, and
their fellows, all practical economists of high integrity who
reformed the currency and opened out new ways for trade and
commerce. The reorganization of the mint alone increased the
royal revenue by 210,000 gulden a year and enabled Sigismund to
pay the expenses of his earlier wars. In foreign affairs Sigismund
was largely guided by the Laskis (Adam, Jan and Hieronymus),
Jan Tarnowski and others, most of whom he selected himself.
In his marriages also he was influenced by political considerations,
though to both his consorts he was an affectionate husband.
His first wife, whom the. diet, anxious for the perpetuation of the
dynasty, compelled him, already in his forty-fourth year (Feb.
1512), to marry, was Barbara Zapolya, whose family as repre-
sented first by her father Stephen and subsequently by her
brother John, dominated Hungarian politics in the last quarter
of the 1 5th and the first quarter of the i6th century. Barbara
brought him a dower of 100,000 gulden and the support of the
Magyar magnates, but the match nearly brought about a breach
with the emperor Maximilian, jealous already of the Jagiello in-
fluence in Hungary. On Barbara's death three years later without
male offspring, Sigismund (in April 1518) gave his hand to
Bona Sforza, a kinswoman of the emperor and granddaughter
of the king of Aragoii, who came to him with a dowry of 200,000
ducats and the promise of an inheritance from her mother of
half a million more which she never got. Bona's grace and beauty
speedily fascinated Sigismund, and contemporary satirists ridi-
culed him for playing the part of Jove to her Juno. She intro-
duced Italian elegance and luxury into the austere court of
Cracow and exercised no inconsiderable influence on affairs.
But she used her great financial and economical talents almost
entirely for her own benefit. She enriched herself at the expense
of the state, corrupted society, degraded the clergy, and in her
later years was universally detested for her mischievous meddling,
inexhaustible greed, and unnatural treatment of hejfv children.
The first twenty years of Sigismund's reign were marked by
exceptional .vigour. His principal difficulties were due to the
aggressiveness of Muscovy and the disloyalty of Prussia. With
the tsars Vasily III. and Ivan IV. Sigismund was never absolutely
at peace. The interminable war was interrupted, indeed, by
brief truces whenever Polish valour proved superior to Muscovite
persistence, as for instance after the great victor}' of Orsza
(Sept. 1514) and again in 1522 when Moscow was threatened by
the Tatars. But the Tatars themselves were a standing menace
to the republic. ,In the open field, indeed, they were generally
defeated (e.g. at Wisniowiec in 1512 and at Kaniow in 1526),
yet occasionally, as at Sokal when they wiped out a whole
Polish army, they prevailed even in pitched battles. Generally,
however, they confined themselves to raiding on a grand scale
and, encouraged by the Porte or the Muscovite, systematically
devastated whole provinces, penetrating even into the heart of
Poland proper and disappearing with immense booty. It was
this growing sense of border insecurity which led to the establish-
ment of the Cossacks (see POLAND: History).
The grand-masters of the Teutonic Order, always sure of
support in Germany, were also a constant source of annoyance.
Their constant aim was to shake off Polish suzerainty, and in
1520-21 their menacing attitude compelled Sigismund to take
up arms against them. The long quarrel was finally adjusted
in 1525 when the last grand-master, after a fruitless pilgrimage
through Europe for support, professed Lutheranism and as first
68
SIGISMUND II. SIGISMUND III.
duke of Prussia did public homage to the Polish king in the
market-place of Cracow. The secularization of Prussia was
opposed by the more religious of Sigismund's counsellors, and the
king certainly exposed himself to considerable odium in the
Catholic world; but taking all the circumstances into considera-
tion, it was perhaps the shortest way out of a situation bristling
with difficulties.
Personally a devout Catholic and opposed in principle to the
spread of sectarianism in Poland, Sigismund was nevertheless
too wise and just to permit the persecution of non-Catholics;
and in Lithuania, where a fanatical Catholic minority of magnates
dominated the senate, he resolutely upheld the rights of his
Orthodox subjects. Thus he rewarded the Orthodox upstart,
Prince Constantine Ortrogski, for his victory at Orsza by making
him palatine of Troki, despite determined opposition from the
Catholics; severely punished all disturbers of the worship of the
Greek schismatics; protected the Jews in the country places,
and insisted that the municipalities of the towns should be
composed of an equal number of Catholics and Orthodox Greeks.
By his tact, equity, and Christian charity, Sigismund endeared
himself even to those who differed most from him, as witness
the readiness of the Lithuanians to elect his infant son grand-duke
of Lithuania in 1522, and to crown him in 1529.
After his sixtieth year there was a visible decline in the energy
and capacity of Sigismund. To the outward eye his gigantic
strength and herculean build lent him the appearance of health
and vigour, but forty years of unintermittent toil and anxiety
had told upon him, and during the last two-and-twenty years of
his reign, by which time all his old self-chosen counsellors had died
off, he apathetically resigned himself to the cours^ of events
without making any sustained effort to stem the rising tide of
Protestantism and democracy. He had no sympathy with the
new men and the new ideas, and the malcontents in Poland often
insulted the aged king with impunity. Thus, at his last diet,
held at Piotrkow in 1547, Lupa Podlodowski, the champion of the
szlachta, openly threatened him with rebellion. Sigismund died
on the ist of April 1548. By Bona he had five children one
son, Sigismund Augustus, who succeeded him, and four daughters,
Isabella, who married John Zapolya, prince of Transylvania,
Sophia, who married the duke of Brunswick, Catherine, who
as the wife of John III. of Sweden became the mother of the
Polish Vasas, and Ann, who subsequently wedded King
Stephen Bathory.
See August Sokolowski, History of Poland (Pol.), vol. ii. (Vienna,
1904) ; Zygmunt Celichowski, Materials for the history of the reign
of Sigismund the Old (Pol.) (Posen, 1900); Adolf Pawinski, The
youthful years of Sigismund the Old (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1893); Adam
Darowski, Bona Sforza (1904). (R. N. B.)
SIGISMUND II. (1520-1572), king of Poland, the only son of
Sigismund I., king of Poland, whom he succeeded in 1548, and
Bona Sforza. At the very beginning of his reign he came into
collision with the turbulent szlachta or gentry, who had already
begun to oust the great families from power. The ostensible
cause of their animosity to the king was his second marriage,
secretly contracted before his accession, with the beautiful
Lithuanian Calvinist, Barbara Radziwill, daughter of the famous
Black Radziwill. But the Austrian court and Sigismund's own
mother, Queen Bona, seem to have been behind the movement,
and so violent was the agitation at Sigismund's first diet (sist of
October 1548) that the deputies threatened to renounce their
allegiance unless the king instantly repudiated Barbara. This
he refused to do, and his moral courage united with no small
political dexterity enabled him to win the day. By 1550, when
he summoned his second diet, a reaction in his favour began, and
the lingering petulance of the gentry was sternly rebuked by
Kmita, the marshal of the diet, who openly accused them of
attempting to diminish unduly the legislative prerogative of the
crown. The death of Barbara, five days after her coronation
(7th of December 1550), under very distressing circumstances
which led to an unproven suspicion that she had been poisoned
by Queen Bona.-compelled Sigismund to contract a third purely
political union with the Austrian archduchess Catherine, the
sister of Sigismund's first wife Elizabeth, who had died within a
twelvemonth of her marriage with him, while he was still only
crown prince. The third bride was sickly and unsympathetic,
and from her Sigismund soon lost all hope of progeny, to his
despair, for being the last male of the Jagiellos in the direct line,
the dynasty was threatened with extinction. He sought to
remedy the evil by liaisons with two of the most beautiful of his
countrywomen, Barbara Gizanka and Anna Zajanczkowska, the
diet undertaking to legitimatize and acknowledge as his successor
any heir male who might be born to him ; but their complacency
was in vain, for the king died childless. This matter of the king's
marriage was of great political importance, the Protestants and
the Catholics being equally interested in the issue. Had he not
been so good a Catholic Sigismund might well have imitated the
example of Henry VIII. by pleading that his detested third wife
was the sister of his first and consequently the union was un-
canonical. The Polish Protestants hoped that he would take
this course and thus bring about a breach with Rome at the very
crisis of the confessional struggle in Poland, while the Habsburgs,
who coveted the Polish throne, raised every obstacle to the
childless king's remarriage. Not till Queen Catherine's death
on the 28th of February 1572 were Sigismund's hands free, but
he followed her to the grave less than six months afterwards.
Sigismund's reign was a period of internal turmoil and external
expansion. He saw the invasion of Poland by the Reformation,
and the democratic upheaval which placed all political power
in the hands of the szlachta; he saw the collapse of the ancient
order of the Knights of the Sword in the north (which led to the
acquisition of Livonia by the republic) and the consolidation of
he Turkish power in the south. Throughout this perilous
transitional period Sigismund's was the hand which successfully
steered the ship of state amidst all the whirlpools that constantly
threatened to engulf it. A far less imposing figure than his
father, the elegant and refined Sigismund II. was nevertheless an
even greater statesman than the stern and majestic Sigismund I.
Tenacity and patience, the characteristics of all the Jagiellos,
he possessed in a high degree, and he added to them a supple
dexterity and a diplomatic finesse which he may have inherited
from his Italian mother. Certainly no other Polish king so
thoroughly understood the nature of the ingredients of that
witch's caldron, the Polish diet, as he did. Both the Austrian
ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with
which he controlled " this nation so difficult to lead." Every-
thing went as he wished, they said, because he seemed to know
everything beforehand. He managed to get more money than
his father could ever get, and at one of his diets won the hearts of
the whole assembly by unexpectedly appearing before them in
the simple grey coat of a Masovian squire. Like his father, a
pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect
to carry the Polish nation, always so distrustful of the Germans,
entirely along with him, thereby avoiding all serious complica-
tions with the ever dangerous Turk. Only a statesman of genius
could have mediated for twenty years, as he did, between the
church and the schismatics without alienating the sympathies
of either. But the most striking memorial of his greatness was
the union of Lublin, which finally made of Poland and Lithuania
one body politic, and put an end to the jealousies and discords
of centuries (see POLAND, History). The merit of this crowning
achievement belongs to Sigismund alone; but for him it would
have been impossible. Sigismund II. died at his beloved Kny-
szyne on the 6th of July 1572, in his fifty-second year.
See Ludwik Finkel, Characteristics of Sigismund Augustus (Pol.)
(Lemberg, 1888); Letters to Nicholas Radziwill (Pol.) (Wilna, 1842);
Geheime Briefe an Hozyus, Gesandten am Hofe des Kaisers Karl V.
(Wadowice. i8>): Adam Darowski, Bona Sforza (Pol.) (Rome,
1904). (R. N. B.)
SIGISMUND III. (1566-1632), king of Poland and Sweden,
son of John III., king of Sweden, and Catherine Jagiellonika,
sister of Sigismund II., king of Poland, thus uniting in his person
the royal lines of Vasa and Jagiello. Educated as a Catholic
by his mother, he was on the death of Stephen Bathory elected
king of Poland (August 19, 1587) chiefly through the efforts of
the Polish chancellor, Jan Zamoyski, and of his own aunt, Anne,
queen-dowager of Poland, who lent the chancellor 100,000 gulden
SIGMARINGEN
69
to raise troops in defence of her nephew's cause. On his election,
Sigismund promised to maintain a fleet in the Baltic, to fortify
the eastern frontier against the Tatars, and not to visit Sweden
without the consent of the Polish diet. Sixteen days later were
signed the articles of Kalmar regulating the future relations
between Poland and Sweden, when in process of time Sigismund
should succeed his father as king of Sweden. The two kingdoms
were to be perpetually allied, but each of them was to retain its
own laws and customs. Sweden was also to enjoy her religion
subject to such changes as a general council might make. During
Sigismund's absence from Sweden that realm was to be ruled by
seven Swedes, six to be elected by the king and one by Duke
Charles, his Protestant uncle. Sweden, moreover, was not to
be administered from Poland. A week after subscribing these
articles the young prince departed to take possession of the Polish
throne. He was expressly commanded by his father to return
to Sweden, if the Polish deputation awaiting him at Danzig
should insist on the cession of Esthonia to Poland as a condition
precedent to the act of homage. The Poles proved even more
difficult to satisfy than was anticipated; but finally a com-
promise was come to whereby the territorial settlement was
postponed till after the death of John III. ; and Sigismund was
duly crowned at Cracow on the 27th of December 1587.
Sigismund's position as king of Poland was extraordinarily
difficult. As a foreigner he was from the first out of sympathy
with the majority of his subjects. As a man of education and
refinement, fond of music, the fine arts, and polite literature,
he was unintelligible to the szlachta, who regarded all artists and
poets as either mechanics or adventurers. His very virtues were
strange and therefore offensive to them. His prudent reserve
and imperturbable calmness were branded as stiffness and
haughtiness. Even Zamoyski who had placed him on the throne
complained that the king was possessed by a dumb devil. He
lacked, moreover, the tact and bonhomie of the Jagiellos;
but in fairness it should be added that the Jagiellos were natives
of the soil, that they had practically made the monarchy, and
that they could always play Lithuania off against Poland.
Sigismund's difficulties were also increased by his political
views which he brought with him from Sweden cut and dried,
and which were diametrically opposed to those of the omnipotent
chancellor. Yet, impracticable as it may have been, Sigismund's
system of foreign policy as compared with Zamoyski's was, at
any rate, clear and definite. It aimed at a close alliance with the
house of Austria, with the double object of drawing Sweden within
its orbit and overawing the Porte by the conjunction of the two
great Catholic powers of central Europe. A corollary to this
system was the much needed reform of the Polish constitution,
without which nothing beneficial was to be expected from any
political combination. Thus Sigismund's views were those of a
statesman who clearly recognizes present evils and would remedy
them. But all his efforts foundered on the jealousy and suspicion
of the magnates headed by the chancellor. The first three-and-
twenty years of Sigismund's reign is the record of an almost
constant struggle between Zamoyski and the king, in which the
two opponents were so evenly matched that they did little more
than counterpoise each other. At the diet of 1590 Zamoyski
successfully thwarted all the efforts of the Austrian party;
whereupon the king, taking advantage of sudden vacancies
among the chief offices of state, brought into power the Radzi-
wills and other great Lithuanian dignitaries, thereby for a time
considerably curtailing the authority of the chancellor. In 1592
Sigismund married the Austrian archduchess Anne, and the same
year a reconciliation was patched up between the king and the
chancellor to enable the former to secure possession of his
Swedish throne vacant by the death of his father John III. He
arrived at Stockholm on the 3oth of September 1593 and was
crowned at Upsala on the igth of February 1594, but only after
he had consented to the maintenance of the " pure evangelical
religion " in Sweden. On the i4th of July 1594 }ie departed for
Poland leaving Duke Charles and the senate to rule Sweden
during his absence. Four years later (July 1598) Sigismund
was forced to fight for his native crown by the usurpation of his
uncle, aided by the Protestant party in Sweden. He landed at
Kalmar with 5000 men, mostly Hungarian mercenaries; the
fortress opened its gates to him at once and the capital and the
country people welcomed him. The Catholic world watched his
progress with the most sanguine expectations. Sigismund's
success in Sweden was regarded as only the beginning of greater
triumphs. But it was not to be. After fruitless negotiations
with his uncle, Sigismund advanced with his army from Kalmar,
but was defeated by the duke at Stangebro on the 25th of
September. Three days later, by the compact of Linkoping,
Sigismund agreed to submit all the points in dispute between
himself and his uncle to a riksdag at Stockholm; but immediately
afterwards took ship for Danzig, after secretly protesting to the
two papal prothonotaries who accompanied him that the Linko-
ping agreement had been extorted from him, and was therefore
invalid. Sigismund never saw Sweden again, but he persistently
refused to abandon his claims or recognise the new Swedish
government; and this unfortunate obstinacy was to involve
Poland in a whole series of unprofitable wars with Sweden.
In 1602 Sigismund wedded Constantia, the sister of his deceased
first wife, an event which strengthened the hands of the Austrian
party at court and still further depressed the chancellor. At the
diet of 1605 Sigismund and his partisans endeavoured so far to
reform the Polish constitution as to substitute a decision by a
plurality of votes for unanimity in the diet. This most simple
and salutary reform was, however, rendered nugatory by the
opposition of Zamoyski, and his death the same year made
matters still worse, as it left the opposition in the hands of men
violent and incapable, like Nicholas Zebrzydowski, or sheer
scoundrels, like Stanislaw Stadnicki. From 1606 indeed to 1610
Poland was in an anarchical condition. Insurrection and
rebellion triumphed everywhere, and all that Sigismund could
do was to minimize the mischief as much as possible by his
moderation and courage. On foreign affairs these disorders had
the most disastrous effect. The simultaneous collapse of Muscovy
had given Poland an unexampled opportunity of rendering the
tsardom for ever harmless. But the necessary supplies were
never forthcoming and the diet remained absolutely indifferent
to the triumphs of Zolkiewski and the other great generals who
performed Brobdingnagian feats with Lilliputian armies. At the
outbreak of the Thirty Years' War Sigismund prudently leagued
with the emperor to counterpoise the united efforts of the Turks
and the Protestants. This policy was very beneficial to the
Catholic cause, as it diverted the Turk from central to north-
eastern Europe; yet, but for the self-sacrificing heroism of
Zolkiewski at Cecora and of Chodkiewicz at Khotin, it might
have been most ruinous to Poland. Sigismund died very
suddenly in his 66th year, leaving two sons, Wladislaus and John
Casimir, who succeeded him in rotation.
See Alcksander Rembowski, The Insurrection of Zebrzydowski
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1893) ; Stanislaw Niemojewski, Memoires (Pol.)
(Lemberg, 1899); Sveriges Historia, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1881);
Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, History of the Reign of Sigismund III.
(Pol.) (Breslau, 1836). (R. N. B.)
SIGMARINGEN, a town of Germany, chief towji of the Prussian
principality of Hohenzollern, on the right bank of the Danube,
55 m. S. of Tubingen, on the railway to Ulm. Pop. (1905)
4621. The castle of the Hohenzollerns crowns a high rock above
the river, and contains a collection of pictures, an exceptionally
interesting museum (textiles, enamels, metal-work, &c.), an
armoury and a library. On the opposite bank of the Danube
there is a war monument to the Hohenzollern men who fell in 1866
and 1870-1871.
The division of Sigmaringen is composed of the two formerly
sovereign principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohen-
zollern-Hechingen (see HOHENZOLLERN), and has an area of
440 sq. m. and a population (1905) of 68,282. The Sigmaringen
part of the Hohenzollern lands was the larger of the two (297
sq. m.) and lay mainly to the south of Hechingen, though the
district of Haigerloch on the Neckar also belonged to it. The
name of Hohenzollern is used much more frequently than the
official Sigmaringen to designate the combined principalities.
See Woerl, Fiihrer durch Sigmaringen (Wiirzburg,i886).
7
SIGNAL
SIGNAL (a word common in slightly different forms to nearly
all European languages, derived from Lat. signum, a mark, sign),
a means of transmitting information, according to some pre-
arranged system or code, in cases where a direct verbal or
written statement is unnecessary, undesirable, or impracticable.
The methods employed vary with the circumstances and the
purposes in view, and the medium into which the transmitted
idea is translated may consist of visible objects, sounds, motions,
or indeed anything that is capable of affecting the senses, so
long as an understanding has been previously effected with the
recipient as to the meaning involved. Any two persons may thus
arrange a system for the transmission of intelligence between
them, and secret codes of this kind, depending on the inflections
of the voice, the accent on syllables or words, the arrangement
of sentences, &c., have been so elaborated as to serve for the
production of phenomena such as are sometimes attributed
to telepathy or thought transference. With the many private
developments of such codes we are not here concerned, nor is it
necessary to attempt an explanation of the systems of drum-taps,
smoke-fires, &c., by which certain primitive peoples are supposed
to be able to convey news over long distances with astonishing
rapidity; the present article is confined to giving an account of
the organized methods of signalling employed at sea, in military
operations and on railways, these being matters of practical
public importance.
Marine Signalling. A system of marine signals comprises
different methods of conveying orders or information to or from
a ship in sight and within hearing, but at a distance too great
to permit of hailing in other words, beyond the reach of the
voice, even when aided by the speaking-trumpet. The necessity
of some plan of rapidly conveying orders or intelligence to a
distance was early recognized. Polybius describes two methods,
one proposed by Aeneas Tacticus more than three centuries before
Christ, and one perfected by himself, which, as any word could
be spelled by it, anticipated the underlying principle of later
systems. The signal codes of the ancients are believed to have
been elaborate. Generally some kind of flag was used. Shields
were also displayed in a preconcerted manner, as at the battle
of Marathon, and some have imagined that the reflected rays of
the sun were flashed from them as with the modern heliograph.
In the middle ages flags, banners and lanterns were used to
distinguish particular squadrons, and as marks of rank, as they are
at present, also to call officers to the admiral, and to report
sighting the enemy and getting into danger. The invention of
cannon made an important addition to the means of signalling.
In the instructions issued by Don Martin de Padilla in 1597 the
use of guns, lights and fires is mentioned. The introduction of
the square rig permitted a further addition, that of letting fall
a sail a certain number of times. Before the middle of the i7th
century only a few stated orders and reports could be made known
by signalling. Flags were used by day, and lights, occasionally
with guns, at night. The signification then, and for a long time
after, depended upon the position in which the light or flag
was displayed. Orders, indeed, were as often as possible com-
municated by hailing or even by means of boats. As the size
of ships increased the inconvenience of both plans became
intolerable. Some attribute the first attempt at a regular code
to Admiral Sir William Penn (1621-1670), but the credit of it is
usually given to James II. when duke of York. Notwithstanding
the attention paid to the subject by Paul Hoste and others,
signals continued strangely imperfect till late in the i8th century.
Towards 1780 Admiral Kempenfelt devised a plan of flag-signal-
ling which was the parent of that now in use. Instead of in-
dicating differences of meaning by varying the position of a
solitary flag, he combined distinct flags in pairs. About the
beginning of the igth century Sir Home Popham improved a
method of conveying messages by flags proposed by R. Hall
Gower (1767-1833), and greatly increased a ship's power of
communicating with others. The number of night and fog
signals that could be shown was still very restricted. In 1867
an innovation of prodigious importance was made by the adop-
tion in the British navy of Vice-Admiral (then Captain) Philip
Colomb's flashing system, on which he had been at work since
1858.
In the British navy, which serves as a model to most
others, visual signals . are made with flags or pendants, the
semaphore, flashing, and occasionally fireworks. Sound signals
are made with fog-horns, steam-whistles, sirens and guns. The
number of flags in use in the naval code, comprising what is
termed a " set," are 58, and consist of 26 alphabetical flags,
10 numeral flags, 16 pendants and 6 special flags. Flag signals
are divided into three classes, to each of which is allotted a
separate book. One class consists of two alphabetical flags, and
refers to orders usual in the administration of a squadron,
such as, for example, the flags LE, which might signify " Captain
repair on board flagship." Another class consists of three
alphabetical flags, which refer to a coded dictionary, wherein are
words and short sentences likely to be required The remaining
refers to evolutionary orders for manoeuvring, which have alpha-
betical and numeral flags combined. The flags which constitute
a signal are termed a " hoist." One or more hoists may be ma'de.
at the same time. Although flag signalling is a slow method
compared with others, a fair rate can be attained with practice.
For example, a signal involving 162 separate hoists has been re-
peated at sight by 13 ships in company in 76 minutes. Semaphore
signals are made by the extension of a man's arms through a
vertical plane, the different symbols being distinguished by the
relative positions of the arms, which are never less than 45 apart.
To render the signals more conspicuous the signaller usually
holds a small flag on a stick in each hand, but all ships are fitted
with mechanical semaphores, which can be worked by one man,
and are visible several miles. Flag signalling being comparatively
slow and laborious, the ordinary message work in a squadron
is generally signalled by semaphore. The convenience of this
method is enormous, and by way of example it may be of interest
to mention a record message of 350 words which was signalled
to 21 ships simultaneously at the rate of 17 words per minute.
Flags being limited in size, and only distinguishable by their
colour, signals by this means are not altogether satisfactory
at long distances, even when the wind is suitable. For signalling
at long range the British navy employs a semaphore with arms
from 9 to 12 ft. long mounted at the top of the mast and capable
.of being trained in any required direction, and worked from
the deck. Its range depends upon the clearness of the atmo-
sphere, but instances are on record where a message by this
means has been read at 16 to 18 m.
Night signalling is carried out by means of " flashing," by
which is meant the exposure and eclipse of a single light for
short and long periods of time, representing the dots and dashes
composing the required symbol. The dots and dashes can be
made mechanically by an obscuring arrangement, or by electro-
mechanical means where magnets do the work, or by simply
switching on and off specially manufactured electric lamps.
The ordinary rate of signalling by flashing is from 7 to 10 words
per minute. In the British navy, as in the army, dots and dashes
are short and long exposures of light ; but with some nations the
dots and dashes are short and long periods of darkness, the light
punctuating the spaces between them. The British navy uses
the European modification of the so-called Morse code used in
telegraphy, but with- special signs added suitable to their code.
The introduction of the " dot and dash " system into the British
navy was entirely due to the perseverance of Vice-Admiral
Colomb, who, in spite of great opposition, and even after it had
once been condemned on its first trial at sea, carried it through
with the greatest success. The value of this innovation made in
1867 may be gauged by the fact that now it is possible to handle a
fleet with ease and safety in darkness and fog a state of affairs
which did not formerly exist. The simplicity of the dot and
dash principle is its best feature. As the system only requires the
exhibition of two elements it may be used in a variety of different
manners with a,minimum of material, namely, by waving the most
conspicuous object at hand through short and long arcs, by
exhibiting two different shapes, each representing one of the
elements, or dipping a lantern in a bucket, and so on. Its
SIGNAL
adoption has not only contributed very materially to the in-
creased efficiency of the British navy, but it has been made
optional for use with the mercantile marine. Curiously enough,
flashing is not to any great extent used in the navies of other
countries which rely more on some system of coloured lights at
night. This system generally takes the form of four or five
double-coloured lanterns, which are suspended from some part of
the mast in a vertical line. Each lantern generally contains a
red and a white lamp, either of which can be switched on.
By a suitable keyboard on deck any combination of these coloured
lanterns can be shown. The advantage of this system lies in the
fact that each symbol is self-evident in its entirety, and does not
require an expert signalman to read it, as is the case with flashing,
which is a progressive performance.
For long distances at night the search-light, or some other
high power electric arc light, is utilized on the flashing system.
Dots and dashes are then made either by flashing the light
directly on the object, or by waving the beam up and down for
short and long periods of time. Sometimes when a convenient
cloud is available the reflection of the beam has been read for
nearly 40 m., with land intervening between the two ships. In a
fog signals are made by the steam-whistlef fog-horn, siren or by
guns. Except for the latter method the dot and dash system is
employed in a similar manner to flashing a light. Guns are some-
times used in a fog for signalling, the signification being deter-
mined by certain timed intervals between the discharges. The
larger British ships are supplied with telegraph instruments for
connexion with the shore, and heliographs are provided for land
operations. Marine galvanometers are also provided, and can
be used to communicate through submarine cables. To the
various methods of naval signalling must be added wireless
telegraphy, which in its application to ships at sea bids fair to
solve some problems hitherto impracticable. (See TELEGRAPHY:
HTtnfen.)
The international code of signals, for use between ships
of all nations, is perhaps the best universal dictionary in exist-
ence. By its means mariners can talk with great ease without
knowing a word of one another's language. By means of a few
flags any question can be asked and answered. The number
of international flags and pendants used with the international
code is 2-, consisting of a complete alphabet and a special
pendant characteristic of the code. At night flashing may be
used. (C.A.G.B.; A.F.E.)
A rmy Signalling. Communication by visual signals between
portions of an army is a comparatively recent development of
military service. Actual signals were of course made in all ages
of warfare, either specially agreed upon beforehand, such as a
rocket or beacon, or of more general application, such as the
old-fashioned wooden telegraph and the combinations of lights,
&c.. used by savages on the X.W. frontier of India. But it was not
until the middle years of the igth century that military signalling
proper, as a special duty of soldiers, became at all general.
It was about the year 1865 that, owing to the initiative of Captain
Philip Colomb, R.X., whose signal system had been adopted for
his own sen-ice, the question of army signalling was seriously
taken up by the British military authorities. A school of signal-
ling was created at Chatham, and some time later all units of the
line were directed to furnish men to be trained as signallers.
At first a code book was used and the signals represented code
words, but it was found better to revert to the telegraphic
system of signalling by the Morse alphabet, amongst the unde-
niable advantages of which was the fact that it was used both
by the postal service and the telegraph units of Royal Engineers.
Thenceforward, in ever-increasing perfection, the work of
signallers has been a feature of almost every campaign of the
British army. To the original flags have been added the helio-
graph (for long-distance work), the semaphore system of the
Royal Xavy (for very rapid signalling at short distances), and
the lamps of various kinds for working by night. Full and
detailed instructions for the proper performance of the work,
which provide for almost every possible contingency, have been
published and are enforced.
The apparatus employed for signalling in the British service
consists of flags, large and small, heliograph and lamp for night
work. The distances at which their signals can be read
vary very considerably, the flags having but a limited ""
scope of usefulness, whilst the range of a heliograph is very
great indeed. Whether it be 10 m. or 100 away, it has been found
in practice that, given good sunlight, nothing but the presence
of an intervening physical obstacle, such as a ridge or wood,
prevents communication. For shorter distances moonlight, and
even artificial light, have on occasion been employed as the source
of light. In northern Europe the use of the instrument is much
restricted by climate, and, further, stretches of plain country,
permitting of a line of vision between distant hills, are not often
found. It is in the wilder parts of the earth, that is to say in
colonial theatres of war, that the astonishing value of the helio-
graph is displayed. In European warfare flag signalling is more
usually employed. The flags in use are blue and white, the
former for use with light, the latter for dark backgrounds.
FIG. i.
There is further a distinction between the " small " flag, which
is employed for semaphore messages and for rapid Morse over
somewhat shorter distances, and the " large " flag, which is
readable at a distance of 5 to 7 m., as against the maximum of
4 m. allowed to the small flag. With a clear atmosphere these
distances may be exceeded. The respective sizes of these flags
are as follows: large flag 3'X$', pole 5' 6" long; small flag
a'X 2', pole 3' 6" long. The lamps used for night signalling are
of many kinds. Officially only the " lime light " and the " Beg-
bie " lamps are recognized, but a considerable number of the
old-fashioned oil lamps is still in use, especially in the auxiliary
forces, and many experiments have been made with acetylene.
The lime light is obtained by raising a lime pencil to a white heat
by forcing a jet of oxygen through the flame of a spirit lamp.
The strong light thus produced can be read under favourable
conditions at a distance of 1 5 m. ; but the equipment of gas-bag,
pressure-bag, and other accessories make the whole instrument
rather cumbrous. The bull's-eye lamp differs but slightly from
the ordinary lantern of civil life; it burns vegetable oil. The
Begbie lamp, which burns kerosene, is rather more elaborate and
gives a whiter light. It was in use for many years in India
before the objections made by the authorities in Er.glar.d to
certain features of the lamp were withdrawn. All these lamps
when in use are set up on a tripod stand and signals in
the Morse alphabet are made by opening and closing a
shutter in front of the light, and thereby showing long and
short flashes.
SIGNAL
The same principle is followed in the heliograph. This instru-
ment, invented by Sir Henry C. Mance, receives on a mirror,
and thence casts upon the distant station, the rays of the sun;
the working of a small key controls the flashes by throwing the
mirror slightly off its alignment and thus obscuring the light from
the party reading signals. The fact that the heliograph requires
sunlight, as mentioned above, militates against its employment
in Great Britain, but where it is possible to use it it is by far
the best means of signalling. Secrecy and rapidity are its chief
advantages. An observer 6 m. distant would see none of its
light if he were more than 50 yds. on one side of the exact align-
ment, whereas a flag signal could be read from almost every
FlG. 2. Heliograph (by permission of the Controller of H.M.
.Stationery Office).
hill within range. None of the physical exertion required for
fast signalling with the flag is required to manipulate the instru-
ment at a high rate of speed. The whole apparatus is packed
in a light and portable form. An alternative method of using
the heliograph is to keep the rays permanently on the distant
point, a shutter of some kind being used in front of it to produce
obscurations.
When in use the heliograph is fixed upon a tripod. A tangent
screw (E) which moves the whole instrument (except the jointed
arm L) turns the mirror in any direction. Metal U-shaped arms
(C) carry the mirror (B), which is controlled by the vertical rod
(J) and its clamping screw (K). The signalling mirror itself
(usually having a surface of 5 in. diameter) is of glass, an un-
silvered spot (R) being left in the centre. This spot retains its
position through all movements in any plane. The instrument
is aligned by means of the sighting vane (P) fixed in the jointed
arm L, and the rays of the sun are then brought on to the distant
station by turning the horizontal and vertical adjustments until
the " shadow spot " cast by the unsilvered centre of the mirror
appears on the vane. The heliograph is thus ready, and signals
are made by the depression and release of the " collar " (I)
which, with the pivoted arm (U, V), acts as a telegraph key.
When the sun makes an angle of more than 1 20 degrees with the
mirror and the distant station, a " duplex mirror " is used in
place of the sighting vane. The process of alignment is in this
case a little more complicated. Various other means of making
dots and dashes are referred to in the official work, ranging from
the " collapsible drum " hung on a mast to the rough but effec-
tive improvisation of a heliograph out of a shaving-glass. The
employment of the beams of the search-light to make flashes on
clouds is also a method of signalling which has been in practice
very effective.
The Morse code employed in army signalling is as follows :
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
L
M
N
O
P
S
T -
U
V
W
X
Y -
Z -
i
2
3
4
5
i
8
9'
o
The semaphore code used in the army is shown below : '
n
8 C
1 3 5
I ( r
N
VlY
\ h k
"tfum&vls "J or
Corrv'ny" Letters Comiaf
"Ready 1
Fig. 3. Semaphore (the
thin upright strokes represent
the seaman's body, the thick
strokes his arms).
Umsr'W"
In using this code the signaller invariably faces his reader, as unless
this were enforced each letter might be read as its opposite. In the
above diagram the appearance of the signals to the reader is shown,
thus the sender's right side only is used for the letter A.
In sending a message accuracy is ensured by various checks.
The number of words in a message is the most valuable of these,
as the receiving station's number must agree before the message
is taken as correct. Each word or " group " sent by the Morse
code must be " answered " before the sender passes on to another.
All figures are checked by the " clock check " in which i is repre-
sented by A, 2 by B and so on. All cipher " groups " are repeated
back en Hoc. There is an elaborate system of signals relating
to the working of the line. The " message form " in use differs
but slightly from the ordinary form of the Post Office telegraphs.
Signal stations in the field are classed as (o) " fixed " and " mov-
ing," the former connecting points of importance, or on a line of
communications, the latter moving with the troops; (6) " ter-
minal," " transmitting " and " central "; the first two require
no definition, the last is intended to send and receive messages
in many directions. The " transmitting station " receives
and sends on messages, and consists in theory of two full " ter-
minals," one to receive and one to send on. It is rarely possible
in the field to work rapidly with less than five men at a trans-
mitting and three at a terminal station. " Central " stations
SIGNAL
73
are manned according to the number of stations with which they
communicate.
Signalling is used on most campaigns to a large extent. In the
Tirah expedition, 1897 and 1898, one signal station received and
sent, between the ist and i8th November, as many as 980
messages by heliograph, some of which were 200 to 300 words in
length. It is often used as an auxiliary to the field telegraph,
especially in mountainous countries, and when the wire is liable
to be cut and stolen by hostile natives. In the Waziri expedition,
1881, communication was maintained direct for a distance of
70 m. with a s-in. heliograph. In the Boer War, 1899-1902,
the system of heliographic signalling was employed very exten-
sively by both sides.
In Germany the first army signalling regulations only appeared in
1902. The practice was, however, rapidly developed and towards the
end of the 1905 campaign in South-West Africa, 9 signalling officers
and 200 signallers were employed in that country. These usually
worked in parties of 2 or 3, each party being protected by a few
infantrymen or troopers. The apparatus used was heliograph by
day and a very elaborate form of lamp by night, and work was carried
on between posts separated by 60 and even 90 m. The signallers
were employed both with the mobile forces and in a permanent net-
work of communication in the occupied territory. In 1907-1908
fresh signalling regulations were issued to the home army, and each
company, battery or squadron is now expected to find one station of
three men, apart from the regimental and special instructors and
staff. Some experiments were carried out at Metz to ascertain the
mean distance at which signals made by a man lying down could be
seen, this being found to be about 1000 yds. The new regulations
allow of the use of flag and lamp signalling at 4 m. instead of as
formerly at if. Three flags are used, blue, white and yellow, and it
is stated that the last is the most frequently useful of the three.
The enormous development of the field telegraph and telephone
systems in the elaborate war of positions of 1904-1905 more or less
crowded out, so to speak, visual signalling on both sides, and in any
case the average illiterate Russian infantryman or the Cossack was
not adaptable to signalling needs. Only about one-quarter of the
signalling force (which consisted exclusively of engineer troops) in
Kuropatkin's army was employed in optical work, the other three-
quarters being assigned to telegraph, wireless and telephone station
work. The Italians, who are no strangers to colonial warfare, have
a well-developed visual signalling system.
See British Official Training Manuals: Signalling (1907).
Railway Signalling. In railway phraseology the term " signal "
is applied to a variety of hand motions and indications by lamps
and other symbols, as well as to fixed signals; but only the
last-named class disks and semaphores, with lights, perman-
ently fixed (on posts) at the side of the track will be considered
here. These may be divided into (i) interlocking signals, used
at junctions and yards, and (2) block signals, for maintaining an
interval of space between trains following one another. In
both classes the function of a signal is to inform the engine-driver
whether or not he may proceed beyond the signal, or on what
conditions he may proceed, and it is essential to give him the
information some seconds before it need be acted upon.
The semaphore signal, which is now widely used, consists of
an arm or blade about 5 ft. long extending horizontally, at
right angles to the line of the track, from the top of a post
(wood or iron) 15 to 30 ft. high, and sometimes higher (fig. 4).
This arm, turning on a spindle, is pulled down (" off ") to indicate
that a train may pass it, the horizontal (or " on") position
indicating " stop "; sometimes, as on the continent of Europe,
use is made of the position of the arm in which it points diagonally
upwards, and on one or two English lines the arm in the safety
position hangs down perpendicularly, parallel to, but a few inches
away from, the post. A lamp is fixed to the side of the post about
on a level with the blade, and by the movement of the blade is
made to show at night red for " stop " and green for go-ahead or
" all clear." The earlier practice, white for " all clear," still
prevails largely in America.
In the early days of railway signalling three positions of the
semaphore arm were recognized: (l) Horizontal, or at right angles
to the post, denoting danger; (2) at a downward angle of 45 degrees,
denoting caution; (3) hanging vertically downwards or parallel to
the post, denoting all right. Corresponding to the position of the
arm, three different lights were employed at night red for danger,
green for caution and white for all right. But now British railways
make use of only two positions of the arm and two lights the arm at
right angles to the post and a red light, both signifying danger or
xxv. 3 a
stop; and the arm at about 60 degress (or vertical, as mentioned
above) and a green light, both meaning all right or proceed. It is
better to abolish the use of white lights for signalling purposes.
The reason is obvious. There are many lights and lamps on the plat-
forms, in signal-boxes and in the streets and houses adjacent to a rail-
way; and i? white lights were recognized as signals, a driver might
mistake a light of this nature as a signal to proceed ; in fact, accidents
have been caused in this manner. A white light is not to be regarded
as a danger signal, as is sometimes erroneously stated, but rather
as no signal at all ; and as there is a well-known rule to the effect
that " the absence of a signal at a place where a signal is ordinarily
shown must be treated as a danger signal," it follows that a white
light, when seen at a place where a red or green light ought to be
visible, is to be treated as a danger signal, not because a white
light per se means danger, but because in such a case it denotes the
absence of the proper signal. Some companies have adopted a
purple or small white light as a "danger" signal for shunting
purposes in sidings and yards; but this practice is not to be com-
mended, since red should be the universal danger signal.
Distant signals are used to make it unnecessary for an engine-
driver to slacken his speed in case the stop (home) signal is
obscured by fog or smoke, or is beyond a curve, or for any reason
is not visible sufficiently far away. Encountering the distant
signal at a point 400 to 800 yds. before reaching the home signal,
he is informed by its position that he may expect to find the latter
in the same position; if it is " off " he passes it, knowing that
the home signal must be in the same position, but if it is at
danger he proceeds cautiously, prepared to stop at the home
signal, if necessary. The arm of a distant signal usually has a
fish-tail end. In Great Britain its colour indications are generally
the same as for the home signal, but occasionally it shows yellow,
and on some lines it is distinguished at night by an angular band
of light, shaped like a fish-tail, which appears by the side of the
red or green light. In America its night colour-indication is
made different from that of the home signal. Thus, where white
is used to indicate all clear (in both home and distant) the distant
arm, when horizontal, shows a green light; where green is the all-
clear colour a horizontal distant shows either a yellow light or
(on one road) a red and a green light side by side. Two lights
for a single arm, giving their indication by position as well as
colour, have been used to a limited extent for both home and
distant signals. Dwarf signals (a in fig. 5) are used for very slow
movements, such as those to or from a siding. Their blades are
about i ft. long, and the posts about 4 ft. high; the lower arm
on post c being for slow movements, is also frequently made
shorter than the upper one. Where more than two full-sized
arms are used on a post, the custom in America is to have the
upper arm indicate for the track of the extreme right, and the
others in the order in which the tracks lie; in Great Britain the
opposite rule prevails, the upper arm
indicating for the extreme left. But the
signals controlling a large number of
parallel or diverging tracks are preferably
arranged side by side, often on a narrow
overhead bridge or gantry spanning the
tracks.
All the switches and locks are con-
nected with the signal cabin by iron rods
(channel-iron or gas-pipe) supported
(usually near the ground and often
covered by boxing) on small grooved
wheels set at suitable distances apart.
The foundations of these supports are of
wood, cast iron or concrete. Concrete
foundations are comparatively recent, but
are cheap and durable. For signals (but
not for points) wire connexions are uni-
versal in England, and are usual in
America, being cheaper than rods. In
changing the direction of a line of redding
a bell-crank is used, but with a wire a
piece of chain is inserted and run round
a grooved pulley. Wire connexions are shown at a and b, fig. 4,
the main or " front " wire being attached at a. By this
the signalman moves the arm down to the inclined or go-
ahead position, to do which he has to lift the counter-
y-c
-a
FIG. 4. Semaphore
signal. R, Red glass;
G, green glass.
74
SIGNAL
weight c. If the wire should break, the counter-weight would
restore the arm to the horizontal (stop) position, and thus
prevent the unauthorized passage of a train; and in case of
failure of the rod I, the iron spectacle s would act as a safety
counter-weight. The back-wire b is added to ensure quick
movement of the arm, but is not common in England. Long
lines of rigid connexions are "compensated" for expansion and
contraction due to changes in temperature by the introduction
of bell-cranks or rocker-arms. With wire connexions compen-
sation is difficult, and many plans have been tried. The most
satisfactory devices are those in which the connexion, in the
cabin, between the wire and the lever is broken when the signal
is in the horizontal position. The wire is kept taut by a weight
or spring, and at each new movement the lever (if the wire has
lengthened or shortened) grips it at a new place.
So early as 1846 it became a common practice in England to
concentrate the levers for working the points and signals of a
station in one or more cabins, and the necessity of
locking interlocking soon became evident to prevent simul-
taneous signals being given over conflicting routes, or
for a route not yet prepared to receive the train. In large
terminals concentration and interlocking are essential to rapid
movements of trains and economical use of ground.
Fig. 5 shows a typical arrangement of interlocked signals, the
principle being the same whether a yard has one set of points or
E3 C
FIG. 5. Interlocked signals (American practice, signals at right track,
and arras at right of post).
arranged that either one of them will be move<5 by the same
lever, the position of the point connexions being made to govern
the selection of the arm to be moved. A switch rod would be
connected to this lever at
H; the lever K is for use
where a signal is con-
nected by two wires, as
before described. The
lever is held in each of
its two positions by the
catch rod V, which en-
gages with notches in the
segment B. When the
signalman, preparatory to
lowering a signal, grasps
the lever at its upper end,
he moves thisrodupwards,
and in so doing actuates
the interlocking, through
the tappet N, attached at
T. Lifting the tappet locks
all levers which need to be
locked to make it safe to
move this one. In pulling
over the lever the rocker
R is also pulled;
but the slot in it
is radial to the
o centre on , which
^ B the lever turns,
so that during the
stroke N remains
motionless. On F IG - 6. Signal Lever, with Mechanical
a hundred. The signals (at a, b, and c) are of the semaphore
pattern. For the four signals and one pair of points there are,
in the second storey of the cabin C, five levers. Each signal arm
stands normally in the horizontal position, indicating stop. To
permit a train to pass from A to B the signalman moves the arm
of signal b to an inclined position (60 degrees to 75 degrees down-
wards); and the interlocking of the levers prevents this move-
ment unless it can safely be made. If a has been changed to
permit a movement from S to B, or if the points x have beeen set
for such a movement, or if either signal on post c has been lowered,
the lever for b is immovable. In like manner, to incline the arm
of signal a for a movement from S to B it is first necessary to have
the points set for track S, and to have the levers of all the other
signals in the normal (stop) position. A sixth lever, suitably
interlocked, works a lock bar, which engages with the head rod of
the points; it is connected to the lock through the " detector
bar," d. This bar, lying alongside of and close to the rail, must
move upwards when the points lock is being moved either to
lock or to unlock; and being made of such a length that it is
never entirely free of the wheels of any car or engine standing or
moving over it, it is held down by the flanges,-and the signalman
is prevented from inadvertently changing the points when a
train is passing. At r is a throw-off or derailing switch (" catch-
points "). When x is set for the passage of trains on the main
line, r, connected to the same lever, is open; so that if a car,
left on the side track unattended, should be accidentally moved
from its position, it could not run foul of the main track.
The function of the interlocking machine is to prevent the
simultaneous display of conflicting signals, or the display of a
signal over points that are not set accordingly. The most
common forms of interlocking have the locking bars arranged in
a horizontal plane; but for ease of description we may take one
having them arranged vertically, the principle being the same.
The diagram (fig. 6) shows a section with a side view of one lever.
A machine consists of as many levers, placed side by side, as
there are points and signals to be moved, though in some cases
two pairs of points are moved simultaneously by a single lever,
and two or more separate arms on the same post may be so
the completion of Interlocking,
the stroke and the dropping of V, N is raised still farther,
and this unlocks such levers as should be unlocked after
this lever is pulled ("cleared" or "reversed"). It will be
seen that whenever the tappet N of any lever is locked in the
if e e
FIG. 7. Interlocking Frame.
position shown in the figure, it is impossible to raise V, and
therefore impossible to move the lever.
The action of tappet N may be understood by reference to
fig. 7. A tappet, say 3, slides vertically in a planed recess in the
locking plate, being held in place by strips G and K. Transverse
SIGNAL
75
grooves N, 0, P, carry dogs, such as J. Two dogs may be con-
nected together by bars, R. The dogs are held in place by
straps Y (fig. 6). Locking is effected by sliding the dogs horizon-
tally; for example, dog J has been pushed into the notch in
tappet i, holding it in the normal position. If tappet 2 were
raised, its notch would come opposite dog J; and then the-
lifting of i would lock 2 by pushing J to the left. By means of
horizontal rod R, the lifting of i also locks 4. If 4 were already
up, it would be impossible to lift i.
Switch and signal machines are sometimes worked by com-
pressed air, or electric or hydraulic power. The use of power
makes it possible to move points at a greater distance
from the cabin than is permissible with manual
locking. power. The most widely used apparatus is the electro-
pneumatic, by which the points and signals are moved
by compressed air at 70 ft per sq. in., a cylinder with piston being
fixed at each signal or switch. From a compressor near the
cabin, air is conveyed in iron pipes buried in the ground.
The valves admitting air to a cylinder are controlled by electro-
magnets, the wires of which are laid from the cabin underground.
Each switch or signal, on completing a movement, sends an
electric impulse to the cabin, and the interlocking is
controlled by this " return." In the machine the
" levers " are very small and light, their essential
function being to open and close electric circuits. This
is performed through the medium of a long shaft placed
horizontally with its end towards the operator, which
is revolved on its axis through 60 degrees of a circle.
This shaft actuates the interlocking, which is in
principle the same as that already described; and it
opens and closes the electric circuits, governing the
aneous with the advent of the railway, the possibility of a block
system was early recognized; but its introduction was retarded
'by the great cost of employing attendants at every block station.
But as traffic increased, the time-interval system proved in-
adequate; and in the United Kingdom the block system is now
practically universal, while in America it is in use on many
thousand miles of line. In " permissive blocking " a second train
is allowed to enter a block section before the first has cleared it,
the engine-man being required so to control his speed that if
the first train be unexpectedly stopped he can himself stop
before coming into collision with it. It thus violates the essential
condition of true block signalling.
The manual " block " system in use at the present day in no
way differs from that devised by W. F. Cooke in 1842, except so far
as the details and designs of the telegraphic instruments are con-
cerned. Cooke used a single-needle instrument giving two indi-
cations the needle to the left signifying " line clear," to the right,
"line blocked"; the instrument was also available for speaking
purposes. The instruments employed in Great Britain consist of
two dials one for the up line and one for the down and a bell.
They may be divided into two main classes, those requiring one wire,
and those requiring three wires for each double line of rails. The dials
of the one-wire instruments give only two indications, namely, " line
TO/I
bED
FIG. 8. Block signals. (English practice, trains run on left-hand track,
signals at left of track, arms on left of post.)
admission of air to cylinders, by means of simple metal contact
strips rubbing on sections of its surface. The high-pressure
machine has been used with hydraulic power instead of
pneumatic, and with electrical interlocking instead of
mechanical.
Interlocking apparatus worked by compressed air at low
pressure (15 Ib per sq. in.), and with no electrical features, is
in use on some lines in America and has been introduced into
England. In place of an electromagnet for admitting compressed
air to the cylinders, a rubber diaphragm 8 in. in diameter is used.
This is lifted by air at 7 ft pressure, this pressure being con-
veyed from a cabin, distant 500 ft. or more, in one or two seconds.
As in the electro-pneumatic machine, the lever of a switch cannot
complete its stroke until the switch has actually moved home
and conveyed a " return indication " to the cabin. Pneumatic
apparatus of other designs is in use to a limited extent.
Pneumatic interlockings are costly to instal, and, depending
on an unfailing source of power, have not been much used at iso-
lated places, except on railways where an air-pipe is installed for
block signals; but at large yards the pneumatic machines have
been made a means of economy, because one attendant can
manage as many levers as can two or three in a manual power
machine. Moreover, a single lever will work two or more
switches, locks, &c., simultaneously, where desirable. The
absence of outdoor connexions above ground is also an advantage.
Since about 1900 electric power has come into use for working
both points and signals. A motor, with gearing and cranks, is
fixed to the sleepers at each pair of points, the power is conveyed
from the cabin by underground wires, the locking is of common
mechanical types, and, in general, the system is similar to
pneumatic systems except in the source of power. By using
accumulators, charged by dynamos run by gasoline engines, or
by a traveling power-car, the cost of power is reduced to a
very low figure, so that power-interlocking becomes economical
at small as well as large stations.
The essence of block signalling is a simple regulation forbidding
a train to start from station A until the last preceding train has
Block P ass ed station B; thus a space interval is maintained
system. between each train, instead of the time-interval that
was relied upon in the early days of railways. As the
introduction of the telegraph was almost or quite contempor-
clear " and " train on line " or "line blocked," the latter being the
normal indication, even when there is no train in the section. The
three-wire instrument has the advantage of giving three indications
on the dial, namely, " line clear," " line closed " and " train on line,"
the normal indication being " line closed." The one-wire instru-
ment differs from the three-wire in that the indicator is moved over
to the different positions by a momentary current, and is then held
there by induced magnetism, the wire being then free for any suc-
ceeding signals. In the three- wire apparatus there is a separate
wire, with an instrument at each end for the up line; the same for
the down line; and a wire for the bell, which is common to both
lines. When no current is flowing, the indicator is vertical, meaning
" line blocked or closed." When a current is sent along one of the
wires, the deflections to the right or left, according to the polarity
of the current, mean " line clear " or " train on line " respectively.
Some dial instruments are made with needles, some with small disks,
some with miniature semaphores to give the necessary indications,
but the effect is the same. The block instruments and bells should
not, as a rule, be used for speaking purposes ; but on a few subsidiary
railways, block working is effected by means of ordinary single-
needle telegraphic instruments, or by telephone, the drawback to such
an arrangement being that the signalman has no indication before
him to remind him of the condition of the line.
Fig. 8 shows the signals at a typical English station, which
may be called B. Notice having been received over the block
telegraph that a train is coming from A (on the up track), the
signalman in the cabin, b, lowers the home signal h; and (if the
block section from B to C is clear of trains) he lowers the starting
signal, s, also. The function of a distant signal d has already
been described; it is mechanically impossible for it to be lowered
unless h has previously been lowered. The relation of the signals
to the " crossover road " xx is the same in principle as is shown
in fig. 5. Dwarf or disk signals such as would be used for the
siding T or the crossover xx are omitted from the sketch. Where
the sections are very short, the starting signal of one section is
often placed on the same post as the distant signal of the next.
Thus, supposing B and C to be very close to each other, B's
starting signal would be on the same post as C's distant signal,
the latter being below the former, and the two would be so
interconnected by " slotting " apparatus that C could not lower
his distant signal unless B's starting signal was " off," while
B by the act of raising his starting arm would necessarily
throw C's distant arm to " danger." In America many block
stations have only the home signal, even at stations where
there are points and sidings, and on double-track lines the block
SIGNAL
" a "
telegraphing for both is done on a single Morse circuit. In the
United Kingdom the practice is to have separate apparatus and
separate wires for each track.
In the simple block system it is clearly possible for a signal-
man, through carelessness, forgetfulness, or other cause, and in
disregard of the indications of his telegraph instruments,
so to lower his signals as to admit a second train into the
block section before the first has left it, and that without
the driver of either train being aware of the fact. To eliminate
as far as possible the chance of such an occurrence, which is
directly opposed to the essence of the block system and may
obviously lead to a collision, the locking of the mechanical
signals with the electrical block instruments was introduced
in England by W. R. Sykes about 1876, the apparatus being
so arranged that a signalman at one end of a section is physically
unable to lower his signals to let a train enter that section until
they have been released electrically from the cabin at the other
end. The starting signal at a block section A cannot be lowered
until the signalman at the next station B , by means of an electric
circuit, unlocks the lever in connexion with it. In so doing he
breaks the unlocking circuit at his own station, and this break is
restored only on the arrival of the train for which the unlocking
was performed, the wheels of the train acting through a lever
or by a short rail circuit. Valuable improvements have been
made in this machine by Patenall, Coleman and others, and these
are in use in America, where the system is known as the " con-
trolled manual." The passage of a train is also made to set a
signal at "stop" automatically, by disconnecting the rod
between the signal and its lever. The connexion cannot be
restored by the signalman ; it must be done by an electro-magnet
brought into action by the train as it passes the next block
station.
The block system is used on single as well as on double lines.
In the United Kingdom and in Australia the means for pre-
venting collisions between trains running towards
system. eacn ot h er on single-track railways is the " staff
system." The staff, suitably inscribed, is delivered
to the engine-driver at station A, and constitutes his authority
to occupy the main track between that station and station B.
On reaching B he surrenders the staff, and receives another one
which gives him the right to the road between B and C. If
there are two or more trains to be moved, all except the last
one receive tickets, which belong to that particular staff. The
staff system requires no telegraph; but to obviate the incon-
venience of sometimes finding the staff at the wrong end of the
road, electric staff apparatus has been devised. Staffs (or tablets)
in any desired number are kept at each of the two stations, and
are locked in a' cabinet automatically controlled, through
electro-magnets, by apparatus in the cabinet at the other station ;
and a staff (or tablet) being taken out at one station, a second one
cannot be taken out at either station until ,this first one is re-
turned to the magazine at one station or the other. Thus there
is a complete block system. By simple " catching apparatus "
on the engine, staffs or tablets may be delivered to trains moving
at a good speed.
The signals so far described depend for their operation, either
wholly or partially, on human agency, but there are others,
commonly known as " automatic," which are worked
signals k v the trains themselves, without human intervention.
Such signals, as a rule, are so arranged that normally
they are constrained to stand at " safety," instead of in the
"danger" position, which, like ordinary signals, they assume
if left to themselves; but as a train enters a block section the
constraint on the signals that guard it is removed and they
return to the danger position, which they retain till the train has
passed through. To effect this result an electrical track circuit
or rail circuit is employed, in conjunction with some form of
power to put the signalling devices to safety. Live-wire circuits
were formerly employed, but are now generally abandoned.
The current from a battery b (fig. 9) passes along the rails of one
side of the track to the signal 5 and returns along the other rails
through a relay. If the current through this relay is stopped in
any way, whether by failure of the battery or by a short circuit
caused by the presence of a train or vehicle with metal wheels
connected by metal axles on any part of the block section, its
electro-magnet is de-energized, and its armature drops, removing
the constraint which kept the signals at safety and allowing them
to move to danger. When the train has passed through the block
'I
-tJ
FIG. 9. Automatic electric block signal, with rail circuit.
section the current is restored and the signals are forced back to
show safety. The current used for the track circuit must be of
low tension, because of the imperfect insulation, and as a rule
the ballast must not be allowed to touch the rails and must be
free from iron or other conducting substance. At each rail joint
a wire is used to secure electrical continuity, and at the ends of
each block section there are insulating joints in the track. Block
sections more than about i m. long are commonly divided into
two or more circuits, connected together by relays; but usually
they are made under i m. in length and often on intra-urban
railways very much less, so that many more trains can be passed
over the line in a given time than is possible with ordinary
block signalling. At points the track circuit is run through a
circuit breaker, so that the " opening " of the points sets the
signal for the section. The circuit is also led through the rails
of the siding so far as they foul the main track. An indicator at
each switch gives visual or audible warning of an approaching
train.
The signals themselves have been devised to work by clock-
work, by electricity obtained, not from the track circuit, but
from a power station, or from non-freezing batteries at each post,
or from accumulators charged by dynamos situated, say, every
10 m. along the line and by pneumatic power, either com-
pressed atmospheric air laid on from a main or carbonic acid gas
stored in a tank at the foot of
the posts, each tank furnishing
power for several thousand move-
ments of the signal arm. A clock-
work signal is shown in fig. 10.
When an electro-magnet in the rail
circuit drops its armature, the
mechanism is released and causes
the disk to turn and indicate stop.
On the restoration of the current
the disk makes another quarter
'
w
n
^ ^
\
//
ft
^
^
FIG. 10. Signal moved by
clockwork (Union).
FIG. II. Enclosed disk
signal (Hall).
turn and then shows only its edge to the approaching train,
indicating " all clear."
The enclosed disk signal, commonly called a "banjo" (fig. n),
is a circular box about 4 ft. in diameter, with a glass-covered
opening, behind which a red disk is shown to indicate stop.
The disk, very light, made of cloth stretched over a wire, or of
aluminium, is supported on a spindle, which is delicately balanced
on a pivot so that the closing of an electro-magnet lifts the disk
SIGNATURE
77
away from the window and thus indicates " all clear." On the
withdrawal or failure of the current the disk falls by gravity to
the " stop " position. A local battery is used, with a relay, the
rail circuit not being strong enough to lift the disk. In the
electro-pneumatic system a full-size semaphore is used. Com-
pressed air, from pumps situated at intervals of 10 to 20 m.,
is conveyed along the line in an iron pipe, and is supplied to a
cylinder at each signal, exactly as in pneumatic interlocking,
before described. The rail circuit, when complete, maintains
pressure in a cylinder, holding the signal " off." On the entrance
of a train or the failure of the current, the air is liberated and the
signal arm is carried by gravity to the " stop " position.
Automatic signals are sometimes made to stand normally
(when no train is in the section) in 'the " stop " position. The
local circuit is connected with the rail circuit so that it is closed
only when a train is approaching within, say, i m. With the rail
circuit, distant signals are controlled, without a line wire, by
means of a polarized relay. Each signal, when cleared, changes
the polarity of the rail circuit for the next section in its rear, and
this, by the polarized relay, closes the local circuit of the distant
signal, without affecting the -home signal for that section.
Automatic signals are used in America on a few single lines.
The signal at A for the line AB is arranged as before described ;
and the signal at B, for movements in the opposite direction, is
worked by means of a line wire from A, strung on poles. When
a section is occupied, signals are set two sections away, so as to
provide against the simultaneous entry of two trains.
One of the chief causes of anxiety and difficulty in the working
of railway traffic is fog, which practically blots out the whole system
p of visible signals, so that while the block telegraph re-
sixnalliaz mains, the means of communicating the necessary in-
structions to the driver are no longer effective. Delay and
confusion immediately arise; and in order to secure safety, speed
has to be lessened, trains have to be reduced in number, and a
system of " fog-signalling " introduced. In England, especially
around London, elaborate arrangements have to be made. " Fog-
signalling " consists in the employment of audible signals, or de-
tonators, to convey to drivers.the information ordinarily imparted
by the visible or semaphore signals. As soon as possible after a fog
comes on, a man is stationed at the foot of each distant signal, and
generally of each home signal also, who by means of detonators, red
and green flags and a hand-lamp, conveys information to the driver
of every train as to the position of the semaphore arm. A detonator
is a small flat metal case about 2 in. in diameter and J in. deep,
furnished with two leaden ears or clips which can be easily bent down
to grip the head of the rail. The case contains some detonating
composition, which readily explodes with a loud report when a wheel
passes over it. As soon as a signal arm is raised to " danger," the
fogman places upon one of the rails of the track to which the signal
applies two detonators, or in the case of a new and improved class of
detonator which contains two separate charges in one case, one
detonator, and at the same time exhibits a red flag or light to the
driver of an approaching train. The engine of a train passing over
the detonators explodes them, the noise so made being sufficient to
apprise the driver that the signal, though invisible to him, is at
danger, and he then should act in the same way as if he had seen
the signal. If, however, the signal arm should be lowered to the
" all-right " position before a train reaches it, the fogman should
immediately remove the detonators and exhibit a green flag or
lamp, replacing the detonators as soon as the signal is again raised
to danger. As a rule the fogmen are drawn from the ranks of the
permanent-way men, who otherwise would be idle. But if, as
sometimes happens, a fog continues for several days, great difficulty
is experienced in obtaining sufficient men to carry on this important
duty without undue prolongation of their hours of work. When
this happens, signalmen, shunters, porters, yardsmen and even clerks
may have to be called on to take a turn at " fogging." Some
companies have adopted mechanical appliances, whereby a man can
place a detonator upon a line of rails or remove it while standing at a
distance away from the track, thus enabling him to attend to more
than one line without danger to himself. The cost of detonators often
amounts to a considerable sum; and an apparatus called an econo-
mizer has been introduced, whereby the explosion of one detonator
removes the second from the rails before the wheels reach it. As it is
only necessary for one detonator to explode, the object of placing
two on the rails being merely to guard against a miss-fire, consider-
able saving can thus be effected. Many attempts have been made to
design a mechanical apparatus for conveying to a driver the re-
quisite information as to the state of the signals during a fog, and for
enabling the fogmen to be dispensed with. Such inventions usually
consist of two parts, namely (l) an inclined plane or block or trigger,
placed on the permanent way alongside the track or between the
rails, and working in connexion with the arm of the signal; and (2) a
lever or rod connected with the steam-whistle, or an electric bell or
indicator on the foot-plate, and depending from the under-side of the
engine in such a position as to come in contact with the apparatus on
the ground, when the latter is raised above the level of the rails.
Most of the proposed systems only give an indication when the signal
is at danger, and are silent when the signal is off. This is contrary
to good practice, which requires that a driver should receive a positive
indication both when the signal is " off " as well as when it is " on."
If this is not done, a driver may, if the signal is " off " and if the fog
is thick, be unaware that he has passed the signal, and not know
what part of the line he has reached. The absence of a signal at a
place where a signal is usually exhibited should invariably be taken
to mean danger. Fog signalling machines that depend on the ex-
plosion of detonators or cartridges have the drawback that they
require recharging after a certain number of explosions, varying with
the nature and size of the machine. Even when a satisfactory form
of appliance has been discovered, the manner of using it is by no
means simple. It is clearly no use placing such an apparatus im-
mediately alongside a stop signal, as the driver would receive the
intimation too late for him to be able to stop at the required spot.
To place devices of this description at or near every stop signal in a
large station or busy junction would involve a multiplication of wires
or rods which is undesirable. Every such apparatus should certainly
be capable of giving an " all-right " signal as well as a " danger
signal. It requires very careful maintenance, and should be in regular
daily use to ensure its efficiency.
The fundamental principles of railway signalling are simple,
but the development of the science has called for much study
and a large money outlay. On every railway of any
consequence the problems of safety, economy and
convenience are involved, one with another, and signalling.
cannot be perfectly solved. Even so fundamental a
duty as that of guarding the safety of life and limb is a relative
one when we have to consider whether a certain expenditure is
justifiable for a given safety device. Having good discipline
and foregoing the advantages of high speed, many a manager
has successfully deferred the introduction of signals; others,
having to meet severe competition, or, in Great Britain, under
the pressure of the government, have been forced to adopt the
most complete apparatus at great cost. In large city terminal
stations, where additions to the space are out of the question,
interlocking is necessary for economy of time and labour, as,
indeed, it is in a less degree at smaller stations also; as a measure
of safety, however, it is desirable at even the smallest, and the
wise manager extends its use as fast as he is financially able.
At crossings at grade level of one railway with another, and at
drawbridges, interlocked signals with derailing switches obviate
the necessity of stopping all the trains, as formerly was required
by law everywhere in America, and saving a stop saves money.
The block system was introduced primarily for safety, but
where trains are frequent it becomes also an element of economy.
Without it trains must usually be run at least five minutes apart
(many managers deem seven or ten minutes the shortest safe
interval for general use), but with it the interval may be reduced
to three minutes, or less, according to the shortness of the block
sections. With automatic signals trains are safely run at high
speed only i^ m. apart, and on urban lines the distance between
them may be only a few hundred yards. (B. B. A.; H. M. R.)
SIGNATURE (through Fr. from Lat. signatura, signare, to
sign, signum, mark, token, sign), a distinguishing sign or mark,
especially the name, or something representing the name, of a
person used by him as affixed to a document or other writing to
show that it has been written by him or made in accordance
with his wishes or directions (see AUTOGRAPH, MONOGRAM, &c.).
In the early sense of something which "signifies," i.e. marks a
condition, quality or meaning, the word was formerly also used
widely, but now chiefly in technical applications. In old medical
theory, plants and minerals were supposed to be marked by some
natural sign or symbol which indicated the particular medicinal
use to which they could be put; thus yellow flowers were to
be used for jaundice, the " scorpion-grass," the old name of
the forget-me-not, was efficacious for the bite of the scorpion;
many superstitions were based on the human shape of the roots
of the mandrake or mandragora; the bloodstone was taken
to be a cure for hemorrhage; this theory was known as the
" doctrine of signatures." (See T. J. Pettigrew, Superstitions
connected with Medicine or Surgery, 1844.) In printing or book-
7 8
SIGN-BOARD SIGNIFICS
binding the " signature " is a letter or figure placed at the bottom
of the first page of a section of a book, as an assistance to the
binder in folding and arranging the sections consecutively;
hence it is used of a sheet ready folded. In music it is the term
applied to the signs affixed at the beginning of the stave showing
the key or tonality and the time or rhythm (see MUSICAL
NOTATION).
SIGN-BOARD, strictly a board placed or hung before any
building to^designate its character. The French enseigne in-
dicates its essential connexion with what is known in English as
a flag (q.v.), and in France banners not infrequently took the
place of sign-boards in the middle ages. Sign-boards, however,
are best known in the shape of painted or carved advertisements
for shops, inns, &c., they are in fact one of various emblematic
methods used from time immemorial for publicly calling atten-
tion to the place to which they refer. The ancient Egyptians and
Greeks are known to have used signs, and many Roman examples
are preserved, among them the widely-recognized bush to in-
dicate a tavern, from which is derived the proverb " Good wine
needs no bft&r." In some cases, such as the bush, or the three
balls of pawnbrokers, certain signs became identified with
certain trades, but apart from these the emblems employed by
traders evolving often into trade-marks may in great part
be grouped according to their various origins. Thus, at an early
period the cross or other sign of a religious character was used
to attract Christians, whereas the sign of the sun or the moon
would serve the same purpose for pagans. Later, the adaptation
of the coats of arms or badges of noble families became common ;
these would be described by the people without consideration
of the language of heraldry, and thus such signs as the Red Lion,
the Green Dragon, &c., have become familiar. Another class
of sign was that which exhibited merely persons employed in
the various trades, or objects typical of them, but in large towns
where many practised the same trade, and especially, as was
often the case, where these congregated mainly in the samj
street, such signs did not provide sufficient distinction. Thus
a variety of devices came into existence sometimes the trader
used a rebus on his own name (e.g. two cocks for the name of
Cox); sometimes he adopted any figure of an animal or other
object, or portrait of a well-known person, which he considered
likely to attract attention. Finally we have the common associa-
tion of two heterogeneous objects, which (apart from those
representing a rebus) were in some cases merely a whimsical
combination, but in others arose from a popular misconception
of the sign itself (e.g. the combination of the " leg and star "
may have originated in a representation of the insignia of the
garter), or from corruption in popular speech (e.g. the com-
bination " goat and compasses " is said by some to be a corrup-
tion of " God encompasses ") Whereas the use of signs was
generally optional, publicans were on a different footing from
other traders in this respect. As early as the i4th century there
was a law in England compelling them to exhibit signs, for in
1393 the prosecution of a publican for not doing so is recorded.
In France edicts were directed to the same end in 1567 and 1577.
Since the objoct of sign-boards was to attract the public, they
were often of an elaborate character. Not only were the signs
themselves large and sometimes of great artistic merit (especially
in the i6th and i7th centuries, when they reached their greatest
vogue) but the posts or metal supports protruding from the
houses over the street, from which the signs were swung, were
often elaborately worked, and many beautiful examples of
wrought-iron supports survive both in England and on the
Continent. The signs were a prominent feature of the streets of
London at this period. But here and in other large towns they
became a danger and a nuisance in the narrow ways. Already in
1669 a royal order had been directed in France against the
excessive size of sign-boards and their projection too far over
the streets. In Paris in 1761 and in London about 1762-1773
laws were introduced which gradually compelled sign-boards
to be removed or fixed flat against the wall. For the most part
they only survived in connexion with inns, for which some
of the greatest artists of the time painted sign-boards, usually
representing the name of the inn. With the gradual abolition
of sign-boards the numbering of houses began to be introduced
in the i8th century in London. It had been attempted in Paris
as early as 1512, and had become almost universal by the close of
the i8th century, though not enforced until 1805. It appears
to have been first introduced into London early in the i8th
century. Pending this development, houses which carried on
trade at night (e.g. coffee houses, &c.) had various specific arrange-
ments of lights, and these still survive to some extent, as in the
case of doctors' dispensaries and chemists' shops.
See Jacob Larwood and John Camden Hotten, History of Sign-
boards (London, 1866).
SIGNIA (mod. Segni), an ancient town of Latium (adiectum),
Italy, on a projecting lower summit of the Volscian mountains,
above the Via Latina, some 35 m. S.E. of Rome. The modern
railway station, 33 m. S.E. of Rome, lies 5 m. S.E. of Signia,
669 ft. above sea level. The modern town (2192 ft.) occupies
the lower part of the ancient site. Pop. (1901) 6942. Its founda-
tion as a Roman colony is ascribed to Tarquinius Superbus,
and new colonists were sent there in 495 B.C. Its position was
certainly of great importance: it commands a splendid view,
and with Anagnia, which lies opposite to it, guarded the approach
to the valley of the Trerus or Tolerus (Sacco) and so the road to
the south. It remained faithful to Rome both in the Latin and
in the Hannibalic wars, and served as a place of detention for the
Carthaginian hostages during the latter. It seems to have re-
mained a place of some importance. Like Cora it retained the
right of coining in silver. The wonderfully hard, strong cement,
made partly of broken pieces of pottery, which served as the
lining for Roman water cisterns (opus signinum) owes its name
to its invention here (Vitruvius, viii. 7, 14). Its wine, pears and
charcoal were famous in Roman times. In 90 B.C. it became a
municipium with a senalus and praetores. In the civil war it
joined the democratic party, and it was from here that in 82 B.C.
Marius marched to Sacriportus (probably marked by the medieval
castle of Piombinara, near Segni station, commanding the
junction of the Via Labicana and the Via Latina; see T. Ashby,
Papers of the British School at Rome, London, 1902, i. 125 sqq.),
where he was defeated with loss. After this we hear no
more of Signia until, in the middle ages, it became a papal
fortress.
The city wall, constructed of polygonal blocks of the mountain
limestone and ij m. in circumference, is still well preserved and
has several gates; the largest, Porta Saracinesca, is roofed by
the gradual inclination of the sides until they are close enough
to allow of the placing of a lintel. The other gates are mostly
narrow posterns covered with flat monolithic lintels, and the
careful jointing of the blocks of which some of them are composed
may be noted. Their date need not be so early as is generally
believed (cf. NORBA) and they are certainly not pre-Roman.
A portion of the wall in the modern town has been restored in
opus quadratum of tufa in Roman times. Above the modern
town, on the highest point, is the church of S. Pietro, occupying
the central cella of the ancient Capitolium of Signia (which had
three cellae). The walls consist of rectangular blocks of tufa, and
the whole rests upon a platform of polygonal masses of limestone
(see R. Delbriick, Das Capitolium von Signia, Rome, 1903).
An open circular cistern in front of the church lined with rect-
angular blocks of tufa may also be noted. (T. As.)
SIGNIFICS. The term " Signifies " may be defined as the
science of meaning or the study of significance, provided sufficient
recognition is given to its practical aspect as a method of mind,
one which is involved in all forms of mental activity, including
that of logic.
In Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (1901-
1905) the following definition is given:
" I. Signifies implies a careful distinction between (a) sense or
signification, (6) meaning or intention and (c) significance or ideal
worth. It will be seen that the reference of the first is mainly verbal
(or rather sensal), of the second volitional, and of the third moral
(e.g. we speak of some event ' the significance of which cannot be
overrated,' and it would be impossible in such a case to substitute
the ' sense ' or the ' meaning ' of such event, without serious loss).
SIGNIFICS
79
Signifies treats of the relation of the sign in the widest sense to
each of these.
2. A proposed method of mental training aiming at the concentra-
tion of intellectual activities on that which is implicitly assumed to
constitute the primary and ultimate value of every form of study,
i.e. what is at present indifferently called its meaning or sense, its
import or significance. . . . Signifies as a science would centralise
and co-ordinate, interpret, inter-relate and concentrate the efforts
to bring out meanings in every form, and in so doing to classify the
various applications of the signifying property clearly and distinctly."
Since this dictionary was published, however, the subject has
undergone further consideration and some development, which
necessitate modifications in the definition given. It is clear
that stress needs to be laid upon the application of the principles
and method involved, not merely, though notably, to language,
but to all other types of human function. There is need to insist
on the rectification of mental attitude and increase of inter-
pretative power which must follow on the adoption of the
significal view-point and method, throughout all stages and forms
of mental training, and in the demands and contingencies of life.
In so far as it deals with linguistic forms, Signifies includes
" Semantics," a branch of study which was formally introduced
and expounded in 1807 by Michel Breal, the distinguished French
philologist, in his Essai de semantique. In 1900 this book was
translated into English by Mrs Henry Cust, with a preface by
Professor Postgate. M. Breal gives no more precise definition
than the following:
" Extraire de la linguistique ce qui en ressort comme aliment pour
la reflexion et je ne crains pas de 1'ajouter comme regie pour notre
propre langage, puisque chacun de nous collabore pour sa part a
revolution de la parole humaine, voila ce qui merite d'etre mis en
lumiere, voila ce qui j'ai essaye de faire en ce volume."
In the Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology Semantics is
defined as " the doctrine of historical word-meanings; the
systematic discussion of the history and development of changes
in the meanings of words." It may thus be regarded as a reform
and extension of the etymological method, which applies to
contemporary as well as to traditional or historical derivation.
As human interests grow in constantly specialized directions, the
vocabulary thus enriched is unthinkingly borrowed and re-
borrowed on many sides, at first in definite quotation, but soon
in unconscious or deliberate adoption. Semantics may thus, for
present purposes, be described as the application of Signifies
within strictly philological limits; but it does not include the
study and classification of the " Meaning " terms themselves,
nor the attainment of a clear recognition of their radical import-
ance as rendering, well or ill, the expressive value not only of
sound and script but also of all fact or occurrence which demands
and may arouse profitable attention.
The first duty of the Significian is, Uierefore, to deprecate the
demand for mere linguistic reform, which is indispensable on its
own proper ground, but cannot be considered as the satisfaction
of a radical need such as that now suggested. To t>e content with
mere reform of articulate expression would be fatal to the
prospect of a significantly adequate language; one characterized
by a development only to be compared to that of the life and
mind of which it is or should be naturally the delicate, flexible,
fitting, creative, as also controlling and ordering, Expression.
The classified use of the terms of expression-value suggests
three main levels or classes of that value those of Sense,
Meaning and Significance.
(a) The first of these at the outset would naturally be associated
with Sense in its most primitive reference; that is, with the
organic response to environment, and with the essentially
expressive element in all experience. We ostracize the senseless
in speech, and also ask " in what sense " a word is used or a
statement may be justified.
(6) But " Sense" is not in itself purposive; whereas that is
the main character of the word " Meaning," which is properly
reserved for the specific sense which it is intended to convey.
(c) As including sense and meaning but transcending them in
range, and covering the far-reaching consequence, implication,
ultimate result or outcome of some event or experience, the term
" Significance " is usefully applied.
These are not, of course, the only significal terms in common
use, though perhaps sense and significance are on the whole the
most consistently employed. We have also signification, pur-
port, import, bearing, reference, indication, application, implica-
tion, denotation and connotation, the weight, the drift, the
tenour, the lie, the trend, the range, the tendency, of given
statements. We say that this fact suggests, that one portends,
another carries, involves or entails certain consequences, or
justifies given inferences. And finally we have the value of all
forms of expression; that which makes worth while any assertion
or proposition, concept, doctrine or theory; the definition of
scientific fact, the use of symbolic method, the construction of
mathematical formulae, the playing of an actor's part, or even
art itself, like literature in all its forms.
The distinctive instead of haphazard use, then, of these and
like terms would soon, both as clearing and enriching it, tell for
good on our thinking. If we considered that any one of them
were senseless, unmeaning, insignificant, we should at once in
ordinary usage and in education disavow and disallow it. As it
is, accepted idiom may unconsciously either illuminate or con-
tradict experience. We speak, for instance, of going through
trouble or trial; we never speak of going through well-being.
That illuminates. But also we speak of the Inner or Internal as
alternative to the spatial reducing the spatial to the External.
The very note of the value to the philosopher of the " Inner "
as opposed to the " Outer " experience is that a certain example
or analogue of enclosed space a specified inside is thus not
measurable. That obscures. Such a usage, in fact, implies that,
within enclosing limits, space sometimes ceases to exist. Com-
ment is surely needless.
The most urgent reference and the most promising field for
Signifies lie in the direction of education. The normal child,
with his inborn exploring, significating and comparing tendencies
is so far the natural Significian. At once to enrich and simplify
language would for him be a fascinating endeavour. Even his
crudeness would often be suggestive. It is for his elders to supply
the lacking criticism out of the storehouse of racial experience,
acquired knowledge and ordered economy of means; and to
educate him also by showing the dangers and drawbacks of
uncontrolled linguistic, as other, adventure. Now the evidence
that this last has virtually been hitherto left undone and even
reversed, is found on careful examination to be overwhelming. 1
Unhappily what we have so far called education Ijas, anyhow
for centuries past, ignored indeed in most cases even balked
the instinct to scrutinise and appraise the value of all that exists .
or happens within our ken, actual or possible, and fittingly to
express this.
Concerning the linguistic bearing of Signifies, abundant
evidence has been collected, often in quarters where it would
least be expected
1. Of general unconsciousness of confusion, defeat, anti-
quation and inadequacy in language.
2. A. Of admission of the fact in given cases, but plea of
helplessness to set things right. B. Of protest in sucfe-fases and
suggestions for improvement.
3. Of direct or implied denial that the evil exists or is serious,
and of prejudice against any attempt at concerted control and
direction of the most developed group of languages.
4. Of the loss and danger of now unworthy of .misfitting
imagery and of symbolic assertion, observance or rite, once both
worthy and fitting.
5. Of the entire lack, in education, of emphasis on the indis-
pensable means of healthy mental development, i.e. the removal
of linguistic hindrances and the full exploitation and expansion
of available resources in language.
6. Of the central importance of acquiring a clear and orderly
use of the terms of what we vaguely call " Meaning "; and also
of the active modes, by gesture, signal or otherwise, of conveying
intention, desire, impression and rational or emotional thought.
1 It would be impossible of course in a short space to prove this
contention. But the proof exists, and it is at the service of those who
quite reasonably may deny its possible existence.
8o
SIGNIFICS
7. Finally and notably, of the wide-spread and all-pervading
havoc at present wrought by the persistent neglect, in modern
civilization, of the factor on which depends so much of our practi-
cal and intellectual welfare and advance.
As the value of this evidence is emphatically cumulative, the
few and brief examples necessarily torn from their context for
which alone room could here be found would only be misleading.
A selection, however, from the endless confusions and logical
absurdities which are not only tolerated but taught without
correction or warning to children may be given.
We speak of beginning and end as complementary, and
then of " both ends "; but never of both beginnings. We talk of
truth when we mean accuracy: of the literal (" it is written ")
when we mean the actual (" it is done "). Some of us talk of the
mystic and his mysticism, meaning by this, enlightenment,
dawn heralding a day; others (more justly) mean by it the
mystifying twilight, darkening into night. We talk of the un-
knowable when what that is or whether it exists is precisely
what we cannot know the idea presupposes what it denies; we
affirm or deny immortality, ignoring its correlative innatality;
we talk of solid foundations for life, for mind, for thought, when
we mean the starting-points, foci. We speak of an eternal sleep
when the very raison d'etre of sleep is to end in awaking it is
not sleep unless it does; we appeal to a root as to an origin,
and also figuratively give roots to the locomotive animal. We
speak of natural " law " taking no count of the sub-attentive
working in the civilized mind of the associations of the legal
system (and the law court) with its decreed and enforced, but
also revocable or modifiable enactments. Nature, again, is in-
differently spoken of as the norm of all order and fitness, the
desecration of which is reprobated as the worst form of vice and
is even motherly in bountiful provision; but also as a monster of
reckless cruelty and tyrannous mockery. Again, we use the word
" passion " for the highest activity of desire or craving, while we
keep " passive " for its very negation.
These instances might be indefinitely multiplied. But it must
of course be borne in mind that we are throughout dealing only
with the idioms and habits of the English language. Each
civilized language must obviously be dealt with on its own
merits.
The very fact that the significating and interpretative function
is the actual, though as yet little recognized and quite unstudied
condition of mental advance and human achievement, accounts
for such a function being taken for granted and left to
take care of itself. This indeed, in pre-civilized ages (since it
was then the very condition of safety and practically of survival),
it was well able to do. But the innumerable forms of pro-
tection, precaution, artificial aid and special facilities which
modern civilization implies and provides and to which it is always
adding, have entirely and dangerously changed the situation.
It has become imperative to realize the fact that through disuse
we have partly lost the greatest as the most universal of human
prerogatives. Hence arises the special difficulty of clearly
showing at this stage that man has now of set purpose to recover
and develop on a higher than the primitive plane the sovereign
power of unerring and productive interpretation of a world which
even to a living, much more to an intelligent, being, is essentially
significant. These conditions apply not only to the linguistic
but to all forms of human energy and expression, which before
all else must be significant in the most active, as the highest,
sense and degree. Man has from the outset been organizing his
experience; and he is bound correspondingly to organize the
expression of that experience in all phases of his purposive
activity, but more especially in that of articulate speech and
linguistic symbol. This at once introduces the volitional element ;
one which has been strangely eliminated from the very function
which most of all needs and would repay it.
One point must here, however, be emphasised. In attempting
to inaugurate any new departure from habitual thinking, history
witnesses that the demand at its initial stage for unmistakably
clear exposition must be not only unreasonable but futile. This
of course must be typically so in the case of an appeal for the vital
regeneration of all modes of Expression and especially of Language,
by the practical recognition of an ignored but governing factor
working at its very inception and source. In fact, for many
centuries at least, the leading civilizations of the world have been
content to perpetuate modes of speech once entirely fitting but
now often grotesquely inappropriate, while also remaining
content with casual changes often for the worse and always liable
to inconsistency with context. This inevitably makes for the
creation of a false standard both of lucidity and style in linguistic
expression.
Still, though we must be prepared to make an effort in assuming
what is virtually a new mental attitude, the effort will assuredly
be found fully worth making. For there is here from the very
first a special compensation. If, to those whose education has
followed the customary lines, nowhere is the initial difficulty of
moving in a new direction greater than in the one termed
Signifies, nowhere, correspondingly, is the harvest of advantage
more immediate, greater, or of wider range and effort.
It ought surely to be evident that the hope of such a language;
of a speech which shall worthily express human need and gain
in its every possible development in the most efficient possible
way, depends on the awakening and stimulation of a sense which
it is our common and foremost interest to cultivate to the utmost
on true and healthy lines. This may be described as the im-
mediate and insistent sense of the pregnancy of things, of the
actual bearings of experience, of the pressing and cardinal im-
portance, as warning or guide, of that experience considered as
indicative; a Sense realized as belonging to a world of what
for us must always be the Sign of somewhat to be inferred,
acted upon, used as a mine of pertinent and productive symbol,
and as the normal incitant to profitable action. When this
germinal or primal sense as also the practical starting-point,
of language has become a reality for us, reforms and acquisitions
really needed will naturally follow as the expression of such
a recovered command of fitness, of boundless capacity and of
perfect coherence in all modes of expression.
One objection, however, which before this will have suggested
itself to the critical reader, is that if we are here really dealing
with a function which must claim an importance of the very first
rank and affect our whole view of life, practical and theoretical,
the need could not have failed long ago to be recognised and
acted upon. And indeed it is not easy in a few words to dispose
of such an objection and to justify so venturesome an apparent
paradox as that with which we are now concerned. But it may
be pointed out that the special development of one faculty
always entails at least the partial atrophy of another. In a case
like this the principle typically applies. For the main human
acquirement has been almost entirely one of logical power, subtle
analysis, and co-ordination of artificial means. In modern
civilization the application of these functions to an enormous
growth of invention of every kind has contributed not a little
to the loss of the swift and direct sense of point : the sensitiveness
as it were of the compass-needle to the direction in which experi-
ence was moving. Attention has been forcibly drawn elsewhere;
and moreover, as already pointed out, the natural insight of
children, which might have saved the situation, has been
methodically silenced by a discipline called educative, but mainly
suppressive and distortive.
The biological history of Man has been, indeed, a long series
of transmutations of form to subserve higher functions. In
language he has so far failed to accomplish this. There has even
in some directions been loss of advantage already gained. While
his nature has been plastic and adaptive, language, the most
centrally important of his acquirements, has remained relatively
rigid, or what is just as calamitous, fortuitously elastic. There
have been notable examples the classical languages of the
converse process. In Greek and Latin, Man admirably con-
trolled, enriched, varied, significated his expressions to serve his
mental needs. But we forbear ourselves to follow and better
this example. All human energies have come under orderly
direction and control except the one in which in a true sense they
all depend. This fatal omission, for which defective methods
SIGN-MANUAL, ROYAL SIGNORELL1
81
of education are mainly responsible, has disastrously told upon
the mental advance of the race. But after all, we have here a
comparatively modern neglect and helplessness. Kant, for
instance, complained bitterly of the defeating tendency of
language in his day, as compared with the intelligent freedom
of the vocabulary and idiom of the " classical " Greek, who was
always creating expression, moulding it to his needs and finding
an equally intelligent response to his efforts, in his listeners and
readers in short, in his public.
Students, who are prepared seriously to take up this urgent
question of the application of Signifies in education and through-
out all human spheres of interest, will soon better any instruction
that could be given by the few who so far have tentatively striven
to call attention to and bring to bear a practically ignored and
unused method. But by the nature of the case they must be
prepared to find that accepted language, at least in modern
European forms, is far more needlessly defeating than they have
supposed possible: that they themselves in fact are continually
drawn back, or compelled so to write as to draw back their
readers, into what is practically a hotbed of confusion, a prison
of senseless formalism and therefore of barren controversy.
It can hardly be denied that this state of things is intolerable
and demands effectual remedy. The study and systematic and
practical adoption of the natural method of Signifies can alone
lead to and supply this. Signifies is in fact the natural response
to a general sense of need which daily becomes more undeniably
evident. It founds no school of thought and advocates no techni-
cal specialism. Its immediate and most pressing application is,
as already urged, to elementary, secondary and specialised
education. In recent generations the healthy sense of discontent
and the natural ideals of interpretation and expression have been
discouraged instead of fostered by a training which has not only
tolerated but perpetuated the existing chaos. Signs, however,
are daily increasing that Signifies, as implying the practical
recognition of, and emphasising the true line of advance in, a
recovered and enhanced power to interpret experience and
adequately to express and apply that power, is destined, in the
right hands, to become a socially operative factor of the first
importance.
LITERATURE. Lady Welby, "Sense, Meaning and Interpretation,"
in Mind (January and April 1896), Grains of Sense (1897), What is
Meaning? (1903); Professor F. Tonnies, " Philosophical Termino-
logy " (Welby Prize Essay), Mind (July and October 1899 and
January 1900), also article in Jahrbuch, &c., and supplements
to Philosophische Terminologie (December 1906) ; Professor G. F.
Stout, Manual of Psychology (1898) ; Sir T. Clifford Allbutt's Address
on " Words and Things " to the Students' Physical Society of Guy's
Hospital (October 1906); Mr W. J. Greenstreet's " Recent Science "
articles in the Westminster Gazette (November 15, 1906, and January
10, 1907). (V. W.)
SIGN-MANUAL, ROYAL, the autograph signature of the
sovereign, by which he expresses his pleasure either by order,
commission or warrant. A sign-manual warrant may be either
an executive act, e.g. an appointment to an office, or an authority
for affixing the Great Seal. It must be countersigned by a
principal secretary of state or other responsible minister. A
royal order under the sign-manual, as distinct from a sign-manual
warrant, authorizes the expenditure of money, e.g. appropriations.
There are certain offices to which appointment is made by com-
mission under the great seal, e.g. the appointment of an officer
in the army or that of a colonial governor. The sign-manual is
also used to give power to make and ratify treaties. In certain
cases the use of the sign-manual has been dispensed with, and a
stamp affixed in lieu thereof, as in the case of George IV., whose
bodily infirmity made the act of signing difficult and painful
during the last weeks of his life. A special act was passed pro-
viding that a stamp might be affixed in lieu of the sign-manual
(n Geo. IV. c. 23), but the sovereign had to express his consent
to each separate use of the stamp, the stamped document being
attested by a confidential servant and several officers of state
(Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, 1907, vol. ii. pt. i.
P- 59)-
SIGNORELLI, LUCA (c. 1442-0. 1524), Italian painter, was
born in Cortona his full name being Luca d'Egidio di Ventura;
he has also been called Luta da Cortona. The precise date of his
birth is uncertain; but, as he is said to have died at the age of
eighty-two, and as he was certainly alive during some part of
1524, the birth-date of 1442 must be nearly correct. He belongs
to the Tuscan school, associated with that of Umbria. His first
impressions of art seem to be due to Perugia the style of
Bonfigli, Fiorenzo and Pinturicchio. Lazzaro Vasari, the great-
grandfather of Giorgio Vasari, the historian of art, was brother
to Luca's mother; he got Luca apprenticed to Piero de' Fran-
ceschi. In 1472 the young man was painting at Arezzo, and in
1474 at Citta di Castello. He presented to Lorenzo de' Medici
a picture which is probably the one named the " School of Pan,"
discovered some years ago in Florence, and now belonging to the
Berlin gallery; it is almost the same subject which he painted
also on the wall of the Petrucci palace in Siena the principal
figures being Pan himself, Olympus, Echo, a man reclining on the
ground and two listening shepherds. He executed, moreover,
various sacred pictures, showing a study of Botticelli and Lippo
Lippi. Pope Sixtus IV. commissioned Signorelli to paint some
frescoes, now mostly very dim, in the shrine of Loreto Angels,
Doctors of the Church, Evangelists, Apostles, the Incredulity
of Thomas and the Conversion of St Paul. He also executed
a single fresco in the Sistine Chapel in Rome, the " Acts of Moses " ;
another, " Moses and Zipporah," which has been usually ascribed
to Signorelli, is now recognized as the work of Perugino. Luca
may have stayed in Rome from 1478 to 1484. In the latter year
he returned to his native Cortona, which remained from this time
his ordinary home. From 1497 he began some professional
excursions. In Siena, in the convent of Chiusuri, he painted
eight frescoes, forming part of a vast series of the life of St
Benedict; they are at present much injured. In the palace of
Pandolfo Petrucci he worked upon various classic or mythological
subjects, including the " School of Pan " already mentioned.
From Siena he went to Orvieto, and here he produced the works
which, beyond all others, stamp his greatness in art. These are
the frescoes in the chapel of S. Brizio, in the cathedral, which
already contained some pictures on the vaulting by Fra Angelico.
The works of Signorelli represent the " Last Days of the Mundane
Dispensation," with the " Pomp and the Fall of Antichrist,"
and the " Eternal Destiny of Man," and occupy three vast
lunettes, each of them a single picture. In one of them, Anti-
christ, after his portents and impious glories, falls headlong from
the sky, crashing down into an innumerable crowd of men and
women. " Paradise," the " Elect and the Condemned," " Hell,"
the " Resurrection of the Dead," and the " Destruction of the
Reprobate " follow in other compartments. To Angehco's
ceiling Signorelli added a section showing figures blowing
trumpets, &c.; and in another ceiling he depicted the Madonna,
Doctors of the Church, Patriarchs and Martyrs. There is also
a great deal of subsidiary work connected with Dante, and with
the poets and legends of antiquity. The daring and terrible
invention of the great compositions, with their powerful treat-
ment of the nude and of the most arduous foreshortenings, and
the general mastery over 'complex grouping and distribution,
marked a development of art which had never previously been
attained. It has been said that Michelangelo felt so strongly the
might of Signorelli's delineations that he borrowed, in his own
" Last Judgment," some of the figures or combinations which
he found at Orvieto; this statement, however, has not been
verified by precise instances. The contract for Luca's work is
still on record. He undertook on sth April 1499 to complete the
ceiling for 200 ducats, and to paint the walls for 600, along with
lodging, and in every month two measures of wine and two
quarters of corn. Signorelli's first stay in Orvieto lasted not more
than two years. In 1 502 he returned to Cortona, and painted a
dead Christ, with the Marys and other figures. Two years later
he was once more back in Orvieto, and completed the whole of
his work in or about that time, i.e. some two years before 1506
a date famous in the history of the advance of art, when Michel-
angelo displayed his cartoon of Pisa.
After finishing off at Orvieto, Signorelli was much in Siena.
In 1 507 he executed a great altarpiece for S. Medardo at Arcevia
SIGONIUS SIGURD
in Umbria the " Madonna and Child," with the " Massacre of
the Innocents " and other episodes. In 1508 Pope Julius II.
determined to readorn the camere of the Vatican, and he sum-
moned to Rome Signorelli, in company with Perugino, Pinturic-
chio and Bazzi (Sodoma). They began operations, but were
shortly all superseded to make way for Raphael, and their work
was taken down. Luca now returned to Siena, living afterwards
for the most part in Cortona. He continued constantly at work,
but the performances of his closing years were not of special
mark. In 1520 he went with one of his pictures to Arezzo.
Here he saw Giorgio Vasari, aged eight, and encouraged his
father to second the boy's bent for art. Vasari tells a pretty
story how the wellnigh octogenarian master said to him " Impara,
parentino " (" You must study, my little kinsman "), and clasped
a jasper round his neck as a preservative against nose-bleeding,
to which the child was subject. He was partially paralytic
when he began a fresco of the " Baptism of Christ " in the chapel
of Cardinal Passerini's palace near Cortona, which (or else a
" Coronation of the Virgin " at Foiano) is the last picture of his
specified. Signorelli stood in great repute not only as a painter
but also as a citizen. He entered the magistracy of Cortona as
early as 1488, and in 1524 held a leading position among the
magistrates of his native place. In or about the year 1524 he
died there.
Signorelli from an early age paid great attention to anatomy,
carrying on his studies in burial grounds. He surpassed all his con-
temporaries in showing the structure and mechanism of the nude
in immediate action; and he even went beyond nature in experi-
ments of this kind, trying hypothetical attitudes and combinations.
His drawings in the Louvre demonstrate this and bear a close
analogy to the method of Michelangelo. He aimed at powerful
truth rather than nobility of form; colour was comparatively
neglected, and his chiaroscuro exhibits sharp oppositions of lights
and shadows. He had a vast influence over the painters of his own
and of succeeding times, but had no pupils or assistants of high
mark; one of them was a nephew named Francesco. He was a
married man with a family; one of his sons died, seemingly through
some sudden casualty, and Luca depicted the corpse with sorrow-
ful but steady self-possession. He is described as full of kindliness
and amiability, sincere, courteous, easy with his art assistants, of
fine manners, living and dressing well; indeed, according to Vasari,
he always lived more like a nobleman than a painter. The Torri-
giani Gallery in Florence contains a grand life-sized portrait by Signo-
relli of a man in a red cap and vest ; this is said to be the likerftocs
of the painter himself, and corresponds with Vasari's observation.
In the National Gallery, London, are the " Circumcision of Jesus "
and three other works.
See R. Vischer, Signorelli und die italienische Renaissance (1879);
Burlington Fine Arts Club, Exhibition of Work of Signorelli, &c.
(1893); M. Crutwell, Luca Signorelli (1899). (W. M. R.)
SIGONIUS, CAROLUS [CARLO SIGONIO or SIGONE] (c. 1524-
1584), Italian humanist, was born at Modena. Having studied
Greek under the learned Franciscus Portus of Candia, he attended
the philosophical schools of Bologna and Pa via, and in 1545
was elected professor of Greek in his native place in succession to
Portus. In 1552 he was appointed to a professorship at Venice,
which he exchanged for the chair of eloquence at Padua in 1560.
To this period of his life belongs the famous quarrel with Rober-
telli, due to the publication by Sigonius of a treatise De nominibus
Romanorum, in which he corrected several errors in a work of
Robertelli on the same subject. The quarrel was patched up by
the intervention of Cardinal Seripando (who purposely stopped
on his way to the Council of Trent), but broke out again in 1562,
when the two rivals found themselves colleagues at Padua.
Sigonius, who was of a peaceful disposition, thereupon accepted
(in 1 563) a call to Bologna. He died in a country house purchased
by him in the neighbourhood of Modena, in August 1 584. The
last year of his life was embittered by another literary dispute.
In 1583 there was published at Venice what purported to be
Cicero's Consolatio, written as a distraction from his grief at the
death of his daughter Tullia. Sigonius declared that, if not
genuine, it was at least worthy of Cicero; those who held the
opposite view (Antonio Riccoboni, Justus Lipsius, and others)
asserted that Sigonius himself had written it with the object of
deceiving the learned world, a charge which he explicitly denied.
The work is now universally regarded as a forgery, whoever may
have been the author of it. Sigonius's reputation chiefly rests
upon his publications on Greek and Roman antiquities, which
may even now be consulted with advantage: Fasti consular es
(1550; new ed., Oxford, 1802), with commentary, from the regal
period to Tiberius, the first work in which the history of Rome
was set forth in chronological order, based upon some fragments
of old bronze tablets dug up in 1 547 on the site of the old Forum ;
an edition of Livy with the Scholia; De antique jure Roma-
norum, Italiae, provinciarum (1560) and De Romanae juris-
prudentiae judiciis (1574); De republica Atheniensium (1564)
and De Atheniensium et Lacedaemoniorum temporibus (1565),
the first well-arranged account of the constitution, history, and
chronology of Athens and Sparta, with which may be mentioned
a similar work on the religious, political, and military system
of the Jews (De republica Ebraeorum) . His history of the
kingdom of Italy (De regno Italiae, 1580) from the invasion of
the Lombards (568) to the end of the i3th century forms a
companion volume to the history of the western empire (De
occidentali imperio, 1579) from Diocletian to its destruction.
In order to obtain material for these works, Sigonius consulted
"all the archives and family chronicles of Italy, and the public
and private libraries, and the autograph MS. of his De regno
Italiae, containing all the preliminary studies and many docu-
ments not used in print, was discovered in the Ambrosian library
of Milan. At the request of Gregory XIII. he undertook to
write the history of the Christian Church, but did not live to
complete the work.
The most complete edition of his works is that by P. Argelati
(Milan, 1732-1737), which contains his life by L. A. Muraton, the
only trustworthy authority for the biographer; see also G. Tira-
boschi, Storia delta letteratura italiana, vii. ; Ginguene, Histoire
litteraire d'ltalie; J. P. Krebs, Carl Sigonius (1840), including some
Latin letters of Sigonius and a complete list of his works in chrono-
logical order; Franciosi, Delia vita e delle opere di Carlo Sigonio
(Modena, 1872) ; Hessel, De regno Italiae libri XX. von Carlo
Sigonio, eine quellenkritische Untersuchung (1900); and J. E. Sandys,
History of Classical Scholarship, ii. (1908), p. 143.
SIGOURNEY, LYDIA HUNTLEY (1791-1865), American
author, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the ist of
September 1791. She was educated in Norwich and Hartford.
After conducting a private school for young ladies in Norwich,
she conducted a similar school in Hartford from 1814 until 1819,
when she was married to Charles Sigourney, a Hartford merchant.
She contributed more than two thousand articles to many (nearly
300) periodicals, and wrote more than fifty books. She died in
Hartford, on the loth of June 1865. Her books include Moral
Pieces in Prose and Verse (1815); Traits of the Aborigines of
America (1822), a poem; A Sketch of Connecticut Forty Years
Since (1824); Poems (1827); Letters to Young Ladies (1833),
one of her best-known books; Sketches (1834); Poetry for
Children (1834); Zinzendorf, and Other Poems (1835); Olive
Buds (1836); Letters to Mothers (1838), republished in London;
Pocahontas, and Other Poems (1841); Pleasant Memories of
Pleasant Lands (1842), descriptive of her trip to Europe in 1840;
Scenes in My Native Land (1844); Letters to My Pupils (1851);
Olive Leaves (1851); The Faded Hope (1852), in memory of her
only son, who died when he was nineteen years old; Past Meridian
(1854); The Daily Counsellor (1858), poems; Cleanings (1860),
selections from her verse; The Man of Uz, and Other Poems
(1862); and Letters of Life (1866), giving an account of her
career. She was one of the most popular writers of her day,
both in America and in England, and was called " the American
Hemans." Her writings were characterized by fluency, grace
and quiet reflection on nature, domestic and religious life, and
philanthropic questions; but they were too often sentimental,
didactic and commonplace to have much literary value. Some
of her blank verse and pictures of nature suggest Bryant. Among
her most successful poems are " Niagara " and " Indian Names."
Throughout her life she took an active interest in philanthropic
and educational work.
SIGURD (Sigurdr) or SIEGFRIED (M. H. G. Stfrif), the hero of
the Nibelungenlied, and of a number of Scandinavian poems
included in the older Edda, as well as of the prose Volsunga
Saga, which is based upon the latter. According to both the
SIGUR3SSON SIGWART
German and Scandinavian authorities he was the son of a certain
Sigmundr (Siegmund), a king in the Netherlands, or the " land
of the Franks." The exploits of this Sigmundr and his elder
sons Sinfiotli and Helgi form the subject of the earlier parts of
Viilsunga Saga, and Siegmund and Fitela (i.e. Sinfiotli) are also
mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf. According to
the Scandinavian story Sigmundr was slain in battle before the
birth of Sigurd, but the German story makes him survive his
son. Sigurd acquired great fame and riches by slaying the
dragon Fafnir, but the chief interest of the story centres round
his connexion with the court of the Burgundian king Gunnar
(Gunther). He married GuSrun (Kriemhild), the sister of that
king, and won for him by a stratagem the hand of the Valkyrie
Brynhildr, with whom he had himself previously exchanged
vows of love. A quarrel arose between Brynhildr and GuOrun,
in the course of which the former learnt of the deception which
had been practised upon her and this led eventually to the
murder of Sigurd. According to the Scandinavian version
he was slain by his brother-in-law Guttorm, according to the
German version by the knight Hagen. Gunther's brothers
were subsequently slain while visiting Atli (Etzel), who married
Gu^run after Sigurd's death. According to the German story
they were killed at the instigation of Kriemhild in revenge for
Siegfried. The Scandinavian version of the story attributes
the deed to Atli's lust for gold.
The story of Sigurd has given rise to more discussion than any
other subject connected with the Teutonic heroic age. Like
Achilles he is represented as the perfect embodiment of the
ideals of the race, and, as in the case of the Greek hero, it is
customary to regard his personality and exploits as mythical.
There is no question, however, that the Burgundian king who
is said to have been his brother-in-law was an historical person
who was slain by the Huns, at the time when the Burgundian
kingdom was overthrown by the latter. Sigurd himself is not
mentioned by any contemporary writer; but, apart from the
dragon incident, there is nothing in the story which affords
sufficient justification for regarding his personality as mythical.
Opinions, however, vary widely as to the precise proportions
of history and fiction which the story contains. The story of
Siegfried in Richard Wagner's famous opera-cycle Dcr Ring
der Nibelungen is mainly taken from the northern version; but
many features, especially the characterization of Hagen, are
borrowed from the German story, as is also the episode of
Siegfried's murder in the forest.
See NIBELUNGENLIED and also R. Heinzel, " Uber die Nibe-
lungensage," in Silzungsberichte der K. Akademie der Wissenschaften
(Vienna, 1885); H. Lichtenberger, Le Poeme et la legende des Nibe-
lungen (Paris, 1891); B. Symons, " Heldensage " in H. Paul's Grundriss
der germ. Philologie, vol. iii. (Strassburg, 1900) ; and R. C. Boer,
Unlersuchungen iiber den Ursprung und die Enlwicklung der Nibe-
lungensage (Halle, 1906). Also T. Abeling, N ibelungenlied (1907).
(F. G. M. B.)
SIGUR5SSON, J6N (1811-1879), Icelandic statesman and
man of letters, was born in the west of Iceland in 1811. He
came of an old family, and received an excellent education.
In 1830 he was secretary to the bishop of Iceland, the learned
Steingrimr Jonsson. In 1833 he went to the university of
Copenhagen and devoted himself to the study of Icelandic
history and literature. His name soon became prominent in
the learned world, and it may safely be said that most of his
historical works and his editions of Icelandic classics have never
been surpassed for acute criticism and minute painstaking.
Of these we may mention Logsogumannalal og Logmanna 6,
Islandi ("Speakers of the Law and Law-men in Iceland");
his edition of Landnama and other sagas in Islendinga Sogur,
i.-ii. (Copenhagen, 1843-1847); the large collection of Icelandic
laws edited by him and Oddgeir Stephensen; and last, not least,
the Diplomatarium Islandicum, which after his death was con-
tinued by others. But although he was one of the greatest
scholars Iceland has produced, he was still greater as a politician.
The Danish rule had, during the centuries following the Reforma-
tion, gradually brought Iceland to the verge of economic ruin;
the ancient Parliament of the island, \vhich had degenerated
to a mere shadow, had been abolished in 1800; all the revenue
of Iceland went into the Danish treasury, and only very small
sums were spent for the good of the island; but worst of all
was the notorious monopoly which gave away the whole trade
of Iceland to a single Danish trading company. This monopoly
had been abolished in 1787, and the trade had been declared
free to all Danish subjects, but practically the old arrangement
was continued under disguised forms. Jon SigurBsson began a
hard struggle against the Danish government to obtain a reform.
In 1854 the trade of Iceland was declared free to all nations. In
1840 the Althing was re-established as an advisory, not as a
legislative body. But when Denmark got a free constitution
in 1848, which had no legal validity in Iceland, the island felt
justified in demanding full home rule. To this the Danish
government was vehemently opposed; it convoked an Icelandic
National Assembly in 1851, and brought before that body a
bill granting Iceland small local liberties, but practically incorpor-
ating Iceland in Denmark. This bill was indignantly rejected,
and, instigated by Jon Sigur3sson, another was demanded of
far more liberal tendencies. The Danish governor-general then
dissolved the assembly, but Jon Sigurdsson and all the members
with him protested to the king against these unlawful proceedings.
The struggle continued with great bitterness on both sides,
but gradually the Danish government was forced to grant many
important reforms. High schools were established at Reykjavik,
and efforts made to better the trade and farming of the country.
In 1871 the Danish parliament (Riksdag) passed a law defining
the political position of Iceland in the Danish monarchy, which,
though never recognized as valid by the Icelanders, became
dc facto the base of the political relations of Iceland and Denmark.
At last, in 1874, when King Christian IX. visited Iceland at the
festival commemorating the millenary of the colonization of
Iceland from Norway, he gave to the country a Constitution,
with full home rule in all internal matters. An immense victory
was gained, entirely due to Jon SigurSsson, whose high personal
qualities had rallied all the nation round him. He was a man
of fine appearance, with an eloquence and diplomatic gifts such
as no others of his countrymen possessed, and his unselfish love
of his country made itself felt in almost every branch of Icelandic
life. Recognizing the value of an intellectual centre, he made
Reykjavik not only the political, but the spiritual capital of Iceland
by removing all the chief institutions of learning to that city;
he was the soul of many literary and political societies, and the
chief editor of the Ny Felagsrit, which has done more than any
other Icelandic periodical to promote the cause of civilization
and progress in Iceland. After Iceland had got home rule in 1874,
the grateful people showered on Jon Sigurftsson all the honours
it could bestow. He lived the greater part of his life in Copen-
hagen, and died there in 1879; but his body, together with that
of his wife, Ingibjorg Einarsdottir, whom he had married in
1845, an d who survived him only a few days, was taken to
Reykjavik and given a public funeral. On his monument was
placed the inscription: " The beloved son of Iceland, her
honour, sword, and shield." (S. BL.)
SIGWART, CHRISTOPH WILHELM VON (1789-1844),
German philosopher, was born at Remmingsheim in Wiirttem-
berg, and died in Stuttgart. He became professor of philosophy
at Tubingen, and wrote numerous books on the history of
philosophy: Uber den Zusammenhang des Spinozismus mil
der Cartesianischen Philosophic (1816); Handbuchzu Vorlesungen
Uber die Logik (1818, 3rd ed., 1835); Der Spinozismus (1839);
and Geschichte der Philosophic (1844).
His son, CHRISTOPH VON SIGWART (1830-1894), after a course
of philosophy and theology, became" professor at Blaubeuren
(1859), and eventually at Tubingen, in 1865. His principal
work, Logik, published in 1873, takes an important place among
recent contributions to logical theory. In the preface to the
first edition, Sigwart explains that he makes no attempt to
appreciate the logical theories of his predecessors; his intention
was to construct a theory of logic, complete in itself. It re-
presents the results of a long and careful study not only of German
but also of English logicians. In 1895 an English translation by
SIGYNNAE SIKHISM
Miss H. Dendy was published in London. Chapter v. of the
second volume is especially interesting to English thinkers as
containing a profound examination of the Induction theories
of Bacon, J. S. Mill and Hume. Among his other works are
Spinozas neu entdeckter Traktat von Gott, dent Menschen und
dessen Gluckseligkeit (1866); Kleine Schriflen (1881); Vorfragen
der Ethik (1886). The Kleine Schriflen contains valuable
criticisms on Paracelsus and Bruno.
SIGYNNAE (2iyvwai, Ztytcyoi), an obscure people of
antiquity. They are variously located by ancient authors.
According to Herodotus (v. 9), they dwelt beyond the Danube,
and their frontiers extended almost as far as the Eneti on the
Adriatic. Their horses (or rather, ponies) were small, with shaggy
long hair, not strong enough to carry men, but very speedy when
driven in harness. The people themselves wore a Medic costume,
and, according to their own account, were a colony of the Medes.
Strabo (xi. p. 520), who places them near the Caspian, also speaks
of their ponies, and attributes to them Persian customs. In
Apollonius Rhodius (iv. 320) they inhabit the shores of the
Euxine, hot far from the mouth of the Danube.
The statement as to their, Medic origin, regarded as incompre-
hensible by Herodotus, is doubtfully explained by Rawlinson as
indicating that " the Sigynnae retained a better recollection than
other European tribes of their migrations westward and Aryan
origin " ; R. W. Macan (on Herod, v. 9) suggests that it may be due
to a confusion with the Thracian Maedi (MaiSoi). If the last para-
graph in Herodotus be genuine, the Ligyes who lived above Massilia
called traders Sig_ynnae, while among the Cyprians the word meant
" spears." The similarity between Sigynnae and Zigeuner is obvious,
and it has been supposed that they were the forefathers of the
modern gipsies. According to J. L. Myres, the Sigynnae of Herodotus
were " a people widely spread in the Danubic basin in the 5th century
B.C.," probably identical with the Sequani, and connected with the
iron-working culture of Hallstatt, which produced a narrow-bladed
throwing spear, the sigynna spear (see notice of " Anthropological
Essays ' in Classical Review, November 1908).
SIKH, a member of the Sikh religion in India (see SIKHISM).
The word Sikh literally means " learner," " disciple," and was
the name given by the first guru Nanak to his followers. The
Sikhs are divided into two classes, Sahijdhari and Kesadhari.
The former were so named from living at ease and the latter from
wearing long hair. Both obey the general injunctions of the Sikh
gurus, but the Sahijdhari Sikhs have not accepted the pahul
or baptism of Guru Govind Singh, and do not wear the distin-
guishing habiliments of the Kesadhari, who are the baptized
Sikhs, also called Singhs or lions. Their distinguishing habili-
ments are long hair wound round a small dagger and bearing a
comb inserted in it, a steel bracelet and short drawers. Neither
the Sahijdhari nor the Kesadhari Sikhs may smoke tobacco or
drink wine. The prohibition of wine is, however, generally dis-
regarded except by very orthodox Sikhs.
In the census of 1901, the number of Sikhs in the Punjab
and North-Western Provinces was returned as 2,130,987, showing
an increase of 13-9% in the decade; but these figures are not
altogether reliable owing to the difficulty of distinguishing the
Sahijdhari from the Kesadhari Sikhs and both from the Hindus.
A man is not born a -Singh, but becomes so by baptism, the water
of which is called amrit or nectar. It is possible that one brother
may be a Hindu, while another is a true Sikh.
The Sikhs are principally drawn from the Arora, Jat and
Ramgarhia tribes, but any one may become a Sikh by accepting
the Sikh baptism. The Aroras are generally merchants or petty
dealers. The Jats are agriculturists variously described as
Scythian immigrants and as descendants of Rajputs who immi-
grated to the Punjab from central India. They are of a tougher
fibre than the Aroras; sturdy and self-reliant, slow to speak but
quick to strike. The Ramgarhias are principally mechanics.
To the temperament of the Jat, the Arora and the Ramgarhia
Sikh add the stimulus of a militant religion. The Sikh is a
fighting man, and his best qualities are shown in the army,
which is his natural profession. Hardy, brave and slow-witted,
obedient to discipline, attached to his officers, he makes the
finest soldier of the East. In victory he retains his steadiness,
and in defeat he will die at his post rather than yield. In peace
time he shows a decided fondness for money, and will go wherever
i. Nanak .
2. Angad .
3. Amar Das
4. Ram Das
5. Arjan . .
A.D.
1469-1539
1539-1552
1552-1574
i574-!58i
1581-1606
it is to be earned. There are some 30,000 Sikhs in the Indian
army, and the sect is cherished by the military authorities, who
insist on all recruits taking the pahul or Sikh baptism. Many
Sikhs are also to be found in the native regiments of east
and central Africa and of Hyderabad in the Deccan, and they
compose a great part of the police force in the treaty ports of
China. (M.M.)
SIKHISM, a religion of India, whose followers (Sikhs) are
principally found in the Punjab, United Provinces, Sind, Jammu
and Kashmir. Sikhism was founded by Nanak, a Khatri by
caste, who was born at Talwandi near Lahore in A.D. 1469, and
after travelling and preaching throughout a great part of southern
Asia died at Kartarpur in Jullundur in 1539. He was succeeded
by nine gurus, great teachers or head priests, whose dates are as
follows:
A.D.
6. Har Govind. 1606-1645
7. Har Rai . 1645-1661
8. Har Krishan 1661-1664
9. Teg Bahadur 1664-1675
IO. Govind Singh 1675-1708
Nanak, like Buddha, revolted against a religion overladen
with ceremonial and social restrictions, and both rebelled against
the tyranny of the priesthood. The tendency of each religion
was to quietism, but their separate doctrines were largely in-
fluenced by the surroundings of their founders. Buddha lived
in the centre of Hindu India and among the many gods of the
Brahmans. These he rejected, he knew of nought else, and in
his theological system there was found no place for divinity.
Nanak was born in the province which then formed the borderland
between Hinduism and Islam. He taught that there was one
God; but that God was neither Allah nor Ram, but simply God;
neither the special god of the Mahommedan, nor of the Hindu,
but the God of the universe, of all mankind and of all religions.
v Starting from the unity of God, Nanak and his successors
rejected the idols and incarnations of the Hindus, and on the
ground of the equality of all men rejected also the system of
caste. The doctrines of Sikhism as set forth in the Granth (q.v.)
are that it prohibits idolatry, hypocrisy, class exclusiveness,
the concremation of widows, the immurement of women, the use
of wine and other intoxicants, tobacco-smoking, infanticide,
slander and pilgrimages to the sacred rivers and tanks of the
Hindus; and it inculcates loyalty, gratitude for all favours
received, philanthropy, justice, impartiality, truth, honesty and
all the moral and domestic virtues upheld by Christianity.
Sikhism mainly differs from Christianity in that it inculcates the
transmigration of the soul, and adopts a belief in predestination,
which is universal in the East.
The Sikh religion did not reach this full development at once,
nor was the first of the gurus even the first to feel dissatisfaction
with the existing order of things. Ideas of revolt and
reform of decadent systems are always in the air, it
may be for centuries, until some one man bolder than aurus.
the rest stands out to give them free expression; and
as John the Baptist preceded Jesus Christ, so Nanak was preceded
by several reformers, whose writings are incorporated in the
Granth itself. The chief of these reformers are Jaidev, Ramanand
and Kabir. Jaidev is better known as the author of the Gita-
gobind, which was translated by Sir Edwin Arnold, than as a
religious reformer; but in the Adi Granth are found two hymns
of his in the Prakrit language of the time, in which he represents
God as distinct from nature, yet everywhere present. He taught
at the end of the i2th century A.D. that the practice of yog,
sacrifices and austerities was as nothing in comparison with the
repetition of God's name, and he inculcated the worship of God
alone, in thought, word and deed. What was worthy of worship,
he said, he had worshipped; what was worthy of trust he had
trusted; and he had become blended with God, as water blends
with water.
Jaidev was succeeded by numerous Hindu saints, who per-
ceived that the superstitions of the age only led to spiritual
blindness. Of these saints Ramanand was one of the most
distinguished. He lived at the end of the i4th and beginning of
SIKHISM
the 1 5th centuries, and during a visit to Benares he renounced
some of the social and caste observances of the Hindus, called his
disciples the liberated, and freed them from all restrictions in
eating and social intercourse. Kabir denounced idolatry and
the ritualistic practices of the Hindus. He was born A.D. 1398,
and according to the legend was the son of a virgin widow, as
the result of a prayer offered for her by Ramanand in ignorance
of her status. Thus it will be seen that the doctrines of these
early reformers contained the germs of the later Sikh religion.
Nanak seems to have been produced by the same cyclic wave
of reformation as fourteen years later gave Martin Luther to
Europe. He taught, " There is but one God, the
Creator, whose name is true, devoid of fear and enmity,
immortal, unborn and self-existent, great and bounti-
ful." He held that the wearing of religious garb, praying and
practising penance to be seen of men, only produced hypocrisy,
and that those who went on pilgrimages to sacred streams,
though they might cleanse their bodies, only increased their
mental impurity. He pointed out that God " before all temples
prefers the upright heart and pure," and must be worshipped in
spirit and in truth, and not with the idolatrous accessories of
incense, sandal-wood and burnt-offerings. He abrogated caste
distinctions, and taught in opposition to ancient writings that
every man had the eternal right of searching for divine know-
ledge and worshipping his Creator. This doctrine of philosophic
quietism was common to his successors, until in the time of the
sixth guru, Har Govind, it was found necessary to support the
separate existence of Sikhism by force of arms, and this led to the
militant and political development of the tenth and most power-
ful of the gurus, Govind Singh. The Sikhs of to-day, though they
all derive primarily from Nanak, are only recognized as Singhs or
real Sikhs when they accept the doctrines and practices of Guru
Govind Singh.
Nanak's successor, Angad, was born in A.D 1 504 and died in 1 55 2.
He also was a Khatri, and was chosen by Guru Nanak in preference
to his own sons. The legend of his choice is that Nanak
w ^ h' s fU wers was going on a journey, when they
saw the dead body of a man lying by the wayside.
Nanak said, " Ye who trust in me eat of this food." All
hesitated save Angad (or own body), who knelt and uncovered
the dead, but, behold; the corpse had disappeared, and a dish of
sacred food was found in its place. The guru embraced his faith-
ful follower, saying that he was as himself, and that his spirit
should dwell within him. Thenceforward the Sikhs believe the
spirit of Nanak to have been incarnate in each succeeding
guru. Little is known of the ministry of Angad except that he
committed to writing much of what he had heard about Guru
Nanak as well as some devotional observations of his own, which
were afterwards incorporated in the Granth.
Angad, like his predecessor, postponed the claims of his own
sons to the guruship to those of Amar Das, who had been his
faithful servant. Amar Das preached the doctrine
Amar Das ^ forgiveness and endurance, upheld Guru Nanak's
abrogation of caste distinctions, and his precepts were
implicitly followed by his successors. He used to place all his
Sikhs and visitors in rows and cause them to eat together,
not separately, as is the practice of the Hindus. He said: "Let
no one be proud of his caste, for this pride of caste resulteth
in many sins. He is a Brahman who knoweth Brahma (God).
Every one prateth of four castes. All are sprung from the seed of
Brahm. The whole world is formed out of one clay, but the
Potter hath fashioned it in various forms." It was a maxim of
the Sikhs of his time: " If any one treat you ill, bear it. If you
bear it three times God himself will fight for you and humble
your enemies." Guru Amar Das also discountenanced the
practice of suttee, saying: " They are not satis who burn them-
selves with the dead. The true sati is she who dieth from the
shock of separation from her husband. They also ought to be
considered satis who abide in charity and contentment, who
serve and, when rising, ever remember their lord." Amar Das
was born in A.D. 1509 and died in 1574 after a ministry of twenty-
two and a half years.
Das<
Guru
Arjan.
The fourth guru, originally called Jetha, was attracted to the
third guru by his reputation for sanctity. He became the servant
of Amar Das, helped in the public kitchen, shampooed
his master, drew water, brought firewood from the
forest, and helped in the excavation of a well which
Amar Das was constructing at Goindwal. Jetha was of such a
mild temper that, even if any one spoke harshly to him, he would
endure it and never retaliate. He became known as Ram Das,
which means God's slave; and on account of his piety and devo-
tion Amar Das gave him his daughter in marriage and made him
his successor. Ram Das is amongst the most revered of gurus,
but no particular innovation is ascribed to him. He founded,
however, the golden temple of Amritsar in A.D. 1577, which has
remained ever since the centre of the Sikh religious worship.
From this time onward the office of guru became hereditary, but
the practice of primogeniture was not followed, each guru
selecting the relative who seemed most fitted to succeed him.
Ram Das himself, finding his eldest son Prithi Chand worldly
and disobedient, and his second unfitted by his too retiring
disposition for the duties of guru, appointed his
third son, Arjan, to succeed him. When Prithi Chand
represented that he ought to have received the turban
bound on Guru Arjan 's head in token of succession to his father,
Arjan meekly handed it to him, without, however, bestowing
on him the guruship. The Sikhs themselves soon revolted against
the exactions of Prithi Chand, and prayed Arjan to assert himself
else the seed of the True Name would perish. It was Guru
Arjan who compiled the Granth or Sikh Bible, out of his own and
his predecessors' compositions. On this account he was accused of
deposing the deities of his country and substituting for them a
new divinity, but he was acquitted by the tolerant Akbar. When
Akbar, however, was succeeded by Jahangir the guru aided the
latter's son Khusru to escape with a gift of money. On this account
his property was confiscated to the state, and he was thrown
into rigorous imprisonment and tortured to death. Arjan saw
clearly that it was impossible to preserve his sect without force
of arms, and one of his last injunctions to his son Har Govind
was to sit fully armed on his throne and maintain an army to the
best of his ability. This was the turning-point in the history of
the Sikhs. Hitherto they had been merely an insignificant
religious sect; now, stimulated by persecution, they became
a militant and political power, inimical to the Mahommedan
rulers of the country.
When Har Govind was installed as guru, Bhai Budha, the aged
Sikh who performed the ceremony, presented him with a turban
and a necklace, and charged him to wear and preserve
them as the founder of his religion had done. Guru
Har Govind promptly ordered that the articles should
be relegated to his treasury, the museum of the period. He said;
" My necklace shall be my sword-belt, and my turban shall be
adorned with a royal aigrette." He then sent for his bow,
quiver, arrows, shield and sword, and arrayed himself in martial
style, so that, as the Sikh chronicler states, his splendour shone
like the sun.
The first four gurus led simple ascetic lives and were regardless
of wordly affairs. Guru Arjan, who was in charge of the great
Sikh temple at Amritsar, received copious offerings and became
a man of wealth and influence, while the sixth guru became a
military leader, and was frequently at warfare with the Mogul
authorities. Several warriors and wrestlers, hearing of Guru Har
Govind's fame, came to him for service. He enrolled as his body-
guard fifty-two heroes who burned for the fray. This formed
the nucleus of his future army. Five hundred youths then came
to him for enlistment from the Manjha, Doab and Malwa
districts. These men told him that they had no offering to make
to him except their lives; for pay they only required instruction
in his religion; and they professed themselves ready to die in his
service. The guru gave them each a horse and five weapons of
war, and gladly enlisted them in his army. In a short time,
besides men who required regular pay, hordes gathered round
the guru who were satisfied with two meals a day and a suit of
clothes every six months. The fighting spirit of the people
86
SIKHISM
was roused and satisfied by the spiritual and military leader.
Har Govind was a hunter and eater of flesh, and encouraged his
followers to eat meat as giving them strength and daring.
It is largely to this practice that the Sikhs owe the superiority
of their physique over their surrounding Hindu neighbours.
The regal state that the guru adopted and the army that he
maintained were duly reported to the emperor Jahangir.
In the Autobiography of Jahangir it is stated that the guru
was imprisoned in the fortress of Gwalior, with a view to the
realization of the fine imposed on his father Guru Arjan, but the
Sikhs believe that the guru became a voluntary inmate of the
fortress with the object of obtaining seclusion there to pray for
the emperor 'who had been advised to that effect by his Hindu
astrologers. After a time Jahangir died and was succeeded by
Shah Jahan, with whom the guru was constantly at war. On
three separate occasions after desperate fighting he defeated the
royal troops sent against him. Many legends are told of his
military prowess, for which there is no space in this summary.
The guru before his death at Kiratpur, on the margin of the
Sutlej, instructed his grandson and successor, Guru Har Rai, to
retain two thousand two hundred mounted soldiers ever with him
as a precautionary measure.
Har Rai was charged with friendship for Dara Shikoh, the son
of Shah Jahan, and also with preaching a religion
distinct from Islam. He was, therefore, summoned to
Delhi, but instead of going himself he sent his son
Ram Rai and shortly afterwards died. His ministry was mild but
won him general respect.
The eighth guru was the second son of Har Rai, but he died
when a child and too young to leave any mark on
Krishaa' history. His elder brother Ram Rai was passed over
in his favour and also in favour of the next guru for
having allered a line of the Granth to please the emperor
Auran^ceb.
As the ilirecl line of succession died out with Har Krishan, the
guruship harked back at this point to Teg Bahadur, the second
son of liar Govind and uncle of Har Rai. Teg Bahadur
Baftadun v '' as P ut to death for refusal to embrace Islam by
Aurangzeb in A.D. 1675. It is of him that the legend
is told that during his imprisonment in Delhi he was accused by
the emperor of looking towards the west in the direction of the
imperial zenana. The guru replied, " Emperor Aurangzeb, I
was on the top storey of my prison, but I was not looking at thy
private apartments or at thy queen's. I was looking in the
direction of the Europeans who are coming from beyond the seas
to tear down thy purdahs and destroy thine empire." This
prophecy became the battle-cry of the Sikhs in the assault on
Delhi in 1857.
Teg Bahadur was succeeded by the tenth and most powerful
guru, his son Govind Singh; and it was under him that what
had sprung into existence as a quietist sect of a purely
religious nature, and had become a military society
for self-protection, developed into a national movement
which was to rule the whole of north-western India and
to furnish to the British arms their stoutest and most worthy
opponents. For some years after his father's execution Govind
Singh, then known as Gobind Rai, lived in retirement, brooding
over the wrongs of his people and the persecutions of the fanatical
Aurangzeb. He felt the necessity for a larger following and a
stronger organization, Und following the example of his Mahom-
medan enemies used his religion as the basis of political power.
Emerging from his retirement he preached the Khalsa, the
" pure," and it is by this name his followers are now known.
He, like his predecessors, openly attacked all distinctions of
caste, and taught the equality of all men who would join him,
and he instituted a ceremony of initiation with baptismal holy
water by which all might enter the Sikh fraternity.
The higher castes murmured, and many of them left him, for
he taught that the Brahmanical threads must be broken; but
the lower orders rejoiced and flocked in numbers to his standard.
These he inspired with military ardour in the hope of social
freedom and of national independence. He gave them outward
Singh.
signs of their faith in the five K's which will subsequently be
explained he signified the military nature of their calling by the
title of " singh " or " lion " and by the wearing of steel, and he
strictly prohibited the use of tobacco. The following are the
main points of his teaching: Sikhs must have one form of
initiation, sprinkling of water by five of the faithful; they should
worship the one invisible God and honour the memory of Guru
Nanak and his successors; their watchword should be, " Sri wah
guru ji ka khalsa, sri wah guru ji ki falah " (Khalsa of God,
victory to God!), but they should revere and bow to nought
visible save the Granth Sahib, the book of their belief; they should
occasionally bathe in the sacred tank of Amritsar; their locks
should remain unshorn; and they should name themselves
singhs or lions. Arms should dignify their person; they should
ever practise their use; and great would be the merit of those
who fought in the van, who slew the enemies of their faith, and
who despaired not although overpowered by superior numbers.
The religious creed of Guru Govind Singh was the same as
that of Guru Nanak: the God, the guru and the Granth remained
unchanged. But while Nanak had substituted holiness of life
for vain ceremonial, Guru Govind Singh demanded in addition
brave deeds and zealous devotion to the Sikh cause as proof of
faith; and while he retained his predecessors' attitude towards
the Hindu gods and worship he preached undying hatred to the
persecutors of his religion.
During the spiritual reign of Guru Govind Singh the religious
was partially eclipsed by the military spirit. The Mahommedans
promptly responded to the challenge, for the danger was too
serious to be neglected; the Sikh army was dispersed and two
of Guru Govind Singh's sons were murdered at Sirhind by the
governor of that fortress, and his mother died of grief at the cruel
death of her grandchildren. The death of the emperor Aurangzeb
brought a temporary lull: the guru assisted Aurangzeb's suc-
cessor, Bahadur Shah, and was himself not long after assassinated
at Nander in the Deccan. As all the guru's sons predeceased him,
and as he was disappointed in his envoy Banda, he left no human
successor, but vested the guruship in the Granth Sahib and
his sect. No formal alteration has been made in the Sikh religion
since Guru Govind Singh gave it his military organization,
but certain modifications have taken place as the result of time
and contact with Hinduism. After the guru's death the gradual
rise of the Sikhs into the ruling power of northern India until
they came in collision with the British arms belongs to the
secular history of the Punjab (q.v.).
The chief ceremony initiated by Guru Govind Singh was the
Khanda ka Pahul or baptism by the sword. This baptism may
not be conferred until the candidate has reached an age
of discrimination and capacity to remember obligations,
seven years being fixed as the earliest age, but it is
generally deferred until manhood. Five of the initiated
must be present, all of whom should be learned in the faith.
An Indian sweetmeat is stirred up in water with a two-edged
sword and the novice repeats after the officiant the articles of his
faith. Some of the water is sprinkled on him five times, and he
drinks of it five times from the palms of his hands; he then
pronounces the Sikh watchword given above and promises
adherence to the new obligations he has contracted. He must
from that date wear the five K's and add the word singh to his
original name. The five K's are (i) the kes or uncut hair of the
whole body, (2) the kachh or short drawers ending above the knee,
(3) the kara or iron bangle, (4) the khanda or small steel dagger, (5)
the khanga or comb. The five K's and the other esoteric observ-
ances of the Sikhs mostly had a utilitarian purpose. When
fighting was a part of the Sikh's duty, long hair and iron rings
concealed in it protected his head from sword cuts. The kachh
or drawers fastened by a waist-band was more convenient and
suitable for warriors than the insecurely tied dhoti of the Hindus
or the tamba of the Mahommedans. So also the Sikh's physical
strength was increased by the use of meat and avoidance of
tobacco. Another Sikh ceremony is the kara parshad or com-
munion made of butter, flour and sugar, and consecrated with
certain ceremonies. The communicants sit round, and the kara
Sikh
cere-
monies.
SIKH WARS
parshad is then distributed equally to all the faithful present, no
matter to what caste they belong. The object of this ceremony
is to abolish caste distinctions.
There may be said to be three degrees of strictness in the
observances of the Sikhs. There may first be mentioned the
zealots such as the Akalis, who, though generally
Tbe quite illiterate, aim at observing the injunctions of
ofto'- S day. Guru Govind Singh; secondly, the true Sikhs or
Singhs who observe his ordinances, such as the prohibi-
tions of cutting the hair and the use of tobacco; and, thirdly,
those Sikhs who while professing devotion to the tenets of the
gurus are almost indistinguishable from ordinary Hindus.
These are largely Nanakpanti Sikhs, or followers only of Guru
Nanak. The Nanakpanti Sikhs do not wear the hair long, nor
use any of the outward signs of the Sikhs, though they reverence
the Crantft Schib and above all the memory of their guru. They
are distinguished from the Hindus by no outward sign except
a slight laxity in the matter of caste observances.
Sikhism attained its zenith under the military genius of
Ranjit Singh. After the British conquest of the Punjab the
military spirit of the Sikhs remained for some time in abeyance.
Then came the mutiny, and Sikhs once more were recruited in
numbers and saved India for the British crown. Peace returned,
and during the next twenty or twenty-five years Sikhism reached
its lowest ebb; but since then the demand for Sikhs in the
regiments of the Indian army and farther afield has largely
revived the faith. The establishment of Singh Sabhas, of Sikh
newspapers, and the spread of education have largely tended in
the same direction, but the strict ethical code of Sikhism and the
number of its obligatory divine services have caused many to
fall away from the faith: nor does the austere Sikh ritual appeal
to women, who generally prefer Hinduism with its picturesque
material worship and the brightness of its innumerable festivals.
At the present day the stronghold of Sikhism still remains the
great Phulkian states of . Patiala, Nabha and Jind and the
surrounding districts of Ludhiana, Lahore, Amritsar, Jullundur
and Gujranwala. In these states and districts are recruited
the soldiers who form one of the main bulwarks of the British
empire in India.
For authorities see Cunningham, History of the Sikhs; Sir Lepel
Griffin, Maharaja Ranjit Singh (" Rulers of India" series, 1892);
Falcon, Handbook on Sikhs; and specially M. Macauliffe, The Sikh
Religion: Its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors (6 vols.,' 1909), and
two lectures before the United Service Institution of India on " The
Sikh Religion and its Advantages to the State " and " How the Sikhs
became a Militant Race." (M. M.)
SIKH WARS, two Indian campaigns fought between the Sikhs
and the British, which resulted in the conquest and annexation
of the Punjab (see PUNJAB).
First Sikh War (1845-46). The first Sikh War was brought
about by the insubordination of the Sikh army, which after the
death of Ranjit Singh became uncontrollable and on the nth
of December 1845 crossed the Sutlej, and virtually declared
war upon the British. The British authorities had foreseen
the outbreak, and had massed sufficient troops at Ferozepore,
Ludhiana and Umballa to protect the frontier, but not to offer
provocation. So complete were the preparations for advance
that on the i2th, the day after the Sikhs crossed the Sutlej,
Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief, marched 16 m. with
the Umballa force to Rajpura; on the i3th the governor-general,
Sir Henry Hardinge, declared war, and by the i8th the whole
army had marched 150 m. to Moodkee, in order to protect
Ferozepore from the Sikh attack.
Wearied with their long march, the British troops were
enjoying a rest, when the news came in that the Sikhs were
advancing to battle at four o'clock in the afternoon. The
British had some 10,000 men, and the Sikhs are estimated
by some authorities as low as 10,000 infantry with 2000
cavalry and 22 guns. The battle opened with an artillery
duel, in which the British guns, though inferior in weight, soon
silenced the enemy, the 3rd Light Dragoons delivered a brilliant
charge, and the infantry drove the enemy from position after
position with great slaughter and the loss of seventeen guns.
The victory was complete, but the fall of night prevented it
from being followed up, and caused some of the native regiments
to fire into each other in the confusion.
After the battle of Moodkee Sir Henry Hardinge volunteered
to serve as 1 second in command under Sir Hugh Gough, a step
which caused some confusion in the ensuing battle.
At 4 A.M. on the 2ist of December the British advanced
from Moodkee to attack the Sikh entrenched camp
under the command of Lai Singh at Ferozeshah, orders having
been sent to Sir John Littler, in command at Ferozepore. to
join the main British force. At n A.M. the British were in front
of the Sikh position, but Sir John Littler, though on his way,
had not yet arrived. Sir Hugh Gough wished to attack while
there was plenty of daylight; but Sir Henry Hardinge re-
asserted his civil authority as governor-general, and forbade
the attack until the junction with Littler was effected. The
army then marched on to meet Littler and the battle did not
begin until between 3.30 and 4 P.M. The engagement opened
with an artillery duel, in which the British again failed to gain
the mastery over the Sikhs. The infantry, therefore, advanced
to the attack; but the Sikh muskets were as good as the British,
and fighting behind entrenchments they were a most formidable
foe. Sir John Littler's attack was repulsed, the 6and regiment
losing heavily in officers and men, while the sepoys failed to
support the European regiments. But the Moodkee force,
undaunted, stormed and captured the entrenchment, though
the different brigades and regiments lost position and became
mixed up together in the darkness. The army then passed the
night on the Sikh position, while the Sikhs prowled round
keeping up an incessant fire. In the morning the British found
that they had captured seventy-three pieces of cannon and were
masters of the whole field; but at that moment a fresh Sikh
army, under Tej Singh, came up to the assistance of the scattered
forces of Lai Singh. The British were exhausted with their
sleepless night, the native troops were shaken, and a determined
attack by this fresh army might have won the day; but Tej
Singh, after a half-hearted attack, which was repulsed, marched
away, whether from cowardice, incapacity or treason, and left
the British masters of the position.
After the battle of Ferozeshah the Sikhs retired behind the
Sutlej, but early in January they again raided across the river
near Ludhiana, and Sir Harry Smith was detached
to protect that city. On the 2ist of January he was
approaching Ludhiana when he found the Sikhs under Runjoor
Singh in an entrenched position flanking his line of march at
Budhowal. Sir Harry Smith passed on without fighting a general
action, but suffered considerable loss in men and baggage.
After receiving reinforcements Sir Harry again advanced from
Ludhiana and attacked the Sikhs at Aliwal on the 28th of
January. An attack upon the Sikh left near the village of
Aliwal gave Sir Harry the key of the position, and a brilliant
charge by the i6th Lancers, which broke a Sikh square, com-
pleted their demoralization. The Sikhs fled in confusion, losing
sixty-seven guns, and by this battle were expelled from the
south side of the Sutlej.
Ever since Ferozeshah Sir Hugh Gough had been waiting
to receive reinforcements, and on the 7th of February his siege
train arrived, while on the following day Sir Harry
Smith's force returned to camp. On the loth of
February Sir Hugh attacked the Sikhs, who occupied a strong
entrenched position in a bend of the Sutlej. After two hours'
cannonading, the infantry attack commenced at 9 A.M. The
advance of the first brigade was not immediately successful,
but the second brigade following on carried the entrenchments.
The cavalry then charged down the Sikh lines from right to left
and completed the victory. The Sikhs, with the river behind
them, suffered terrible carnage, and are computed to have lost
10,000 men and 67 guns. The British losses throughout the
campaign were considerably heavier than was usual in Indian
warfare; but this was partly due to the fact that the Sikhs were
the best natural fighters in India, and partly to the lack of
energy of the Hindostani sepoys. After the battle of Sobraon
Aliwal.
SIKKIM
the British advanced to Lahore, where the treaty of Lahore
was signed on the nth of March.
Second Sikh War (1848-1849). For two years after the battle
of Sobraon the Punjab remained a British protectorate, with
Sir Henry Lawrence as resident; but the Sikhs were unconvinced
of their military inferiority, the Rani Jindan and her ministers
were constantly intriguing to recover their power, and a further
trial of strength was inevitable. The outbreak came at Multan,
where on the 2oth of April 1848 the troops of the Dewan
Mulraj broke out and attacked two British officers, Mr Vans
Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, eventually murdering them.
On hearing of the incident, Lieut. Herbert Edwardes, who was
Sir Henry Lawrence's assistant in the Derajat, advanced upon
Multan with a force of levies drawn from the Pathan tribes of
the frontier; but he was not strong enough to do more than keep
the enemy in check until Multan was invested by a Bombay
column under General Whish. In the meantime Edwardes
wished for an immediate British advance upon Multan; but
Lord Gough, as he had now become, decided on a cold season
campaign, on the ground that, if the Sikh government at Lahore
joined in the rising, the British would require all their available
strength to suppress it. Multan was invested on the i8th of
August by General Whish in conjunction with the Sikh general
Shere Singh; but during the course of the siege Shere Singh
deserted and joined the rebels, thus turning the rising into a
national war. The siege of Multan was temporarily abandoned,
but was resumed in November, when Lord Cough's main advance
had begun, and Mulraj surrendered on the 22nd of January. In
the meantime Lord Gough had collected his army and stores,
and on the gth of November crossed the Sutlej.
On the 22nd of November there was a cavalry skirmish at
Ramnagar, in which General Cureton and Colonel Havelock were
killed. For a month after this Lord Gough remained
walla ' inactive, waiting to be reinforced by General Whish
from Multan; but at last he decided to advance
without General Whish, and fought the battle of Chillianwalla
on the i3th of January 1849. Lord Gough had intended to
encamp for the night; but the Sikh guns opening fire revealed
the fact that their army had advanced out of its intrenchments,
and Lord Gough decided to seize the opportunity and attack
at once. An hour's artillery duel showed that the Sikhs had the
advantage both in position and guns, and the infantry advance
commenced at three o'clock in the afternoon. The battle resulted
in great loss to the European regiments, the 24th losing all its
officers in a few minutes, while the total loss in killed and wounded
amounted to 2338; but when darkness fell the British were in
possession of the whole of the Sikh line. Lord Gough subse-
quently retired to the village of Chillianwalla, and the Sikhs
returned and carried off their guns. After the battle Lord Gough
received an ovation from his troops, but his losses were thought
excessive by the public in England and the directors of the East
India Company, and Sir Charles Napier was appointed to super-
sede him. Before, however, the latter had time to reach India,
the crowning victory of Gujrat had been fought and won.
After the fall of Multan General Whish marched to join Lord
Gough, and the junction of the two armies was effected on the
1 8th of February. In the meantime the Sikhs had
withdrawn from their strong intrenchments at Russool,
owing to want of provisions, and marched to Gujrat, which Lord
Gough considered a favourable position for attacking them.
By a series of short marches he prepared the way for his " last
and best battle." In this engagement, for the first time in either
of the Sikh wars, the British had the superiority in artillery, in
addition to a picked force of 24,000 men. The battle began on
the morning of the 2ist of February with two and a half hours'
artillery fire, which was overwhelmingly in favour of the British.
At 11.30 A.M. Lord Gough ordered a general advance covered
by the artillery; and an hour and a half later the British were
in possession of the town of Gujrat, of the Sikh camp, and of the
enemy's artillery and baggage, and the cavalry were in full
pursuit on both flanks. In this battle the British only lost 96
killed and 700 wounded, while the Sikh loss was enormous, in
addition to 67 guns. This decisive victory ended the war. On
the 1 2th of March the Sikh leaders surrendered at discretion,
and the Punjab was annexed to British India.
See Sir Charles Gough and A. D. Innes, The Sikhs and the Sikh
Wars (1897) ; and R. S. Rait. Life and Campaigns of Viscount Cough
(1903).
SIKKIM, called by Tibetans Dejong (" the rice country "),
a protected state of India, situated in the eastern Himalaya,
between 27 5' and 28 9' N. and between 87 59' and 88 56' E.
It comprises an area of 2818 sq. m. of what may be briefly
described as the catchment basin of the headwaters of the rivers
Tista and Rangit. On the S. and S.E., branches of these rivers
form the boundary between Sikkim and British India, while
on the W., N. and N.E. Sikkim is separated from Nepal, Tibet
and Bhutan by the range of lofty mountains which culminate
in Kinchinjunga and form a kind of horse-shoe, whence dependent
spurs project southwards, gradually contracting and lessening
in height until they reach the junction of the Rangit and the
Tista. Thus the country is split up into a succession of deep
valleys surmounted by open plateaus cut off from one another
by high and steep ridges, and lies at a very considerable elevation,
rising from 1000 ft. above sea-level at its southern extremity
to 16,000 or 18,000 ft. on the north. The main trade-passes into
Tibet, such as the Jelep (14,500), Chola (14,550), and Kangra-la
(16,000), are not nearly so high as in the western Himalaya,
while those into Nepal are less than 12,000 ft.
Physical Features. Small though the country is, a wide variation
of climate makes it peculiarly interesting. From a naturalist's
point of view it can be divided into three zones. The lowest, stretch-
ing from looo to 5000 ft. above sea-level, may be called the tropical
zone; thence to 13,000 ft., the upper limit of tree vegetation, the
temperate; and above, to the line of perpetual snow, the alpine.
Down to about 1880 Sikkim was covered with dense forests, only
interrupted where village clearances had bared the slopes for agri-
culture, but at the present time this description does not apply below
6000 ft., the upper limit at which maize ripens; for here, owing to
increase of population (particularly the immigration of Nepalese
settlers), almost every suitable spot has been cleared for cultivation.
The exuberance of its flora may be imagined when it is considered
that the total flowering plants comprise some 4000 species ; there are
more than 200 different kinds of ferns, 400 orchids, 20 bamboos, 30
rhododendrons, 30 to 40 primulas, and many other genera are equally
profuse; in fact Sikkim contains types of every flora from the
tropics to the poles, and probably no other country of equal or larger
extent can present such infinite variety. Butterflies abound and
comprise about 600 species, while moths are estimated at 2000.
Birds are profusely represented, numbering between 500 and 600.
species. Among mammals, the most interesting are the snow leopard
(Felis unica), the cat-bear (Aelurus fulgens), the musk deer (Moschus
moschiferus) and two species of goat antelope (Nemorhaedus bubalinus
and Cemas gpral). Copper and lime are the chief minerals found and
worked in Sikkim, but they are of little commercial value at present.
Government and Population. The population is essentially agri-
cultural, each family living in a house on its own land : there are no
towns or villages, and the only collection of houses, outside the Lachen
and Lachung valleys, are the few that have sprung up round country
market-places, such as Rhenock, Dikkeling and Gangtok ; but in the
above-mentioned valleys the inhabitants, who are Bhutanese in
origin and herdsmen in occupation, have large clusters of well-built
houses at various altitudes up the valleys, which they occupy t in
rotation according to the season of the year.
The seat of government, or in other words the palace of the raja,
was formerly situated at Rubdentze ; but when that place was taken
and destroyed by the Gurkhas, a new palace was built at Tumlong,
close to the eastern and Tibetan boundary, while a subsidiary
summer residence was erected on the other side of the Chola range
at Chumbi, in the Am-mochu valley. At the present time the raja
and his court remain in the more open country at Gangtok, where
the British political officer and a small detachment of native troops
are also stationed.
The first regular census of Sikkim, in 1901, returned the population
at 59,014, showing an apparent increase of nearly twofold in the
decade. Of the total, 65% were Hindus and 35% Buddhists.
The Lepchas, supposed to be the original inhabitants, numbered
only 8000, while no less than 23,000 were immigrants from Nepal.
The state religion is Buddhism as practised in Tibet, but is not
confined to one particular sect ; while among the heterogeneous popu-
lation of Sikkim all manner of religious cults can be found. Educa-
tion is at a low ebb, though the monasteries are supposed to maintain
schools, and missionary enterprise has established others.
The revenue of Sikkim has increased under British guidance from
Rs. 20,000 a year to nearly Rs. 1,60,000, derived chiefly from a land
and poll tax, excise, and sale of timber; the chief expenditure is on
SILA SILENUS
89
the maintenance of the state, which practically means the raja's
family, and on the improvement of communications. The country
has a complete system of mountain roads, bridged and open to animal
(but not cart) traffic. British trade with Central Tibet is carried over
the Jelep route, on the south-eastern border of Sikkim.
History. The earliest inhabitants of Sikkim were the Rong-pa
(ravine folk), better known as Lepchas, probably a tribe of Indo-
Chinese origin; but when or how they migrated to Sikkim is un-
known. The reigning family, however, is Tibetan, and claims descent
from one of the Gyalpos or princelings of eastern Chinese Tibet ; their
ancestors in course of several generations found their way westwards
to Lhasa and Sakya, and thence down the Am-mochu valley ; finally,
about the year 1604, Penchoo Namyg6 was born at Gangtok, and
in 1641, with the aid of Lha-tsan Lama and two other priests of the
Duk-pa or Red-hat sect of Tibet, overcame the Lepcha chiefs, who
had been warring among themselves, established a firm government
and introduced Buddhist Lamaism as a state religion. His son,
Tensung Namyge, very largely extended his kingdom, but much of it
was lost in the succeeding reign of Chak-dor Namyg6 (1700-1717),
who is credited with having designed the alphabet now in use among
the Lepchas.
In the beginning of the i8th century Bhutan appropriated a large
tract of country on the east. Between 1776 and 1792 Sikkim was
constantly at war with the victorious Gurkhas, who were, however,
driven out of part of their conquests by the Chinese in 1792 ; but it
was not until 1816 that the bulk of what is known to us as Sikkim
was restored by the British, after the defeat of the Nepalese by
General Ochterlony. In 1839 the site of Darjeeling was ceded by
the raja of Sikkim. In 1849 the British resumed the whole of the
plains (Tarai) and the outer hills, as punishment for repeated insults
and injuries. In 1861 a Britisn force was required to impose a treaty
defining good relations. The raja, however, refused to carry out his
obligations and defiantly persisted in living in Tibet ; his administra-
tion was neglected, his subjects oppressed, and a force of Tibetan
soldiers was allowed, and even encouraged, to seize the road and
erect a fort within sight of Darjeeling. After months of useless re-
monstrance, the government was forced in 1888 to send an expedi-
tion, which drove the Tibetans back over the Jelep pass. A con-
vention was then concluded with China in 1890, whereby the British
protectorate over Sikkim was acknowledged and the boundary of the
state defined; to this was added a supplemental agreement relating
to trade and domestic matters, which was signed in 1893. Since
that time the government has been conducted by the maharaja
assisted by a council of seven or eight of his leading subjects, and
guided by a resident British officer. Crime, of which there is little,
is punished under local laws administered by kazis or petty chiefs.
Since 1904 political relations with Sikkim, which had formerly been
conducted by the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, have been in the
hands of the Viceroy.
Rajas of Sikkim (Dejong-Gyalpo) : Penchoo Namgy6 (1641-
1670), Tensung Namgy6 (1670-1700), Chak-dor Namgy (1700-
1717), Gyur-m6 Namgy6 (1717-1734), Penchoo Namgy6 (1734-
1780), Tenzing Namgy6 (1780-1790), Cho-phoe Namgy6 (1790-
1861), Sikhyong Namgy6 (1861-1874), Tho-tub Namgy6 (1874), the
maharaja, whose son has been educated at Oxford.
AUTHORITIES. Sir J. W. Edgar, Report on a Visit to Sikkim and the
Tibetan Frontier in 1873 (Calcutta, 1874); Macaulay, Report on a
Mission to Sikkim and the Tibetan Frontier (Calcutta, 1885); The
Gazetteer of Sikkim (Calcutta, 1894); Hooker, Himalayan Journals
(London, 1854); L. A. Waddell, Lamaism (London, 1895); Among
the Himalayas (London, 1898). (A. W. P.)
SILA, a mountainous forest district of Calabria, Italy, to the
E. of Cosenza, extending for some 37 m. N. to S. and 25 m. E.
to W. The name goes back to the Greek period, and then pro-
bably belonged to a larger extension of territory than at present.
In ancient times these mountains supplied timber to the Greeks
for shipbuilding, the forests have given way to pastures to
some extent; but a part of them, which belongs to the state, is
maintained. Geologically these mountains, which consist of
granite, gneiss and mica schist, are the oldest portion of the
Italian peninsula; their culminating point is the Botte Donate
(6330 ft.), and they are not free of snow until the late spring.
They are very rarely explored by travellers.
SILANION, a Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C. He was
noted as a portrait-sculptor. Of two of his works, his heads of
Plato and of Sappho, we possess what seem to be copies. Both
are of simple ideal type, the latter of course not strictly a portrait,
since Sappho lived before the age of portraits. The best copy of
the Plato is in the Vatican.
SILAS (fl. A.D. 50), early Christian prophet and missionary,
was the companion of St Paul on the second journey, when he
took the place formerly held by Barnabas. The tour included
S. Galatia, Troas, Philippi (where he was imprisoned), Thes-
salonica'and Beroea, where Silas was left with Timothy, though
he afterwards rejoined Paul at Corinth. He is in all probability
the Silvanus ' who is associated with Paul in the letters to the
Thessalonians, mentioned again in 2 Cor. i. 19, and the bearer and
amanuensis of i Peter (see v. 12). It is possible, indeed, that he
has an even closer connexion with this letter, and some scholars
(e.g. R. Scott in The Pauline Epistles, 1909) are inclined to give
him a prominent place among the writers of the New Testament.
He was of Jewish birth and probably also a Roman citizen.
SILAY, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of
Negros, Philippine Islands, on the N.W. coast, about 10 m. N.
of Bacolod, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903, after the
annexation of Guimbalon and a portion of Eustaquio Lopez)
22,000. There are more than fifty barrios or villages in the town
and the largest of these had, in 1903, 3834 inhabitants. The
language is Visayan. There is a considerable coasting trade,
sugar, brought by a tramway from neighbouring towns, is shipped
from here, and the cultivation of sugar-cane is an important in-
dustry; Indian corn, tobacco, hemp, cotton and cacao are also
grown.
SILCHAR, a town of British India, in the Cachar district of
Eastern Bengal and Assam, of which it is the headquarters.
Pop. (1901) 9256. It is situated on the left bank of the river
Barak, with a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 271 m.
N. of Chittagong. Silchar is the centre of an important tea
industry, and the headquarters of the volunteer corps known
as the Surma Valley Light Horse.
SILCHESTER, a parish in the north of Hampshire, England,
about 10 m. S. of Reading, containing the site of the Romano-
British town Calleva Atrebatum. This site has been lately
explored (1890-1909) and the whole plan of the ancient town
within the walls recovered; unfortunately the excavators had
to abandon their task before the suburbs, cemeteries and what-
ever else may lie outside the walls have been examined. The
results are published in Archaeologia, the official organ of the
London Society of Antiquaries (see BRITAIN: Roman). As the
excavations proceeded, the areas excavated were covered in again,
but the ruins of the town hall, which have been famous since the
1 2th century, still remain. The smaller and movable objects
found in the excavations have been deposited by the duke of
Wellington, owner of the site of Calleva, in the Reading museum.
SILENUS, a primitive Phrygian deity of woods and springs.
As the reputed inventor of music he was confounded with
Marsyas. He also possessed the gift of prophecy, but, like
Proteus, would only impart information on compulsion; when
surprised in a drunken sleep, he could be bound with chains
of flowers, and forced to prophesy and sing (Virgil, Eel. vi., where
he gives an account of the creation of the world; cf. Aelian,
Var. hist. iii. 18). In Greek mythology he is the son of Hermes
(or Pan) and a nymph. He is the constant companion of
Dionysus, whom he was said to have instructed in the cultivation
of the vine and the keeping of bees. He fought by his side in the
war against the giants and was his companion in his travels
and adventures. The story of Silenus was often the subject of
Athenian satyric drama. Just as there were supposed to be
several Pans and Fauns, so there were many Silenuses, whose
father was called Papposilenus (" Daddy Silenus "), represented
as completely covered with hair and more animal in appearance.
The usual attributes of Silenus were the wine-skin (from which
he is inseparable), a crown of ivy, the Bacchic thyrsus, the ass,
and sometimes the panther. In art he generally appears as a
little pot-bellied old man, with a snub nose and a bald head,
riding on an ass and supported by satyrs; or he is depicted
lying asleep on his wine-skin, which he sometimes bestrides.
A more dignified type is the Vatican statue of Silenus carrying
the infant Dionysus, and the marble group from the villa Borghese
in the Louvre.
See Preller-Robert, Griechische Mythplogie (1894), pp. 729-735;
Talfourd Ely, " A Cyprian Terracotta," in the Archaeological Journal
(1896); A. Baumeister, Denkmdler des klassischen Alterlums, iii.
(1888).
'For the abbreviation, cf. Lucas, Prisca ( = Priscilla), Sopater
( = Sosipater).
9
SILESIA
SILESIA, the name of a district in the east of Europe, the greater
part of which is included in the German empire and is known as
German Silesia. A smaller part, called Austrian Silesia, is
included in the empire of Austria-Hungary.
German Silesia.
German Silesia is bounded by Brandenburg, Posen, Russian
Poland, Galicia, Austrian Silesia, Moravia, Bohemia and the
kingdom and province of Saxony. Besides the bulk of the old
duchy of Silesia, it comprises the countship of Glatz, a fragment
of the Neumark, and part of Upper Lusatia, taken from the
kingdom of Saxony in 1815. The province, which has an area
of 15,576 sq. m. and is the largest in Prussia, is divided into three
governmental districts, those of Liegnitz and Breslau comprising
lower Silesia, and of Oppeln taking in the greater part of moun-
tainous Silesia.
Physiographically Silesia is roughly divided into a flat and a
hilly portion by the so-called Silesian Langental, which begins
on the south-east near the river Malapane, and extends across the
province in a west-by-north direction to the Black Elster, following
in part the valley of the Oder. The south-east part of the province,
to the east of the Oder and south of the Malapane, consists of a
hilly outpost of the Carpathians, the Tarnowitz plateau, with a
mean elevation of about 1000 ft. To the west of the Oder the land
rises gradually from the Langental towards the southern boundary
of the province, which is formed by the central part of the Sudetic
system, including the Glatz Mountains and the Riesengebirge
(Schneekoppe, 5260 ft.). Among the loftier elevations in advance
of this southern barrier the most conspicuous is the Zobten (2356 ft.).
To the north and north-east of the Oder the province belongs almost
entirely to the great North-German plain, though a hilly ridge, rarely
attaining a height of 1000 ft., may be traced from east to west,
asserting itself most definitely in the Katzengebirge. Nearly the
whole ofSilesia lies within the basin of the Oder, which flows through
it from south-east to north-west, dividing the province into two
approximately equal parts. The Vistula touches the province on
the south-east, and receives a few small tributaries from it, while
on the west the Spree and Black Elster belong to the system of
the Elbe. The Iser rises among the mountains on the south. Among
the chief feeders of the Oder are the Malapane, the Glatzer Neisse,
the Katzbach and the Bartsch ; the Bober and Queiss flow through
Silesia, but join the Oder beyond the frontier. The only lake of
any extent is the Schlawa See, 7 m. long, on the north frontier;
and the only navigable canal, the Klodnitz canal, in the mining
district of upper Silesia. There is a considerable difference in the
climate of Lower and Upper Silesia; some of the villages in the
Riesengebirge have the lowest mean temperature of any inhabited
place in Prussia (below 40 F.).
Of the total area of the province 56% is occupied by arable land,
10-2 % by pasture and meadow, and nearly 29 % by forests. The
soil along the foot of the mountains is generally good, and the district
between Ratibor and Liegnitz, where 70 to 80% of the surface is
under the plough, is reckoned one of the most fertile in Germany.
The parts of lower Silesia adjoining Brandenburg, and also the district
to the east of the Oder, are sandy and comparatively unproductive.
The different cereals are all grown with success, wheat and rye
sometimes in quantity enough for exportation. Flax is still a
frequent crop in the hilly districts, and sugar-beets are raised over
large areas. Tobacco, oil-seeds, chicory and hops may also be
specified, while a little wine, of an inferior quality, is produced near
Griinberg. Mulberry trees for silk-culture have been introduced
and thrive fairly. Large estates are the rule in Silesia, where about
a third of the land is in the hands of owners possessing at least
250 acres, while properties of 50,000 to 100,000 acres are common.
The districts of Oppeln and Liegnitz are among the most richly
wooded parts of Prussia. The merino sheep was introduced by
Frederick the Great, and since then the Silesian breed has been
greatly improved. The woods and mountains harbour large
quantities of game, such as red deer, roedeer, wild boars and hares.
The fishery includes salmon in the Oder, trout in the mountain
streams, and carp in the small lakes or ponds with which the province
is sprinkled.
The great wealth of Silesia, however, lies underground, in the
shape of large stores of coal and other minerals, which have been
worked ever since the I2th century. The coal measures of Upper
Silesia, in the south-east part of the province, are among the most
extensive in continental Europe, and there is another large field
near Waldenburg in the south-west. The output in 1905 exceeded
34 million tons, valued at 12,500,000 sterling, and equal to more
than a quarter of the entire yield of Germany. The district of
Oppeln also contains a great quantity of iron, the production in
1905 amounting to 862,000 tons. The deposits of zinc in the vicinity
of Beuthen arc perhaps the richest in the world, and produce ^two-
thirds of the zinc ore of Germany (609.000 tons). The remaining
mineral products include lead, from which a considerable quantity
of silver is extracted, copper, cobalt, arsenic, the rarer metal cadmium,
alum, brown coal, marble, and a few of the commoner precious
stones, jaspers, agates and amethysts. The province contains
scarcely any salt or brine springs, but there are well-known mineral
springs at Warmbrunn, Salzbrunn and several other places.
A busy manufacturing activity has long been united with the
underground industries of Silesia, and the province in this respect
is hardly excelled by any other part of Prussia. On the plateau of
Tarnowitz the working and smelting of metals is the predominant
industry, and in the neighbourhood of Beuthen, Konigshiitte and
Gleiwitz there is an almost endless succession of iron-works, zinc-
foundries, machine-shops and the like. At the foot of the Riesenge-
birge, and along the southern mountain line generally, the textile
industries prevail. Weaving has been practised in Silesia, on a
large scale, since the I4th century; and Silesian linen still maintains
its reputation, though the conditions of production have greatly
changed. Cotton and woollen goods of all kinds are also made in
large quantities, and among the otherindustrial products are beetroot
sugar, spirits, chemicals, tobacco, starch, paper, pottery, and
" Bohemian glass." Lace, somewhat resembling that of Brussels,
is made by the women of the mountainous districts. The trade of
Silesia is scarcely so extensive as might be expected from its im-
portant industrial activity. On the east it is hampered by the
stringent regulations of the Russian frontier, and the great waterway
of the Oder, though in process of being regulated, is sometimes too
low in summer for navigation. The extension of the railway system
has, however, had its usual effect in fostering commerce, and the
mineral and manufactured products of the province are freely
exported.
At the census of 1905 the population of Silesia was 4,942,611,
of whom 2,120,361 were Protestants, 2,765,394 Catholics and
46,845 Jews. The density is 317 per sq. m., but the average is
of course very greatly exceeded in the industrial districts such
as Beuthen. Three-fourths of the inhabitants and territory are
German, but to the east of the Oder the Poles, more than i. ,000,000
in number, form the bulk of the population, while there are about
1 5,500 Czechs in the south part of the province and 25,000 Wends
near Liegnitz. The Roman Catholics, most of whom are under
the ecclesiastical sway of the prince bishop of Breslau, are
predominant in Upper Silesia and Glatz; the Protestants prevail
in Lower Silesia, to the west of the Oder, and in Lusatia. The
nobility is very numerous in Silesia, chiefly in the Polish districts.
The educational institutions of the province are headed by the
university of Breslau. In 1900 the percentage of illiterate
recruits, in spite of the large Polish-speaking contingent, was only
0-05. The capital and seat of the provincial diet is Breslau
(q.v.), which is also by far the largest and most important town.
The towns next in point of size are Gorlitz, Liegnitz, Konigshiitte,
Beuthen, Schweidnitz, Neisse and Glogau. The province sends
thirty-five members to the Reichstag and sixty-five to the
Prussian chamber of deputies. The government divisions of
Breslau and Oppeln together form the district of the 6th army
corps with its headquarters at Breslau, while Liegnitz belongs
to that of the 5th army corps, the headquarters of which are at
Posen. Glogau, Glatz and Neisse are fortresses.
History. The beginnings of Silesian history do not reach back
beyond the roth century A.D., at which time the district was
occupied by clans of Slavonic nationality, one of which derived
its name from the mountain Zlenz (mod. Zobtenburg), near
Breslau, and thus gave rise to the present appellation of the
whole province. The etymology of place-names suggests that the
original population was Celtic, but this conjecture cannot be
verified in any historical records. About the year 1000 the
Silesian clans were incorporated in the kingdom of Poland,
whose rulers held their ground with difficulty against continuous
attacks by the kings of Bohemia, but maintained themselves
successfully against occasional raids from Germany. The
decisive factor in the separation of Silesia from Poland was
furnished by a partition of the Polish crown's territories in 1138.
Silesia was henceforth constituted as a separate principality,
and in 1201 its political severance from Poland became complete.
A yet more important result of the partition of ir38 was the
transference of Silesia to the German nation. The independent
dynasty which was then established was drawn under the
influence of the German king, Frederick Barbarossa, and two
princes who in 1163 divided the sovereignty among themselves
as dukes of Upper and Lower Silesia inaugurated the policy
SILESIA
9 1
of inviting German colonists to their vacant domains. More
extensive immigrations followed, in the course of which the whole
of Silesia was covered with German settlements. The numerous
townships which then sprang up acquired rights of self-govern-
ment according to German law, Breslau being refounded about
1 250 as a German town, and a feudal organization was introduced
among the landholding nobility. By the end of the i3th century
Silesia had virtually become a German land.
This ethnical transformation was accompanied by a great
rise in material prosperity. Large areas of forest or swamp
were reclaimed for agriculture; the great Silesian industries
of mining and weaving were called into existence, and Breslau
grew to be a leading centre of exchange for the wares of East and
West. The growing resources of the Silesian duchies are exempli-
fied by the strength of the army with which Henry II., duke of
Lower Silesia, broke the force of the Mongol invasion at the
battle of Liegnitz (1241), and by the glamour at the court of the
Minnesinger, Henry IV. (i 266-1 290). This prosperity, however,
was checked by a growing tendency among the Silesian dynasties
to make partitions of their territories at each new succession.
Thus by the end of the i4th century the country had been split
up into 18 principalities: Breslau, Brieg, Glogau, Jauer, Liegnitz,
Miinsterberg, Ols, Schweidnitz and Steinau in Lower Silesia;
Beuthen, Falkenberg, Kosel, Neisse, Oppeln, Ratibor, Strehlitz,
Teschen and Troppau in the upper district. The petty rulers
of these sections wasted their strength with internecine quarrels
and proved quite incompetent to check the lawlessness of their
feudal vassals. Save under the vigorous rule of some dukes
of Lower Silesia, such as Henry I. and Bolko I., and the above-
named Henry II. and IV., who succeeded in reuniting most of
the principalities under their sway, the country fell into a state
of growing anarchy.
Unable to institute an effective national government, and
unwilling to attach themselves again to Poland, the Silesian
princes began about 1290 to seek the protection of the German
dynasty then ruling in Bohemia. The intervention of these
kings resulted in the establishment of their suzerainty over the
whole of Silesia and the appropriation of several of its petty
states as crown domains. The earliest of these Bohemian
overlords, King John and the emperor Charles IV., fully justified
their intrusion by the vigorous way in which they restored order
and regularized the administration; in particular, the cities
at this time attained a high degree of material prosperity and
political importance. Under later rulers the connexion with
Bohemia brought the Silesians no benefit, but involved them
in the destructive Hussite wars. At the outbreak of this conflict
in 1420 they gave ready support to their king Sigismund against
the Bohemian rebels, whom they regarded as dangerous to their
German nationality, but by this act they exposed themselves
to a series of invasions (1425-1435) by which the country was
severely devastated. In consequence of these raids the German
element of population in Upper Silesia permanently lost ground ;
and a complete restitution of the Slavonic nationality seemed
imminent on the appointment of the Hussite, George Podiebrad,
to the Bohemian kingship in 1457. Though most of the Silesian
dynasts seemed ready to acquiesce, the burghers of Breslau
fiercely repudiated the new suzerain, and before he could enforce
his claims to homage he was ousted by the Hungarian king,
Matthias Corvinus, who was readily recognized as overlord (1469).
Matthias enforced his authority by the vigorous use of his
mercenaries and by wholesale confiscations of the lands of turbu-
lent nobles. By instituting a permanent diet of Silesian princes
and estates to co-operate with his vicegerent, he took an important
step towards the abolition of particularism and the establishment
of an effective central government. In spite of these reforms
the Silesians, who felt severely the financial exactions of Matthias,
began to resent the control of the Bohemian crown. Profiting
by the feebleness of Matthias' successor Vladislav, they extorted
concessions which secured to them a practical autonomy.
These privileges still remained to them at the outset of the
religious Reformation, which the Silesians, in spite of their
Catholic zeal during the Hussite wars, accepted readily and
carried out with singularly little opposition from within or
without. But a drastic revolution in their government was
imposed upon them by the German king, Ferdinand I., who
had been prevented from interference during his early reign by
his wars with the Turks, and who showed little disposition to
check the Reformation in Silesia by forcible means, but subse-
quently reasserted the control of the Bohemian crown by a
series of important enactments. He abolished all privileges
which were not secured by charter and imposed a more rigidly
centralized scheme of government in which the activities of the
provincial diet were restricted to some judicial and financial
functions, and their freedom in matters of foreign policy was
withdrawn altogether. Henceforth, too, annexations of territory
were frequently carried out by the Bohemian crown on the
extinction of Silesian dynasties, and the surviving princes showed
an increasing reluctance to the exercise of their authority.
Accordingly the Silesian estates never again chose to exercise
initiative save on rare occasions, and fiom 1550 Silesia passed
almost completely under foreign administration.
An uneventful period followed under the rule of the house of
Habsburg, which united the kingship of Bohemia with the
archduchy of Austria and the imperial crown. But this respite
from trouble was ended by the outbreak of the Thirty Years'
War (1618-48), which brought Silesia to the verge of ruin. Dis-
quieted by some forcible attempts on Rudolph II. 's part to
suppress Protestantism in certain parts of the country, and
mistrusting a formal guarantee of religious liberty which wa.s
given to them in 1609, the Silesians joined hands with the
Bohemian insurgents and renounced their allegiance to their
Austrian ruler. Their defection, which was terminated by a
capitulation in 1621, was not punished severely, but in spite
of their attempt to maintain neutrality henceforth they were
quite unable to secure peace. Silesia remained a principal
objective of the various contending armies and was occupied
almost continuously by a succession of ill-disciplined mercenary
forces whose depredations and exactions, accentuated at times
by religious fanaticism, reduced the country to a state of helpless
misery. Three-quarters of the population are estimated to have
lost their lives, and commerce and industry were brought to a
standstill. Recovery from these disasters was retarded by the
permanent diversion of trade to new centres like Leipzig and
St Petersburg, and by a state of unsettlement due to the govern-
ment's disregard of its guarantees to its Protestant subjects. A
greater measure of religious liberty was secured for the Silesians
by the representatives of King Charles XII. of Sweden on their
behalf, and effective measures were taken by the emperor Charles
VI. to stimulate commercial intercourse between Silesia and
Austria. Nevertheless in the earlier part of the i8th century the
condition of the country still remained unsatisfactory.
An important epoch in the history of Silesia is marked by the
year 1740, when the dominion of Austria was exchanged for that
of Prussia. Availing himself of a testamentary union made in
1537 between the duke of Liegnitz and the elector of Brandenburg,
and of an attempt by the elector Frederick William to call it into
force in spite of its annulment by Ferdinand I. in 1546, Frederick
II. of Prussia raised a claim to the former duchies of .Liegnitz,
Brieg, Jagerndorf and Wohlau. The empress Maria Theresa,
who was at this time involved with other enemies, was unable
to prevent the occupation of Lower Silesia by Frederick and in
1 741 ceded that province to him. In the following year Frederick
renewed his attack and extorted from Austria the whole of
Silesia except the districts of Troppau, Teschen and Jagerndorf,
the present province of Austrian Silesia.
Though constrained by the general dangers of her position to
make terms with Prussia, Maria Theresa long cherished the hope
of recovering a possession which she, unlike her predecessors,
valued highly and held by a far better title than did her opponent.
A second war which Frederick began in 1744 in anticipation of a
counter-attack from her only served to strengthen his hold upon
his recent conquest; but in the famous Seven Years' War (g.ii.)
of 1756-63 the Austrian empress, aided by France and Russia,
almost effected her purpose. Silesia was repeatedly overrun by
SILESIAN WARS SILICA
Austrian and Russian troops, and Frederick's ultimate expulsion
seemed only a question of time. Yet the Prussian king recovered
his lost ground by gigantic efforts and eventually retained his
Silesian territory undiminished.
The annexation by Frederick was followed by a complete
reorganization in which the obsolete powers of the local dynasts
were abolished and Silesia became a mere province of the highly
centralized Prussian state. Owing to the lack of a corporate
Silesian consciousness and the feebleness of their local institutions,
the people soon became reconciled to their change of rulers.
Moreover Frederick, who had proved by his wars the importance
which he attached to Silesia, was indefatigable in times of peace
in his attempts to justify his usurpation. Making yearly visits
to the country, and further keeping himself in touch with it by
means of a special " minister of Silesia," he was enabled to effect
numerous political reforms, chief of which were the strict enforce-
ment of religious toleration and the restriction of oppressive
seignorial rights. By liberal endowments and minute but
judicious regulations he brought about a rapid development of
Silesian industries; in particular he revived the mining and
weaving operations which at present constitute the country's
chief source of wealth.
After its incorporation with Prussia Silesia ceases to have an
independent political history. During the Napoleonic wars it was
partly occupied by French troops (1806-1813), and at the begin-
ning of the War of Liberation it was the chief scene of operations
between the French and the allied armies. In 1815 it was
enlarged by a portion of Lusatia, which had become detached
from Silesia as far back as the nth century and since then had
been annexed to the kingdom of Saxony. During the rest of
the igth century its peace has been interrupted from time to time
by riots of discontented weavers. But the general record of
recent times has been fone of industrial development and
prosperity hardly inferior to that of any other part of Germany.
See C. Griinhagen, Geschichte Schlesiens (2 vols., Gotha, 1884-
1886), and Schlesien unter Friedrich dent Grossen (2 vols., Gotha,
1890-1892) ; M. Morgenbesser, Geschichte von Schlesien (Berlin, 1892) ;
Knotel, Geschichte Oberschlesiens (Kattowitz, 1906); H. Grotefend,
Stammtafeln der schlesischen Fiirsten bis 1740 (Breslau, 1889);
F. Rachfahl, Die Organisation der Gesamlstaatsverwaltung Schlesiens
vor dem dreissigjdhrigen Kriege (Leipzig, 1894); H. Fechner,
Geschichte des schlesischen Berg- und Huttenwesens 1741-1806 (Berlin,
1903) ; see also the Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Geschichte und Altertum
Schlesiens (Breslau, 1855 sqq.), and Oberschlesische Heimat, Zeit-
schrift des ober schlesischen Geschichtsvereins (Oppeln, 1905 sqq.).
Austrian Silesia.
Austrian Silesia (Ger. dsterreichisch-Schlesien) is a duchy and
crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Galicia, S. by Hungary
and Moravia, W. and N. by Prussian Silesia. It has an area of
1987 sq. m. and is the smallest province of Austria. Silesia is
divided by a projecting limb of Moravia into two small parts of
territory, of which the western part is flanked by the Sudetic
mountains, namely the Altvater Gebirge; while the eastern part
is flanked by the Carpathians, namely the Jablunka Gebirge
with their highest peak the Lissa Hora (4346 ft.). A great pro-
portion of the surface of Silesia is occupied by the offshoots of
these ranges. The province is traversed by the Vistula, which
rises in the Carpathians within eastern Silesia, and by the Oder,
with its affluents the Oppa and the Olsa. Owing to its mountain-
ous character, and its slopes towards the N. and N.E., Silesia
has a somewhat severe climate for its latitude, the mean annual
temperature being 50 F., while the annual rainfall varies from
20 to 30 in.
Of the total area 49-4% is arable land, 34-2% is covered by
forests, 6-2% by pasturages, while meadows occupy 5-8% and
gardens 1-3 %. The soil cannot, as a rule, be termed rich, although
some parts are fertile and produce cereals, vegetables, beetroot and
fruit. In the mountainous region dairy-farming is carried on after
the Alpine fashion and the breeding of sheep is improving. Large
herds of geese and pigeons are reared, while hunting and fishing
constitute also important resources. The mineral wealth of Silesia
is great and consists in coal, iron-ore, marble and slate. It possesses
several mineral springs, of which the best known are the alkaline
springs at Karlsbrunn. Like its adjoining provinces, Silesia boasts
of a great and varied industrial activity, chiefly represented by the
metallurgic and textile industries in all their branches. The cloth
and woollen industries are concentrated at Bielitz, Jagerndorf and
Engelsberg; linen is manufactured at Freiwaldau Freudenthal and
Bennisch; cotton goods at Friedek. The iron industry is con-
centrated at Trzinietz, near Teschen, and various industrial and
agricultural machines are manufactured at Troppau, Jagerndorf,
Ustron and Bielitz. The organs manufactured at Jagerndorf enjoy
a good reputation. Other important branches of industry are
chemicals at Hruschau and Petrowitz; sugar refineries, milling,
brewing and liqueurs.
In 1900 the population numbered 680,422, which corresponds
to 342 inhabitants per sq. m. The Germans formed 44-69%
of the population, 33-21% were Poles and 22-05% Czechs
and Slavs. According to religion, 84-73 were Roman Catholics,
14% Protestants and the remainder were Jews. The local diet
is composed of 3 1 members, and Silesia sends 1 2 deputies to the
Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes Silesia is
divided into 9 districts and 3 towns with autonomous munici-
palities: Troppau, the capital, Bielitz and Friedek. Other
principal towns are: Teschen, Polnisch-Ostrau, Jagerndorf,
Karwin, Freudenthal, Freiwaldau and Bennisch.
The actual duchy is only a very small part, which was left
to Austria after the Seven Years' War, from its former province
of the same name. It formed, with Moravia, a single province
until 1849, when it was created a separate duchy.
See F. Slama, Osterreichisch-Schlesien (Prague, 1887); and A.
Peter, Das Herzogtum Schlesien (Vienna, 1884).
SILESIAN WARS, the name given to the contests between
Austria and Prussia for the possession of Silesia. The first (1740-
1742) and second (1744-1745) wars formed a part of the great
European struggle called the War of the Austrian Succession
(q.v.), and the third war (1756-1762) similarly a part of the
Seven Years' War (q.v.).
SILHOUETTE, 1JTIENNE DE (1700-1767), controller-general
of France, was born at Limoges on the 5th of July 1709. He
travelled extensively while still a young man and drew attention
to himself by the publication of English translations, historical
writings, and studies on the financial system of England. Suc-
cessively councillor to the parlement of Metz, secretary to the
duke of Orleans, member of the commission on delimitation of
Franco-British interests in Acadia (1749), and royal commis-
sioner in the Indies Company, he was named controller-general
through the influence of the marquess de Pompadour on the
4th of March 1759. The court at first reposed a blind confidence
in him, but soon perceived not only that he was not a financier
but also that he was bent on attacking privilege by levying a
land-tax on the estates of the nobles and by reducing the pensions.
A storm of opposition gathered and broke: a thousand cartoons
and jokes were directed against the unfortunate minister who
seemed to be resorting to one financial embarrassment in order
to escape another; and in allusion to the sacrifices which he
demanded of the nobles, even the conversion of their table plate
into money, silhouette became the popular word for a figure
reduced to simplest form. The word was eventually (1835)
admitted to the dictionary by the French academy. Silhouette
was forced out of the ministry on the 2ist of November 1759 and
withdrew to Brie-sur-Marne, where during the remainder of
his life he sought refuge from scorn and sarcasm in religious
devotion. He died on the 2oth of January 1 767.
Silhouette left several translations from the English and the
Spanish, accounts of travel, and dull historical and philosophical
writings, a list of which is given in Querard, France litter aire, ix. 138.
A Testament politi^ue, published under his name in 1772, is apochry-
phal. See J. P. Clement and A. Lemoine, M. de Silhouette (Pans,
1872).
SILICA, in chemistry, the name ordinarily given to amorphous
silicon dioxide, Si02. This chemical compound is widely and
most abundantly distributed in nature, both in the free state and
in combination with metallic oxides. Free silica constitutes the
greater part of sand and sandy rocks; when fairly pure it occurs
in the large crystals which we know as quartz (q.v.}, and which,
when coloured, form the gem-stones amethyst, cairngorm,
cats'-eye and jasper. Tridymite (q.v.) is a rarer form, crystallo-
graphically different from quartz. Amorphous forms also occur:
chalcedony (q.v.), and its coloured modifications agate, carnelian,
SILICON
93
onyx and sard, together with opal (qq.v.) are examples. Amorph-
ous silica can be obtained from a silicate (a compound of silica
and a metallic oxide) by fusing the finely powdered mineral
with sodium carbonate, decomposing the sodium silicate thus
formed with hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness to convert
the colloidal silicic acid into insoluble silica, and removing the
soluble chlorides by washing with hot water. On drying, the
silica is obtained as a soft white amorphous powder, insoluble in
water and in all acids except hydrofluoric; it dissolves in hot
solutions of the caustic alkalis and to a less extent in alkali
carbonates. It melts at a high temperature, and in the electric
furnace it may be distilled, the vapours condensing to a bluish-
white powder. By heating a solution of sodium silicate in a glass
vessel the glass is attacked (an acid silicate being formed) and
silica separates at ordinary temperatures in a hydrated amorphous
form, at higher temperatures but below 180 as tridymite, and
above 180 as quartz.
Silicates. These compounds are to be regarded as salts of silicic
acid, or combinations of silicon dioxide and metallic basic oxides;
they are of great importance since they constitute the commonest
rock-forming and many other minerals, and occur in every petro-
graphical species. The parent acid, silicic acid, was obtained by
T. Graham by dialysing a solution of hydrochloric acid to which
sodium silicate had been added; a colloidal silicic acid being re-
tained in the dialyser. This solution may be concentrated until
it contains about 14 % of silica by open boiling, and this solution on
evaporation in a vacuum gives a transparent mass of metasilicic
acid, H 2 SiOs. The solution is a tasteless liquid having a slight acid
reaction; it gradually changes to a clear transparent jelly, which
afterwards shrinks on drying. This coagulation is brought about
very quickly by sodium carbonate, and may be retarded by hydro-
chloric acid or by a solution of a caustic alkali. Several hydrated
forms have been obtained, e.g. 2SiO 2 -H 2 O, SSiCVHjO, 4SiO 2 -H 2 O,
8SiO 2 -H 2 O; these are very unstable, the first two losing water on ex-
posure whilst the others absorb water. The natural silicates may be
regarded as falling into 5 classes, viz. orthosilicates, derived from
Si(OH) 4 ; metasilicates, from SiO(OH) 2 ; disilicates, from Si 2 O 3 (OH) 2 ;
trisilicates, from Si 2 Oe(OH) 2 ; and basic silicates. These acids may
be regarded as derived by the partial dehydration of the ortho-acid.
Another classification is given in METALLURGY ; a list of mineral
silicates is given in MINERALOGY, and for the synthetical production
of these compounds see also PETROLOGY.
SILICON [symbol Si, atomic weight 28-3 (0 = i6)], a non-
metallic chemical element. It is not found in the uncombined
condition, but in combination with other elements it is, with
perhaps the exception of oxygen, the most widely distributed and
abundant of all the elements. It is found in the form of oxide
(silica), either anhydrous or hydrated as quartz, flint, sand,
chalcedony, tridymite, opal, &c., but occurs chiefly in the form
of silicates of aluminium, magnesium, iron, and the alkali and
alkaline earth metals, forming the chief constituent of various
clays, soils and rocks. It has also been found as a constituent of
various parts of plants and has been recognized in the stars.
The element exists in two forms, one amorphous, the other
crystalline. The older methods used for the preparation of the
amorphous form, namely the decomposition of silicon halides
or silicofluorides by the alkali metals, or of silica by magnesium,
do not give good results, since the silicon obtained is always
contaminated with various impurities, but a pure variety may
be prepared according to E. Vigouroux (Ann. Mm. phys., 1897,
(7) 12, p. 1 53) by heating silica with magnesium in the presence of
magnesia, or by heating silica with aluminium. The crystalline
form may be prepared by heating potassium silicofluoride with
sodium or aluminium (F. Wohler, Ann., 1856, 97, p. 266; 1857,
102, p. 382); by heating silica with magnesium in the presence of
zinc (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 186); and by the reduc-
tion of silica in the presence of carbon and iron (H. N. Warren,
Chem. News, 1888, 57, p. 54; 1893, 67, p. 136). Another
crystalline form, differing from the former by its solubility in
hydrofluoric acid, was prepared by H. Moissan and F. Siemens
(Comples rendus, 1904, 138, p. 1299). A somewhat impure
silicon (containing 90-98% of the element) is made by the
Carborundum Company of Niagara Falls (United States Patents
745122 and 842273, 1908) by heating coke and sand in an
electric furnace. The product is a crystalline solid of specific
gravity 2-34, and melts at about 1430 C. See also German
Patent 108817 f r the production of crystallized silicon from
silica and carborundum.
Amorphous silicon is a brown coloured powder, the crystalline
variety being grey, but it presents somewhat different appear-
ances according to the method used for its preparation. The
specific gravity of the amorphous form is 2-35 (Vigouroux),
that of the crystalline variety varying, according to the method
of preparation, from 2-004 to 2-493. The specific heat varies with
the temperature, from 0-136 at -39 C. to 0-2029 a t 232 C.
Silicon distils readily at the temperature of the electric furnace.
It is attacked rapidly by fluorine at ordinary temperature, and
by chlorine when heated in a current of the gas. It undergoes a
slight superficial oxidation when heated in oxygen. It combines
directly with many metals on heating, whilst others merely
dissolve it. When heated with sodium and potassium, appar-
ently no action takes place, but if heated with lithium it forms
a lithium silicide, Li 6 Si 2 (H. Moissan, Complex rendus, 1902, 134,
p. 1083). It decomposes ammonia at a red heat, liberating
hydrogen and yielding a compound containing silicon and nitro-
gen. It reduces many non-metallic oxides. It is only soluble
in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acid, or in solutions of the
caustic alkalis, in the latter case yielding hydrogen and a silicate:
Si-f-2KHO+H 2 O = K 2 SiO3+2H2. On fusion with alkaline car-
bonates and hydroxides it undergoes oxidation to silica which
dissolves on the excess of alkali yielding an alkaline silicate.
Silicon hydride, SiHj, is obtained in an impure condition, as a
spontaneously inflammable gas, by decomposing magnesium silicide
with hydrochloric acid, or by the direct union of silicon and hydrogen
in the electric arc. In the pure state it may be prepared by decom-
posing ethyl silicoformate in the presence of sodium (C. Fnedel and
A. Ladenburg, Comptes rendus, 1867,64, pp. 359, 1267) ;4Si(OC 2 H 5)3 =
SiH4+3Si(OC 2 H 6 ) 4 . When pure, it is a colourless gas which is not
spontaneously inflammable at ordinary temperature and pressure,
but a slight increase of temperature or decrease of pressure sets up
decomposition. It is almost insoluble in water. It burns when
brought into contact with chlorine, forming silicon chloride and
hydrochloric acid. It decomposes solutions of silver nitrate and
copper sulphate. A second hydride of silicon, of composition
Si 2 Hs, was prepared by H. Moissan and S. Smiles (Comptes rendus,
1902, pp. 569, 1549) from the products obtained in the action of
hydrochloric acid on magnesium silicide. These are passed through
a vessel surrounded by a freezing mixture and on fractionating the
product the hydride distils over as a colourless liquid which boils at
52 C. It is also obtained by the decomposition of lithium silicide
with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Its vapour is spontaneously
inflammable when exposed to air. It behaves as a reducing agent.
For a possible hydride (Si 2 H 3 ) n see J. Ogier, Ann. chim. phys., 1880,
(5), 20, p. 5.
Only one oxide of silicon, namely the dioxide or silica, is known
(see SILICA).
Silicon fluoride, SiF<, is formed when silicon is brought into contact
with fluorine (Moissan) ; or by decomposing a mixture of acid potas-
sium fluoride and silica, or of calcium fluoride and silica with concen-
trated sulphuric acid. It is a colourless, strongly fuming gas which has
a suffocating smell. It is decomposed with great violence when heated
in contact with either sodium or potassium. It combines directly
with ammonia to form the compound SiF<-2NH3, and is absorbed by
dry boric acid and by many metallic oxides. Water decomposes it
into silicofluoric acid and silicic acid: 3SiF4-t-3H 2 O=2H 2 SiF 6 +
r^SiOj. With potassium hydroxide it yields potassium silicofluoride,
whilst with sodium hydroxide, sodium fluoride is produced: 3SiF4 =
4KHO=SiO 2 -f-2K 2 SiF 6 -|-2H 2 O; SiF 4 +4NaOH = SiO 2 +4NaF-|-
2H 2 O. It combines directly with Acetone and with various amines.
Silicon fluoroform, SiHFs, was obtained by O. Ruff and Curt Albert
(Ber., 1905, 38, p. 53) by decomposing titanium fluoride with silicon
chloroform in sealed vessels at 100-120 C. It is a colourless gas
which may be condensed to a liquid boiling at -80-2 C. On
solidification it melts at about -IIO C. The gas is very unstable,
decomposing slowly, even at ordinary temperatures, into hydrogen,
silicon fluoride and silicon: 4SiHF3=2H 2 +3SiF4+Si. It burns with
a pale-blue flame forming silicon fluoride, silicofluoric acid and
silicic acid. It is decomposed readily by water, sodium hydroxide,
alcohol and ether:
2SiHF a +4H 2 O = H 4 Si0 4 +H 2 SiF 6 -f 2H 2 ;
SiHF 3 +3NaOH-fH 2 O = H < SiO 4 -(-3NaF-fH 2 ;
2SiHF 3 +4C 2 H 6 OH=Si(OC 2 H 6 )4+H 2 SiF+2H 2 ;
SiHF 8 +3(C2H s )20=SiH(OC 2 H 6 ) 3 +3CjH 4 F.
Silicofluoric acid, H 2 SiFe, is obtained as shown above, and also by the
action of sulphuric acid on barium silicofluoride, or by absorbing
silicon fluoride in aqueous hydrofluoric acid. The solution on
evaporation deposits a hydrated form, H 2 SiF6-2H 2 O, which decom-
poses when heated. The anhydrous acid is not known, since on
94
SILISTRIA
evaporating the aqueous solution it gradually decomposes into silicon
fluoride and hydrofluoric acid.
Silicon chloride, SiCU, was prepared by J. J. Berzelius (Jahresb.,
1825,4. p. 91) by the action of chlorine on silicon, and is also ob-
tained when an intimate mixture of silica and carbon is heated in a
stream of chlorine and the products of reaction fractionated. It is a
very stable colourless liquid which boils at 58 C. .Oxygen only
attacks it at very high temperatures. When heated with the alkali
and alkaline earth metals it yields silicon and the corresponding
metallic chlorides. Water decomposes it into hydrochloric and
silicic acids. It combines directly with ammonia gas to form
SiCU-6NH,, and it also serves as the starting point for the prepara-
tion of numerous organic derivatives of silicon. The hexachloride,
Si 2 Cl 6 , is formed when silicon chloride vapour is passed over strongly
heated silicon ; by the action of chlorine on the corresponding iodo-
compound, or by heating the iodo-compound with mercuric chloride
(C. Friedel, Comptes rendus, 1871, 73, p. 497). It is a colourless
fuming liquid which boils at 146-148 C. It is decomposed by water,
and also when heated between 350* and 1000 C., but it is stable both
below and above these temperatures. The octochloride, Si 3 Cl 8 , is
formed to the extent of about i to I % in the action of chlorine on
silicon (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 1114). It is a colourless
liquid which boils at 210 C. Water decomposes it with the forma-
tion of silico-mesoxalic acid, HOOSi-Si(OH) 2 -SiOOH. Silicon chloro-
form, SiHCl ? , first prepared by H. Buff and F. Wohler (Ann., 1857,
104, p. 94), is formed by heating crystallized silicon in hydrochloric
acid gas at a temperature below red heat, or by the action of hydro-
chloric acid gas on copper silicide, the products being condensed
by liquid air and afterwards fractionated (O. Ruff and Curt Albert,
Ber., 1905, 38, p. 2222). It is a colourless liquid which boils at 33 C.
It fumes in air and burns with a green flame. It is decomposed by
cold water with the formation of silicoformic anhydride, H 2 Si 2 O 3 .
It unites directly _with ammonia gas yielding a compound of variable
composition. It is decomposed by chlorine.
Similar bromo-compounds of composition SiBr 4 , Si 2 Br 6 and SiHBr 3
are known. Silicon tetraiodide, SiI 4 , is formed by passing iodine
vapour mixed with carbon dioxide over strongly-heated silicon (C.
Friedel, Comptes rendus, 1868, 67, p. 98); the iodo-compound con-
denses in the colder portion of the apparatus and is purified by
shaking with carbon bisulphide and with mercury. It crystallizes in
octahedra which melt at 120-5 C. and boil at 290 C. Its vapour
burns with a red flame. It is decomposed by alcohol and also by
ether when heated to 100 C.: SiI 4 +2C 2 H 6 OH =SiO 2 +2C 2 HJ +
2HI ; SiI 4 +4(C 2 H 6 ) 2 = Si(OC 2 H 5 ) 4 +4C 2 H 6 I. The hexaiodide, Si 2 I 6 ,
is obtained by heating the tetraiodide with finely divided silver to
300 C. It crystallizes in hexagonal prisms which exhibit double
refraction. It is soluble in carbon bisulphide, and is decomposed by
water and also by heat, in the latter case yielding the tetraiodide and
the di-iodide, Si 2 I 4 , an orange-coloured solid which is not soluble in
carbon bisulphide. Silicon iodoform, SiHI 3 , is formed by the action
of hydriodic acid on silicon, the product, which contains silicon
tetraiodide, being separated by fractionation. It is also obtained by
the action of hydriodic acid on silicon nitrogen hydride suspended
in carbon bisulphide, or by the action of a benzene solution of hydri-
odic acid on trianilino-silicon hydride (O. Ruff, Ber., 1907, 41, p.
3738). It is a colourless, strongly refracting liquid, which boils at
about 220 C., slight decomposition setting in above 150 C. Water
decomposes it with production of leucone. Numerous chloro-iodides
and bromoiodides of silicon have been described.
Silicon nitrogen hydride, SiNH, is a white powder formed with
silicon amide when ammonia gas (diluted with hydrogen) is brought
into contact with the vapour of silicon chloroform at -10 C
Trianilino silicon hydride, SiH(NHC6H 6 ) 3 , is obtained by the action of
aniline on a benzene solution of silicon chloroform. It crystallizes
in needles which decompose at 114 C. Silicon amide, Si(NH 2 ) 4 , is
obtained as a white amorphous unstable solid by the action of dry
ammonia on silicon chloride at -50 C. (E. Vigouroux and C. Hugot,
Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1670). It is readily decomposed by
water: Si(NH 2 ) 4 +2H 2 O=4NH 3 +SiO 2 . Above o C. it decom-
poses thus: Si(NH 2 ) 4 = 2HN 3 +Si(NH) 2 .
Silicon sulphide, SiS^ is formed by the direct union of silicon with
sulphur; by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on crystallized
silicon at red heat (P. Sabatier, Comptes rendus, 1880, 90, p. 819);
or by passing the vapour of carbon bisulphide over a heated mixture
of silica and carbon. It crystallizes in needles which rapidly de-
compose when exposed to moist air. By heating crystallized silicon
with boron in the electric furnace H. Moissan and A. Stock (Comptes
rendus, 1900, 131, p. 139) obtained two borides, SiB 3 and SiB 6 .
They are both very stable crystalline solids. The former is com-
gletely decomposed when fused with caustic potash and the latter
y a prolonged boiling with nitric acid. For silicon carbide see
carborundum. Numerous methods have been given for the prepara-
tion of magnesium silicide, Mg 2 Si, in a more or less pure state, but the
pure substance appears to have been obtained by P. Lebeau (Comptes
rendus, 1908, 146, p. 282) in the following manner. Alloys of
magnesium and silicon are prepared by heating fragments of mag-
nesium with magnesium filings and potassium silico-fluoride. From
the alloy containing 25% of sjlicon, the excess of magnesium is
removed by a mixture of ethyl iodide and ether and a residue con-
sisting of slate-blue octahedral crystals of magnesium silicide is left.
It decomposes water at ordinary temperature with evolution of
hydrogen but without production of silicon hydride, whilst cold
hydrochloric acid attacks it vigorously with evolution of hydrogen
and spontaneously inflammable silicon hydride.
Organic Derivatives of Silicon.
The organic derivatives of silicon resemble the corresponding
carbon compounds except in so far that the silicon atom is not
capable of combining with itself to form a complex chain in the
same manner as the carbon atom, the limit at present being a chain
of three silicon atoms. Many of the earlier-known silicon alkyl
compounds were isolated by Friedel and Crafts and by Ladenburg,
the method adopted consisting in the interaction of the zinc alkyl
compounds with silicon halides or esters of silicic acids. SiCl 4 +
2Zn(C 2 H 5 ) 2 = 2ZnCl 2 +Si(C 2 H 6 ) 4 . This method has been modified by
F. S. Kipping (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1901, 79, p. 449) and F. Taurke
(B er., 1905, 38, p. 1663) by condensing silicon halides with alkyl
chlorides m the presence of sodium: SiCl 4 +4R-Cl+8Na =
SiR 4 +8NaCl;SiHCl3-t-3R-Cl+6Na=SiHR 3 +6NaCl;whilstKi P ping
(froc. Chem. Soc., 1904, 20, p. 15) has used silicon halides with the
Ongnard reagent : C 2 H 6 MgBr(+SiCl 4 ) >C 2 H 6 SiCl 3 (-r-MgBrPh)
Ph.C 2 H 6 .SiCl 2 (+MgBrC 3 H 7 )->Ph-C 2 H 6 .C 3 H 7 .SiCl
Silicon Tetramethyl, Si(CH 3 ) 4 (tetramethyl silicane), and silicon
tetraethyl, StCCjHjU are both liquids. The latter reacts with
chlorine to give silicon nonyl-chloride Si(C 2 Hf,) 3 -C 2 H 4 Cl, which
condenses with potassium acetate to give the acetic ester of silicon
nonyl alcohol from which the alcohol (a camphor-smelling liquid)
may be obtained by hydrolysis. Triethyl silicol, (C 2 H 6 ) 3 Si-OH, is a
true alcohol, obtained by condensing zinc ethyl with silicic ester the
resulting substance of composition, (C 2 H 6 )3-SiOC 2 H 6 , with acetyl
chloride yielding a chloro-compound (C 2 H 6 ) 3 SiCl, which with aqueous
ammonia yields the alcohol. Silicon tetraphenyl, Si(C 6 H 6 ) 4 , a solid
melting at 231 C., is obtained by the action of chlorobenzene on
silicon tetrachlonde in the presence of sodium. Silica-oxalic acid,
(biO-OH) 2 , obtained by decomposing silicon hexachloride with ice-
cold water, is an unstable solid which is readily decomposed by the
inorganic bases, with evolution of hydrogen and production of a
silicate. Silicomesoxalic acid, HO-OSiSi(OH) 2 -SiO-OH, formed by
the action of moist air on silicon octochloride at o C., is very unstable,
and hot water decomposes it with evolution of hydrogen and forma-
tion of silicic acid (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 1114). Silico-
benzmc acid, C 6 H 6 -SiO-OH, results from the action of dilute aqueous
ammonia on phenyl silicon chloride (obtained from mercury diphenyl
and silicon tetrachloride). It is a colourless solid which melts at
92 C. For silicon derivatives of the amines see Michaelis, Ber.,
1896, so, p. 710; on asymmetric silicon and the resolution of
<tt-benzyl-ethyl-propyl-silicol see F. S. Kipping, Jour. Chem. Soc
!97. 91. PP- 209 et seq.
The atomic weight of silicon has been determined usually by
analysis of the halide compounds or by conversion of the halides
into silica. The determination of W. Becker and G. Meyer (Zeit.
anorg. Chem., 1905, 43, p. 251) gives the value 28-21, and the Inter-
national Commission in 1910 has adopted the value 28-3.
SILISTRIA (Bulgarian Silistra), the chief town of a department
in Bulgaria and the see of an archbishop, situated on a low-lying
peninsula projecting into the Danube, 81 m. below Rustchuk
and close to the frontier of the Rumanian Dobrudja. Pop. (1892)
11,718; (1900) 12,133; (1908) 12,055, of whom 6142 were
Bulgarians and 4126 Turks. The town was formerly a fortress
of great strength, occupying the N.E. corner of the famous
quadrilateral (Rustchuk, Silistra, Shumla, Varna), but its
fortifications were demolished in accordance with the Berlin
Treaty (1877). In the town is a large subterranean cavern, the
Houmbata, which served as a refuge for its inhabitants during
frequent bombardments. The principal trade is in cereals;
wine and wood are also exported. The town is surrounded by
fine vineyards, some 30 kinds of grapes being cultivated, and
tobacco is grown. Sericulture, formerly a flourishing industry,
has declined owing to a disease of the silk-worms, but efforts
have been made to revive it. Apiculture is extensively practised
and there are large market-gardens in the neighbourhood.
The soil of the department is fertile, but lacking in water; the
inhabitants have excavated large receptacles in which rain-water
is stored. A considerable area is still covered with forest, to
which the region owes its name of Deli Orman (" the wild wood") ;
there are extensive tracts of pasturage, but cattle-rearing declined
in 1880-1910. A large cattle-fair, lasting three days, is held in
May. The town possessed in 1910 one steam flour-mill and some
cloth factories and tanneries.
Silistria was the Durostorum of the Romans (Bulgarian
Drstr) ; the ancient name remains in the title of the archbishop,
who is styled metropolitan of Dorostol, and whose diocese is now
SILIUS ITALICUS
95
united with that of Tcherven (Rustchuk). It was one of the most
important towns of Moesia Inferior and was successively the
headquarters of the legio I. (Italica) and the legio XI. (Claudia).
It was defended by the Bulgarian tsar Simeon against the
Magyars and Greeks in 893. In 967 it was captured by the
Russian prince Sviatoslav, whom the Byzantine emperor
Nicephorus Phocas had summoned to his assistance. In 971
Sviatoslav, after a three months' heroic defence, surrendered the
town to the Byzantines, who had meanwhile become his enemies.
In 1388 it was captured by the Turks under Ali Pasha, the grand
vizier of the sultan Murad. A few years later it seems to have
been in the possession of the Walachian prince Mircea, but
after his defeat by Mahommed I. in 1416 it passed finally into
the hands of the Turks. Silistria flourished under Ottoman rule;
Hajji Khalifa describes it as the most important of all the Danu-
bian towns; a Greek metropolitan was installed here with five
bishops under his control and a settlement of Ragusan merchants
kept alive its commercial interests. In 1810 the town was
surrendered to the Russians under Kamenskiy, who destroyed its
fortifications before they withdrew, but they were rebuilt by
foreign engineers, and in 1828-1829 were strong enough to offer
a serious resistance to the Russians under Diebich, who captured
the town with the loss of 3000 men. At that date the population
including the garrison was 24,000, but in 1837 it was only about
4000. The town was held in pledge by the Russians for the pay-
ment of a war indemnity (1829-1836). During the campaign
of 1854 it was successfully defended by General Krach against
the Russians under Paskievich; the circuit of its defences had
been strengthened before this time by the outlying fortresses
Medjid-tabia (built by English engineers) and Arab-tabia. It
was again invested by the Russians in 1877, and on the con-
clusion of peace was evacuated by the Turks. (J. D. B.)
SILIUS ITALICUS, in full TITUS CATIUS SILIUS ITALICUS
(A.D. 25 or 26-101), Latin epic poet. His birthplace is unknown.
From his cognomen Italicus the conclusion has been drawn
that he came from the town of Italica in Spain; but Latin
usage would in that case have demanded the form Italicensis,
and it is highly improbable that Martial would have failed to
name him among the literary celebrities of Spain in the latter
half of the ist century. The conjecture that Silius derived
from Italica, the capital of the Italian confederation during the
Social War, is open to still stronger objection. Most likely
some ancestor of the poet acquired the title " Italicus " from
having been a member of one of the corporations of "Italici"
who are often mentioned in inscriptions from Sicily and else-
where. In early life Silius was a renowned forensic orator,
later a safe and cautious politician, without ability or ambition
enough to be legitimately obnoxious to the cruel rulers under
whom he lived. But mediocrity was hardly an efficient protec-
tion against the murderous whims of Nero, and Silius was
generally believed to have secured at once his own safety and
his promotion to the consulship by prostituting his oratorical
powers in the judicial farces which often ushered in the doom
of the emperor's victims. He was consul in the year of Nero's
death (68), and is mentioned by Tacitus as having been one of
two witnesses who were present at the conferences between
Vitellius and Flavius Sabinus, the elder brother of Vespasian,
when the legions from the East were marching rapidly on the
capital. The life of Silius after his consulship is well depicted
by the younger Pliny: " He conducted himself wisely and
courteously as the friend of the luxurious and cruel Vitellius;
he won repute by his proconsulship of Asia, and obliterated
by the praiseworthy use he made of his leisure the stain he had
incurred through his active exertions in former days. In dignity
and contentment, avoiding power and therefore hostility, he
outlived the Flavian dynasty, keeping to a private station after
his governorship of Asia. " His poem contains only two passages
relating to the Flavians; in both Domitian is eulogized as a
warrior; in one he figures as a singer whose lyre is sweeter
than that of Orpheus himself. Silius was a great student and
patron of literature and art, and a passionate collector. Two
great Romans of the past, Cicero and Virgil, were by him idealized
and veritably worshipped; and he was the happy possessor
of their estates at Tusculum and Naples. The later life of Silius
was passed on the Campanian shore, hard by the tomb of Virgil,
at which he offered the homage of a devotee. He closely emu-
lated the lives of his two great heroes: the one he followed in
composing epic verse, the other in debating philosophic questions
with his friends of like tastes. Among these was Epictetus, who
judged him to be the most philosophic spirit among the Romans
of his time, and Cornutus, the Stoic, rhetorician and grammarian,
who appropriately dedicated to Silius a commentary upon
Virgil. Though the verse of Silius is not wrapped in Stoic gloom
like that of Lucan, yet Stoicism lends in many places a not
ungraceful gravity to his poem. Silius was one of the numerous
Romans of the early empire who had the courage of their opinions,
and carried into perfect practice the theory of suicide adopted
by their school. Stricken by an incurable tumour, he starved
himself to death, keeping a cheerful countenance to the end.
Whether Silius committed to writing his philosophic dialogues
or not, we cannot say. Chance has preserved to us his epic
poem entitled Punica, in seventeen books, and comprising
some fourteen thousand lines. In choosing the Second Punic
War for his subject, Silius had, we know, many predecessors,
as he doubtless had many followers. From the time of Naevius
onwards every great military struggle in which the Romans
had been engaged had found its poet over and over again. In
justice to Silius and Lucan, it should be observed that the
mythologic poet had a far easier task than the historic. In a
well-known passage Petronius pointedly describes the difficulties
of the historic theme. A poet, he said, who should take upon
him the vast subject of the civil wars would break down beneath
the burden unless he were " full of learning," since he would
have not merely to record facts, which the historians did much
better, but must possess an unshackled genius, to which full
course must be given by the use of digressions, by bringing
divine beings on to the stage, and by giving generally a mytho-
logic tinge to the subject. The Latin laws of the historic epic
were fixed by Ennius, and were still binding when Claudian
wrote. They were never seriously infringed, except by Lucan,
who substituted for the dei ex machina of his predecessors the
vast, dim and imposing Stoic conception of destiny. By pro-
tracted application, and being " full of learning," Silius had
acquired excellent recipes for every ingredient that went to the
making of the conventional historic epic. Though he is not
named by Quintilian, he is probably hinted at in the mention of a
class of poets who, as the writer says, " write to show their
learning." To seize the moments in the history, however un-
important, which were capable of picturesque treatment; to
pass over all events, however important, which could not readily
be rendered into heroics; to stuff out the somewhat modern
heroes to something like Homeric proportions; to subject all
their movements to the passions and caprices of the Olympians;
to ransack the poetry of the past for incidents and similes
on which a slightly new face might be put; to foist in by well-
worn artifices episodes, however strange to the subject, taken
from the mythologic or historic glories of Rome and Greece,
all this Silius knew how to do. He did it all with the languid
grace of the inveterate connoisseur, and with a simplicity foreign
to his time, which sprang in part from cultivated taste and
horror of the venturesome word, and in part from the subdued
tone of a life which had come unscathed through the reigns of
Caligula, Nero and Domitian. The more threadbare the theme,
and the more worn the machinery, the greater the need of
genius. Two of the most rigid requirements of the ancient epic
were abundant similes and abundant single combats. But all
the obvious resemblances between the actions of heroic man and
external nature had long been worked out, while for the renova-
tion of the single combat little could be done till the hero of the
Homeric type was replaced by the medieval knight. Silius,
however, had perfect poetic appreciation, with scarce a trace
of poetic creativeness. No writer has ever been more correctly
and more uniformly judged by contemporaries and by posterity
alike. Only the shameless flatterer, Martial, ventured to call
9 6
SILK
his friend a poet as great as Virgil. But the younger Pliny
gently says that he wrote poems with greater diligence than
talent, and that, when, according to the fashion of the time,
he recited them to his friends, " he sometimes found out what
men really thought of them. " It is indeed strange that the
poem lived on. Silius is never mentioned by ancient writers
after Pliny except Sidonius, who, under different conditions
and at a much lower level, was such another as he. Since the
discovery of Silius by Poggio, no modern enthusiast has arisen to
sing his praises. His poem has been rarely edited since the i8th
century. Yet, by the purity of his taste and his Latin in an
age when taste was fast becoming vicious and Latin corrupt,
by his presentation to us of a type of a thousand vanished Latin
epics, and by the historic aspects of his subject, Silius merits
better treatment from scholars than he has received. The
general reader he can hardly interest again. He is indeed of
imitation all compact, and usually dilutes what he borrows;
he may add a new beauty, but new strength he never gives.
Hardly a dozen lines anywhere are without an echo of Virgil,
and there are frequent admixtures of Lucretius, Horace, Ovid,
Lucan, Homer, Hesiod and many other poets still extant.
If we could reconstitute the library of Silius we should probably
find that scarcely an idea or a phrase in his entire work was
wholly his own.
The raw material of the Punica was supplied in the main by
the third decade of Livy, though Silius may have consulted other
historians of the Hannibalic war. Such facts as are used are
generally presented with their actual circumstances unchanged,
and in their historic sequence. The spirit of the Punic times is
but rarely misconceived as when to secret voting is attributed
the election of men like Flaminius and Varro, and distinguished
Romans are depicted as contending in a gladiatorial exhibition.
Silius clearly intended the poem to consist of twenty-four books,
like the Iliad and the Odyssey, but after the twelfth he hurries in
visible weariness to the end, and concludes with seventeen. The
general plan of the epic follows that of the Iliad and the Aeneid.
Its theme is conceived as a duel between two mighty nations,
with parallel dissensions among the gods. Scipio and Hannibal
are the two great heroes who take the place of Achilles and
Hector on the one hand and of Aeneas and Turnus on the other,
while the minor figures are all painted with Virgilian or Homeric
pigments. In the delineation of character our poet is neither
very powerful nor very consistent. His imagination was too
weak to realize the actors with distinctness and individuality.
His Hannibal is evidently at the outset meant for an incarnation
of cruelty and treachery, the embodiment of all that the vulgar
Roman attached to the name " Punic. " But in the course of
the poem the greatness of Hannibal is borne in upon the poet,
and his feeling of it betrays itself in many touches. Thus he
names Scipio " the great Hannibal of Ausonia "; he makes
Juno assure the Carthaginian leader that if fortune had only
permitted him to be born a Roman he would have been admitted
to a place among the gods; and, when the ungenerous monster
of the first book accords in the fifteenth a splendid burial to
Marcellus, the poet cries, " You would fancy it was a Sidonian
chief who had fallen. " Silius deserves little pity for the failure
of his attempt to make Scipio an equipoise to Hannibal and the
counterpart in personal prowess and prestige of Achilles. He
becomes in the process almost as mythical a figure as the medieval
Alexander. The best drawn of the minor characters are Fabius
Cunctator, an evident copy of Lucan's Cato, and Paul! us, the
consul killed at Cannae, who fights, hates and dies like a genuine
man.
Clearly it was a matter of religion with Silius to repeat and
adapt all the striking episodes of Homer and Virgil. Hannibal
must have a shield of marvellous workmanship like Achilles and
Aeneas; because Aeneas descended into Hades and had a vision
of the future history of Rome, so must Scipio have his revelation
from heaven; Trebia, choked with bodies, must rise in ire like
Xanthus, and be put to flight by Vulcan; for Virgil's Camilla
there must be an Asbyte, heroine of Saguntum; the beautiful
speech of Euryalus when Nisus seeks to leave him is too good to
be thrown away furbished up a little, it will serve as a parting
address from Imilce to her husband Hannibal. The descriptions
of the numerous battles are made up in the main, according to
epic rule, of single combats wearisome sometimes in Homer,
wearisome oftener in Virgil, painfully wearisome in Silius. The
different component parts of the poem are on the whole fairly
well knit together, and the transitions are not often needlessly
abrupt; yet occasionally incidents and episodes are introduced
with all the irrelevancy of the modern novel. The interposition
of the gods is, however, usually managed with dignity and
appropriateness.
As to diction and detail, we miss, in general, power rather
than taste. The metre runs on with correct smooth monotony,
with something always of the Virgilian sweetness, though
attenuated, but nothing of the Virgilian variety and strength.
The dead level of literary execution is seldom broken by a rise
into the region of genuine pathos and beauty, or by a descent
into the ludicrous or the repellent. There are few absurdities,
but the restraining force is trained perception and not a native
sense of humour, which, ever present in Homer, not entirely
absent in Virgil, and sometimes finding grim expression in Lucan,
fails Silius entirely. The address of Anna, Dido's sister, to Juno
compels a smile. Though deified on her sister's death, and for
a good many centuries already an inhabitant of heaven, Anna
meets Juno for the first time on the outbreak of the Second
Punic War, and deprecates the anger of the queen of heaven for
having deserted the Carthaginians and attached herself to the
Roman cause. Hannibal's parting address to his child is also
comical: he recognizes in the " heavy wailing " of the year-old
babe " the seeds of rages like his own." But Silius might have
been forgiven for a thousand more weaknesses than he has if
in but a few things he had shown strength. The grandest scenes
in the history before him fail to lift him up; his treatment,
for example, of Hannibal's Alpine passage falls immensely below
Lucan's vigorous delineation of Cato's far less stirring march
across the African deserts.
But in the very weaknesses of Silius we may discern merit.
He at least does not try to conceal defects of substance by
contorted rhetorical conceits and feebly forcible exaggerations.
In his ideal of what Latin expression should be he comes near
to his contemporary Quintilian, and resolutely holds aloof from
the tenor of his age. Perhaps his want of success with the men
of his time was not wholly due to his faults. His self-control
rarely fails him; it stands the test of the horrors of war, and of
Venus working her will on Hannibal at Capua. Only a few
passages here and there betray the true silver Latin extravagance.
In the avoidance of rhetorical artifice and epigrammatic antithesis
Silius stands in marked contrast to Lucan, yet at times he can
write with point. Regarded merely as a poet he may not deserve
high praise; but, as he is a unique specimen and probably the
best of a once numerous class, the preservation of his poem among
the remains of Latin Literature is a fortunate accident.
The poem was discovered in a MS., possibly at Constance, by
Poggio, in 1416 or 1417; from this now lost MS. all existing MSS.,
which belong entirely to the I5th century, are derived. A valuable
MS. of the 8th or 9th century, found at Cologne by L. Carrion in the
latter part of the i6th century, disappeared soon after its discovery.
Two editiones principes appeared at Rome in 1471; the principal
editions since have been those of Heinsius (1600), Drakenborch
(1717), Ernesti (Leipzig, I7gi)iand L. Bauer (1890). The Punica
is included in the second edition of the Corpus poetarum Latinorum.
A useful variorum edition is that of Lemaire (Paris, 1823). Recent
writing on Silius is generally in the form of separate articles or small
pamphlets: but see H. E. Butler, Post-Augustan Poetry (1909),
chap x. (J.S. R.)
SILK, a fibrous substance produced by many insects, princi-
pally in the form of a cocoon or covering within which the
creatures are enclosed and protected during the period of their
principal transformations. The webs and nests, &c., formed
by spiders are also of silk. But the fibres used for manufacturing
purposes are exclusively produced by the mulberry silk-moth
of China, Bombyx mori, and a few other moths closely allied to
that insect. Among the Chinese the name of the silkworm is
" si, " Korean " soi "; to the ancient Greeks it became known
SILK
97
as <7i7p, the nation whence it came was to them Srjpes, and the
fibre itself aripiKov, whence the Latin sericum, the French sole,
the German Seide and the English silk.
History. The silk industry originated in China; and according
to native records it has existed there from a very remote period.
The empress, known as the lady of Si-ling, wife of a famous
emperor, Huang-ti (2640 B.C.), encouraged the cultivation of
the mulberry tree, the rearing of the. worms and the reeling
of silk. This empress is said to have devoted herself personally
to the care of silkworms, and she is by the Chinese credited with
the invention of the loom. A voluminous ancient literature
testifies not only to the antiquity but also to the importance of
Chinese sericulture, and to the care and attention bestowed
on it by royal and noble families. The Chinese guarded the
secrets of their valuable art with vigilant jealousy; and there
is no doubt that many centuries passed before the culture spread
beyond the country of its origin. Through Korea a knowledge
of the silkworm and its produce reached Japan, but not before
the early part of the 3rd century. One of the most ancient
books of Japanese history, the Nihongi, states that towards
A.D. 300 some Koreans were sent from Japan to China to engage
competent people to teach the arts of weaving and preparing
silk goods. They brought with them four Chinese girls, who
instructed the court and the people in the art of plain and
figured weaving; and to the honour of these pioneer silk weavers
a temple was erected in the province of Settsu. Great efforts
were made to encourage the industry, which from that period
grew into one of national importance. At a period probably
little later a knowledge of the working of silk travelled westward,
and the cultivation of the silkworm was established in India.
According to a tradition the eggs of the insect and the seed
of the mulberry tree were carried to India by a Chinese princess
concealed in the lining of her head dress. The fact that seri-
culture was in India first estalished in the valley of the Brahma-
putra and in the tract lying between that river and the Ganges
renders it probable that it was introduced overland from the
Chinese empire. From the Ganges valley the silkworm was
slowly carried westward and spread in Khotan, Persia and the
states of Central Asia.
Most critics recognize in the obscure word d'meseq or d'mesheq,
Amos iii. 12, a name of silk corresponding to the Arabic dimalfs,
late Greek fjxra^a , English damask, and also follow the ancients in
understanding meshi, Ezek. xvi. 10, 13, of " silken gauze." But
the first notice of the silkworm in Western literature occurs in
Aristotle, Hist. anim. v. 19 (17), n (6), where he speaks of " a
great worm which has horns and so differs from others. At its
first metamorphosis it produces a caterpillar, then a bombylius
and lastly a chrysalis all these changes taking place within six
months. From this animal women separate and reel off the
cocoons and afterwards spin them. It is said that this was first
spun in the island of Cos by Pamphile, daughter of Plates."
Aristotle's vague knowledge of the worm may have been derived
from information acquired by the Greeks with Alexander the
Great; but long before this time raw silk must have begun to
be imported at Cos, where it was woven into a gauzy tissue, the
famous Coa vestis, which revealed rather than clothed the form.
Towards the beginning of the Christian era raw silk began to
form an important and costly item among the prized products
of the East which came to Rome. Allusions to silk and its source
became common in classical literature; but, although these
references show familiarity with the material, they are singularly
vague and inaccurate as to its source; even Pliny knew nothing
more about the silkworm than could be learned from Aristotle's
description. The silken textures which at first found their way
to Rome were necessarily of enormous cost, and their use by men
was deemed a piece of effeminate luxury. From an anecdote of
Aurelian, who neither used silk himself nor would allow his wife
to possess a single silken garment, we learn that silk was worth
its weight in gold.
Notwithstanding its price and the restraints otherwise put on
the use of silk the trade grew. Under Justinian a monopoly of
the trade and manufacture was reserved to the emperor, and
xxv. 4
looms, worked by women, were set up within the imperial palace
at Constantinople. Justinian also endeavoured, through the
Christian prince of Abyssinia, to divert the trade from the
Persian route along which silk was then brought into the east of
Europe. In this he failed, but two Persian monks who had long
resided in China, and there learned the whole art and mystery
of silkworm rearing, arrived at Constantinople and imparted
their knowledge to the emperor. By him they were induced to
return to China and attempt to bring to Europe the material
necessary for the cultivation of silk, which they effected by
concealing the eggs of the silkworm in a hollow cane. From the
precious contents of that bamboo tube, brought to Constantinople
about the year 550, were produced all the races and varieties
of silkworm which stocked and supplied the Western world for
more than twelve hundred years.
Under the care of the Greeks the silkworm took kindly to its
Western home and flourished, and the silken textures of Byzan-
tium became famous. At a later period the conquering Saracens
obtained a mastery over the trade, and by them it was spread
both east and west the textures becoming meantime impressed
with the patterns and colours peculiar to that people. They
established the trade in the thriving towns of Asia Minor, and
they planted it as far west as Sicily, as Sicilian silks of the i2th
century with Saracenic patterns still testify. Ordericus Vitalis,
who died in the first half of the i2th century, mentions that the
bishop of St Evroul, in Normandy, brought with him from Apulia
in southern Italy several large pieces of silk, out of the finest of
which four copes were made for his cathedral chanters. The
cultivation and manufacture spread northwards to Florence,
Milan, Genoa and Venice all towns which became famous for
silken textures in medieval times. In 1480 silk weaving was
begun under Louis XI. at Tours, and in 1520 Francis I. brought
from Milan silkworm eggs, which were reared in the Rhone
valley. About the beginning of the iyth century Olivier de
Serres and Laffemas, somewhat against the will of Sully, obtained
royal edicts favouring the growth of mulberry plantations and
the cultivation of silk; but it cannot be said that these industries
were firmly established till Colbert encouraged the planting of
the mulberry by premiums, and otherwise stimulated local
efforts.
Into England silk manufacture was introduced during the
reign of Henry VI. ; but the first serious impulse to manufactures
of that class was due to the immigration in 1585 of a large body
of skilled Flemish weavers who fled from the Low Countries in
consequence of the struggle with Spain then devastating their
land. Precisely one hundred years later religious troubles gave
the most effective impetus to the silk-trade of England, when
the revocation of the edict of Nantes sent simultaneously to
Switzerland, Germany and England a vast body of the most
skilled artisans of France, who planted in these countries silk-
weaving colonies which are to this day the principal rivals of the
French manufacturers. The bulk of the French Protestant
weavers settled at Spitalfields, London an incorporation of
silk workers having been there formed in 1629. James I. used
many efforts to encourage the planting of the mulberry and the
rearing of silkworms both at home and in the colonies. Up to
the year 1718 England depended on the thrown silks of Europe
for manufacturing purposes. But in that year Lombe of Derby,
disguised as a common workman, and obtaining entrance as such
into one of the Italian throwing mills, made drawings of the
machinery used for this process. On his return, subsidized by
the government, he built and worked, on the banks of the
Derwent, the first English throwing mill. In 1825 a public
company was formed and incorporated under the name of the
British, Irish and Colonial Silk Company, with a capital of
1,000,000, principally with the view of introducing sericulture
into Ireland, but it was a complete failure, and the rearing of the
silkworm cannot be said ever to have become a branch of British
industry.
In 1522 Cortes appointed officials to introduce sericulture into
New Spain (Mexico), and mulberry trees were then planted and
eggs were brought from Spain. The Mexican adventure is
9 8
SILK.
mentioned by Acosta, but all trace of the culture had
died out before the end of the century. In 1609 James I.
attempted to reinstate the silkworm on the American continent,
but his first effort failed through shipwreck. An effort made in
1619 obtained greater success, and, the materials being present,
the Virginian settlers were strongly urged to devote attention
to the profitable industry of silk cultivation. Sericulture was
enjoined under penalties by statute; it was encouraged by
bounties and rewards; and its prosecution was stimulated by
learned essays and rhapsodical rhymes, of which this is a
sample:
" Where Wormes and Food doe naturally abound
A gallant Silken Trade must there be found.
Virginia excels the World in both
En vie nor malice can gaine say this troth!"
In the prospectus of Law's great Compagnie des Indes Occidentales
the cultivation of silk occupies a place among the glowing attrac-
tions which allured so many to disaster. Onward till the period
of the War of Independence bounties and other rewards for the
rearing of worms and silk filature continued to be offered; and
just when the war broke out Benjamin Franklin and others were
engaged in nursing a filature into healthy life at Philadelphia.
With the resumption of peaceful enterprise, the stimulus of
bounties was again applied first by Connecticut in 1783; and
such efforts have been continued sporadically down almost to the
present day. Bounties were last offered by the state of California
in 1865-1866, but the state law was soon repealed, and an attempt
to obtain state encouragement again in 1872 was defeated.
About 1838 a speculative mania for the cultivation of silk
developed itself with remarkable severity in the United States.
It was caused principally through the representations of Samuel
Whitmarsh as to the capabilities of the South Sea Islands
mulberry (Morus multicaidis) for feeding silkworms; and so
intense was the excitement that plants and crops of all kinds
were displaced to make room for plantations of M . multicaulis.
In Pennsylvania as much as $300,000 changed hands for plants in
one week, and frequently the young trees were sold two and
three times over within a few days at ever-advancing prices.
Plants of a single year's growth reached the ridiculous price of $i
each at the height of the fever, which, however, did not last long,
for in 1839 the speculation collapsed; the famous M. multicaidis
was found to be no golden tree, and the costly plantations were
uprooted.
The most singular feature in connexion with the history of
silk is the persistent efforts which have been made by monarchs
and other potentates to stimulate sericulture within their
dominions, efforts which continue to this day in British colonies,
India and America. These endeavours to stimulate by artificial
means have in scarcely any instance resulted in permanent
success. In truth, raw silk can only be profitably brought to the
market where there is abundant and very cheap labour the
fact that China, Japan, Bengal, Piedmont and the Levant are
the principal producing localities making that plain.
The Silkworm.
The mulberry-feeding moth, Bombyx mori, which is the
principal source of silk, belongs to the Bombycidae, a family of
Lepidoptera in which are em-
braced some of the largest and
most handsome moths. B.mori
is itself an inconspicuous moth
(figs, i and 2), of an ashy
white colour, with a body in
the case of the male not J in.
in length, the female being a
little longer and stouter. Its
FIG. l.-Bombyx mori (male). , wingS are Ao * f nd weak j ^
fore pair are falcate, and the
hind pair do not reach to the end of the body. The larva
(fig. 3) is hairless, of an ashy grey or cream colour, attains to a
length of from 3 to 3^ in., and is slender in comparison with many
of its allies. The second thoracic ring is humped, and there
is a spine-like horn or protuberance at the tail. The common
silkworm produces as a rule only one generation during the year;
but there are races in cultivation which are bivoltine, or two-
generationed, and some
are multivoltine. Its
natural food is the leaves
of mulberry trees. The silk
glands or vessels consist of
two long thick-walled sacs
running along the sides of
the body, which open by a
common orifice the spin-
neret or seripositor on
the under lip of the larva.
Fig. 4 represents the head FlG- 2 .- Bombyx mori (f em ale).-:
(a) and feet (b, b) of
the common silkworm, while c is a diagrammatic view of
the silk glands. As the larva approaches maturity these
vessels become gorged with a clear viscous fluid, which, upon
being exposed to the air immediately hardens to a solid mass.
Advantage is taken of this peculiarity to prepare from fully
developed larvae silkworm gut used for casting lines in rod-
fishing, and for numerous other purposes where
lightness, tenacity, flexibility and strength are
essential. The larvae are killed and hardened
by steeping some hours in strong acetic acid;
the silk glands are then separated from the
bodies, and the vis-
cous fluid drawn out
to the condition of a
fineuniformline, which
is stretched between
pins at the extremity
of a board. The board FlG ' 3--Larva of Bombyx mori.
is then exposed to the sunlight till the lines dry and harden into
the condition of gut. The preparation of gut is, however,
merely an unimportant collateral manufacture. When the larva
is fully mature, and ready to change into the pupa condition, it
proceeds to spin its cocoon, in which operation it ejects from both
glands simultaneously a continuous and reelable thread of 800
b
FIG. 4.
to 1 200 yds. in length, moving its head round in regular order
continuously for three days or thereabouts. The thread so
ejected forms the silk of commerce, which as wound in the cocoon
consists of filaments seriposited from two separate glands
(discovered by an Italian naturalist named Filippi) containing
a glutinous or resinous secretion which serves a double purpose,
viz. that of helping the thin viscous threads through their final
outlets, and the adhesion of the two filaments when brought into
contact with the atmosphere.
Under the microscope cocoon silk presents the appearance (fig. 5)
of a somewhat flattened combination of two filaments placed side
by side, being on an average y^s part of an inch in thickness (see
also FIBRES, Plate I.)- The cocoons are white or yellow in colour,
oviform in shape, with often a constriction in the middle (fig. 6).
According to race, &c., they vary considerably in size and weight,
but on an average they measure from an inch to an inch and a half
in length, and from half an inch to an inch in diameter. They form
SILK
99
hard, firm and compact shells with some straggling flossy filaments
on the exterior, and the interior layers are so closely and densely
agglutinated as to constitute a parchment-like mass which resists all
attempts at unwinding. The whole cocoon with its enclosed pupa
weighs from 15 grains for the smaller races to about 50 grains for
FIG. 5. Microscopic appearance
of Silk of Bombyx mori.
FIG. 6. Cocoon
of Bombyx mori.
the breeds which spin large cocoons. From two to three weeks after
the completion of the cocoon the enclosed insect is ready to escape;
it moistens one end of its self-made prison, thereby enabling itself
to push aside the fibres and make an opening by which the perfect
moth comes forth. The sexes almost immediately couple; the
female in from four to six days lays her eggs, numbering 500 and
upwards; and, with that the life cycle of the moth being complete,
both sexes soon die.
Sericulture.
The art of sericulture concerns itself with the rearing of silk-
worms under artificial or domesticated conditions, their feeding,
the formation of cocoons, the securing of these before they are
injured and pierced by the moths, and the maturing of a sufficient
number of moths to supply eggs for the cultivation of the follow-
ing year. The first essential is a stock of mulberry trees adequate
to feed the worms in their larval stage. The leaves preferred
in Europe are those of the white-fruited mulberry, Morus alba,
but there are numerous other species which appear to be equally
suitable. The soil in which the mulberry grows, and the age
and condition of the trees, are important factors in the success
of silkworm cultivation; and it has been too often proved that
the mulberry will grow in situations where, from the nature of the
leaf the trees put forth and from other circumstances, silkworms
cannot be profitably reared. An elevated position with dry,
friable, well-drained soil produces the best quality of leaves.
Throughout the East the species of mulberry cultivated are
numerous, but, as these trees have been grown for special
purposes at least for three thousand years, they show the com-
plex variations peculiar to most cultivated plants.
The eggs of the silkworm, called graine, are hatched out by
artificial heat at the period when the mulberry leaves are ready
for the feeding of the larvae. These eggs are very minute
about one hundred weighing a grain; and a vast number of
hatched worms may at first be kept in a small space; but the
rapid growth and voracious appetite of the caterpillars demand
quickly increasing and ample space. Pieces of paper punctured
with small holes are placed over the trays in which the hatching
goes on; and the worms, immediately they burst their shell,
creep through these openings to the light, and thereby scrape off
any fragments of shell which, adhering to the skin, would kill
them by constriction. The rearing-house in which the worms are
fed (Fr. magnanerie) must be a spacious, well-lighted and well-
ventilated apartment, in which scrupulous cleanliness and
sweetness of air are essential, and in which the temperature may
to a certain extent be under control. The worms are more hardy
than is commonly supposed, and endure variations of temperature
from 62 to 78 F. without any injury; but higher temperature
is very detrimental. The lower the temperature at which the
worms are maintained the slower is their growth and develop-
ment; but their health and vigour are increased, and the cocoon
they spin is proportionately bigger. The worms increase in size
with astonishing rapidity, and no less remarkable is their growing
Weight per 100.
Size in Lines.
Worms newly hatched
After 1st moult ....
,, 2nd ,, ....
- 3rd
,, 4th ,, ....
Greatest weight and size .
I gr.
15 ,
94 -
400 ,
1628 ,
9500 ,
I
4
6
12
20
40
voracity. Certain races moult or cast their skin three times during
their larval existence, but for the most part the silkworm moults
four times about the sixth, tenth, fifteenth and twenty-third
days after hatching. As these moulting periods approach, the
worms lose their appetite and cease eating, and at each period of
change they are left undisturbed and free from noise.
Laurent de 1'Arbousset showed in 1905 that i oz. cf seed of 30
grammes producing 30,000 to 35,000 silkworms (30,000 may be
depended upon to reach the cocoon stage) will give a harvest of
130 to 140 Ib fresh cocoons and an ultimate yield of about 12 Ib
raw silk properly reeled. The amount of nourishment required
for this rearing is as follows: hatching to first moult, about
9 Ib of leaves of tender growth, equal to 40 to 45 ft ripe leaves;
first to second moult, 24 Ib, representing 100 Ib ripe leaves;
second to third moult, 80 Ib, representing 240 Ib ripe leaves;
third to fourth moult, 236 ft, representing 472 ft ripe leaves;
fourth moult to mounting, 1430 ft, representing 1 540 ft ripe leaves,
totalling to about one ton of ripe leaves for a complete r.earing.
The growth of the worms during their larval stage is thus stated
by Count Dandolo:
When the caterpillars are mature and ready to undergo their
transformation into the pupa condition, they cease eating for
some time and then begin to ascend the brushwood branches or
echelletes provided for them, in which they set about the spinning
of their cocoons. Crowding of positions must now be guarded
against, to prevent the spinning of double cocoons (doupions)
by two worms spinning together and so interlacing their threads
that they can only be reeled for a coarser and inferior thread.
The insects complete their cocoons in from three to four days,
and in two or three days thereafter the cocoons are collected, and
the pupa killed to prevent its further progress and the bursting
of the shell by the fully developed moth. Such cocoons as are
selected for the production of graine, on the other hand, are
collected, freed from the external floss, and preserved at a
temperature of from 66 to 72 F., and after a lapse of from eleven
to fifteen days the moths begin to make their appearance. The
coupling which immediately takes place demands careful atten-
tion; the males are afterwards thrown away, and the impreg-
nated females placed in a darkened apartment till they deposit
their eggs.
Diseases. That the silkworm is subject to many serious diseases
is only to be expected of a creature which for upwards of 4000 years
has been propagated under purely artificial conditions, and these
most frequently of a very insanitary nature, and where, not the
healthy life of the insect, but' the amount of silk it could be made
to yield, was the object of the cultivator. Among the most fatal
and disastrous of these diseases with which the cultivator had long
to grapple was " muscardine," a malady due to the development of
a fungus, Botrytis bassiana, in the body of the caterpillar. The
disease is peculiarly contagious and infectious, owing to the develop-
ment of the fungus through the skin, whence spores are freed,
which, coming in contact with healthy caterpillars, fasten on them
and germinate inwards, giving off corpuscles within the body of the
insect. Muscardine, however, has not been epidemic for many
years. But about the year 1853 anxious attention began to be
given in France to the ravages of a disease among silkworms, which
from its alarming progress threatened to issue in national disaster.
This disease, which at a later period became known as " pebrine "
a name given to it by de Quatrefages, one of its many investi-
gators had first been noticed in France at Cavaillon in the valley
of the Durance near Avignon. Pebrine manifests itself by dark
spots in the skin of the larvae; the eggs do not hatch out, or hatch
imperfectly; the worms are weak, stunted and unequal in growth,
languid in movement, fastidious in feeding; many perish before
coming to maturity; if they spin a cocoon it is soft and loose, and
moths when developed are feeble and inactive. When sufficient
vitality remains to produce a second generation it shows in increased
intensity the feebleness of the preceding. The disease is thus
hereditary, but in addition it is virulently infectious and contagious.
100
SILK
From 1850 onwards French cultivators were compelled, in order to
keep up their silk supply, to import graine from uninfected districts.
The area of infection increased rapidly, and with that the demand
for healthy graine correspondingly expanded, while the supply had
to be drawn from increasingly remote and contracted regions. Partly
supported by imported eggs, the production of silk in France was
maintained, and in 1853 reached its maximum of 26,000,000 kilos of
cocoons, valued at 117,000,000 francs. From that period, notwith-
standing the importation at great cost of foreign graine, reaching in
some years to 60,000 kilos, the production of silk fell off with startling
rapidity: in 1856 it was not more than 7,500,000 kilos of cocoons;
in 1861 and 1862 it fell as low as 5,800,000 kilos; and in 1865 it
touched its lowest weight of about 4,000,000 kilos. In 1867 de
Quatrefages estimated the loss suffered by France in the 13 years
following 1853, from decreased production of silk and price paid to
foreign cultivators for graine, to be not less than one milliard of
francs. In the case of Italy, where the disease showed itself later
but even more disastrously, affecting a much more extended industry,
the loss in 10 years de Quatrefages stated at two milliards. A loss
of 120,000,000 sterling within 13 years, falling on a limited area,
and on one class within these two countries, constituted indeed a
calamity on a national scale, calling for national effort to contend
with its devastating action. The malady, moreover, spread east-
ward with alarming rapidity, and, although it was found to be less
disastrous and fatal in Oriental countries than in Europe, the
sources of healthy graine became fewer and fewer, till only Japan
was left as an uninfected source of European graine supply.
A scourge which so seriously menaced the very existence of the
silkworm in the world necessarily attracted a great _ amount of
attention. So early as 1849 Gu6rin Meneville observed in the blood
of diseased silkworms certain vibratory corpuscles, but neither did
he nor the Italian Filippi, who studied them later, connect them
distinctly with the disease. The corpuscles were first accurately
described by Cornalia, whence they are spoken of as the corpuscles
of Cornalia. The French Academy charged de Quatrefages, Decaisne
and Peligot with the study of the disease, and they issued two
elaborate reports tudes sur les maladies actuelles des vers a soie
(1859) and Nouvelles Recherches sur les maladies actuelles des vers a
soie (1860) ; but the suggestions they were able to offer had not the
effect of stopping the march of the disease. In 1865 Pasteur under-
took a Government commission for the investigation of the malady.
Attention had been previously directed to the corpuscles of Cornalia,
and it had been found, not only that they occurred in the blood, but
that they gorged the whole tissues of the insect, and their presence
in the eggs themselves could be microscopically demonstrated.
Pasteur established (i) that the corpuscles are the special character-
istic of the disease, and that these invariably manifest themselves,
if not in earlier stages, then in the mature moths; (2) that the cor-
puscles are parasites, and not only the sign but the cause of the
disease; and (3) that the disease manifests itself by heredity, by
contagion with diseased worms, and by the eating of leaves on which
corpuscles are spread. In this connexion he established the very
important practical conclusion that worms which contract the disease
during their own life-cycle retain sufficient vitality to feed, develop
and spin their cocoon, although the next generation is invariably
infected and shows the disease in its most virulent and fatal form.
But this fact enabled the cultivator to know with assurance whether
the worms on which he bestowed his labour would yield him a harvest
of silk. He had only to examine the bodies of the moths yielding his
graine : if they were free from disease then a crop was sure ; if they
were infected the education would assuredly fail. Pasteur brought
out the fact that the malady had existed from remote periods and
in many unsuspected localities. He found corpuscles in Japanese
cocoons and in many specimens which had been preserved for
lengthened periods in public collections. Thus he came to the con-
clusion that the malady had been inherent^ in many successive
generations of the silkworm, and that the epidemic condition was
only an exaggeration of a normal state brought about by the method
of cultivation and production of graine pursued. The cure proposed
' by Pasteur was simply to take care that the stock whence graine was
obtained should be healthy, and the offspring would then be healthy
also. Small educations reared apart from the ordinary magnanerie,
for the production of graine alone, were recommended. At intervals of
five days after spinning their cocoons specimens were to be opened and
the chrysalides examined microscopically for corpuscles. Should none
have appeared till towards the period of transformation and escape of
the moths, the eggs subsequently hatched out might be depended on
to yield a fair crop of silk; should the moths prove perfectly free
from corpuscles after depositing their eggs the next generation would
certainly live well through the larval stage. For special treatment
towards the regeneration of an infected race, the most robust worms
were to be selected, and the moths issuing from the cocoons were to be
coupled in numbered cells, where the female was to be confined till
she deposited her eggs. The bodies of both male and female were to
be examined for corpuscles, and the eggs of those found absolutely
free from taint were preserved for similar " cellular " treatment in
the following year. By this laborious and painstaking method it
has been found possible to re-establish a healthy stock of valuable
races from previously highly-infected breeds. The rearing of worms
in small educations under special supervision has been found to be
a most effective means of combating pebrine. In the same way the
rearing of worms for graine in the open air, and under as far as
possible natural conditions, has proved equally valuable towards
the development of a hardy, vigorous and untainted stock. The
open-air education was originally proposed by Chavannes of Laus-
anne, and largely carried out in the canton of Vaud by Roland, who
reared his worms on mulberry trees enclosed within " manchons "
or cages of wire gauze and canvas. The insects appeared quickly to
revert to natural conditions; the moths brought out in open air were
strongly marked, lively and active, and eggs left on the trees stood
the severity of the winter well, and hatched out successfully in the
following season. Roland's experience demonstrated that not cold
but heat is the agent which saps the constitution of the silkworm and
makes it a ready prey to disease.
Grasserie is another form of disease incidental to the silkworm.
It often appears before or after the first moult, but it is only after the
fourth that it appears in a more developed form. The worm attacked
presents the following symptoms: the skin is distended as if swollen,
is rather thin and shiny, and the body of the worm seems to have
increased, that is, it suffers from fatness, or is engraisse, hence its
name. The disease is characterized by the decomposition of the
blood; in fact it is really a form of dropsy. The blood loses its
transparency and becomes milky, its volume increases so that the
skin cannot hold it, and it escapes through the pores. This disease
is more accidental than contagious and rarely takes very dangerous
proportions. If the attack comes on a short time before maturity,
the worms are able to spin a cocoon of a feeble character, but worms
with this disease never change into chrysalides, but always die in the
cocoon before transformation can take place. The causes which
produce it are not well known, but it is generally attributable to
currents of cold and damp air, to the use of wet leaves in feeding,
and to sudden changes of temperature.
Another cause of serious loss to the rearers is occasioned by
Flacherie, a disease well known from the earliest times. Pasteur
showed that the origin of the disease proceeded from microscopic
organisms called ferments and vitrios. One has only to ferment a
certain quantity of mulberry leaves, chop them up and squeeze
them, and so obtain a liquid, to find in it millions of ferments and
vitrios. It invariably happens during the most active period of
feeding, three or four days after the fourth moult up to the rising,
and generally appears after a meal of coarse leaves, obtained from
mulberries pruned the same year and growing in damp soil. Flacherie
is an intestinal disease of the cholera species and therefore contagious.
The definite course is not occasioned so much from the ferments
which exist in the leaves themselves, but from an arrest of the
digestive process which allows the rapid multiplication of the former
in the intestines. Good ventilation is indispensable to allow the
worm to give out by transpiration the great quantity of water that
it absorbs with the leaf. If this exhalation is stopped or lessened the
digestion in its turn is also stopped, the leaf remains longer than
usual in the intestines, the microbes multiply, invading the whole
body, and this brings about the sudden death which surprises the
rearers. The true remedies consist in the avoidance of the fermenta-
tion of the leaves by careless gathering, transport or packing, in
proper hygienic care in ventilation and in maintaining a proper
degree of dryness in the atmosphere in rainy weather, and in the use
of quicklime placed in different parts of the nursery to facilitate the
transpiration of the silk-worms.
Wild Silks. The ravages of pebrine and other diseases had
the effect of attracting prominent attention to the numerous other
insects, allies of the mulberry silkworm, which spin serviceable
cocoons. It had
been previously
pointed out by
Captain Hutton.
who devoted
great attention
to the silk ques-
tion as it affects
the East Indies,
that at least six
species of Bombyx, differing from
B. mori, but also mulberry-feed-
ing, are more or less domesticated
in India. These include B. lextor,
the boropooloo of Bengal, a large
species having one generation FIG. 7. Chinese Tussur Moth,
yearly and producing a soft flossy A ntheraea pernyi (male),
cocoon; the Chinese monthly
worm, B. sinensis, having several generations, and making
a small cocoon; and the Madrasi worm of Bengal (B. croesi),
the Dassee or Desi worm of Bengal (B. fortunatus) and B.
arracanensis, the Burmese worm all of which yield several
SILK
101
generations in the year and form reelable cocoons. Besides
these there are many other mulberry-feeding Bombycidae in
the East, principally belonging to the genera Theophila
and Ocinara, the cocoons of which have not attracted cul-
tivators. The moths yielding wild silks which have obtained
most attention belong to the extensive and handsome
family Saturnidae. The
most important of the
851 species at the present time
is the Chinese tussur or
tasar worm, Antheraea
pernyi (figs. 7, 8), an oak-
feeding species, native of
Mongolia, from which is
derived the greater part of
the so-called tussur silk
now imported intoEurope.
FIG. 8.-Co^ of Antheraea pernyi. Closely allied to this is
the Indian tussur moth
(fig. 9) Antheraea mylitta, found throughout the whole of
India feeding on the bher tree, Zizyphus jujuba, and on many
other plants. It yields a large compact cocoon (fig. 10) of a
silvery grey colour,
which Sir Thomas
Wardle of Leek, who
devoted a great
amount of attention
to the wild-silk
question, succeeded
in reeling. Next in
promising qualities
is the muga or
moonga worm of
Assam, Antheraea
assama, a species to
some extent domes-
ticated in its native
country. The
yama-mai worm of
FIG. 9 .-Antheraea myhtta (female). ^^ Antheraea
(Samia) yama-mai, an oak-feeder, is a race of considerable
importance in Japan, where it was said to be jealously guarded
against foreigners. Its eggs were first sent to Europe by
Duchene du Bellecourt, French consul-
general in Japan in 1861; but early in
March following they hatched out, when
no leaves on which the larvae would feed
were to be found. In April a single worm
got oak-buds, on which it throve, and
ultimately spun a cocoon whence a female
moth issued, from which Guerin Meneville
named and described the species. A further
supply of eggs was secretly obtained by a
Dutch physician Pompe van Meedervoort
in 1863, and, as it was now known that the
worm was an oak-feeder, and would thrive
on the leaves of European oaks, great
results were anticipated from the cultiva-
tion of the yama-mai. These expectations,
however, for various reasons, have been
disappointed. The moths hatch out at a
FIG. 10. Cocoon of period when oak leaves are not ready
Antheraea myltita. for thdr feeding) and the ^ ;, by
no means of a quality to compare with that of the common
mulberry worm. The mezankoorie moth of the Assamese,
Antheraea mezankooria, yields a valuable cocoon, as does also
the Atlas moth, Attacus atlas, which has an omnivorous larva
found throughout India, Ceylon, Burmah, China and Java.
The Cynthia moth, Attacus cynthia, is domesticated as a source
of silk in certain provinces of China, where it feeds on the Ailan-
thus glandulosa. The eria or arrindi moth of Bengal and Assam,
Attacus ricini, which feeds on the castor-oil plant, yields seven
generations yearly, forming loose flossy orange-red and some-
times white cocoons. The ailanthus silkworm of Europe is a
hybrid between A. cynthia and A. ricini, first obtained by
Guerin Meneville, and now spread through many silk-growing
regions. These are only a few of the moths from which silks of
various usefulness can be produced; but none of these presents
qualities, saving perhaps cheapness alone, which can put them in
competition with common silk.
Physical and Chemical Relations of Silk.
Common cocoons enclosing chrysalides weigh each from 16
to 50 grains, or say from 300 to 600 of small breeds and from
270 to 300 of large breeds to the ft. About one-sixth of this
weight is pure cocoon, and of that one-half is obtainable as reeled
silk, the remainder consisting of surface floss or blaze and of
hard gummy husk. As the outer flossy threads and the inner
vests are not reelable, it is difficult to estimate the total length
of thread produced by the silkworm, but the portion reeled
varies in length and thickness,
according to the condition
and robustness of the cocoon,
in some breeds giving a result
as low as 500 metres, and in
others 900 to 1200 metres.
Under favourable conditions
it is estimated that n kilo-
grammes of fresh cocoons give
i kilogramme of raw silk for
commerce, and about the
same quantity for waste
spinning purposes. Sir
Thomas Wardle of Leek, in
his handbook on silk published
in 1887, showed by a series
of measurements that the diameter of a single cocoon thread
or bave varied from -rAuth to -jrVffth P ar t of an inch in
diameter in the various species of Bombycides, whilst those of the
Saturnides or wild species varied from ^^-jth to TiVfrth part of
an inch. As this estimation presents some difficulties and diver-
gences, the size of the thread is generally defined commercially
by deniers or decigrammes, those of the Anthereas (wild*
silks) being said to range from 5 to 8 deniers or decigrammes,
results confirmed by actual experience with the reeled thread.
The silk of the various species of Antheraea and Attacus is also
thicker and stronger at the centre of the reeled portion than
towards its extremities; but the diameter is much greater
than that of common silk, and the filaments under the microscope
(fig. n) present the appearance of flat bands, the exudation
from the two spinnerets being joined at their flat edges. On
this account the fibres of tussur or tussore silk tend to split up
into fine fibrillae under the various preparatory processes in
manufacturing, and its riband structure is the cause of the glassy
lustre peculiar to the woven and finished fibres.
Silk fibre (see FIBRES) consists essentially of a centre or core of
fibroin, with a covering of sericin or silk albumen, and a little waxy
and colouring matter. Fibroin, which is analogous to horn, hair
and like dermal products, constitutes about 75 to 82 % of the entire
mass, and has a composition represented by the formula QsHss^Oe.
It has the characteristic appearance of pure silk a brilliant soft
white body with a pearly lustre insoluble in water, alcohol and
ether, but it dissolves freely in concentrated alkaline solutions,
mineral acids, strong acetic acid and in ammoniacal solution of
oxide of copper. Sericin, which constitutes the gummy covering
(Fr. grks) of the fibre, is a gelatinous body which dissolves readily in
warm soapy solutions, and in hot water, in which on cooling it forms
a jelly with even as little as I % of the substance. It is precipitated
from hot solutions by alcohol, falling as a white powder. Its formula
is CuHzijNsOg. According to P. Bolley, the glands of the silkworm
contain semi-liquid fibroin alone, and it is on exposure to the air that
FIG. ii. Microscopic appearance
of Silk of Chinese Tassur.
IO2
SILK
the surface is acted on by oxygen, transforming the external pellicle
into the more soluble form of sericin. Silk is highly hygroscopic.
If desiccated at 250 F. it will be found to lose from 10 to 15 % of
moisture according to the condition of the silk. It is a most perfect
non-conductor of electricity, and in its dry state the fibres frequently
get so electrically excited as to seriously interfere with their working,
so that it becomes necessary to moisten them with glycerin or soapy
solutions. Silk is readily distinguished from wool and other animal
fibres by the action of an alkaline solution of oxide of lead, which
darkens wool, &c., owing to the sulphur they contain, but does not
affect silk, which is free from that body. Again, silk dissolves freely
in common nitric acid, which is not the case with wool. From
vegetable fibres silk is readily distinguished by the bright yellow
colour it takes from a solution of picric acid, which does not adhere to
vegetable substances. The rod-like appearance of silk and its absence
of markings under the microscope are also easily recognizable features
of the fibre.
Silk Manufacture.
Here we must distinguish between the reeled silk and the spun
or waste silk manufactures. The former embraces a range of
operations peculiar to silk, dealing as they do with continuous
fibres of great length, whereas in the spun silk industry the raw
materials are treated by methods analogous to those followed
in the treatment of other fibres (see WEAVING). It is only floss,
injured and unreelable cocoons, the husks of reeled cocoons,
and other waste from reeling, with certain wild silks, which are
treated by the spun silk process, and the silk thereby produced
loses much of the beauty, strength and brilliance which are
characteristic of the manufactures from reeled silk.
Filature or Reeling. When the cocoons have been gathered the
chrysalides they contain are killed either by dry heat or by exposure
to steam. All cocoons stained by the premature death of the
chrysalides (chiques), pierced cocoons, and any from other causes
rendered unreelable, are put aside for the spun-silk manufacture.
Then the uninjured cocoons are by themselves sorted into classes
having similar shades of colour, size and quality of fibre. This
assortment is of great consequence for the success of the reeling
operations, as uniformity of quality and evenness and regularity of
fibre are the most valuable features in raw silk. The object of
reeling is to bring together the filaments (have) from two or more
(generally four or five, but sometimes up to twenty) cocoons, and
to form them into one continuous, uniform, and regular strand,
which constitutes the " raw silk " of commerce. To do this, the
natural gum of the cocoons which holds the filaments together must
be softened, the ends of the filaments of the required number of
cocoons must be caught, and means must be taken to unwind and
lay these filaments together, so as to form a single uniform rounded
strand of raw silk. As the reeling proceeds the reeler has to give
the most careful attention to the thickness of the strand being pro-
duced, and to introduce new cocoons in place of any from which the
reelable silk has become exhausted. In this way a continuous uniform
fibre or strand of raw silk of indefinite length is produced. The
apparatus used for these purposes in some localities is of a very
primitive kind, and the reeling being uneven and lumpy the silk is
of inferior quality and low value. With comparatively simple
appliances, on the other hand, a skilled reeler, with trained eye and
delicate touch, can produce raw silk of remarkably smooth and even
Duality. According to the method commonly adopted in North
taly and France the cocoons are for a few minutes immersed in
water a little under the boiling point, to which a small quantity of
alkali has been added. A girl with a small hand brush of twigs
keeps stirring them in the water till the silk softens, and the outer
loose fibres (floss) get entangled with the twigs and come off till the
end of the main filament (maitre brin) is found. These ends being
secured, the cocoons are transferred to a basin or tray containing
water heated to from 140 to 150 F., in which they float while the
silk is being reeled off. If the water is too cold the gum does not
soften enough and the cocoons rise out of the basin in reeling; if
it is too hot the cocoons collapse and fall to the bottom. The ends
of the requisite number of filaments being brought together, they are
passed through an eyelet or guide, and similarly another equal set
are passed through a corresponding guide. The two sets of filaments
are then crossed or twisted around each other several turns as if to
make one thread, after which they are separated and passed through
separate guides to the reel round which they are separately wound.
When a large number of cocoons are to be combined into one strand
they may be reeled from the tray in four sets, which are first crossed
in pairs, then combined into two, and those two then crossed and
afterwards combined into a single strand. The object of crossing
(croissage) is to round, smooth and condense the separate filaments
of each set into one strand, -and as the surface of the filaments is
gummy and adhesive it is found on drying that they have agglutinated
into a compact single fibre of raw silk. In the most approved
modern filatures there is a separate cocoon boiler (cuiseuse), an
oblong tank containing water boiled by steam heat. In these the
cocoons are immersed in rectangular perforated boxes for about
three minutes, when they are transferred to the beating machine
(batteuse), an earthenware trough having a perforated false bottom
through which steam keeps the water at a temperature of from
140" to 160. In this water the cocoons are kept stirring by small
brushes rotated by mechanical means, and as the silk softens the
brushes gradually rise out of the water, bringing entangled with
them the loose floss, and thereby revealing the main filament of
each cocoon. The cocoons are next, in sufficient number, transferred
to the-reeler's tray (bacinella) , where the water is heated to about
140" to 150. From the tray the filaments are carried through a
series of porcelain and glass eyelets, so arranged that the strand
returns on itself, two portions of the same strand being crossed or
intertwisted for rounding and consolidation, instead of the croissage
of two separate strands as in the old method. The reel to which
the raw silk is led consists of a light six-armed frame, enclosed
within a wooden casing having a glass frame in front, the enclosure
being heated with steam-pipes. To keep the strands from directly
overlaying each other and so adhering, the last guide through which
the silk passes has a reciprocating motion whereby the fibre is
distributed within certain limits over the reel. Fig. 12 presents a
sectional view of a reeling apparatus as used in Italy, and shows the
passage of the thread from the basin to the reel, the threads being
twisted around by the tavelette to give roundness to the thread,
but though the principle remains much the same, great improvements
have been made on this model.
Throwing. Raw silk, being still too fine and delicate for ordinary
use, next undergoes a series of operations called throwing, the
object of which is to twist and double it into more substantial yarn.
The first operation of the silk throwster is winding. He receives the
raw silk in hanks as it is taken from the reel of the filature, and
putting it on a light reel of a similar construction, called the swifts,
FIG. 12.
he winds it on bobbins with a rapid reciprocating motion, so as to
lay the fibre in diagonal lines. These bobbins are then in general
taken to the first spinning frame, and there the single strands receive
their first twist, which rounds them, and prevents the compound
fibre from splitting up and separating when, by the subsequent
scouring operations, the gum is removed which presently binds them
into one. Next follows the operation of cleaning, in which the silk
is simply reeled from one bobbin to another, but on its way it passes
through a slit which is sufficiently wide to pass the filament but stops
the motion when a thick lump or nib is presented. In the doubling,
which is the next process, two or more filaments are wound together
side by side on the same reel, preparatory to their being twisted or
thrown into one yarn. Bobbins to the number of strands which are
to be twisted into one are mounted in a creel on the doubling frame,
and the strands are passed over smooth rods of glass or metal through
a reciprocating guide to the bobbin on which they are wound. Each
separate strand passes through the eye of a faller, which, should the
fibre break, falls down and instantly stops the machine, thus effectu-
ally calling attention to the fact that a thread has failed. The
spinning or throwing which follows is done on a frame with upright
spindles and flyers, the yarn as it is twisted being drawn forward
through guides and wound on revolving bobbins with a reciprocating
motion. From these bobbins the silk is reeled into hanks of definite
length for the market. Numerous attempts have been made to
simplify the silk-throwing by combining two or more operations on
one machine, but not as yet with much success.
According to the qualities of raw silk used and the throwing
operations undergone the principal classes of thrown silk are (i)
" singles," which consist of a single strand of twisted raw silk made
up of the filaments of eight to ten cocoons; (2) tram or weft thread,
consisting of two or three strands of raw silk not twisted before
doubling and only lightly spun (this is soft, flossy and comparatively
SILK
103
weak) ; (3) organzine, the thread used for warps, made from two and
rarely three twisted strands spun in the direction contrary to that
in which they are separately twisted. Silks for sewing and em-
broidery belong to a different class from those intended for weaving,
and thread-makers throw their raw silks in a manner peculiar to
themselves.
Numbering of Silk. The metric system of weights and measures
has been adopted so widely that it forms the most suitable basis for
the tilrage or counts of yarns. The permanent committee of the
Paris International Congress of 1900, which was held for the purpose
of unification of the numerotage of counts, unanimously decided
(a) With reference to cotton, silk and other textiles spun from fibres,
that they should be based on a fixed weight and variable length, the
unit being one metre to one gramme. Thus number 100 would be
100 metres per gramme calculated on the single strand. (6) With
reference to raw and thrown silk, in order to enable the count to
show the degrees of variation incidental to this class of material,
it was decided for a basis of a fixed length and variable count weight.
The length of skein adopted was 450 metres and the unit of length
the half decigramme. Thus the count of silk is expressed by the
number of half decigrammes which the length of 450 metres weighs.
This obtains whether in the single, double or more threads joined
together in the doubling.
This latter differs very little in actual practice from the previous
method of determination by the number of deniers per 476 metres,
the denier being calculated on the equivalent of 0-0531 gramme, the
English equivalent showing 33$ deniers per one dram avoirdupois.
As the old systems of counts have some technical conveniences
they will no doubt be retained for some time. In some districts,
especially in Yorkshire, the count is based on the number of yards
per ounce, and in others the older method of drams avoirdupois per
1000 yard skein. The English cotton yarn and spun silk counts are
reckoned upon the number of hanks of 840 yds. in lib of silk, cotton
being reckoned upon the single thread and spun silk on the doubled
or finished thread. Thus 2/40" cotton indicates single 40" doubled
to 20 hanks by 840 yds. to the lb., while 40/2 fold spun silk means a
single 8o doubled to give 40 hanks of 840 yds. to the lb. All
continental conditioning establishments now formulate their tests
for counts on the agreement arrived at by the International Congress
of 1900.
Conditioning. Silk in the raw and thrown state absorbs a large
amount of moisture, and may contain a percentage of water without
being manifestly damp. As it is largely sold by weight it becomes
necessary to ascertain its condition in respect of absorbed water, and
for that purpose official conditioning houses are established in all the
considerable centres of silk trade. In these the silk is tested or con-
ditioned, and a certificate of weight issued in accordance with the
results. The silk is for four hours exposed to a dry heat of 230 F.,
and immediately thereafter weighed. To the weight II % is added
as the normal proportion of water held by the fibre.
Scouring. Up to this point the silk fibre continues to be com-
paratively lustreless, stiff and harsh, from the coating of albumin-
ous matter (gum or grcs) on its surface. As a preliminary to most
subsequent processes the removal of the whole or some portion of
this gum is necessary by boiling-off, scouring or decreusage. To
boil off say 300 lb of thrown silk, about 60 lb of fine white soap is
shred, and dissolved in about 200 gallons of pure water. This
solution is maintained at a heat of 195, and in it the hanks of raw
silk are immersed, hung on a wooden rod, the hanks being continually
turned round so as to expose all portions equally to the solvent
influence of the hot solution. After being dried, the hanks are packed
in linen bags and boiled for three hours in a weaker soapy solution,
then washed out in pure warm water and dried in a centrifugal hydro-
extractor. According to the amount of gum to be boiled off the soap
solutions are made strong or weak; but care has to be exercised not
to overdo the scouring, whereby loss of strength, substance and
lustre would result. For some purposes making of gauzes, crapes,
flour-bolting cloth and for what is termed " souples " the silk is
not scoured, and for silks to be dyed certain dark colours half-scouring
is practised. The perfect scouring of silks removes from 20 to 27 %
of their weight, according to the character of the silk and the amount
of soap or oil used in the working. Scouring renders all common silks,
whether white or yellow in the raw, a brilliant pearly white, with a
delicate soft flossy texture, from the fact that the fibres which were
agglutinated in reeling, being now degummed, are separated from
each other and show their individual tenuity in the yarn. Silks to
be finished white are at this point bleached by exposure in a closed
chamber to the fumes of sulphurous acid, and at the close of the pro-
cess the hanks are washed in pure cold water to remove all traces of
the acid.
Silk Weighting. Into the dyeing of silk it is not here necessary
to enter, except in so far as concerns a nefarious practice, carried
on in dye-houses, which has exercised a most detrimental influence
on the silk trade. Silk, we have seen, loses about one-fourth of its
weight in scouring. To obviate that loss it has long been the practice
to dye some dark silks " in the gum," the dye combining in these
cases with the gum or gelatinous coating, and such silks are known
as " souples." Both in the gum and in the boiled-off state silk has
the peculiar property of imbibing certain metallic salts largely and
combining very firmly with them, the fibre remaining to external
appearance undiminished in strength and lustre, but much added to
in size and weight. Silk in the gum, it is found, absorbs these salts
more freely than boiled-off ; so to use it for weighting there are these
great inducements a saving of the costly and tedious boiling-pff,
a saving of the 25 % weight which would have disappeared in boiling
and a surface on which much greater sophistication can be practised
than on scoured silk. In dyeing a silk black a certain amount of
weight must be added; and the common practice in former times
was to make up on the silk what was lost in the scouring. Up to
1857 the utmost the dyer could add was " weight for weight," but an
accidental discovery that year put dyers into the way of using tin
salts in weighting with the result that they were enabled to add 40 oz.
to scoured silk, 120 oz. to souples and as much as 1 50 oz. to spun silks.
This excessive adulteration quickly worked its own cure by a de-
creased consumption, and the weighting in practice in 1910 is con-
fined to moderate and safer limits. The use of tin salts, especially
stannic chloride, SnCU, enables dyers to weight all colours the same
as black. In his " Report on English Silk Industry " to the Royal
Commission on Technical Instruction (1885) Sir Thomas Wardle of
Leek says :
" Colours and white of all possible shades can very easily be im-
parted to this compound of silk and tin, and this method is becoming
extensively used in Lyons. Thus weighting, which was" until recently
thought to apply only to black silks, and from which coloured silks
were comparatively free, is now cheapening and deteriorating the
latter in pretty much the same ratio as the former. Thus the proto-
and per-salts of iron, as well as the proto- and per-salts of tin, in-
cluding also a large variety of tannin, sumac, divi-divi, chestnut,
valonia, the acacias (Areca Catechu and Acacia Catechu from India),
from which are obtained cutch and gambier, &c., are no longer used
solely as mordants or tinctorial matters, but mainly to serve the
object of converting the silk into a greatly-expanded fibre, consisting
of a conglomeration of more or less of these substances."
Sugar also is employed to weight silk. On this adulterant Sir
Thomas Wardle remarks :
" With a solution of sugar, silk can have its weight augmented
from I oz. to 3 oz. per lb. I am not quite sure that this method of
weighting was not first used by the throwsters, as sugar is known to
have been used for adulterating and loading gum silk for a very long
time, and then the idea was afterwards applied to silk after the
dyeing operations. It is much resorted to for weighting coloured
silks by dyers on the continent, and, though a very clumsy method,
no substitute has been found so cheap and easy of application.
Bichloride of tin, having chemical affinity for silk fibre, bids fair to
extinguish the use of sugar, which, from its hygrometric qualities,
has a tendency to ruin the silk to which it is applied, if great care be
not taken to regulate the quantity. There is not the slightest use or
excuse for the application of sugar, except to cheapen the silk by
about 15 to 20%."
Wild Silk Dyeing. Among the disadvantages under which the
silks of the wild moths long laboured one of the most serious was
the natural colour of the silks, and the extreme difficulty with
which they took on dyes, specially the light and brilliant colours.
For success in coping with this difficulty, as well as in dealing with
the whole question of the cultivation and employment of wild silks,
the unwearying patience and great skill of Sir Thomas Wardle of
Leek deserve special mention here. The natural colour of tussur silk
is a greyish fawn, and that shade it was found impossible to discharge
by any of the ordinary bleaching agents, so as to obtain a basis for
light and delicate dyes. Moreover, the chemical character of the
tussur silk differs from that of the mulberry silk, and the fibre has
much less affinity for tinctorial substances, which it takes up un-
evenly, requiring a large amount of dye-stuffs. After protracted
experimenting Sir Thomas Wardle was able in 1873 to show a series
of tussurs well dyed in all the darker shades of colour, but the lighter
and bright blues, pinks, scarlets, &c., he could not produce. Subse-
quently Tessie du Motay found that the fawn colour of natural tussur
could be discharged by solution of permanganate of potash, but the
oxidizing action was so rapid and violent that it destroyed the fibre
itself. Gentler means of oxidation have since been found for bleach-
ing tussur to a fairly pale ground. The silk of the cria or castor-oil
worm (Attacus ricini) presents the same difficulties in dyeing as the
common tussur. A portion of the eria cocoons are white, while the
others are of a lively brown colour, and for the dyeing of lirht colours
the latter require to undergo a bleaching process. The silk takes up
colour with difficulty from a strong vat, and is consequently costly to
dye. Moonga silk from Antheraea assama has generally a rather dark-
brown colour, but that appears to be much influenced by the leaves
on which the worm feeds, the cocoons obtained on the champaca
tree (Michelia champaca) giving a fine white fibre much valued in
Assam. The dark colours are very difficult to bleach, but the silk
itself takes dye-colours much more freely and evenly than either
tussur or eria silk. (F. W.*)
Trade and Commerce.
About the beginning of the igth century the chief silk-produc-
ing regions of the world were the Levant (including Broussa,
Syria and Persia), India, Italy and France, the two first named
sending the low-priced silk, the other two the fine qualities.
104
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Between 1840 and 1850, after the opening of trade with China,
large quantities of silk were sent from the northern port of
Shanghai, and afterwards also from the southern port of Canton.
The export became important just at the time when disease in
Europe had lessened the production on the continent. This
increased production of medium silk, and the growing demand
for fine sorts, induced many of the cocoon-growers in the Levant
to sell their cocoons to Europeans, who reeled them in Italian
fashion under the name of " Patent Brutia," thus producing
a very fine valuable silk. In 1857 commenced the exportation
of Japan silk, which became so fierce a competitor with Bengal
silk as gradually to displace it in favour; and the native silk
reeled in Bengal has almost ceased to be made, only the best
European filatures, produced under the supervision of skilled
Europeans, now coming forward.
China and Japan, both of which contribute so largely to the
supplies that appear in European and American statistics, only
export their excess growth, silk-weaving being carried on and
native silk worn to an enormous extent in both countries. The
other Asiatic exporting countries also maintain native silk
manufactures which absorb no inconsiderable proportion of
their raw material. Since about 1880 the silk production of the
world (including only exports from the East) has more than
doubled, the variations owing to partial failures from some
countries being more than compensated by increase from others.
The supplies available for European and American consump-
tion have been carefully tabulated by the Lyons Chamber of
Commerce, as shown by the table.
While the tables indicate the fluctuations of supply they show
generally .that Asiatic countries, in addition to supplying the neces-
sities for their home trade, export to Europe and America about three-
fifths of the whole of the silk consumed in Western manufactures.
Up to the year 1860 the bulk of the silks from the East was shipped
to London, but subsequently, owing to the importance of continental
demands, a large portion of the supplies has been unshipped at
Genoa and Marseilles (especially the finer reeled silks from Japan
and Canton), which are sold in the Milan and Lyons markets. Those
for American consumption are sent direct by the Pacific route via
San Francisco. Table II. shows the official annual returns of silk
imports into Great Britain from 1880 to 1908.
TABLE II. Imports of Silk into Great Britain.
Years.
Raw Silk.
Knubs or
Husks of Silk
and Waste.
Thrown Silk.
Silk (including
Lace, &c.)
Manufacture.
1880
3,673,949
55,002
203,567
13,329,935
1884
4,522,702
67,239
323,947
10,984,073
1888
3, 65,77i
83,466
559,289
10,466,537
1892
,503-283
46,392
502,777
11,412,263
1896
,697,668
62,923
572,599
16,923,176
1900
,4i3,3 2 o
60,720
664,641
14,767,610
1901
,332,480
48,162
624,859
13,708,645
1902
,252,848
55,782
802,964
14,320,541
1903
,109,930
66,782
662,677
13,493,961
1904
,337,579
71,450
769,297
13,585,462
1905
,160,265
72,055
878,850
13,010,766
1906
,036,258
66,348
924,007
13,069,588
1907
,195,366
66,299
938,112
12,862,834
1908
,110,481
64,669
809,610
11,907,661
The power loom, owing to the improvement in its mechanism, has
gained a distinct precedence and materially increased its producing
power. In the development of silk manufacture the hand loom has
taken a very secondary position. In order to form a relative idea of
the importance of the various countries engaged in silk manufacture,
a tabulation of the number of looms employed in each country would
prove an inadequate guide, owing to the variations from time to time
of the fabrics woven, as also to the difficulty in obtaining trustworthy
statistics of the number in active operation. The production and
consumption of raw material shown in Table III. was prepared by
Messrs Chabrieres, Morel & Co. of Lyons, Marseilles and Milan, and
issued in 1905.
America takes a premier position in consumption of the raw
material. The development and expansion of silk manufarture,
owing to the importance and extent of the home market, coupled
with high protective tariffs, has been enormous. In 1867 the im-
port of raw material amounted to 491,983 ft. In 1905 a record was
reached of 17,812,133 ft. During the decade of 1898 to 1908 the
consumption has gone on steadily from about ip million ft in the
first five years to an average of 15 million ft in the second half
of the decade. France comes a good second in importance with a
SILK
consumption of 9 to 10 million ft annually. Lyons is the head-
quarters of the trade, principally in the production of dress fabrics,
plain and figured, and other light and heavier fabrics. St Etienne
and St Chamond are important centres for the ribbon trade. There
TABLE III. Production and Consumption of Raw Material.
PRODUCTION.
CONSUMPTION.
Average of Seasons
Same Average of
1903-1904, 1904-
Years 1902-1903,
1905, 1905-1906.
1904.
Europe
1,276,000
9,519,400
Italy . . .
9,233,400
2,I25,2OO
Switzerland . .
99,000
3,509,000
Spain
176,000
402,600
Austria
Hungary
360,800
323.400
| I,7O7,20O
Russia and Caucasus
893,200
2,796,200
Bulgaria, Servia and Roumania
343.200
37.400
Greece and Crete
138,600
44,000
Salonica and Adrianople .
574,200
66.OOO
Germany
Nil.
6,261,200
Great Britain ....
Nil.
1,559.800
America
United States ....
Nil.
13,481,600
Asia
Brutia
1,207,800
66,000
Syria
1,100,000
242,000
Persia . . . (Exports)
556,600
(no estimates)
Turkestan .
600,600
,,
China ....
8,960,600
ii
Canton, China .
4,661,800
H
Japan ....
11,136,400
India ....
563,200
770,000
Tonquin and Annam .
22,000
(no estimates)
Africa
Nil.
44.0,000
,/> y ^
Morocco
Nil.
*TT^ .
154,000
Algeria, Tunis ....
Nil.
I43,OOO
Various countries
Nil.
I2I.OOO
Total ft ...
42,226,800
43,445,000
N.B. The difference in the totals is owing to the figures being
based on the production in seasons, and that of consumption upon
calendar years.
are also important manufactures of silk at Calais, Paris, Nimes,
Tours, Avignon and Roubaix. Germany follows France with a
consumption for the various fabrics of over six million ft annually.
The principal seat of the trade in that country is at Crefeld, nearly
one-half of the production of the empire being manu-
factured there. Velvet is the special feature of the
industry, about one-half of the looms being devoted to
this textile, the remainder being devoted to union
satins, pure broad silk goods and ribbons. Other
principal centres of the silk trade in Rhenish Prussia
are Viersen, Barmen, Elberfeld and Muhlheim. The
province of Saxony has also important manufactures of
lace and glove fabrics. Third on the list of con-
tinental producers is Switzerland; Zurich takes the
lead with broad goods (failles, armures, satins, serges,
&c.), and Basel rivals St Etienne in the ribbon trade.
Russia, by a prohibitive tariff on manufactured silks of
other countries, has since 1890 developed and fostered a
trade which consumes annually about 3 million ft of raw
material for its home industry. This has also stimulated
silk culture in the Caucasus, from which province it
draws about one-third of its supplies. A special feature
of its manufactures consists of gold and silver tissues
and brocades for sacerdotal use. Moscow is one of the
principal seats for the weaving of these fabrics. Italy,
the early home of the silk trade in Europe, the land
of the gorgeous velvets of Genoa and the damasks and
brocades of medieval Sicily, Venice and Florence, now
takes only a sixth place, the centre of greatest activity
being at Como; but Genoa still makes velvets, and the
brocades of Venice are not a thing of the past. Austria
and England follow on the list of important silk manu-
factures. The former has found its principal de-
velopment in Vienna and the immediate neighbourhood.
By special grants from the Hungarian government silk-reeling
has been fostered and encouraged. In 1885 the production of raw
silk was about 300,000 ft, while in 1905 it reached 750,000 ft, an
annual production which is still maintained.
In the United Kingdom all the silk industries (those depending
on spun silk alone excepted) have been declining since the French
Treaty of 1860 came into operation. This cannot be gauged by the
xxv. 4 a
decrease in imports of raw material from the fact before mentioned
that formerly London was the centre of distribution for Eastern
silk, which is now disembarked at other European ports for continental
consumption. The shrinkage is the more noticeable in the throwing
branch of the industry. Many of the mills formerly in operation in
Derby, Nottingham, Congleton and Macclesfield have been closed
owing to the importation of foreign thrown silks from Italy and
France, where a lower rate of wages is paid to the operatives em-
Eloyed in this branch. In like manner the manufacture of silk
ibrics in the districts of Manchester, Middleton, Macclesfield,
London (Spitalfields) and Nottingham (for silk lace) has decreased
proportionately. Against this we must set off a decided increase
in the manufacture of mixed goods, carried on principally in Scotland,
Yorkshire and Lancashire.
The remarkable development of the comparatively new trade in
spun silk goes far to compensate for the loss of the older trade of net
silk, and has enabled the exports of silk manufactures from Great
Britain to be at least maintained and to show some signs of ex-
pansion. Silk spinning has chiefly developed in the Yorkshire,
Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire textiles centres. Its ex-
pansion and importance may be seen from the fact that the imports
of waste, knubs, &c., which in 1860 was 1506 cwts., reached in 1905
a record of 72,055 cwts. But it is highly significant that while the
exports of British silk manufactures have not decreased, the imports
in the meantime have shown a marked expansion. Although the
use of silk goods has unquestionably increased since the middle of
the igth century, the expansion of native productions has not kept
pace with that growth. (R. SN.)
The Spinning of" Silk Waste."
The term silk waste includes all kinds of raw silk which may be
unwindable, and therefore unsuited to the throwing process.
Before the introduction of machinery applicable to the spinning
of silk waste, the refuse from cocoon reeling, and also from silk
winding, which is now used in producing spun silk fabrics,
hosiery, &c., was nearly all destroyed as being useless, with the
exception of that which could be hand-combed and spun by
means of the distaff and spinning wheel, a method which is
still practised by some of the peasantry in India and other
Eastern countries.
The supply of waste silk is drawn from the following sources:
(i) The silkworm, when commencing to spin, emits a dull, lustre-
less and uneven thread with which it suspends itself to the
twigs and leaves of the tree upon which it has been feeding, or
to the straws provided for it by attendants in the worm-rearing
establishments: this first thread is unreelable, and, moreover,
is often mixed with straw, leaves and twigs. (2) The outside
layers of the true cocoon are too coarse and uneven for reeling;
TABLE IV. Silk Goods exported from the United Kingdom.
Year.
Raw Silk.
Knubs,
Husks,
Silk Waste
and Noils.
Thrown and Spun Silk.
Silk Manufactures.
British.
Foreign
and
Colonial.
British.
Foreign
and
Colonial.
ft.
cwts.
ft.
1860
3.153.993
1,506
826,107
426,866
1,587,303
224,366
1865
3.!37.292
1,212
767,058
306,701
1,404,381
166,936
1870
2,644,402
4,167
I.I54.364
39.771
1,450,397
166,297
1875
2,55M I 7
1,779
880,923
87,924
1,734,519
328,426
1880
947.165
9.24 1
683,591
7,553
2,030,659
259,023
1884
377,349
6,538
612,951
50,559
2,175.410
644.722
1888
167,086
7,438
388,828
63,192
2,664,244
727.673
1892
164,150
7,397
322,894
32,574
,655.310
730,316
1896
142,034
5,053
265,142
74,140
.423,174
725,123
1900
192,616
5-691
425.647
35,858
,637,915
919,011
1901
244,566
5,370
294,3"
48,666
,429.381
1,021,637
1902
152,463
6,160
237,718
95,862
,393.314
1,071,633
1903
178,458
9,740
256,341
81,707
,436,734
1,038,634
1904
186,174
9,148
218,881
43,938
,604,554
1,241,242
1905
188,246
13,524
298,299
53,825
,693.314
1,142,217
1906
92,124
3,243
323.873
57,143
,858,634
1,094,657
1907
80,645
5,007
401,336
47,404
2,009,613
i ,490,066
1908
42,898
6,571
101,316
43,714
1,244,546
1.427.974
and as the worm completes its task of spinning, the thread
becomes finer and weaker, so both the extreme outside and
inside layers are put aside as waste. (3) Pierced cocoons i.e.
those from which the moth of the silkworm has emerged and
damaged cocoons. (4) During the process of reeling from the
cocoon the silk often breaks; and both in finding a true and
io6
SILK
reelable thread, and in joining the ends, there is unavoidable
waste. (5) Raw silk skeins are often re-reeled; and in this
process part has to be discarded: this being known to the trade
as gum-waste. The same term gum-waste is applied to
" waste " made in the various processes of silk throwing; but
manufacturers using threads known technically as organzines
and trams call the surplus " manufacturer's waste." Finally
we have the uncultivated varieties of silks known as " wild
silks," the chief of which is tussur. The different qualities of
" waste," of which there are many, vary in colour from a rich
yellow to a creamy white; the chief producing countries being
China, Japan, India, Italy, France and the countries in the
Near East; and the best-known qualities are: steam wastes,
from Canton; knubs, from China and from Italy and other
Western countries; frisons, from various sources; wadding and
blaze, Shanghai; china, Hangchow; and Nankin buttons;
Indian and Szechuen wastes; punjum, the most lustrous of
wastes; China curlies; Japan wastes, known by such terms as
kikai, ostue, &c.; French, Swiss, Italian, China, Piedmont,
Milan, &c. There are yellow wastes from Italy, and many more
far too numerous to mention.
A silk " throwster " receives his silk in skein form, the thread
of which consists of a number of silk fibres wound together to
make a certain diameter or size, the separate fibre having
actually been spun by the worm, and this fibre may measure
anything from 500 to 1000 yds. in length. The silk-waste spinner
receives his silk in quite a different form: merely the raw
material, packed in bales of various sizes and weights, the contents
being a much-tangled mass of all lengths of fibre mixed with
much foreign matter, such as ends of straws, twigs, leaves,
worms and chrysalis. It is the spinner's business to straighten
out these fibres, with the aid of machinery, and then to so
join them that they become a thread, which is known as
spun silk.
There are two distinct kinds of spun silk one called " schappe "
and the other " spun silk " or " discharged spun silk." All
silk produced by the worm is composed of two substances
fibroin, the true thread, and sericin, which is a hard, gummy
coating of the " fibroin." Before the silk can be manipulated
by machinery to any advantage, the gum coating must be
removed, really dissolved and washed away and according
to the method used in achieving this operation the result is
either a " schappe " or a " discharged yarn." The former,
" schapping," is the French, Italian and Swiss method, from
which the silk when finished is neither so bright nor so good in
colour as the " discharged silk "; but it is very clean and level,
and for some purposes absolutely essential, as, for instance, in
velvet manufacture.
Schapping. The method is as follows: If waste silk is piled in
a heap in a damp, warm place, and kept moist and warm, the gum
will in a few days' time begin to ferment and loosen, and can then
be washed off, leaving the true thread soft and supple ; but the smell
caused by the fermentation is so offensive that it cannot be practised
in or near towns. Therefore schappe spinners place their degumming
plant in the hills, near or on a stream of pure water. The waste silk
is put into large kilns and covered with hot water (temperature
170 F.). These are then hermetically closed, and left for a few hours
for the gum to ferment and loosen. When thoroughly softened the
time occupied depending on the heat of the water and nature of the
silk the contents of the kiln are taken out and placed into vats of
hot water, and allowed to soak there for some time. Thence the
silk is taken to a washing machine, and the loosened gum thoroughly
washed away. The silk is then partly dried in a hydro-extractor,
and afterwards put in rooms heated by steam-pipes, where the
drying is completed.
" Discharging " is the method generally used by the English, and
results in a silk having brilliance and purity of colour. In this
process the silk waste is put into strong, open-meshed cotton bags,
made to hold (in accordance with the wish of individual spinners)
from I Ib to 5 ft in weight. When about 100 ft of silk has been
bagged, the whole is placed in a large wooden tub and covered with
boiling water in which 12 to 20 ft of white curd soap has previously
been dissolved. In this the silk is boiled from one to two hours',
than taken out and put through a hydro-extractor to remove the
dirty gummy solution. Afterwards it is put into another tub of
soapy liquor, and boiled from one to one and a half hours. It is
then once more hydro-extracted, and finally taken to a stove and
dried. " Discharged silk " must be entirely free from gum when
finished, where " schappe " contains a percentage of gum some-
times as much as 20%.
From this stage both classes of silk receive much the same treat-
ment, differing widely in detail in different mills and districts.
Conditioning. The " degummed silk," after it is dried, is allowed
to absorb a certain amount of moisture, and thus it becomes soft
and pliable to the touch, and properly conditioned for working by
machinery.
Beating. When the waste contains any large percentage of worm
or chrysalis, it is taken to a " cocoon beater, a machine which has
a large revolving disk on which the silk is put, and while revolving
slowly is beaten by a leather whip or flail, which loosens the silk and
knocks out the wormy matter. After the beating, the silk presents
a more loose appearance, but is still tangled and mixed in length of
fibre. The object of the spinner at this point is to straighten out the
tangles and lumps, and to lay the fibres parallel : the first machine
to assist in this process being known as an opening machine, and
the second as a filling engine.
Opening and Filling. The silk to be opened is placed on a latticed
sheet or feeder, and thus slowly conveyed to a series of rollers or
porcupines (rollers set with rows of projecting steel pins), which hold
the silk firmly while presenting it to the action of a large receiving
drum, covered with a sheet of vulcanized rubber, set all over with
fine steel teeth. As the drum revolves at a good speed, the silk is
drawn by the steel teeth through the porcupines into the drum in
more or less straight and parallel fibres. When the teeth are full
the machine is stopped, and the silk stripped off the drum, then
presenting a sheet-like appearance technically known as a " lap."
The lap is taken to the filling engine, which is similar in construction
and appearance to the opener as far as the feeding arrangements are
concerned, but the drum, in place of being entirely covered with
fine steel teeth, is spaced at intervals of from 5 to 10 in. with rows
of coarser straight teeth, each row set parallel with the axle of the
machine. The silk drawn by the rows of teeth on the drum through
the porcupine rollers (or porcupine sheets in some cases) covers the
whole of the drum, hooked at certain intervals round the teeth;
and when a sufficient weight is on the machine, it is stopped, and an
attendant cuts, with a knife, the silk along the back of each row of
teeth, thus leaving a fringe of silk hooked on the pins or teeth.
This fringe of silk is placed by the attendant between two hinged
boards, and whilst held firmly in these boards (called book-boards)
is pulled off the machine, and is called a " strip "; the part which
has been hooked round the teeth is called the " face," and the other
portion the " tail." By these means the silk has been opened,
straightened and then cut into a certain length, the fibres now being
fairly laid parallel and ready for the next operation, known as silk
dressing.
Silk Dressing. This is the process equivalent to combing in the
wool industry. Its purpose is to sort out the different lengths of
fibre, and to clear such fibres of their nibs and noils. There are two
well-known principles of dressing: one known as " flat frame,"
giving good result with discharged silk, and the other known as
" circular frame " dressing, suitable for schappes.
The flat dressing frame is a box or frame holding a certain number
of book-boards from the filling engine, which boards when full of silk
are screwed tightly together in the frame. The frame is capable of
being raised into contact with travelling combs, affixed to an endless
belt placed round two metal rollers about 6 ft. apart. The attendant
allows the silk to enter gradually into close contact with the combs,
which comb through the silk in exactly the same manner as a lady
combs her tresses. In a circular frame the silk is clamped between
boards, and these are fixed on a large drum. This drum revolves
slowly, and in its revolution conveys the fringes of silk past two
quickly running smaller combing drums. These combing drums
being covered with fine steel teeth penetrate their combs through
the fringes of silk depending from the large drum, thus combing
through the silk. In each machine the object is the same. First
the filled silk is placed into a holding receptacle, clamped fast, and
presented to combing teeth. These teeth retain a certain proportion
of shorter fibre and rough places and tangled portions of silk, which
are taken off the combs in a book-board or wrapped round a stick
and again presented to the combs. This fibre again yields combings
which will also be combed, and so on for five or six times until the
combings are too short, and are taken from the machine and known
as noils. The productions from these several combings are known
as " drafts " and are of different lengths: the product of the filled
silk first placed in the dressing frame being the longest fibre and of
course the most valuable.
The flat frame is the most gentle in its usage of the silk, but is most
costly in labour; whilst the circular frame, being more severe in its
action, is not suitable for the thoroughly degummed silks, but on
the other hand is best for silks containing much wormy matter,
because the silk hanging down into the combing teeth is thoroughly
cleansed of such foreign matter, which is deposited under the machine.
This method also has the advantage of being cheaper in cost of labour.
Recently a new machine has been invented giving the same results
as circular frame: the silk depends from boxes into combs, and at the
same time has the gentle action of the flat frame. The cost of the
operations is as cheap as the circular frame, therefore the machine
combines the advantages of each of its predecessors.
SILL, E. R. SILL
107
ils. The noils resulting from the dressing operations are some-
times combed, the comb used being similar to those used in the
cotton trade. The resulting sliver is used by silk spinners who make
a speciality of spinning short fibres, and the exhaust noils are bought
by those who spin them up into " noil yarns " on the same principle
as wool. The yarns are chiefly used by manufacturers of powder
bags. The noils are also in great demand for mixing with wool to
make fancy effects in wool cloths for the dress goods trade.
Drafts. The drafts from the dressing frame are valued in accord-
ance with their length of fibre, the longest being known as A or 1st
drafts and so on :
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts.
D
Shorts.
or as quality A B
Each draft may be worked into a quality of its own, and by such
means the most level yarns are obtained. But occasionally one or
more draf cs are mixed together, when price is the determining factor.
Processes peculiar to Silk Spinning Industry.-^-The foregoing pro-
cesses are all peculiar to the silk waste trade, no other fibre having to
fo through such processes, nor needing such machinery. In the
rst stages of the spun-silk industry, the silk was dressed before
boiling the gum out; the resulting drafts were cut into lengths of one
or two inches. The silk was then boiled and afterwards beaten,
scutched, carded, drawn, spun, folded, &c., in exactly the same way
as fine cotton. Short fibre silks are still put through cards and treated
like cotton; but the value of silk is in its lustre, elasticity and
strength, which characteristics are obtained by keeping fibres as long
as possible. Therefore, when gill drawing machinery was invented,
the cutting of silk into short fibres ceased, and long silks are now
prepared for spinning on what is known as " long spinning process."
Following the process of dressing, the drafts have to go through a
series of machines known as preparing machines: the object being to
piece up the lengths of fibre, and to prepare the silk for spinning.
Preparing or Drawing Machinery. A faller or gill drawing machine
consists of a long feeding sheet which conveys silk to a pair of rollers
(back rollers). These rollers present the silk to a set of fallers (steel
bars into which are fixed fine steel pins), which carry forward the silk
to another pair of rollers, which draw the silk through the pins of the
fallers and present it to the rollers in a continuous way, thus forming
a ribbon of silkcalled a " sliver." Thefallers are travelled forwards
by means of screws, and when at the end of the screw are dropped
automatically into the thread of a receiving screw fixed below, which
carries the fallers back to their starting point to be risen by cams into
the top pair of screws thus to repeat their journey.
Silk Spreader. This is the first of the series of drawing machines.
The drafts from the dressing frame are made into little parcels of a
few ounces in weight, and given to the spreader, who opens out the
silk and spreads it thinly and evenly on to the feeding sheet, placing
a small portion of the sijk only on the sheet. Another portion is
opened out and placed tail end to the first portion ; and these opera-
tions are repeated until the requisite weight is spread. During this
time the silk has been conveyed through the fallers and into a large
receiving drum about 3 ft. in diameter, the silk being wrapped thinly
and evenly all round the circumference of the drum. When the
agreed-on weight is on the drum, the silk is drawn across the face of
the drum parallel with its axle, and pulled off in form of a sheet, and
is called a lap. This lap is thin, but presents the fibres of silk now
joined and overlapped in a continuous form, the length measured
by the circumference of the drum. This lap is sometimes re-spread
to make it more even, and at other times taken to a drawing machine
which delivers in a sliver form. This sliver is taken through a series
of four other drawing machines called " four head drawing box."
Eight or more slivers are put behind the first drawing head, con-
veyed through the fallers and made into one sliver in front of the
machine. This sliver is put up behind the second drawing; eight or
more ends together run through the second head again into one
sliver; and so on through the third and fourth heads of drawing.
All these doublings of the sliver and re-drawing are for the purpose
of getting each fibre to lie parallel and to make the sliver of an equal
weight over every yard of its length. From the last head of drawing
the sliver is taken to a machine known as a gill rover. This is a
drawing machine fitted with fallers through which the sliver is drawn,
but the end from the front roller is wound on to a bobbin. The
machine is fitted with 20 to 40 of these bobbins placed side by side,
and its product is known as " slubbing roving," it being now a soft,
thick thread of silk, measuring usually either 840 or 1260 yds. to
I fb weight. Hitherto all the drawing has been by rollers and fallers,
but in the next machine the drawing is done by rollers only.
Dandy Roving Frame. This is a frame built with forty or more
spindles. Two or three slubbing rovings are put up behind the
machine opposite each spindle; each end is guided separately into
back rollers and thence between smaller rollers, known as carrier
rollers, to the front rollers. The back rollers revolve slowly, the front
rollers quickly, thus drawing the rovings out into a thinner size or
count. The product is wound on to the bobbin by means of flyer and
spindle, and is known as dandied or fine roving, and is then ready for
the spinning frame.
Spinning. The spinning is done by exactly the same methods
as cotton or worsted, viz. either mules, ring frames, cap or flyer
'rames, the choice of machine being determined by the size or count
of yarn intended to be produced.
Twisting and Doubling. -If a 2-fold or 3-fold yarn is needed, then
two or more ends of the spun thread are wound together and after-
wards conveyed to the twisting frame for the purpose of putting the
needed twist in the yarn necessary for weaving or other require-
ments. This process is exactly the same as in the cotton or worsted
industry, ring or flyer frames being used as desired.
Weft Yarns. These are taken straight from the spinning frame,
wound on to a long paper tube and so delivered to the manufacturer
ready to place in the loom shuttle.
Folded Yarns are hairy after being spun and folded, and in addition
sometimes contain nibs and rough places. The fibre and nibs have to
be cleaned off by means of a gassing machine so constructed that the
end of silk (silk yarn) is frictioned to throw off the nibs, and at the
same time is run very rapidly through a gas flame a sufficient number
of times to burn off the hairy and fibrous matter without injuring the
main thread. The yarn is now ready for reeling into skeins or for
warping, both of which operations are common to all the textile
yarns. It may be washed or dyed just as required, either in hank or
in warp.
Growth of Industry and Uses of Spun Silk. As will have been
gathered, spun silk is pure silk just as much as that used by the
throwster. The spinning industry has not decreased in England.
The number of mills has decreased, but machinery now runs so much
more quickly than formerly that more yarn is being spun on fewer
spindles. The American spinning industry shows little signs of
expansion in spite of a protective tariff of some 35 %. The conti-
nental spinners have largely increased, but are developing into huge
syndicates, all working on the schappe principle. The three chief
syndicates, one each in Italy, France and Switzerland, work very
much together, practically ruling the prices for yarns and raw
materials.
Spun silks are used largely for silk linings, hosieries, sewing threads,
elastic webbing, lace, plush and many other purposes, such as mufflers,
dress goods and blouse silks; also for mixing with other fibres in form
of stripes in the weaving of various fabrics, or to be used in what are
known as mixed goods, i.e. a warp of silk and weft of some other fibre
or weft of silk and a warp of cotton or other fibre. The article known
as tussur spun is prepared in exactly the same manner as other spun
silks, but its chief use is to make an imitation of sealskin known
commercially as silk seal. (A. MEL.)
SILL, EDWARD ROWLAND (1841-1887), American poet and
educationist, was born at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 29th
of April 1841. He graduated at Yale in 1861, as class poet;
engaged in business in California; entered the Harvard Divinity
School in 1867, but soon left it for a position on the staff of the
New York Evening Mail; and after teaching at Wadsworth and
Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio (1868-1871), became principal of the Oak-
land High School, California. He was professor of English
literature at the university of California in 1874-1882. His
health was failing, and he returned to Cuyahoga Falls in 1883.
He devoted himself to literary work, abundant and largely
anonymous, until his death in Cleveland, Ohio, on the 27th of
February 1887. Much of his poetry was contributed to the
Atlantic Monthly, the Century Magazine, and the Overland
Monthly. Many of his graceful prose essays appeared in " The
Contributors' Club," and others appeared in the main body of
the Atlantic. Among his works are a translation of Rau's
Mozart (1868); The Hermitage and Other Poems (1868); The
Venus of Milo and Other Poems (1883), a farewell tribute to his
California friends; Poems (1887); The Hermitage and Later
Poems (1889); Hermione and Other Poems (1900); The Prose of
Edward Rowland Sill (1900) ; Poems (1902). He was a modest and
charming man, a graceful essayist, a sure critic. His contribu-
tion to American poetry is small but of fine quality. His best
poems, such as The Venus of Milo, The Fool's Prayer and
Opportunity, gave him a high place among the minor poets of
America, which might have been higher but for his early death.
See A Memorial volume privately printed by his friends in 1887;
and " Biographical Sketch " in The Poetical Works of Edward
Rowland Sill (Boston, 1906), edited by William Belmont Parker with
Mrs Sill's assistance.
SILL (O.Eng. syl, Mid. E. sylle, selle; the word appears in led.
syll, svill, Swed. syll, and Dan. syld, and in German, as Schwelle;
Skeat refers to the Teutonic root swal-, swell, the word meaning
the rise or swell formed by a beam at a threshold; the Lat. solea,
from which comes Fr. seuil, gives Eng. " sole," also sometimes
used for " sill "), the horizontal base of a door or window-frame.
A technical distinction is made between the inner or wooden base
io8
SILL
of the window-frame and the stone base on which it rests
the latter being called the sill of the window, and the former
that of its frame. This term is not restricted to the bases of
apertures; the lower horizontal part of a framed partition is
called its sill. The term is sometimes incorrectly written " cill."
(See MASONRY.)
SILL, in geology, an intrusive mass of igneous rock which
consolidated beneath the surface and has a large horizontal
extent in comparison with its thickness. In the north-eastern
counties of England there is a great mass of this kind known
as the Whin Sill. The term " whin " is used in many parts of
England and Scotland to designate hard, tough, dark coloured
rocks often of igneous origin, and the Whin Sill is a mass of dolerite
or, more strictly, quartz-diabase. Its most striking character
is the great distance over which it can be traced. It starts not
far north of Kirkby Stephen (Co. Durham) and follows a
northerly course, describing a great curve with its convexity
towards the west, till it ends on the sea-shore at Bamborough,
not far south of Berwick-on-Tweed. The length of the outcrop is
about 80 m., but in places it is covered with superficial deposits
or may be actually discontinuous. Near Haltwhistle, however,
it is visible for about 20 m., and as it lies among softer rocks
(limestones and shales), it weathers out on a bold craggy ridge or
escarpment. When it crosses the streams the resistant character
of the igneous rock is indicated by waterfalls or " forces," e.g.
High Force in Teesdale. The thickness varies from 20 to 150
ft., but averages 90 ft. In some places the Whin Sill splits up
into two or more smaller sills which may unite, or one of them
may die out and disappear, and often small attendant sills,
resembling the main mass in petrographical character, appear in
association with it. It is difficult to estimate the area over which
it extends, as it dips downwards from its outcrop and is no longer
visible, but we may conjecture that it spreads over no less than
4000 sq. m. underground.
The rocks in which it lies belong to the Carboniferous Lime-
stone series, and the Sill is probably one of the manifestations of
the volcanic activity which occurred during the later part of the
carboniferous period. Many similar sills, often of large size,
though none so great as the Whin Sill, are found in the Scottish
coalfields. There are few lavas or ash beds at or above the
horizons on which these intrusive rocks lie, and hence it has been
concluded that towards the close of that volcanic episode in
British geological history the molten magmas which were impelled
upwards towards the surface found a place of rest usually within
the sedimentary rocks, and rarely flowed out as lavas on the sea-
bottom (the intrusive succeeding the effusive phase of volcanic
action). In the Carboniferous rocks the Whin Sill lies almost
like an interstratified bed, following the same horizon for many
miles and hardly varying more in thickness than the sedimentary
bands which accompany it. This, however, is true only on a
large scale, for where the junctions are well exposed the igneous
rock frequently breaks across the layers of stratification, and
sometimes it departs quite suddenly from one horizon and passes
to another, where again for a time it continues its apparently
regular course. Its intrusive character is also shown by the
emission of small veins, never very persistent, cutting the
sediments above or below it. In addition, it bakes and hardens
the adjacent rocks, both below and above, and this proves that
the superjacent beds had already been deposited and the molten
diabase forced its way along the bedding planes, as natural
lines of weakness. The amount of contact alteration is not
usually great, but the sandstones are hardened to quartzites,
the shales become brittle and splintery, and in the impure
limestones many new calc-silicates are produced.
The Whin Sill consists of a dark-green granular diabase, in
which quartz or micropegmatite appears as the last product of
crystallization. It is not usually vesicular and is not porphyritic,
though exceptions may occasionally be noted. At both the upper
and the under surface the diabase becomes much finer grained,
and the finest intrusive veinlets which enter the surrounding
rocks may even show remains of a glassy base. These phenomena
are due to the rapid cooling where the magma was in contact with
the sediments. No ash beds accompany the Whin Sill, but there
are certain dikes which occur near it and probably belong to the
same set of injections. In many places the diabase is quarried as
a road-mending stone.
The great Palisade trap of the Hudson river, which is an almost
exact parallel to the Whin Sill, is an enormous sheet of igneous rock
exposed among the Triassic beds of New Jersey and New York. It
has an outcrop which is about 100 m. long; its thickness is said to be
in places 800 ft., though usually not above 200 to 300 ft. Like the
Whin Sill the rock is a quartz-diabase occasionally passing into
olivine-diabase, especially near its edges. The Palisade diabase is
compact, non-vesicular and non-porphyritic as a rule. It follows the
bedding planes of the sedimentary rocks into which it was injected,
but breaks across them locally and produces a considerable amount
of contact alteration. In New Jersey, however, there is also an ex-
tensive development of effusive rocks which are olivine-basalts, and
by their slaggy surfaces, the attendant ash-beds and their strictly
conformable mode of occurrence, show that they were true lavas
poured out at the surface. There can be little doubt that they belong
to the same, period as the Palisade trap, and they are consequently
later than the Whin Sill.
These great sheets of igneous rock intruded into cold and nearly
horizontal strata must have solidified very gradually. Their edges
are fine grained owing to their having been rapidly chilled, and the
whole mass is usually divided by joints into vertical columns, which
are narrower and more numerous at top and base and broader in
the centre. Where exposed by denudation the rocks, owing to
this system of jointing, tend to present a nearly vertical, mural
escarpment which seems to consist of polygonal pillars. The name
" Palisade trap " expresses this type of scenery, so characteristic of
intrusive sills, and very fine examples of it may be seen on the banks
of the Hudson river. In Britain it is no less clearly shown, as by the
Sill at Stirling on which Wallace's Monument is placed; and by the
well-known escarpment of Salisbury Crags which fronts the town of
Edinburgh.
In the Tertiary volcanic district of the West of Scotland and North
Ireland, including Skye, Mull and Antrim, innumerable sills occur.
Perhaps the best known is the Sciur of Eigg, which forms a high ridge
terminating in a vertical cliff or Sciur in the island of Eigg, one of the
inner Hebrides. At one time it was supposed to be a lava-flow,
but A. Harker has maintained that it is of intrusive origin. This Sill
occupies only a small area as compared with those above described.
Its length is about two and a half miles and its breadth about a
quarter of a mile. On the east side it terminates in a great cliff from
300 to 400 ft. high, rising from a steep slope below. This cliff is
beautifully columnar, and shows also a horizontal banding, simulat-
ing bedding. The back of the intrusive sheet is a long ridge sloping
downwards to the west. The rock of which the Sciur of Eigg consists
is a velvety black pitchstone, containing large shining crystals of
felspar; it is dull or cryptocrystalline in places, but its glassy char-
acter is one of its most remarkable peculiarities.
In the Tertiary volcanic series of Scotland and Ireland intrusive
sheets build up a great part of the geological succession. They are
for the most part olivine-basalts and dolerites, and while some of
them are nearly horizontal, others are inclined. Among the lavas of
the basaltic plateaus there is great. abundance of sills, which are so
numerous, so thin and so nearly concordant to the bedding of the
effusive rocks that there is great difficulty in distinguishing them.
As a rule, however, they are more perfectly columnar, more coarsely
crystalline and less vesicular than the igneous rocks which consoli-
dated at the surface. These sills are harder and more resistant t/fian
the tuffs and vesicular lavas, and on the hill slopes their presence is
often indicated by small vertical steps, while on the cliff faces their
columnar jointing is often very conspicuous.
On modern volcanoes intrusive sheets are seldom visible except
where erosion has cut deep valleys into the mountains and exposed
their interior structure. This is the case, for example, in Ireland,
Teneriffe, Somma and Etna and in the volcanic islands of the West
Indies. In their origin the deep-seated injections escape notice;
many of them in fact belong to a period when superficial forms of
volcanic action have ceased and the orifices of the craters have been
obstructed by ashes or plugged by hard crystalline rock. But in the
volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands the craters are filled at times with
liquid basalt which suddenly escapes, without the appearance of any
lava at the surface. The molten rock, in such a catf, must have found
a passage underground, following some bedding plane or fissure, and
giving rise to a dike or sill among the older lavas or in the sediment-
ary rocks beneath. Many of the great sills, however, may have
been connected with no actual volcanoes, and may represent great
supplies of igneous magma which rose from beneath but never
actually reached the earth's surface.
The connexion between sills and dikes is very close ; both of them
are of subterranean consolidation, but the dikes occupy vertical or
highly inclined fissures, while the sills have a marked tendency to a
horizontal position. Accordingly we find that sills are most common
in stratified rocks, igneous or sedimentary. Very frequently sills give
rise to dikes, and in other cases dikes spread out in a horizontal
direction and become sills. It is often of considerable importance to
SILLIMAN SILURIAN
109
distinguish between sills and lavas, but this may be by no means
easy. The Sciur of Eigg is a good example of the difficulty in iden-
tifying intrusive masses. Lavas indicate that volcanic action was
going on contemporaneously with the deposit of the beds among
which they occur. Sills, on the other hand, show only that at some
subsequent period there was liquid magma working its way to the
surface. (J. S. F.)
SILLIMAN, BENJAMIN (1779-1864), American chemist and
geologist, was born on the 8th of August 1779 at Trumbull (then
called North Stratford), Connecticut. Entering Yale College
in 1792, he graduated in 1796, became tutor in 1799, and in
1802 was appointed professor of chemistry and mineralogy, a
position which he retained till 1853, when by his own desire he
retired as professor emeritus. Not only was he a popular and
successful teacher of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in the
college for half a century, but he also did much to improve and
extend its educational resources, especially in regard to its
mineralogical collections, the Trumbull Gallery of Pictures, the
Medical Institution and the Sheffield Scientific School. Outside
Yale he was well known as one of the few men who could hold the
attention of a popular audience with a scientific lecture, and on
account of his clear and interesting style, as well as of the un-
wonted splendour of his illustrative experiments, his services
were in great request not only in the northern and eastern states
but also in those of the south. His original investigations were
neither numerous nor important, and his name is best known to
scientific men as the founder, and from 1818 to 1838 the sole
editor, of the American Journal of Science and Arts often called
Silliman's Journal, one of the foremost American scientific
serials. In 1810 he published A Journal of Travels in England,
Holland and Scotland, in which he described a visit to Europe
undertaken in 1805 in preparation for the duties of his chair. He
paid a second visit in 1851, of which he also issued an account,
and among his other publications were Elements of Chemistry
(1830), and editions of W. Henry's Chemistry with notes (1808),
and of R. BakewelFs Geology (1827). He died at New Haven on
the 24th of November 1864.
His son, BENJAMIN SILLIMAN (1816-1885), chemist and
mineralogist, was born at New Haven on the 4th of December
1816. After graduating at Yale in 1837 he became assistant to
his father, and in 1847 was appointed professor in the school of
applied chemistry, which was largely due to his efforts and formed
the nucleus of the subsequent Sheffield Scientific School. In 1849
he was appointed professor of medical chemistry and toxicology
in the Medical College at Louisville, Kentucky, but relinquished
that office in 1854 to succeed his father in the chair of chemistry
at Yale. The duties of this professorship, so far as they related
to the Academic College, he gave up in 1870, but he retained his
connexion with the Medical College till his death, which happened
at New Haven on the i4th of January 1885. Much of his time,
especially during the last twenty years of his life, was absorbed in
making examinations of mines and preparing expert reports on
technical processes of chemical manufacture; but he was also
able to do a certain amount of original work, publishing papers
on the chemistry of various minerals, on meteorites, on photo-
graphy with the electric arc, the illuminating powers of gas, &c.
A course of lectures given by him on agricultural chemistry in
the winter of 1845-1846 at New Orleans is believed to have been
the first of its kind in the United States. In 1846 he published
First Principles of Chemistry and in 1858 First Principles of
Physics or Natural Philosophy, both of which had a large circula-
tion. In 1853 he edited a large quarto illustrated volume, The
World of Science, Art and Industry, which was followed in 1854
by The Progress of Science and Mechanism. In 1874, when the
tooth anniversary of Priestley's preparation of oxygen was
celebrated as the " Centennial of Chemistry " at Northumberland,
Pa., where Priestley died, he delivered an historical address
on " American Contributions to Chemistry," which contains a
full list, with their works, of American chemists up to that date.
From 1838 to 1845 he was associated with his father in the
editorship of the American Journal of Science, and from 1845
to the end of his life his name appeared on the title page as one of
the editors in chief.
SILLIMANITE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of aluminium
silicate, A^SiOs. It has the same percentage chemical composi-
tion as cyanite (q.v.) and andalusite (q.v.), but differs from these
in crystalline form and physical characters. It crystallizes in
the orthorhombic system and has the form of long, slender
needles without terminal planes, which are often aggregated
together to form fibrous and compact masses; hence the name
fibrolile, which is often employed for this species. The name
sillimanite is after Benjamin Silliman the elder. There is a
perfect cleavage in one direction parallel to the length of the
needles. The colour is greyish-white or brownish, and the lustre
vitreous. The hardness is 65 and the specific gravity 3-23.
Sillimanite is a characteristic mineral of gneisses and crystalline
schists, and it is sometimes a product of contact-metamorphism.
It has been observed at many localities; e.g. in Bohemia (the
Faserkiesel of Lindacker, 1792), with corundum in the Carnatic
(fibrolite of comte de Bournon, 1802), Chester in Connecticut
(sillimanite of G. T. Bowen, 1824), Monroe in New York (" mon-
rolite"), Bamle near Brevik in Norway ("bamlite"). Pre-
historic implements made of compact sillimanite are found in
western Europe, and have a certain resemblance to jade imple-
ments. (L. J. S.)
SILLY, weakly foolish, stupid. This is the current sense of a
word which has much changed its meaning. The O.E. scdig
(usually ges&lig) meant prosperous, happy, and was formed
from sal, time, season, hence happiness, cf. Icel. scda, bliss;
Ger. selig, blessed, happy, &c., probably also allied to Lat.
sahus, whole, safe. The development of meaning is happy,
blessed, innocent or simple, thence helpless, weak, and so foolish.
The old provincial and Scottish word for a caul (q.v.) was " silly-
how," i.e. " lucky cap." The development of meaning of
" simple," literally " onefold " (Lat. simplex), plain, artless, hence
unlearned, foolish, is somewhat parallel. A special meaning of
" simple," in the sense of medicinal herbs, is due to the supposition
that each herb had its own particular or simple medicinal value.
SILURES, a powerful and warlike tribe in ancient Britain,
occupying approximately the counties of Monmouth, Brecon
and Glamorgan. They made a fierce resistance to the Roman
conquest about A.D. 48, but a legionary fortress (Isca Silurum,
Caerleon) was planted in their midst and by A.D. 78 they were
overcome. Their town Venta Silurum (Caerwent, 6 m. W. of
Chepstow) became a Romanized town, not unlike Silchester, but
smaller. Its massive Roman walls still survive, and recent
excavations have revealed a town hall and market square, a
temple, baths, amphitheatre, and many comfortable houses with
mosaics, &c. An inscription shows that under the Roman Empire
it was the chef-lieu of the Silures, whose ordo or county council
provided for the local government of the district. (F. J. H.)
SILURIAN, in geology, a series of strata which is here under-
stood to include those Palaeozoic rocks which lie above the
Ordovician and below the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone,
viz. the Llandoverian (Valentian of C. Lap worth), Wenlockian
and Ludlovian groups of Great Britain with their foreign equiva-
lents. A word of caution is necessary, however, for in the early
history of British stratigraphy the exact delimitation of " Silurian"
was the subject of a great controversy, and the term has been
used with such varying significance in geological literature, that
considerable confusion may arise unless the numerous inter-
pretations of the title are understood. The name " Silurian "
was first introduced by Sir R. I. Murchison in 1835 for a series of
rocks on the border counties of England and Wales a region
formerly inhabited by the Silures. Murchison's Silurian em-
braced not only the rock groups indicated above, but others
below them that were much older, even such as are now classed
as Cambrian. About the same time A. Sedgwick proposed the
term Cambrian for a great succession of rocks which includes
much of Murchison's Silurian system in its upper part; hence
arose that controversy which left so lasting a mark on British
geology. In 1850 A. d'Orbigny suggested the name " Murchi-
sonian " for what is here retained as the Silurian system. As
a solution of the difficulties of nomenclature, Professor C.
Lapworth in 1879 proposed the term Ordovician systems (q.v.)
no
SILURIAN
for those rocks which had been the Lower Silurian of Murchison
and the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick. An approximate cor-
relation of the usages of the title " Silurian" is here given in
tabulated form:
R. I. Murchison.
A. Sedgwick.
C. Lapworth.
American.
A. ilu Lapparent.
E. Renevier.
Silurian.
o .
(Upper Silurian
of some authors.)
u r ian.
Silurian.
Silurian
(Salopian).
Niagaran
(S. D. Dana).
Ontaric or Silur
(Emmons, &c.]
1844.
Bohemien
(2nd ed. Traite
Gothlandien
(3rd-5th ed.).
Ordovician.
12
(/r
e
V
3
(Lower Silurian
in
d
rt o c
C 'SO
e
cr
of some authors.)
3
S -S g
IH J
S
^
5
u
3
c
cfl
1
1
c r" LIJ y
rt C V
m
15
T3
.Q
O
c/1 S
o
g
Cambrian.
d
a
d
d
Upper.
c
**
.2
'C
Middle.
Lower.
JJ
9
jj
E
C]
u
U
U
The Silurian rocks are almost wholly of marine origin and in-
clude all the usual phases of sedimentation; shales and mudstones,
marls and limestones, sandstones and grits are all represented
in Great Britain and in most other countries where the Silurian
is known. The majority of the rocks were deposited in the com-
paratively shallow waters of epicontinental seas, the graptolitic
shales and sponge-bearing cherts being perhaps the representa-
tives of the deeper waters. Locally, glauconitic limestones and
ironstones (Clinton beds) indicate special conditions; while the
isolation and desiccation of certain marine areas (New York)
towards the close of the period gave rise to beds of red sandstone,
red marls, gypsum and rock salt. The hydraulic limestone
(Water Lime) of New York was probably a brackish-water forma-
tion. In Sweden and elsewhere some of the limestones and shales
are distinctly bituminous.
Distribution. In the preceding Ordovician period several well-
marked marine provinces are indicated by the fossil contents of the
rocks. At the beginning of Silurian time a general transgression of
the sea which had commenced at the close of the Ordovician was
in progress in the N. hemisphere (Europe and the Appalachian
region). This culminated at the time when the Wenlock -beds and
their equivalents (Niagaran and Oesel beds) were forming at the
bottom of a great periarctic sea or shallow ocean. It is thus found
that the same general characters prevail in the Silurian of Britain,
N. America, Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Russian Poland
(Podolia, Kielce, Galicia), the Arctic regions, New Siberia (Kotelny),
Olenk district, Waigatsch, N. Zembla, Tunguska, Greenland,
Grinnell Land and China. The Bohemian region, comprising central
Bohemia, Thuringia, Fichtelgebirge, Salzburg, Pyrenees, Languedoc,
Catalonia, South Spain, Elba and Sardinia, alone retained some of its
marked individuality. Later in the period a gradual withdrawal of
the sea set in over the N. hemisphere, affecting the British area
(except Devon), the left of the Rhine, Norway and the Baltic region,
N. Russia, Siberia and the Ural region, Spitzbergen, Greenland and
the W. states of N. America. Thus the later Silurian conditions
heralded those of the succeeding Devonian and Old Red Sandstone,
and there is generally a gradual passage from one set of rocks to the
other (Downtonian of Great Britain). The Silurian rocks may occur
in close continuity with the upper Ordovician, as in S. Europe; or,
as in the typical region, the Llandovery beds may rest unconformably
upon older rocks; in N. America also there is a marked uncon-
formity on this horizon. A large part of N. America was apparently
land during part of Silurian time; the lower members are found in the
E. alone, while the Cayaguan division is found to extend farther E.
than the middle or Niagaran division, but not so far W. The falls
of Niagara owe their existence to the presence of the hard Lockport
and Guelph beds resting upon the softer Rochester shales. Most
of the essential information as to the distribution of Silurian rocks
will be found in a condensed form in the accompanying table and
map; but attention may here be drawn to the upper Silurian
(Ludlovian) limestone of Cornwallis Island, the mid-Silurian lime-
stone of Grinnell Land and the lower Silurian limestone of New
Siberia. Limestones of lower and middle Silurian age are found also
in Timan, Tunguska and elsewhere in N. Russia. Rocks of thi?
system in S. America have been only superficially studied; they
occur in the lower regions of the Amazon, where they bear some
resemblance to the Medina and Clinton stages of N. America,
and in Bolivia and Peru. Little is known of the Silurian rocks
recorded from N. Africa.
Silurian Life. Our know-
ledge of the life of this period
is limited to the inhabitants of
the seas and of the brackish
waters of certain districts. The
remains of marine organisms are
abundant and varied. Grap-
tolites flourished as in the pre-
ceding period, but the forms
characteristic of the Ordovician
gave place early in the Silurian
to the single-axis type (Mono-
graptidae) which prevailed until
the close of the period (Rast-
rites, Monograptus, Retiolites
and Cyrtograptus). As in the
Ordovician rocks, the grapto-
lites have been largely em-
ployed as zonal indicators.
Trilobites were important; the
genera Calymene, Phacops and
Encrinurus attained their maxi-
mum development ; Proetus,
Bronteus, Cyphaspis, Arethusina
may be mentioned from among
many other genera. The
ostracods Leperditia and Bey-
richia are very abundant locally. A feature of great interest is
the first appearance of the remarkable Eurypterid crustacean
Eurypterus, which occasionally reached the length of over a yard, and
of the limulids, Neolimulus and Hemiaspis. The cephalopods were
the predominant molluscs, especially Orthoceras and various abbrevi-
ated or coiled orthoceras-hke forms (Cyrtoceras, Phragmoceras,
Trochoceras, Ascoceras); there was also a Nautilus, and an early
form of goniatite has been recorded. Gasteropods include the genera
Platyceras, Murchisonia and Bellerophon; the pteropod Tentaculites
is very abundant in certain beds. The pelecypods were not very
important (Cypricardinia, Cardiola interrupta, C. cornucopiae).'
Next to the cephalopods in importance were the brachiopods : in thfe
lower Silurian pentamerus-like forms still continued (P. Knighlii,
Silurian Period
Suggested distribution
of Land & Water
After dc Lippkrcm
P. oblongus), but the spire-bearing forms soon began to increase
(Spirifer, Whitfieldia, Meristina, A try pa). Other genera include
Rhynchonella, Chonetes, Terebratula, Strophomena, Stricklandinia.
The bryozoa, especially the bulky rock-building forms, were less in
evidence than in the Ordovician. The echinoderms were well
represented by the crinoids (Cyathocrinus , Crotalocrinus , Taxocrinus),
some of which are found in a state of beautiful preservation at
Dudley in England, Lockport (New York), Waldron (Indiana) in N.
America and also in Gothland in the Baltic. Cystids were abundant,
but less so than in the Ordovician ; blastoids made their first appear-
ance. Corals, mostly tabulate forms, flourished in great abundance
in the clearer waters and frequently formed reefs (Favosites goth-
landica, Halysites catenularia, Alveolites, Heliolites) ; tetracorallian
forms include Stauria, Cyathophyllum, Cystiphyllum, Acervularia,
Omphyma and the remarkable Goniophyllum. Sponges were repre-
sented by Astylospongia, Aulocopium, &c. The peculiar genera
SILVA
in
A pproximate Correlation of Silurian Rocks.
Graptolite
Zones
(Britain).
England
and
Wales.
Scotland.
Scandinavian.
Baltic Region.
Bohemia.
Western
Europe.
1
w
North America
(New York).
d
S3
J
New
Brunswick.
<
Australia.
Monograplus
leintwardin-
Downton
and
Downtonian
and
Upper Cardiola
beds and upper
Eurypterus
beds.
Stage E 2 of
J. Barrande.
Manlius
limestone.
J3
rt
ensis.
Ludlow
groups.
Raeberry
Castle
Cephalopod or
Gothland lime-
Limestones
a
|
Rondout
Water Lime.
_.-
i
|
3 *s?
Af. bohtmicus.
M. Nilssoni,
beds.
stone.
Red sandstone.
Lower cephalopod
limestone.
Upper Oesel
dolomite
with
cephalopods.
d
4
.a
Cobleskill
limestone.
Salina beds of
Onondaga
with
:AYAGU/
1
g group.
group.
the Ilimal;
of Shansi.
New Soul
Tasmania
j merits Kr<
Crinoid and coral
and
S3
1
rock salt
'&
S
c
*" g
o "5
limestone.
limestones.
it
and
E
2
d"=<
li
d
gypsum.
c
o
*
1
S
o *-
Lower Cardiola
a S
s a
is -
shales and Megn-
rt^
g
B
O.
s
|=
a *
lomus limestones.
&
'3
"z
_a
I* 3
M. testis.
Wenlock
and
Riccarton,
Blair,
Cyrtograptus
shales and lower
Lower Oesel
beds:
Crinoid
limestones.
il
J
"3
Guelph
dolomite.
O
6
4
Cyrtograptus
Linnarssoni.
Woolhope
groups.
and
Straiten
beds.
brachiopod and
coral limestone
with sandstone.
dolomite
and
marl.
n
II
J
1
Lockport
limestone.
<
il
d **!
o ...
Cyrtograptus
Murchisoni.
"* d
s
a
Rochester
j
J
i
1
n
Ex
sj
o
shales.
H
d
2
rt
tt
3 s
tl
c
1
Clinton beds.
o
JS
d
11
a s
11
d
d
u
s'B
Rattrites
Tarannon,
Queensberry
Raslrites shales
Pentamcrus
Stage EI of
II
1
J
d
o
-1
*O ="
"a -3
maximus.
Llandovery,
and
beds.
and Strickland-
inia marls.
beds.
J. Barrande.
Graptolite
a
ei ,r.
Medina
sandstone.
g
1
rt
1
II
I
M. spinigerus.
May Hill
Birkhill shales
shales
S
"rt2
<
3
d
CA
*fl
o.tij>
groups.
and
with
O
"S 4*
Oneida
t3
"O
II
"S ^**"
M. gregarius.
Graptolitic beds
diabase
.y.
conglomerate.
>
7T
*
iji
of the
at the base.
^;T
^
13
*rt ii
Diplograptus
vcsiculosus.
Girvan area.
O S
.2
n
Shawangunk
grit.
1
*
a
ft
o
E
Diplograptus
acuminatus.
Receptaculites and Ischadites occur in the Silurian. Foraminifera
and radiolaria also left their remains in the rocks. The most highly
organized animals of the Silurian period were the fishes which had
already made their appearance in the Ordovician rocks of Colorado
and Russia. The Silurian fish include selachians (Onchus, Tkyestis),
and the occurrence of remains of the obscure backboned ostra-
coderms (placoderms) is particularly worthy of notice (Pteraspis,
Cephalaspis, Tremataspis, Cyathaspis, Thelodus, Lanarkia, Euker-
aspis). Scorpions (Palaesphonus) have been found in Lanark,
Gothland and New York. Plant remains are very fully repre-
sented; land plants have been recorded from the Harz and Keller-
wald (H. Potonie, 1901), and large silicified stems up to 2 ft. in
diameter perhaps representing a gigantic seaweed (Nematophycus) ,
have been found in Wales and in Canada. Pachytheca is a small
spherical body often associated with Nematophycus. Girvanella is
another obscure algal plant.
As a natural result of the open character of the great Silurian
periarctic sea referred to above, there are many points of resemblance
between the fauna of the several regions of the N. hemisphere; this
has been specially noticed in the community not only of genera but
of species between Britain, Sweden and the interior of N. America
(Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois). Goniophyttum pyramidale is common to
Iowa and Gothland; A try pa reticularis , Orthoceras annulatum and not
a few others are common to Europe and N. America. An extremely
interesting circumstance is the admixture of a periarctic and
Bohemian fauna in the Australasian region.
In a general sense the Silurian period was one of comparative
quiescence as regards crustal disturbances, and a relative sinking of
the land was followed by a relative elevation affecting wide areas in
the N. hemisphere. Local oscillations, such as those taking part in
the formation of the Salina beds, &c., were naturally taking place,
but the folding of the Scandinavian mountains and in the N. highlands
of Scotland continued throughout the period accompanied by a great
amount of thrusting. Volcanic activity was quite subordinate in
Silurian times; flows of diabase occurred at the commencement of
the period in Bohemia, and evidence of minor basaltic flows and tuffs
is found at Tortworth in Gloucestershire and at a few localities in N.
America.
For further information, see articles on the CAMBRIAN, ORDOVICIAN,
LLANDOVERY, WENLOCK, LUDLOW Systems and Groups. (J. A. H.)
SILVA, ANTONIO JOS6 DA (1705-1739), Portuguese drama-
tist, known as " the Jew," was born at Rio de Janeiro, but came
to Portugal at the age of eight. His parents, Joao Mendes da
Silva and Lourenga Coutinho, were descended from Portuguese
Jews who had emigrated to Brazil to escape the Inquisition, but
in 1702 that tribunal began to persecute the Marranos in Rio,
and in October 1712 Lourenca Coutinho fell a victim. Her
husband and children accompanied her to Portugal, where she
figured among the " reconciled " in the auto-da-fe of the gth of
July 1713, after undergoing the torment only. Her husband,
having then acquired a fixed domicile in Lisbon, settled down
to advocacy with success, and he was able to send Antonio to the
university of Coimbra, where he matriculated in the faculty of
law. In 1726 Antonio was suddenly imprisoned along with his
mother on the 8th of August; on the i6th he suffered the first
interrogation, and on the 23rd of September he was put to the
torment, with the result that three weeks later he could not sign
his name. He confessed to having followed the practices of the
Mosaic law, and this saved his life. He went through the great
auto-da-fe held on the 23rd of October in the presence of King
John V. and his court, abjured his errors, and was set at liberty.
His mother was only released from prison in October 1729, after
she had undergone torture and figured as a penitent in another
auto-da-ft. Meanwhile Antonio had gone back to Coimbra, and
finishing his course in 1728-1729 he returned to Lisbon and
became associated with his father as an advocate. He found an
ignorant and corrupt society ruled by an immoral yet fanatical
monarch, who wasted millions on unprofitable buildings though
the country was almost without roads and the people had
become the most backward in Europe. As his plays show, the
spectacle struck Antonio's observation, but he had to criticize
with caution. He produced his first play or opera in 1733, and
the next year he married a cousin, D. Leonor Maria de Carvalho,
whose parents had been burnt by the Inquisition, while she
herself had gone through an auto-da-fe in Spain and been exiled
on account of her religion. A daughter was born to them in
1734, but the years of their happiness and of Silva's dramatic
career were few, for on the 5th of October 1737 husband and wife
were both imprisoned on the charge of " judaizing." A slave
of theirs had denounced them to the Holy Office, and though
the details of the accusation against them seem trivial and even
contradictory, Antonio was condemned to death. On the i8th
of October he was beheaded and his body burnt in an auto-da-ft;
112
SILVANUS SILVER
that same day one of his popular operettas was given at a Lisbon
theatre.
His dramatic works, which were produced at the Bairro Alto
theatre between 1733 and 1738, include the following comedies, all
played by marionettes: D. Quixote (1733), Esopaida (1734), Os
Encantos de Medea (1735), Amphitriao (May 1736), Labyrintho de
Creta (November 1736), Guerras do Alecrim e Mangerona (carnival
of 1737), As Variedades de Proteo (May 1737) and Precipicio de
Faetonte (1738). Slight as these sketches are, they show considerable
dramatic talent and an Aristophanic wit. The characters are well
drawn and the dialogue full of comic strength, the scenes knit
together and the plot skilfully worked out. Moreover Silva possessed
a knowledge of stagecraft, and, if he had lived, he might have emanci-
pated the drama in Portugal from its dependence on foreign writers;
but the triple licence of the Palace, the Ordinary and the Inquisition,
which a play required, crippled spontaneity and freedom. Even so,
he showed some boldness in exposing types of the prevailing charla-
tanism and follies, though his liberty of speech is far less than that
of Gil Vicente (q.v.). His comedies give a truthful and interesting
picture of 1 8th century society, especially his best comedy, the Alecrim
e Mangerona, in which he treats of the fidalgo pobre, a type fixed by
Gil Vicente and Francisco Manoel de Mello (?..). His works bear
the title "operas" because, though written mainly in prose, they
contain songs which Silva introduced in imitation of the true operas
which then held the fancy of the public. He was also a lyric poet of
real merit, combining correctness of form with a pretty inspiration
and real feeling. His plays were published in the first two volumes
of a collection entitled TJieatro comico portuguez, which went through
at least five editions in the 1 8th century, while the Alecrim e Mange-
rona appeared separately in some seven editions. This comedy and
the D. Quixote have been reprinted in a critical edition with a life of
Silva by Dr Mendes dos Remedies (Coimbra, 1905). Ferdinand
Denis, in his Chefs-d'oeuvre du theatre portugais (pp. 365-496, Paris,
1823), prints liberal extracts, with a French translation, from the
Vida de D. Quixote, and F. Wolf likewise gives selections from Silva's
various compositions. Silva is the subject also of several laudatory
poems and dramas, one or two of which were composed by Brazilian
compatriots.
See Dr Theophilo Braga, Historia do theatre portuguez; a baixa
comedia e a opera (Oporto, 1871); F. Wolf, Dom Antonio Jose da
Silva (Vienna, 1860); Ernest David, Les Operas dujuif Antonio Jose
da Silva, 1705-1739 (Paris, 1880); Oliveira Lima, Aspectos de
litteratura colonial Brazileira (Leipzig, 1896); Jewish Encyclopedia,
vol. xi. p. 341 ; G. A. Kohnt, " Bibliography of Works relating
to Antonio Jos6 da Silva and Bibliography of Don Antonio's
Compositions " in the Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. No. 4, p. 181 ;
idem, " Martyrs of the Inquisition in South America," ib. p. 135;
M. Griinwald, "Jose da Silva" in Monatsschrift (1880), xxix.
P- 241. (E. PR.)
SILVANUS (Lat. siliia, wood), a deity or spirit of Italian
woodland; not, however, of the wholly wild woodland, but of
that which borders the clearings in a country not entirely re-
claimed. Thus he is partly wild and partly civilized, and reflects
the experience of the earliest settlers in Italy, whose descendants
took him with them to the farthest limits of the empire, even to
Britain, where we have many votive inscriptions to him, always
as the friendly deity dwelling outside the new clearing, benevolent
towards the settler in a strange land. This leading characteristic
of Silvanus is shown clearly in Roman literature: Horace writes
of the " horridi dumeta Silvani " (Odes, iii. 29) but he also calls
him " tutor finium " (Epod. ii. 22) while for Virgil he is " arvorum
pecorisque deus " (Aen. viii. 600). A writer on land measure-
ment (Script, gromatici, i. 302) tells us that each holding had three
Silvani domesticus (of the holding itself), agrestis (of the wilder
pasture-land) and orientalis (of the boundaries). It is plain that
in him the Italians had a very useful deity, and in all these
capacities he became extremely popular, as the extraordinary
number of his inscriptions shows. Unlike Mars, from whom
he was probably in origin an offshoot (cf. the Mars Silvanus of
Cato, De re rustica, 141; see MARS), he never made his way into
the towns, but is almost the only Roman deity who from first
to last retained the same perfectly intelligible rustic character.
His double nature as deity of woodland and cultivated land is
seen well in the artistic representations of him; he carries a
young tree in one hand, a pruning-hook in the other.
See Wissowa, Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1904, p. 78 foil.).
(W. W. F.*)
SILVER (symbol Ag, from the Latin argentum, atomic weight
107-88 (O=i6)), a metallic chemical element, known from the
earliest times and of great importance as a " noble " metal
for articles of value coinage, ornamentation and jewelry.
Etymologically the word " silver " probably refers to the shining
appearance or brightness of the metal. The Latin argentum is
cognate with the Greek apyvpos, silver, which in turn is derived
from dp76s, shining. The Hebrew Keseph is connected with
a root meaning " to be pale." The alchemists named it Luna
or Diana, and denoted it by the crescent moon; the first name
has survived in lunar caustic, silver nitrate. Silver is widely
diffused throughout nature, occurring in minute amount in
sea-water, and in the mineral kingdom as the free metal, as an
amalgam with mercury and as alloys with gold, platinum,
copper and other metals. Native silver is occasionally met with
in metalliferous veins, where it has been formed by the alteration
of silver-bearing minerals. It crystallizes in the cubic system,
but the crystals are usually distorted and indistinctly developed:
twisted wire-like forms are much more common. The best
crystallized specimens have been obtained from Kongsberg
in Norway, large masses, weighing as much as 5 cwts., having
been found. It is also found in other silver mines, especially
those of Mexico, Peru and Chile; in the Lake Superior copper
mining region it occurs in association with native copper.
The element is a constituent of many mineral sulphides, some
of which are of sufficiently frequent occurrence to rank as ores
of silver. Of these the more important are noticed under
Metallurgy; here we may notice the rarer minerals. Silver
sulphide, Ag 2 S, occurs naturally as the orthorhombic acanthite,
and the cubic argentite; the telluride, Ag 2 Te, named hessite,
assumes cubic forms; other tellurides containing silver ar.e
petzite, (Ag,Au) 2 Te, and sylvanite, AuAgTe4. In association
with antimonious and arsenious sulphides, silver sulphide forms
many important minerals, which sometimes present dimorphous
forms, reflecting the dimorphism of silver sulphide; moreover,
the corresponding arsenious and antimonious compounds are
frequently isomorphous. This is illustrated by the hexagonal
pyrargyrite 3Ag 2 S-Sb 2 S 3 , and proustite, 3Ag 2 S-As 2 S 3 , and the
monoclinic pyrostilpnite, isomeric with pyrargyrite, and xantho-
conite, isomeric with proustite. Other pairs of isomorphous
argentiferous minerals are: the cubic polybasite, 9Ag 2 S-Sb 2 S 3 ,
and pearceite, 9Ag2S-As 2 S3; and the germanium minerals
argyrodite, 4Ag 2 S-GeS 2 , and canfieldite, 4Ag 2 S-(Sn,Ge)S 2 .
Physical Properties. In appearance silver presents a pure
white colour with a perfect metallic lustre. It is the most
malleable and ductile of all metals with the exception of gold:
one gramme can be drawn out into a wire 180 metres long, and
the leaf can be beaten out to a thickness of 0-00025 mm.; traces
of arsenic, antimony, bismuth and lead, however, make it
brittle. In hardness it is superior to gold, but inferior to copper.
Its specific gravity, according to G. Rose, lies between 10-514
and 10-619 a t 14; an average value is 10-57. Its specific heat
is 0-05701 (Regnault) or 0-0559 (Bunsen); its coefficient of
linear expansion is 0-00001921. Its thermal conductivity is,
according to Wiedemann and Franz, superior to that of other
metals, being in the ratio of 100 : 74 as compared with copper
and 100 : 54 with gold; it is the most perfect conductor of
electricity, standing to copper in the ratio 100:75, and to gold
100:73. Silver melts at about 1000 C.; recent determinations
give 960-7 (Heycock and Neville) and 962 (Becquerel); at
higher temperatures it volatilizes with the formation of a pale
blue vapour (Stas). Its vapour density has been determined
at 2000, and corresponds to a monatomic molecule. When
molten, silver occludes the oxygen of the atmosphere, absorbing
20 times its own volume of the gas; the oxygen, however, is not
permanently retained, for on cooling it is expelled with great
violence; this phenomenon is known as the " spitting " of silver.
It is prevented by preserving the molten metal from contact
with air by covering the surface with non-oxidizing agents, or
by traces of copper, bismuth or zinc.
Chemical Properties. Silver is not oxidized by oxygen, but
resembles mercury in being oxidized by ozone. It has no action
on water. It is readily soluble in dilute nitric acid, nitric oxide
and silver nitrate being formed; it also dissolves in hot, strong
sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide being evolved. Hydrochloric
acid forms a surface film of silver chloride; hydriodic acid
readily dissolves it, while hydrofluoric acid is without action.
Sulphuretted hydrogen is decomposed with the formation of a
black coating of silver sulphide; this is the explanation of the
black tarnish seen when silver is exposed to the fumes of coal
gas, and other sulphuretted compounds, such as occur in eggs.
The so-called " oxidized " silver is a copper-silver alloy coated
superficially with a layer of the sulphides by immersion in
sodium sulphide or otherwise. Silver combines with the free
halogens on heating and also with sulphur.
Molecular silver is a grey powder obtained by leaving metallic zinc
in contact with silver chloride which has been precipitated in the cold
and washed till nearly free from acid. The powder is separated from
the zinc, washed with hydrochloric acid, dried in the air, and then
gently heated to 150. It assumes a metallic lustre on burnishing or
heating to redness. It receives application in synthetic organic
chemistry by virtue of its power to remove the halogen atoms from
alkyl haloids, and so effect the combination of the two alkyl residues.
Colloidal silver is the name given by Carey Lea to the precipitates
obtained by adding reducing solutions, such as ferrous sulphate,
tartrates, citrates, tannin, &c., or to silver solutions. They dissolve
in water to form solutions, which do not penetrate parchment
membranes, hence the name colloidal. Many other methods of
preparing these substances are known. Bredig's process consists in
passing an electric arc between silver electrodes under water, when a
brown solution is obtained.
Production. The economic questions which attend the
production of silver and the influence which gold and silver
exercise on prices are treated in the articles MONEY and BI-
METALLISM; the reader is referred to the former article for
the history of silver production and to the topographical headings
for the production of specific countries. Since the middle of the
1 9th century the annual production has increased: the following
table gives the average annual production in 1000 oz. over
certain periods:
SILVER
1841-1850.
1851-1860.
1861-1865.
1866-1870.
1871-1875.
1876-1880.
1881-1885.
1886-1890.
1891-1895.
25,090
28,792
35,402
43,052
63,318
78,777
87,272
110,356
158,942
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905-
1906.
1907.
1908.
180,093
174.851
164,560
170,128
182,262
189,830
165,640
184,894
203,186
Over two-thirds of the world's supply is derived from Mexico and
the United States. The Mexican mines first sent supplies to Europe
in the i6th century, and during the period 1781-1800 yielded two-
thirds of the world's production. Although the production has de-
creased relatively, yet it has increased enormously absolutely; in
1900, it was 55,804,420 oz., being second to the United States; in
1905 it was 73,838,066 oz., establishing a record for any single
country. The United States came into prominence in about 1860, and
the discovery of the famous Comstock lode in Nevada led to an
enormous increase in the production. The production of this lode
declined in 1876, but the total production of this country was in-
creased by discoveries in Colorado (Leadville) and Nevada (Eureka) ;
and in more recent years silver-producing areas in other states
(Montana, Utah, Idaho) have been exploited. In 1860 the pro-
duction was 116,019 oz., which increased to 1,546,920 in 1861; in
1872 it was 22,254,002 oz. ; in 1888, 45,792,682; in 1890, 54,516,300
oz.; in 1900, 57,647,000; and in 1905, 58,918,839 oz. S. America has
furnished European supplies since the discovery of the Potosi mines
of Peru in 1533; Bolivia and Chile are also notable producers. Of
European producers, Germany, Spain and Austria are the most
important; Greece, Italy, France, Turkey and Russia occupy
secondary positions. The German mines were worked in the loth
century; at the beginning of the l6th century the production was
over 400,000 oz. annually ; this dropped in the following century to
about one-half; it then recovered, and in recent times has enor-
mously increased, attaining 12,535,238 oz. in 1905. The mines of
Spain, neglected late in the I5th century on the advent of supplies
from America, came into note in 1827; the output has since greatly
increased, amounting to 3,774,989 oz. in 1905. Austria-Hungary
was producing twice as much as Germany, and about one-half of the
total European production, in the i6th century; the yield diminished
in the ensuing century, to be subsequently increased. The output
was about 1,800,000 pz. in 1905. The total European supply was
about 17,000,000 oz. in 1900 and about 18,600,000 oz. in 1905. Of
other countries we may notice Canada, which produced 4,468,225 oz.
in 1900 and 5,974,875 oz. in 1905, and Japan, which produced about
670,000 oz. in 1880 and 3,215,000 oz. in 1905. Australia came into
notice chiefly by reason of the discoveries at Broken Hill, New South
Wales; these mines producing 36,608 oz. in 1885, 1,016,269 in 1886,
and 7,727,877 oz. in 1890. The total Australasian production in 1900
was 14,063,244 oz. and 14,362,639 oz. in 1905.
Metallurgy.
From the metallurgical point of view, silver ores may be
classified as real silver ores and argentiferous ores. The former
consist of silver minerals and gangue (vein matter, country-rock).
The leading silver minerals are native silver; argentite or silver
glance, Ag2S, usually containing small amounts of lead, copper
and tin; dyscrasite or antimonial silver, AgzSb to Ag^Sb,
an isomorphous mixture of silver and antimony; proustite
or light red silver ore, AgsAsSs; pyrargyrite or dark red silver
ore, AgsSbSs; stephanite, Ag 6 SbS4; miargyrite, AgSbS2 - ,
stromeyerite, CuAgS; polybasite, 9(Cu 2 S,Ag 2 S) (Sb 2 S 3 , As 2 S 3 ) ;
cerargyrite or horn silver, AgCl; bromite or bromargyrite,
AgBr; embolite, Ag(Cl,Br); iodite or iodargyrite, Agl. Metalli-
ferous products containing silver arise in many operations;
the chief products which may yield silver economically are copper
and lead mattes, burnt argentiferous pyrites and certain
drosses and scums. Argentiferous ores consist of silver-bearing
base-metal minerals and gangue. Lead and copper ores, carrying
silver in some form or other, are the leading representatives.
The silver is extracted from the gangue with the base metal,
usually by smelting, and the two are then separated by special
processes (see LEAD).
Milling, i.e. amalgamation and lixiviation, is cheaper than
smelting, but the yield in silver is lower. Often it is more
profitable to smelt real silver ores with argentiferous ores than
to mill them, the greater cost being more than balanced by the
increased yield.
Milling is practised
mainly in isolated
localities near the
mine producing
the ore. As any
given region is
opened up by rail-
ways, cheapening
transportation,
milling is apt to
give way to smelt-
ing. Thus on the American continent, which produces the bulk
of the world's silver, milling is still prominent in S. America and
Mexico, while in the United States it has to a considerable
extent been replaced by smelting.
Amalgamation is based on the property of quicksilver to extract
the silver from finely-pulverized ore and collect it in the form
of an amalgam. When the rock has been separated from the
amalgam by a washing operation, the quicksilver is recovered
by distillation in an iron retort, and the remaining crude retort-
silver melted into bars and shipped to a refinery, which removes
the impurities, the leading one of which is copper. A silver ore
is either free-milling or refractory, that is, the silver mineral is
readily amalgamated or it is not. In free-milling ore the silver
is present either in the native state, or as chloride or as simple
sulphide. Complex silver minerals (sulph-arsenides and anti-
monides) which are difficult to amalgamate must be made
amenable to quicksilver, and the simplest way of doing this is
to convert the silver into chloride. This is imperfectly accom-
plished, in the wet way, by cupric and cuprous chloride solutions,
but completely so, in the dry way, by roasting with salt (chlorid-
izing roasting). According as a preliminary chloridizing roast
has or has not been given, the process is classed as roast-amalga-
mation or raw-amalgamation. The leading raw-amalgamation
processes are the Patio and Washoe; then follow the Cazo,
Fondon and Krohnke; of the roast-amalgamation processes,
the European Barrel or Freiberg, the Reese River and the
Francke-Tina arc the most important.
The Patio process, sometimes named the Amencan-heap-arnalga-
mation process, which is carried out principally in Mexico, aims at
SILVER
amalgamating the silver in the open in a circular enclosure termed a
torta, the floor of which is generally built of flagstones. In order to
facilitate the decomposition of the silver-mineral, salt and magistral,
i.e. cupriferous pyrites roasted to convert the copper into soluble
sulphate, which is the active agent, are worked into the wet pulp
spread out on the floor. The amalgamation proceeds very slowly,
as the sole extraneous heat is that of the sun. According to Laur
(" Mfitallurgie de 1'argent au Mexico," Ann. des mines, series 6, vol.
xx.), at Guanaxuato, Mexico, 92-79 % of the total silver recovered was
extracted after 12 days, 97-55% after 25 days, 99-1 % after 28 days
and 1 00% after 33 days. The loss of quicksilver in the process is
large, owing to the formation of calomel which is not saved. The
yield in silver is low unless the ores are exceptionally free-milling;
the bullion produced is high-grade, as refractory silver minerals are
hardly attacked. The process is suited to easy ores and a region
where the climate is warm and dry, and horse- or mule-power, labour
and quicksilver are cheaper than fuel and water.
The Washoe process of pan-amalgamation, named from the Washoe
district in the United States, is the leading raw-amalgamation process
of the United States, where it was introduced in 1861 by A. B. Paul.
It consists in wet-stamping coarsely crushed ore, settling the sands
and slimes produced, and grinding and amalgamating them in
steam-heated iron pans with or without the use of chemicals (salt
and copper sulphate). The ores may contain a larger proportion of
sulphides and complex silver minerals than with the Patio process
and still give a satisfactory extraction. They are crushed to egg-size
in a rock-breaker, and pulverized to pass a 4O-mesh sieve in a Cali-
fornia stamp-mill, which treats in 24 hours about 3 tons per stamp.
A lo-stamp mill is fed by one rock-breaker, and discharges the liquid
pulp into 10-15 wo den settling tanks, 9 by 5 by 8 ft., the settled
contents of which are shovelled out and charged into the pans. The
pan in general use is the combination pan. It has a flat cast-iron
bottom, 5 feet in diameter, and wooden sides about 30 inches high,
the lower parts of which are lined with cast-iron. In the centre is a
hollow cone, through which passes the driving shaft, geared from
below. This turns the grinding apparatus (driver with " muller "),
which can be raised and lowered. The speed is 60-90 revolutions
per minute. To the bottom and muller are attached grinding plates
(shoes and dies), which are replaced when worn; and to the sides
three wings to deflect the moving pulp towards the centre, and thus
establish the necessary pulp current. The lower side of the bottom
has also a steam-chest. A lo-stamp mill has 4-6 pans, which receive
2-ton charges. In working, the muller is raised i in., the pan
charged with water and then with ore; the muller is then lowered,
salt and blue vitriol added, and the charge ground for 3-4 hours.
The pulp is heated with live steam to about 90 C., and kept at that
temperature by exhaust steam in the bottom-chest. After grinding,
the muller is raised and quicksilver added, and the silver up to 81-04 %
then amalgamated in 4 hours.
In amalgamating without the use of chemicals, finely divided iron,
worn from the shoes and dies in the stamp-mill and the pan, de-
composes cerargyrite and argentite, and the liberated silver is taken
up by the quicksilver; the process is hastened by adding salt.
When salt and copper sulphate are added to the charge, they form
sodium sulphate and cupric chloride, both of which are readily
soluble in water. Cupric chloride acts upon argentite (Ag 2 S-f-
CuCl 2 =2AgCl+CuS), proustite (4Ag 3 AsS 3 +4CuCl 2 =8AgCl +
2Ag 2 S+4CuS+2As 2 S 3 ), pyrargyrite (2Ag 3 SbS 3 +3CuCl 2 =6AgCl +
3CuS+Sb 2 S 3 ), and is also reduced to cuprous chloride by metallic
iron. This salt, insoluble in water but soluble in brine, also acts
upon argentite (Ag2S+Cu 2 C< 2 =2AgCl+CuS+Cu) and pyrargyrite
(2Ag 3 SbS 3 +Cu 2 Cl 2 = 2AgCl+Ag 2 S-t-2Ag+2CuS+Sb 2 S 3 ), and would
give with silver sulphide in the presence of quicksilver, the Patio-
reaction; metallic silver, cupric sulphide, and mercurous chloride
(2Ag 2 S+Cu 2 Cl 2 +2Hg=4Ag+2CuS+Hg 2 Cl2), but the iron decom-
poses the quicksilver salt, setting free the quicksilver.
The amalgamation is rapid. Thus Austin found that at the
Charleston mills, Arizona, 92-13% of the total silver recovered was
extracted after I hour, 94-10% after 2 hours, 95-92% after 3 hours,
and 100 % after 4^ hours. The loss in quicksilver is small, as there is
no chemical loss inherent in the process; the yield is relatively high,
but the bullion is liable to be low-grade, on account of copper being
precipitated and amalgamated.
When the charge has been worked, the contents of the pan are
discharged into a settler, in which the amalgam is separated from the
sands. It has the same general construction as the pan. It is 8 ft. in
diameter and 3 ft. deep. The bottom, slightly conical, has a groove
near the circumference to catch the amalgam, which is withdrawn
through a discharge-spout into a bowl. In the sides at different
levels are three discharge-holes for water and sand. The muller
reaches to within 3 in. of the bottom and makes 12-15 revolutions
per minute. In settling, the pulp is diluted by a small stream of
water, and the thinned pulp drawn off, first through the top discharge-
hole and then through the other two, the bottom one being about
8 in. above the amalgam. Settling takes about half the time required
to work a charge in the pan, hence one settler serves two pans. The
amalgam is dipped out from the bowl into a canvas bag (the strainer),
to separate the excess of the quicksilver from the pasty amalgam,
which is then retorted and melted. The cost of treating a ton of ore
in the western part of the United States is from $3 to $7. At some
works treating ores containing sulphides which do not yield their
silver to quicksilver, concentration apparatus (see ORE-DRESSING)
is inserted between the stamps and the settling tanks to remove the
sulphides, which are worked by themselves; at other works they are
recovered from the sands after these have left the settlers. In order
to do away with the handling of the wet pulp, and to obtain a higher
extraction, M. P. Boss has modified the ordinary plant by making
the pulp flowing from the stamps pass through a grinding pan, then
through a series of amalgamating pans followed by a row of settlers.
A 2O-stamp mill is served by 12 men in 24 hours. The Washoe
process is independent of the climate, but it requires cheap power
and an abundance of water.
In the Cazo, Caldron or Hot process the pulverized silver ore is
boiled in a copper-bottomed wooden vat, first with brine until the
silver has been reduced by the copper, and then with quicksilver.
The Fondon is an improvement on the Cazo. Bars of copper drawn
over the bottom by mules or water-power (like the stone drags in the
arrastra) grind off fine particles of copper, which hasten the reduction
of the silver and diminish the formation of calomel. In the Krohnke
process introduced by B. Krohnke into Copiapo, Chile, in 1860, the
silver mineral of the pulverized ore is decomposed in a revolving
barrel by a hot solution of cuprous chloride in brine in the presence of
zinc or lead and quicksilver (see B. Krohnke, Methode zur Entsilberung
von Erzen, Stuttgart, 1900).
Chloridizing Roasting. In a chloridizing roast chlorine
produces its effect as nascent chlorine or gaseous hydrochloric
acid. The leading reagents are salt (NaCl), sulphur trioxide
(SOa, produced in the roasting), and steam (H 2 0). The decom-
position of salt is expressed by 2NaCl+2SO 3 = Na 2 SO 4 + SO 2 + C1 2 .
In the presence of water-vapour the following reaction takes
place: 2NaCl+SO 3 +H 2 O = Na 2 SO4+2HCl. As some water-
vapour is always present, hydrochloric acid will invariably be
formed with the chlorine. The roasting is carried on in hand
and mechanical reverberatory furnaces, and occasionally in
muffle-furnaces. A chloridation of over 90% silver is the rule.
The European Barrel or Freiberg process consists in roasting the
ground ore with salt which converts the silver sulphide into chloride.
The mass, along with certain proportions of water, scrap-iron and
mercury, is then placed in barrels, which are made to rotate so that
the several ingredients are thoroughly mixed. The salt solution
dissolves a small proportion of chloride, which in this form is quickly
reduced by the iron to the metallic state. This solution and pre-
cipitation is continuous, and the metal formed unites with the
mercury to form a semi-fluid amalgam. The amalgam is pressed in
linen bags to eliminate a quantity of relatively silver-free liquid
mercury (which is utilized as such in subsequent operations), and the
remaining solid amalgam is subjected to distillation from iron re-
torts. This process was perfected at Freiberg, Saxony, but aban-
doned there in 1856. In the United States it was used quite ex-
tensively in Colorado and Nevada, but has now been given up.
The main reasons for this are the length of time required to finish
a charge, on account of the absence of any extraneous source of heat,
and the great care with which operations have to be carried out in
order to obtain satisfactory results.
The Reese River or pan-amalgamation process consists in dry-
stamping crushed dried ore and dried salt (separately or together),
charging them into a roasting furnace, and amalgamating the chlori-
dized ore in an iron pan. The general arrangement and construction
of a mill resemble those of the Washoe process. The apparatus for
drying ore and salt varies greatly, drying-floors, dry-kilns and con-
tinuous mechanical reverberatory furnaces with stationary and re-
volving hearths being used. The general construction of the pan is
the same as in the Washoe process; the management, however,
differs. The steam-chest is not used to such an extent, as the bottom
would be prematurely corroded; less water is used, as the pulp
would become too thin on account of the soluble salts (sodium
chloride, sulphate, &c.) going into solution; and the roasted ore is
not ground, as the hot brine readily dissolves the silver chloride from
the porous ore, and thus brings it into intimate contact with iron and
quicksilver. Chemical reagents are sometimes added lime or
sulphuric acid, to neutralize an excess of acid or alkali; copper
sulphate, to form cuprous chloride with sodium chloride; and iron
and zinc, to make the galvanic action more energetic and reduce the
consumption of iron. The rest of the apparatus (settler, retort,
crucible, furnace) is the same as with the Washoe process. The
Reese River process costs from half as much again to twice as much as
the Washoe process.
The Francke-Tina process, named from Francke, German consul at
Bolivia, and tina, the wooden vat in which the process is carried out,
was developed in Bolivia for the treatment of refractory ores rich in
zinc blende and tetrahedrite (fahl-ore). The ore is given only a partial
chloridizing roast, on account of the great loss in silver that would be
caused by the formation of zinc chloride. The large amount of
soluble sulphates of iron and copper formed in the roast is made to
act upon salt charged in a copper-bottomed amalgamating pan ; the
chlorides formed finish in the wet way the imperfect chloridation
obtained in the furnace.
SILVER
Lixiviation. Ores suited for amalgamation can, as a rule,
be successfully leached. In leaching, the silver ore is subjected
to the action of solvents, which dissolve the silver; from the
solution the silver is precipitated and converted into a marketable
product.
The leading solvents are aqueous solutions of thiosulphates, un-
systematically but generally termed hyposulphites. Sodium chloride,
characteristic of the Augustin process in which the ores, after
a chloridizing roast, were extracted with brine, and the silver pre-
cipitated by copper, has almost wholly fallen into disuse; and
potassium cyanide, which has become a very important solvent for
finely divided gold, is rarely used in leaching silver ores. The use of
sodium hyposulphite as solvent, and sodium sulphide as precipitant,
was proposed in 1846 by Hauch and in 1850 by Percy, and put into
practice in 1858 by Patera (Patera process) ; calcium hyposulphite
with calcium polysulphide was first used by Kiss in 1860 (Kiss
process, now obsolete) ; sodium hyposulphite with calcium poly-
sulphide was adopted about 1880 by O. Hofmann (Hofmann process) ;
finally, sodium hyposulphite with cuprous hyposulphite was first
applied by Russell in 1884, who included in his process the acidula-
tion of the first wash-water (to neutralize any harmful alkaline
reaction), and the separation of lead with sodium carbonate from
the silver solution previous to precipitating with sodium sulphide
(see C. A. Stetefeldt, The Lixiviation of Silver Ores with Hyposulphite
Solutions, &c., New York, 1888).
In all processes the silver ore is finely crushed, usually by rolls, as,
because making few fines, they leave the ore in the best condition for
leaching. As a rule the ore is subjected to a preliminary chloridizing
roast, though occasionally it may be leached raw. The vats in
common use are circular wooden tanks, 16-20 ft. in diameter and
8-9 ft. deep if the leached ore is to be removed by sluicing, 5 ft. if by
shovelling. They have a false bottom, with cloth or gravel filters.
The basis of the following outline is the Patera process. The ore,
supposed to have been salt-roasted, is charged loosely into the
leaching vat and treated with water (to which sulphuric acid or copper
sulphate may have been added), to remove soluble salts, which might
later on be precipitated with the silver (base-metal chlorides), or
overcharge the solution (sodium chloride and sulphate), or interfere
with the solvent power (sodium sulphate). The vat is filled with
water from above or below, in- and out-flow are then so regulated as
to keep the ore covered with water. Any silver dissolved by the first
wash-water is recovered by a separate treatment. After the wash-
water has been drained off, the ore is ready for the silver solvent.
This is a solution containing up to 2 % of sodium hyposulphite, of
which one part dissolves 0-485 part silver chloride, equivalent to
0-365 part metallic silver, to form double hyposulphites. Silver
arsenate and antimoniate are also readily soluble, metallic silver
slightly so, silver sulphide not at all. (In the Russell-process double
salts: 4Na 2 S 2 O :! -3Cu 2 S2O 3 , and SNasSsOs-^CujSjOa the metallic silver
and silver sulphide are readily soluble ; thus it supplements that of
"
.
After the silver has been dissolved by percolation, the last of the
solvent still in contact with the ore is replaced by a second wash-
water. The silver solution, collected in a circular precipitating vat
(10 ft. in diameter and 10 ft. deep), is treated with sodium sulphide
(or calcium polysulphide), unless sodium carbonate was first added to
throw down any lead, present in the ore as sulphate, that had gone
into solution. Silver sulphide falls out as a black mud, with about
50 % silver, and the solvent will be regenerated.
If the sodium cuprous hyposulphite was used as a solvent in
addition to the simple sodium hyposulphite, cuprous sulphide will be
precipitated with the silver sulphide, and the precipitate will be of
lower grade. At some works the silver is precipitated with sodium
sulphide, and the liquor, after having been separated from the silver
sulphide, is treated with calcium polysulphide, that by the precipi-
tation of calcium sulphate the accumulation of sodium sulphate may
be prevented. The precipitated silver (copper) sulphide is filtered,
dried, and usually shipped to silver-lead works to be refined; some-
times it is converted into metallic silver at the works. The solution,
freed from silver, is used again as solvent. Lixiviation has many
advantages over amalgamation. It permits coarser crushing of the
ore, the cost of plant is lower, the power required is nominal, the cost
of chemicals is lower than that of quicksilver, less water is necessary,
and the extraction is often higher, as silver arsenate and antimoniate
are readily soluble, while they are not decomposed in amalgamation.
On the other hand, silver and silver sulphide are readily amalga-
mated ; and while they are not dissolved in the Patera process, they
are in the Russell process.
Mention may be made of the Ziervogel process, introduced at
Hettstadt in 1841 for the purpose of extracting silver from copper
mattes. In principle it consists in oxidizing silver sulphide to the
sulphate which is soluble in water, the silver being then precipitable
by metallic copper. This process when carefully carried out, especi-
ally as to the details of the roasting process whereby the silver
sulphide is oxidized, yields 92 % of the silver originally present.
Electrolytic Methods. Crude silver generally contains small
amounts of copper, gold, bismuth, lead and other metals. To
eliminate these impurities, electrolytic methods have been
devised; of these that of Moebius is the most important and
will be described in detail.
Under his earlier patent of 1884, cast crude silver anode plates,
about $ in. thick, and thin rolled silver cathodes, were suspended in a
s%, slightly acid, solution of silver nitrate contained in tarred
wooden tanks. The deposit from this solution even with low current-
densities is pulverulent and non-coherent, and therefore during
electrolysis wooden scrapers are automatically and intermittently
Dassed over the surface of the cathode to detach the loose silver,
which falls into cloth trays at the bottom of the tanks. These trays
are removed at intervals, and the silver washed and cast into bars,
which should contain over 99-9% of pure metal. The relatively
electro-negative character of silver ensures that with moderate
current densities no metal (other than precious metals) will be
deposited with it ; hence, while the solution is pure a current-density
of 30 amperes per sq. ft. of cathode may be used, but as copper
accumulates in it, the current-density must be diminished to (say)
15 to 20 amperes per sq. ft., and a little extra nitric acid must be
added, in order to prevent the co-deposition of copper. A pressure of
I -5 volt usually suffices when the space between the electrodes is 2 in.
The tanks were arranged in groups of seven on the multiple system.
Of the metals present in the anode, practically all, except gold, pass
into solution, but, under the right conditions, only silver should
deposit. The whole of the gold is recovered as anode slime in cloth
bags surrounding the anodes. Practical results with a large plant
indicate an expenditure of 1-23 electrical horse-power hours per
100 oz. (Troy) of refined silver. In later installations, under the
1895 patent, the anodes are placed horizontally on a porous tray
resting within the solution above an endless silver band revolving,
also horizontally, over rollers placed near the ends of a long shallow
tank. The revolving band forms the cathode, and at one end makes
a rubbing contact with a travelling belt placed at an angle so that
the crystals of silver detached thereby from the cathode are con-
veyed by it from the solution and deposited outside.
Alloy scrap containing chiefly copper with, say 5 or 6% of gold,
and other metals, and up to 40 or 50% of silver, is often treated
electrolytically. Obviously, with modifications, the Moebius process,
could be applied. Other systems have been devised. Borchers uses
the alloy, granulated, in an anode chamber separated from the
cathode cell by a porous partition through which the current, but
not electrolyte, can pass freely. The anode residue is collected in the-
angular bottom of the tank, the electrolyte passes from the anode
chamber to a series of tanks in which the more electro-negative
constituents (silver, &c.) are chemically separated, and thence to the
cathode chamber, where the copper is deposited electrolytically,
thence it passes again to the anode chamber and so completes the
cycle. In one form of the apparatus a rotating cathode is used.
Dietzel has described (Zeitschrift fiir Elektrochem., 1899, vol. vi. p. 81)
the working of his, somewhat similar, process at Pforzheim, where
about 130 m of the alloy was being treated by it daily in 1899. The
alloy is cast into anode plates about f in. thick, and placed in the
anode chamber beneath the cathode cell, and separated from it by
linen cloth. In the upper compartment are two large revolving
horizontal cathode cylinders. Acidified copper nitrate solution is
run into this cell, copper is deposited, and the more or less spent
solution then passes through the linen partition, and, taking up
metal from the anodes by electrolytic solution, is run out of the
trough through a series of vessels filled with copper by which the
silver is precipitated by simple exchange; after acidification the
resulting silver-free copper solution is returned to the cathode cell for
the deposition of the copper, the solution being employed again and
again until too impure for use.
Chemically Pure Silver. Even the best " fine " silver of
commerce contains a few thousandth-parts of copper or other
base metal. To produce perfectly pure metal the usual method
is to first prepare pure chloride and then to reduce the chloride
to metal. This may be effected by mixing the dry chloride
with one-fifth of its weight of pure quicklime or one-third of its
weight of dry sodium carbonate, and fusing the mixture in a
fire-clay crucible at a bright red heat. In either case we obtain
a regulus of silver lying under a fused slag of chloride. The
fused metal is best granulated by pouring it into a mass of cold
water. A convenient wet method for small quantities is to boil
the recently precipitated chloride (which must have been
produced and washed in the cold) with caustic soda and just
enough sugar to reduce the silver oxide (Ag 2 O) transitorily
produced. The silver in this case is obtained as a yellowish grey
heavy powder, which is easily washed by decantation; but it
tends to retain unreduced chloride, which can be removed only
by fusion with carbonate of soda.
Stas in his stoichiometric determinations employed the following
process as yielding a metal which comes nearer ideal purity. Slightly
cupriferous silver is made into dry nitrate and the latter fused to
u6
SILVER
reduce any platinum nitrate that may be present to metal. The
fused mass is dissolved in dilute ammonia and diluted to about fifty
times the_ weight of the silver it contains. The filtered (blue) solution
is now mixed with an excess of solution of ammonium sulphite, and
allowed to stand. After twenty-four hours about one-half of the
silver has separated out in crystals; from the mother-liquor the rest
comes down promptly on application of a water-bath heat. The
rationale of the process is that the sulphite hardly acts upon the dis-
solved oxide of silver, but it reduces some of the cupric oxide to
cuprous oxide, which reduces its equivalent of silver oxide to silver
and reforming cupric oxide which passes through the same cycle.
Alloys of Silver. Silver readily alloys with many metals,
and the admixture generally differs in physical properties
from the pure metal. Thus arsenic, antimony, bismuth, tin or
zinc render the metal brittle, so that it fractures under a die
or rolling mill; copper, on the other hand, increases its hardness,
makes it tougher and more readily fusible. Consequently
copper-silver alloys receive extensive application for coinage
and jewelry. The composition of the alloy is stated in terms
of its " fineness," the proportion of silver in 1000 parts of alloy.
Generally copper-silver alloys separate into two layers of different
composition on fusion; an exception is the alloy AgsCuz,
investigated by A. I. F. Levol, corresponding to a fineness of 719,
which remained perfectly homogeneous.
The extent to which the properties of -silver are modified by
addition of copper depends on the fineness of the alloy produced.
The addition of even three parts of copper to one of silver does not
quite obliterate the whiteness of the noble metal. According to
Kamarsch, the relative abrasion suffered by silver coins of the
degrees of fineness named is as follows:
Fineness .... 312 750 900 993
Abrasion .... I 2-3 3-9 9-5
The same observer established the following relation between fine-
ness p and specific gravity of alloys containing from 375 to 875 of
silver per 1000: sp. gr. =0-001647 +8-833.
The fusing points of all copper-silver alloys lies below that of pure
copper; that of British standard silver is lower than even that of
pure silver.
Compounds of Silver.
Silver forms one perfectly characterized oxide, Ag 2 O, from which
is derived a series of stable salts, and probably several less perfectly
known ones. Argentic or silver oxide, Ag 2 O, is obtained as a dark
brown precipitate by adding potash to a solution of a silver salt;
on drying at 6o-8o it becomes almost black. It is also obtained by
digesting freshly precipitated silver chloride with potash. It is
sparingly soluble in water (one part in 3000) ; and the moist oxide
frequently behaves as the hydroxide, AgOH, i.e. it converts alkyl
haloids into alcohols. It begins to decompose into silver and oxygen
at 250. Silver peroxide, AgO, appears under certain conditions as
minute octahedra when a solution of silver nitrate is electrolysed, or
as an amorphous crust in the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid
between silver electrodes. It readily decomposes into silver and
oxygen. It dissolves in ammonia with the liberation of nitrogen
and the formation of silver oxide, Ag 2 O; and in sulphuric acid
forming a fairly stable dark green liquid which, on dilution, gives off
oxygen and forms silver sulphate. It is doubtful whether the pure
compound has been obtained. The compound obtained from silver
nitrate always contains nitrogen; it appears to have the constant
composition AgyNOn, and has been named silver peroxynitrate.
Similarly the sulphate yields 5Ag 2 O 2 , 2Ag 2 SO7, silver peroxysulphate,
and the fluoride the peroxyfluorides Agi 6 F 3 Oi 6 , Ag 7 FO 8 . The
sesquioxide, Ag4Oa, is supposed to be formed when silver peroxide is
treated with ammonia (Watson, Jour. Ghent. Soc., 1906, 89, p. 578).
Sillier chloride, AgCl, constitutes the mineral cerargyrite. or horn
silver ; mixed with clay it is the butter-milk ore of the German
miners. Early names for it are Lac argenti and Luna cornea, the first
referring to its form when freshly precipitated, the latter to its ap-
pearance after fusion. It is readily obtained as a white curdy
precipitate by adding a solution of a chloride to a soluble silver salt.
It is almost insoluble in water, soluble in 50,000 parts of nitric acid,
and more soluble in strong hydrochloric acid and solutions of alkaline
chlorides. It readily dissolves in ammonia, the solution, on evapora-
tion, yielding rhombic crystals of 2AgCl-3NHs; it also dissolves in
sodium thiosulphate and potassium cyanide solutions. On exposure
to light it rapidly darkens, a behaviour utilized in photography (q.v,).
Abney and Baker have shown that the pure dry chloride does not
blacken when exposed in a vacuous tube to light, and that the
blackening is due to absorption of oxygen accompanied by a loss of
chlorine. Hydrogen peroxide is also formed. It melts at about
460 to a clear yellow liquid, which, on cooling, solidifies to a trans-
lucent resinous mass. It is reduced to metallic silver by certain
metals zinc, iron, &c. in the presence of water, by fusion with
alkaline carbonates or cyanides, by heating in a current of hydrogen,
or by digestion with strong potash solution, or with potassium
carbonate and grape sugar. Silver bromide, AgBr, constitutes the
mineral bromargyrite or bromyrite, found in Mexico and Chile. It
is obtained as a yellowish white precipitate by mixing solutions of a
bromide and a silver salt. It is very slightly soluble in nitric acid,
and less soluble in ammonia than the chloride. It melts at 427,
and darkens on exposure to air. The minerals embolite, mega-
bromite and microbromite, occurring in Chile, are variable mixtures
of the chloride and bromide. Silver iodide. Agl, occurs in nature as
the mineral iodargyrite or iodyrite, forming hexagonal crystals, or
yellowish green plates. It is obtained as a light yellow powder by
dissolving the metal in hydriodic acid, or by precipitating a silver
salt with a soluble iodide. It is very slightly soluble in acids and
ammonia, and almost insoluble in alkaline chlorides ; potassium
iodide, however, dissolves it to form Agl-KI. Silver iodide is
dimorphous; at ordinary temperatures the stable form is hexa-
gonal; on heating to about 138 the colour changes from deep yellow
to yellowish-white with the formation of cubic crystals. Silver
fluoride, AgF, is obtained as quadratic octahedra, with one molecule
of water, by dissolving the oxide or carbonate in hydrofluoric acid.
It is deliquescent, and dissolves in half its weight of water to form a
strongly alkaline liquid. It is not decomposed by sunlight. It melts
at 435 and, on cooling, forms a yellow transparent mass. In
addition to the salts described above there exist sub-salts. Silver
nitrate, AgNO 3 , one of the most important silver salts, is obtained by
dissolving the metal in moderately dilute nitric acid; on evaporation
it separates in the anhydrous form as colourless triclinic plates. It
dissolves in water, alcohol and ether. It stains the skin and hair
black: an ethereal solution having been employed as a dye for the
hair. Mixed with gum arable it forms a marking ink for linen. It
fuses at 218; and when cast in quill-like moulds, it constitutes the
lunar caustic of medicine, principally used as a cauterizing agent.
Silver sulphide, Ag 2 S, constitutes the mineral argentite or silver
glance, and may be obtained by heating silver with sulphur, or by
precipitating a silver salt with sulphuretted hydrogen. Thus ob-
tained it is a brownish solid, which readily fuses and resolidifies to a
soft leaden-grey mass. It forms with silver nitrate the yellowish
green solid, Ag 2 S-AgNO3, and with silver sulphate the orange-red
powder, Ag 2 S-Ag 2 SO 4 . Silver sulphate, Ag 2 SO<, is obtained as white
crystals, sparingly soluble in water, by dissolving the metal in strong
sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide being evolved, or by adding strong
sulphuric acid to a solution of the nitrate. It combines with ammonia
to form the readily soluble 2NH3-Ag 2 SO<. Silver selenide, Ag 2 Se,
resembles the sulphide. It occurs in the minerals naumannite,
PbSe-Ag 2 Se, and eukairite, Ag 2 Se-Cu 2 Se. The telluride, AgjTe,
occurs in nature as the mineral hessite.
Fulminating silver is an extremely explosive black powder, first
obtained in 1788 by Berthelot, who acted with ammonia on silver
oxide (prepared by adding lime water to a silver solution). When dry
it explodes even on touching with a feather. It appears to be silver
nitride Ag 3 N, but it usually contains free silver and sometimes
hydrogen. It is to be distinguished from silver fulminate (see
FULMINIC ACID). The nitride AgN 3 , silver azoimide (q.v.), is also
highly explosive.
See J. Percy, Metallurgy of Silver and Gold (London, 1880), part i. ;
T. Egleston, The Metallurgy of Silver, Gold and Mercury (New York,
1887-1890), part i.; M. Eissler, The Metallurgy of Silver (London,
1891); H. F. Collins, The Metallurgy of Lead and Silver (London,
njoo), part ii.; H. O. Hofman, Hydrometallurgy of Silver (1907);
C. Schnabel, Metallurgy, translated by H. Louis, 2nd ed. vol. i.
(i95)-
Medicinal Use.
Two salts of silver are used in the British pharmacopoeia,
(i) Argenti nilras (United States and British pharmacopoeia),
lunar caustic, incompatible with alkalis, chlorides, acids, except
nitric and acetic, potassium iodide and arsenical solutions.
From the nitrate are made (a) argenti nitras indurata, toughened
caustic, containing 19 parts of silver nitrate and one of potassium
nitrate fused together into cylindrical rods; (b) Argenti nitras
mitigalus, mitigated caustic, in which i part of silver nitrate
and 2 parts of potassium nitrate are fused together into rods
or cones. (2) Argenti oxidum, incompatible with chlorides,
organic substances, phenol, creosote, &c., with which it forms
explosive compounds.
Therapeutics. Externally the nitrate has a caustic action, de-
stroying the superficial tissues and separating the part acted on as a
slough. Its action is limited. It may be employed to destroy warts
or small growths, to reduce exuberant granulations or it may be
applied to bites. In granular lids and various forms of ophthalmia
solutions of silver nitrate (2 grs. to I fl. oz.) are employed. A I %
solution is also used as a prophylactic for ophthalmia neonatorum.
The effects of the nitrate being both astringent and stimulating as
well as bactericidal, solutions of it are used to paint indolent ulcers,
and in chronic pharyngitis or laryngitis. Salts of silver are most
useful as an injection in subacute and chronic gonorrhoea, either the
nitrate (i to 5% solution) being employed, or protargol, which is a
proteid compound containing 8 % of silver nitrate, is used in I %
solution; they also benefit in leucorrhoea. In pruritus of the
SILVERFISH SILVESTER (POPES)
vulva and anus a weak solution of silver nitrate will relieve the itching,
and strong solutions painted round the base of a boil at the beginning
will abort its formation. Internally the nitrate has been used in the
treatment of gastric ulcer, in ulcerative conditions of the intestine
and in chronic dysentery. For the intestinal conditions it must either
be given in a keratin-coated pill or injected high up into the rectum.
The oxide has been given in epilepsy and chorea. Nitrate of silver
is eliminated from the system very slowly and the objection to its
employment continuously as a drug is that it is deposited in the
tissues causing argyria, chronic silver poisoning, of which the most
prominent symptom is dark slate-blue colour of the lips, cheeks, gums
and later of the skin.
Taken in large doses nitrate of silver is a powerful poison, causing
violent abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea with the develop-
ment of gastro-enteritis. In some cases nervous symptoms and
delirium supervene. The treatment consists in the use of solutions of
common salt, followed by copious draughts of milk or white of egg
and water or soap in water, in order to dilute the poison and protect
the mucous membranes of the oesophagus and stomach from its
action.
SILVERFISH, a small active insect, so-called from the silvery
glitter of the scales covering the body. It is less than half an
inch long and is found in damp corners or amongst books and
papers in houses. Although accredited with destroying paper
and linen, it probably feeds only on farinaceous or saccharine
substances. Scientifically it is known as Lepisma saccharina and
belongs to the sub-order Thysanura of the order Aptera.
SILVERIUS, pope from June 536 to March 537, successor
of Pope Agapetus I., was a legitimate son of Pope Hormisdas,
born before his father entered the priesthood. He was conse-
crated on the 8th of June 536, having purchased his elevation
from the Gothic king Theodotus. Six months afterwards
(Dec. 9) he was one of those who admitted Belisarius into the
city. He opposed the restoration of the patriarch Anthimus,
whom Agapetus had deposed, and thus brought upon himself
the hatred of Theodora, who desired to see Vigilius made pope.
He was deposed accordingly by Belisarius in March 537 on a
charge of treasonable correspondence with the Goths, and
degraded to the rank of monk. He went to Constantinople,
and Justinian, who entertained his complaint, sent him back
to Rome, but Vigilius was ultimately able to banish his rival
to Pandataria, where the rest of his life was spent in obscurity.
The date of his death is unknown.
SILVES, a city of S. Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly
the province of Algarve); on the right bank of the river Silves
at the head of its estuary, and 30 m. W.N.W. of Faro. Pop.
(1900) 9687. Silves is surrounded by Moorish walls and domin-
ated by a Moorish castle. It has a fine Gothic church. It has
manufactures of corks and soap; and exports corn, vegetables
and fruits. Large numbers of pigs are bred, and fishing is carried
on in the river and at sea. Alphonso III. (1210-1248) wrested
Silves from the Moors.
SILVESTER, the name of three popes.
SILVESTER I., bishop of Rome from January 314 to December
335, succeeded Melchiades and was followed by Marcus. The
accounts of his papacy preserved in the Liber pontificalis are
little else than a record of the gifts said to have been conferred
on the Roman church by Constantine the Great. He was
represented at the council of Nice. The story of his having
baptized Constantine is pure fiction, as almost contemporary
evidence shows the emperor to have received this rite near
Nicomedia at the hands of Eusebius, bishop of that city. Accord-
ing to Dollinger, the entire legend, with all its details of the
leprosy and the proposed bath of blood, cannot have been com-
posed later than the close of the sth century (cf. Duchesne, the
Liber pontificalis, i. 109). The so-called Donation of Constantine
was long ago shown to be spurious, but the document is of
very considerable antiquity and, in Dollinger's opinion, was
forged in Rome between 752 and 777. It was certainly known
to Pope Adrian in 778, and was inserted in the false decretals
towards the middle of the next century.
SILVESTER II., pope from 999 till ,1003, and previously
famous, under his Christian name of Gerbert, first as a teacher
and afterwards as archbishop successively of Reims and Ravenna,
was an Aquitanian by birth, and was educated at the abbey of
St Gerold in Aurillac. Here he seems to have had Gerald for his
117
abbot and Raymond for his instructor, both of whom were
among the most trusted correspondents of his later life. From
Aurillac, while yet a young man (adolescens) , he was taken to
the Spanish march by " Borrell, duke of Hither Spain," prosecut-
ing his studies. Borrell entrusted him to the care of a Bishop
Hatto, under whose instruction Gerbert made great progress in
mathematics. In this duke we may certainly recognize Borel,
who, according to the Spanish chroniclers, was count of Barcelona
from 967 to 993, while the bishop may probably be identified with
Hatto, bishop of Vich or Ausona from about 060 to 971 or 972.
In company with his two patrons Gerbert visited Rome, where
the pope, hearing of his proficiency in music and astronomy,
induced him to remain in Italy, and introduced him to the
emperor Otto I. A papal diploma, still extant, shows that
Count Borel and Bishop Octo or Otho of Ausona were at Rome
in January 971, and, as all the other indications point to a
corresponding year, enables us to fix the chronology of Gerbert's
later life.
When brought before the emperor, Gerbert admitted his skill
in all branches of the quadrivium, but lamented his comparative
ignorance of logic. Eager to supply this deficiency he followed
Lothair's ambassador Germanus, archdeacon of Reims, to that
city, for the sake of studying under so famous a dialectician in
the episcopal schools which were rising into reputation under
Archbishop Adalbero (960-989). So promising a scholar soon
attracted the attention of Adalbero himself, and Gerbert was
speedily invited to exchange his position of learner for that of
teacher. At Reims he seems to have studied and lectured for
many years, having amongst his pupils Hugh Capet's son Robert,
afterwards king of France, and Richer, to whose history we
owe almost every detail of his master's early life. According to
this writer Gerbert's fame began to spread over Gaul, Germany
and Italy, till it roused the envy of Otric of Saxony, in whom
we may recognize Octricus of Magdeburg, the favourite scholar
of Otto I., and, in earlier days, the instructor of St Adalbert,
the apostle of the Bohemians. Otric, suspecting that Gerbert
erred in his classification of the sciences, sent one of his own
pupils to Reims to take notes of his lectures, and, finding his
suspicions correct, accused him of his error before Otto II.
The emperor, to whom Gerbert was well known, appointed a
time for the two philosophers to argue before him; and Richer
has left a long account of this dialectical tournament at Ravenna,
which lasted out a whole day and was only terminated at the
imperial bidding. The date of this controversy seems to have
been about Christmas 980, and it was probably followed by
Otric's death, on the ist of October 981.
It must have been about this time that Gerbert received the
great abbey of Bobbio from the emperor. That it was Otto II.,
and not, as formerly supposed, Otto I., who gave him this
benefice, seems evident from a diploma quoted by Mabillon
(Annales, iv. 121). Richer, however, makes no mention of this
event; and it is only from allusions in Gerbert's letters that we
learn how the new abbot's attempts to enforce his dues waked a
spirit of discontent which at last drove him in November 983
to take refuge with his old patron Adalbero. It was to no
purpose that he appealed to the emperor and empress for restitu-
tion or redress; and it was perhaps the hope of extorting his
reappointment to Bobbio, as a reward for his services to the
imperial cause, that changed the studious scholar of Reims into
the wily secretary of Adalbero. Otto II. died in December 983,
leaving the empire to his infant heir Otto III. Lothair, king of
the west Franks, claimed the guardianship, and attempted to
make use of his position to serve his own purposes in Lorraine,
which would in all probability have been lost to the empire but
for the efforts of Adalbero and Gerbert. Gerbert's policy is to
be identified with that of his metropolitan, and was strongly
influenced by gratitude for the benefits that he had received
from the first two Ottos.
According to M. Olleris's arrangement of the letters, Gerbert
was at Mantua and Rome in 985. Then followed the death of
Lothair (2nd of March 986) and of Louis V., the last Carolingian
king, in May 987. Later on in the same year Adalbero crowned
n8
SILVESTER (POPES)
Hugh Capet (ist June) and his son Robert (25th December).
Such was the power of Adalbero and Gerbert in those days that
it was said their influence alone sufficed to make and unmake
kings. The archbishop died on the 23rd of January 989, having,
according to his secretary's account, designated Gerbert his
successor. Notwithstanding this, the influence of the empress
Theophana, mother of Otto III., secured the appointment for
Arnulf , a bastard son of Lothair. The new prelate took the oath
of fealty to Hugh Capet and persuaded Gerbert to remain with
him. When Charles of Lorraine, Arnulf's uncle, and the son of
Louis IV. D'Outremer, surprised Reims in the autumn of the
same year, Gerbert fell into his hands and for a time continued
to serve Arnulf, who had gone over to his uncle's side. He
had, however, returned to his allegiance to the house of Capet
before the fall of Laon placed both Arnulf and Charles at the
mercy of the French king (March 991). Then followed the council
of St Basle, near Reims, at which Arnulf confessed his treason
and was degraded from his office (i7th June 991). In return
for his services Gerbert was elected to succeed the deposed
bishop.
The episcopate of the new metropolitan was marked by a
vigour and activity that were felt not merely in his own diocese,
but as far as Tours, Orleans and Paris. Meanwhile the friends
of Arnulf appealed to Rome, and a papal legate was sent to
investigate the question. As yet Hugh Capet maintained the
cause of his nominee and forbade the prelates of his kingdom
to be present at the council of Mouzon, near Sedan (June 2, 995).
Notwithstanding this prohibition Gerbert appeared in his own
behalf. Council seems to have followed council, but with
uncertain results. At last Hugh Capet died in 996, and, shortly
after, his son Robert married Bertha, the widow of Odo, count of
Blois. The pope condemned this marriage as adulterous; and
Abbo of Fleury, who visited Rome shortly after Gregory V.'s
accession, is said to have procured the restoration of Arnulf at
the new pontiff's demand. We may surmise that Gerbert left
France towards the end of 995, as he was present at Otto III.'s
coronation at Rome on the 2ist of May 996. Somewhat later he
became Otto's instructor in arithmetic, and had been appointed
archbishop of Ravenna before May 998. Early in the next year
he was elected pope (April 999), and took the title of Silvester II.
In this capacity Gerbert showed the same energy that had
characterized his former life. He is generally credited with
having fostered the splendid vision of a restored empire that now
began to fill the imagination of the young emperor, who is said
to have confirmed the papal claims to eight counties in the
Ancona march. Writing in the name of the desolate church at
Jerusalem he sounded the first trumpet-call of the crusades,
though almost a century was to pass away before his note was
repeated by Peter the Hermit and Urban II. 1
Nor did Silvester II. confine himself to plans on a large scale.
He is also found confirming his old rival Amulf in the see of
Reims; summoning Adalbero or Azelmus of Laon to Rome to
answer for his crimes; judging between the archbishop of Mainz
and the bishop of Hildesheim; besieging the revolted town of
Cesena; flinging the count of Angouleme into prison for an
offence against a bishop; confirming the privileges of Fulda
abbey; granting charters to bishoprics far away on the Spanish
mark; and, on the eastern borders of the empire, erecting Prague
as the seat of an archbishopric for the Slavs. More remarkable
than all his other acts is his letter to St Stephen, king
of Hungary, to whom he sent a golden crown, and whose king-
dom he accepted as a fief of the Holy See. It must, however,
be remarked that the genuineness of this letter, in which Gerbert
to some extent foreshadows the temporal claims of Hildebrand
and Innocent III., has been hotly contested, and that the original
document has long been lost. All Gerbert's dreams for the
advancement of church and empire were cut short by the death
of Otto III., on the 4th of February 1002; and this event was
followed a year later by the death of the pope himself, which took
place on the 1 2th of May 1003. His body was buried in the church
1 This letter, even if spurious as now suspected, is found in the
I ith-century Leiden MS., and is therefore anterior to the first crusade.
of St John Lateran, where his tomb and inscription are still to
be seen.
A few words must be devoted to Silvester II. as regards his attitude
to the Church of Rome and the learning of his age. He has left us
two detailed accounts of the proceedings of the council of St Basle;
and, despite his reticence, it is impossible to doubt that he was the
moving spirit in Arnulf's deposition. On the whole it may be said
that his position in this question as to the rights of the papal see over
foreign metropolitans resembled that of his great predecessor
Hincmar, to whose authority he constantly appeals. But he is rather
the practised debater who will admit his opponent's principles for the
moment when he sees his way to moulding them to his own purposes,
than the philosophical statesman who has formulated a theory from
whose terms he will not move. Roughly sketched, his argument is
as follows. Rome is indeed to be honoured as the mother of the
churches; nor would Gerbert oppose her judgments except in two
cases (i) where she enjoins something that is contrary to the
decrees of a universal council, such as that of Nice, or (2) where,
after having been once appealed to in a matter of ecclesiastical
discipline and having refused to give a plain and speedy decision, she
should, at a later date, attempt to call in question the provisions of
the metropolitan synod called to remedy the effects of her negligence.
The decisions of a Gregory or a Leo the Great, of a Gelasius or an
Innocent, prelates of holy life and unequalled wisdom, are accepted
by the universal church; for, coming from such men, they cannot
but be good. But who could recognize in the cruel and lustful popes
of later days in John XII. or Boniface VII., " monsters, as they
were, of more than human iniquity " anything else than " Anti-
christ sitting in the temple of God and showing himself as God "?
Gerbert proceeds to argue that the church councils admitted the right
of metropolitan synods to depose unworthy bishops, but contends
that, even if an appeal to Rome were necessary, that appeal had
been made a year before without effect. This last clause prepares
us to find him shifting his position still farther at the council of
Causey, where he advances the proposition that John XV. was
represented at St Basle by his legate Seguin, archbishop of Sens, and
that, owing to this, the decrees of the latter council had received the
papal sanction. Far firmer is the tone of his later letter to the same
archbishop, where he contends from historical evidence that the
papal judgment is not infallible, and encourages his brother prelate
not to fear excommunication in a righteous cause, for it is not in the
power even of the successor of Peter " to separate an innocent priest
from the love of Christ."
Besides being the most distinguished statesman, Gerbert was also
the most accomplished scholar of his age. But in this aspect he is
rather to be regarded as the diligent expositor of other men's views
than as an original thinker. Except as regards philosophical and
religious speculation, his writings show a range of interest and
knowledge quite unparalleled in that generation. His pupil Richer
has left us a detailed account of his system of teaching at Reims.
So far as the triviuin is concerned, his text-books were Victorinus's
translation of Porphyry's Isagoge, Aristotle's Categories, and Cicero's
Topics with Manlius's Commentaries. From dialectics he urged his
pupils to the study of rhetoric; but, recognizing the necessity of a
large vocabulary, he accustomed them to read the Latin poets with
care. Virgil, Statius, Terence, Juvenal, Horace, Persius and Lucan
are specially named as entering into a course of training which was
rendered more stimulating by a free use of open discussion. More
remarkable still were his methods of teaching the quadrivium.
To assist his lectures on astronomy he constructed elaborate globes
of the terrestrial and celestial spheres, on which the course of the
planets was marked; for facilitating arithmetical and perhaps
geometrical processes he constructed an abacus with twenty-seven
divisions and a thousand counters of horn. A younger contemporary
speaks of his having made a wonderful clock or sun-dial at Magdeburg ;
and we know from his letters that Gerbert was accustomed to ex-
change his globes for MSS. of those classical authors that his own
library did not contain. More extraordinary still was his knowledge
of music an accomplishment which seems to have been his earliest
recommendation to Otto I. Probably he was beyond his age in this
science, for we read of Garamnus, his first tutor at Reims, whom he
attempted to ground in this subject: " Artis dimcultate victus, a
musica rejectus est." Gerbert's letters contain more than one
allusion to organs which he seems to have constructed, and William
of Malmesbury has preserved an account of a wonderful musical
instrument still to be seen in his days at Reims, which, so far as the
English chronicler's words can be made out, seems to refer to an
organ worked by steam. The same historian tells us that Gerbert
borrowed from the Arabs (Saraceni) the abacus with ciphers (see
NUMERALS). Perhaps Gerbert's chief claim to the remembrance of
posterity is to be found in the care and expense with which he gathered
together MSS. of the classical writers. His love for literature was a
passion. In the turmoil of his later life he looked back with regret
to his student days; and " for all his troubles philosophy was his
only cure." Everywhere at Rome, at Treves, at Moutier-en-Der,
at Gerona in Spain, at Barcelona he had friends or agents to procure
him copies of the great Latin writers for Bpbbio or Reims. To the
abbot of Tours he writes that he is " labouring assiduously to form a
library," and " throughout Italy, Germany and Lorraine (Belgica)
SILVESTRE SILVESTRINES
119
is spending vast sums of money in the acquisition of MSS." It is
noteworthy, however, that Gerbert never writes for a copy of one of
the Christian fathers, his aim being, seemingly, to preserve the
fragments of a fast-perishing secular Latin literature. Despite his
residence on the Spanish mark, he shows no token of a knowledge of
Arabic, a fact which is perhaps sufficient to overthrow the statement
of Adhemar as to his having studied at Cordova. There is hardly a
trace to be found in his writings ot any acquaintance with Greek.
So remarkable a character as that of Gerbert left its mark on the
age, and fables soon began to cluster round his name. Towards
the end of the llth century Cardinal Benno, the opponent of Hilde-
brand, is said to have made him the first of a long line of magician
popes. Ordericus Vitalis improves this legend by details of an inter-
view with the devil, who prophesied Gerbert's threefold elevation in
the famous line that Gerbert's contemporaries attributed to the pope
himself :
Transit in R. Gerbertus in R. post papa vigens R.
A few years later William of Malmesbury adds a love adyenture at
Cordova, a compact with the devil, the story of a speaking statue
that foretold Gerbert's death at Jerusalem a prophecy fulfilled,
somewhat as in the case of Henry IV. of England, by his dying in
the Jerusalem church of Rome and that imaginative story of the
statue with the legend " Strike here," which, after having found its
way into the Gesta Romanorum, has of late been revived in the
Earthly Paradise.
Gerbert's extant works may be divided into five classes, (a) A
collection of letters, some 230 in number. These are to be found for
the most part in an nth-century MS. at Leiden. Other important
MSS. are those of the Barberini Library at Rome (late l6th century),
of Middlehill (tyth century), and of St Peter's abbey, Salzburg.
With the letters may be grouped the papal decrees of Gerbert when
Silvester II. (6) The Acta concilii Remensis ad Sanctum Basolum, a
detailed account of the proceedings and discourses at the great
council of St Basle; a shorter account of his apologetic speeches at
the councils of Mouzon and Causey; and drafts of the decrees of
two or three other councils or imperial constitutions promulgated
when he was archbishop of Ravenna or pope. The important works
on the three above-mentioned councils are to be found in the nth-
century Leiden MS. just alluded to. (c) Gerbert's theological works
comprise a Sermo de information? episcoporum and a treatise en-
titled De corpore et sanguine Domini, both ot very doubtful authen-
ticity, (d) Of his philosophical works we only have one, Libellus de
rationali et ratione uti, written at the request of Otto III. and pre-
served in an nth-century MS. at Paris, (e) His mathematical works
consist of a Regula de abaco computi, of which a 12th-century MS.
is to be found at the Vatican ; and a Libellus de numerorum divisione
(llth- and 12th-century MSS. at Rome, Montpellier and Paris),
dedicated to his friend and correspondent Constantine of Fleury.
A long treatise on geometry, attributed to Gerbert, is of somewhat
doubtful authenticity. To these may be added a very short dis-
quisition on the same subject addressed to Adalbold, and a similar
one, on one of his own spheres, addressed to Constantine, abbot of
Micy. All the writings of Gerbert are collected in the edition of
A. Olleris (Clermont, 1867). (T. A. A.)
SILVESTER III. When Boniface IX. was driven from Rome
early in January 1044, John, bishop of Sabina, was elected in
his stead and took the title of Silvester III. Within three months
Boniface returned and expelled his rival. Nearly three years
later (December 1046) the council of Sutri deprived him of his
bishopric and priesthood. He was then sent to a monastery,
where he seems to have died.
SILVESTRE, PAUL ARMAND (1837-1901), French poet and
conteur, was born in Paris on the i8th of April 1837. He studied
at the Ecole polytechnique with the intention of entering the army,
but in 1870 he entered the department of finance. He had a
successful official career, was decorated with the Legion of
Honour in 1886, and in 1892 was made inspector of fine arts.
Armand Silvestre made his entry into literature as a poet, and
was reckoned among the Parnassians. His volumes of verse
include: Rimes neuves et vieilles (1866), to which George Sand
wrote a preface; Les Renaissances (1870); La Chanson des
heures (1878); Le Chemin des etoiles (1885), &c. The poet was
also a contributor to Gil Bias and other Parisian journals,
distinguishing himself by the licence he permitted himself. To
these " absences " from poetry, as Henri Chantavoine calls
them, belong the seven volumes of La Vie pour rire (1881-1883),
Conies pantagrueliques et galants (1884), Le Lime des joyeusetes
(1884), Gauloiseries nouvelles (1888), &c. For the stage he wrote
in many different manners: Sapho (1881), a drama; Henry VIII
(1883), with Leonce Detroyat, music by Saint-Saens; and the
Drames sacres (1893), religious pictures after i4th- and 15th-
century Italian painters, with music by Gounod. An account ol
his varied and somewhat incongruous production is hardly com-
plete without mention of his art criticism. Le Nu au Salon
(1888-1892), in five volumes, with numerous illustrations, was
followed by other volumes of the same type. He died at/Toulouse
on the i gth of February 1901.
SILVESTRE DE SACY, ANTOINE ISAAC, BARON (1758-1838),
French orientalist, was born in Paris on the 2ist of September
1758. His father was a Parisian notary named Silvestre, and the
additional name of de Sacy was taken by the younger son after
a fashion then common with the Paris bourgeoisie. From the
age of seven years, when he lost his father, he was educated in
the closest seclusion by his mother. In 1781 he was appointed
councillor in the cour des monnaies, and was advanced in 1791
to be a commissary-general in the same department. De Sacy
had successively acquired all the Semitic languages, and as a
civil servant he found time to make himself a great name as an
orientalist. He began successfully to decipher the Pahlavi
inscriptions of the Sassanian kings (I787-I79I). 1 In 1792 he
retired from the public service, and lived in close seclusion in a
cottage near Paris till in 1795 he became professor of Arabic in
the newly founded school of living Eastern languages. The
interval was in part devoted to the study of the religion of the
Druses, which was the subject of his last and unfinished work,
the Expose de la religion des Druzes (2 vols., 1838). Since the
death of Johann Jakob Reiske Arabic learning had been in a
backward state. In the Grammaire arabe (2 vols., isted. 1810,
2nd ed. 1831) and the Chrestomathie arabe (3 vols., 1806), together
with its supplement, the Anthologie grammatical (1829), De Sacy
supplied admirable text-books, and earned the gratitude of later
Arabic students. In 1806 he added the duties of Persian pro-
fessor to his old chair, and from this time onwards his life was
one of increasing honour and success, broken only by a brief
period of retreat during the Hundred Days. He was perpetual
secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions from 1832 onwards;
in 1808 he had entered the corps legislatif; he was made a baron
in 1813; and in 1832, when quite an old man, be became a peer
of France and was regular in the duties of the chamber. In 1815
he became rector of the university of Paris, and after the second
restoration he was active on the commission of public instruction.
With Abel Remusat he was joint founder of the Societe asiatique,
and was inspector of oriental types at the royal printing press.
De Sacy died on the 2ist of February 1838.
Among his other works are his edition of Hariri (1822, 2nd edition
by Reinaud, 1847, 1855), with a selected Arabic commentary, and of
the Alfiya (1833), and his Calila et Dimna (1816), the Arabic
version of that famous collection of Buddhist animal tales which has
been in various forms one of the most popular books of the world.
A version of Abd-Allatif, Relation arabe sur I'Egypte, and essays on
the history of the law of property in Egypt since the Arab conquest
(1805-1818). To biblical criticism he contributed a memoir on the
Samaritan Arabic of the Pentateuch (Mem. Acad. des Inscr. vol.
xlix.), and editions of the Arabic and Syriac New Testaments for the
British and Foreign Bible Society. Of the brilliant teachers who
went out from his lecture-room may be mentioned Professor
Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer (1801-1888), who contributed elabor-
ate notes and corrections to the Grammaire arabe (Kleinere Schriften,
vol. i., 1885).
SILVESTRINES, or SYLVESTRINES, an order of monks under
the Benedictine rule, founded 1231 by St Silvester Gozzolini.
He was born at Osimo near Ancona and held a canonry there.
About 1227 he resigned it to lead an austere eremitical life.
Disciples came to him, and in 1231 he built a monastery at
Montefano. The rule was the Benedictine, but as regards
poverty in external things, far stricter than the Benedictine.
The order was approved in 1247 by Innocent IV., and at
Silvester's death in 1 267 there were eleven Silvestrine monasteries.
At a later date there were 56, mostly in Umbria, Tuscany and the
March of Ancona. In 1907 there were nine Silvestrine houses,
one in Rome, and about 60 choir monks. Since 1855 they
1 A communication to Eichhorn on the Paris MS. of the Syro-
Hexaplar version of IV. Kings formed the basis of a paper in the
latter's Repertorium, vol. vii. (1780). This was de Sacy's literary
debut. It was followed by text and translation of the letters of the
Samaritans to Jos. Scaliger (ibid. vol. xiii., 1783) and by a series of
essays on Arabian and Persian history in the Recueil of the Academy
of Inscriptions and in the Notices et extraits.
I2O
SIMANCAS SIMCOE
have had a house and a mission in Ceylon. The order has no
history. The habit is blue.
See Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1718), vi. c. 21; Max
Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), i. 30; Wetzer u.
Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2). (E. C. B.)
SIMANCAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Valladolid;
8 m. S.W. of Valladolid, on the road to Zamora and the right
bank of the river Pisuerga. Pop. (1900) 1129. Simancas is a
town of great antiquity, the Roman Septimanca, with a citadel
dating from the Moorish occupation in the 9th century, a fine
bridge of seventeen arches, and many remains of old walls.
In 934 it was the scene of a bloody battle between the Moors
and Christians. The citadel is now the Archive General del
Reino, to which the national archives of Spain were removed
by order of Philip II. in 1 563. Their transference thither was first
suggested to Charles V. by Cardinal Ximenes or Cisneros (d.
1517). The extensive alterations were made by three celebrated
16th-century architects, Juan de Herrera, Alonso Berruguete and
Juan Gomez de Mora; the arrangement of the papers was en-
trusted to Diego de Ayala. They occupy forty-six rooms, and
are arranged in upwards of 80,000 bundles (33,000,000 documents),
including important private as well as state papers. The archives
of the Indies were transferred in 1784 to the Lonja of Seville
(<?..). Permission to consult the documents at Simancas can
be readily obtained.
SIMBIRSK, a government of E. Russia, on the right bank of
the middle Volga, with the government of Kazan on the N.,
Samara on the E., Saratov on the S., and Penza and Nizhniy-
Novgorod on the W. It has an area of 18,095 S Q- m - and occupies
the E. of the great central plateau of middle Russia. Its higher
parts range from 750 to 1000 ft. above the sea, and form the
Zhegulev range of hills, which compels trte Volga to make its great
bend at Samara. In the W. a broad depression, traversed by
numerous rivers and streams, extends along the left bank of the
Sura. The Volga flows for 300 m. along the E. boundary, separat-
ing Simbirsk from Samara. The shallow Sviyaga rises in the
Samarskaya Luka Hills and flows parallel to the Volga, at a
distance of 2 to 20 m. but in the opposite direction. The Sura,
also flowing N., drains the W. of Simbirsk; it is navigable for
more than 270 m. A few lakes and marshes exist in the W.
The climate is severe, and the extremes are great. At the city of
Simbirsk the average temperature is 38-7, but the thermometer
sometimes reaches 115 F., and frosts of 47 F. are not un-
common; the average rain and snowfall is only 17-6 in. In
respect to the geology, all systems, beginning with the Carbon-
iferous, are represented in the government. The exact age of
the " Variegated Marls, " the subject of animated polemics
among Russian geologists, remains problematic, but the inquiries
of Professor Pavlov have definitely settled the geological age of
the Jurassic formations. Triassic deposits appear in the N. ;
Carboniferous and Cretaceous predominate in the E. of the
province, where they are covered in many places by Tertiary
deposits; Chalk and Eocene deposits crop up chiefly in the
W. and the Chalk in the S. Post-Pliocene deposits, containing
bones of the mammoth and other extinct mammals, overlie
the older formations. Sulphur, asphalt, salt, ochre, and iron-
ore are extracted, as well as various building stones.
The estimated pop. in 1906 was 1,783,000. Nearly all the
inhabitants either belong to the Russian Orthodox Church or
are Nonconformists, there being only 145,000 Mussulmans.
The greater number (about two-thirds) are Great Russians,
the remainder being Mordvinians (12%), Chuvashes (8%),
and Tatars (8%), with about 1000 Jews. The Mordvinians are
settled chiefly in the N.W., in Ardatov and Alatyr, and on the
Volga in Sengilei; the Chuvashes make about one-third of the
population of the districts of Buinsk and Kurmysh, contiguous
to Kazan; the Tatars constitute about 35% in Buinsk and
18% in Sengilei. The villages in Simbirsk are large, many of
them having 3000 to 5000 inhabitants. The government is
divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which are Simbirsk,
Alatyr, Ardatov, Buinsk, Karsun, Kurmysh, Sengilei and
Syzran.
School gardens and school farms have been widely introduced,
while bee-keeping is taught in over 50 schools. Owing to the efforts
of the zemstvos (local councils), sanitation is well looked after. Agri-
culture is the principal occupation. Out of the total area the
peasant village communities hold 40%, private owners 20%, the
imperial domains 5%, and the towns and the crown 0-6%. The
area under forests amounts to 30% of the whole and over 50% is
under cultivation. The peasants are rapidly buying land in con-
siderable quantities. Most of their allotments (more than 76%) are
cultivated, and besides what they own they rent over 500,000 acres
from private owners. The principal crops are wheat, rye, oats, barley
and potatoes. Good breeds of horses are kept, and considerable
numbers are exported. Fishing (sturgeon) is carried on in the Volga
and the Sura, timber trade in the N. and shipbuilding on the Sura.
Domestic trades give employment to over 15,000 persons; carts,
sledges, wheels and all sorts of wooden wares are made in the villages,
as also felt goods, boots, gloves, caps, handkerchiefs, ropes and
fishing-nets, all extensively exported. The factories employ less
than 20,000 persons. They comprise mainly cloth mills, flour-mills
and distilleries, with tanneries, glass, oil and starch works. There
are 82 fairs, the most important of which are held at Simbirsk,
Syzran and Karsun. There is a considerable export trade in grain,
mostly rye, and in flour.
The first Russian settlers made their appearance in the
Simbirsk region in the i4th century, but did not go E. of the
Sura. Not till two centuries later did they cross that river
and the district begin to be peopled by refugees from Moscow.
The Zhegulev Mountains in the S. still continuing to be a place
of refuge for the criminal and the persecuted, the town of
Simbirsk was founded in 1648, with a string of small forts
extending to the Sura. The region thus protected was soon
settled, and, as the Russian villages advanced farther S.,
Syzran was founded, and a second line of small forts to the
Sura was erected. The aboriginal Mordvinians rapidly lost
their ethnographical individuality, especially since the middle
of the igth century. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
SIMBIRSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, 1 54 m. by the Volga S.S.W. from Kazan, between
the Volga and the Sviyaga. Pop. (1897) 44,111. It is one of
the best built provincial towns of Russia. It is an episcopal
see of the Orthodox Greek Church. The central part of Simbirsk
the Crown (Venets), containing the cathedral and the best
houses is built on a hill 560 ft. above the Volga. Adjoining
this is the commercial quarter, while farther down the slope,
towards the Volga, are the storehouses and the poorest suburbs
of the city; these last also occupy the W. slope towards the
Sviyaga. There are three suburbs on the left bank of the Volga,
communication with them being maintained in summer by
steamers. A great fire having destroyed nearly all the town
in 1864, it has been built again on a new plan, though still mostly
of wood. The cathedral of St Nicholas dates from 1712. The
new cathedral of the Trinity was erected in 1824-1841 in com-
memoration of the French invasion of 1812. The historian
Karamzin (born in 1766 in the vicinity of Simbirsk) has a
monument here, and a public library bearing his name contains
about 1 5,000 volumes. The trade is brisk, corn being the principal
item, while next come potash, wood, fruits, wooden wares and
manufactured produce. Simbirsk fair has a turnover of 650,000
annually. The city was founded in 1648, and in 1670 endured
a long siege by the rebel leader Stenka Razin.
SIMCOE, JOHN GRAVES (1752-1806), British soldier and
first lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, was born at Cotter-
stock, Northumberland, England, on the 25th of February
1752. His father, John Simcoe, who was a captain in the Royal
Navy, died in 1759, and his only brother was drowned in early
youth. During Simcoe's childhood the family removed to
Exeter. He was sent to Eton at the age of fourteen, and three
years later entered Merton College, Oxford. After two years of
college life, he became ensign in the 35th regiment, first seeing
active service at Boston in 1775, and remaining in America
during the greater part of the Revolutionary War. In 1776
he secured command of the Queen's Rangers with the rank of
major. His military career in America ended with the surrender
of Cornwallis at Yorktown (Oct. 19, 1781). He returned to
England on parole, and for the next ten years divided his time
between London and his family estate in Devon. In December
SIMEON
121
1782 he married Elizabeth Posthuma, only child of Colonel
Thomas Gwillim of Old Court, Herefordshire. In 1790 he was
elected member of parliament for St Mawes in Cornwall, and
at the close of his first session was appointed lieutenant-governor
of the new province of Upper Canada created under the Con-
stitutional Act of 1791. He reached Kingston, Upper Canada,
on the ist of July 1792. There the first council was assembled,
the government of the new province proclaimed, and the oaths
of office taken. Immediately afterwards preparations were made
for the election of the first house of assembly, which opened at
Newark near the mouth of the Niagara river, on the I7th of
September 1792. Simcoe's ideas of colonial government were
dominated by military and aristocratic conceptions quite
unsuited to the pioneer conditions of Upper Canada. Thus,
while his administration was characterized by the most dis-
interested devotion to what he conceived to be for the best
interests of the province, it was rendered ineffective by the
impracticable character of his projects and the friction which
developed between himself and Lord Dorchester, the governor-
general. He left Canada in September 1 796, and was immediately
afterwards sent on a mission to San Domingo, from which,
however, he returned in a few months on account of ill-health.
In October 1798 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-
general, and appointed colonel of the 22nd foot. During
1800-1801 he was in command at Plymouth. Desiring more
active service, he was designated commander-in-chief for India
to succeed Lord Lake, but before taking the appointment his
health broke and he died at Exeter on the 26th of October 1806.
See D. C. Scott, John Graves Simcoe (1905).
SIMEON, in the Old Testament, the name of a tribe of Israel,
named after the second son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxix. 33).
According to'Gen. xxxiv., the brothers Simeon and Levi massacred
the males of Shechem to avenge the violation of their sister
Dinah (" judgment ") by Shechem the son of Hamor. Jacob
disavowed the act, and on his deathbed solemnly cursed their
ferocity, condemning the two to be divided in Jacob and
scattered in Israel (xlix. 5-7). Subsequently the priestly Levites
are found distributed throughout Israel without portion or
inheritance (Deut. xviii. i, Josh. xiii. 14). The career of Simeon,
on the other hand, raises numerous questions. Simeon is reckoned
among the N. tribes in 2 Chron. xv. 9, xxxiv. 6, but is elsewhere
assigned a district in S. Palestine, the cities of which are other-
wise ascribed to Judah (cf. Josh. xix. 1-9 with xv. 26-32). l
A gloss in i Chron. iv. 31 (which breaks the connexion) states
that the latter was their seat in David's time, but there is no
support for this in other records (see i Sam. xxvii., xxx.). In
fact, Simeon is not mentioned in the " blessing of Moses "
{Deut. xxxiii., see S. R. Driver, Deut. p. 397 seq.), or in the
stories of the " judges "; and notwithstanding references to
it in the chronicler's history of the monarchy, it is not named in
the earlier books of Samuel and Kings. But is Gen. xxxiv. to
be taken literally? Shechem is the famous holy city, Hamor a
well-known native family, Jacob talks of himself as being " few
in number," and the deeds of Simeon and Levi are those of
communities, not of individuals. What historical facts are thus
represented, and how they are to be brought into line with the
early history of Israel, are problems which have defied solution
(see J. Skinner, Genesis, p. 421 seq.). It is conjectured that
Dinah represents a clan or group (cf. DAN) which settled in
Shechem and was exposed to danger (e.g. oppression or absorp-
tion); the tribes Simeon and Levi intervened on its behalf,
the ensuing massacre was avenged by the Canaanites, and the
two were broken up. These events would belong to an early
stage in the invasion of Palestine by the Israelites (i5th-i3th
century B.C.), perhaps to a preliminary settlement by the
" sons " of Leah (Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah), previous
to the entrance of the " son " of Rachel, Joseph, the " father "
1 It is difficult to determine whether the writers included Simeon
among the ten N. tribes (2 Sam. xix. 43, I Kings xi. 31, 35) which are
contrasted with the one (Judah, I Kings xi. 32, 36, xii. 20), or two
(plus Benjamin; ib. xii. 21-23) which remained faithful to the
Davidic dynasty.
of Ephraim and Manasseh. 2 The internal biblical evidence
has forced all independent investigators to adopt some recon-
struction, but the above theory is in many respects precarious. 3
It may explain the disappearance of a secular tribe of Levi,
but not the rise of the sacred Levites. Even in Judges ix. 28
Shechem is still held by the family of Hamor (cf. Gen. xxxiii.
19), and if Simeon was scattered and divided at any early date, its
appearance in tradition many centuries later is inexplicable. On
the other hand, the latter feature is significant for its vitality
in post-exilic traditions. Gen. xxxiv. and the narratives upon
which the above reconstruction depends are preserved by
compilers of the 6th century and later, and the correlation
of Simeon and Levi points to a time when the latter had
at length become the recognized eponym of the well-known
ecclesiastical body.
Gen. xxxiv. has been heavily revised and is in a post-exilic dress.
The original story must have concerned Simeon and Levi alone
(w. 25 seq., 30, cf. xlix. 7), but it has been adapted to tribal history, to
the spoliation of Shechem by all the " sons " of Jacob (xxxiv. 27-29)
Both forms have lost their true sequel, and when Jacob and his sons
journey S. they are protected from pursuit by a mysterious panic
which seizes the district (Gen. xxxv. 5). As the narrative now
stands, the conduct of Simeon and Levi is judged far less unfavourably
than in Jacob's curse, and the editor evidently shared that aversion
from foreign marriages (especially with the Samaritans of Shechem)
which is characteristic of the post-exilic age (cf. Neh. xiii. 27-29).
It is the attitude of the story of the zeal ofjPhinehas (Num. xxv. 1-15).
and of the terrible extermination of Midian (ib. xxxi.), and it becomes
more pronounced as early Judaism extolled the two brothers. 4
In these circumstances the original narrative can scarcely be re-
covered, and one can only point to the traditions of the Levites
(<}'V- 3) an d the hints of fierce religious reforms which, in certain
circles and at an intermediate stage in the literary growth of the bibli-
cal sources, were condemned. In fact, the Levites are connected by
the genealogical evidence with S. Palestine, the district which is
associated with the scene of their divine selection, with the seat of
the tribe Simeon, and with the life of Israel around Kadesh previous
to Joshua's invasion. Herein lies the peculiar complexity of the
problem. Underlying Gen. xxxiv. and other portions of Genesis
may be recognized the tradition of a settlement of Jacob, which
belongs to a cycle quite independent of the descent into Egypt and
the Exodus (cf. E. Meyer, op. cit., and J. Skinner, Genesis, p. 418).
But the story of the entrance of Jacob and his " sons " finds a parallel
in the entrance of the tribes under Joshua and in the S. move of
Judah and Simeon (see GENESIS). With the conquest of Zephath
(renamed Hormah, judg. i. 17) by these tribes, compare not only
Judah's settlement (Gen. xxxviii., cf. Skinner p. 450), but also that
of Simeon (Gen. xlvi. 10), and the related tradition that Simeon
married a Zephathite (Jubilees, xliv. 13). I Chron. iv. 39 sqq. men-
tions a Simeonite occupation of Gedor, or rather Gerar, which would
bring this tribe into the district of Kadesh (cf. Gen. xx. I seq.,
xxvi. i), and adds a raid upon Mount Seir (Edom) ending in the over-
throw of Amalek (i Chron. iv. 39-43). 6 S. Palestine, associated with
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and with the separation of the non-
Israelite Ishmael and Esau (Edom), is the district whence Jacob de-
parted to his Aramaean relatives (Gen. xxviii. sqq.). Hormah, too,
is the scene of an Israelite victory in the story of the Exodus (Num.
xxi. 1-3), and is connected with evidence suggesting that this
victory at the very gate of the promised land belongs to a tradition
of some movement from Kadesh into Judah (Wellhausen, G. F.
Moore, H. P. Smith, and others; see EXODUS, THE). The other
tradition, that the Israelites were defeated there by Amalekites and
Canaanites, explains the detour by Edom and Moab (ib. xiv. 25,
40-45), and the appearance of the tribes E. of the Jordan to invade
the land of their ancestors. Obviously these represent fundament-
ally differing views, which cannot be woven into a single outline;
and they cannot be isolated from more profound questions which
really affect all ordinary conceptions of the structure of biblical
history.
See S. A. Cook, Amer. Journ. of Theol. xiii. 370-388 (1909);
JEWS, 5-8, 22; LEVITES; PALESTINE : History. (S. A. C.)
2 So in general, the favourite interpretation (Wellhausen, Stade,
Guthe and many others) with some variation of detail, see especially
Gunkel's commentary (Handkommentar , 1901, pp. 335 sqq.).
3 See the instructive study by E. Meyer, Dte Israeliten und ihre
Nachbarstdmme (1906), pp. 409-428 (especially his criticisms, p. 421
seq.); cf. also I. Benzinger, Hebr. Archaologie (1907), pp. 345 sqq.
(whose astral interpretation of the narrative, however, is quite
inadequate).
4 See Judith ix. 2, Philo, De Migr. Abrahami, 39, and, for fuller
details of the trend of Jewish opinion, R. H. Charles, Book of
Jubilees, p. 179, id., " Test, of xii. Patriarchs," p. 22.
6 On these wars, see the criticisms of H. W. Hogg in his elaborate
study of Simeon, Ency. Bib. col. 4524-34.
122
SIMEON OF DURHAM SIMLA
SIMEON (or SYMEON) OF DURHAM (d. after 1129), English
chronicler, embraced the monastic life before the year 1083
in the monastery of Jarrow; but only madQ his profession at a
later date, after he had removed with the rest of his community
to Durham. He was author of two historical works which are
particularly valuable for northern affairs. He composed his
Historic, ecclesiae Dunelmensis, extending to the year 1096,
at some date between 1104 and 1108. The original manuscript
is at Durham in the library of Bishop Cosin. It is divided into
four books, which are subdivided into chapters; the order of
the narrative is chronological. There are two continuations, both
anonymous. The first carries the history from 1096 to the death
of Ranulf Flambard (1129); the second extends from 1133 to
1 144. A Cambridge MS. contains a third continuation covering
the years 1141-1154. About 1129 Simeon undertook to write
a Historia regum Anglorum et Dacorum. This begins at the
point where the Ecclesiastical History of Bede ends. Up to 957
Simeon merely copies some old Durham annals, not otherwise
preserved, which are of value for northern history; from that
point to 1119 he copies Florence of Worcester with certain
interpolations. The section dealing with the years 1119-1129
is, however, an independent and practically contemporaneous
narrative. Simeon writes, for his time, with ease and perspicuity;
but his chief merit is that of a diligent collector and copyist.
Other writings have been attributed to his pen, but on no good
authority. They are printed, along with his undoubted works, in the
Scriptores decent of Roger Twysden (1652). The most complete
modern edition is that of Thomas Arnold (" Rolls " series, 2 vols.,
1882-1885). The value of the " Northumbrian Annals," which
Simeon used for the Historia regum, has been discussed by J. H.
Hinde in the preface to his Symeonis Dunelmensis opera, vol. i. pp.
xiy. ff. (1868); by R. Pauli in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte,
xii. pp. 137 sqq. (Gottincren, 1872); and by W. Stubbs in the intro-
duction to Roger of Hoveden, vol. i. p. x. (" Rolls " series). Simeon's
works have been translated by J. Stevenson in his Church Historians
of England, vol. iii. part ii. (1855). (H. W. C. D.)
SIMEON, CHARLES (1759-1836), English evangelical divine,
was born at Reading and educated at Eton and Cambridge.
In 1782 he became fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and
took orders, receiving the living of Holy Trinity, Cambridge,
in the following year. He was at first so unpopular that the
services were frequently interrupted, and he was often insulted
in the streets. Having lived down this prejudice, he subsequently
gained a very remarkable and lasting influence among the under-
graduates of the university. He became a leader among evangelical
churchmen, was one of the founders of the Church Missionary
Society, and acted as adviser to the East India Company in the
choice of chaplains for India. His chief work is a commentary
upon the whole Bible, entitled Horae homileticae (London, 1819-
1820). He died on the i3th of November 1836. The " Simeon
Trustees " were instituted by him for the purpose of acquiring
church patronage in the interests of evangelical views.
See Memoirs of Charles Simeon, with a selection from his writings
and correspondence, edited by the Rev. W. Carus (3rd ed., 1848);
H. C. G. Moule, Charles Simeon (London, 1892).
SIMfiON, JOSEPH JEROME, COMTE (1740-1842), French
jurist and politician, was born at Aix on the 3oth of September
1749. His father, Joseph Sextius Simeon (1717-1788), had been
professor of law and royal secretary for the parlement of Provence.
J. J. Simeon followed his father's profession, but he was outlawed
for his share in the federalist movement in 1793, and only
returned to France after the revolution of Thermidor. In the
council of the Five Hundred, of which he was now a member,
he took the conservative side. In 1799, for protesting against
the invasion of the chamber by P. F. C. Augereau, he was im-
prisoned until the i8th Brumaire (gth November). In the
Tribunate he had an important share in the preparation of the
Civil Code, being rewarded by a seat in the council of state.
In 1807 he was one of the commissioners sent to organize the
new kingdom of Westphalia, and was premier of King Jerome.
He served the Restoration as councillor of state and in the
chamber of peers. In 1820 he was under-secretary of state
for justice, and in the next year minister of the interior until
the fall of the Richelieu ministry. A baron of the Empire
and count at the second Restoration, he was admitted to the
Academy of Moral and Political Science in 1832, and in 1837
he became president of the Cour des Comptes. He died in Paris
on the igth of January 1842 in his 93rd year.
His son, JOSEPH BALTHASAR, COMTE SIMEON (1781-1846),
entered the diplomatic service under the Empire. At the
Restoration he was successively prefect of Var, Doubs and Pas
de Calais. He was director-general of fine arts in 1828, and had
a great reputation as a connoisseur and collector.
SIMEON STYLITES, ST (390-459), the first and most famous
of the Pillar-hermits (Gr. orCXos, pillar), was born in N. Syria.
After having been expelled from a monastery for his excessive
austerities, at thirty years of age he built a pillar six feet high
on which he took up his abode. He made new pillars higher and
higher, till after ten years he reached the height of sixty feet.
On this pillar he lived for thirty years without ever descending.
A railing ran round the capital of the pillar, and a ladder enabled
his disciples to take him the necessaries of life. From his pillar
he preached and exercised a great influence, converting numbers
of heathen and taking part in ecclesiastical politics. The facts
would seem incredible were they not vouched for by Theodoret,
who knew him personally (Historia religiosa, c. 26). Moreover,
Simeon had many imitators, well authenticated Pillar-hermits
being met with till the i6th century.
The standard work on the subject is Les Stylites (1895), by H.
Delehaye, the Bollandist; for a summary see the article " Saulen-
heilige, ' in Herzog's Realencyklopadie (ed. 3). On Simeon see Th.
Noldeke's Sketches from Eastern History (1892), p. 210, and the
Dictionary of Christian Biography. (E. C. B.)
SIMFEROPOL, a town of Russia, capital of the government
of Taurida, in the S. of the Crimea, 78 m. by rail N.E. of Sevastopol
and 800 from Moscow. Pop. (1897) 60,876. It occupies an
admirable site on the N. slopes of the Chatyr-dagh Mountains,
and is divided into two parts the European, well built in stone,
and the Tatar, with narrow and filthy streets peopled by some
7000 Tatars and by Jews. Although it has grown since the rail-
way brought it into connexion with the rest of the empire, it
still remains a mere administrative centre. It is the see of a bishop
of the Orthodox Greek Church and the headquarters of the 7th
Russian army corps. There are a museum and monuments to
Dolgoruki, conqueror of the Crimea, and to the empress Catherine
II. (1890). The town is famous for its fruit.
In the neighbourhood stood the small fortress of Napoli,
erected by tlie ruler of Taurida some hundred years before the
Christian era, and it existed until the end of the 3rd century.
Afterwards the Tatar settlement of Ak-mechet, which in the
1 7th century was the residence of the chief military commander
of the khan, had the name of Sultan-serai. In 1736 it was taken
and burnt by the Russians, and in 1784, after the conquest of
the Crimea by the Russians, it received its present name and
became the capital of Taurida.
SIMLA, a town and district in British India, in the Delhi
division of the Punjab. The town is the summer residence of
the viceroy and staff of the supreme government, and also of
the Punjab government. It is 58 m. by cart-road from the
railway station of Kalka, which is 1116 m. from Calcutta. A
metre-gauge railway, 68 m. long, was opened from Kalka to
Simla in 1903. The population in 1901 was 13,960, but that
was only the winter population, and the summer census of 1904
returned the number of 35,250. The sanatorium of Simla
occupies a spur of the lower Himalaya, running E. and W. for
about 6 m. The ridge culminates at the E. in the eminence of
Jakko, in the vicinity of which bungalows are most numerous;
the viceregal lodge stands on Observatory Hill. The E. of the
station is known as Chota Simla and the W. as Boileauganj.
The situation is one of great beauty; and the houses, built
separately, lie at elevations between 6600 and 8000 ft. above
sea-level. To the N., a beautiful wooded spur, branching
from the main ridge, is known as Elysium. Three miles W. is
the cantonment of Jutogh. The minor sanatoria of Kasauli.
Sabathu, Dagshai and Solon lie some distance to the S. The
first European house at Simla was built in 1819, and the place
was first visited by a governor-general in 1827. It has gradually
SIMLER SIMMS
123
become the permanent headquarters of many of the official
establishments. During the season Simla is the focus of Indian
society; and viceregal and other balls, and entertainments of
every description, are frequent. Simla is the headquarters of
a volunteer rifle corps, and there are numerous libraries and
institutes, of which the chief is the United Service Institution,
with a subsidy from government. The two chief medical
institutions are the Ripon and Walker hospitals. There are a
theatre, concert room and numerous churches. Educational
institutions include Bishop Cotton's school for boys, the Mayo
industrial school for girls, several aided schools for European
boys and girls, and two Anglo-vernacular schools for natives.
The Lawrence military asylums are at Sanawar, near Kasauli.
The DISTRICT OF SIMLA has an area of 101 sq. m., and had
a population in 1901 of 40,351. The mountains of Simla and the
surrounding native states compose the S. outliers of the great
central chain of the E. Himalaya. They descend in a gradual
series from the main chain to the general level of the Punjab
plain, forming a transverse S.W. spur between the great basins
of the Ganges and the Indus. S. and E. of Simla the hills
between the Sutlej and the Tons centre in the great peak of
Chor, 11,982 ft. above sea-level. Throughout all the hills
forests of deodar abound, while rhododendrons clothe the slopes
up to the limit of perpetual snow. The principal rivers are the
Sutlej, Pabar, Giri, Gambhar and_ Sarsa.
The acquisition of the patches of territory forming the district
dates from various times subsequent to the close of the Gurkha
War in 1816, which left the British in possession of the whole
tract of hill-country from the Gogra to the Sutlej. Kumaon
and Dehra Dun were annexed to the British dominions; but
the rest, with the exception of a few localities retained as military
posts and a portion sold to the raja of Patiala, was restored to
the hill rajas, from whom it had been wrested by the Gurkhas.
Garhwal state became attached to the North-Western Provinces;
but the remaining principalities rank among the dependencies
of the Punjab, and are known collectively as the Simla Hill
States, under the superintendence of the deputy-commissioner
of Simla, subordinate to the commissioner at Umballa. The
chief of the Simla Hill States which number 28 in all are
Jubbal, Bashahr, Keonthal, Baghal, Bilaspur and Hindur.
SIMLER, JOSIAS (1530-1576), author of the first book relating
solely to the Alps, was the son of the former prior of the Cistercian
convent of Kappel (Canton of Zurich), and was born at Kappel,
where his father was the Protestant pastor and schoolmaster
till his death in 1557. In 1544 Simler went to Zurich to continue
his education under his godfather, the celebrated reformer,
Heinrich Bullinger. After having Completed his studies at
Basel and Strasburg, he returned to Zurich, and acted as a pastor
in the neighbouring villages. In 1552 he was made professor
of New Testament exegesis at the Carolinum at Zurich, and in
1560 became professor of theology. In 1559 he had his first
attack of gout, a complaint which finally killed him. In 1555
he published a new edition of Conrad Gesner's Epitome of his
Bibliotheca universalis (a list of all authors who had written
in Greek, Latin or Hebrew), in 1574 a new edition of the Biblio-
theca itself, and in 1575 an annotated edition of the Antonine
Itinerary. About 1551 he conceived the idea of making his
native land better known by translating into Latin parts of
the great Chronik of Johann Stumpf . With this view he collected
materials, and in 1574 published a specimen of his intended
work in the shape of a monograph on the Canton of the Valais.
He published in the same volume a general description of the
Alps, as the Introduction to his projected work on the several
Swiss Cantons. In this treatise, entitled De Alpibus com-
mentarius, he collected all that the classical authors had written
on the Alps, adding a good deal of material collected from
his friends and correspondents. This Commentarius is the first
work exclusively devoted to the Alps, and sums up the knowledge
of that region possessed in the i6th century. It was republished
by the Elzevirs at Leiden in 1633, and again at Zurich in 1735,
while an elaborate annotated edition (prepared by Mr Coolidge) ,
with French translation, notes and appendices, appeared at
Grenoble in 1904. Another fragment of his vast plan was the
work entitled De Heheliorum republica, which appeared at
Zurich in 1576, just before his death. It was regarded as the
chief authority on Swiss constitutional matters up to 1798.
See lives by G. von Wyss (Zurich, 1855), and in Mr Coolidge's
book, pp. cxlvii.-clviii. (W. A. B. C.)
SIMMONS, EDWARD EMERSON (1852- ), American
artist, was born at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 27th of
October 1852. He graduated from Harvard College in 1874,
and was a pupil of Lefebvre and Boulanger in Paris, where he
took a gold medal. He was awarded the prize by the Municipal
Art Society of New York for a mural decorative scheme, which
he carried out for the criminal courts building, later decorating
the Waldorf-Astoria hotel in New York, the Library of
Congress, Washington, and the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota.
He was one of the original members of the Ten American
Painters.
SIMMS, WILLIAM GILMORE (1806-1870), American poet,
novelist and historian, was born at Charleston, S.C., on the
I7th of April 1806 of Scoto-Irish descent. His mother died
during his infancy, and his father having failed in business
and joined Coffee's Indian fighters, young Simms was brought
up by his grandmother. He was clerk in a drug store for some
years, and afterwards studied law, the bar of Charleston admitting
him to practice in 1827, but he soon abandoned his profession
for literature. At the age of eight he wrote verses, and in his
1 9th year he produced a Monody on Gen. Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney (Charleston, 1825). Two years later, in 1827, Lyrical
and Other Poems and Early Lays appeared; and in 1828 he began
journalism, editing and partly owning the City Gazette. The
enterprise failed, and the editor devoted his attention entirely
to letters, and in rapid succession published The Vision of
Cortes, Cain, and other Poems (1829), The Tricolor, or Three
Days of Blood in Paris (1830), and his strongest poem, Atalanlis,
a story of the sea (1832). Atalantis established his fame as an
author, and Martin Faber, the Story of a Criminal, was warmly
received. During the American Civil War Simms espoused
the side of the Secessionists in a weekly newspaper, and suffered
damage at the hands of the Federal troops when they entered
Charleston. He served in the state House of Representatives
in 1844-1846, and the university of Alabama conferred on him
the degree of LL.D. He died at Charleston on the nth of
June 1870.
In addition to the works mentioned above, Simms published the
following poetry: Southern Passages and Pictures, lyrical, senti-
mental and descriptive poems (New York, 1839); Donna Florida, a
tale (Charleston, 1843); Grouped Thoughts and Scattered Fancies,
sonnets (Richmond, 1845); Areytos, or Songs of the South (1846);
Lays of the Palmetto: a Tribute to the South Carolina Regiment in the
War with Mexico (Charleston, 1848); The Eye and the Wing, poems,
(New York, 1848); The City of the Silent (1850). To dramatic
literature he contributed Norman Maurice, or the Man of the People
(Richmond, 1851); and Michael Bonham, or the Fall of the Alamo
(Richmond, 1852). His romances of the American Revolution The>
Partisan (1835); Mellichampe (1836); Katherine Walton, or the
Rebel of Dorchester (1851); and others describe social life at
Charleston, and the action covers the whole period, with portraits of
the political and military leaders of the time. Of border tales the.
list includes Guy Rivers, a Tale of Georgia (1834); Richard Hurdis
(1838); Border Beagles (1840); Beauchampe (1842); Helen Halsey
(1845); The Golden Christmas (1852); and Charlemont (1856). The
historical romances are The Yemassee (1835), dealing largely with
Indian character and nature; Pelayo (1838); Count Julien (1845);
The Damsel of Darien (1845); The Lily and the Totem; Vasconselos
(1857), which he wrote under the assumed name of " Frank Cooper " ;
and The Cassique of Kiawah (1860). Other novels are Carl Werner
(1838); Confession of the Blind Heart (1842); The Wigwam and the
Cabin, a collection of short tales (1845-1846); Castle Dismal (1845);
and Marie de Berniere (1853). Simms's other writings comprise a
History of S. Carolina (Charleston, 1840); South Carolina in the
Revolution (Charleston, 1853); A Geography of South Carolina
(1843); lives of Francis Marion (New York, 1844); Capt. John
Smith (1846); The Chevalier Bayard (1848) and Nathanael Green
(1849); The Ghost of my Husband (1866); and War Poetry of the
South an edited volume -(1867). Simms was also a frequent
contributor to the magazines and literary papers, six of which he
founded and conducted. In the discussion on slavery he upheld the
views of the pro-slavery party. He edited the seven dramas doubt-
fully ascribed to Shakespeare, with notes and an introduction to
124
SIMNEL, LAMBERT SIMON, SIR J.
each play. Simms' works in 10 vols. were published at New York in
1882; his Poems (2 vols., New York) in 1853.
See his biography (Boston, 1892), by Professor William P. Trent.
A bibliographical List of the Separate Writings oj W. G. Simms of
South Carolina (New York, 1906) was compiled by O. Wegelin.
SIMNEL, LAMBERT (fl. 1477-1534). English impostor, was
probably the son of a tradesman at Oxford. He was about ten
years old in 1487, and was described as a handsome youth of
intelligence and good manners. In 1486, the year following
the accession of Henry VII., rumours were disseminated by the
adherents of the Yorkist dynasty that the two sons of Edward
IV., who had been murdered in the Tower of London, were still
alive. A young Oxford priest, Richard Symonds by name,
conceived the project of putting forward the boy Simnel to
impersonate one of these princes as a claimant for the crown,
with the idea of thereby procuring for himself the archbishopric
of Canterbury. He set about instructing the youth in the arts
and graces appropriate to his pretended birth; but meanwhile
a report having gained currency that the young earl of Warwick,
son of Edward IV.'s brother George, duke of Clarence, had died
in the Tower, Symonds decided that the impersonation of this
latter prince would be a more easily credible deception. It
is probable that Symonds acted throughout with the connivance
of the Yorkist leaders, and especially of John de la Pole, earl
of Lincoln, himself a nephew of Edward IV., who had been named
heir to the crown by Richard III. The Yorkists had many
adherents in Ireland, and thither Lambert Simnel was taken
by Symonds early in 1487; and, gaining the support of the
earl of Kildare, the archbishop of Dublin, the lord chancellor
and a powerful following, who were, or pretended to be, con-
vinced that the boy was the earl of Warwick escaped from the
Tower, Simnel was crowned as King Edward VI. in the cathedral
in Dublin on the 24th of May 1487. Messages asking for help
were sent to Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward
IV., to Sir Thomas Broughton and other Yorkist leaders.
On the 2nd of February 1487 Henry VII. held a- council at
Sheen to concert measures for dealing with the conspiracy.
Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Edward IV., was imprisoned in
the convent of Bermondsey; and the real earl of Warwick
was taken from the Tower and shown in public in the streets of
London. But although Lincoln is said to have conversed with
Warwick on this occasion, he fled abroad immediately after the
council at Sheen, where he was present. In Flanders, Lincoln
joined Lord Lovell, who had headed an unsuccessful Yorkist
rising in 1486, and in May 1487 the two lords proceeded to Dublin,
where they landed a few days before the coronation of Lambert
Simnel. They were accompanied by 2000 German soldiers
under Martin Schwartz, procured by Margaret of Burgundy
to support the enterprise, Margaret having recognized Simnel
as her nephew. This force, together with some ill-armed Irish
levies commanded by Sir Thomas Fitzgerald, landed in Lancashire
on the 4th of June. King Henry was at Coventry when the news
of the landing reached him, and immediately marched to
Nottingham, where his army was strengthened by the addition
of 6000 men. The invaders met with little encouragement
from the populace, who were not well disposed towards a monarch
whom it was sought to impose upon them by the aid of Irish
and German mercenaries. Making for the fortress of Newark,
Lincoln and Sir Thomas Broughton, at the head of their motley
forces, and accompanied by Simnel, attacked the royal army
near the village of Stoke-on-Trent on the i6th of June 1487.
After a fierce and stubborn struggle in which the Germans
behaved with great valour, the Royalists were completely
victorious, though they left 2000 men on the field; Lincoln,
Schwartz and Fitzgerald with 4000 of their followers were killed,
and Lovell and Broughton disappeared never to be heard of
again. The priest Symonds, and Simnel were taken prisoners.
The former was consigned to a dungeon for the rest of his life;
but Henry VII., recognizing that the youthful pretender had
been a tool in the hands of others and was in himself harmless,
pardoned Lambert Simnel and took him into his own service
in the menial capacity of scullion. He was later promoted
to- be royal falconer and is said to have afterwards become a
servant in the household of Sir Thomas Lovell. The date of
Simnel's death is unknown, but he is known to have been still
living in the year 1534.
See Rolls of Parliament. VI. : Francis Bacon, History of Henry VII.,
with notes by J. R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1881); Richard Bagwell,
Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885-1890); James
Gairdner, Henry VII. (London, 1889) and Letters and Papers illus-
trative of the reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII. (" Rolls " series,
2 vols., London, 1861-1863): The Political History of England,
vol. v., by H. A. L. Fisher (London, 1906) ; and W. Busch, England
under the Tudors (1895). For a contemporary account of Simnel's
imposture, see Polydore Vergil, Anglicae historiae, to which all the
later narratives are indebted. (R. J. M.)
SIMOCATTA, 1 THEOPHYLACT, Byzantine historian, a native
of Egypt, flourished at Constantinople during the reign of
Heraclius (610-640), under whom he held the office of imperial
secretary. He is best known as the author of a history, in
eight books, of the reign of the emperor Maurice (582-602),
for which period he is the best and oldest authority. The work
describes the wars with the Persians, the Avars and Slavs, and
the emperor's tragic end. " His want of judgment renders him
diffuse in trifles and concise in the most interesting facts "
(Gibbon), but his general trustworthiness is admitted. The
history contains an introduction in the form of a dialogue
between History and Philosophy. Photius (cod. 65) while admit-
ting a certain amount of gracefulness in the language, blames
the author's excessive use of figurative and allegorical expressions
and moral sentiments. While the vocabulary contains many
strange and affected words, the grammar and syntax are on the
whole correct (ed. pr. by J. Pontanus, 1609; best edition by
C. de Boor, 1887, with a valuable Index Graecitatis).
Simocatta was also the author of Physical Problems('Airoplai QvaiKal}
in dialogue form, dealing with the nature of animals and especially of
man (ed. J. Ideler in Physici et medici Graeci minores, i. 1841); and
of a- collection of 85 letters (moral, rustic, erotic), the supposed
writers of which are either fictitious or well-known personages
(Antisthenes to Pericles, Socrates to Plato, Socrates to Alcibiades).
The best edition is by R. Hercher in Epistolographi Graeci (1873).
The letters were translated into Latin (1509) by Copernicus (re-
printed 1873 by F. Hipler in Spicilegium Gopernicanum).
See C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur (1897).
SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692), English medallist and
modeller, was born in Yorkshire in 1622. He was originally
intended for the church, but turned his attention to art, and,
after studying in Holland, proceeded to Sweden, where he was
employed by Queen Christina, in whose train he travelled to
Paris. He returned to England before the outbreak of the Civil
War, and attained celebrity by his medals and portraits modelled
in wax. During the Commonwealth he executed many medals
of leading parliamentarians, and at the Restoration he was
patronized by Charles II., from whom he received a hundred
guineas for his portrait designed as a medal for the proposed
order of the Royal Oak. Having incurred the displeasure of
the duke of .York, he lost the favour of the court, and died in
obscurity in 1692. Among the more interesting of his medals
are those of the 2nd earl of Dunfermline, the 2nd earl of
Lauderdale and the ist earl of Loudon; that of the duke of
Albemarle, and many other fine medals, were modelled by
Abraham Simon and chased by his brother Thomas Simon (q.v.).
SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816-1904), English surgeon and sanitary
reformer, was born in London on the icth of October 1816. His
father, Louis Michael Simon,was for many years a leading member
of the London Stock Exchange. Both his grandfathers were
French emigrants, who carried on business in London and Bath
respectively. His father died at almost ninety-eight, and his
mother at nearly ninety-five years of age. Simon was educated
at a preparatory school in Pentonville, spent seven years at
Dr Burney's school in Greenwich, and then ten months with a
German Pfarrer in Rhenish Prussia. His father intended him
for surgery, and he began the study of medicine on ist October
33> when he was a few days short of seventeen. He was an
apprentice of Joseph Henry Green, the distinguished surgeon at
St Thomas's, well known for his friendship for Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, whose literary executor Green became. He became
1 Other forms of the name are Simocattos, Simocatos, Simocates.
SIMON, J. F.
a demonstrator of anatomy, and was assistant surgeon to King's
College Hospital for several years; and in the autumn of 1847
he was appointed surgeon and lecturer on pathology at his old
school, St Thomas's, where, with progressive changes, he con-
tinued to remain an officer. His life was divided between two
great pursuits the career of a surgeon, and the mastery and
solution of many of the great problems of sanitary science and
reform. In the spring of 1844 he gained the first Astley Cooper
prize by a physiological essay on the thymus gland, and the
following year was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In
1847 he gave his first lecture at St Thomas's Hospital, on the
" Aims and Philosophic Method of Pathological Research,"
followed a little later by lectures on general pathology in relation
to the principles of diagnosis, and the treatment of disease.
These lectures were of great importance at the time, and of the
utmost value in directing energy into new and profitable channels
of work. Simon published many clinical surgical lectures of
the greatest importance, and contributed a masterly article on
" Inflammation " to Holmes's System of Surgery, which has
become a classic of its kind. It was, however, on his appoint-
ment in 1848 as medical officer of health to the City of London,
and afterwards to the government, that Simon's great abilities
found scope for congenial exercise. He stimulated and guided
the development of sanitary science, until it reached in England
the highest degree of excellence, and gave an example to the
civilized world. It is impossible to overestimate the value of
Sir John Simon's work, or the importance of his influence in the
furtherance of the public health and the prevention of disease,
and in inculcating right methods of medical government. In
1878, after filling other offices in the Royal College of Surgeons,
he became its president, and in 1887 was created K.C.B. It was
largely due to his advocacy that the new St Thomas's Hospital
was rebuilt on its present site after it was compelled to leave
its old habitation near London Bridge. As a surgeon, Simon's
work came second to his interest in sanitary science, but he
claimed priority over Cock in the operation of perineal puncture
of the urethra in cases of retention from stricture. He died
on the 23rd of July 1904. (W. MAcC).
SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814-1896), French statesman
and philosopher, was born at Lorient on the 27th of December
1814. His father was a linen-draper from Lorraine, who abjured
Protestantism before his second marriage, of which Jules Simon
was the son, with a Catholic Breton. The family name was
Suisse, which Simon dropped in favour of his third prenomen.
By dint of considerable sacrifice he was able to attend a seminary
at Vannes, and was for a short time usher in a school before,
in 1833, he became a student at the Ecole Normale in Paris.
There he came in contact with Victor Cousin, who sent him
to Caen and then to Versailles to teach philosophy. He helped
Cousin, without receiving any recognition, in his translations
from Plato, and in 1839 became his deputy in the chair of
philosophy at the Sorbonne, with the meagre salary of 83 francs
per month. He also lectured on the history of philosophy at
the Ecole Normale. At this period he edited the works of
Malebranche (2 vols., 1842), of Descartes (1842), Bossuet (1842)
and of Arnauld (1843), and in 1844-1845 appeared the two
volumes of his Histoire de I'ecole d' Alexandrie. He became a
regular contributor to the Revue des deux mondes, and in 1847,
with Amedee Jacques and Emile Saisset, founded the Liberle
de penser, with the intention of throwing off the yoke of Cousin,
but he retired when Jacques allowed the insertion of an article
advocating the principles of collectivism, with which he was at
no time in sympathy. In 1848 he represented the C6tes-du-
Nord in the National Assembly, and next year entered the
Council of State, but was retired on account of his republican
opinions. His refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the govern-
ment of Louis Napoleon after the coup d'etat was followed by
his dismissal from his professorship, and he devoted himself to
philosophical and political writings of a popular order. Le
Devoir (1853), which was translated into modern Greek and
Swedish, was followed by La Religion naturelle (1856, Eng.
trans., 1887), La Liberte de conscience (1857), La Liberte politique
125
(1859), La Liberte civile (1859), L'Ouvriere (1861), L'Ecole
(1864), Le Travail (i866),L'Ouvrierdehuitans (1867) and others.
In 1863 he was returned to the Corps Legislatif for the 8th
circonscription of the Seine, and supported " les Cinq " in their
opposition to the government. He became minister of instruc-
tion in the government of National Defence on the sth of
September 1870. After the capitulation of Paris in January
1871 he was sent down to Bordeaux to prevent the resistance
of Gambetta to the peace. But at Bordeaux Gambetta, who had
issued a proclamation excluding from the elections officials
under the Empire, was all powerful. He affected to dispute
Jules Simon's credentials, and issued orders for his arrest.
Meanwhile Simon had found means of communication with
Paris, and on the 6th of February was reinforced by Eugene
Pelletan, E. Arago and Garnier-Pages. Gambetta resigned,
and the ministry of the Interior, though nominally given to
Arago to avoid the appearance of a personal issue, was really
in Simon's hands. Defeated in the department of the Seine, he
sat for the Marne in the National Assembly, and resumed the
portfolio of Education in the first cabinet of M.Thiers's presidency.
He advocated free primary education yet sought to conciliate
the clergy by all the means in his power; but no concessions
removed the hostility of Mgr. Dupanloup, who presided over
the commission appointed to consider his 'draft of an elementary
education bill. The reforms he was actually able to carry out
were concerned with secondary education. He encouraged the
study of living languages; and limited the attention given to
the making of Latin verse; he also encouraged independent
methods at the Ecole Normale, and set up a school at Rome
where members of the French school of Athens should spend
some time. He retained office until a week before the fall of
Thiers in 1873. He was regarded by the monarchical right as
one of the most dangerous obstacles in the way of a restoration,
which he did as much as any man (except perhaps the comte de
Chambord himself) to prevent, but by the extreme left he was
distrusted for his moderate views, and Gambetta never forgave
his victory at Bordeaux. In 1875 he became a member of the
French Academy and a life senator, and in 1876, on the resigna-
tion of M. Dufaure, was summoned to form a cabinet. He
replaced anti-republican functionaries in the civil service by
republicans, and held his own until the 3rd of May 1877, when
he adopted a motion carried by a large majority in the Chamber
inviting the cabinet to use all means for the repression of clerical
agitation. His clerical enemies then induced Marshal MacMahon
to take advantage of a vote on the press law carried in Jules
Simon's absence from the Chamber to write him a letter regretting
that he no longer preserved his influence in the Chamber, and
thus practically demanding his resignation. His resignation
in response to this act of the president, known as the " Seize
Mai," which he might have resisted by an appeal to the Chamber,
proved his ruin, and he never again held office. He justified his
action by his fear of providing an opportunity for a coup d'etat
on the part of the marshal. The rejection (1880) of article 7
of Ferry's Education Act, by which the profession of teaching
would have been forbidden to members of non-authorized
congregations, was due to his intervention. He was in fact the
chief of the left centre opposed to the radicalism of Jules Grevy
and Gambetta. He was director of the Gaulois from 1879 to
1 88 1 , and his influence in the country among moderate republicans
was retained by his articles in the Matin from 1882 onwards,
in the Journal des Debats, which he joined in 1886, and in the
Temps from 1890.
He left accounts of some of the events in which he had participated
in Souvenirs du 4 septembre (1874), Le Gouvernement de M. Thiers
(2 vols., 1878), in Mtmoires des autres (1889), Nouveaux memoires des
autres (1891) and Les Verniers memoires des autres (1897), while his
sketch of Victor Cousin (1887) was a further contribution to con-
temporary history. For his personal history the Premiers memoires
(1900) and Le Soir de ma journte (1902), edited by his son Gustave
Simon, may be supplemented by Ldon SechS's Figures bretonnes,
Jules Simon, sa vie, son ceuvre (new ed., 1898), and G. Picot, Jules
Simon: notice historique . . . (1897); also by many references to
periodical literature and collected essays in Hugo P. Thieme's Guide
Ubliographique de la lilt, franc,, de 1800 a 1906 (1907).
126
SIMON MAGUS
SIMON MAGUS ("Simon the Magician"; Gr. na-yos, a
wizard), a character who appears in the New Testament and
also in the works of the Christian Fathers. In Acts viii. 5-24
he is portrayed as a famous sorcerer in Samaria who had been
converted to Christianity by Philip. His personality has been
the subject of considerable discussion. The conclusions to
which the present writer has been led are mainly as follows:
(i) that all we know of the original Simon Magus is contained
in Acts; (2) that from very early times he has been confused,
with another Simon; (3) that the idea that Simon Magus is
merely a distortion of St Paul is absurd.
As regards the story of Acts viii. 5-24, it will suffice to make a few
remarks. First it is interesting to note that Simon Magus was
Ads. older than Christianity. The first missionary enterprise
_ of the nascent Church brought it into contact with a
magician who had for a long time amazed the people of Samaria
with his sorceries (v. 1 1). This person gave himself out to be " some
great one," but the popular voice defined his claims by saying
this man is that power of God which is called Great." Such a
voice of the people cannot be imagined in Judaea, but Samaria was
more open than Judaea to the influence of Greek ideas. Readers of
Philo are familiar with the half-philosophical and half-mythological
mode of thought by which the " powers of God " are substantialized
into independent personalities. There were powers of all sorts
powers of help and salvation and also powers of punishment (Philo i'
431). It was through these powers that the incorporeal world of
thought was framed, which served as the archetype of this world
of appearance. The various powers are sometimes summed up
under the two heads of 0aai\t K ^ and chpyeriKi,, which correspond
to the two names xfcpios and 05s. Which of them if it is lawful
at all to argue from Alexandria to Samaria is to be identified
with the one called " great " we have no means of deciding. Not-
withstanding his own success as a magician Simon Magus was
amazed in his turn at the superior power of Christianity. But he
did not understand that this power was spoilt by self-seeking, and
his offer of money to the Apostles, to enable him to confer the gift
of the Holy Ghost, has branded his name for ever through the use
of the word "simony" (q.v.). He was, however, a baptized Christian,
and accepted with meekness the rebuke of Peter. The last that
we hear of him is his humble entreaty to the Apostles to pray for him.
Had the writer of Acts known anything of his subsequent adventures,
he might certainly have been expected to give some hint of them.
There is no reason for identifying the Simon Magus of Acts with
the Simon, also a magician, who was a friend of Felix, and employed
by him to tempt Drusilla away from her husband Azizus, the king
of the Emesi. The name Simon was common, and so was the claim
to magical powers. But the Simon of Josephus (Ant. xx. 7, 2)
is expressly declared to have been a Jew and a native of Cyprus.
The Apostolic Fathers say nothing about Simon Magus, but
with Justin Martyr we get startling developments. In his First
Justin. Apology, written in A.D. 138 or 139, he tells us that one
Simon, a Samaritan, from a village called Gitta or Gittae
(see Ency. Bibl. iv. col. 4538), performed such miracles by magic
acts in Rome during the reign of Claudius, that he was regarded
as a god and honoured with a statue " in the river Tiber, between
the two bridges, having an inscription in Latin as follows : SIMONI
DEO ^ANCTO." " And almost all the Samaritans," he goes on to
say, and a few among the other nations, acknowledge and adore
him as the first God. And one Helen, who went about with him
they assert to be God, above all rule and authority and power "
^CI . I'.pll . I. 21 ) ,
Such is the testimony of Justin; what is it worth? In iV7d.
during the pontificate of Gregory XIII., a stone was dug up in the
island of the Tiber bearing the inscription " Semoni Sango Deo
bacrum Sex. Pompeius " (see SEMO SANCUS). This discovery has
led many to suspect that Justin Martyr has somehow been hoaxed
Ihe stone is not the only one of its kind, and it is a serious charge
to bring against Justin to suppose him guilty of so silly a confusion
as this. But Justin Martyr was decidedly weak in history, and
it is not unreasonable to suppose that he may have confused the
Simon of Acts with a heretical leader of the same name who lived
much nearer to his own time, especially as this other Simon also
had a great reputation for magic. A full century must have elapsed
between the conversion of Simon Magus to Christianity and the
earliest date possible (which is the one that we have adopted) for
the composition of Justin Martyr's First Apology. That work is
assigned by Schmiedel and others to about A.D. 152. Justin Martyr
could not have been mistaken as to the fact that the bulk of his
countrymen were followers of a religious leader named Simon
whose disciple Menander he seems to speak of as an elder con-
temporary of his own. But having a mind void of historical per-
spective he identified this Simon with Simon Magus.
When once this identification has been made by Justin it was
taken for granted by almost all subsequent writers. The tempta-
tion to trace all heresy to one who had been condemned by Peter
was too strong for the Fathers. 1 Dr George Salmon brought light
into darkness by distinguishing between Simon of Gitta and the
original Simon Magus. What has not perhaps been so clearly
perceived is the consequence that all that is told about Helen refers
to the later Simon.
With Hegesippus, who wrote during the episcopate of Eleutherus
(A.D. 176-189), as with Justin, Simon heads the list of
heretics, but there is no identification of him with Simon
at that time, who before had had her stand in a brothel, they 'say
brought into being by him " (Apol. i.
was the first thought that was ^. uu& ,, t . uc, lls uy lllm \n.vw. ,.
* 1-3)- Justin goes on to speak, as from personal knowledge,
of the feats of magic performed by Menander, another Samaritan
and a disciple of Simon's, who persuaded his followers that they
would never die. After Menander Justin proceeds to speak of
Marcion, who was still teaching at the time. The followers of Simon
Magus, of Menander and of Marcion, he says, were all called
Christians, but so also Epicureans and Stoics were alike called
philosophers. He had himself composed a treatise against all the
heresies that there had been, which he was willing to present to
the imperial family (Apol. i. 26. 4-8). As Justin was himself a
Samaritan it is natural that his fellow-countrymen should bulk
largely in his eyes. Accordingly we find him reverting to Simon
and Menander in a later passage of the same Apology, where he
repeats that in the royal city of Rome, in the time of Claudius Caesar,
Simon so astonished " the holy Senate " and the Roman people
that he was worshipped as a god and honoured with a statue (Apol.
i- 56), which Justin petitions to have taken down. In the Second
Apology also there is a passage which seems mutilated or mis-
placed, in which he declares himself to have " despised the impious
and misleading teaching of the Simonians in his own nation "
(Apol. ii. 15. i). In the Dialogue (349 c, ch. 120) he prides himself
u A '"depend 6006 and love of truth which he had displayed in
the Apology. " For," he says, " in writing to Caesar, I showed no
regard even for any of my own nation, but said that they were
deceived by trusting in a magician of their own race, Simon, whom
-*wv, *ij nv 4^j\,in.j > in,ai,iwii \ji linn wiLii oirnon
Magus; indeed, the context plainly excludes it (Eus. H.E.
iv. 22).
During the same episcopate Irenaeus was appointed bishop of
Lyons. In his work Agatnst Heresies (i. 16) we hear for the first time
of opposition on the part of Simon to the Apostles after
his pretended conversion. His magic, we are told, pro- lrenaeus -
cured him the honour of a statue from the emperor Claudius. He was
glorified by many as God, and he taught that it was he who appeared
among the Jews as the Son, in Samaria as the Father and among
other nations as the Holy Spirit. He was indeed the highest power, the
Father, who is above all, but he consented to be called by whatever
name men chose to give him. Irenaeus then goes on to tell how at
Tyre Simon rescued Helen from prostitution, and took her about with
him, saying that she was the first thought of his mind, the mother
of all things, by whom in the beginning he had conceived the idea
of making angels and arch-angels. For that this Thought (Ivvoio)
recognizing her father's will, had leapt forth from him, and de-
scended to lower regions, and generated the angelic powers by whom
this world was made. But after she had done so she was detained
by them through ill-will, since they did not wish to be thought the
offspring of any other being. For, as for himself, they knew nothing
at all about him. But his Thought had been detained by the angelic
powers which had been sent forth from her, and had been subjected
by them to every indignity, so that she might not return on high
to her own father, insomuch that she was even enclosed in a human
body, and for age after age transmigrated into different female
forms, as though from one vessel into another. For she had been
also in that Helen who was the cause of the Trojan War. But
while she passed from body to body, and consequently suffered
perpetual indignity, she had at the last been prostituted in a brothel;
she was " the lost sheep." Wherefore he himself had come to free
her from her bonds, and to confer salvation upon men through
knowledge of himself. For as the angels were mismanaging the
world, owing to their individual lust for rule, he had come to set
things straight, and had descended under a changed form, likening
himself to the Principalities and Powers through whom he passed,
so that among men he appeared as a man, thtmgh he was not a man,
and was thought to have suffered in Judaea, though he had not
suffered. But the prophets had delivered their prophecies under
the inspiration of the world-creating angels : wherefore those who
had their hope in him and in Helen minded them no more, and, as
being free, did what they pleased; for men were saved according
to his grace, but not according to just works. For works were not
just by nature, but only by convention, in accordance with the
enactments of the world-creating Angels, who by precepts of this
kind sought to bring men into slavery. Wherefore he promised that
the world should be dissolved, and that those who were his should
be freed from the dominion of the world-creators. Irenaeus con-
cludes his account by saying that this Antinomian teaching had its
logical consequence in his followers, who lived licentious lives and
practised every kind of magic. They also, he adds, worshipped
1 Clement of Alexandria (Strom, vii. 107) alone seems to have
an inkling that there was something wrong. He puts Simon after
Marcion, and yet refers in the same breath to his acceptance of
Peter's preaching.
SIMON MAGUS
127
images of Simon under the form of Zeus, and of Helen under that of
Athena. They were called Simoniani, and were the introducers of
"knowledge falsely so called." In the next chapter Irenaeus speaks
of Menander, who was also a Samaritan, as the successor of Simon,
and as having, like him, attained to the highest pitch of magic.
His doctrine is represented as being the same as that of Simon, only
that it was he this time who was the saviour of the world.
It is evident that the Samaritans were not to be outdone by the
Jews, that Mount Gerizim was once more being set up against
Jerusalem, and that a bold bid was being made by the hated
Samaritans for a world-wide religion, which should embrace Pagans
as well as Christians. But before such an amalgam of paganism and
Christianity could be propounded, it is evident that Christianity
must have been for some little time before the world, and that the
system cannot possibly be traced back to Simon Magus. Is it not
this early struggle between Jewish and Samaritan universalism,
involving as it did a struggle of religion against magic, that is really
symbolized under the wild traditions of the contest between Peter
and Simon? 1
Tertullian is fond of alluding to Simon Magus. He says that he
offered money for the Holy Spirit (De fuga, 12; De anima, 34), that
Tertullian ne was curse ^ by the Apostles and expelled from the faith
(De idol. 9), that he consoled himself for the loss of the
Spirit by the purchase of Helen of Tyre (De an. 34), that he was
honoured at Rome with a statue bearing the inscription " Sancti
Dei " (Apol. 13), that the Simonianae magiae disciplina had been
condemned by Peter (De praescr. 33), and that in his own day (he
died in A.D. 220) the followers of Simon professed to raise the souls
of prophets from the dead (De anima, 57). In a list of heretics
Marcion, Valentine and Apelles are followed by Hebion and Simon,
whom we may take as standing respectively for Jewish and Samaritan
types of Christian heresy (De praescr. lo). But the important
passage is the account of his doctrine in De anima, 34, which is
evidently derived from the same source as that of Irenaeus. The
pseudo-Tertullian in the short treatise Against all Heresies lets us
know that the being whom the Most High God came down to seek
was Wisdom. This is important as bearing upon the connexion
between Simon and Valentinus. In the Clementine Homilies (ii. 25)
it is said that Simon called Helen ao(j>ia.
We now come to the important testimony of Hippplytus (c. A.D.
218-222). In his Refutatio omnium haeresium he gives the same
. . account as Irenaeus with certain slight differences, which
ppoy- indicate a common source rather than direct borrowing.
The word used for the Thought of the first Father, which
in Justin is IVVOLO., and which the translator of Irenaeus renders
by conceptio and Tertullian by injectio, is in Hippolytus iirlvoitL.
We are told that Simon allegorized the wooden horse and " Helen
with the lamp," 2 and applied them to himself and his tTrivoia.
Upon the story of " the lost sheep " Hippolytus comments as
follows. " But the liar was enamoured of this wench, whose name
was Helen, and had bought her and had her to wife, and it was out
of respect for his disciples that he invented this fairy-tale" (Ref.
O. H. vi. 19). To this he adds a scathing indictment against the
licentiousness of the Simonians. 3 Hippolytus speaks in language
similar to that of Irenaeus about the variety of magic arts practised
by the Simonians, and also of their having images of Simon and
Helen under the forms of Zeus and Athena. But here he has a
significant addition. " But if any one, on seeing the images either
of Simon or Helen, shall call them by those names, he is cast out,
as showing ignorance of the mysteries." From this it is evident that
the Simonians did not allow that they worshipped their founders.
Lipsius conjectured that the supposed worship of Simon and Helen
was really that of Hercules-Melkart and Selene-Astarte. Baur
before him made Simon =zfe^, the Sun. In the Clementine
Recognitions Helen is called Luna (ii. 8, 9), and in the Homilies she
is mystically connected with the lunar month (Horn. ii. 23).
Hippolytus, like the rest, identified Simon of Gitta (Sijuw
6 TiTTrjcos, vi. 7) with Simon Magus. Reduced to despair, he says,
by the curse laid upon him by Peter, he embarked on the career
that has been described, " Until he came to Rome also and fell foul
of the Apostles. Peter withstood him on many occasions. At last
he came (here some words are missing) and began to teach sitting
under a plane tree. When he was on the point of bein^ shown up,
he said, in order to gain time, that if he were buried alive he would
rise again on the third day. So he bade that a tomb should be dug
by his disciples and that he should be buried in it. Now they did
what they were ordered, but he remained there until now: for he
was not the Christ."
Prefixed to this account of Simon, which, except in its dramatic
close, so nearly tallies with that of Irenaeus, is a description of a
book of which he was the author. It is quoted under the title of
The Declaration (vi. 14, 18) or The Great Declaration (vi. ii). The
The account given by Irenaeus should be compared with what
is said of Simon Magus in the Clementine Homilies, ii. 22, where the
rivalry between Jews and Samaritans becomes evident (cf. Re-
cognitions, i. 57).
2 On this see Epiph. xxi. 3.
3 Hippolytus says the free love doctrine was held by them in its
frankest form.
longest extract from it is in vi. 1 8, but others occur here and there, 4
and, where not explicitly quoted, it still underlies the statements
of Hippolytus. It is written in a mystical and pretentious style,
but the philosophy of it, if allowance be made for the allegorical
method of the time, is by no means to be despised. As Hippolytus
himself in more than one place (iv. 51, vi. 20) points out, it is an
earlier form of the Valentinian doctrine, but there are things in it
which remind us of the Stoic physics, and much use is made of the
Aristotelian distinction between kvipytia. and Mi>a/us.
Starting from the assertion of Moses that God is "a devouring
fire " (Deut. iy. 24), Simon combined therewith the philosophy of
Heraclitus which made fire the first principle of all things. This
first principle he denominated a " power without end " (Wvtz/us
dircpacros), and he declared it to dwell in the sons of men, beings
born of flesh and blood. But fire was not the simple thing that the
many imagined, and Simon distinguished between its hidden and
its manifest qualities, maintaining, like Locke, that the former were
the cause of the latter. Like the Stoics he conceived of it as an
intelligent being. From this ungenerated being sprang the generated
world of which we know, whereof there were six roots, having each
its inner and its outer side, and arranged in pairs (<n)ftry.iai) as
follows : vovs and kirivoia. = oupap6s and yij ', tfrwvii and opo/za =
rfXtos and (reX^w;; Xo7io>6s and icfliijutjcris = d^p and v&up. These
six roots are also called six powers. Commingled with them
all was the great power, the " power without end." This was that
" which stands, which stood and yet shall stand." It existed
potentially in every child of man, and might be developed in each
to its own immensity. The small might become great, the point be
enlarged to infinity (iv. 51, v. 9, yi. 14). This indivisible point
which existed in the body, and of which none but the spiritual knew,
was the Kingdom of Heaven, and the grain of mustard-seed (v. 9).
But it rested with us to develop it, and it is this responsibility which
is referred to in the words " that we may not be condemned with
the world " (i Cor. xi. 32). For if the image of the Standing One
were not actualized in us, it would not survive the death of the
body. " The axe, " he said, " is nigh to the roots of the tree.. Every
tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is cut down and cast into the
fire " (cf. Matt. iii. 10).
The whole book is a queer mixture of Hellenism and Hebraism,
in which the same method of allegory is applied to Homer and Hesiod
as to Moses. There is a physiological interpretation of the Garden
of Eden. The five books of Moses are made to represent the five
senses. There is a mystical passage on the unity of all things, sug-
gestive of " the hymn the Brahman sings." Its language seems to
throw light on the story about Helen. " This," he says, " is one
power, divided between above and below, self-generating, self-
increasing, self-seeking, self-finding, being its own mother, its own
father, its own sister, its own spouse, its own daughter, its own son,
mother, father, an abstract unity, being the root of all things "
(Hipp. Ref. 0. H. vi. 17). That a learned man like Hippolytus
should refer a work which contains quotations from the Epistles and
Gospels to Simon Magus, who was probably older than Jesus Christ,
shows the extent to which men can be blinded by religious bigotry.
Next in order comes Origen, who was ordained priest in A.D. 231
(Eus. H. E. vi. 23, 26). The most interesting point in his evidence
relates to the decline of the Samaritan attempt to establish _
a world religion. After speaking of Dositheus the Samari-
tan, who persuaded some of his countrymen that he was the Christ
prophesied by Moses, he goes on to say: " Also Simon the Samaritan,
a magician, wished to filch away some by his magic. And at the
time indeed he succeeded in his deception, but now I suppose it is
not possible to find 30 Simonians altogether in the world; and
perhaps I have put the number higher than it really is. But in
Palestine there are very few, and in the rest of the world, in which
he wished to spread his own glory, his name is nowhere mentioned.
If it is, this is due to the Acts of the Apostles. It is the Christians
who say what is said about him, and it has become plain as daylight
(17 kv&pytia. f^aprvptirrtv) that Simon was nothing divine " (Origen,
Conl. Cels. i. 57). Origen also mentions that some of the sect were
called Heleniani (v. 62).
The treatise of the pseudo-Cyprian De Rebaptismaie is assigned by
some to about A.D. 260. The writer says that on the strength of
the words of John, that " we were to be baptized with
the Holy Ghost and with fire," the Simonians maintained
that the orthodox baptism was a mere form, and that they
had the real baptism, for, as soon as their neophytes went down into
the water, a fire appeared on it. The writer does not dispute the
fact, but is at a loss what to make of it. Was it a bit of jugglery, or
a natural phenomenon, or a piece of self-deception, or an effect of
magic? In advocacy of this baptism, we are told, there was com-
posed by the same heretics a book which was inscribed the Preaching
of Paul.
Arnobius (early in the 3rd century) introduces us to a new phase
of the Simon-legend. " They had seen," he says, " the car of Simon
Magus blown away by the mouth of Peter and vanish at Arnoblu ,
the name of Christ. They had seen, I say, him who
trusted in false gods and was betrayed by those gods in their fear,
brought headlong down by his own weight, lie with broken legs, and
afterwards be carried to Brunda and, exhausted by suffering and
E.g. iv. 51, v.g, vi. 9, 1 1, 14, 17.
Pseudo-
Cyprian.
128
SIMON MAGUS
shame, fling himself down once more from the gable of a lofty roof.'
The immediate sequel shows that belief in this story was confined to
Christians.
Eusebius (about A.D. 264-340) follows Justin Martyr and Irenaeus
but he adds the statement, which is not derived from them, thai
Eusebius f" eter opposed Simon at Rome under the reign of Claudius
From Origen's statement one might have thought thai
the Simonians would have dwindled out altogether by the time ol
Eusebius. But they were still extant in his time, and there is no
sect of whom he speaks in such unmeasured terms of vituperation. 1
Eusebius's account of Menander (iii. 26) is also based upon Justin
and Irenaeus.
St Cyril of Jerusalem (A.D. 346) in the sixth of his Catechetica,
Lectures prefaces his history of the Manichees by a brief account o!
Cyril. earlier heresies. Simon Magus, he says, was the father
of all heresy. After being cast out by the Apostles he
came to Rome where, having joined to himself a profligate woman
of the name of Helen, he gave out that it was he who appeared as
the father on Mt. Sinai, and afterwards, not in the flesh, but in
appearance (SoK^uti) as Jesus Christ, and, finally, as the Holy
Ghost, according to the promise of Christ. His success at Rome
was so great that the emperor Claudius erected a statue to him with
the inscription Simoni Deo Sanclo. The triumph of Simon Magus
was terminated on the arrival of Peter and Paul at Rome. Simon
Magus had given out that he was going to be translated to heaven,
and was actually careering through the air in a chariot drawn by
demons when Peter and Paul knelt down and prayed, and their
prayers brought him to earth a mangled corpse.
Such is the form assumed by the legend of Simon Magus about
the middle of the 4th century. It is interesting to note in it the
first introduction of Paul on the scene, at least by name. The reader
who is not familiar with the eccentricities of the Tubingen school
will doubtless be surprised to learn that the Paul who thus quietly
slips in at the close of the drama was himself all along the disguised
villain of the plot, the very Simon Magus whom he comes to assist
Peter in destroying (see below).
Epiphanius (c. A.D. 367) is a writer who has nothing but his
learning to recommend him. It seems that there were some Simonians
Epl- st '" * n existence in his day, but he speaks of them as
phaaius almost extinct. Gitta, he says, had sunk from a town
into a village. He makes no mention of the Great De-
claration, but as in several places he makes Simon speak in the first
person, the inference is that he is quoting from it, though perhaps
not verbatim. Take, for instance, the following passage: " But
in each heaven I changed my form," says he, " in accordance with
the form of those who were in each heaven, that I might escape the
notice of my angelic powers and come down to the Thought, who is
none other than her who is also called Prounikos and Holy Ghost,
through whom I created the angels, while the angels created the
world and men " (56 C, D). And again, " And on her account," he
says, " did I come down; for this is that which is written in the
Gospel ' the lost sheep ' " (58 A). Epiphanius further charges Simon
with having tried to wrest the words of St, Paul about the armour
of God (Eph. vi. 14-16) into agreement with his own identification
of the " ennoia " with Athena. He tells us also that he gave barbaric
names to the " principalities and powers," and that he was the
beginning of the Gnostics. The Law, according to him, was not of
God, but of "the sinister power."*
The same was the case with the prophets, and it was death to
believe in the Old Testament. Epiphanius clearly has before him
the same written source as Hippolytus, which we know to have been
the Great Declaration. The story of Helen is thus definitely shown
to belong to the second Simon, and not at all to the first. Dr Salmon
pointed out that Simon was known as a writer to the author of the
Clementine Recognitions (ii. 38), and towards the close of the 4th
century we find St Jerome quoting from him as such. 3
Two points must by this time have become clear: (i) that
our knowledge of the original Simon Magus is confined to what
we are told in the Acts, and (2) that from the earliest
times he has been confused with another Simon. The
initial error of Justin was echoed by every subsequent
writer, with the one exception of Hegesippus, who
had perhaps not read him. There were, of course, obvious
reasons for the confusion. Both Simons were Samaritans, both
were magicians, and the second Simon claimed for himself what
was claimed for the earlier Simon by the people, namely, that
he was the great power of God. But, if the end in view with
the Fathers had been the attainment of truth, instead of the
branding of heretics, they could not possibly have accepted the
Great Declaration, which contains, as we have seen, the story
of Helen, with its references to the Gospels, as the work of Simon
1 See H.E. ii. I, 13, 14, ii!. 26, iv. ii, 22.
1 58 D, xxi. 4, rfjs dpiiTTtpas &W&IKWS.
1 Comm. on Matt. xxiv. 5 Ego sum sermo Dei, ego sum speciosus,
ego paracletus, ego omnipotens, ego omnia Dei.
The
Tiiblagea
theory.
Magus. As regards the third point, the difficulty is to make
clear to the ordinary mind why it should be treated at all. But
as Schmiedel champions the Tubingen view in the Encyclopaedia
Biblica, it cannot be overlooked.
Among the sources of the Simon-legend we have omitted the
pseudo-Clementine literature and a number of Apocryphal
Martyria, Passiones and Actus. It is necessary to treat them
separately in connexion with the Tubingen view, which repre-
sents Paul as the original Simon. That view is based on these
works of fiction, of uncertain date and authorship, which seem
to have been worked over by several hands in the interest of
diverse forms of belief. The romance of Clement of Rome
exists at present in two forms, in Greek under the name of the
Clementine Homilies and in a Latin translation by Rufinus,
which is known as the Recognitions (see CLEMENTINE LITERA-
TURE). It is contended that the common source of these docu-
ments may be as early as the ist century, and must have
consisted in a polemic against Paul, emanating from the Jewish
side of Christianity. Paul being thus identified with Simon,
it was argued that Simon's visit- to Rome had no other basis
than Paul's presence there, and, further, that the tradition of
Peter's residence in Rome rests on the assumed necessity of his
resisting the arch-enemy of Judaism there as elsewhere. Thus
the idea of Peter at Rome really originated with the Ebionites,
but it was afterwards taken up by the Catholic Church, and then
Paul was associated with Peter in opposition to Simon, who had
originally been himself.
Now it must be conceded at once that the Clementine Homilies
are marked by hostility to Paul. Prefixed to them is a supposed
letter from Peter to James, in which Peter is made to write as
follows:
" For some of the converts from the Gentiles have rejected the
preaching through me in accordance with the law, having accepted
a certain lawless and babbling doctrine of the enemy (TOV kxSpou
MPUTTOV). And this some people have attempted while I am still
alive, by various interpretations to transform my words, unto the
overthrow of the law; as though I also thought thus, but did not
preach it openly: which be far from me! For to do so is to act
against the law of God as spoken through Moses, the eternal duration
of which is borne witness to by our Lord. Since He said thus
' Heaven and earth shall pass away: one jot or one tittle shall
not pass away from the law ' (cf. Matt. v. 18). Now this He said
that all might be fulfilled. But they, professing somehow to know
my mind, attempt to expound the words they heard from me more
wisely than I who spoke them, telling those who are instructed by
them that this is my meaning, which I never thought of. But if
they venture on such falsehoods while I am still alive, how much
more when I am gone will those who come after me dare to do so!"
It would be futile to maintain that that passage is not aimed
at Paul. It does not identify Paul with Simon Magus, but it
serves to reveal an animus which would render the identification
easy. In the zyth Homily the identification is effected. Simon
is there made to maintain that he has a better knowledge of
the mind of Jesus than the^disciples, who had seen and conversed
with Him in person. His reason for this strange assertion is
that visions are superior to waking reality, as divine is superior
to human (xvii. 5, 14). Peter has much to say in reply to this,
but the passage which mainly concerns us is as follows:
" But can any one be educated for teaching by vision ? And if
you shall say, ' It is possible," why did the Teacher remain and
converse with waking men for a whole year? And how can we
believe you even as to the fact that he appeared to you? And how
can he have appeared to you seeing that your sentiments are opposed
to his teaching? But if you were seen and taught by him for a
single hour, and so became an apostle, then preach his words,
expound his meaning, love his apostles, fight not with me who had
converse with him. For it is against a solid rock, the foundation-stone
of the Church, that you have opposed yourself in opposing me. If
you were not an adversary, you would not be slandering me and
'eviling the preaching that is given through me, in order that, as I
leard myself in person from the Lord, when I speak I may not be
selieved, as though forsooth it were I who was condemned and I
who was reprobate. 4 Or, if you call me 'condemned' (Kartyvuiaiikvov,
Gal. ii. ii), you are accusing God who revealed the Christ to me,
and are inveighing against Him who called me blessed on the ground
of the revelation. But if indeed you truly wish to work along with
1 Reading with Schmiedel Afocfpou 8>ros (from I Cor. ix. 27)
n place of
SIMON MAGUS
129
the truth, learn first from us what we learnt from Him, and when
you have become a disciple of truth, become our fellow-workman."
Here we have the advantage, rare in ecclesiastical history,
of hearing the other side. The above is unmistakably the voice
of those early Christians who hated Paul, or at all events an
echo of that voice. But how late an echo it would be hazardous
to decide. Schmiedel asks, " How should Paul ever come to be
in the 2nd, or, as far as the pseudo-Clementine Homilies and
Recognitions are concerned, even in the 3rd or 4th century,
the object of so fanatical a hatred? It is a psychological im-
possibility." Yet the love and hatred aroused by strong char-
acters is not confined to their life-time. There is not the slightest
reason why there should not have been people in the 3rd or 4th
century who would have been glad to lampoon Paul. The
introduction of Pauline features, however, into the representation
of Simon Magus is merely incidental. The portrait as a whole
is not in the least like Paul, and could not even have been intended
for a caricature of him.
There are other features in the portrait which remind us
strongly of Marcion. For the first thing which we learn from
the Homilies about Simon's opinions is that he denied that God
was just (ii. 14). By " God " he meant the Creator. But he
undertakes to prove from Scripture that there is a higher God,
who really possesses the perfections which are falsely ascribed
to the lower (iii. 10, 38). On these grounds Peter complains
that, when he was setting out for the Gentiles to convert them
from their worship of many gods upon earth, the Evil Power
(17 Kcrna) had sent Simon before him to make them believe that
there were many gods in heaven. Peter throughout is repre-
sented as defending the povapxla. of God against Simon's attacks
on it (e.g. iii. 3, 9, 59).
If we knew more, we might detect other historical characters
concealed under the mask of Simon. Just as whatever Plato
approves is put into the mouth of Socrates, so whatever the
author of the Homilies condemns is put into the mouth of
Simon Magus. But while thus seeking for hidden meanings, are
we not in danger of missing what lies on the surface, namely,
that the Simon Magus of the Clementine romance is a portrait
of Simon of Gitta, after he had been confused with the Simon
of Acts? The mention of Helen in the Clementines stamps
them as later than the Great Declaration, in which, to all appear-
ance, her story originates. Indeed, the Clementine romance may
most fitly be regarded as an answer to the Great Declaration,
the answer of Jewish Gnosticism to the more Hellenized Gnosti-
cism of Samaria. Let us look at the Homilies in this light, and
see how far what they have to tell us about Simon accords with
conclusions which we have already reached.
Simon, we are informed, was a Samaritan, and a native of Gitta,
a village situated at a] distance of 6 trxoivoi. (about 4 m.) from the
city. The name of his father was Antonius, that of his
"'** mother Rachel. He studied Greek literature in Alexandria,
and, having in addition to this great power in magic, was so puffed
up by his attainments that he wished to be considered a highest
power, higher even than the God who created the world. 1 And some-
times he " darkly hinted " that he himself was Christ, calling himself
the Standing One. Which name he used to indicate that he would
stand for ever, and had no cause in him for bodily decay. He did
not believe that the God who created the world was the highest, nor
that the dead would rise. He denied Jerusalem, and introduced
Mount Gerizim in its stead. In place of the real Christ of the
Christians he proclaimed himself; and the Law he allegorized in
accordance with his own preconceptions. He did indeed preach
righteousness and judgment to come: but this was merely a bait
for the unwary.
So far we have had nothing that is inconsistent with Simon of
Gitta, and little but yvhat we are already familiar with in connexion
either with him or his disciple Menander. But in what follows the
identification of this Simon with the Simon of Acts has led the
novelist to give play to his fancy. It may be well to premise that
in the view of the writer of the Homilies, " All things are double one
against another." " As first night, then day, and first ignorance,
then knowledge (-yvCxris), and first sickness, then healing, so the
things of error come first in life, and then the truth supervenes upon
them, as the physician upon the sickness." (Horn. ii. 33). In this
way every good thing has its evil forerunner.
' According to the Homilies, the manner of his entering on his
career of impiety was as follows. There was one John, a Hemero-
1 Supplying, with Schmiedel,
XXV. 5
baptist, who was the forerunner of our Lord Jesus in accordance
with the law of parity ; 2 and as the Lord had twelve Apostles,
bearing the number of the twelve solar months, so had he thirty
leading men, making up the monthly tale of the moon. One of these
thirty leading men was a woman called Helen. Now, as a woman is
only half a man, in this way the number thirty was left incomplete,
as it is in the moon's course. Of these thirty disciples of John the
first and most renowned was Simon. But on the death of the
master he was away in Egypt for the practice of magic, and one
Dositheus, by spreading a false report of Simon's death, succeeded in
installing himself as head of the sect. Simon on coming back
thought it better to dissemble, and, pretending friendship for Dosi-
theus, accepted the second place. Soon, however, he began to hint
to the thirty that Dositheus was not as well acquainted as he might
be with the doctrines of the school. Dositheus was so enraged at
these suggestions, which were calculated to undermine his position
as the Standing One, that he struck at Simon with his staff. But
the staff went clean through the body of Simon as though it had been
vapour. Whereat Dositheus was so amazed that he said to him,
" Art thou the Standing One? And am I to worship thee? "
When Simon said, " I am," Dositheus, knowing that he himself was
not, fell down and worshipped him. Then he retired into the number
of the twenty-nine leaders, and not long afterwards died.
The above is doubtless pure fiction. But Dositheus the Samaritan
is a real person. He is mentioned by Hegesippus as the founder of
a sect (Eus. H.E. iv. 22), and spoken of by the pseudo-Tertullian
as a heretic from Judaism, not from Christianity, " who first dared
to reject the prophets as not having spoken in the Holy Ghost."
After this we return to the comparatively solid ground of Simon of
Gitta. For the narrative goes on to say that Simon took Helen
about with him, saying that she had come down into the world from
the highest heavens, and was mistress, inasmuch as she was the all-
mother being and wisdom. It was for her sake, he said, that the
Greeks and Barbarians fought, deluding themselves with an image
of truth, for the real being was then present with the First God. 3
By such specious allegories and Grecian fables Simon deceived many,
while at the same time he astounded them by his magic. A de-
scription is given of how he made a familiar spirit for himself by
conjuring the soul out of a boy and keeping his image in his bedroom,
and many instances of his feats of magic are given.
The Samaritans were evidently strong in magic. In all the accounts
given us of Simon of Gitta magic is a marked feature, as also in the
case of his pupil Menander. We cannot, therefore, agree with Dr
Salmon's remark that the only reason why Justin attributed magic
to Simon of Gitta was because of his identifying him with Simon
Magus. Rather Simon Magus and his sorceries would have been
forgotten had not his reputation been reinforced in the popular mind
by that of his successor.
Whether Simon of Gitta ever exhibited his skill in Rome we have
no means of determining, but at all events the compound Simon,
resulting from the fusion of him with his predecessor, is brought to
Rome by popular legend, and represented as enjoying great influence
with Nero. One of his feats at Rome is to have himself beheaded
and to rise again on the third day. It was really a ram that was
beheaded, but he contrived by his magic to make people think that
it was himself. The Clementines leave room for this development.
In the Epistle of Clement to James prefixed to the Homilies Peter
is spoken of as the light of the West, and as having met with a
violent death in Rome; and in Homilies i. 16, Peter invites Clement
to share his travels and listen to the words of truth which he is
about to preach from town to town, " even unto Rome itself."
It would be superfluous to criticize the Tubingen view under
a form in which it has already been abandoned. We may,
therefore, confine our attention to the latest exposition of it
by Schmiedel in the Ency. Biblica. In the narrative of Acts
Schmiedel finds much to surprise him. He thinks, for instance,
that verse 10 of chapter viii. must be interpolated, and that in
the process irpotTtix " was borrowed from verse ii. But there is
no inconsistency between the two verses. Verse 10 merely states
that the people gave heed to the magician, verse ii adds why.
Ah 1 the complicated speculations about a redactor which follow
are swept away by the simple assumption that the text is sound.
With Schmiedel's contention that there are passages in the
Clementines which are aimed at Paul, we entirely agree. But
this interesting discovery so dazzled the eyes of Baur and his
followers that after it they saw Paul everywhere. In the Clemen-
tines Simon by his magic imposes his own personal appearance
upon Faustus, the father of Clement. This he does for his own
ends, but Peter seeing his opportunity adroitly makes Faustus
go to Antioch, and in the person of Simon make a public
2 KO.TO. T&V TTJS irvfvylas \6yov, ii. 23.
3 As to the phantasmal nature of Helen see Plat. Rep. 586 c ;
Sext. Emp. Adv. math. vii. 180; cf. Hdt. ii. 112-117. We have only
the evidence of this passage for Simon having adopted the notion.
5
130
SIMON, RICHARD
recantation of his aspersions on Peter, giving as a reason that he
had been soundly scourged by angels during the preceding night.
Now here, we are told, there is a malicious allusion to the
" messenger of Satan to buffet me " of 2 Cor. xii. 6. We do not
think that this conjecture will commend itself to the unpreju-
diced, especially in view of the fact that scourging by angels is
a well-known piece of supernatural machinery (cf. 2 Mace. iii.
26; Eus. H.E. v. 28, 12; Tert. De idol. 15). Yet Schmiedel
speaks of this as " a well ascertained case in which an utter-
ance of Paul regarding himself is spitefully twisted to his dis-
credit." There is more plausibility in connecting Simon's
assumed knowledge of things above the heavens (Recog. ii.
65) with St Paul's claim to have been " caught up even to the
third heaven " (2 Cor. xii. 2). But the passage is much more
appropriate to Simon of Gitta. From the height in which he
claimed to dwell even the third heaven would have seemed
quite the lower regions. The question of meat offered to idols
was a burning one, in every sense of the term, long after Paul's
day. We need not, therefore, see a reference to the Apostle's
laxity on this crucial point in the story (Horn. iv. 4, vii. 3) that
Simon Magus had entertained the people of Antioch on a sacri-
ficial ox, and so subjected them to the evil influence of demons.
The non-necessity of martyrdom is mentioned as a feature of
early Gnosticism. 1
The miracles which St Paul claims for himself in 2 Cor. xii.
12, Rom. xv. 19, must doubtless have led to his being regarded
as a magician by those who did not accept him as divinely
commissioned; but, as we have seen throughout, magic was
the salient feature about the Samaritan Messiah, who is the real
enemy aimed at in the Clementine literature. The opening of
doors of their own accord no more connects Simon Magus with
Paul than with Peter. We need not, therefore, see in Recog.
ii. 9 a reference to Acts xvi. 26. As to the use of bad language,
people in the 2nd century were glad to avail themselves of such
missiles as ^u5a7r6crToXot, which had been manufactured for
them in the ist (Horn. xvi. 21; 2 Cor. xi. 13). That the homo
quidam inimicus of the Recognitions (i. 70) is intended for Paul
is plain, but then, as Schmiedel points out in a note, he is not
identified with Simon. " Even the style of Paul," Schmiedel
assures us, " is plainly imitated in a mocking way." The
reference is to the recantation in Horn. xx. 19, which is like the
rest of the treatise and quite unlike Paul, but Schmiedel's
familiarity with Paul's writings enables him to collect phrases
therefrom which occur also in the Homilies.
When the Tubingen School turn their attention to the Apocry-
phal Acts and Martyrdoms, the image of Paul still obsesses
their mental gaze. There is indeed one passage which may
plausibly be adduced in favour of their contention. In the
Martyrdom of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul (ch. 45), Paul
is made to put this question " If then circumcision is a good
thing, why did you, Simon, deliver up circumcised men and
compel them to be condemned and put to death? " We must
let the Tubingen School have this passage for what it is worth,
only remarking that it was not on the ground of circumcision
that Paul persecuted the Church, and that it is impossible to
extract history out of these fictions. We certainly cannot
subscribe to the conjecture of Lipsius that " the story of the
seeming beheading of Simon has at its root malicious mis-
representations of the beheading of Paul." The climax of
absurdity seems to be reached when we are informed that the
story of Simon offering money to the Apostles for the gift of the
Holy Ghost arose out of Jewish-Christian scandal about Paul's
" collection for the Saints " (i Cor. xvi. i). Yet Schmiedel
follows Lipsius " in his latest treatment of the subject " in
recognizing "a Samaritan 76^5 named Simon as historical."
But the part which he played in history is thus taken away
from him. He was there, it seems, but he did not do what he is
said to have done. Only the author of Acts, wishing to obviate
the reproach against Paul of offering money to the Apostles,
attributed the like conduct to Simon.
1 Pseudo-Tertullian says of Basilides, " Martyria negat esse
facienda."
In conclusion, there are of course some grounds for the Tubin-
gen view, but they are wholly inadequate to bear the structure
that has been raised upon them. St Paul was a hard hitter,
and Jewish Christians, who still clung to James and Peter as the
only true pillars of the Church, are not likely to have cherished
any love for his memory. This is enough to account for the
hostility displayed against St Paul in the Clementines. But to
push the equation of St Paul with Simon Magus further than we
are forced to by the facts of the case is to lose sight of the real
character of the Clementines as the counterblast of Jewish to
Samaritan Gnosticism and to obscure the greatness of Simon
of Gitta, who was really the father of all heresy, a character
which has been erroneously attributed to Simon Magus.
LITERATURE. Harnack, Lehr. d. Dogmengesch., 2nd ed., 204-209,
264-270; Salmon in Diet. Chr. Biog. iv. 68 1 ; Hort, Notes Intro-
ductory to the Study of the Clem. Recog. (1902); Bigg in Stud. Bib.
(1890), 2, 157-193; Headlam in Hastings' Diet, of the Bible; P. W.
Schmiedel in Encyc. Bibl. (Si. G. S.)
SIMON, RICHARD (1638-1712), French biblical critic, was
born at Dieppe on the i3th of May 1638. His early studies were
carried on at the college of the Fathers of the Oratory in that
city. He was soon, by the kindness of a friend, enabled to
enter upon the study of theology at Paris, where he early dis-
played a taste for Hebrew and other Oriental languages. At
the end of his theological course he was sent, according to
custom, to teach philosophy at Juilly, where there was one of
the colleges of the Oratory. But he was soon recalled to Paris,
and employed in the congenial labour of preparing a catalogue
of the Oriental books in the library 1 of the Oratory. His first
publication was his Fides Ecclesiae orienlalis, seu Gabrielis
Metropolitan Philadelphiensis opuscula, cum interpretation
Latina, cum notis (Paris, 1671), the object of which was to
demonstrate that the belief of the Greek Church regarding the
Eucharist was the same as that of the Church of Rome. Simon
entered the priesthood in 1670, and the same year wrote a
pamphlet in defence of the Jews of Metz, who had been accused
of having murdered a Christian child. It was shortly before
this time that there were sown the seeds of that enmity with
the Port Royalists which filled Simon's after life with many
bitter troubles. Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694) had written a
work on the Perpetuity of the Faith, the first volume of which
treated of the Eucharist. The criticisms of Simon excited
lasting indignation among Arnauld's friends and admirers.
Another matter was the cause of inciting against him the ill-will
of the monks of the Benedictine order. In support of a friend
who was engaged in a lawsuit with the Benedictine monks of
Fecamp, Simon composed a strongly-worded memorandum.
The monks were greatly exasperated, and made loud complaints
to the new general of the Oratory. The charge of Jesuitism
was also brought against Simon, apparently on no other ground
than that his friend's brother was an eminent member of that
order. The commotion in ecclesiastical circles was great, and
Simon's removal not only from Paris but from France was
seriously considered. A mission to Rome was proposed to him,
but he saw. through the design, and, after a short delay dictated
by prudential motives, declined the proposal. He was engaged
at the time in superintending the printing of his Histoire critique
du Vieux Testament. He had hoped, through the influence of
Pe're la Chaise, the king's confessor, and the due de Montausier,
to be allowed to dedicate the work to Louis XIV., but, as the
king was absent in Flanders at the time, the volume could not
be published until he had accepted the dedication, though it had
passed the censorship of the Sorbonne, and the chancellor of the
Oratory had given his imprimatur. The printer of the book,
in order to promote the sale, had caused the titles of the various
chapters to be printed separately, and to be put in circulation.
These, or possibly a copy of the work itself, had happened to
come into the hands of the Port Royalists. It seems that, with
a view to injure the sale of the work, which it was well known
in theological circles had been long in preparation by Simon,
the Messieurs de Port Royal had undertaken a translation into
French of the Prolegomena to Walton's Polyglott. To counteract
this proceeding Simon announced his intention of publishing
SIMON, THOMAS SIMON OF ST QUENTIN
an annotated edition of the Prolegomena, and actually added
to the Critical History a translation of the last four chapters
of that work, which had formed no part of his original plan.
Simon's announcement prevented the appearance of the pro-
jected translation, but his enemies were all the more irritated.
They had now obtained the opportunity which they had long
been seeking. The freedom with which Simon expressed himself
on various topics, and especially those chapters in which he
declared that Moses could not be the author of much in the
writings attributed to him, especially aroused their opposition.
The powerful influence of Bossuet, at that time tutor to the
dauphin, was invoked; the chancellor Michael le Tellier lent
his assistance; a decree of the council of state was obtained,
and after a series of paltry intrigues the whole impression,
consisting of 1300 copies, was seized by the police and destroyed,
and the animosity of his colleagues in the Oratory rose to so
great a height against Simon that he was declared to be no
longer a member of their body. Full of bitterness and disgust,
Simon retired in 1679 to the curacy of Bolleville, to which he
had been lately appointed by the vicar-general of the abbey of
Fecamp.
The work thus confiscated in France it was proposed to
republish in Holland. Simon, however, at first opposed this,
in hopes of overcoming the opposition of Bossuet by making
certain changes in the parts objected to. The negotiations with
Bossuet lasted a considerable time, but finally failed, and the
Critical History appeared, with Simon's name on the title page,
in the year 1685, from the press of Reenier Leers in Rotterdam.
An imperfect edition had previously been published at Amster-
dam by Daniel Elzevir, based upon a MS. transcription of one
of the copies of the original work which had escaped destruction
and had been sent to England, and from which a Latin and an
English translation were afterwards made. The edition of Leers
was a reproduction of the work as first printed, with a new
preface, notes, and those other writings which had appeared for
and against the work up to that date.
The work consists of three books. The first deals with questions
of Biblical criticism, properly so called, such as the text of the
Hebrew Bible and the changes which it has undergone down to the
present day, the authorship of the Mosaic writings and of other
books of the Bible, with an exposition of Simon's peculiar theory of
the existence during the whole extent of Jewish history of recorders
or annalists of the events of each period, whose writings were pre-
served in the public archives, and the institution of which he assigns
to Moses. The second book gives an account of the principal trans-
lations, ancient and modern, of the Old Testament, and the third
contains an examination of the principal commentators. He had,
with the exception of the theory above mentioned, contributed
nothing really new on the subject of Old Testament criticism, for
previous critics as L. Cappel, Johannes Morinus (1591-1659) and
others had established many points of importance, and the value of
Simon's work consisted chiefly in bringing together and presenting
at one view the results of Old Testament criticism. The work
encountered strong opposition, and that not only from the Church
of Rome. The Protestants felt their stronghold an infallible Bible
assailed by the doubts which Simon raised against the integrity
of the Hebrew text. J. le Clerc (" Clericus ") in his work Sentimens
de quelques theologiens de Hollande, controverted the views of Simon,
and was answered by the latter in a tone of considerable asperity
in his Reponse aux Sentimens de quelques theologiens de Hollande,
over the signature " Pierre Ambrun, " it being a marked peculiarity
of Simon rarely to give his own name.
The remaining works of Simon may be briefly noticed. In 1689
appeared his Histoire critique du texte du Nouveau Testament,
consisting of thirty-three chapters, in which he discusses the origin
and character of the various books, with a consideration of the
objections brought against them by the Jews and others, the
quotations from the Old Testament in the New, the inspiration of
the New Testament (with a refutation of the opinions of Spinoza),
the Greek dialect in which they are written (against C. Salmasius),
the Greek MSS. known at the time, especially Codex D (Canta-
brigiensis), &c. This was followed in 1690 by his Histoire critique
des versions du Nouveau Testament, where he gives an account of
the various translations, both ancient and modern, and discusses
the manner in which many difficult passages of the New Testament
have been rendered in the various vefsions. In 1693 was published
what in some respects is the most valuable of all his writings, viz.
Histoire critique des principaux commentateurs du Nouveau Testament
depuis le commencement du Christianisme jusques a notre temps.
This work exhibits immense reading, and the information it contains
is still valuable to the student. The last work of Simon that we need
mention is his Nouvelles Observations sur le texte et les versions du
Nouveau Testament (Paris, 1695), which contains supplementary
observations upon the subjects of the text and translations of the
New Testament.
As a controversialist Simon displayed a bitterness which
tended only to aggravate the unpleasantness of controversy. He
was entirely a man of intellect, free from all tendency to senti-
mentality, and with a strong vein of sarcasm and satire in his
disposition. He died at Dieppe on the nth of April 171231
the age of seventy-four.
The principal authorities for the life of Simon are the life or
" eloge ' by his grand-nephew De la Martiniere in vol. i. of the
Leltres choisies (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1730); K. H. Graf's article
in the first vol. of the Beitr. zu d. theol. Wissensch., &c. (Jena, 1851) ;
E. W. E. Reuss's article, revised by E. Nestle, in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie (ed. 1906) ; Richard Simon et son Vieux Testament,
by A. Bernus (Lausanne, 1869); H. Margival, Essai sur Richard
Simon et la critique biblique au XVII' siecle (1900). For the biblio-
graphy, see, in addition to the various editions of Simon's works,
the very complete and accurate account of A. Bernus, Notice biblio-
graphique sur Richard Simon (Basel, 1882).
SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665), English medallist, was born,
according to Vertue, in Yorkshire about 1623. He studied
engraving under Nicholas Briot, and about 1635 received a post
in connexion with the Mint. In 1645 he. was appointed by the
parliament joint chief engraver along with Edward Wade, and,
having executed the great seal of the Commonwealth and dies
for the coinage, he was promoted to be chief engraver to the
mint and seals. He produced several fine portrait medals of
Cromwell, one of which is copied from a miniature by Cooper.
After the Restoration he was appointed engraver of the king's
seals. On the occasion of his contest with the brotheis Roettiers,
who were employed by the mint in 1662, Simon produced his
celebrated crown of Charles II., on the margin of which he
engraved a petition to the king. This is usually considered his
masterpiece. He is believed to have died of the plague in
London in 1665.
A volume of The Medals, Coins, Great Seals and other Works of
Thomas Simon, engraved and described by George Vertue, was published
in 1753-
SIMON BEN YOHAI ( 2 nd century A.D.), a Galilean Rabbi,
one of the most eminent disciples of Aqiba (q.v.). His mastei
was executed by Hadrian, and Simon's anti-Roman sentiments
led to his own condemnation by Varus c. 161 A.D. (according to
Graetz). He escaped this doom and dwelt for some years in a
cavern. Emerging from concealment, Simon settled in Tiberias
and in other Galilean cities. He acquired a reputation as a
worker of miracles, and on this ground was sent to Rome as an
envoy, where (legend tells) he exorcised from the emperor's
daughter a demon who had obligingly entered the lady to enable
Simon to effect his miracle. This Rabbi bore a large part in
the fixation of law, and his decisions are frequently quoted.
To him were attributed the important legal homilies called
Sifre and Mekhilta (see MIDRASH), and above all the Zohar, the
Bible of the Kabbalah (q.v.). This latter ascription is altogether
unfounded, the real author of this mystical commentary on the
Pentateuch being Moses of Leon (q.v.).
The fullest account of Simon's teachings is to be found in W.
Bacher's Agada der Tannaiten, ii. pp. 70-149. (I. A.)
SIMON OF ST QUENTIN (ft. 1247), Dominican mission-
traveller and diplomatist. He accompanied, and wrote the
history of, the Dominican embassy [under Friar Ascelin or
Anselm, which Pope Innocent IV. sent in 1247 to the Mongols
of Armenia and Persia. Simon's history, in its original form,
is lost; but large sections of it have been preserved in Vincent
of Beauvais's Speculum historiale, where nineteen chapters are
expressly said to be ex libello fratris Simonis, or entitled /rater
Simon. The embassy of Ascelin and Simon, who were ac-
companied by Andrew of Longjumeau, proceeded to the camp
of Baiju or Ra.chuNoyan (i.e. " General " Baiju, Noyan signify-
ing a commander of 10,000) at Sitiens in Armenia, lying between
the Aras river and Lake Gokcha, fifty-nine days' journey from
Acre. The papal letters were translated into Persian, and
thence into Mongol, and so presented to Baiju; but the Tatars
were greatly irritated by the haughtiness of the Dominicans,
132
SIMONIDES OF AMORGOS SIMON'S TOWN
who implied that the pope was superior even to the Great Khan,
and offered no presents, refused the customary reverences before
Baiju, declined to go on to the imperial court, and made un-
seasonable attempts to convert their hosts. The Prankish
visitors were accordingly lodged and treated with contempt:
for nine weeks (June and July 1247) all answer to their letters
was refused. Thrice Baiju even ordered their death. At last,
on the 25th of July 1247, they were dismissed with the Noyan's
reply, dated the aoth of July. This reply complained of the
high words of the Latin envoys, and commanded the pope to
come in person and submit to the Master of all the Earth (the
Mongol emperor). The mission thus ended in complete failure;
but, except for Carpini's (q.v.), it was the earliest Catholic
embassy which reached any Mongol court, and its information
must have been valuable. It performed something at least of
what should have been (but apparently was not) done by
Lawrence (Lourenfo) of Portugal, who was commissioned as
papal envoy to the Mongols of the south-west at the same time
that Carpini was accredited to those of the north (1245).
See Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, book xxxii. (some-
times quoted as xxxi.), chaps. 26-29, 3 2 > 34> 4~5 2 ' ( c f- PP- 453 A-
454 B in the Venice edition of 1591); besides these, several other
chapters of the Spec. hist, probably contain material derived from
Simon, e.g. bk. xxxi. (otherwise xxx.), chaps. 3, 4, 7, 8, 13, 32; and
bk. xxx. (otherwise xxix.), chaps. 69, 71, 74-75, 78, 80. See also
d'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols, ii. 200-201, 221-233; iii. 79 (edition
of 1852) ; Fontana, Monumenta Dominicana, p. 52 (Rome, 1675) ;
Luke Wadding, Annales Minorum, iii. 116-118; E. Bretschneider,
Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, vol. i., notes 455,
494 (London, 1888); M. A. P. d'Avezac's Introduction to Carpini,
pp. 404-405, 433-434, 464-465, of vol. iv. of the Paris Geog. Soc.'s
RecueU de Voyages, &c. (Paris, 1839); W. W. Rockhill, Rubruck,
pp. xxiv-xxv (London, Hakluyt Soc., 1900); C. R. Beazley, Dawn
of Modern Geography, ii. 277, and Carpini and Rubruquis, 269-270.
(C. R. B.)
SIMONIDES (or SEMONIDES) OF AMORGOS, Greek iambic
poet, flourished in the middle of the 7th century B.C. He was
a native of Samos, and derived his surname from having founded
a colony in the neighbouring island of Amorgos. According to
Suidas, besides two books of iambics, he wrote elegies, one of
them a poem on the early history of the Samians. The elegy
included in the fragments (85) of Simonides of Ceos is more
probably by Simonides of Amorgos. We possess about thirty
fragments of his iambic poems, written in clear and vigorous
Ionic, with much force and no little harmony of versification.
With Simonides, as with Archilochus, the iambic is still the
vehicle of bitter satire, interchanging with melancholy, but in
Simonides the satire is rather general than individual. His
" Pedigree of Women " may have been suggested by the beast
fable, as we find it in Hesiod and Archilochus, and as it recurs a
century later in Phocylides; it is clear at least that Simonides
knew the works of the former. Simonides derives the dirty
woman from a hog, the cunning from a fox, the fussy from a
dog, the apathetic from earth, the capricious from sea-water,
the stubborn from an ass, the incontinent from a weasel, the
proud from a high-bred mare, the worst and ugliest from an ape,
and the good woman from a bee. The remainder of the poem
(96-118) is undoubtedly spurious. There is much beauty and
feeling in Simonides's description of the good woman.
See Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici Graeci; separate
editions by F. T. Welcker (1835), and especially by P. Malusa (1900),
with exhaustive introduction, bibliography and commentary.
SIMONIDES OF CEOS (c. 556-469 B.C.), Greek lyric poet,
was born at lulis in the island of Ceos. During his youth he
taught poetry and music in his native island, and composed
paeans for the festivals of Apollo. Finding little scope for his
abilities at home, he went to live at Athens, at the court of
Hipparchus, the patron of literature. After the murder of
Hipparchus (514), Simonides withdrew to Thessaly, where he
enjoyed the protection and patronage of the Scopadae and
Aleuadae (two celebrated Thessalian families). An interesting
story is told of the termination of his relations with the Scopadae.
On a certain occasion he was reproached by Scopas for having
allotted too much space to the Dioscuri in an ode celebrating
the victory of his patron in a chariot-race. Scopas refused to
pay all the fee and told Simonides to apply to the Dioscuri for
the remainder. The incident took place at a banquet. Shortly
afterwards, Simonides was told that two young men wished to
speak to him; after he had left the banqueting room, the roof
fell in and crushed Scopas and his guests (Cicero, De oratore,
ii. 86). There seems no doubt that some disaster overtook the
Scopadae, which resulted in the extinction of the family. After
the battle of Marathon Simonides returned to Athens, but soon
left for Sicily at the invitation of Hiero, at whose court he spent
the rest of his life.
His reputation as a man of learning is shown by the tradition
that he introduced the distinction between the long and short
vowels (e, i\, o, co), afterwards adopted in the Ionic alphabet
which came into general use during the archonship of Eucleides
(403). He was also the inventor of a system of mnemonics
(Quintilian xi. 2, ii). So unbounded was his popularity that
he was a power even in the political world; we are told that he
reconciled Thero and Hiero on the eve of a battle between their
opposing armies. He was the intimate friend of Themistocles
and Pausanias the Spartan, and his poems on the war of libera-
tion against Persia no doubt gave a powerful impulse to the
national patriotism. For his poems he could command almost
any price: later writers, from Aristophanes onwards, accuse
him of avarice, probably not without some reason. To Hiero's
queen, who asked him whether it was better to be born rich or a
genius, he replied " Rich, for genius is ever found at the gates
of the rich." Again, when someone asked him to write a lauda-
tory poem for which he offered profuse thanks, but no money,
Simonides replied that he kept two coffers, one for thanks, the
other for money; that, when he opened them, he found the
former empty and useless, and the latter full.
Of his poetry we possess two or three short elegies (Fr. 85 seems
from its style and versification to belong to Simonides of Amorgos,
or at least not to be the work of our poet), several epigrams and
about ninety fragments of lyric poetry. The epigrams written in
the usual dialect of elegy, Ionic with an epic colouring, were in-
tended partly for public and partly for private monuments. There
is strength and sublimity in the former, with a simplicity that is
almost statuesque, and a complete mastery over the rhythm and
forms of elegiac expression. Those on the heroes of Marathon and
Thermopylae are the most celebrated. In the private epigrams
there is more warmth of colour and feeling, but few of them rest on
any better authority than that of the Palatine anthology. One
interesting and undoubtedly genuine epigram of this class is upon
Archedice, the daughter of Hippias the Peisistratid, who, " albeit
her father and husband and brother and children were all princes,
was not lifted up in soul to pride." The lyric fragments vary much
in character and length : one is from a poem on Artemisium, cele-
brating those who fell at Thermopylae, with which he gained the
victory over Aeschylus; another is an ode in honour of Scopas
(commented on in Plato, Protagoras, 339 b) ; the rest are from odes
on victors in the games, hyporchemes, dirges, hymns to the gods
and other varieties. The poem on Thermopylae is reverent and
sublime, breathing an exalted patriotism and a lofty national pride ;
the others are full of tender pathos and deep feeling, combined with
a genial worldliness. For Simonides requires no standard of lofty
unswerving rectitude. " It is hard," he says (Fr. 5), " to become a
truly good man, perfect as a square in hands and feet and mind,
fashioned without blame. Whosoever is bad, and not too wicked,
knowing justice, the benefactor of cities, is a sound man. I for one
will find no fault with him, for the race of fools is infinite. ... I
praise and love all men who do no sin willingly; but with necessity
even the gods do not contend." Virtue, he tells us elsewhere in
language that recalls Hesiod, is set on a high and difficult hill (Fr. 58) ;
let us seek after pleasure, for " all things come to one dread Charybdis,
both great virtues and wealth " (Fr. 38). Yet Simonides is far from
being a hedonist ; his morality, no less than his art, is pervaded by
that virtue for which Ceos was renowned aw<j>poavvq or self-restraint.
His most celebrated fragment is a dirge, in which Danae, adrift
with the infant Perseus on the sea in a dark and stormy night, takes
comfort from the peaceful slumber of her babe. Simonides here
illustrates his own saying that ' poetry is vocal painting, as painting
is silent poetry." Of the many English translations of this poem,
one of the best is that by J. A. Symonds in Studies on the Greek
Poets. Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici Graeci; standard
edition by F. G. Schneidewin (1835) and of the Danae alone by
H. L. Ahrens (1853). Other authorities are given in the exhaustive
treatise of E. Cesati, Simonide di Ceo (1882) ; see also W. Schroter,
De Simonidis Cei melici sermons (1906).
SIMON'S TOWN, a town and station of the British navy in
the Cape province, South Africa, in 34 15' S., 18 30' E., on the
SIMONY
shores of Simon's Bay, an inlet on the west side of False Bay.
It is 225 m. S. of Cape Town by rail and 17 m. N. of Cape Point
(the Cape of Good Hope). Apart from the naval station the
town (pop. 1904, 6642) is an educational and residential centre,
enjoying an excellent climate with a mean minimum temperature
of 57 and a mean maximum of 70 F. Owing to the influence
of the Mozambique current the temperature of the water in the
bay is 10 to 12 F. higher than that of Table Bay, hence Simon's
Town and other places along the shores of False Bay are favourite
bathing resorts. The naval establishment is the headquarters of
the East India and Cape Squadron.
In 1900 the yard covered about 13 acres, exclusive of the victualling
establishment and naval hospital, and was provided with a small
camber, slipways for torpedo-boats and small vessels, together with
various dockyard buildings, storehouses, coal stores, &c., but had
no dry dock or deep-water wharf. Under the Naval Works Loan
Act of 1899 2,500,000 was provided for the construction of ad-
ditional docks east of the original naval yard. These works were
begun in 1900 and completed in 1910. They consist of a tidal basin
28 acres in extent, with a depth of 30 ft. at low-water spring tides,
enclosed by a breakwater on the eastern and northern sides and a
similar projecting arm or pier on the west. The entrance to the
basin faces north-westerly, and is 300 ft. in width. South of the
basin is a large reclaimed area forming the site of the new dockyard.
Opening from the basin is a dry dock, 750 ft. in length on blocks,
with an entrance 95 ft. wide and having 30 ft. over the sill at low-
water spring tides. The foundation stone of the dry dock was laid
in November 1906 by the earl of Selborne, after whom it is named,
and the dock was opened in November 1910 by the duke of
Connaught.
The Selborne dock can be subdivided by an intermediate caisson
in such a manner as to form two docks, respectively 400 ft. and 320 ft.
in length, or 470 ft. and 250 ft. in length on blocks, as may be re-
quired, or the full length of 750 ft. can be made available. The
dockyard buildings include extensive shops for the chief engineer's
and chief constructor's departments, the pumping-engine house,
working sheds, &c., while ample space is reserved for additional docks
and buildings. Berthing accommodation is provided in the basin
alongside the wharf walls which surround it. The walls available
for this purpose have a total length of 2585 ft. lineal, are constructed
of interlocked concrete block work, with an available depth of water
of 30 ft. at low water, and are furnished with powerful shear-legs
and cranes for the use of vessels alongside. Extensive sheds for the
storage of coal are provided. The whole of the dockyard area
(35 acres), including the enclosing breakwater and pier, was formed
by reclamation from the sea ; and the total area of the new works,
including the tidal basin, is 63 acres.
False Bay, which corresponds on the south to Table Bay on
the north side of Table Mountain, is a spacious inlet which has
an average depth of from 15 to 20 fathoms, and is completely
sheltered on all sides except towards the south. Here a whole
fleet of the largest vessels can ride at anchor. Defensive works
protect the entrance to the bay.
Simon's r Town dates from the close of the i7th century, the
town and bay being named after Simon van der Stell, governor
of the Cape in 1670-1699. It was at Simon's Town that the
first British landing in Cape Colony was made by General Sir
James Craig in 1795- About 1810 the bay was selected as the
base for the South African squadron, Table Bay being abandoned
for that purpose in consequence of its exposed position.
SIMONY, an offence, defined below, against the law of the
church. The name is taken from Simon Magus (q.v.). In the
canon law the word bears a more extended meaning than in
English law. " Simony according to the canonists," says
Ayliffe in his Parergon, " is defined to be a deliberate act or a
premeditated will and desire of selling such things as are spiritual,
or of anything annexed unto spirituals, by giving something
of a temporal nature for the purchase thereof; or in other
terms it is defined to be a commutation of a thing spiritual or
annexed unto spirituals by giving something that is temporal."
An example of the offence occurs as early as the 3rd century
in the purchase of the bishopric of Carthage by a wealthy matron
for her servant, if the note to Gibbon (vol. ii. p. 457) is to be
believed. The offence was prohibited by many councils, both
in the East and in the West, from the 4th century onwards. In
the Corpus juris canonici the Decretum (pt. ii. cause i. quest.
3) and the Decretals (bk. v. tit. 3) deal with the subject. The
offender, whether simoniacus (one who had bought his orders)
or simoniace promotus (one who had bought his promotion),
was liable to deprivation of his benefice and deposition from
orders if a secular priest, to confinement in a stricter monastery
if a regular. No distinction seems to have been drawn between
the sale of an immediate and of a reversionary interest. The
innocent simoniace promotus was, apart from dispensation,
liable to the same penalties as though he were guilty. Certain
matters were simoniacal by the canon law which would not be so
regarded in English law, e.g. the sale of tithes, the taking of a
fee for confession, absolution, marriage or burial, the concealment
of one in mortal sin or the reconcilement of an impenitent for
the sake of gain, and the doing homage for spiritualities. So
grave was the crime of simony considered that even infamous
persons could accuse of it. English provincial and legatine
constitutions continually assailed simony. Thus one of the
heads in Lyndewode (bk. v.) is, " Ne quis ecclesiam nomine
dotalitatis transferal vel pro praesentatione aliquid accipiat."
In spite of all the provisions of the canon law it is well established
that simony was deeply rooted in the medieval church. Dante
places persons guilty of simony in the third bolgia of the eighth
circle of the Inferno:
" O Simon mago, O miseri seguaci,
Che le cose di Dio che di bontate
Deono esser spose, voi rapaci
Per oro e per argento adulterate." Inf. xix. I.
The popes themselves were 'notorious offenders. In the canto
just cited Pope Nicholas III. is made by the poet the mouth-
piece of the simoniacs. He is supposed to mistake the poet for
Boniface VIII., whose simoniacal practices, as well as those of
Clement V., are again alluded to in Par. xxx. 147. At a later
period there was an open and continuous sale of spiritual offices
by the Roman curia which contemporary writers attacked in
the spirit of Dante. A pasquinade against Alexander VI. begins
with the lines
" Vendit Alexander claves, altaria, Christum.
Emerat ille prius; vendere jure potest."
Machiavelli calls luxury, simony and cruelty the three dear
friends and handmaids of the same pope. 1 The colloquy of
Erasmus De sacerdotiis captandis bears witness to the same
state of things. And, best proof of all, numerous decisions as
to what is or is not simony are to be found in the reported
decisions of the Roman rota. 2 That part of the papal revenue
which consisted of first-fruits (primitiae or annates) and tenths
(decimae) must have been theoretically simoniacal in its origin.
In England this revenue was annexed to the crown by Henry
VIII. and restored to the church by Queen Anne (see QUEEN
ANNE'S BOUNTY).
For the purposes of English law simony is defined by Blackstone
as the corrupt presentation of any person to an ecclesiastical benefice
for money, gift or reward. The offence is one of purely ecclesiastical
cognizance, and not punishable by the criminal law. The penalty
is forfeiture by the offender of any advantage from the simoniacal
transaction, of his patronage by the patron, of his benefice by the
presentee; and now by the Benefices Act 1892, a person guilty of
simony is guilty of an offence for which he may be proceeded against
under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892. An innocent clerk is under no dis-
ability, as he might be by the canon law. Simony may be committed
in three ways in promotion to orders, in presentation to a benefice,
and in resignation of a benefice. The common law (with which the
canon law is incorporated, as far as it is not contrary to the common
or statute law or the prerogative of the crown) has been considerably
modified by statute. Where no statute applies to the case, the
doctrines of the canon law may still be of authority. Both Edward
VI. and Elizabeth promulgated advertisements against simony.
The Act of 31 Eliz. c. 6 was intended to reach the corrupt patron as
well as the corrupt clerk, the ecclesiastical censures apart from the
statute not extending to the case of a patron. _ The first part of the
act deals with the penalties for election or resignation of officers of
churches, colleges, schools, hospitals, halls and societies for reward.
The second part of the act provides that if any person or persons,
bodies politic and corporate, for any sum of money, reward, -gift,
profit or benefit, directly or indirectly, or for or by reason of any
promise, agreement, grant, bond, covenant or other assurances, of
or for any sum of money, &c., directly or indirectly present or collate
any person to any benefice with cure of souls, dignity, prebend or
living ecclesiastical, or give or bestow the same for or in respect of
1 See Roscoe, Life of Leo X., vol. i. p. 463.
z Compare the fine distinctions drawn by the casuists and attacked
by Pascal in the twelfth of the Provincial Letters.
134
SIMOOM SIMPLICI US
any such corrupt cause or consideration, every such presentation,
collation, gift and bestowing, and every admission, institution,
investiture and induction shall be void, frustrate and of none
effect in law; and it shall be lawful for the queen to present, collate
unto, or give and bestow every such benefice, dignity, prebend and
living ecclesiastical for that one time or turn only; and all and
every person or persons, bodies politic and corporate, that shall give
or take any such sum of money, &c., directly or indirectly, or that
shall take or make any such promise, &c., shall forfeit and lose the
double value of one year's profit of every such benefice, &c., and the
person so corruptly taking, procuring, seeking or accepting any
such benefice, &c., shall be adjudged a disabled person in law to have
or enjoy the same benefice, &c. Admission, institution, installation
or induction of any person to a benefice, &c., for any sum of money,
&c., renders the offender liable to the penalty already mentioned.
But in this case the presentation reverts to the patron and not to
the crown. The penalty for corrupt resigning or exchanging of a
benefice with cure of souls is that the giver as well as the taker shall
lose double the value of the sum so given or taken, half the sum to
go to the crown and half to a common informer. The penalty for
taking money, &c., to procure ordination or to give orders or licence
to preach is a fine of 40; the party so corruptly ordained forfeits
10; acceptance of any benefice within seven years after such
corrupt entering into the ministry makes such benefice merely void,
and the patron may present as on a vacancy; the penalties are
divided as in the last case. The act is cumulative only, and does
not take away or restrain any punishment prescribed by ecclesiastical
law. The Act of I Will. & M. sess. I, c. 16, guards the rights of
an innocent successor in certain cases. It enacts that after the
death of a person simoniacally presented the offence or contract of
simony shall not be alleged or pleaded to the prejudice of any other
patron innocent of simony, or of his clerk by him presented, unless
the person simoniac or simoniacally presented was convicted of such
offence at common law or in some ecclesiastical court in the lifetime
of the person simoniac or simoniacally presented. The act also
declares the validity of leases made by a simoniac or simoniacally-
presented person, if bonafide and for valuable consideration to a lessee
ignorant of the simony. By the Simony Act 1713 if any person shall
for money, reward, gift, profit or advantage, or for any promise,
agreement, grant, bond, covenant, or other assurance for any
money, &c., take, procure or accept the next avoidance of or pre-
sentation to any benefice, dignity, prebend or living ecclesiastical,
and shall be presented or collated thereupon, such presentation or
collation and every admission, institution, investiture and induction
upon the same shall be utterly void; and such agreement shall be
deemed a simoniacal contract, and the queen may present for that
one turn only; and the person so_ corruptly taking, &c., shall be
adjudged disabled to have and enjoy the same benefice, &c., and
shall be subject to any punishment limited by ecclesiastical law.
The Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840, 42, provides that no
spiritual person may sell or assign any patronage or presentation
belonging to him by virtue of any dignity or spiritual office held by
him; such sale or assignment is null and void. This selection has
been construed to take away the old archbishop's " option, " i.e.
the right to present to a benefice in a newly appointed bishop's
patronage at the option of the archbishop. By canon 40 of the
canons of 1603 an oath against simony was to be administered to
every person admitted to any spiritual or ecclesiastical function,
dignity or benefice. By the Clerical Subscription Act 1865 a de-
claration was substituted for the oath, and a new canon incorporating
the alteration was ratified by the crown in 1866. By the canon law
all resignation bonds were simoniacal, and in 1826 the House of
Lords held that all resignation bonds, general or special, were
illegal. Special bonds have since, however, been to a limited extent
sanctioned by law. The Clerical Resignation Bonds Act 1828 makes
a written promise to resign valid if made in favour of some
particular nominee or one of two nominees, subject to the
conditions that, where there are two nominees, each of them
must be either by blood or marriage an uncle, son, grandson,
brother, nephew or grand-nephew of the patron, that the writing
be deposited with the registrar of the diocese open to public
inspection, and that the resignation be followed by presentation
within six months of the person for whose benefit the bond is
made. The Benefices Act 1898 substitutes and makes obligatory
on every person about to be instituted to a benefice a simpler
and more stringent form of declaration against simony. The
declaration is to the effect that the clergyman has" not received
the presentation in consideration of any sum of money, reward, gift,
profit or benefit directly or indirectly given or promised by him
or any one for him to any one; that he has not made any promise
of resignation other than that allowed by the Clerical Resignation
Bonds Act 1828; that he has not for any money or benefit procured
the avoidance of the benefice ; and that he has not been party to any
agreement invalidated by sec. 3 sub-sec. 3 of the act which invalidates
any agreement for the exercise of a right of patronage in favour or
on the nomination of any particular person, and any agreement on
the transfer of a right of patronage (a) for the retransfer of the right,
or (b) for postponing payment of any part of the consideration for
the transfer until a vacancy or for more than three months, or (c)
for payment of interest until a vacancy or for more than three
months, or (d) for any payment in respect of the date at which a
vacancy occurs, or () for the resignation of a benefice in favour
of any person. Cases of simony have come before the courts in
which clergy of the highest rank have been implicated. In 1695,
in the case of Lucy v. The Bishop of St David s, the bishop was
deprived for simony. The queen's bench refused a prohibition
(l Lord Raymond's Rep. 447). In 1841 the dean of York was
deprived by the archbishop for simony, but in this case the queen's
bench granted a prohibition on the ground of informality in the
proceedings (In Re the Dean of York, 2 Q.B.R. i). The general result
of the law previous to the Benefices Act 1898, as gathered from the
statutes and decisions, may be exhibited as follows: (i) it was not
simony for a layman or spiritual person not purchasing for himself
to purchase, while the church was full, as advowson or next presenta-
tion, however immediate the prospect of a vacancy; (2) it was not
simony for a spiritual person to purchase for himself a life or any
greater estate in an advowson, and to present himself thereto ; (3)
it was not simony to exchange benefices under an agreement that no
payment was to be made for dilapidations on either side; (4) it
was not simony to make certain assignments of patronage under the
Church Building and New Parishes Acts (9 & 10 Viet. c. 88, 32 & 33
Viet. c. 94) ; (5) it was simony for any person to purchase the next
presentation while the church was vacant ; (6) it was simony for a
spiritual person to purchase for himself the next presentation, though
the church be full ; (7) it was simony for any person to purchase the
next presentation, or in the case of purchase of an advowson the next
presentation by the purchaser would be simoniacal if there was
any arrangement for causing a vacancy to be made ; (8) it was simony
for the purchaser of an advowson while the church was vacant to
present on the next presentation; (9) it was simony to exchange
otherwise than simpliciter-, no compensation in money might be
made to the person receiving the less valuable benefice. The law
on the subject of simony was long regarded as unsatisfactory by the
authorities of the church. In 1879 a royal commission reported on
the law and existing practice as to the sale, exchange and resignation
of benefices. Many endeavours were made in parliament to give
effect to the recommendations of the commission, but it was not until
1 898 that any important change was made in the law. The Benefices
Act of that year absolutely invalidates any transfer of a right of
patronage unless (a) it is registered in the diocesan registry, (b)
unless more than twelve months have elapsed since the last in-
stitution or admission to the benefice, and (c) unless " it transfers
the whole interest of the transferor in the right " with certain re-
servations; in other words, the act abolished the sale of next
presentations, but it expressly reserved from its operation (a) a
transmission on marriage, death or bankruptcy or otherwise by
operation of law, or (6) a transfer on the appointment of a new
trustee where no beneficial interest passes. It also substituted
another form of declaration for that required under the Clerical
Subscription Act 1865 (see above). It abolished the sale by auction
of an advowson in gross, and empowered a bishop to refuse to in-
stitute or admit a presentee to a benefice on a number of specified
grounds: among others, on the ground of possible corrupt pre-
sentation through a year not having elapsed since the last transfer
of the right of patronage, and constituted a new court to hear
appeals against a bishop's refusal to institute. This court consists
of a judge of the Supreme Court, who shall decide all questions of
law and of fact, and of the archbishop, who gives judgment.
In Scotland simony is an offence both by civil and ecclesiastical
law. The rules are generally those of the canon law. There are
few decisions of Scottish courts on the subject. By the Act of 1584,
c. 5, ministers, readers and others guilty of simony provided to
benefices were to be deprived. An Act of Assembly of 1753 declares
pactions simoniacal whereby a minister or probationer before
presentation and as a means of obtaining it bargains not to raise a
process of augmentation of stipend or demand reparation or enlarge-
ment of his manse or glebe after induction.
SIMOOM, or SAMUM, the name usually given in Algeria, Syria
and Arabia to dust and sand-laden desert winds of the sirocco
type. See SIROCCO and KHAMSIN.
SIMPLICIUS, pope from 468 to 483. During his pontificate
the Western Empire was overthrown, and Italy passed into
the hands of the barbarian king Odoacer. In the East, the
usurpation of Basiliscus (475-476), who supported the mono-
physites, gave rise to many ecclesiastical troubles, which were
a source of grave anxiety to the pope. The emperor Zeno,
who had procured the banishment of Basiliscus, endeavoured
to compound with the monophysite party; and the bishop of
Constantinople, who had previously fought on the pope's side
for the council of Chalcedon, abandoned Simplicius and sub-
scribed to the henoticon, the conciliatory document promulgated
in 482 by the emperor. Simplicius died on the 2nd of March
483, but without settling the monophysite question.
SIMPLICIUS, a native of Cilicia, a disciple of Ammonius and
of Damascius, was one of the last of the Neoplatonists. When,
SIMPLON PASS SIMPSON, T.
in A.D. 529, the school of philosophy at Athens was disendowed
and the teaching of philosophy forbidden, the scholars Damascius,
Simplicius, Priscianus and four others resolved in 531 or 532 to
seek the protection of Chosroes, king of Persia, but, though
they received a hearty welcome, they found themselves unable
to endure a continued residence amongst barbarians. Before
two years had elapsed they returned to Greece, Chosroes, in his
treaty of peace concluded with Justinian in 533, expressly
stipulating that the seven philosophers should be allowed " to
return to their own homes, and to live henceforward in the
enjoyment of liberty of conscience " (Agathias ii. 30, 31). After
his return from Persia Simplicius wrote commentaries upon
Aristotle's De coelo, Physica, De anima and Categoriae, which,
with a commentary upon the Enchiridion of Epictetus, have
survived. Simplicius is not an original thinker, but his remarks
are thoughtful and intelligent and his learning is prodigious.
To the student of Greek philosophy his commentaries are in-
valuable, as they contain many fragments of the older philo-
sophers as well as of his immediate predecessors. (See NEO-
PLATONISM.)
See J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca, ix. 529 seq., who praises very
highly Simplicius's commentary on the Enchiridion ; Ch. A. Brandis's
article in Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman Biography; E. Zeller,
D. Phil. d. Gr. III. ii. 851 seq., also Ch. A. Brandis, " Uber d.
griech. Ausleger d..Aristot. Organons, " in Abh. Berl. Akad. (1833);
C. G. Zumpt, " Cber d. Bestand d. phil. Schulen in Athen,"
ibid. (1842); Chaignet, Histoire de la psychologie des Grecs, v. 357;
Zahlfleisch, Die Polemik des S.
SIMPLON PASS, a pass over the Alps. Not known early save
as a purely local route, the Simplon Pass rose into importance
when Napoleon caused the carriage road to be built across it
between 1800 and 1807, though it suffered a new eclipse on the
opening of the Mont Cenis (1871) and St Gotthard railways (1882).
The Simplon tunnel was opened in 1006. The pass proper
starts from Brieg (Swiss canton of the Valais), which is in the
upper Rhone valley and 905 m. by rail from Lausanne, past St
Maurice and Sion. From Brieg it is about 14 m. up to the pass
(6592 ft.), close to which is the hospice (first mentioned in 1235)
in the charge of Austin Canons from the Great St Bernard. The
road descends past the Swiss village of Simplon, and passes
through the wonderful rock defile of Gondo before entering
Italy at Iselle (28 m. from Brieg). Here the road joins the
railway line through the tunnel, which is 125 m. in length, and
2313 ft. high, being thus both the longest and the lowest tunnel
through the Alps. From Iselle it is about 1 1 m. by rail to Domo
d'Ossola, whence the Toce or Tosa valley is followed to the
Lago Maggiore (23 m.). The new line runs along the W.
shore of the Lago Maggiore past Baveno, Stresa and Arona,
and so on to Milan. (W. A. B. C.)
SIMPSON, SIR JAMES YOUNG (1811-1870), Scottish
physician, was born at Bathgate, Linlithgow, Scotland, on the
7th of June 1811. His father was a baker in that town, and
James was the youngest of a family of seven. At the age of
fourteen he entered the university of Edinburgh as a student in
the arts classes. Two years later he began his medical studies.
At the age of nineteen he obtained the licence of the College of
Surgeons, and two years afterwards took the degree of doctor
of medicine. Dr John Thomson (i 765-1846) , who then occupied
the chair of pathology in the university, impressed with Simpson's
graduation thesis, " On Death from Inflammation," offered
him his assistantship. The offer was accepted, and during
the session 1837-1838 he acted as interim lecturer on pathology
during the illness of the professor. The following winter he
delivered his first course of lectures on obstetric medicine in the
extra-academical school. In February 1840 he was elected to
the professorship of medicine and midwifery in the university.
Towards the end of 1846 he was present at an operation per-
formed by Robert Liston on a patient rendered unconscious by
the inhalation of sulphuric ether. The success of the proceeding
was so marked that Simpson immediately began to use it in
midwifery practice. He continued, however, to search for other
substances having similar effects, and in March 1847 he read
a paper on chloroform to the Medico- Chirurgical Society of
Edinburgh, in which he fully detailed the history of the use of
anaesthetics from the earliest times, but especially dwelt upon
the advantages of chloroform over ether. He advocated its use,
not only for the prevention of pain in surgical operations, but
also for the relief of pain in obstetrical practice, and his un-
compromising advocacy of its use in the latter class of cases
gave rise to one of the angriest and most widespread contro-
versies of the time. In 1847 he was appointed a physician to
the queen in Scotland. In 1859 he advocated the use of acu-
pressure in place of ligatures for arresting the bleeding of
cut arteries, but of more importance were his improvements
in the methods of gynaecological diagnosis and obstetrics. His
contributions to the literature of his profession were very numer-
ous, embracing Obstetric Memoirs and Contributions (2 vols.),
Homoeopathy, Acupressure, Selected Obstetrical Works, An-
aesthesia and Hospilalism and Clinical Lectures on the Diseases
of Women. He also took an active interest in archaeology, and
two volumes of his Archaeological Essays, edited by Dr J.'Stuart,
were published at Edinburgh in 1873. Simpson, who had been
created a baronet in 1866, died in Edinburgh on the 6th of May
1870, and was accorded a public funeral; his statue in bronze
now stands in West Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.
See John Duns, Memoir of J. Y. Simpson (1873); E. B. Simpson,
Sir James Simpson (1896) ; and H. L. Gordon, Sir J. Y. Simpson and
Chloroform (1897).
SIMPSON, MATTHEW (1811-1884), American bishop of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Cadiz, Ohio, on the
2ist of June 1811. He studied medicine in 1830-1833 and
began to practise, and in 1833 was licensed as a preacher of the
Methodist Episcopal Church. He was pastor of the Liberty
Street Church of Pittsburg in 1835, and of a church at Williams-
port (now Monongahela) in 1836. In 1837 he was ordained elder
and was appointed professor of natural science in Allegheny
College, Meadville, in which Madison College had been merged
in 1833; and in 1838 he was elected professor and immediately
afterwards president of the newly established Indiana Asbury
(now De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Indiana, to which he
went in 1839; this position he held until 1848. He was editor
of the Western Christian Advocate, which he made a strong
temperance and anti-slavery organ, from 1848 to 1852. He was
elected a bishop in May 1852, and in 1857, with Dr McClintock,
visited Great Britain as a delegate to the British Wesleyan
Conference, and travelled in the Holy Land. He was an intimate
and trusted friend of President Lincoln, who considered his
advice of great value, and at whose grave in Springfield he
spoke the last words. He addressed the Garfield Memorial
Meeting at Exeter Hall, London, on the 24th of September 1881.
He died on the i8th of June 1884 in Philadelphia.
He published A Hundred Years of Methodism (1876); a Cyclopedia
of Methodism (1878); Lectures on Preashing (1879), delivered before
the Theological Department of Yale College; and a volume of his
Sermons (1885) was edited by George R. Crooks, whose Life of
Bishop Matthew Simpson (New York, 1890) should be consulted.
SIMPSON, THOMAS (1710-1761), English mathematician,
was born at Market Bosworth in Leicestershire on the 2oth of
August 1710. His father was a stuff weaver, and, intending
to bring his son up to his own business, took little care of the
boy's education. Young Simpson was so eager for knowledge
that he neglected his weaving, and in consequence of a quarrel
was forced to leave his father's house. He settled for a short
time at Nuneaton at the house of a Mrs Swinfield, whom he
afterwards married, where he met a pedlar who practised fortune-
telling. Simpson was induced to cast nativities himself, and soon
became the oracle of the neighbourhood; but he became con-
vinced of -the imposture of astrology, and he abandoned this
calling. After a residence of two or three years at Derby, where
be worked as a weaver during the day and taught pupils in the
evenings, he went to London. The number of his pupils in-
creased; his abilities became more widely known; and he was
enabled to publish by subscription his Treatise of Fluxions in
1737. This treatise abounded with errors of the press, and
contained several obscurities and defects incidental to the
author's want of experience and the disadvantages under which
136
SIMROCK SIMSON, M. E. VON
he laboured. His next publications were A Treatise on the
Nature and Laws of Chance (1740); Essays on Several Curious
and Useful Subjects in Speculative and Mixed Mathematicks
(1740); The Dsctrine of Annuities and Reversions deduced from
General and Evident Principles (1742) ; and Mathematical Disserta-
tions on a Variety of Physical and Analytical Subjects (1743).
Soon after the publication of his Essays he was chosen a member
of the Royal Academy at Stockholm; in 1743 he was appointed
professor of mathematics in the Royal Military Academy at
Woolwich; and in 1745 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal
Society of London. In 1745 he published A Treatise of Algebra,
with an appendix containing the construction of geometrical
problems, and in 1747 the Elements of Plane Geometry. The
latter book, unlike many others with the same title, is not an
edition of Euclid's Elements, but an independent treatise, and
the solutions of problems contained in it (and in the appendix
to the Algebra as well) are in general exceedingly ingenious.
In his 'Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical, with the Construction
and Application of Logarithms, which appeared in 1748, there
is a tolerably uniform use of contractions for the words sine,
tangent, &c., prefixed to the symbol of the angle. The Doctrine
and Application of Fluxions (1750) was more comprehensive
than his earlier work on the same subject and was so different
that he wished it to be considered as a new book and not as a
second edition of the former. In 1752 appeared Select Exercises
for Young Proficients in the Mathematicks, and in 1757 his
Miscellaneous Tracts on Some Curious and Very Interesting
Subjects in Mechanics, Physical Astronomy and Speculative
Mathematics, the last and perhaps the greatest of all his works.
From the year 1735 he had been a frequent contributor to the
Ladies' Diary, an annual publication partly devoted to the
solution of mathematical problems, and from 1754 till 1760
inclusive he was the editor of it. He died at Market Bosworth
on the i4th of May 1761.
See Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary
(1815).
SIMROCK, KARL JOSEPH (1802-1876), German poet and
man of letters, was born on the 28th of August 1802 at Bonn,
where his father was a music publisher. He studied law at the
universities of Bonn and Berlin, and in 1823 entered the Prussian
civil service, from which he was expelled in 1830 for writing a
poem in praise of the French July revolution. Afterwards
he was admitted as lecturer at the university of Bonn, where
in 1850 he was made a professor of Old German literature ; and
in which city he died on the i8th of July 1876. Simrock estab-
lished his reputation by his excellent modern rendering of the
Nibelungenlied (1827), and of the poems of Walther von der
Vogelweide (1833).
Among other works translated by him into modern German were
the Arme Heinrich of Hartmann von Aue (1830), the Parzival and
Titurel of Wolfram von Eschenbach (1842), the Tristan of Gottfried
of Strassburg (1855). and the Heldenbuch (1843-1849), which he
supplemented with independent poems. Before the publication of
this work he had shown an original poetical faculty in Wieland der
Schmied (1835) ; and in 1844 he issued a volume of Gedichte in which
there are many good lyrics, romances and ballads. In 1850 appeared
Lauda Sion, and in 1857 the Deutsche Sionsharfe, collections of Old
German sacred poetry. Of his republications the most popular and
the most valuable were the Deutschen Volksbucher, of which fifty-
five were printed between 1839 and 1867. His best contribution to
scholarship was his Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie (1853-1855).
At an early stage of his career Simrock took a high place among
students of Shakespeare by his Quellen des Shakespeare in Novellen,
Mdrchen und Sagen (1831); and afterwards he translated Shake-
speare's poems and a considerable number of his dramas. The large
number of editions through which Simrock's translations from the
Middle High German have passed (the Nibelungenlied more than
forty) bear witness to their popularity. An edition of his Ausgewahlle
Werke in 12 vols. has been published by G. Klee (1907).
See N. Hocker, Karl Simrock, sein Leben und seine Werke (1877);
H. Duntzer, " Erinnerungen an Karl Simrock," in Monatsschrift fur
Westdeutschland (1877), a d E. Schroder's article in Allg. deutsche
Biographie.
SIMS, GEORGE ROBERT (1847- ), English journalist
and dramatic author, was born on the 2nd of September 1847.
He was educated at Hanwell College and at Bonn, and com-
menced journalism in 1874 as successor to Tom Hood on Fun.
His first play, Crutch and Toothpick, was produced at the Royalty
Theatre in April 1879, and was followed by a number of plays
of which he was author or part-author. After long runs at west
end houses, many of these became stock pieces in suburban and
provincial theatres. His most famous melodramas were: The
Lights 'of London (Princess's theatre, September 1881), which
ran for nearly a year; In the Ranks (Adelphi, Oct. 1883), written
with H. Pettit, which ran for 457 nights; Harbour Lights (1885),
which ran for 513 nights; Two Little Vagabonds (Princess's
Theatre, 1896-1897). He was part-author with Cecil Raleigh
of the burlesque opera, Little Christopher Columbus (1893),
and among his -musical plays were Blue-eyed Susan (Prince of
Wales's, 1892) and The Dandy Fifth (Birmingham, 1898).
His early volumes of light verse were very popular, notably
The Dagonet Ballads (1882), reprinted from the Referee. How
the Poor Live (1883) and his articles on the housing of the poor
in the Daily News helped to arouse public opinion on the subject,
which was dealt with in the act of 1885.
SIMSBURY, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., traversed by the Farmington river and about 10 m.
N.W. of Hartford. Pop. (1910) 2537. Area about 38 sq. m.
The township is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
and by the Central New England railways, which meet at
Simsbury village. Among the manufactures are fuses, cigars
and paper. A tract along the Tunxus (now Farmington) river,
called Massacoe or Saco by the Indians, was ceded to whites
in 1648, and there were settlers here from Windsor as early as
1664. In 1670 the township was incorporated as Simsbury.
In 1675, during King Philip's War, Simsbury was abandoned;
and in 1676 it was burnt and pillaged by the Indians; but it
was resettled in the following year. Steel seems to have been
made here from native iron in 1727, and in 1739 the General
Court of Connecticut granted to three citizens of Simsbury a
fifteen years' monopoly of making steel in the colony. Owing
to the pine forests pitch and tar were important manufactures
in early times. From the N. of Simsbury the township of Granby
(pop. 1910, 1383) was set off in 1 786. In this part of the township
a copper mine was worked between 1705 and 1745, and smelting
and refining works were built in 1721. In 1773 the mine was
leased by the General Court and was fitted up as a public gaol
and workhouse (called Newgate Prison), the prisoners being
employed in mining. Some Tories were imprisoned here after
1780; many of them escaped in May 1781. The prison was
rebuilt in 1790 and was used until 1827. The W. of Simsbury
was set off in 1806 as Canton (pop. in 1900, 2678).
See N. A. Phelps, History of Simsbury, Granby and Canton from
1642 to 1845 (Hartford, 1845).
SIMSON, MARTIN EDUARD VON (1810-1899), German
jurist and politician, was born at Konigsberg, in Prussia, on the
loth of November 1810, of Jewish parentage. After the usual
course at the gymnasium of his native town, he entered its
university in 1826 as a student of jurisprudence, and specially
of Roman law. He continued his studies at Berlin and Bonn,
and, having graduated doctor juris, attended lectures at the
Ecole de Droit in Paris. Returning to Konigsberg in 1831 he
established himself as a Privatdozent in Roman law, becoming
two years later extraordinary, and in 1836 ordinary, professor
in that faculty at the university. Like many other distinguished
German jurists, pari passu with his professorial activity, Simson
followed the judicial branch of the legal profession, and, passing
rapidly through the subordinate stages of auscultator and
assessor, became adviser (Rath) to the Landgericht in 1846.
In this year he stood for the representation of Konigsberg in
the National Assembly at Frankfort-on-Main, and on his election
was immediately appointed secretary, and in the course of the
same year became successively its vice-president and president.
In his capacity of president he appeared, on 3rd April 1849,
in Berlin at the head of a deputation of the Frankfort parliament
to announce to King Frederick William IV. his election as
German Emperor by the representatives of the people. The
king, either apprehensive of a rupture with Austria, or fearing
detriment to the prerogatives of the Prussian crown should he
SIMSON, R. SIN
137
accept this dignity at the hands of a democracy, refused the
offer. Simson, bitterly disappointed at the outcome of his
mission, resigned his seat in the Frankfort parliament, but in the
summer of the same year was elected deputy for Konigsberg
in the popular chamber of the Prussian Landtag. Here he soon
made his mark as one of the best orators in that assembly.
A member of the short-lived Erfurt parliament of 1850, he was
again summoned to the presidential chair.
On the dissolution of the Erfurt assembly, Simson retired
from politics, and for the next few years devoted himself ex-
clusively to his academical and judicial duties. It was not until
1859 that he re-entered public life, when he was elected deputy
for Konigsberg in the lower chamber of the Prussian Landtag,
of which he was president in 1860 and 1861. In the first of
these years he attained high judicial office as president of
the court of appeal at Frankfort on the Oder. In 1867, having
been elected a member of the constituent assembly of the North
German Federation, he again occupied the presidential chair,
as he did also in the first regular Diet and the Zoll-parliament
which succeeded it. On i8th December 1870 Simson arrived at
the head of a deputation in the German headquarters at Versailles
to offer the imperial crown to the king of Prussia in the name
of the newly-elected Reichstag. The conditions under which
Prussia might justly aspire to the hegemony in Germany at last
appeared to have been accomplished, no obstacles, as in 1849,
were in the way of the acceptance of the crown by the leading
sovereign of the confederation, and on i8th January 1871 King
William of Prussia was proclaimed with all pomp German
Emperor in the Salle des Glaces at Versailles. Simson continued
as president of the Reichstag until 1874, when he retired from
the chair, and in 1877 resigned his seat in the Diet, but at Bis-
marck's urging, accepted the presidency of the supreme court of
justice (Reichsgericht), and this high office he filled with great
distinction until his final retirement from public life in 1891.
In 1888 the emperor Frederick bestowed upon Simson the order
of the Black Eagle.
His political career coincides with the era of German struggles
towards unity. As a politician he was one of the leaders of
modern Liberalism, and though always loyal when appeals were
made to patriotism, such as government demands for the army,
he remained obdurate on constitutional questions; and he
resolutely opposed the reactionary policy of the Prussian Con-
servatives. On his retirement from the presidency of the
Reichsgericht, he left Leipzig and made his home in Berlin,
where he died on the 2nd of May 1899.
His Life was written by his son, Bernard von Simson, under the
title Eduard von Simson, Erinnerungen aus seinem Leben (1900).
(P. A. A.)
SIMSON, ROBERT (1687-1768), Scottish mathematician, the
eldest son of John Simson of Kirktonhill in Ayrshire, was born
on the I4th of October 1687. He was intended for the church,
but the bent of his mind was towards mathematics, and, when a
prospect opened of his succeeding to the mathematical chair at
the university of Glasgow, he proceeded to London for further
study. After a year in London he returned to Glasgow, and in
1711 was appointed by the university to the professorship of
mathematics, an office which he retained until 1761. He died
on the ist of October 1768.
Simson's contributions to mathematical knowledge took the form
of critical editions and commentaries on the works of the ancient
geometers. The first of his published writings is a paper in the
Philosophical Transactions (1723, vol. xl. p. 330) on Euclid's
Porisms (q.v.). Then followed Sectionum conicarum libri V.
(Edinburgh, 1735), a second edition of which, with additions,
appeared in 1750. The first three books of this treatise were trans-
lated into English, and several time_s printed as The Elements of the
Conic Sections, In 1749 was published Apollonii Pergaei locorum
planorum libri II., a restoration of Apollonius's lost treatise, founded
on the lemmas given in the seventh book of Pappus's Mathematical
Collection. In 1756 appeared, both in Latin and in English, the
first edition of his Euclid's Elements. This work, which contained
only the first six and the eleventh and twelfth books, and to which
in its English version he added the Data in 1762, was for long the
standard text of Euclid in England. After his death restorations
of Apollonius's treatise De sectione determinant and of Euclid's
treatise De porismatibus were printed for private circulation in
1776 at the expense of Earl Stanhope, in a volume with the title
Roberti Simson opera quaedam reliqua. The volume contains also
dissertations on Logarithms and on the Limits of Quantities and
Ratios, and a few problems illustrative of the ancient geometrical
analysis.
See W. Trail, Life and Writings of Robert Simson (1812); C.
Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1815).
SIMSON, WILLIAM (1800-1847), Scottish portrait, landscape
and subject painter, was born at Dundee in 1800. He studied
under Andrew Wilson at the Trustees' Academy, Edinburgh,
and his early pictures landscape and marine subjects found a
ready sale. He next turned his attention to figure painting,
producing in 1829 the " Twelfth of August," which was followed
in 1830 by " Sportsmen Regaling " and a " Highland Deer-
stalker." In the latter year he was elected a member of the
Scottish Academy; and, having acquired some means by
portrait-painting, he spent three years in Italy, and on his return
in 1838 settled in London, where he exhibited his " Camaldolese
monk showing Relics," his " Cimabue and Giotto," his " Dutch
Family," and his " Columbus and his Child " at the Convent
of Santa Maria la Rabida. He died in London on the 2gth of
August 1847. Simson is greatest as a landscapist; his " Solway
Moss Sunset," exhibited in the Royal Scottish Academy of 1831
and now in the National Gallery, Edinburgh, ranks as one of the
finest examples of the early Scottish school of landscape. His
elder brother George (1791-1862), portrait-painter, was also a
member of the Royal Scottish Academy, and his younger brother
David (d. 1874) practised as a landscape-painter.
SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde,
Ger. Silnde), a general term for wickedness or a wicked act. As
psychology recognizes a distinction of pleasure and pain, and
metaphysics of good and evil, so morality assumes the difference
between right and wrong in action, good and bad in character;
but the distinction in psychology and metaphysics applies to
what is, the difference in morality is based on a judgment of
what is by what ought to be. When the act or the character does
not correspond with the standard, this want of correspondence
may in different relations be variously described. In relation to
human society, and the rules it imposes on its members, action
that ought not to be done is crime; a habit which is injurious
to a man's own moral nature, especially if it involves evil physical
consequences, is described as vice. If man is thought of as under
the authority of God, any transgression of or want of conformity
to the law of God is defined as sin. Crime is a legal, vice a moral,
and sin a religious term. Sin may be distinguished from guilt
as follows: guilt is the liability to penalty, that is, to the suffering
conceived not as the natural consequence, but as the expression
of the divine displeasure, which sin as a breach of divine law
involves. Sin is a term applied not only to actions, but also to
dispositions and motives. In the theological phrase original sin
it means the inherited tendency to do wrong.
There have been two great controversies in the Christian
Church on this question, the Augustinian-Pelagian and the
Calvinistic-Arminian, one in the sth century and the other in the
1 7th. Pelagius declared the capacity of every man to become
virtuous by his own efforts, and summoned the members of the
Church in Rome to enter on the way of perfection in monasticism.
His friend Caelestius was in 412 charged with and excom-
municated for heresy because he regarded Adam as well as all his
descendants as naturally mortal, denied the racial consequences
of Adam's fall, asserted the entire innocence of the new-born,
recognized sinless men before the coming of Christ. Pelagius him-
self desired to avoid controversy, and with mental reservations
denied these statements of his friend; but he did not escape
suspicion, and his condemnation in 418 was the signal for a
literary polemic, which lasted ten years, and in which Julian of
Eklanum was the most brilliant but reckless combatant on the
side of Pelagius. In the East the freedom of the will was so
insisted on, that one may regard Greek theology as essentially
Pelagian. In the West there was unanimity only on three points:
the necessity of baptism for the remission of sins, the inheritance
of sin as a result of Adam's fall, and the indispensableness of the
divine grace in the attainment of goodness. Pelagius insisted that
138
SIN SINAI
sin was an act, not a state, an abuse of the freedom of the will,
and that each man was responsible and liable to punishment only
for his own acts. This extreme individualism he qualified only in
two respects, he admitted a principle of imitation, the influence of
bad example, habit and customs, may be inherited and com-
municated. Divine grace is not necessary for human virtue.
It is granted only according to act, and merits as the law in
enlightening, warning or promising reward. To this Augustine
opposed the view that Adam's sin is, as its penalty, transmitted
to all his descendants, both as guilt and as weakness. The trans-
mission is not by imitation, but by propagation. The essence
and mode of operation of original sin is concupiscence, which, as of
the devil, subjects man in his natural state to the devil's dominion.
Even infants are involved in Adam's condemnation. Sin is a
necessity in each individual, and there is a total corruption of
man's nature, physically as well as morally. Into the details of
the controversy it is not necessary to go any further. While the
authority of Augustine received lip-homage, the doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church became more Pelagian, and in the
Tridentine decrees and still more in the ethics of the Jesuits, in
spite of the opposition of Jansenism, Pelagianism at last triumphed.
The Reformation restored the teaching of Augustine; in
Calvinism especially the sovereignty of the divine and the
impotence of the human will were emphasized; and against
this exaggeration Arminianism was a protest. Of the five
articles of the Remonstrance of 1610 only two now concern us:
the possibility of resisting the grace which is indispensable to
salvation, and the possibility of falling away from grace even
after 'conversion. The Arminian system was an attempt to
modify the Calvinistic theory in a moral interest, so as to main-
tain human responsibility, good and ill desert; but to this
moral interest the system sacrificed the religious interest in the
sufficiency and the sovereignty of divine grace. Its adherents
necessarily laid emphasis on human freedom. As regards
original sin they taught that the inclinations to evil inherited
from Adam are not themselves blameworthy, and only consent
to them involves real guilt. It is not just, however, to Arminian-
ism to identify it with Pelagianism, as it does strive to make
clear man's need of divine grace to overcome sin and reach holiness.
In the Evangelical Revival of the i8th century Arminianism was
represented by Wesley, and Calvinism by Whitefield.
SIN, the name of the moon-god in Babylonia and Assyria,
also known as Nannar, the " illuminer." The two chief seats
of his worship were Ur in the S., and Harran considerably to the
N., but the cult at an early period spread to other centres, and
temples to the moon-god are found in all the large cities of
Babylonia and Assyria. He is commonly designated as En-zu,
i.e. " lord of wisdom," and this attribute clings to him throughout
all periods. During the period (c. 2600-2400 B.C.) that Ur
exercised a large measure of supremacy over the Euphrates
valley, Sin was naturally regarded as the head of the pantheon.
It is to this period that we must trace such designations of the
god as " father of the gods," " chief of the gods," " creator of
all things," and the like. We are justified in supposing that the
cult of the moon-god was brought into Babylonia by the Semitic
nomads from Arabia. The moon-god is par excellence the god of
nomadic peoples, their guide and protector at night when, during
a great part of the year, they undertake their wanderings, just
as the sun-god is the chief god of an agricultural people. The
cult once introduced would tend to persevere, and the develop-
ment of astrological science culminating in a calendar and in a
system of interpretation of the movements and occurrences in
the starry heavens would be an important factor in maintaining
the position of Sin in the pantheon. The name of Sin's chief
sanctuary at Ur was E-gish-shir-gal, " house of the great light ";
that at Harran was known as E-khul-khul, " house of joys."
On seal-cylinders he is represented as an old man with flowing
beard, with the crescent as his symbol. In the astral-theological
system he is represented by the number 30, and the planet Venus
as his daughter by the number 15. The number 30 stands
obviously in connexion with the thirty days as the average extent
of his course until he stands again in conjunction with the sun.
The " wisdom " personified by the moon-god is likewi&e an
expression of the science of astrology in which the observation of
the moon's phases is so important a factor. The tendency to
centralize the powers of the universe leads to the establishment
of the doctrine of a triad consisting of Sin, Shamash and Ishtar
(q.v.), personifying the moon, sun and the earth as the life-
force. (M. JA.)
SINAI, i. The Biblical Mount Sinai. In judging of the
points of controversy connected with Sinai we are brought face
to face with the question of the historicity of the Hebrew records
involved. Though new attempts to fix the stations of the
wilderness wandering appear every year, critics have long agreed
that the number of forty for the years of wandering and for the
stations are round numbers, and that the details are not based on
historical tradition of the Mosaic age. This does not exclude the
possibility that the names of some or all of the stations belong
to real places and are based on more or less careful research on
the part of the writers who record them. As regards the Moun-
tain of the Law in particular, if the record of Exod. xix. seq. is
strictly historical, we must seek a locality where 600,000 fighting
men, or some two million souls in all, could encamp and remain
for some time, finding pasture and drink for their cattle, and
where there was a mountain (with a wilderness at its foot) rising
so sharply that its base could be fenced in, while yet it was easily
ascended, and its summit could be seen by a great multitude
below. In the valley there must have been a flowing stream.
The peninsula of Sinai does not furnish any locality where so
great a host could meet under the conditions specified, and
accordingly many investigators give up the statistics of the
number of Hebrews and seek a place that fulfils the other con-
ditions. But when we consider that the various records em-
bodied in the Pentateuch were composed long after the time of
Moses, and that the authors in all probability never saw Sinai,
and had no exact topographical tradition to fall back on, but
could picture to themselves the scene of the events they recorded
only by the aid of imagination, the topographical method of
identifying the Mountain of the Law becomes very questionable.
The Pentateuchal writers are not at one even about the name of
the mountain. It used to be thought that Horeb was the name
of the mountain mass as a whole, or of its southern part, while
Sinai was the Mountain of the Law proper, but it has been shown
by Dillmann that the Elohist and Deuteronomy always use the
name Horeb for the same mountain which the Jahvist and the
Priestly Code call Sinai. The Elohist belonged to Northern
Israel, but Judges v. 5 shows that even in Northern Israel the
other name Sinai was not unknown. And it might be shown,
though that cannot be done here, that the several accounts
vary not only as regards the name but in topographical details.
Thus all that can be taken as historically fixed is that after
leaving Goshen the Hebrews abode for some time near a
mountain called Sinai or Horeb, and that this mountain or
range was held to be holy as a seat of the Deity (Exod. ii. i;
i Kings xix.).
Where, then, was this mountain? The Midianites, of whom
according to one source Jethro was priest, probably always lived
E. of the Gulf of 'Akaba; yet we can hardly follow Beke in
seeking Sinai beyond that gulf, but must rather think of some
point in the so-called peninsula of Sinai, which lies between the
Gulfs of 'Akaba and Suez, bounded on the N. by the Wilderness
e'-TIh, which slopes gently towards the Mediterranean. To the
south of this wilderness rises the Jebel el-Tlh, a mass composed
mainly of Nubian sandstone and cretaceous limestone, which
attains in fantastic forms an altitude of some 3000 ft.; its ridges
converge towards the S. and are cut off by great valleys from
the mass now known as Mount Sinai. The latter is composed
of primitive rocks granite, porphyry, diorite, gneiss, &c. The
sandstones of Jebel el-Tih are rich in minerals; inscriptions of
Amenophis III. and Thothmes III. found on the spot show that
the ancient Egyptians got turquoise at Serablt al-Khadem;
and at Maghara, where inscriptions occur bearing the names of
kings from Semerkhet and Khufu down to Rameses II. These
mines were worked by criminals and prisoners of war, and the
SINAI
139
waste products of copper foundries indicate that the peninsula
was once better wooded than now, of which indeed we have
express testimony of post- Christian date. At present the
dominant feature is bare walls of rock, especially in the primitive
formations; the steep and jagged summits have a striking effect,
which is increased by the various colours of the rock and the
clearness of the atmosphere. The deep-cut valleys are filled by
rushing torrents after rain, but soon dry up again. In the S.
the centre of the main mountain mass is Mount Catherine (8540
ft.), Omm Shomar to the S.E. being little lower; this peak and
N. of it Mount Serbal (6750 ft.), which rises more immediately
from the plain, dominate the Ka'ah, a waste expanse of sand
strewn with pebbles, which occupies the S.W. margin of the
peninsula.. In the Ka'ah is the village of Tur, and at the S.
promontory (Ras Mohammed) is the little hamlet of Sherm.
The Sinai group as a whole is called by the Arabs Jebel al-Tur;
the name Sina in Arabic comes only from books. The area of
the peninsula is about 11,200 sq. m.; the population is four to
five thousand souls, chiefly Bedouins of various tribes, whose
common name, derived from Tur, is Towara. They have sheep
and goats, with which they retire in summer to the higher lands,
where there is good pasture ground, and where springs are
comparatively common. On the chalk and sandstone water is
scarcer than among the primitive rocks, and often brackish.
Though the rocks are bare, there is always vegetation in the
dales, especially acacias and tamarisks; from the latter (T.
mannifera) manna is still derived in quantities that vary with the
rainfall. On the hills grow aromatic plants, especially Thymaceae.
The fauna includes the ibex, hyrax and hyaena; the panther
too is sometimes found. Flights of quail have been observed.
In some valleys there are well-kept gardens and good date-palms;
the most noted oasis is that of Feiran, in the N.W. of the peninsula,
which is watered by a perennial stream. Whether Feiran is the
Rephidim of Exod. xvii. is a question which, like the identifica-
tion of the other stations of the Israeh'tes, depends on the localiza-
tion of the Mountain of the Law.
There is no genuine pre-Christian tradition on this subject.
The chief authority for the ancient sanctity of Mount Sinai is
Antoninus Martyr (end of the 6th century), who tells that the
heathen Arabs in his time still celebrated a moon feast there.
As sin means " moon," this feast has been connected with the
name of Sinai, but the proposed etymology is not certain. Of
heathen origin, too, are the many Nabataean inscriptions of
Sinai, found especially in the Wady Mokatteb (in the N.W.),
and sometimes accompanied by rude drawings. The language
and character are Aramaic, but the proper names are mainly
those of Arabs, who passing by graved their names on the rocks.
That they were pilgrims to Sinai cannot be made out with
certainty. The inscriptions date from the early years of the
Christian era, when the Nabataean kingdom was at its height.
In early Christian times many anchorites inhabited Sinai,
living for the most part in the caves, which are numerous even
in the primitive rocks. Then monasteries were built, the most
famous being the great one of St Catherine in Wady el-Der (the
valley of the monastery). On Serbal, too, there were many
granite dwellings, and in the neighbouring Pharan (Phoenicion) ,
which was a bishop's see, there were, as the ruins show, churches
and convents.
The question then is whether when the hermits first settled in
the peninsula there existed a tradition as to the place of the
Mountain of the Law, and whether they chose for their residence
a spot which was already traditionally consecrated by memories
significant to the Christian as well as to the Jew. No assertion
of the existence of such a tradition is to be found in Josephus,
who only says that Sinai was the highest mountain of the district
a description which might apply to Serbal as seen from the
plain below. Eusebius uses expressions which may also seem
to point to Serbal as the place of the law-giving, and it must be
admitted that the tradition which seeks the holy site in the
group of Jebel Musa (i.e. the mass of which Mount Catherine is
the highest peak) is not older than the time of Justinian, so that
the identification with Mount Serbal seems to have greater
antiquity in its favour. In later times Jebel Musa and Serbal
had each its own tradition, and the holy places were pointed out
at each; thus from the monastery of St Catherine a path of
granite steps was constructed up to " the Mountain of the Law,"
but similar steps are found at Serbal. That these traditions are
not decisive, however, is admitted, more or less, even by those
moderns who, like Lepsius, Ebers, Bartlett, give their voice for
Serbal. Most authorities still prefer Jebel Musa or some point
in that group, but they again differ in details. First of all there
is much difficulty in determining the route by which the Hebrews
approached the mountain. Then comes the question of finding
a suitable plain for their encampment under the mountain, which
is best met if, with Robinson, Stanley, Palmer and others, the
plain is taken to be that of al-Rahe and the overhanging moun-
tain to be Jebel Sufsafeh. The latter is over 6300 ft. high, and
consists of pasture ground; it does not fit all the details in
Exodus, but this objection is quite as strong against the tradi-
tional site on Jebel Musa (Mount Moses), which lies farther S.
Jebel Musa has been accepted by Tischendorf, Laborde, Ritter,
Strauss, Farrar, and many others; on this view the Israelites
must have encamped in the narrow Wady al-Seya'Iyeh, N. of the
mount. But the absence of exact topographical detail on the
part of the Biblical narrators, who always speak of Sinai as if
it were a single summit and give no hint about several summits
of which it is one, shows that in their time there was no real
tradition on the matter, and that all attempts at identification
are necessarily vain.
LITERATURE. Burckhardt, Travels in Syria, &c. (London, 1822);
Leon de Laborde, Voyage de I' Arabic Petree (Paris, 1830-1836);
Robinson, Biblital Researches (London, 1841); Lepsius, Reise
(Berlin, 1845); Stanley, Sinai and Palestine; Fraas, Aus d. Orient
(Stuttgart, 1867); Ordnance Survey of the Pen. of Sinai (South-
ampton, 1869, 3 vols.) ; Palmer, Desert of the Exodus (Cambridge,
1871); Ebers, Durch Gosen zum Sinai (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1881);
Baker Greene, The Hebrew Migration (London, 1883); Hull, Mount
Seir, Sinai and West Palestine (London, 1885). See also the Palestine
Society's Quarterly Statement, passim. (A. So.)
2. The Peninsula: Recent Research. The peninsula of Sinai
is about 230 m. in extreme length and 150 m. wide, or nearly
the size of Ireland. It is practically waterless and barren, the
population being not a thousandth of that on an equal area in
England. The S. part is a high mass of schists and granite,
deeply cut into valleys; it is overlaid by carboniferous sandstone,
and limestone, capped with tertiary basalt, flows in the mining
region. The N. part is an expanse of cretaceous limestone
and nummulitic tertiary limestone, sloping down to the Mediter-
ranean. The steep valley of the Gulf of Suez has been greatly
deepened if not formed since the tertiary limestone was
deposited, the beds dipping down sharply to the sea. The only
water supply of any importance is that in the Wady Feiran;
elsewhere only small water-holes preserve enough for a few
persons, but fresh water can be obtained along the shore route
by digging.
The difficulty about the numbers of the Israelites who lived
here has lately been treated on a fresh basis. That they were not
more numerous than the previous inhabitants is shown by the
difficulty in conquering the Amalekites at Rephidim. In the
census lists of the Book of Numbers the hundreds of people
in each tribe are in most cases 4 or 500; 2, 3, 6 or 700 are rare;
o, i, 8 or 900 do not occur. The hundreds are therefore inde-
pendent of the thousands prefixed to them: and as aldf means
both a " thousand " and a " family," it is proposed that the
original census was in numbers of tents or families, and hundreds
of people; and that later the family numbers were mistaken
for thousands. Other points agree in this view, such as the
number of persons in a family, the similarity of hundreds in the
census before and that after the wanderings, and the actual
size of Goshen, from which they came, and the population of
Sinai where they settled. Thus the total numbers were 5730
people. The internal evidence that the census lists are original
documents is very strong, though they have been misunderstood
by later compilers. It is impossible to suppose a population
trained in Egypt not having the ability to keep some tribal
140
SINAIA SINAN PASHA
records of numbers and movements such as were the basis of the
existing re-edited narrative.
The history of the Egyptian settlements has been investigated.
They began in the 1st Dynasty, shown by the tablet of the con-
quest by King Semerkhet (5 280 B.C.) above the mines of turquoise
at Wady Maghara. Seneferu (4750 B.C.) was already working
at Serabit for turquoise. Other kings who left records here are
Sanekht (Illrd Dynasty), Khufu (IVth), Sahura, Ranuser,
Menkauhor (Vth), Amenemhat I., Senusert I., Senusert II.,
SenusertllL, AmenemhatlL, Amenemhat III., Amenemhat IV.
(Xllth), Aahmes I., Amenhotep I., Tahutmes I., Hatshepsut,
Tahutmes III., Tahutmes IV., Amenhotep III. (XVIIIth),
Rameses I., Sety I., Rameses II., Merenptah, Sety II., Tausert,
Setnekht (XlXth), Rameses III., IV., V. and VI. (XXth). The
monuments are mostly inscriptions recording the mining expedi-
tions and offerings made to the goddess of turquoise. The original
shrine of the goddess was a cave; this was hewn out and buildings
were gradually added before it to a length of 230 ft. The records
show that no fewer than twenty-five different grades of officials
took part in the work of mining, which was highly organized
as regards direction, technical ability, labour and transport,
often as many as 700 men being employed. Over 400 objects
with kings' names have been found in the fragments of the
offerings which were left in the shrine. The worship at Serabit
was that of Hathor, mistress of turquoise. She is identical
with Athtar or Ishtar, the Semitic goddess of Arabia. The
features of the worship were entirely Semitic and not Egyptian.
An enormous mass of burnt -offerings is shown by the bed of
ashes before the sacred cave; tanks for ablutions are found in
the temple courts, altars of incense are in the shrine itself, and
also conical stones; and chambers or shelters for dreaming
before the temple are a main feature. All of these belong to
Semitic worship, and they show that before Mosaism the elements
of the worship were the same as are found in later times.
For all the recent research see W. M. Flinders Petrie, Researches in
Sinai (1906). (W. M. F. P.)
SINAIA, a town of Rumania, about 12 m. S. of the Hungarian
frontier at Predeal, on the railway from Ploesci to Kronstadt
in Transylvania. Pop. (1000), 2210. Sinaia resembles a large
model village, widely scattered among the pine forests of the
lower Carpathians, and along the banks of the Prahova, a swift
alpine stream. The monastery of Sinaia, founded by Prince
Michael Cantacuzino in 1695, was the residence of the royal
family until the present chateau was built. It consists of two
courts surrounded by low buildings. In the centre of each court
is a small church built in the Byzantine style. The monks
possess a library, in which are kept valuable jewels belonging
to the Cantacuzene family. Castle Peles or Pelesh, the modern
palace, named after the hill on which it stands, is of a mixed
style of architecture. The interior is fitted with magnificent
wood carvings and stained glass windows illustrating the principal
scenes of " Carmen Sylva's " writings. Until 1850 Sinaia con-
sisted of little more than the monastery and a group of huts.
In 1864, however, the monastic estate was assigned to the
Board of Civil Hospitals, by which a hospital and baths were
opened and the mineral springs developed. Sinaia soon became
the favourite summer resort of Bucharest society, and rapidly
developed in all its equipment.
SINALOA, a N. state of Mexico, bounded N. by Sonora and
Chihuahua, E. by Durango, S. by Tepic, and W. by the Gulf of
California, with a coast line of nearly 400 m. Area, 33,671 sq. m.
Pop. (1900), 296,701, largely Indians. The surface consists
of a narrow coastal zone where tropical conditions prevail, a
broad belt of mountainous country covered by the ranges of the
Sierra Madre Occidental and their intervening valleys where
oak and pine forests are to be found, and an intervening zone
among the foothills of the Sierra Madre up to an elevation of
2000 ft., where the conditions are subtropical. The state is
traversed by numerous streams, the largest of which have broad
valleys among the foothills. The largest of these are the Culiacan ,
Fuerte and Sinaloa, the last two having short navigable courses
across the lowlands.
Rain is plentiful everywhere, except in the extreme north, where
the conditions are arid. The climate of the low-lying coast lands is
hot and malarious, but in the mountains it is. cool and healthy.
Cereals and mezcal are produced on the uplands, and sugar, rum,
coffee, tobacco, grape spirits and fruit in the lower zones. There
are excellent cotton lands in the state and the production of this
staple was largely developed during the American Civil War, but
it has since declined. Grazing receives considerable attention in
the uplands, where the temperature is favourable and the pasture-
age good, and hides are largely exported. Mining, however, is the
chief industry, Sinaloa being one of the richest mineral-producing
states in the republic. Gold, silver, copper, iron and lead are found.
There are also salt deposits and mineral springs. The best-known
silver mines are the Rosario, from which about $90,000,000 had
been extracted up to the last decade of the igth century, and the
Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de los Reyes, discovered early in the
igth century and yielding over $85,000,000 before its close. The
forest products of the state include rubber, resins, cabinet and dye-
woods, deerskins, orchilla and ixtle fibre. Up to the beginning of
the 2Oth century Sinaloa had only one short railway, which con-
nected Culiacan with its port Altata. Since then the Mexican
branch of the (American) Southern Pacific railway from Nogales to
Guaymas has been extended S.E. along the coast. Sinaloa has
excellent natural harbours, only two of which Mazatlan and
Altata are much used. The bays of Agiobampo and Topolobampo
are prospective railway terminals with fine harbours. The capital
of the state is Culiacan Resales (commonly called Culiacan), on the
Culiacan river 39 m. from its port, Altata, at the mouth of the same
river, with which it is connected by rail. It is a well-built town,
with some thriving manufactures, including cotton goods, cigarettes,
liqueurs, &c. It is the see of a bishop and has a fine cathedral.
Culiacan (pop. in 1900, 10,380) is the distributing centre for a large
district between Guaymas and Mazatlan. The most important
town] is Mazatlan, one of the leading ports of Mexico on the Pacific
coast, and the commercial centre for S. Sinaloa and N. Durango.
Other towns are Mocorito (pop. 9971 in 1895), Sinaloa and Fuerte,
all in the N. of the state, Rosario (pop. 8448 in 1900), and San
Ignacio in the S.
SINAN PASHA (1515-1596), Turkish soldier and statesman,
was an Albanian of low origin. In 1 569 he was appointed governor
of Egypt and was occupied until 1571 in the conquest of Yemen.
In 1574 he commanded the great expedition against Tunis,
which, in spite of the brave defence by the Spanish and Italian
garrison, was added to the Ottoman empire. In 1580 Sinan
commanded the army against Persia and was appointed grand
vizier, but was disgraced and exiled in the following year, owing
to the rout of his lieutenant Mahommed Pasha, at Gori, in an
attempt to provision the Turkish garrison of Tiflis. He subse-
quently became governor of Damascus and, in 1589, after the
great revolt of the Janissaries, was appointed grand vizier
for the second time. Another revolt of Janissaries led to his
dismissal in 1591, but in 1593 he was again recalled to become
grand vizier for the third time, and in the same year he commanded
the Turkish army against Hungary. In spite of his victories
he was again deposed inFebruary 1595, shortly after the accession
of Mahommed III., and banished to Malghara; but in August
was in power again and on the march to Wallachia. The unhappy
course of this campaign, culminating in the fall of Gran, brought
him once more into disfavour, and he was deprived of the seal
of office (November 19). The death of his successor, Lala
Mahommed, three days later, was looked on as a sign from
heaven, and Sinan became grand vizier for the fifth time. He
died suddenly on the 3rd of April 1596.
Bold, overbearing and unscrupulous, Sinan recoiled from no
baseness to put a rival out of the way; while his insolence
was not confined to foreign ambassadors, but was exercised
towards his opponents in the sultan's presence. He had a
barbarous hatred not only for Christians but for all civiliza-
tion. The immense fortune which he left is a proof of his
rapacity.
Another Sinan Pasha was governor of Anatolia at the time of
Mahommed II. 's death in 1481. He was a brother-in-law of Bayezid
II. and defeated Prince Jem's troops at Brusa. In Selim I.'s reign
he served with great distinction in the Persian and Egyptian cam-
paigns and fell at the battle of Ridania, where the Mamelukes were
defeated, in 1517.
A third Sinan Pasha, brother of the grand vizier Rustem Pasha,
was grand admiral under Suleiman I. and died about 1553.
See J. v. Hammer-Purgstall, Gesch. des Osmanischen Retches
(2nd ed., Pesth, 1840), and authorities there cited.
SINCLAIR SINCLAIR, SIR JOHN
141
SINCLAIR, the name of an old Scottish family, members of
which have held the titles of earl of Orkney and earl of Caithness.
The word is a variant of Saint Clair.
SIR WILLIAM SINCLAIR, or SAINT CLAIR (c. 1260-0. 1303), was
the descendant of a line of Anglo-Norman barons, one of whom
obtained the barony of Rosslyn from King David I. in the I2th
century. Sir William took part in the dispute over the succession
to the crown of Scotland in 1292, and was one of the leaders of the
Scots in their revolt against Edward I. One of his sons was
William Sinclair (d. 1337), bishop of Dunkeld, who was responsible
for the defeat of an English force at Donibristle in Fife in 1317.
Sir William's eldest son was Sir Henry Sinclair (d. 1330), the
friend of Robert the Bruce; and Sir Henry's son was Sir William
Sinclair, who was slain by the Saracens in August 1330, while
journeying through Spain to Palestine with Sir James Douglas,
the bearer of the heart of Bruce. This Sir William Sinclair
married Isabel, daughter of Malise, earl of Strathearn, Caithness
and Orkney (d. c. 1350), and their son Sir Henry Sinclair (d. c.
1400) obtained the earldom of Orkney by a judgment of the
Norwegian king Haakon VI. in 13 79. He then helped to conquer
the Faeroe Islands, and took into his service the Venetian
travellers, Niccolo and Antonio Zeno, sailing with Antonio to
Greenland. This prince of Orkney, as he is sometimes called, was
succeeded by his son Henry (d. 1418), who was admiral of Scotland,
and then by his grandson William (c. 1404-1480), the founder of
the beautiful chapel at Rosslyn.
WILLIAM, the 3rd earl of his line, whose earldom of Orkney
was a Norwegian dignity, was made chancellor of Scotland in 1454
and Lord Sinclair and earl of Caithness in 1455. He tcok some
part in public affairs in Scotland, and when in 1470 the Orkney
Islands were ceded by Norway to King James III. he resigned
all his rights therein to his sovereign and was known merely as
earl of Caithness. His eldest son, William, having offended his
father by his wasteful habits, the earl settled his earldom on his
eldest son by another marriage, also called William, who was
killed at Flodden in 1513. The elder William, however, in-
herited the title of Lord Sinclair, and the family was thus split
into two main branches. John, the 3rd earl, was killed in 1529
while attempting to seize the Orkney Islands.
GEORGE, 4th earl of Caithness (c. 1525-1582), a son of the 3rd
earl, was a Roman Catholic and a supporter of Mary Queen of
Scots, but he was mainly occupied with acts of violence in the
north of Scotland. His grandson George, the sth earl (c. 1566-
1643), was outlawed and compelled to fly to the Shetlands. He
left many debts, and his great-grandson and successor, George,
the 6th earl (d. 1676), who was childless, arranged that his
estates should pass to a creditor, Sir John Campbell, afterwards
earl of Breadalbane. Campbell was created earl of Caithness in
1677, but the title was also claimed by George Sinclair (d. 1698),
a grandson of the sth earl, and in 1681 the privy council decided
in his favour. When Alexander, the 9th earl, died in 1765 the
title was successfully claimed by William Sinclair (d. 1770), a
descendant of the 4th earl, who became the loth earl. James,
the izth earl (1766-1823), was descended from another branch of
the 4th earl's family, and his grandson James, the i4th earl
(1821-1881), was a representative peer for Scotland from 1858
to 1868, and was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron
Barrogill in 1866. He was interested in scientific matters,
and published Lectures on Popular and Scientific Subjects
(1877).
The title of Lord Sinclair passed from William, the 2nd lord, who
died about 1488, to John (1610-1676), who became the gth lord
in 1615. At first a covenanter, afterwards he became a royalist,
and was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester. He died with-
out male issue and the title became dormant. His estates, how-
ever, passed to his grandson, Henry St Clair (1660-1723), the
son of his daughter Catherine (d. 1666) and her husband, John
St Clair of Herdmanston, and in 1677 Henry was created Lord
Sinclair with the precedence of the older title. He had two sons,
John Sinclair (1683-1750) the Jacobite, and James Sinclair, who
became a general in the British army, and was also ambassador
at Vienna and Turin and a member of parliament for many
years After the attainder of John, in consequence of his share in
the rising of 1715, the family estates were settled on James, but
he resigned them to his elder brother when the latter was pardoned
in 1726. The pardon, however, did not include the restoration of
the title. Earlier in life John Sinclair had killed a man named
Shaw in a duel and had afterwards shot this man's brother.
He was tried by court-martial and sentenced to death, but was
pardoned. An account of the proceedings in the court-martial
was edited by Sir Walter Scott for the Roxburghe Club (Edin-
burgh, 1828). Sinclair himself wrote Memoirs of the Rebellion,
published by the Roxburghe Club in 1858.
Neither of the brothers left male issue, and the title devolved
upon a cousin, Charles St Clair (d. 1775), who was not included in
the attainder. Charles did not claim it, but in 1782 his grandson
Charles (1768-1863) was declared to be Lord Sinclair. He was a
Scottish representative peer from 1807 to 1859 and is the ancestor
of the present holder of the title.
Three brothers were also noted Sinclairs: Oliver, the friend of
James V. and^the leader of the Scots at the rout of Sol way Moss;
Henry (1508-1565), bishop of Ross and president of the court
of session, who made some additions to Hector Boece's Chronicles
of Scotland; and John (d. 1566), bishop of Brechin.
See Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland, new ed. by Sir J. B.
Paul; G. E. (Cokayne), Complete Peerage; Sinclair, The Sinclairs
of England (1887); Sir R. Gordon and G. Gordon, The Earldom of
Sutherland (Edinburgh, 1813), and Hay, Genealogy of the Sinclairs
ofRoslin (1835).
SINCLAIR, SIR JOHN, BART. (1754-1835), Scottish writer
on finance and agriculture, was the eldest son of George Sinclair
of Ulbster, a member of the family of the earls of Caithness,
and was born at Thurso Castle on the loth of May 1754. After
studying at Edinburgh, Glasgow and Trinity College, Oxford,
he was admitted to the faculty of advocates in Scotland, and
called to the English bar, but never practised. In 1780 he was
returned to parliament for Caithness, and subsequently repre-
sented several Engh'sh constituencies, his parliamentary career
extending, with few interruptions, until 1811. He established
at Edinburgh a society for the improvement of British wool,
and was mainly instrumental in the creation of the Board of
Agriculture, of which he was the first president. His reputation
as a financier and economist had been established by the publica-
tion, in 1784, of his History of the Public Revenue of the British
Empire; in 1793 widespread ruin was prevented by the adoption
of his plan for the issue of exchequer bills; and it was on his
advice that, in 1797, Pitt issued the " loyalty loan " of eighteen
millions for the prosecution of the war. His services to scientific
agriculture were no less conspicuous. He supervised the com-
pilation of the valuable Statistical Account of Scotland (21 vols.,
1791-1799), and also that of the General Report of Scotland, issued
by the Board of Agriculture; and frofh the reports compiled by
this society he published in 1 8 1 9 his Code of A griculture. He was a
member of most of the continental agricultural societies, a fellow
of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, as well as of the
Antiquarian Society of London, and president of the Highland
Society in London. Originally a thorough supporter of Pitt's
war policy, he later on joined the party of " armed neutrality."
In 1805 he was appointed by Pitt a commissioner for the con-
struction of roads and bridges in the N. of Scotland, in 1810 he
was made a member of the privy council and, next year, received
the lucrative sinecure office of commissioner of excise. He died
on the 2ist of December 1835.
Sir John Sinclair, who was created a baronet in 1780, was twice
married, first to a daughter of Alexander Maitland, by whom
he had two daughters, and secondly to Diana, daughter of the
first lord Macdonald, by whom he had thirteen children. His
eldest son, Sir George Sinclair (1790-1868) was a writer and a
member of parliament, representing Caithness at intervals from
1811 till 1841. His son, Sir John George Tollemache Sinclair, the
3rd baronet, was member for the same constituency from 1869 to
1885. The first baronet's third son, John (1797-1875), became
archdeacon of Middlesex; the fifth son, William (1804-1878),
was prebendary of Chichester and was the father of William
Macdonald Sinclair (b. 1850), who ia 1889 became archdeacon of
SIND
London; the fourth daughter, Catherine (1800-1864), at one
time enjoyed some vogue as an author.
See Correspondence of the Right Hon. Sir John Sinclair, Bart., with
Reminiscences of Distinguished Characters (2 vols., London, 1831);
and Memoirs of the Life and Works of the Right Hon. Sir John Sinclair
(2 vols., Edinburgh, 1837).
SIND, a former province of India, now a division of the Bombay
presidency. It is the most northerly portion of the presidency,
lying between 23 35' and 28 29' N. and between 66 40' and
71 10' E., having an area of 53,116 sq. m. and a population
(1901) of 3,410,223. It includes the six districts of Karachi,
Hyderabad, Thar and Parkar, Larkhana, Sukkur and Upper
Sind Frontier, together with the native state of Khairpur. It
differs widely in physical features and climate, no less than in the
language, dress and customs of the people, from the rest of the
presidency, from which it is cut off by the deserts or the sea.
It is bounded on the N. by Baluchistan and the Punjab; on the
E. by the desert tracts of W. Rajputana; on the S. by the Runn
of Cutch and the Indian Ocean; and on the W. by Baluchistan.
Physical features. Sind proper, or the central alluvial plain
watered by the Indus, lies between the Kohistan or hilly country
that rises to the Kirthar range on the Baluchistan border,
and the Registan or Thar desert that stretches E. into
Rajputana. The Kohistan in years of good rainfall yields
abundant fodder for cattle and camels, and supports a scanty
tillage on the banks of the hill streams or nais, one of which,
named the Hab, forms the boundary between Sind and Baluch-
istan. Central Sind lies on both banks of the Indus, which
flows S. in a bed that has been raised by the deposit of silt above
the surrounding country. Except where its bed is confined by
rocks, as at Sukkur, Rohri and along the edge of the Kohistan
from Lakhi to Jhirak, the river constantly changes its course,
especially in the delta, the head of which is now opposite Shah-
bandar. Central Sind depends on the yearly inundation of the
Indus, which begins to rise in March and reaches its highest
point about the middle of August. The water is distributed by a
very ancient system of canals, which has been greatly improved
and extended since the British conquest. The soil is a plastic
clay desposited by the river.
The great geographical feature in Sind is the lower Indus,
which passes through the entire length of the country, first in a
S.W. direction, then turning somewhat to the E., then returning
to a line more directly S., and finally inclining to the W., to seek
an outlet at the sea. The distant line of mountains between
Sukkur and Sehwan, the steep pass overhanging the water at
Lakhi, and the hill country below Sehwan give a distinctive
character to the right bank. Sind has been aptly likened to
Egypt. If the one depends for life and fertility on the Nile,
so does the other on the Indus. The cities and towns are not
so readily to be compared. Hyderabad, notwithstanding its
remarkable fortress and handsome tombs, can scarcely vie in
interest as a native capital with Cairo; nor can Karachi, as
a Europeanized capital, be said to have attained the celebrity
of Alexandria. The province contains many monuments of
archaeological and architectural interest.
Owing to the deficiency of rain, the continuance of hot weather
in Sind is exceptional. Lying between two monsoons, it just escapes
the influence of both. The S.W. monsoon stops short at Lakhpat
in Cutch, the N.W. monsoon at Karachi, and even here the annual
rainfall is not reckoned at more than 6 or 8 in. At times there is no
rain for two or three years, while at others there is a whole season's
rainfall in one or two days. The average temperature of the summer
months rises to 95 F., and the winter average is 60, the summer
maximum being 120 and the winter minimum 28. The temperature
on the sea-coast is much more equable than elsewhere. In northern
Sind we find frost in winter, while both here and in Lower Sind the
summer heat is extreme and prolonged. This great heat, combined
with the poisonous exhalations from the pools left after the annual
inundation and the decaying vegetable deposits, produces fever
and ague, to which even the natives fall a prey.
Agriculture. The salt of the delta is the only mineral product of
commercial importance. Timber and fuel are supplied chiefly by
the babul (Acacia arabica), bahan (Populus euphratica), kandi (Pro-
sopis spicigera) and iron wood (Tocoma undulata), and fruit by the
date, mango and pomegranate. The chief rabt or spring crops,
sown from August to October and reaped from February to April,
are wheat, barley, gram, oilseeds and vegetables. The chief winter
or kharif crops, sown from May to July and reaped from October
to December, are the millets (bajri and juar), rice, urad (Phaseolus
radiatus), mung (Phaseolus mungo), cotton and indigo. Efforts are
being made to introduce the long-stapled Egyptian cotton. Agri-
culture is almost entirely dependent upon irrigation from the Indus.
Manufactures. Among the chief manufactures may be mentioned
gold, silver, and silk embroideries, carpets, cloths, lacquered ware,
horse-trappings and other leather-work, paper, pottery, tiles,
swords and matchlocks, and the boxes and other articles of inlaid
work introduced from Shiraz. Lac work, a widely extended industry
in India, is also in vogue in Sind. Variously coloured lac is laid in
succession on the boxes while turning on the lathe, and the design
is then cut through the different colours. Hyderabad was long
famous for its silks and cottons, silver and gold work and lacquered
ornaments, and the district could once boast of skilled workmen in
arms and armour; but these old industries are now on the decline.
In the cloths called sudi, silk is woven with the striped cotton a
practice possibly due to the large Mahommedan population of the
country, as no Moslem may wear a garment of pure silk. Chundari,
or knotting, is another method of decorating cotton and silk goods.
The extension of cotton cultivation in Sind has caused a brisk de-
velopment in ginning factories of recent years. The Sind cotton-
printers are the most skilful and tasteful in the Bombay presidency.
Cotton carpets, rugs, horse-cloths, towels and napkins are manu-
factured at the gaols. Woollen saddle-cloths, blankets and felts
are also made. Sind produces the best pottery of India. The art
was introduced or developed by the Mahommedans, whose rulers
gave it every encouragement. Magnificent tombs and mosques,
now in ruins, testify to the skill of the ancient potters. Leather is
worked in a variety of articles, such as saddle-covers for camels and
horses, shoes, leggings and accoutrements. In 1904 two new flour
and rice-cleaning mills were started at Sukkur.
Trade. The trade of Sind is carried on through Karachi with
foreign countries, and across the land frontier with Afghanistan,
Baluchistan and Seistan. Karachi is the great port for the grain
trade of all N. India, and is also the great strategic military port for
the N.W. frontier. The chief articles of import are cotton and
woollen goods, iron and steel, mineral oil, sugar, tea and machinery;
while the chief exports are wheat and other grains, cotton, wool,
oilseeds, hides and skins, and bones. On the land frontier the chief
articles of import are horses, ponies, mules, sheep and goats, woollen
and cotton piece-goods, wheat, gram and pulse, rice, fruits and nuts,
provisions, stores, leather, ghee, raw wool, silver, assafoetida, drugs,
hides, fish, seeds, manufactured silk, spices and tobacco; while
the exports are cotton twist and yarn, piece-goods, leather, metals,
coal and coke, wheat, husked rice, liquors, ghee, sugar, tea, tobacco,
wool and silver.
Fauna. The last tiger in Sind was shot about 1885. Among
other wild animals are the hyaena, the gurkhar or wild ass (in the S.
of the Thar and Parkar district), the wolf, jackal, fox, wild hog,
antelope, pharho or hog deer, hares and porcupines. Of birds of
prey, the vulture and several varieties of falcon may be mentioned.
The flamingo, pelican, stork, crane and Egyptian ibis frequent the
shores of the delta. Besides these there are the ubara (bustard)
or tilur, the rock-grouse, quail, partridge and various kinds of
parrots. Waterfowl are plentiful; in the cold season the lakes or
dhandhs are covered with wild geese, kulang, ducks, teal, curlew
and snipe. Among other animals to be noted are scorpions, lizards,
centipedes and many snakes.
The domestic animals include camels (one-humped), buffaloes,
sheep and goats, horses and asses (small but hardy), mules and
bullocks. Of fish there are, on the sea-coast, sharks, saw-fish,
rays and skate; cod, sir, cavalho, red-snapper, gassir, begti, dangara
and buru abound. A kind of sardine also frequents the coast. In
the Indus, the finest flavoured and most plentiful fish is the palo,
generally identified with the hilsa of the Ganges. Dambhro (Labeo
rohita) and mullet, morako (Cirrhina mrigala), gandan (Notopterus
kapirat), khago or catfish (Rita buchanani), popri (Barbus sarana),
shakur, jerkho and singhari (Macrones aor) are also found. Otter,
turtle and porpoise are frequently met with ; so too are long-snouted
crocodiles and water-snakes.
Forests. The area of reserved forest in Sind is 1065 sq. m. The
forests are situated for the most part on the banks of the Indus,
and extend S. from near Rohri to the middle delta. They are
narrow strips of land, from 2 to 3 m. in length, and ranging from
2 furlongs to 2 m. in breadth. The largest are between 9000 and
10,000 acres in area, but are subject to diminution owing to the
encroachments of the stream. The wood is principally babul (Acacia
arabica), bahan (Populus euphratica) and kandi (Prosopis spicigera).
The tali (Dalbergia Sissoo) grows to some extent in Upper Sind ; the
iron- wood tree (Tocoma undulata) is found near the hills in the Mehar
districts. There are, besides, the nim (Melia Azadirachta), the pipal
(Ficus religiosa), the ber (Zizyphus Jujuba). The delta has no forests,
but its shores abound with mangrove trees. Of trees introduced are
the tamarind (Tamarindus Mica), several Australian wattle trees,
the water-chestnut (Trapa natans), the aula (Emblica officinalis), the
bahera (Terminalia Bellerica), the carob tree (Ceratonia Siliqua), the
China tallow (Stillingia sebifera), the bel (Aegle Marmelos) and the
manah (Bassia lalifolia). There is a specially organized forest
department.
SINDBAD THE SAILOR
Irrigation. The Indus at its source is 16,000 ft. above sea-level.
At Attock it is still 2000 ft. above the sea. It is, therefore, a rapid
river, which brings down a great quantity of silt from the mountains
and deposits it in the Sind valley. The bed of the river is always
rising, and has to be constantly watched to prevent its overflowing
its banks, while the quantity of silt that the water contains makes it
very valuable to the cultivator. The inundation canals of the Indus
have, therefore, been carried to a high degree of perfection, though
the water of the river cannot be fully utilized until the proposed
barrage is constructed at Sukkur. The chief of the existing canals
are: on the right bank of the Indus, the Desert, Undarwah, Begari,
Mahiwah, Sukkur, Ghar, Sattah, Sind and Western Nara canals;
and on the left bank the Eastern Nara, Hiral, Jamrao, Dad, Nasrat,
Fuleli and Hasanali canals. Within the area watered by these
canals all vegetation is luxuriant ; but beyond the reach of the silt-
laden waters the dry and hardened ground is almost bare.
Railways. Sind is traversed by the North- Western railway, which
follows the Indus from the Punjab to the sea at Karachi. The Indus
is twice bridged : at Rohri where the main line crosses the river and
a branch goes off to Quetta; and at Kotri, opposite Hyderabad,
whence a narrow-gauge line was opened into Rajputana in 1900,
and another branch runs S. to Budin in the delta. A chord line
connects Hyderabad with Rohri, to evade the erosion of the Indus,
giving an alternative route from Karachi to Quetta and the N.W.
frontier. One of the main purposes of the Indus valley line is the
strategic defence of that frontier.
Population. The great majority of the inhabitants of Sind are
of Hindu descent, converted to Islam. They speak a language
of their own, which is akin to that of the Punjab, though retaining
many archaic peculiarities. Mahommedans, who form more
than three-fourths of the total, may be divided into Sindis
proper and naturalized Sindis. The Sindi proper is a descendant
of the original Hindu. In sect he is a Suni, though the Talpur
mirs adopted the Shiah persuasion. There is, as a rule, no
distinction of caste, except that followers of certain vocations
such as weavers, leather-workers, sweepers, huntsmen are
considered low and vile. The six different classes of naturalized
Sindis are the four families of the Saiyids (the Bokhari, Mathari,
Shirazi and Laghari) ; the Afghans; the Baluchis; the slaves
or Sidis originally Africans; the Memans; and the Khwajas.
More than half of the Hindus are Lohanas, originally traders,
who have almost monopolised government service and the
professions. Brahmans are few and uninfluential. Sikhs are
numerous.
Administration. Sind is administered as a non-regulation
province, under a commissioner, who resides at Karachi. The
highest court, independent of the High Court at Bombay, is
that of the judicial commissioner, consisting of three judges,
one of whom must be a barrister specially qualified to deal with
mercantile cases. The Karachi brigade, forming part of the
Quetta or fourth division of the Southern army, is distributed in
cantonments at Karachi, Hyderabad and Jacobabad.
History. Sind has a history of its own, distinct from the rest
of India. In the early centuries of the Christian era it was ruled
by a Buddhist dynasty, with capitals at Alor and Brahmanabad.
It was the first part of the peninsula to be invaded by the Mahom-
medftns, under Mahommed bin Kasim, a general of the caliph,
in 711. The invasion was by sea, from the mouth of the Indus;
and for nearly three centuries Sind remained nominally subject
to the Arab caliphs. Though conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni
in the course of his raids into India, Sind long preserved a semi-
independence under two local dynasties, the Sumras and the
Sammas, both of Rajput descent but Mahommedans in religion.
The latter had their capital at Tatta, in the delta of the Indus,
which continued to be a seaport until the i8th century. The
Sammas were followed by the Arghuns, of foreign origin, and the
Arghuns by the short-lived Turkhan dynasty. It was not till
the time of Akbar, who had himself been born at Umarkot in
Sind, that the province was regularly incorporated in the Delhi
empire. When that empire broke up on the death of Aurangzeb,
local dynasties again arose. The first of these was the Kalhoras,
who were succeeded by the Talpurs, of Baluch descent, who were
ruling under the title of Mirs, with their capital at Hyderabad,
when the British first entered into close relations with the country.
The East India Company had established a factory at Tatta
in 1758; but the Talpur mirs were never friendly to trade, and
the factory was withdrawn in 1775. In 1830 Alexander Burnes
was permitted to pass up the Indus on his way to the court of
Ranjit Singh at Lahore, and two years later Henry Pottinger
concluded a commercial treaty with the mirs. It was, however,
the expedition to Afghanistan in 1838 for the restoration of Shah
Shuja that forced on matters. The British army under Sir
John Keane marched through Sind, and the mirs were compelled
to accept a treaty by which they paid a tribute to Shah Shuja,
surrendered the fort of Bukkur to the British, and allowed a
steam flotilla to navigate the Indus. The crisis did not arrive
till 1842, when Sir Charles Napier arrived in Sind and fresh terms
were imposed on the niirs. The Baluch army resented this loss
of independence, and attacked the residency near Hyderabad,
which was bravely defended by Outram. Then followed the
decisive battle of Meeanee and the annexation of Sind. A course
of wise, firm and kindly administration inaugurated by Sir
Charles Napier himself, and continued by Sir Bartle Frere, Sir
W. Merewether and later commissioners, has since made the
province peaceful and prosperous.
See H. M. Birdwood, The Province of Sind (Society of Arts, 1903) ;
and Sir Richard Burton, Scinde (1851).
SINDBAD THE SAILOR, VOYAGES OF, a collection of Arabic
travel-romances, partly based upon real experiences of Oriental
navigators in the seas S. of Asia and E. of Africa (especially
in the 8th-ioth centuries); partly upon ancient poetry, Homeric
and other; partly upon Indian and Persian collections of
mirabilia. In Sindbad's First Voyage, from Bagdad and Basra,
the incident of the Whale-Back Island may be compared with
the Indian Ocean whales of Pliny and Solinus, covering four
jugera, and the pristis sea-monster of the same authorities,
200 cubits long; Al Kazwini tells a similar tale of a colossal
tortoise. Such Eastern stories are probably the original of the
whale-island in the Irish travel-romance of St Brandan. With
the Island of the Mares of King Mihraj, or Mihrjan, we may find
(rather imperfect) parallels in Homer's Iliad (the mares impreg-
nated by the wind), in Ibn Khurdadbih and Al Kazwini, and in
Wolf's account of the three Ilhas de Cavallos near Ceylon, so
called from the wild horses with which they abounded, to which
the Dutch East India merchants of the I7th century sometimes
sent their mares for breeding purposes. Sindbad's account of
the Kingdom of Mihraj (Mihrjan) is perhaps derived from the
Two Musulman Travellers of the gth century; it would seem
to refer to one of the greater East Indian islands, perhaps Borneo.
With the Rukh (" roc ") of the Second Voyage we may compare
Al Kazwini, and, more particularly, Ibn Al Wardi, who mentions
the Island of the Rukh among the isles of the China Sea, and
relates two incidents parallel to adventures with the rukh of
Sindbad's Second and Fifth Voyages. Marco Polo in a famous
passage describes this monstrous bird in detail, locates it
apparently to the S. of Madagascar, and relates how one of its
supposed feathers had been taken to the grand khan of the
Mongols. Sindbad's Valley of Diamonds has fairly complete
parallels in Al Kazwini, in Benjamin of Tudela, in Marco Polo
and in the far earlier Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis in Cyprus,
who died A.D. 403. As to the Mountain, or Island, of Apes in
the Third Voyage, Ibn Al Wardi and Idrisi each recognizes an
island of this kind, the former in the China Sea, the latter near
Sokotra. Sindbad's negro cannibal adventure, next following,
reproduces almost every detail of the Cyclops story in the
Odyssey; among the Spice Islands, and perhaps at Timor, may
be located the island rich in sandal-wood, where the wanderer
rejoins his friends. The cannibal land of the Fourth Voyage,
producing pepper and coco-nuts, where Sindbad's companions
were offered food which destroyed their reason, has suggested
the Andamans to some inquirers and certain districts of Sumatra
to others; with this tale we may compare the lotus-eating of the
Odyssey, Plutarch's story of Mark Antony's soldiers maddened
and killed by an " insane " and fatal root in their Parthian wars,
a passage in Davis's Account of Sumatra in 1599, and more com-
plete parallels in Ibn Al Wardi and Al Kazwini. The burial
of Sindbad in, and his escape from, the cavern of the dead is
faintly foreshadowed in the story of Aristomenes, the Messenian
hero, and in a reference of St Jerome to a supposed Scythian
144
SINDHI AND LAHNDA
custom of burying alive with the dead those who had been dear
to them; the fully-developed Sindbad tale finds an echo in
" Sir John Mandeville." For the " Old Man of the Sea," in the
Fifth Voyage, we may also refer to Al Kazwini, Ibn Al Wardi
and the romance of Seyf Zu-1 Yezen; Sindbad's tyrannical
rider has usually been explained as one of the huge apes of Borneo
or Sumatra, improved to make a better story. The account of
pepper, somewhat later in this Voyage, has a good deal in common
with Idrisi's; Sindbad's pearl-fishing is probably to be located
in the famous beds off Ceylon, of which Marco Polo has an
excellent description. The romance of Seyf Zu-1 Yezen has a
voyage along a subterranean river similar to that of Sindbad
on his Sixth Voyage; the elephant adventure of the Seventh
Voyage adds another to the many stories of the elephant's
sagacity which were already told in every southern country, and
of which we have many examples in Pliny's Historia Naturalis,
and in Aelian's Historia Animalium.
See Richard Hole, Remarks on the Arabian Nights' Entertainments,
in which the Origin of Sindbad's Voyages . . . is particularly con-
sidered (London, 1797); Eusebius Renaudot's edition of the Two
Musulman Travellers (1718, translated into English, 1733, as
Ancient Accounts of India and China by two Mahommedan Travellers
... in the cjth Century) ; J. T. Reinaud, Relations des voyages fails
par les Arabes et les Per sans dans I'Inde et a la Chine dans le IX'
sie.de (1845); E. W. Lane's translation of the Arabian Nights
(London, 18^9), especially the notes in vol. iii. pp. 77-108; M. J. de
Goeje, La Legende de Saint Brandan (1890) ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of
Modern Geography (1897), i. 235-238, 438-450. Besides the works
noticed in the text of this article, the 12th-century Romance of Duke
Ernest of Bavaria, written in German rhyme by Henry of Veldeck
about 1160, gives parallels to Sindbad's flight through the air (tied
to his rukh) in Voyage II., to the subterranean river-excursion in
Voyage VI., and to some other incidents. (C. R. B.)
SINDHI (properly Sindhi, the language of Sindh, i.e. Sind)
AND LAHNDA (properly Lakndd or Lahinda, western, or
Laknde-di boll, the language of the west), two closely connected
forms of speech belonging, together with Kashmiri (q.v.), to
the N.W. group of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages.
In the following pages it will be assumed that the reader is
familiar with the main facts stated in the articles INDO-ARYAN
LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT.
In 1901 Sindhi (including Kachchhi) was spoken by 3,494,971
people, and Lahnda by 3,337,917, the former in Sind and
Cutch, and the latter in the W. Punjab and adjoining tracts
(for further details on this point see the article LAHNDA). The
parent Prakrit, from which Lahnda is sprung, must once have
extended over the greater part of the Punjab, but, as explained
under INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES, the population of the Midland
expanded so as to cover the E. and centre of that province, and
the language (Panjabi) now there spoken is a mixed one, Midland
in its main characteristics, but showing more and more traces
of its old Lahnda basis as we go W. The wave of Midland
progress exhausted itself in the barren tract of the west-central
Punjab, and W. of about the seventy-third degree of E. longitude
Lahnda holds decisive sway. The facts are very much the same
with regard to the mixed language of Rajputana. Here the
expansion of the Midland language was stopped by the desert,
beyond which lies Sindhi. Lahnda and Sindhi, the W. outposts
of Indo-Aryan speech, have accordingly for centuries occupied
a peculiarly isolated position, and have in many respects struck
out common lines of independent growth. This process was
aided by the presence, of Pisaca languages (see INDO-ARYAN
LANGUAGES). In early times there were Pisaca colonies along
the Indus, right down to its delta, and both Sindhi and Lahnda
have borrowed many peculiarities from their dialects.
Sindhi is directly derived from the Vracada Apabhramsa
Prakrit (see PRAKRIT). The name of the Apabhramsa from
which Lahnda is derived is not known, but it must have been
closely allied to Vracada. Sindhi has one important dialect,
Kachchhi, spoken in Cutch. Here the language has come into
contact with Gujarati and is somewhat mixed with that form
of speech. For the dialects of Lahnda, and the various names
under which that language is known, see the article LAHNDA.
Owing to their geographical position both Sind and the W.
Punjab were early subject to Mahommedan inroads. The
bulk of the population is Mussulman, and their languages make
free use of words borrowed from Persian and (through Persian)
from Arabic. The written character employed for Lahnda is
usually that modification of the Persian alphabet which has been
adopted for Hindostani. The same is the case for Sindhi, except
that further modifications have been introduced to represent
special sounds. In both languages, Hindus also employ a script
akin to the well-known Nagari alphabet (see SANSKRIT). It is
the same as the " Landa " (a word distinct from " Lahnda ")
or " clipped " character current all over the Punjab and is very
imperfect, being seldom legible to any one except its original
writer, and not always so to him.
Phonetics.' The phonetic system of both languages in most
respects resembles that of other Indo-Aryan vernaculars. Space
will not allow us to do more than draw attention to the main points
of difference. In other Indo-Aryan languages a final short vowel is
generally elided. This rule is also followed in Lahnda, but the genius
of Sindhi requires every word to end in a vowel, and hence these
short vowels are still retained. ThusJSkr. naras, a man, Pr. naro,
Ap. naru, L. nor, but S. nar". In Sindhi these final short vowels are,
as in Kashmiri, very lightly pronounced, so that they are hardly
audible to a person unacquainted with the language. They are
therefore printed. in these pages as small letters above the line. In
the cognate Kashmiri a short i or u affects by epenthesis the pro-
nunciation of a preceding vowel, just as in English the silent vowel e
added to " mar " changes its pronunciation to "mare." So, in
Kashmiri, mar" is pronounced mor. Lahnda, especially when
dropping the final short vowel, has similar epenthetic changes. Thus
chohar(u), a boy, becomes chohur; shahar(u), a city, becomes first
shahur and then, further, shahur (& like the a in " all ") ; while
chohar(i), a girl, becomes chohir. The oblique singular (see below)
of chohur is chohar, for chohar(a) with a final a instead of a final u,
and hence the vowel of the second syllable is unchanged. Similarly,
the oblique form of shahur is shahar, while the oblique form of
chohir is still chohir, because it also originally ended in i. Similar
epenthetic changes have not been noted in Sindhi. In that language
and in Lahnda the short vowel i, when preceded or followed by h,
or at the end of a word, is pronounced as a short e. Thus S. kiharn,
of what kind, and S. mihif, a mosque, are respectively pronounced
keharo and mehetf. When'i is so pronounced, it will be written as
e or in the following pages.
In Prakrit almost the only consonants which had survived were
double letters, and in 'most of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars these
have been simplified, the preceding vowel being lengthened in com-
pensation. Thus, Ap. kammu, a work, Hindostani, kam. In Panjabi
and Lahnda the double consonant is generally retained, as in kamm,
but in Sindhi, while the double consonant is simplified, the vowel,
as in the Pisaca languages, remains short; thus, kam". This non-
lengthening of the vowel in such cases is typical of Sindhi, words like
S. ag", fire, from Ap. aggi, being quite exceptional. It even happens
that an original long vowel coming before a conjunct consonant is
shortened when the conjunct is simplified. Thus, Skr. turyam,
S. tun, a trumpet.
In Sindhi, as in Pisaca, a sibilant is liable to be changed into h.
Thus, Skr. mamsam, S. mas u or mdh", flesh; Skr. desas, S. des" or
deh\ a country. In L. the i is generally, but not always, preserved.
As in most Indo-Aryan languages a medial d becomes the hard f ;
thus, S. juran", to join ; L. ghor.a, a horse. As in the Pisaca languages,
there is great confusion between cerebrals and dentals. There was
the same tendency in Vracada Apabhramsa, and it is more common
in Sindhi than in Lahnda. Thus, Skr. tamrakas, S. Jamo, copper;
Skr. dandas, S. <fand", a staff. Moreover, in Sindhi, t and d become
regularly cerebralized before r, as in An. putru, S. pufr", a son; Ap.
drakha, S. drdkh", a vine. The cerebral / does not appear in Sindhi,
but it has survived from Prakrit in Lahnda, being subject to the
same rules as in Marathi (q.v.). When / represents a Prakrit single /,
it becomes /, but if it represents a Prakrit //, it remains a simple
dental /. It may be remarked that the same rule seems to have
applied in the Prakrit spoken by the Pisacas.
Sindhi has a series of strengthened consonants g, j, d, and b.
They are pronounced " with a certain stress in prolonging and
somewhat strengthening the contact of the closed organ, as if one
tried to double the sound at the beginning of a word." They often,
but not always, represent an original double letter. Thus, Ap.
laggau, S. logo, applied; Ap. garuau, S. garo, heavy, but S. garo,
mangy; Ap. vijja S.vija, sciencej L. jat , S. jaf, a Jat; Ap. vaddau,
S. vado, great; Ap. dolid, S. doli, a_sedan-chair; Ap. dubbalu, S.
SaSal", weak ; S. bdbo, a father, but T>abo, a father's brother.
Declension. Both languages have lost the neuter gender, all
nouns being either masculine or feminine. The rules for distinguish-
ing gender are much as in Hindostani. As in other Indo-Aryan
languages, nouns may be either strong or weak, the strong forms
being derived from nouns with the pleonastic Sanskrit suffix ka
(see HINDOSTANI and MARATHI). In Sindhi a masculine weak form
"Abbreviations: Skr. = Sanskrit ; Pr. = Prakrit; Ap. = Apa-
bhramsa; L. = Lahnda; S. = Sindhi.
. SINDHI AND LAHNDA
in " corresponds to the strong one in 5, and feminine weak forms in
"and ' to a strong one in i. In Lahnda weak forms have dropped
the final short vowel, and the strong forms end in a (masc.) and J
(fern.).
As explained in the articles above referred to, almost the only
old case that has survived throughout the declension of both
languages is the general oblique. This is used for any oblique case,
the particular case required being as a rule further defined by the
help of a postposition. The general oblique case, without any
defining postposition, is specially employed for the case of the agent.
There are also examples of the survival of the old locative and of the
old ablative. Thus S. math", top, loc. math', on the top; L. AmK,
at Amb; L. vela, time, rofi-de 'vele, at the time of food; L. jangil,
for jangali, in the forest. This locative is of regular occurrence in
the case of Sindhi weak masculine nouns in ". For the old ablative,
we have S, ghar", L. ghar, a house, abl. S. gharo, L. ghara, and so
others. The locative termination can be referred to the Ap. locative
termination -hi or -hi, and the ablative 8, or 5 to the Ap. -ha or -hit.
The nominative plural, and the general oblique case of both numbers
are formed as in the following examples:
Comparison is effected as in Hindostani by putting the noun with
which comparison is made in the ablative case. Sometimes special
postpositions are employed for this form of the ablative.
Case.
Singular.
Plural.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Nominative
Accusative .
Agent . .
Dative .
Ablative
Genitive
Locative
ghor.o
ghoro
ghore
ghore-khe
ghora,
ghore-kha
ghore-jo
ghore-me
ghora
ghora
ghor.e
ghore-nu
ghore-to
ghore-dd
ghor.e-vic
ghor.d
ghora
ghora
ghoran'-khe
ghoranea,
ghoran e -kha
ghoran'-jo
ghoran'-me
ghor.e
ghore
ghored
ghorea-nu
ghorea-to
ghorea-da
ghorea-vic
The usual pronouns are as follows,
pronounced as in German :
I S. au, a, ma or mu; L. ma;
In the Lahnda forms a is
Singular.
Plural.
Nominative.
Oblique.
Nominative.
Oblique.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Weak Noun
Masc.
ghar" ,
ghar
ghar"
ghar .
ghar"
ghar
gharan",
ghara
a house
ghara, ghare
Fern. .
Jibh",
jibbh
Jibh"
jibbh
jibhu,
jibbha
Jibhun",
jibbha
a tongue
Jibha
Jibha, Jibhe
...
ag,
fire
ogg
ag'
agg
ageu
agga
agean",
agea, agii
agga
Strong Noun
Masc.
ghoro,
ghora
ghor.e
ghore
ghora
ghore
ghoran',
ghorea
a horse
ghora, ghore
Fem. .
ghorl,
ghori
ghori"
ghori
ghoriu
ghoria
ghorin',
ghoria
a mare
ghoria, ghoris
In Lahnda the final short vowel of the weak forms has been
dropped, but in some cases the final u of the masculine and the final
t of the feminine have been preserved by epenthesis, as explained
under the head of phonetics. The origin of the nominative plural
and of the various oblique forms is explained in the article HINDO-
STANI. In the same article is discussed the derivation of most of the
postpositions employed to define the various oblique forms and
to make real cases. There are as follows: S. khe, L. nit, to or for;
S. kha, L. to, { rom ; S. jo, sando, L. da, of; S. me, L. vie, in. It
will be observed that the Lahnda forms are identical with those
found in Panjabi. In both languages the accusative case is the
same as the nominative, unless special definiteness is required, when,
as usual in Indo-Aryan vernaculars, the dative is employed in its
place. The agent case is the oblique form without any postposition.
The S. khe is a corruption of Ap. kaahl, Skr. krte; and similarly kha
from Ap. kaahu, Skr. krtat. S. sando, like the Rajasthani hando
and the Kashmiri sand" or hand", is by origin the present participle
of the verb substantive, ghar"-sandd, meaning literally " existing (in
connexion) with the house," hence " of the house." We may com-
pare the Bengali use of haite, on being, to mean " from." All these
postpositions are added to the oblique form. We thus get the
declension of the strong masculine noun S. ghoro, L. ghora, a
Those, they S. ho;- L. oh,
obi. S. a, ma, mu; L. ma.
We S. ast; L. assl; obi.
S. asa; L. assa. Of me,
my S. muh"-jd; L. mera.
Of us, our S. asa-jo; L.
asddd.
Thou S. L. tu; obi. S.
to; L. tu, ta, tudh. You
S. tavhl, avht; L. tussl; obi.
S. tavha, avha; L. tussa.
Of thee, thy S. tuhP-jo;
L. terd. Of you, your S.
tavha-jo, avha-jo; L. tusddd,
tuhdda.
This, he, she, it S. hi;
L. eh; obi. S. hin", in";
L. is. These, they S. he;
L. eh, in; obi. S. hin', in';
L. inhS.
That, he, she, it S. hit;
L. oh; obi. S. hun", un";
un; obi. S. htm", un e ; L.
Those, they S. se; obi.
L. us.
unha.
That, he, she, it S. so; obi. tah'
tan'. We should expect corresponding forms for Lahnda, but they
are not given in the grammars.
Self S. pan"; L. ape. Own S. pah*-jd; L. dpnci. Cf. Panjabi
ap, Kashmiri pan".
Who-^S. L. jo; obi. S. jdh'; L. ja; plur. nom. S. je; L. jo;
obi. S. jan e ; L. jinha.
Who ? S. ker"; L. kaun; obi. S. . kahf; L. ka; plur. nom. S.
ker'; L. kaun; obi. S. kan'; L. kinha.
What? S. chd; L. ca; obi. S. chd; L. kill.
Any one^S. L. kol; obi. S. kahl; L. kdhe.
The derivation of most of these forms can be gathered from the
article HINDOSTANI. Others, such as asst, tuss",, pan", are borrowed
from Pisaca.
The north-western group of Indo-Aryan vernaculars, Sindhi,
Lahnda, and Kashmiri, are distinguished by the free use which they
make of pronominal suffixes. In Kashmiri these are added only to
verbs, but in the other two languages they are also added to nouns.
These suffixes take the place of personal pronouns in various cases
and are as follows :
First Person.
Second Person.
Third Person.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
Other
Cases.
Nom.
Other
Cases.
Nom.
Other
Cases.
Nom.
Other
Cases.
Nom.
Agent.
Other
Cases.
Nom.
Agent.
Other
Cases.
Sindhi .
Lahnda
s'
m
m', ma
m
!
se
u, hu
(not as
gen.)
se
e
1
e
I
ve
t*
ve
None
None
1
i
s'
s
None
None
a
ne
", n",
ne
horse, as shown in the next column. When there are optional
methods of making the oblique form only one is given. The others
can be employed in the same way.
As in most other Indo-Aryan vernaculars, the genitive is really a
possessive adjective, and agrees with the person or thing possessed
in gender, number and case, exactly as in Panjabi.
An adjective agrees with its qualified noun in gender, number
and case. In Lahnda, as in Hindostani, the only adjectives which
change in these respects are strong adjectives in a. In Sindhi weak
forms in " also change the " to ' or in the feminine. Thus, S. carjo,
L. cangd, good, fern. S. carjl, L. cangi; S. nidhar", helpless, fern.
nidhar' or nidhar". The plural and oblique forms are made as in the
case of nouns. If a postposition is used with the noun it is not also
used with the adjective. Thus, L. cangia ghoria-dd, of good mares.
All these suffixes are remnants of the full pronominal forms. In
all cases they can be at once explained by a reference to the originals
in Pisaca, rather than to those of other Indo-Aryan languages. 1
It will here be convenient to consider them only in connexion with
nouns. In such cases they are usually in the genitive case. Thus,
S. piu, a father; pium", my father; piu', thy father; piuv", your
father; pins', his father; piun' or piun", their father. There
being in Sindhi no suffix of the genitive plural of the first personal
pronoun, there is no compound for " our father." For that, as in
the beginning of the Lord's Prayer, we must employ the full ex-
pression, asa-jo piu. In Lahnda we have piu, a father; pium, my
1 See G. A. Grierson, The Pi$aca Languages of North-Western
India (London, 1906), pp. 44 ff.
146
SIN-EATER
father; piuse, our father; piut, thy father; piiive, your father;
pius, his father; piune, their father. A junction vowel is often
inserted between these suffixes and the main word to assist the
pronunciation. Further examples will be found under the head of
verbs.
Conjugation. As in Marathi (q.v.) there are, in both languages,
two conjugations, of which one (intransitive) has -a- and the other
(transitive) -e- or -i- for its characteristic letter. The differences
appear in the present participle and, in Sindhi, also in the con-
junctive participle, the present subjunctive and imperative. The
two latter are the only original synthetic tenses which have survived
in Sindhi, but in Lahnda the old synthetic future is also in common
use. Both languages have a passive voice formed by adding ij or Ij
to the root. This form is not employed for the past participle or for
tenses derived from it. The following are the principal parts of the
regular verb in each conjugation:
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participle
Conjunctive participle
First Conjugation.
Second Conjugation.
f Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
halarf,
halando,
halio,
hall,
halan, to go.
halda, going.
halea, gone.
halt, having gone.
maran",
marlndo,
mario,
mare,
maran, to kill.
marlndo, killing.
marea, killed.
marl, having killed.
It will be observed that, as in most other Indo-Aryan vernaculars,
the past participle of the transitive verb is passive in signification.
There is therefore no need of a past participle for the passive voice.
The Sindhi present participle of the passive voice follows a different
rule of formation, and, in Lahnda, it omits the letter j, thus S.
maribo (Pr. mariawad), L. marlnda, being killed. In other respects
the passive, S. marijan", L. marljan, to be killed, is conjugated like
a regular verb of the first conjugation. The passive is directly
derived from the Outer Prakrit passive in -ijja-. The origin of the
other forms is dealt with under HINDOSTANI and MARATHI.
The present subjunctive is the direct descendant of the old Prakrit
(q.v.) present indicative. It is conjugated as follows:
Person.
Singular.
Plural.
First
Conjugation.
Second
Conjugation.
First
Conjugation.
Second
Conjugation.
Sindhi and
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
I.
2.
3-
hala
hale
hale
maria
marie
marie
mara
marie
mare
ha
ha
halan*
lu
Id
halin
mariu
mdrio
marin'
maru
maro
marin
The imperative is formed very similarly. In Lahnda the future is
maresa (Pr. marissam), I shall kill, conjugated like mara. The Sindhi
future is formed by adding the nominative pronominal suffixes to
the present participle. It will be remembered that there are no
nominative suffixes of the third person. For that person, therefore,
the simple participle is employed. There are slight euphonic
changes of the termination of the participle in the other persons.
Thus, halando, he will go; halandus', I shall go; and so on.
The past tense is formed from the past participle, with pronominal
suffixes added in both languages. As in the transitive verb the past
participle is passive in signification, the subject (see article HIN-
DOSTANI) must be put in the agent case, and the participle agrees in
gender and number with the direct object, or, if the object is put in
the dative case instead of the accusative, is treated impersonally in
the masculine. Examples of this tense are :
Intransitive verb S. halio, L. halea, he went; S. L. hall, she went;
S. haliu-s*, L. haleu-m, I (masc.) went ; S. halia-s', L. haliu-m, I
(fern.) went, and so on.
Transitive verb S. mario, L. marea, he was killed; S. L. marl,
she was killed; S. mariu-m', L. mareu-m, he was killed by me, I
killed him ; S. m&ria-m', L. mariu-m, she was killed by me, I killed
her; S. patishah" sail galh e budhal, the-whole matter (fem.) was-
related (fem.) by-tne-king (agent), the king related the whole
matter; S. tah'-khe sath" chadio, with-reference-to-her, by-the-cara-
van, it-was-abandoned (impersonal), i.e. the caravan abandoned her.
There are numerous compound tenses formed by conjugating the
verb substantive with one or other of the participles. The usual
forms of the present and past of this verb are as follows:
Person.
Present, " I am," &c. (com. gen.).
Past, " I was," &c. (masc.).
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
Sindhi.
Lahnda.
I.
2.
3-
ahiya
She
She
ha
he
he
dhiyu
ahiyo
Shin'
hal
ho
hin
has'
hue
ho
haus
Ml
ha
huasi
hua"
ha
hase
hare
hain
The past has slightly different forms with a feminine subject.
Sindhi examples of the compound tenses are halando ahiya, I am
going; halando has', 1 was going; halio ahiya, I have gone; and so
on. The Lahnda tenses are made on the same principles.
We have seen the important part that pronominal suffixes play in
the conjugation of the verb. But their use is not confined to the
examples given above. Additional suffixes may be added to indicate
the object, direct or remote. Thus, S. mane, thou mayest kill;
marie-m", thou mayest kill me; mdrio (he) was killed; maria-l
(for mario-T), (he) was killed by-him, he killed him; maria-i-m',
it (impersonal)-was killed by-him with-reference-to-me, i.e. he killed
me; dinS-i-s', was-given by-him to-him, he gave to him.
Numerous verbs have irregular past participles, derived directly
from the Prakrit past participles, instead of being made by adding
-id to the root. These must be learnt from the grammars. We may
mention a few very common ones: S. kararf, L. karat}, to do, to
make, past participle S. kio, kilo, L. klta; S.
dian", L. dean, to give, past participle S. dino,
L. ditto; S. labhan", L. labbhan, to be obtained,
past participle S. ladho, L. laddha. The many
compound verbs are formed much as in Hindo-
stam, and must be learnt from the grammars.
LITERATURE. Sindhi and Lahnda possess no
literature worthy of the name. Such as they
have consists of translations from Arabic and
Persian. There is, however, as usual in uncul-
tivated dialects, in both languages a large stock of folk-songs rude
poems dealing with the popular traditions of the country. Some of
these have been published in Colonel Sir Richard Temple's Legends
of the Panjab (3 vols., Bombay, 1884-1900). The late Professor
Trumpp published one text of some importance under the title of
Sindhi Literature, the Divan of Abd-ul-Latlf , known by the name of
Shahajo Risalo (Leipzig, 1866).
AUTHORITIES. G. A. Grierson, " Vracada and Sindhi," in Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society (1902), p. 47; G. Stack, Grammar and
Dictionary (both Bombay, 1849); E. Trumpp, Grammar (London
and Leipzig, 1872). This last is still the standard work on the
language, although much of the philological portion is now out of
date. It was the pioneer of the comparative
study of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars.
G. Shirt, Udharam Thavurdas and S. F. Mirza,
Sindhi-English Dictionary (Karachi, 1879).
W. St Clair Tisdall's Simplified Punjabi
Grammar (London, 1889) also deals, in an
appendix, with Lahnda. ,E. O'Brien, Glossary
of the Multani Language (ist ed., Lahore, 1881 ;
2nd ed., revised by J. Wilson and Hari Kishen
Kaul, Lahore, 1903) ; T. Bomford, " Rough
Notes on the Grammar of the Language
spoken in the Western Panjab," in Journal
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. Ixiv.
(1895), pt. i. pp. 290 ff. ; the same, " Pronominal Adjuncts in the
Language spoken in the Western and Southern Parts of the Panjab,"
ib. vol. Ixvi. (1897), pt. i. pp. 146 ff. ; A. Jukes, Dictionary of the
Jatki or Western Panjabi Language (Lahore and London, 1900) ;
J. Wilson, Grammar and Dictionary of Western Panjabi as spoken
in the Shahpur District (Lahore, 1899).
For both languages the authorities quoted under the articles INDO-
ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT may be consulted with advantage.
Vol. viii. of the Linguistic Survey of India contains full particulars
of both in great detail. (G. A. GR.)
SIN-EATER, a man who for trifling payment was believed to
take upon himself, by means of food and drink, the sins of a
deceased person. The custom was once common in many parts
of England and in the highlands of Scotland, and survived until
recent years in Wales and the counties of Shropshire and Here-
fordshire. Usually each village had its official sin-eater to whom
notice was given as soon as a death occurred. He at once went to
the house, and there, a stool being brought, he sat down in front
of the door. A groat, a crust of bread and a bowl of ale were
handed him, and after he had eaten and drunk he rose and pro-
nounced the ease and rest of the dead person, for whom he thus
pawned his own soul. The earlier form seems to have been more
realistic, the sin-eater being taken into the death-chamber, and,
a piece of bread and possibly cheese having been placed on the
breast of the corpse by a relative,
usually a woman, it was afterwards
handed to the sin-eater, who ate it in
the presence of the dead. He was
then handed his fee, and at once
hustled and thrust out of the house
amid execrations, and a shower of
sticks, cinders or whatever other
missiles were handy. The custom
SINECURE SINGAPORE
of sin-eating is generally supposed to be derived from the
scapegoat (g.i>.) in Leviticus xvi. 21, 22. A symbolic survival
of it was witnessed as recently as 1893 at Market Drayton,
Shropshire. After a preliminary service had been held over the
coffin in the house, a woman poured out a glass of wine for
each bearer and handed it to him across the coffin with a " funeral
biscuit." In Upper Bavaria sin-eating still survives: a corpse
cake is placed on the breast of the dead and then eaten by the
nearest relative, while in the Balkan peninsula a small bread
image of the deceased is made and eaten by the survivors of the
family. The Dutch doed-koecks or " dead-cakes, " marked with
the initials of the deceased, introduced into America in the i7th
century, were long given to the attendants at funerals in old
New York. The " burial-cakes " which are still made in parts
of rural England, for example Lincolnshire and Cumberland, are
almost certainly a relic of sin-eating.
SINECURE (Lat. sine cura, without care), properly a term of
ecclesiastical law, for a benefice without the cure of souls (bene-
ficium sine curd). In the English Church such sinecures arise
when the rector has no cure of souls nor resides in the parish,
the work of the incumbent being performed by a vicar; such
sinecure rectories were expressly granted by the patron; they
Were abolished by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840.
Other ecclesiastical sinecures are certain cathedral dignities to
which no spiritual function attached or incumbencies where by
reason of depopulation and the like the parishioners have dis-
appeared or the parish church has been allowed to decay. Such
cases have ceased to exist. The term is also used of any office or
place, to which a salary, emoluments or dignity but no duties
are attached. The British civil service and royal household
were loaded with innumerable offices which by lapse of time
had become sinecures and were only kept as the reward of
political services or to secure voting power in parliament. They
were extremely prevalent in the i8th century and were
gradually abolished by statutes during that and the following
century.
SINEW (O. Eng. sinu, sionu, cf. Dutch zenuiv, Ger. Sehne,
possibly allied to Skt. snava, tendon, cf. Ger. Schnur, string), a
tendon, a cord-like layer of fibrous tissue at the end of a muscle
forming the attachment to the bone or other hard part. The
broad, flat tendons are usually called fasciae (see MUSCULAR
SYSTEM AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE). The word is used figura-
tively of muscular or nervous strength, and particularly, in
" sinews of war, " of the power of money.
SINGAPORE (Malay, Singaptira, i.e. "The City of the Lion"),
a town and island situated at the S. extremity of the Malay
Peninsula in i 20' N., 103 50' E. Singapore is the
town!" most important part of the crown colony of the Straits
Settlements, which consists with it of Penang, Province
Wellesley and the Dindings, and Malacca. The port is one of
the most valuable of the minor possessions of Great Britain,
as it lies midway between India and China, and thus forms the
most important halting-place on the great trading-route to the
Far East. It is strongly fortified by forts and guns of modern
type upon which large sums have been expended by the imperial
government, aided by a heavy annual military contribution
payable by the colony and fixed at 20% of its gross revenue.
Its geographical position gives it strategic value as a naval base;
and as a commercial centre it is without a rival in this part of
Asia. Its prosperity has been greatly enhanced by the rapid
development of the Federated Malay States on the mainland.
It possesses a good harbour; docks and extensive coaling-
wharves, which have been acquired by government from the
Tanjong Pagar Dock Company, and are undergoing considerable
extensions; an admiralty dockyard; and many facilities for
shipping. It is also resorted to by native sailing craft from all
parts of the Malay Archipelago. On the island of Pulau Brani
stand the largest tin-smelting works in existence, which for many
years have annually passed through their furnaces more than
half the total tin output of the world. Singapore has also
establishments for tinning pineapples, and a large biscuit factory.
The town possesses few buildings of any note, but government
house, the law-courts, the gaol, the lunatic asylum and the Hong-
Kong and Shanghai Bank are exceptions, as also is the cathedral
of St Andrew. There are three Roman Catholic churches, a
Free Kirk, an American mission, and several chapels belonging
to Nonconformist sects. The mosques and Chinese and Hindu
temples are numerous. There are extensive military barracks
at Tanglin. There is a good race-course and polo-ground, a fine
cricket-ground on the esplanade, three golf courses, and several
clubs.
The island is 27 m. long by 14 m. broad, and is separated from
the native state of Johor, situated on the mainland of the Malay
Peninsula, by a strait which, at its narrowest point, is
less than \ m. in width. A line of railway connects the i s /aa.'
town of Singapore with the spot on the strait opposite
to the town of Johor Bharu. The strait which divides the island
from the Dutch islands of Bintang, Rhio, &c., bears the name of
the Singapore Strait. The surface of the island is undulating
and diversified by low hills, the highest point being Bukit Timah,
on the N.W. of the town, which is a little over 500 ft. in altitude.
Geologically, the core of the island consists of crystalline rocks;
but in the W. there are shales, conglomerates and sandstones;
and all round the island the valleys are filled with alluvial
deposits on a much more extensive scale than might have been
looked for seeing that no river in the island has a course longer
than some 6 m. The S.W. shores are fringed with coral reefs, and
living coral fields are found in many parts of the straits. Being
composed largely of red clays and laterite, the soil is not gener-
ally rich, and calls for the patient cultivation of the Chinese
gardener to make it really productive. There is a forest reserve
near the centre of the island, but the forest is of a mean type. The
humid climate causes the foliage here, as in other parts of Malaya,
to be very luxuriant, and the contrast presented by the bright
green on every side and the rich red laterite of the roads is striking.
When it was first occupied by Sir Stanford Raffles, on behalf
of the East India Company, the island was covered by jungle,
but now all the land not reserved by government has been
taken up, principally by Chinese, who plant vegetables in
large quantities, indigo and other tropical products. There
are fine botanical gardens at Tanglin on the outskirts of
the town.
Climate. The climate of Singapore is always humid and usually
very hot. There is hardly any seasonal change to be observed, and
the dampness of the climate causes the heat to be more oppressive
than are higher temperatures in drier climates. The mean atmo-
spheric pressure in Singapore during 1906 was 29-908 in. The highest
shade temperature for the year was 92 F. registered in March; the
lowest 72-5 F., registered in November. The mean was 80-3 F.
The range for the year was 14-5 F. The temperature of solar
radiation was in 1906: highest in the sun 153-8, recorded in March;
the lowest 143-4, recorded in June. The highest temperature of
nocturnal radiation on grass was 73-1, recorded in May, and the
lowest 67-2, recorded in January. The mean for 1906 was 71 . Re-
.lative humidity: highest 92, recorded in December; lowest, 72,
recorded in April; mean for 1906, 81. N. and N.E. winds prevail
from the middle of October to the end of April, and S. and S.W. winds
from the middle of May to the end of September. The mean velocity
of winds for 1906 was no m. ; the maximum recorded being 148 in
May, the minimum velocity recorded being 76 in December. The
rainfall of Singapore for 1906 was 129-64 in.; the heaviest rainfall
for any one month being 15-23 in. recorded in January, the smallest
being 4-98 in. recorded in May. There were 182 rainy days
during the year, the average annual number of the past decade
being 176.
Population. The following shows the composition of the popula-
tion, which numbered in all 228,555 in 1901 : Europeans 3824,
Eurasians 4120, Chinese 164,041, Malays 36,080, Indians, 17,823,
other nationalities 2667. The births registered in Singapore during
1898 numbered 3751, namely, 1960 males and 1791 females, being a
ratio of 16-55 per mille. The deaths registered during the same
period numbered 7602, namely, 5894 males and 1708 females, a ratio
f 33 '54 P er mille. The excess of deaths over births is due to the
fact that there are comparatively few women among the Chinese;
the steady increase of the population in the face of this fact is to
be attributed entirely to immigration, mainly from China, but to
a minor extent from India also. The persons classed above under
" other nationalities " are representatives of almost every Asiatic
nation of importance, and of many African races, Singapore being
one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world.
A dministration and Trade. As Singapore is the chief administrative
148
SINGER SINGLE-STICK
centre of the colony, the governor, who is also ex officio high com-
missioner of the Federated Malay States, British North Borneo,
Brunei, Sarawak and governor of Labuan, has his principal residence
here. Here also are chief offices of the various heads of the govern-
ment departments, and here the legislative council of the colony
holds its sessions. The town is governed by a municipality composed
partly of ex officio, nominated and elected members.
Finance. The revenue of Singapore for 1906 amounted to
$5,942,661, exclusive of $26,650 received on account of land sales.
The chief sources of revenue were licences (which include the farms
let for the collection of import duties in opium, wine and spirits)
$4,248,856, nearly half the revenue of the settlement; post and
telegraphs $424,645; railway receipts $196,683; and land revenue
$104,482. The expenditure of the settlement during 1906 amounted
to $5,392,380. Of this $1,416,392 was expended on personal
emoluments, and $1,116,548 on other charges connected with the
administrative establishments; $1,763,488 was spent on military
services, exclusive of expenses connected with the volunteer force;
$183,075 on the upkeep and maintenance of existing public works;
and $569,884 on new public works..
Trade. The trade of Singapore is chiefly dependent upon the
position which the port occupies as the principal emporium of the
Federated Malay States and of the Malayan archipelago, and as
the great port of call for ships passing to and from the Far East. The
total value of the imports into Singapore in 1906 was $234,701,760,
and the exports in the same year were valued at $202,210,849. The
ships using the port during 1906 numbered 1886 with an aggregate
tonnage of 3,805,566 tons, of which 1261 were British with an
aggregate tonnage of 2,498,968 tons. The retail trade of the place is
largely in the hands of Chinese, Indian and Arab traders, but there
are some good European stores. The port is a free port, import
duties being payabje only on opium, wines and spirits.
History. A tradition is extant to the effect that Singapore was an
important trading centre in the I2th and I3th centuries, but neither
Marco Polo nor Ibn Batuta, both of whom wintered in Sumatra on
their way back to Europe from China, have left anything on record
confirmatory of this. It is said to have been attacked and devastated
by the Javanese in 1252, and at the time when it passed by treaty to
the East India Company in 1819, Sir Stamford Raffles persuading the
sultan and tumenggong of Johor to cede it to him, it was wholly un-
inhabited save by a few fisherfolk living along its shores. It was at
first subordinate to Benkulen, the company's principal station in
Sumatra, but in 1823 it was placed under the administration of
Bengal. It was incorporated in the colony of the Straits Settlements
when that colony was established in 1826.
See Life of Sir Stamford Raffles; Logan's Journal of the Malay
Archipelago; the Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society (Singapore) ; Sir Frank Swettenhanr British Malaya
(London, 1906); Blue-Book of the Straits Settlements (1906); The
Straits Directory, 1908 (Singapore, 1908). (H. CL.)
SINGER, SIMEON (1846-1906), Jewish preacher, lecturer
and public worker. He was born in London, and after a short
stay at a Hungarian school, entered as one of its pupils the
Jews' College, of which he was subsequently for a time the head-
master. In 1867 he became minister of the Borough Synagogue,
London. In the following year he married. He moved to the
new West End Synagogue in 1878, and remained the minister of
that congregation until his death. He was the first to introduce
regular sermons to children; as a preacher to the young Singer
showed rare gifts. His pulpit addresses in general won wide
appreciation, and his services were often called for at public
functions. In 1897 he strongly opposed the Diggle policy at the
London School Board, but he refused nomination as a member.
In 1890 the Rabbinical Diploma was conferred on him by Lector
Weiss of Vienna, but again he evidenced his self-denial by declin-
ing to stand for the post of associate Chief Rabbi in the same year.
Singer was a power in the community in the direction of moderate
progress; he was a lover of tradition, yet at the same time he
recognized the necessity of well-considered changes. In 1892 at
his instigation the first English Conference of Jewish Preachers
was held, and some reforms were then and at other times intro-
duced, such as the introduction of Bible Readings in English,
the admission of women as choristers and the inclusion of the
express consent of the bride as well as the bridegroom at the
marriage ceremony.
Singer did much to reunite Conservatives and Liberals in the
community, and he himself preached at the Reform Synagogue in
Manchester. He had no love for the minute critical analysis of the
Bible, but he was attracted to the theory of progressive revelation,
and thus was favourably disposed to the modern treatment of
the Old Testament. His cheery optimism was at the basis of this
attitude, and strongly coloured his belief in the Messianic ideals.
He held aloof, for this very reason, from all Zionist schemes.
His interest in the fortunes of foreign Jews led him to make
several continental journeys on their behalf; he was one of the
leading spirits of the Russo-Jewish Committee, of the Inter-
national Jewish Society for the Protection of Women and of
other philanthropic organizations. Despite his devotion to public
work, Singer published some important .works. In 1896 the
Cambridge University Press published Talmudical Fragments in
the Bodleian Library of which Singer was joint author. But his
most famous work was his new edition and English translation
of the Authorized Daily Prayer Book (first published in 1870),
a work which has gone through many large editions and which
has probably been the most popular (both with Jews and Chris-
tians) of all books published by an English Jew.
See The Literary Remains, of the Rev. Simeon Singer (3 vols., 1908),
with Memoir. (I. A.)
SIN6HBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur
division of Bengal. The administrative headquarters are at
Chaibasa. Area 3891 sq. m. Its central portion consists of a
long undulating tract of country, running E. and W., and enclosed
by great hill ranges. The depressions lying between the ridges
comprise the most fertile part, which varies in elevation above
sea-level from 400 ft. near the -Subanrekha on the E. to 750 ft.
around the station of Chaibasa. S. of this an elevated plateau
of 700 sq. m. rises to upwards of 1000 ft. In the W. is an ex-
tensive mountainous tract, sparsely inhabited by the wildest of
the Hos; while in the extreme S.W. is a still grander mass
of mountains, known as " Saranda of the seven hundred hills, "
rising to a height of 3500 ft. From the Layada range on the N.W.
of Singhbhum many rocky spurs strike out into the district, some
attaining an elevation of 2900 ft. Among other ranges and
peaks are the Chaitanpur range, reaching an elevation of 2529 ft.,
and the Kapargadi range, rising abruptly from the plain and
running in a S.E. direction until it culminates in Tuiligar Hill
(2492 ft.). The principal rivers are the Subanrekha, which with
its affluents flows through the E. of the district; the South
Koel, which rises W. of Ranchi, and drains the Saranda region;
and the Baitarani, which touches the S. border for 8 m. About
two-thirds of Singhbhum district is covered with primeval forest,
containing some valuable timber trees; in the forests tigers,
leopards, bears and several kinds of deer abound, and small
herds of elephants occasionally wander from the Meghasani Hills
in Mayurbhanj.
In 1901 the population was 613,579, showing an increase of 12 %
in the decade. More than one-half belong to aboriginal tribes,
mostly Hos. The chief crop is rice, followed by pulses, oil-seeds and
maize. There are three missions in the district S.P.G., Lutheran
and Roman Catholic which have been very successful among the
aboriginal tribes, especially in the spread of education. The isolation
of Singhbhum has been broken by the opening of the Bengal-Nagpur
railway, which has protected it from the danger of famine, and at the
same time given a value to its jungle products.
Colonel Dalton, in his Ethnology of Bengal, says that the Singhbhum
Rajput chiefs have been known to the British government since 1803,
when the marquess Wellesley was governor-general of India; but
there does not appear to have been any intercourse between British
officials and the people of the Kolhan previous to 1819. The Hos
or Larka Kols, the aboriginal race of Singhbhum, would allow no
stranger to settle in, or even pass through, the Kolhan; they were,
however, subjugated in 1836, when the head-men entered into
engagements to bear allegiance to the British government. The
country remained tranquil and prosperous until 1857, when a
rebellion took place among the Hos under Parahat Raja. After a
tedious campaign they surrendered in 1859, and the capture of the
raja put a stop to their disturbances.
SINGLE-STICK, a slender, round stick of ash about 34 in. long
and thicker at one end than the other, used as a weapon of attack
and defence, the thicker end being thrust through a cup-shaped
hilt of basket-work to protect the hand. The original form
of the single-stick was the " waster, " which appeared in the i6th
century and was merely a wooden sword used in practice for the
back-sword (see SABRE-FENCING), and of the same general shape.
By the first quarter of the 1 7th century wasters had become simple
cudgels provided with sword-guards, and when, about twenty-
five years later, the basket-hilt came into general use, it was
SINGORA SINTER
149
employed with the cudgel also, the heavy metal hilt of the back-
sword being discarded in favour of one of wicker-work. The
guards, cuts and parries in single-stick play were at first identical
with those of back-sword play, no thrusts being allowed (see
FENCING). The old idea, prevalent in England in the i6th
century, that hits below the girdle were unfair, disappeared in the
1 8th century, and all parts of the person were attacked. Under
the first and second Georges back-sword play with sticks was
immensely popular under the names " cudgel-play " and " single-
sticking," not only in the cities but in the country districts as
well, wrestling being its only rival. Towards the end of the
1 8th century the play became very restricted. The players were
placed near together, the feet remaining immovable and all
strokes being delivered with a whip-like action of the wrist from a
high hanging guard, the hand being held above the head. Blows
on any part of the body above the waist were allowed, but all ex-
cept those aimed at the head were employed only to gain openings,
as each bout was decided only by a " broken head," i.e. a cut on
the head that drew blood. At first the left hand and arm were
used to ward off blows not parried with the stick, but near the
close of the i8th century the left hand grasped a scarf tied
loosely round the left thigh, the elbow being raised to protect the
face. Thomas Hughes's story, Tom Brown's School Days, contains
a spirited description of cudgel-play during the first half of the
i pth century. This kind of single-sticking practically died out
during the third quarter of that century, but was revived as a
school for the sabre, the play being essentially the same as for that
weapon (see SABRE-FENCING) . The point was introduced and leg
hits were allowed. By the beginning of the 2oth century single-
stick play had become much neglected, the introduction of the light
Italian fencing sabre having rendered it less necessary. Stick-
play with wooden swords as a school for the cutlas is common
in some navies. The French cane-fencing (q.v.) has a general
similarity to single-stick play, but is designed more for defence
with a walking-stick than as a school for the sabre.
See Broadsword and Single-stick, by R. G. Allanson Winn and C.
Phillips-Wolley (London, 1898); Manual of Instruction for Single-
stick Drill (London, 1887, British War Office); Schools and Masters
of Fence, by Egerton Castle (London, 1892); The Sword and the
Centuries, by A. Hutton (London, 1901).
SINGORA, or SONGKLA (the Sangore of early navigators),
a port on the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula and the head-
quarters of the high commissioner of the Siamese division of
Nakhon Sri Tammarat. It is situated in 7 12' N. and 100 35' E.
It was settled at the beginning of the ipth century by Chinese
from Amoy, the leader of whom was appointed by Siam to be
governor of the town and district. Having been more than once
sacked by Malay pirates, the town was encircled, about 1850,
by a strong wall, which, as both Chinese governors and Malay
pirates, are now things of the past, supplies the public works
department with good road metal. The population, about
5000, Chinese, Siamese and a few Malays, is stationary, and the
same may be said of the trade, which is all carried in Chinese
junks. The town has become an important administrative
centre; good roads connect it with Kedah and other places in
the Peninsula, and the mining is developed in the interior.
In 1906 railways surveys were undertaken by the government
with a view to making Singora the port for S. Siam; but this
harbour, formed by the entrance to the inland sea of Patalung,
would require dredging to be available for vessels of any size.
SINOPE, Turk. Sinub, a town on the N. coast of Asia Minor
in the vilayet of Kastamuni, on a low isthmus which joins
the promontory of Boz Tepe to the mainland. Though it possesses
the only safe roadstead between the Bosporus and Batum, the
difficulties of communication with the interior, and the rivalry
of Ineboli on the W. and Samsun on the E. have prevented
Sinope from becoming a great commercial centre. It is shut off
from the plateau by forest-clad mountains; a carriage road
over the hills to Boiavad and thence by Vezir-Kcupru to Amasia
was begun about 20 years ago, but has never been completed
even as far as Boiavad. Consequently the trade is small; the
annual exports are about 80,000, and the imports 50,000.
Population, 5000 Moslems and 4000 Christians, chiefly Greeks
and Armenians. On the isthmus, towards the mainland, stands
a huge but for the most part ruined castle, originally Byzantine
and afterwards strengthened by the Seljuk sultans; and the
Mahommedan quarter is surrounded by massive walls. Of
early Roman or Greek antiquities there are only the columns,
architraves and inscribed stones built into the old walls; but
the ancient local coinage furnishes a very beautiful and interesting
series of types.
See M. Six's paper in the Numismatic Chronicle (1885), and MM.
Babelon & Reinach, Recueil des monnaies grecques d'Asie Mineure
(1904).
Sinope (StvdnrT;) , whose origin was assigned by its ancient
inhabitants to Autolycus, a companion of Hercules, was founded
630 B.C. by the lonians of Miletus, and ultimately became the
most flourishing Greek settlement on the Euxine, as it was the
terminus of a great caravan route from the Euphrates, through
Pteria, to the Black Sea, over which were brought the products
of Central Asia and Cappadocia (whence came the famous
" Sinopic " red earth). In the sth century B.C. it received a
colony of Athenians; and by the 4th it had extended its authority
over a considerable tract of country. Its fleet was dominant
in the Euxine, except towards the W., where it shared the field
with Byzantium. When in 220 B.C. Sinope was attacked by
the king of Pontus, the Rhodians enabled it to maintain its
independence. But where Mithradates IV. failed Pharnaces suc-
ceeded; and the city, taken by surprise in 183 B.C., became the
capital of the Pontic monarchy. Under Mithradates VI. the
Great, who was born in Sinope, it had just been raised to the
highest degree pf prosperity, with fine buildings, naval arsenals
and well-built harbours, when it was captured by Lucullus
and nearly destroyed by fire (70 B.C.). In 64 B.C. the body of the
murdered Mithradates was brought home to the royal mausoleum.
Under Julius Caesar the city received a Roman colony, but was
already declining with the diversion of traffic to Ephesus, the
port for Rome, and in part to Amisos (Samsun). In the middle
ages it became subject to the Greek Empire of Trebizond, and
passed into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, and in 1461 was
incorporated in the Ottoman Empire. In November 1853 the
Russian vice-admiral Nakhimov destroyed here a division of the
Turkish fleet and reduced a good part of the town to ashes.
(J. G. C. A.)
SINTER, a word taken from the German (allied to Eng.
" cinder ") and applied to certain mineral deposits, more or
less porous or vesicular in texture. At least two kinds of sinter
are recognized one siliceous, the other calcareous. Siliceous
sinter is a deposit of opaline or amorphous silica from hot springs
and geysers, occurring as an incrustation around the springs,
and sometimes forming conical mounds or terraces. The pink and
white sinter-terraces of New Zealand were destroyed by the
eruption of Mount Tarawera in 1886. Mr W. H. Weed on studying
the deposition of sinter in the Yellowstone National Park
found that the colloidal silica was largely due to the action of
algae and other forms of vegetation in the thermal waters
(glh Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Sun., 1889, p. 613). Siliceous sinter
is known to mineralogists under such names as geyserite, fiorite
and michaelite (see OPAL) .
Calcareous sinter is a deposit of calcium carbonate, exemplified
by the travertine, which forms the principal building stone of
Rome (Ital. travertine, a corruption of tiburlino t the stone of
Tibur, now Tivoli). The so-called "petrifying springs, " not
uncommon in limestone-districts, yield calcareous waters which
deposit a sintery incrustation on objects exposed to their action.
The cavities in calcareous sinter are partly due to the decay of
mosses and other vegetable structures which have assisted in its
precipitation. Even in thermal waters, like the hot springs
of Carlsbad, in Bohemia, which deposit Sprudelstein, the origin
of the deposits is mainly due to organic agencies, as shown as
far back as 1862 by Ferd. Cohn. Whilst calcareous deposits in the
open air form sinter-like travertine, those in caves constitute
stalagmite.
Iron-sinter is a term sometimes applied to cellular bog iron-ore.
(F. W. R.*)
SIGN SIOUX FALLS
SIGN [Ger. Sitten], the capital of the Swiss canton of the
Valais. It is on the railway between St Maurice ( 2 s| m. distant)
and Brieg (33 m. distant). Sion is one of the most picturesque
little cities in Switzerland, being built around two prominent
hillocks that rise from the level valley of the Rhone. The north
hillock is crowned by the castle of Tourbillon (built 1294, burnt
1788), which was long the residence of the bishops. The south
hillock bears the castle of Valeria, long the residence of the
canons (it now contains an historical museum) with the interesting
i3th century church of St Catherine. In the town below is the
1 5th century cathedral, and the Majoria castle (burnt in 1788)
the former residence of the "major" (or mayor of the city).
There are various other curious objects in the city, which is
built on the banks of the Sionne torrent, and is at a height of
1680 ft. above the sea-level. In 1900 Sion contained 6048
inhabitants (mainly Romanists), of whom 1481 were German-
speaking and 4446 French-speaking.
Sion [Sedunum] dates from Roman times, and the bishop's
see was removed thither from Martigny [Octodurum] about 580.
In 999 the bishop received from Rudolf III., king of Burgundy,
the dignity of count of the Valais, and henceforward was the
temporal as well as the spiritual lord of the Valais, retaining
this position, at least in part, till 1798.
See also J. Gremaud, Introduction to vol. v. (Lausanne, 1884) of
his Documents relatifs <i I'histoire du Vallais; R. R. Hoppeler,
Beitrage zur Geschichte des Wallis im Mittelalter (Zurich, 1897) ;
B. Rameau, Le Vallais Ustorique (Sion, 1886). (W. A. B. C.)
SION COLLEGE, in London, an institution founded as a college,
gild of parochial clergy and almshouse, under the will (1623)
of Dr Thomas White, vicar of St Dunstan's in the West. The
clergy who benefit by the foundation are the incumbents of the
City parishes, of parishes which adjoined the city bounds when
the college was founded, and of parishes subsequently formed out
of these. The original buildings in London Wall were on a site
previously occupied by Elsing Spital, a hospital for the blind
founded in 1329, and earlier still by a nunnery. They comprised
the almshouses, a hall and chapel, and the library added to the
foundation by Dr John Simson, rector of St Olave's, Hart Street,
one of White's executors. There were also, at least originally,
apartments for students. In 1884 the almshouses were abolished,
and the almsfolk became out-pensioners. It was subsequently
found possible to extend their numbers from the original number
of 10 men and 10 women to 40 in all, and to increase the pension.
In 1886 Sion College was moved to new buildings on the Victoria
Embankment, and is now principally known for its theological
library which serves as a lending library to members of the college,
and is accessible to the public. A governing body appointed by
the members to administer the foundation consists of a president,
two deans and four assistants.
SIOUX, a tribe of North American Indians. The name is an
abbreviation of the French corruption Nadaouesioux of the
Algonquian name Nadowesiwug, " little snakes. " They call
themselves Dakotas (" allies "). They were formerly divided
into seven clans: hence the name they sometimes used, Otceti
Cakowin, " the seven council-fires. " There was a further dis-
tribution into eastern and western Sioux. The former were
generally sedentary and agricultural, the latter nomad horsemen.
The Sioux were ever conspicuous, even among Indians, for their
physical strength and indomitable courage. Their original home
was east of the Alleghanies, but in 1632 the French found them
chiefly in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Thereafter driven westward
by the Ojibwa and the French, they crossed the Missouri into the
plains. The Sioux fought on the English side in the War of
Independence and in that of 1812. In 1815 a treaty was made
with the American government by which the right of the tribe
to an immense tract, including much of Minnesota, most of the
Dakotas, and a large part of Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri and
Wyoming, was admitted. In 1835 missions were started among
the eastern Sioux by the American Board, and schools were
opened. In 1837 the tribe sold all their land east of the Missis-
sippi. In 1851 the bulk of their Minnesota territory was sold,
but a hitch in the carrying out of the agreement led to a rising
and massacre of whites in 1857 at Spirit Lake on the Minnesota-
Iowa border. There was peace again till 1862, when once again
the tribe revolted and attacked the white settlers. A terrible
massacre ensued, and the punitive measures adopted were
severe. Thirty-nine of the Indian leaders were hanged from
the same scaffold, and all the Minnesota Sioux were moved to
reservations in Dakota. The western Sioux, angry at the treat-
ment of their kinsmen, then became thoroughly hostile and
carried on intermittent war with the whites till 1877. In 1875
and 1876 under their chief, Sitting Bull, they successfully re-
sisted the government troops, and finally Sitting Bull and most
of his followers escaped into Canada. Sitting Bull returned in
1 88 1. In 1889 a treaty was made reducing Sioux territory.
Difficulties in the working of this, and religious excitement in
connexion with the Ghost Dance craze, led to an outbreak in
1890. Sitting Bull and three hundred Indians were killed at
Wounded Knee Creek, and the Sioux were finally subdued.
They are now on different reservations and number some twenty-
four thousand. See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.
SIOUX CITY, a city and the county-seat of Woodbury county,
Iowa, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Big Sioux with the Missouri
river, about 156 m. N.W. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 37,806;
(1900) 33,111, of whom 6592 were foreign-born (including 1460
Swedish, 1176 German and 1054 Norwegian); (1910, census)
47,828. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the
Chicago & North- Western, the Chicago, Saint Paul, Minneapolis
& Omaha, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Illinois Central,
and the Great Northern railways. The bluffs approach the
Missouri more closely at this point than elsewhere in the state,
so that little more than manufacturing establishments and
business blocks are built on the bottom lands, and the residences
are spread over the slope and summit of the bluffs. The city has
a public library (housed in the city hall) and eight parks (in-
cluding Riverside on the Big Sioux), with a total area of more
than 500 acres. Among the principal buildings are the city hall,
the post office, the Young Men's Christian Association building,
and the High School. There are several boat clubs and a
country and golf club. Two miles S. of the city is a monument
to Sergeant Charles Floyd of the Lewis and Clark expedition,
who died here in 1804; and i m. W. of the city is the grave of
War Eagle, a Sioux chief. Among the educational institutions
are Morningside College (Methodist Episcopal, 1894), 3 m. from
the business centre of the city, which had in 1908-1909 34 in-
structors and 672 students; the Sioux City College of Medicine
(1889), and St Mary's School. The.principal hospitals are the
Samaritan, the St Joseph's Mercy, and the German Lutheran.
Sioux City is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. The Chicago,
Milwaukee & Saint Paul, the Great Northern, and the Chicago,
Saint Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha have shops here; meat packing
is an important industry, and the city has large stock yards.
As a manufacturing centre, it ranked first in 1900 and third in
1905 among the cities of the state; the value of its factory pro-
duct in 1905 was $14,760,751. Its manufactures include
slaughtering and meat-packing products, cars and car repairing,
linseed oil, bricks and tiles (made from excellent clay found in
and near the city). The city does a large wholesale and dis-
tributing business. Sioux City was settled about 1850, was
platted in 1854, becoming the headquarters of a United States
Land Office, was incorporated in 1856, and was chartered as a
city in 1857. It was the starting-point of various expeditions
sent against the Sioux Indians of the Black Hills.
SIOUX FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Minnehaha
county, South Dakota, U. S. A., on the Big Sioux river, about 12
m. N.W. of the N.W. corner of Iowa. Pop. (1890), 10,177;
(1900) 10,266, of whom 1858 were foreign-born; (1905), 12,283;
(1910), 14,094. It is the largest city in the state. Sioux Falls
is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific, the Great Northern, the Illinois Central,
the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha (North-Western
lines), and the South Dakota Central railways. In the city are
the State Penitentiary, the State Children's Home, the South
Dakota School for Deaf Mutes, a United States Government
SIPHANTO SIPUNCULOIDEA
Building, the County Court House, Sioux Falls College (Baptist;
co-educational; founded in 1883), All Saints School (Protestant
Episcopal), for girls, and a Lutheran Normal School (1889).
The city is the see of a Roman Catholic and of a Protestant
Episcopal bishop. The river falls here about 100 ft. in half a
mile and provides good water power for manufactures. The total
value of the factory products increased from $883,624 in 1900
to $1,897,790 in 1905, or 114-8%. Sioux Falls is a jobbing and
wholesaling centre for South Dakota and for the adjacent parts'
of Iowa and of Minnesota. A quartzite sandstone, commonly
known as jasper or " red granite, " is extensively quarried in the
vicinity, and cattle raising and farming are important industries
of the surrounding country. A settlement was made at Sioux
Falls in 1856, but this was abandoned about six years later on
account of trouble with the Indians. A permanent settlement
was established in 1867, and Sioux Falls was incorporated as a
village in 1877 and was chartered as a city in 1883.
SIPHANTO, SIPHENO or SFPHNO (anc. Siphnos), an island
of the Greek Archipelago, in the department of the Cyclades,
30 m. S.W. of Syra. It has an area of 28 sq. m., and the popula-
tion of the commune is 3777 (1907). A ridge of limestone hills
whose principal summits, Hagios Elias and Hagios Simeon, are
crowned by old Byzantine churches runs through the island;
for about 2 m. along the western slope stretches a series of
villages, each white-washed house with its own garden and
orchard. One of these, called after the name of an ancient town
Apollonia, is the modern capital; Kastro is an " old-world
Italian town " with medieval castle and fortifications, and an
old town-hall bearing date 1365. Inscriptions found on the
spot show that Kastro stands on the site of the ancient city of
Siphnos; and Mr Bent identifies the other ancient town of
Minoa with the place on the coast where a Hellenic white marble
tower is distinguished as the Pharos or lighthouse, and another as
the tower of St John. Churches and convents of Byzantine
architecture are scattered about the island. One building of this
class is especially interesting the school of the Holy Tomb or
school of Siphnos, founded by Greek refugees from Byzantium
at the time of the iconoclastic persecutions, and afterwards a
great centre of intellectual culture for the Hellenic world. The
endowments of the school are now made over to the gymnasium
of Syra. In ancient times Siphnos was famous for its gold and
silver mines, the site of which is still easily recognized by the
excavations and refuse-heaps. As in antiquity so now the
potters of the island are known throughout the Archipelago.
Siphnos was said to have been colonized by lonians from Athens.
It refused tribute to Xerxes, and sent one ship to fight on the
Greek side at Salamis.
The wealth of the ancient Siphniotes was shown by their treasury
at Delphi, where they deposited the tenth of their gold and silver;
but, says the legend, they once failed to do this, and Apollo in his anger
flooded their mines. That the mines were invaded by the sea is still
evident; and by Strabo's time the inhabitants of the island were
noted for their poverty. During the Venetian period it was ruled
first by the Da Corogna family and after 1456 by the Gazzadinl, who
were expelled by the Turks in 1617.
SIPHON, or SYPHON (Lat. sipho; Gr. al<l>wv, a tube), an
instrument, usually in the form of a bent tube, for conveying
liquid over the edge of a vessel and delivering it at a lower level.
The action depends upon the difference of the pressure on the
liquid at the extremities of the tube, the flow being towards the
lower level and ceasing when the levels coincide. The instrument
affords a ready method of transferring liquids. The tube is
made of glass, indiarubber, copper or lead, according to the
liquid which is to be transferred. The simple siphon is used by
filling it with the liquid to be decanted, closing the longer limb
with the finger and plunging the shorter into the liquid; and it
must be filled for each time of using. Innumerable forms have
been devised adapted for all purposes, and provided with arrange-
ments for filling the tube, or for keeping it full and starting it
into action automatically when required. Pipes conveying the
water of an aqueduct across a valley and following the contour
of the sides are sometimes called siphons, though they do not
depend on the principle of the above instrument. In the siphon
used as a container for aerated waters a tube passes through the
neck of the vessel, one end terminating in a curved spout while
the other reaches to the bottom of the interior. On this tube is
a spring valve which is opened by pressing a lever. The vessel
is filled through the spout, and the water is driven out by the
pressure of the gas it contains, when the valve is opened. The
" Regency portable fountain, " patented in 1825 by Charles
Plinth, was the prototype of the modern siphon, from which it
differed in having a stopcock in place of a spring valve. The
" siphon champenois " of Deleuze and Dutillet (1829) was a
hollow corkscrew, with valve, which was passed through the
cork into a bottle of effervescent liquid, and the " vase siphoide "
of Antoine Perpigna (Savaresse pbre), patented in 1837, was
essentially the modern siphon, its head being fitted with a valve
which was closed by a spring.
SIPPARA (Zimbir in Sumerian, Sippar in Assyro-Babylonian),
an ancient Babylonian city on the east bank of the Euphrates,
north of Babylon. It was divided into two quarters, " Sippar
of the Sun-god " (see SHAMASH) and " Sippar of the goddess
Anunit, " the former of which was discovered by Hormuzd
Rassam in 1881 at Abu-Habba, 16 m. S.E. of Bagdad. Two
other Sippars are mentioned in the inscriptions, one of them
being " Sippar of Eden, " which must have been an additional
quarter of the city. It is possible that one of them should be
identified with Agade or Akkad, the capital of the first Semitic
Babylonian Empire. The two Sippars of the Sun-god and
Anunit are referred to in the Old Testament as Sepharvaim. A
large number of cuneiform tablets and other monuments has
been found in the ruins of the temple of the Sun-god which was
called E-Babara by the Sumerians, Bit-Uri by the Semites.
The Chaldaean Noah is said by Berossus to have buried the
records of the antediluvian world here doubtless because the
name of Sippar was supposed to be connected with sipru, " a
writing " and according to Abydenus (Fr. 9) Nebuchadrezzar
excavated a great reservoir in the neighbourhood. Here too was
the Babylonian camp in the reign of Nabonidos, and Pliny
(N.H. vi. 30) states that it was the seat of a university.
See Hormuzd Rassam, Babylonian Cities (1888). (A. H. S.)
SIPUNCULOIDEA, marine animals of uncertain affinities,
formerly associated with the Echiuroidea (q.v.) in the group
Gephyrea. Externally, the body of a Sipunculoid presents no
projections: its surface is as a rule even, and often glistening,
and the colour varies from whitish through yellow to dark brown.
The anterior one-quarter or one-third of the body is capable of
being retracted. into the remainder, as the tip of a glove-finger
may be pushed into the rest, and this retractile part is termed the
introvert. At the tip of the introvert the mouth opens, and is
surrounded in Sipunculus by a funnel-shaped, ciliated lophophore
(figs, i and 2). In Phascolosoma and Phascolion this funnel-
shaped structure has broken up into a more or less definite group
of tentacles, which in Dendrostoma are arranged in four groups.
In Aspidosiphon and Physcosoma the tentacles are usually
arranged in a horse-shoe, which may be double, overhanging
the mouth dorsally. On the surface of the funnel-shaped lopho-
phore are numerous ciliated grooves, and each of the tentacles
in the tentaculated forms has a similar groove directed towards
the mouth. These grooves doubtless serve to direct currents of
water, carrying with them small organisms towards the mouth.
The skin consists of a layer of cuticle, easily stripped off, secreted
by an ectodermal layer one cell thick. Within this is usually a sheath
of connective tissue, which surrounds a layer of circular muscles ; the
latter may be split up into separate bundles, but more usually form
a uniform sheet. Within the circular muscles is a layer of longitudinal
muscles, very often broken into bundles, the number of which is often
of specific importance. Oblique muscles sometimes lie between the
circular and longitudinal sheaths. On the inner surface is a layer of
peritoneal epithelium, which is frequently ciliated, and at the bases
of the retractor muscles is heaped up and modified into the repro-
ductive organs. The ectoderm is in some genera modified to form
certain excretory glands, which usually take the form of papillae with
an apical opening. These papillae give the surface a roughened
aspect; the use of their secretion is unknown. They are best
developed in Physcosoma.
When the body of a Sipunculoid is opened, it is seen that the body-
cavity is spacious and full of a corpusculated fluid, in which the
various organs of the body float. The most conspicuous of these is
152
SIPUNCULOIDEA
the long, white alimentary canal, crowded with mud. The mouth is
devoid of armature, and passes, without break into the oesophagus ;
this is surrounded by the retractor muscles, which are inserted
into the skin around the mouth, and have their origin in the body-
wall, usually about one-third or one-half of the body-length from the
anterior end (figs. I and 2). Their function is to retract the introvert,
which is protruded again by the contraction of the circular muscles
of the skin; these, compressing the fluid of the body-cavity, force
forward the anterior edge of
the introvert. The number
of muscles varies from one
(Onchnesoma and Tylosoma)
to four, the latter being very
common. The alimentary
canal is U-shaped, the dorsal
limb of the U terminating in
the anus, situated not very
far from the level of the
origin of the retractor
muscles. The limbs of the
U are further twisted to-
gether in a looser or tighter
coil, the axis of which may
be traversed by a " spindle
muscle arising from the pos-
terior end of the body. No
glands open into the ali-
mentary canal, but a diver-
ticulum, which varies enor-
mously in size, opens into
the rectum. As is so often
the case with animals which
eat mud and sand, and
extract what little nutri-
ment is afforded by the
organic debris therein, the
walls of the alimentary
canal are thin and appar-
ently weak. All along one
side is a microscopic ciliated
groove, into which the mud
does not seem to enter, and
along which a continuous
stream of water may be
kept up. Possibly this is
respiratory there are no
special respiratory organs.
A so-called heart lies on the
dorsal surface of the oeso-
phagus; it is closed behind,
but in front it opens into a
circumoesophagealring,
which gives off vessels into
the lophophore and ten-
tacles. The contraction of
this heart, which is not
rhythmic, brings about the
expansion of the tentacles
and lophophore. This sys-
tem is in no true sense a
vascular system ; there are
no capillaries, and the fluid
it contains, which is cor-
pusculated, can hardly have
a respiratory or nutritive
function. It is simply a
hydrostatic mechanism for
expanding the tentacles.
The excretory organs are
FIG. i. Sipunculus nudus, L., with typical nephridia, with an
introvert and head fully extended, laid internal ciliated opening
open by an incision along the right into the body-cavity, and
side to show the internal organs, X 2.
a, Mouth.
6, Ventral nerve-cord.
c, " Heart."
d, Oesophagus.
e, Intestine.
/, Position of anus.
f, Tuft-like organs.
, Right nephridium.
i. Retractor muscles.
j, Diverticulum on rectum. The body, and they are some-
spindle-muscle is seen overlying times spoken of as brown
the rectum. tubes. There is a well-.
developed brain dorsal to
the mouth; this gives off a pair of oesophageal commissures,
which surround the oesophagus and unite in a median ventral
nerve-cord which runs between the longitudinal muscles to the
posterior end of the body. From time to time it gives off
an external pore. One
surface of the tube is pro-
longed into a large sac lined
with glandular excretory
cells. The organs are typi-
cally two, though one is
often absent, e.g. in Phas-
colion. They serve as
channels by which the re-
productive cells leave the
minute circular nerves, which run round the body in the skin
and break up into a very fine nerve plexus. There are no distinct
ganglia, but ganglion cells are uniformly distributed along the
ventral side of the cord. The whole is anteriorly somewhat loosely
slung to the skin, so as to allow free play when the animal is extend-
ing or retracting its introvert. A pit or depression, known as " the
cerebral organ," opens into the brain just above the mouth; this
usually divides into two limbs, which are deeply pigmented and
have been called eyes.
Sipunculoids are dioecious, and the ova and spermatozoa are
formed from the modified cells lining the body-cavity, which are
heaped up into a low ridge running along the line of origin of the
retractor muscles. The ova and the mother-cells of the spermatozoa
break off from this ridge, and increase in size considerably in the
fluid of the body-cavity. Fertilization is external ; and in about three
days a small ciliated larva, not unlike that of the Echiuroids, but
with no trace of segmentation, emerges from the egg-shell. This little
creature, which has many of the features of a Trochosphere larva,
swims about at the surface of the sea for about a month and grows
rapidly. At the end of this time it undergoes a rapid metamorphosis :
&...
FIG. 2. Right half of the anterior end of Sipunculus nudus,
L., seen from the inner side and magnified.
a, Funnel-shaped grooved ten- c', " Heart."
tacular crown leading to d, Brain.
the mouth. e, Ventral, and , dorsal re-
ft, Oesophagus. tractor muscles.
c. Strands breaking up the /, Ventral nerve-cord.
cavity of the tentacular g, Vascular spaces in tentacular
crown intb vascular spaces. crown.
it loses many of its larval organs, cilia, takes in a quantity of water
into its body-cavity, sinks to the bottom of the sea, and begins life
in its final form.
The following genera of Sipunculoids are recognized: (i.) Sipun-
culus. This, with Physcosoma, has its longitudinal muscles divided
up into some 17-41 bundles. It has no skin papillae. The members
of this genus attain a larger size than any other species, and the
genus contains some 16-17 species, (ii.) Physcosoma (fig. 3) has its
body covered with papillae, and usually numerous rows of minute
hooks encircling the introvert. It is the most numerous genus, and
consists for the most part of shallow-water (less than 50 fathoms)
tropical and subtropical forms. They often live in tubular burrowings
in coral-rock. The following three genera have their longitudinal
muscles m a continuous sheath : (iii.) Phascolosoma, with some 25
species, mostly small, with numerous tentacles, (iv.) Phascolion, 10
species, small, living in mollusc-shells and usually adopting the coiled
shape of their house; only one kidney, the right, persists, (v.)
Dendrostoma, with 4-6 tentacles, a small genus found in tropical
shallow water, (vi.) Aspidosiphon, with 19 species, is easily dis-
tinguished by a calcareous deposit and thickened shield at the
posterior end and at the base of the introvert, which is eccentric,
(vii.) Cloeosiphon has a calcareous ring, made up of lozenge-shaped
plates, round the base of its centric introvert, (viii.) Petalostoma, a
SIQUIJOR SIR
minute form with two leaf-like tentacles, is found in the English
Channel, (ix.) Onchnesoma, with 2 species, and (x.) Tylosoma, with
I species, have no tentacles, only one brown tube, and only one
retractor muscle. Both genera are found off the Norwegian coast.
The last named is said to have numerous papillae and no
introvert.
'M
FIG. 3. A semi-diagrammatic figure of the anterior end of half
Physcosoma, seen from the inner side. The introvert is fully everted and the
lophophore expanded. The collar which surrounds the head is not fully
extended. Two rows only of hooks are shown.
12, Coelom of upper lip;
tinuous with 21.
13, Mouth.
14, Lower lip.
15, Blood-sinus of ventral side, con-
tinuous with 6.
16, Ventral portion of
' skeleton."
1, Lophophore.
2, Pigmented pit leading to brain.
3, Section of dorsal portion of meso-
blastic " skeleton."
4, Pit ending in eye.
5, The brain.
6, Blood-sinus of dorsal side sur-
rounding brain and giving off
branches to the tentacles.
7, Collar.
8, Retractor muscle of head.
9, Hook.
10, Sense-organ.
n, Nerve-ring.
17, Ventral nerve-cord.
SIR (Fr. sire, like sieur a variant of seigneur, 1 from Lat. senior,
comparative of senex, " old "), a title of honour. As a definite
style it is now confined in the dominions of the British crown
to baronets, knights of the various orders, and knights bachelor.
It is never used with the surname only, being prefixed to the
Christian name of the bearer; e.g. Sir William Jones. In
formal written address, in the case of baronets the
abbreviation Bar', Bart, or B' (baronet) is added after
the surname, 2 in the case of knights of any of the orders
the letters indicating his style (K.G., K.C.B., &c.). In
conversation a knight or baronet is addressed by the
prefix and Christian name only (e.g. " Sir William ").
The prefix Sir, like the French sire, was originally
applied loosely to any person of position as a mere
honorific distinction (as the equivalent of dominus, lord) ,
as it still is in polite address, but Selden (Titles of
Honor, p. 643) points out that as a distinct title " pre-
fixed to the Christian names in compellations and
expressions of knights " its use " is very ancient," and
that in the reign of Edward I. it was " so much taken
to be parcel of their names " that the Jews in their
documents merely transliterated it, instead of trans-
lating it by its Hebrew equivalent, as they would have
done in the case of e.g. the Latin form dominus.
How much earlier this custom originated it is difficult to
say, owing to the ambiguity of extant documents, which
are mainly in Latin. Much light is, however, thrown upon
the matter by the Norman-French poem Guillaume le
Mareschal, 3 which was written early in the I3th century.
In this Sire is obviously used in the general sense men-
tioned above, i.e. as a title of honour applicable tc all men
of rank, whether royal princes or simple knights. The
French king's son is " Sire Lpeis " (/. 17741), the English
king's son is " Sire Richard li filz le roi " (/. 17376); the
marshal himself is " Sire Johan li Mareschals " (17014). We
also find such notable names as " Sire Hubert de Burc "
(II. 17308, 17357) and " Sire Hue de Bigot "-
" Qui par lignage esteit des buens,
E apres son pere fu cuens," 4
and such simple knights as " Sire Johan d'Erlee " (Early in
Berks), the originator of the poem, who was squire to William
the Marshal, or " Seingnor Will, de Monceals," who, though
of very good family, was but constable of a castle.
Throughout the poem, moreover, though Sire is the form
it is con- commonly used it is freely interchanged with Seignor and
Monseignor. Thus we have " Seingnor Hue. de Corni "
(/. 10935), " Sire Hug. de Corni " (I. 10945) and " Mon-
seingnor Huon de Corni "j (I. 10955). Occasionally it is
replaced by Dan (dominus), e.g. the brother of Louis VII.
of France is " Dan Pierre de Cortenei " (/. 2131). Very
mesoblastic rarely the e of Sire is dropped and we have Sir: e.g. " Sir
Will." (I. 12513). Sometimes, where the surname is not
territorial, the effect is closely approximate to more
AUTHORITIES. Selenka, " Die Sipunculiden," Semper's Reisen
(1883), and Challenger Reports, xiii. (1885); Sluiter, Natuurk.
Tijdschr. Nederl. Ind. xli. and following volumes; Andrews, Stud.
Johns Hopkins Univ. iv. (1887-1890); Ward, Bull. Mus. Harvard,
xxi. (1891) ; Hatschek, Arb. Inst. Wien, v. (1884) ; Shipley, Quart. J.
Micr. Sci. xxxi. (1890), xxxii. (1891), and xxxiii. (1892); P. Zool.
Soc. London (1898), and Willey's Zoological Results, pt. 2 (1899);
Horst, Niederland. Arch. Zool., Supplementary, vol. i. (A. E. S.)
SIQUIJOR, a town of the province of Negros Oriental, Philip-
pine Islands, on a small island of the same name about 14 m.
S.E of Dumaguete, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903)
after the annexation of San Juan, 19,416. There are sixty-four
barrios or villages in the town, but only one of these had in 1903
more than 1000 inhabitants. The language is Bohol-Visayan.
The principal industry is the raising of coco-nuts and preparing
them for market. Other industries are the cultivation of tobacco,
rice, Indian corn and hemp, and the manufacture of sinamay,
a coarse hemp cloth. The island is of coral formation; its
highest point is about 1700 ft.
18, Coelom, continuous with 12 and 21. modern usage: e.g. " Sire Aleins Basset," " Sire Enris li filz
, r> 1 Gerolt " (Sir Henry Fitz Gerald), " Sire Girard Talebot,"
from the " Sire Robert Tresgoz."
It is notable that in connexion with a name the title
Sire in the poem usually stands by itself : sometimes mis
(my) is prefixed, but never li (the). Standing alone, how-
ever, Sire denominates a class and_the article is prefixed: e.g. les
19, Oesophagus.
20, Dorsal vessel arising
blood-sinus 6.
21, Coelom.
seirs d'Engleterrethe lords of England (/. I5837). 6 " Sire,"
" Seignor " are used in addressing the king or a great noble.
It is thus not difficult to see how the title " Sir " came in
England to be " prefixed to the expressions of knights." Knight-
hood was the necessary concomitant of rank, the ultimate proof
of nobility. The title that expressed this was " Sire " or " Sir "
prefixed to the Christian name. In the case of earls or barons
it might be lost in that of the higher rank, though this was not
1 Certainly not " from Cyr, nvp, a diminutive of the Greek word
xuptos " (F. W. Pixley, A History of the Baronetage, 1900, p. 208).
2 For not very obvious reasons some baronets now object to the
contracted form " Bart.," which had become customary. See Pixley,
op. cit. p. 212.
3 Edited in 3 vols., with notes, introduction and mod. French
translation by Paul Meyer for the Soc. de 1'Histoire de France
(Paris, 1891).
* " Who was of good lineage and after his father became earl."
6 Cf. /. 18682. N'entendi mie bien li sire _
Que mis sire Johan volt dire.
154
universal even much later: e.g. in the I4th century, Sir Henry
Percy, the earl marshal, or Sir John Cobham, Lord Oldcastle.
The process by which the title lost all connotation of nobility
would open up the whole question of the evolution of classes
in England (see GENTLEMAN). In the case of baronets the prefix
"Sir" before the Christian name was ordained by King Jamesl.
when he created the order.
The old use of " Sir " as the style of the clergy, representing
a translation of dominus, would seem to be of later origin; in
Guillaume le Mareschal even a high dignitary of the church is
still maisire (master): e.g. " Maistre Pierres li cardonals "
(/. 11399). It survived until the honorific prefix " Reverend "
became stereotyped as a clerical title in the i;th century. It
was thus used in Shakespeare's day: witness " Sir Hugh Evans,"
the Welsh parson in The Merry Wives of Windsor. In the English
universities there is a curious survival of this use of " Sir " for
dominus, members of certain colleges, technically still " clerks,"
being entered in the books with the style of " Sir " without
the Christian name (e.g. " Sir Jones ").
In ordinary address the title " Sir," like the French Monsieur,
is properly applied to any man of respectability, according to
circumstances. Its use in ordinary conversation, as readers
of Boswell will realize, was formerly far more common than is
now the case; nor did its employment imply the least sense of
inferiority on the part of those who used it. The general decay
of good manners that has accompanied the rise of democracy
in Great Britain has, however, tended to banish its use, together
with that of other convenient forms of politeness, from spoken
intercourse. As an address between equals it has all but vanished
from social usage, though it is still correct in addressing a stranger
to call him " Sir." In general it is now used in Great Britain
as a formal style, e.g. in letters or in addressing the chairman
of a meeting; it is also used in speaking to an acknowledged
superior, e.g. a servant to his master, or a subaltern to his colonel.
" Sir " is also the style used in addressing the king or a prince
of the blood royal (the French form " Sire " is obsolete).
In the United States, on the other hand, or at least in certain
parts of it, the address is still commonly used by people of all
classes among themselves, no relation of inferiority or superiority
being in general implied.
The feminine equivalent of the title "sir" is legally " dame"
(domino) ;' but in ordinary usage it is "lady," thus recalling
the original identity of the French sire with the English
" lord." (W. A. P.)
SIRAJGANJ, a town of British India, in the Pabna district
of Eastern Bengal and Assam, on the right bank of the Jamuna
or main stream of the Brahmaputra, 6 hours by steamer from
the railway terminus at Goalundo. It is the chief river mart for
jute in northern Bengal, with several jute presses. The jute
mills were closed after the earthquake of 1897. Pop. (1901)
23,"4-
SIRDAR, or SARDAR (Persian sardar, meaning a leader or
officer), a title applied to native nobles in India, e.g. the sirdars
of the Deccan. Sirdar Bahadur is an Indian military distinction ;
and Sirdar is now the official title of the commander-in-chief
of the Egyptian army.
SIREN, a name derived from the Greek Sirens (see below) for
an acoustical signalling instrument specially used in lighthouses,
&c. (see LIGHTHOUSE), and applied by analogy to certain other
forms of whistle. In zoology the siren (Siren lacertina), or
" mud-eel " of the Americans, one of the perennibranchiate
tailed batrachians, is the type of the family Sirenidae, chiefly
distinguished from the Proteidae by the structure of the jaws,
which, instead of being beset with small teeth, are covered by
a horny sheath like a beak; there are, however, rasp-like teeth
on the palate, and a few on the inner side of the lower jaw, in-
serted on the splenial bone. The body is eel-like, black or blackish,
and only the fore-limbs are present, but are feeble and furnished
with four fingers. It grows to a length of three feet and inhabits
marshes in North and South Carolina, Florida and Texas. A
second closely-allied genus of this family is Pseudobranchus,
differing in having a single branchial aperture on each side instead
SIRAJGANJ SIRENIA
of three, and only three fingers. The only species, P. striatus,
is a much smaller creature, growing to six inches only, and striated
black and yellow; it inhabits Georgia and Florida.
As E. D. Cope has first shown, the siren must be regarded as
a degenerate rather than a primitive type. He has observed
that in young specimens of Siren lacertina (the larva is still un-
known) the gills are rudimentary and functionless, and that it is
only in large adult specimens that they are fully developed in
structure and function; he therefore concludes that the sirens are
the descendants of a terrestrial type of batrachians, which passed
through a metamorphosis like the other members of their class,
but that more recently they have adopted a permanently aquatic
life, and have resumed their branchiae by reversion. From
what we have said above about Proteus and similar forms, it is
evident that the " perennibranchiates " do not constitute a
natural group.
See E. D. Cope, " Batrachia of North America," Bull. U.S. Nat.
Mus. No. 34 (1889), p. 223.
SIRENIA, the name (in reference to the supposed mermaid-like
appearance of these animals when suckling their young) of an
order of aquatic placental mammals, now represented by the
manati (or manatee) and dugong, and till recently also by the
rhytina. Although in some degree approximating in external
form to the Cetacea, these animals differ widely in structure from
the members of that order, and have a totally distinct ancestry.
The existing species present the following leading characteristics.
The head is rounded and not disproportionate in size as compared
with the trunk, from which it is scarcely separated by any externally
visible constriction or neck. Nostrils valvular, separate, and placed
above the fore-part of the obtuse, truncated muzzle. Eyes very
small, with imperfectly formed eyelids, capable, however, of con-
traction, and with a well-developed nictitating membrane. Ear
without any conch. Mouth of small or moderate size, with tumid
lips beset with stiff bristles. General form of the body depressed
fusiform. No dorsal fin. Tail flattened and horizontally expanded.
Fore-limbs paddle-shaped, the digits being enveloped in a common
cutaneous covering, though sometimes rudiments of nails are
present. No trace of hind-limbs. External surface covered with a
tough, finely wrinkled or rugous skin, naked, or with sparsely
scattered fine hairs.
The skeleton is remarkable for the massiveness and density of
most of the bones, especially the skull and ribs, which add to the
specific gravity of these slow-moving animals, and aid in keeping
them to the bottom of the shallow waters in which they dwell, while
feeding on aquatic vegetables. The skull presents many peculiarities,
among which may be indicated the large size and backward position
of the nasal aperture, and the downward flexure of the front of both
jaws. The nasal bones are absent, or rudimentary and attached to
the edge of the f rentals, far away from the middle line; but in some
extinct species these bones, though small, are normal in situation and
relations. In the spinal column none of the vertebrae are united
together to form a sacrum, and the flat ends of the bodies do not
ossify separately, so as to form disk-like epiphyses in the young
state, as in nearly all other mammals. The anterior caudal vertebrae
have well-developed chevron-bones. In one genus (Manatus) there
are only six cervical vertebrae. There are no clavicles. The
humerus has a small but distinct trochlear articulation at the elbow-
joint; and the bones of the fore-arm are about equally developed,
and generally welded together at both extremities. The carpus is
short and broad, and the digits five in number, with moderately
elongated and flattened phalanges, which are never increased beyond
the number usual in Mammalia. The pelvis is rudimentary, con-
sisting of a pair of bones suspended at some distance from the verte-
bral column.
Two kinds of teeth, incisors and molars, separated by a wide
interval, are generally present. The former may be developed into
tusks in the upper jaw, or may be quite rudimentary. The molars
vary much in character. In one genus (Rhytina) no teeth of any
kind are present, at least in the adult. In all, the anterior part of
the palate, and a corresponding surface on the prolonged symphysis
of the lower jaw, are covered with rough horny plates of peculiar
structure, which doubtless assist in mastication. The tongue is
small and fixed in position, with a surface resembling that of the
aforesaid plates. The salivary glands are largely developed. The
stomach is compound, being divided by a valvular constriction into
two principal cavities, the first of which is provided with a glandular
pouch near the cardiac end, and the second usually with a pair of
elongated, conical, caecal sacs or diverticula. The intestinal canal is
long, and with very muscular walls. There is a caecum, either
simple, conical, and with extremely thick walls, as in Halicore, or
cleft, as in Manatus. The apex of the heart is deeply cleft between
the ventricles. The principal arteries form extensive and complex
network-like structures, retia mirabilia. The lungs are long and
SIRENIA
155
narrow, as, owing to the oblique position of the diaphragm, the
thoracic cavity extends far back over the abdomen. The -epiglottis
and arytenoid cartilages of the larynx do not form a tubular pro-
longation. The brain is comparatively small, with the convolutions
on the surface of the cerebrum few and shallow. The kidneys are
simple, and the testes abdominal. The uterus is bicornuate. The
placenta is non-deciduate and diffuse, the villi being scattered
generally over the surface of the chorion except at the poles. The
umbilical vesicle disappears early. The teats are two, and pectoral
or rather post-axillary in position.
In vol. Ixxvii. of the Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Zoologie
Mr L. Freund describes in detail the osteology of the flippers of the
dugong as displayed in " sciograph " pictures. These show that
the carpus of the adult consists of three large bones. Of the two in
the first row, one consists of the fused radiale and intermedium, and
the other of the ulnare plus the pisiform and the fifth carpale, the
lower bone being composed of the four inner carpalia. In the manati
the reduction of the carpus has been carried to a less extent, the
radiale being in some instances distinct from the intermedium, while
in other cases in which these two bones are fused the four inner
carpalia remain separate.
Sirenians pass their whole life in water, being denizens of
shallow bays, estuaries, lagoons and large rivers, and not met
with in the high seas far away from shore. Their food consists
entirely of aquatic plants, either marine algae or freshwater
grasses, upon which they browse beneath the surface, as the
terrestrial herbivorous mammals do upon the green pastures on
shore. To visit these pastures, they come in with the
flood-tide and return with the ebb. They are generally
gregarious, slow and inactive in their movements, mild,
inoffensive, and apparently unintelligent in disposition.
Though occasionally found stranded by the tide or
waves, there is no evidence that they voluntarily leave
the water to bask or feed on the shore. The habit of
the dugong of raising its round head out of water, and
carrying its young under the fore fin, seems to have
given rise, among the early voyagers in the Indian Ocean,
to the legendary beings, half human and half fish, in
allusion to which the name Sirenia was bestowed by
Illiger. The species now existing are few. One species,
Rhytina gigas of the North Pacific, was exterminated
through the agency of man during the i8th century; and
the others, being valuable for their flesh as food, for their
hides, and especially for the oil obtained from the thick layer of
fat which lies immediately beneath their skin, diminish in
numbers as civilized populations occupy the regions forming
their natural habitat. The species are confined to the tropical
regions of the shores of both sides of the Atlantic and the great
rivers which empty themselves into that ocean, and to the coasts
of the Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to North Australia.
As regards dentition (or the want thereof) the three modern
genera are remarkably different; and while on this and other
grounds some writers refer them to as many separate families, by
others they are all included in the Manatidae.
In the manatis (Manatus) the incisors, f in number, are rudi-
mentary, and concealed beneath the horny mouth-plates, and
end of the series; with square, enamelled crowns, the grinding
surface raised into tuberculated transverse ridges. The upper teeth
with two ridges and three roots, the lower with an additional
(posterior) ridge or heel and two roots. The cervical vertebrae
present the anomaly of being reduced to six in number, the usual
vertebral formula being C 6, D 15-18, L and C, a 25-29. Rostrum
of the skull, formed by the union of the premaxillae in front of the
nasal aperture, shorter than the length of the aperture and scarcely
deflected from the basi-cranial axis. Tail entire, rounded or shovel-
shaped. Rudimentary nails on the fore-limbs. Caecum cleft.
Manatis inhabit the shores of, and the great rivers which empty
themselves into, the Atlantic within the tropics. The American
(M. australis) and African (M. senegalensis) forms are generally
considered distinct species, though they differ but little from each
other in anatomical characters and in habits. There is also the
small M. inunguis of the Amazon, which has no nails. They are
rather fluviatile than marine, ascending large rivers almost to their
sources (see MANATI).
In the dugong (Halicore) the upper jaw is furnished with a pair
of large, nearly straight, tusk-like incisors, directed downwards and
forwards, partially coated with enamel. In the male they have
persistent pulps, and bevelled cutting edges, which project a short
distance from the mouth, but in the female, though they remain
through life in the alveolar cavity, they are not exserted, and, the
pulp cavity being filled with osteodentine, they soon cease to grow.
In the young there is also a second small deciduous incisor on each
side above. At this age there are also beneath the horny plate
which covers the anterior portion of the mandible four pairs of
slender conical teeth lodged in wide socket -like depressions which
FIG. i. Skull of African Manati (Manatus senegalensis). Xi-
From Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.
disappearing before maturity. Molars about f, but rarely more
than 8 present at one time ; the anterior teeth falling before the
posterior come into use; similar in characters from beginning to
FIG. 2. American Manati (Manatus australis).
become absorbed before the animal reaches maturity. The molars
are usually f , sometimes |, altogether, but not all in place at once,
as the first falls before the last rises above the gum; they are more
or less cylindrical in section, except the last, which is compressed
and grooved laterally, without distinction into crown and root,
increasing in size from before backwards, with persistent pulps and
no enamel. The summits of the crowns are tuberculated before
wearing, afterwards flattened or slightly concave. Skull with
rostrum formed by the union of the premaxillae in front of the
nasal aperture, longer than the aperture itself, bending downwards
at a right angle with the basi-cranial axis, and enclosing the sockets
of the large tusks. Anterior part of the lower jaw bent down in a
corresponding manner. Vertebrae: C 7, D 18-19, L and C 30. Tail
broadly notched in the middle line, with two pointed lateral lobes.
No nails on the fore-limbs. Caecum single. The genus is repre-
sented by H. tabernaculi from the Red Sea, H. dugong from the
Indian seas and H. australis from Australia. (See DUGONG.)
The last genus is represented only by the extinct Rhytina gieas,
of Bering Sea, in which there were no teeth, their place being supplied
functionally by the dense, strongly-ridged, horny mouth-plates.
Premaxillary rostrum about as long as the anterior narial aperture,
and moderately deflected. Vertebrae: C 7, D 19, L and C 34-37.
Head very small in proportion to the body. Tail with two lateral
pointed lobes. Front limbs small and truncated. Skin naked and
covered with a thick, hard, rugged, bark-like epidermis. Stomach
without caecal appendages to the pyloric cavity. Caecum simple.
See RHYTINA.
Extinct Sirenia. In past times the Sirenia were represented by a
number of extinct generic types ranging overall the temperate and
probably tropical regions, and extending from the Pliocene to the
Eocene epoch. In the Pliocene of Europe the group is represented by
Felsinotherium, in the Miocene by Metaxytherium, and in the Oligo-
cene by Halitherium; the latter having an acetabular cavity to the
pelvis and a rudimentary femur. From Halitherium, which has a
somewhat maniti-like dentition, although there are few cheek-teeth,
there is a transition through the other two genera to Halicore;
Felsinotherium having a large pair of tusk-like upper teeth. In
Halitherium milk-molars were developed. In Miosiren, of the
Belgian Miocene, the teeth were differentiated into i. f , p. },m. |.
Remains of several early types of sirenians have been obtained from
the Eocene deposits of Egypt. The least generalized of these is
Eosiren, an animal differing from the modern forms chiefly by the
retention of traces of the second and third pairs of incisors and of the
. S 6
SIRENS SIRICIUS
canines, and the somewhat less degree of reduction in the pelvis,
which has a complete acetabulum lor the head of the femur. The
front teeth (incisors and canine) have, however, been thrust to the
sides of the jaw, possibly to make room for a horny plate on the
palate. In the somewhat earlier Eotherium the incisors and canines
are larger and occupy the normal position in the front of the jaws ;
while the pelvis has a closed obturator foramen and a complete
acetabulum, suggestive that a functional thigh-bone or femur was
still retained. The most primitive member of the group with which
we are yet acquainted is the very imperfectly known Prorastomus,
from the Eocene of the West Indies, in which a complete and fully
differentiated dentition is accompanied by the absence of that de-
flection of the front part of the jaws which constitutes one of the
most striking features of all the foregoing representatives of the
order; a feature which Dr C. W. Andrews has pointed out must be
of great value to short-necked, long-bodied creatures feeding on the
herbage at the bottom of the water in which they dwell.
The foregoing Egyptian fossil sirenians afford important evidence
with regard to the ancestry of the order. Many years ago it was
suggested by the French naturalist de Blainville that the Sirenia are
related to the Proboscidea. This is supported by the occurrence of
the remains of some of the most primitive sirenians with those of the
most primitive proboscideans in the Eocene formations of Egypt;
confirmatory evidence being yielded by the similarity of the brain
and to some extent of the pelvis in the ancestral forms of the two
groups. As regards the living members of the two groups, both have
pectoral teats, abdominal testes, and a cleft apex to the heart;
while the cheek-teeth of the sirenians are essentially of the same
type as those of the early proboscideans. There seems also to be a
certain similarity in the mode of succession of the teeth in the more
specialized members of the two groups, although in the sirenians this
specialization has displayed itself in an abnormal augmentation of the
number of the teeth, while in the proboscideans, on the other hand,
it has taken the form of an increase in the complexity of the individual
teeth, especially those at the hinder part of the series^. Finally,
although the Proboscidea have a declduate and the Sirenia a zonary
nondeciduate placenta, yet there are certain similarities in the
structure of this organ in the two groups which may indicate genetic
affinity.
LITERATURE. O. Thomas and R. Lydekker, " On the Number of
Grinding-Teeth possessed by the Manatee," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1897);
G. R. Lepsius, Halitherium schinzi, die fossile Sirene des Mainzer-
Beckens, Abhandl. Mittelrhein. Geol. Vereins (1881 and 1882); O.
Abel, " Die Sirenen der mediterranen Tertiarbildungen Osterreichs,"
Abhandl. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, Wien, vol. xix. (1904); and " Cber
Halitherium bellunense, eine Ubergangsform zur Gattung Metaxy-
therium," Jahrbuch k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, Wien, vol. Iv. (1905);
C. W. Andrews, Descriptive Catalogue of the Vertebrata from the Fayum
(British Museum, 1906). (R. L.*)
SIRENS (Gr. 'Sfiprjves), in Greek mythology, the daughters of
Phorcys the sea-god, or, in later legend, of the river-god Acheloiis
and one of the nymphs. In Homer they are two in number (in
later writers generally three); their home is an island in the
western sea between Aeaea, the island of Circe, and the rock of
Scylla. They are nymphs of the sea, who, like the Lorelei of
German legend, lured mariners to destruction by their sweet
song. Odysseus, warned by Circe, escaped the danger by
stopping the ears of his crew with wax and binding himself to
the mast until he was out of hearing (Odyssey xii.). When the
Argonauts were passing by them, Orpheus sang so beautifully
that no one had ears for the Sirens, who, since they were to live
only until some one heard their song unmoved, flung themselves
into the sea and were changed into sunken rocks (Apollodorus i.
9; Hyginus, Fab. 141). They were said to have been the
playmates of Persephone, and, after her rape by Pluto, to have
sought for her in vain over the whole earth (Ovid, Metam. v.
552). When the adventures of Odysseus were localized on the
Italian and Sicilian coasts, the Sirens were transferred to the
neighbourhood of Neapolis and Surrentum, the promontory of
Pelorum at the entrance to the Straits of Messina, or elsewhere.
The tomb of one of them, Parthenope, was shown in Strabo's
(v. p. 246) time at Neapolis, where a gymnastic contest with a
torch-race was held in her honour.
Various explanations are given of the Sirens. As sea-nymphs,
they represent the treacherous calm of ocean, which conceals
destruction beneath its smiling surface; or they signify the
enervating influence of the hot wind (compare the name Sirius),
which shrivels up the fresh young life of vegetation. Or, they
symbolize the magic power of beauty, eloquence and song;
hence their images are placed over the graves of beautiful women
and maidens, of poets and orators (Sophocles, Isocrates).
Another conception of them is that of singers of the lament for
the dead, for which reason they are often used in the adornment
of tombs, and represented beating their breasts and tearing their
hair or playing the flute or lyre. In early art, they were repre-
sented as birds with the heads of women; later, as female figures
with the legs of birds, with or without wings.
See H. Schrader, Die Sirenen (1868); Preller- Robert, Griechische
Mythologie (1894), pp. 614-616; G. Weicker, De Sirenibus quaes-
tiones selectae (Leipzig, 1895), in which the writer endeavours to
show that the Sirens, like the Harpies, were originally the souls of the
dead, their employment on tombstones expressing the desire to find a
permanent abode for the souls; and Der Seelenvogel in der alien
Literatur und Kunst (1902), with bibliography; J. E. Harrison,
Myths of the Odyssey (1882), Mythology and Monuments of Athens
(1890) and Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1908); J. P.
Postgate, in Journal of Philology, ix. (1880), who considers the Sirens
to have been birds; W. E. Axon, R. Morris, D. Fitzgerald in the
Academy, Nos. 484, 486, 487 (1881); A. Baumeister, Denkmaler des
klassischen Altertums, iii. (1888).
SIRGUJA, or SURGUJA, one of the Chota Nagpur feudatory
states, which was transferred in 1905, from Bengal to the Central
Provinces. It-is bounded on the N. by the state of Rewa and the
districts of Mirzapur and Ranchi, on the E. by Ranchi, on the
S. by the Bilaspur district of the Central Provinces and the
states of Udaipur and Jashpur, and on the W. by the state of
Korea. It is very hilly, with elevated table-lands affording good
pasturage, and cut up by numerous ravines. The rivers are the
Kanhar, Rer, Mahan, Sone and Sankh, the last being formerly
known as the Diamond river. Hot springs exist in the state.
Extensive sal forests cover a large area, affording shelter to
herds of wild elephant, bison, and many sorts of deer, and also
to tigers, bears and other beasts of prey. Area, 6089 sq. m.;
pop. (1901) 351,011; estimated revenue, 8000. The residence
of the maharaja is at Bisrampur.-
SIRHIND, a tract of land in the Punjab, India. It consists
of the north-eastern portion of the plain between the Jumna and
Sutlej rivers, and is watered by the Sirhind canal. Sirhind is not
an administrative division, but historically the name includes the
districts of Umballa, Ludhiana, and Ferozepore, together with
the states of Patiala, Jind and Nabha.
The Sirhind canal serves the Umballa and Ludhiana districts,
and the Patiala, Jind and Nabha states. It draws its water-
supply from the Sutlej near Rupar, where the head-works are
situated. The canal, which was opened in 1882, has 538 m. of
main and branch canals, and irrigates nearly 2000 sq. m.
The town of Sirhind, in the state of Patiala, had a population
in 1901 of 5415. It is of very early, but uncertain, foundation,
and had a period of great prosperity under the Moguls. Its
ancient ruins cover a large extent, and include two fine domed
tombs of the I4th century. It is held accursed by the Sikhs,
owing to the barbarous murder of the son of Guru Govind by the
Mahommedan governor in 1704.
SIRICIUS, pope from December 384 to November 399, suc-
cessor of Damasus. Siricius was averse from countenancing the
influence of the monks, and did not treat Jerome with the favour
with which he had been honoured by preceding popes, with the
result that Jerome left Rome and settled at Bethlehem. Some
years later, however, Siricius condemned the anti-ascetic doctrines
of Jovinianus. Several of the decretal letters of Siricius are
extant, in which, at the request of certain groups of Western
bishops, he sets forth the rules of ecclesiastical discipline. It
was under his pontificate that a general council was convened at
Capua in 391, at which various Eastern affairs were brought
forward. Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, at the request of
Siricius, had two important disputes settled by two councils
held in 393 at Caesarea and Contantinople, relating respectively
to the sees of Antioch and Bostra. The council of Capua, inspired
by the pope, deferred to the council of Macedonia the affair of
Bonosus, bishop of Sardinia, who had been accused of heresy.
To safeguard the authority of the Holy See over the bishops of
Illyricum, Siricius entrusted his powers to the bishop of Thes-
salonica, who was henceforth the vicar of the pope in those
provinces. In 386 Siricius had protested against the attitude of
Bishop Ithacius, tie accuser of Priscillian, and this protest he
SIRKAR SIRSA
resolutely maintained, although he disapproved of the doctrines
taught by the Spanish doctor. It was during his pontificate
that the last attempt to revive paganism in Rome was made
(392-394) by Nicomachus Flavianus. Siricius died on the 26th
of November 399. (L. D.*)
SIRKAR (Persian sarkar, meaning " head of affairs"), a term
used in India in three distinct senses; for the government or
supreme authority, for a division of territory under the Moguls,
otherwise spelt circar (q.v.), and for a head servant in Bengal.
SIRMIO, a promontory at the southern end of the Lacus
Benacus (Lake of Garda), projecting 2| m. into the lake. It is
celebrated from its connexion with Catullus, for the large ruins
of a Roman villa on the promontory have been supposed to
be his country house. A post-station bearing the name Sirmio
stood on the high-road between Brixia and Verona, near the
southern shore of the lake. On the shore below is the little
village of Sermione, with sulphur baths.
SIRMOND, JACQUES (1559-1651), French scholar and Jesuit,
was born at Riom, Auvergne, on the i2th or the 22nd of October
1559. He was educated at the Jesuit College of Billom; having
been a novice at Verdun and then at Pont-a-Mousson, he entered
into the order on the 26th of July 1576. After having taught
rhetoric at Paris he resided for a long time in Rome as secretary
to R. P. Aquaviva (1590-1608); in 1637 he was confessor to
Louis XIII. He died on the 7th of October 1651. Father
Sirmond was a most industrious scholar, and his criticisms were
as enlightened as was possible for a man living in those times.
He brought out many editions of Latin and Byzantine chroniclers
of the middle ages: Ennodius and Flodoard (1611), Sidonius
Apollinaris (1614), the life of St Leo IX. by the archdeacon
Wibert (1615), Marcellinus and Idatius (1619), Anastasius the
librarian (1620), Eusebius of Caesarea (1643), Hincmar (1645),
Hrabanus Maurus (1647), Rufinus and Loup de Ferrieres (1650),
&c., and above all his edition of the capitularies of Charles the
Bald (Karoli Calm et successorum aliquot Franciae regum capitula,
1623) and of the councils of ancient France (Concilia antiquae
Galliae, 1629, 3 vols., new ed. incomplete, 1789). An essay in
which he denies the identity of St Denis of Paris and St Denis the
Areopagite (1641), caused a very lively controversy from which
his opinion came out victorious. His Opera varia, where this essay
is to be found, as well as a description in Latin verse of his
voyage from Paris to Rome in 1590, have appeared in 5 vols.
(1696; new ed. Venice, 1728). To him is attributed, and no
doubt correctly, Elogio di cardinale Baronio (1607).
See the Bibliotheque des Peres de la Compagnie de Jesus by Father
Carlos Sommervogel, tome vii. (1896).
SIRMUR, or SARMOR (also called NAHAN, after the chief town),
a native state of India, within the Punjab. It occupies the lower
ranges of the Himalaya, between Simla and Mussoorie. Area
1198 sq. m. The state is bounded on the N. by the hill states of
Balsan and Jubbal, on the E. by the British district of Dehra Dun,
from which it is separated by the rivers Tons and Jumna, on the
S.W. by Umballa district, and on the N.W. by the states of
Patiala and Keonthal. Except a very small tract about Nahan,
the chief town and residence of the raja, on the south-western
extremity, where a few streams rise and flow south-westward to
the Saraswati and Ghaggar rivers, the whole of Sirmur lies in
the basin of the Jumna, which receives from this tract the Giri
and its feeders the Jalal and the Palur. The Tons, the great
western arm of the stream called lower down the Jumna, flows
along the eastern boundary of Sirmur, and on the right side
receives from it the two small streams Minus and Nairai. The
surface generally declines in elevation from north to south;
the chief elevations on the northern frontier (Chor peak and
station) are about 12,000 ft. above the sea. The valley of the
Khiarda Dun, which forms the southern part of the state, is
bounded on the S. by the Siwalik range, the hills of which are
of recent formation and abound in fossil remains of large verte-
brate animals. Though the rocks of Sirmur consist of formations
usually metalliferous, the yield of mineral wealth is small. The
forests are very dense, so much so that the sportsman finds
difficulty in making his way through them in search of deer and
other game, with which they abound. The climate of Sirmur
varies with the elevation; the northern extremity has very little
rain; but large and excellent crops are everywhere to be obtained
by irrigation. The population in 1901 was 135,687, showing
an increase of 9% in the decade. Estimated gross revenue,
40,000. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of high lineage.
The raja Shamsher Perkash, G.C.S.I., who died in 1898, ruled
with remarkable ability and success. A younger son commanded
the Imperial Service sappers in the Tirah campaign of 1896-97,
and was rewarded with the rank of honorary captain in the
Indian army and the distinction of C.I.E. Attempts have been
made to establish an iron foundry, and to develop mines of slate
and mica.
The town of Nahan is situated about 40 m. S. of Simla, 3057 ft.
above the sea-level. The palace of the raja and several other
houses are built of stone in European style. It had a population
in 1901 of 6256.
SIROCCO, a name applied to two quite distinct types of local
wind. The first type is the characteristic wind of the winter
rainy season in the Mediterranean region, and is associated with
the eastern side of local depression or cyclones, in which the
weather is moist, cloudy and rainy, the prevailing directions
being south and south-east. The second type is the intensely dry
dust-laden wind of the desert which receives this name in Sicily
and southern Italy especially, where the general direction is south-
east or south-west. Local winds of this latter type receive a great
variety of names in different parts of the Mediterranean and
surrounding regions (see LEVECHE, LESTE, KHAMSIN, SIMOOM).
SIROHI, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency.
Area 1964 sq. m. The country is much broken up by hills and
rocky ranges; the Aravalli range divides it into two portions,
running from north-east to south-west. The south and south-east
part of the territory is mountainous and rugged, containing the
lofty Mount Abu, an isolated mass of granite rock, culminating in
a cluster of hills, enclosing several valleys surrounded by rocky
ridges, like great hollows. On both sides of the Aravallis the
country is intersected with numerous water channels, which
run with considerable force and volume during the height of
the rainy season, but are dry for the greater part of the year.
The only river of any importance is the Western Banas. A
large portion of the state is covered with dense jungle, in which
wild animals, including the tiger, bear and leopard, abound.
Many splendid ruins bear witness to the former prosperity and
civilization of the country. The climate is on the whole dry;
in the south and east there is usually a fair amount of rain.
On Abu the average annual rainfall is about 64 in., whereas in
Erinpura, less than 50 m. to the north, the average fall is only
between 12 and 13 in. Pop. (1901) 154,544, showing a decrease
of 17% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Gross
revenue 28,000, tribute 450.
During the early years of the igth century, Sirohi suffered
much from wars with Jodhpur and the wild Mina hill tribes.
The protection of the British was sought in 1817; the pretensions
of Jodhpur to suzerainty over Sirohi were disallowed, and in
1823 a treaty was concluded with the British government.
For services rendered during the Mutiny of 1857 the chief
received a remission of half his tribute. The chief, whose title
is maharao, is a Deora Rajput of the Chauhan clan, and claims
descent from the last Hindu king of Delhi. The state is traversed
by the Rajputana railway.
The town of SIROHI is 28 m. N. of Abu-road station. Pop.
(1901) 5651. It has manufactures of sword-blades and other
weapons. The Crosthwaite hospital, which is built and equipped
on modern principles, was opened by Sir Robert Crosthwaite in
December 1897.
SIRSA, a town of British India, in Hissar district of the
Punjab, situated on a dry bed of the river Ghaggar, and on a
branch of the Rajputana railway, midway between Rewari and
Ferozepur. Pop. (1901) 15,800. It occupies an ancient site, and
was refounded in 1837 as the head-quarters of a British district.
It is an important centre of trade with Rajputana, and has manu-
factures of cotton cloth and pottery. The former district of
i 5 8
SIS SISKIN
Sirsa was part of the territory conquered from the Mahrattas
in 1803, when it was almost entirely uninhabited. It required
reconquering from the Bhattis in 1818 ; but it did not come under
British administration until 1837. During the Mutiny of 1857
Sirsa was for a time wholly lost to British rule. On the restoration
of order the district was administered by Punjab officials, and in
the following year, with the remainder of the Delhi territory, it
was formally annexed to that province. In 1884 it was sub-
divided between the districts of Hissar and Ferozepur.
SIS (anc. Sision or Siskia, later Flaviopolis or Flavias), the
chief town of the Khozan sanjak of the Adana vilayet of Asiatic
Turkey, situated on the left bank of the Kirkgen Su, a tributary
of the Jihun (Pyramus) and at the south end of a group of passes
leading from the Anti-Taurus valleys to the Cilician plain and
Adana. It was besieged by the Arabs in 704 but relieved by the
Byzantines. The Caliph, Motawakkil took it and refortified it ;
but it soon returned to Byzantine hands. It was rebuilt in 1186
by Leo II., king of Lesser Armenia, who made it his capital.
In 1374 it was taken and demolished by the sultan of Egypt,
and it has never recovered its prosperity. It is now only a big
village of some 3000 inhabitants. It has had, however, a great
place in Armenian ecclesiastical history from the times of St
Gregory the Illuminator to our own. Gregory himself was there
consecrated the first Catholicusin A.D. 267, but transferred his see
to Vagarshabad (Echmiadzin, Etchmiadzin), whence, after the
fall of the Arsacids, it passed to Tovin. After the constitution
of the kingdom of Lesser Armenia, the catholicate returned to
Sis (1294), the capital, and remained there 150 years. In 1441,
Sis having fallen from its high estate, the Armenian clergy
proposed to remove the see, and on the refusal of the actual
Catholicus, Gregory IX., installed a rival at Echmiadzin, who,
as soon as Selim I. had conquered Greater Armenia, became the
more widely accepted of the two by the Armenian church in the
Ottoman empire. The Catholicus of Sis maintained himself
nevertheless, and was supported in his pretensions by the Porte
up to the middle of the igth century, when tlie patriarch Nerses,
declaring finally for Echmiadzin, carried the government with
him. In 1885 Sis tried to declare Echmiadzin schismatic, and
in 1895 its clergy took it on themselves to elect a Catholicus
without reference to the patriarch; but the Porte annulled the
election, and only allowed it six years later on Sis renouncing its
pretensions to independence. The present Catholicus has the
right to prepare the sacred myron (oil) and to preside over a
synod, but is in fact not more than a metropolitan, and regarded
by many Armenians as schismatic. The lofty castle and the
monastery and church built by Leo II., and containing the
coronation chair of the kings of Lesser Armenia, are inter-
esting. (D. G. H.)
SISAL HEMP, or HENEQUEN, of Florida and the Bahamas,
theproduct of Agaverigida, variety sisalana, anative of Yucatan,
but found in other parts of Central America and distributed to
the West Indies, where it is being increasingly cultivated.
Agave (q.v.) is a member of the order Amaryllidaceae ; and
a well-known species of the genus, Agave americana, the century
plant, will suggest the habit of the sisal hemp, which, however,
differs in the absence of prickles along the margin of the fleshy
leaf. After six or seven years the flowering stalk or " pole "
develops from the centre of the leaf-cluster, and grows to the
height of 15 or 20 ft. The flowers are borne in dense clusters at
the ends of short lateral branches, and closely resemble those of
Agave americana. After they have begun to wither, buds are
developed from the point of union with the flower-stalk; these
form tiny plants, which, when several inches long, become
detached and fall to the ground. Those that fall in a suitable
place take root and are soon large enough to transplant. After
flowering the plant perishes, but is renewed by suckers springing
from the base of the stem; these suckers are then planted, and the
leaves should be ready for cutting in about four years. The other
method of planting is by means of " pole " plants just described.
In collecting the fibre the leaves are cut off at the base, the
spine at the top end removed, and the leaves carried in bundles
to the machines. Here two scraping wheels remove the pulp
from the leaves. The leaves are put into the machine at one side,
and delivered clean at the other. One half is cleaned by the first
wheel, then the cleaned portion is held while the second wheel
cleans the remainder of the leaf; all the operations are auto-
matically performed. In Yucatan, the leaves measure from
4 to 5 ft. in length, about 4 in. in width, and % in. in thickness.
They are lance-shaped and weigh from ij Ib to if Ib on an
average. As only about 3 to 4% of the weight is available for
fibre, the average yield of 1000 leaves is from 50 to 60 Ib. The
yield per acre is estimated at about half a ton. It has been
proposed to treat the pulp, &c., with a view to extracting the
chemical substances, but we are not aware that any successful
attempt has been made. The fibre is yellowish-white, straight,
smooth and clean, and a valuable cordage fibre second only to
manila fibre in strength. It is used extensively for cordage and
binder twine, both alone and in conjunction with manila, and is
also used for bags, hammocks and similar articles.
The plants thrive on arid rocky land, growing, for instance,
on the Florida Keys upon the almost naked coral rock. Their
northern limit of cultivation is determined by frost, which the
plants will not stand; in Florida this is represented by the line
of 27 N. An inferior fibre is obtained from the leaves of another
species, Agave decipiens, which is found wild along the coasts and
keys of Florida. It is known as the false sisal hemp, and can
at once be distinguished from true sisal by its spiny leaf-margin.
SISKIN (Dan. sidsken, Ger. Zeisig and Zeising), long known
in England as a cage-bird called by dealers the Aberdevine or
Abadavine, names of unknown origin, [the Fringilla spinus of
Linnaeus, and Carduelis spinus of modern writers, belongs to
the Passerine family Fringillidae. In some of its structural
characters it is most nearly allied to the goldfinch (q.v.), and both
are placed in the same genus by systematists; but in its style
of coloration, and still more in its habits; it resembles the redpolls
(cf. LINNET), though without their slender figure, being indeed
rather short and stout of build. Yet it hardly yields to them
in activity or in the grace of its actions, as it seeks its food from
the catkins of the alder or birch, regardless of the attitude it
assumes while so doing. Of an olive-green above, deeply tinted
in some parts with black and in others lightened by yellow, and
beneath of a yellowish-white again marked with black, the male
of this species has at least a becoming if not a brilliant garb, and
possesses a song that is not unmelodious, though the resemblance
of some of its notes to the running-down of a piece of clockwork
is more remarkable than pleasing. The hen is still more soberly
attired; but it is perhaps the siskin's disposition to familiarity
that makes it so favourite a captive, and, 'though as a cage-bird
it is not ordinarily long-lived, it readily adapts itself to -the loss
of liberty. Moreover, if anything like the needful accommodation
be afforded, it will build a nest and therein lay its eggs; but it
rarely succeeds in bringing up its young in confinement. As a
wild bird it breeds constantly, though locally, throughout the
greater part of Scotland, and has frequently done so in England,
but more rarely in Ireland. The greater portion, however, of
the numerous bands which visit the British Islands in autumn
and winter doubtless come from the Continent perhaps even
from far to the eastward, since its range stretches across Asia to
Japan, in which country it is as favourite a cage-bird as with us.
The nest of the siskin is very like that of the goldfinch, but
seldom so neatly built; the eggs, except in their smaller size,
much resemble those of the greenfinch (q.v.).
A larger and more brightly coloured species, C. spinpides, inhabits
the Himalayas, but the siskin has many other relatives belonging
to the New World, and in them serious modifications of structure,
especially in the form of the bill, occur. Some of these relatives lead
almost insensibly to the greenfinch (ut supra) and its allies, others to
the goldfinch (ut supra), the redpolls and so on. Thus the siskin
perhaps may be regarded as one of the less modified descendants of a
stock whence such forms as those just mentioned have sprung. Its
striated plumage also favours this view, as an evidence of permanent
immaturity or generalization of form, since striped feathers are so
often the earliest clothing of many of these birds, which only get rid
of them at their first moult. On this theory the yellowbird or North-
American " goldfinch," C. tristis, would seem, with its immediate
allies, to rank among the highest forms of the group, and the pine-
goldfinch, C. pinus, of the same country', to be one of the lowest
SISLEY SISSEK
the cock of the former being generally of a bright yellow hue, with
black crown, tail and wings the last conspicuously barred with
white, while neither hens nor young exhibit any striations. On the
other hand, neither sex of the latter at any age puts off its striped
garb the mark, it may be pretty safely asserted, of an inferior stage
of development. The remaining species of the group, mostly South-
American, do not seem here to need particular notice. (A. N.)
SISLEY, ALFRED (1840-1899), French landscape painter,
was born in Paris in 1839, of English parents. He studied
painting under Gleyre, and was afterwards influenced, first by
Corot, and then by the impressionists Monet and Renoir. He
worked both in France and in England, and made the Seine, the
Loing and the Thames the subjects of many pictures that are
remarkable for the subtle appreciation of the most delicate colour
effects. Success was not given him during his life, which was
one of constant poverty and hard struggle. Purchasers of his
pictures were few and far between, although the prices rarely
exceeded a few pounds. Only after his death, which occurred
at Moret-sur-Loing in 1899, did his work find appreciation,
and at the Viau sale in Paris, in 1907, his small painting of
" The Seine at Port-Marly " realized 652, whilst ten other
landscapes sold at prices ranging from 200 to 400. He was
essentially a colourist who, like Monet, delighted in recording
the changing effects of light in the successive hours of the day, and
paid very little attention to composition and draughtsmanship.
The impressionist exhibition at the Grafton Galleries, London,
in 1905, included several characteristic examples of his work.
Sisley is also represented at the Luxembourg in the Caillebotte
collection.
SISMONDI, JEAN CHARLES LEONARD DE (1773-1842),
whose real name was Simonde,was born at Geneva, on the 9th of
May 1773. His father and all his ancestors seem to have borne
the name Simonde, at least from the time when they migrated
from Dauphine to Switzerland at the revocation of the edict of
Nantes. It was not till after Sismondi had become an author
that, observing the identity of his family arms with those of the
once flourishing Pisan house of the Sismondi, and finding that
some members of that house had migrated to France, he assumed
the connexion without further proof and called himself De
Sismondi. The Simondes, however, were themselves citizens of
Geneva of the upper class,' and possessed both rank and property,
though the father was also a village pastor. The future historian
was well educated, but his family wished him to devote himself
to commerce rather than literature, and he became a banker's
clerk at Lyons. Then the Revolution broke out, and as it affected
Geneva the Simonde family took refuge in England, where they
stayed for eighteen months (1793-1794). Disliking, it is said,
the climate, they returned to Geneva, but found the state of
affairs still unfavourable; there is even a legend that the head
of the family was reduced to sell milk himself in the town. The
greater part of the family property was sold, and with the proceeds
they emigrated to Italy, bought a small farm at Pescia near
Lucca, and set to work to cultivate it themselves. Sismondi
worked hard here, both with his hands and his mind, and his
experiences gave him the material of his first book, Tableau de
I' agriculture toscane, which, after returning to Geneva, he
published there in 1801. In 1803 he published his Traite de la
richesse commercial, his first work on the subject of political
economy, which, with some differences of view, continued to
interest him to the end of his life.
As an economist, Sismondi represented a humanitarian protest
against the dominant orthodoxy of his time. In his first book he
followed Adam Smith, but in his principal subsequent economic
work, Nouveaux Principes d'economie politique (1819), he
insisted on the fact that economic science studied the means of
increasing wealth too much, and the use of wealth for producing
happiness too little. He was not a socialist; but, in protesting
against laisser faire and invoking the intervention of government
" to regulate the progress of wealth," he was an- interesting
precursor of the German " socialists of the chair."
Meanwhile he began to compile his great Histoire des Re-
Publiques Italiennes du moyen age, and was introduced to Madame
de Stael. With her he became very intimate, and after being
regularly enrolled in the society of Coppet he was invited or
commanded (for Madame de Stael's invitations had something of
command) to form one of the suite with which the future Corinne
made the journey into Italy, resulting in Corinne itself during
the years 1804-1805. Sismondi was not altogether at his ease
here, and he particularly disliked Schlegel, who was also of the
company. But during this journey he made the acquaintance of
the countess of Albany, Louisa of Stolberg, widow of Charles
Edward, and all her life long gifted with a singular faculty of
attracting the affection (Platonic and other) of men of letters.
She was now an old woman, and Sismondi's relations with her
were of the strictly friendly character, but they were close and
lasted long, and they produced much valuable and interesting
correspondence. In 1807 appeared the first volumes of the above
mentioned book on the Italian republics, which (though his essay
in political economy had brought him some reputation and the
offer of a Russian professorship) first made Sismondi prominent
among European men of letters. The completion of this book,
which extended to sixteen volumes, occupied him, though by
no means entirely, for the next eleven years. He lived at first
at Geneva, and delivered there some interesting lectures on the
literature of the south of Europe, which were continued from
time to time and finally published; and he held an official post
that of secretary of the chamber of commerce for the then
department of Leman. In 1813 he visited Paris for the first time,
and abode there for some time, mixing much in literary society.
Although a Liberal and in his earlier days almost an Anglo-
maniac, he did not welcome the fall of the empire. During the
Hundred Days he defended Napoleon's constitutional schemes
or promises, and had an interview with the emperor himself,
which is one of the chief events of a not very eventful life.
After the Restoration he left Paris. On completing (1817) his
great book on the Italian republics, he undertook (1818) a still
greater, the Histoire des Francois, which he planned on a vast
scale, and of which during the remaining twenty-three years of
his life he published twenty-nine volumes. His untiring industry
enabled him to compile many other books, but it is on these two
that his fame chiefly rests. The earlier displays his qualities in the
most favourable light, and has been least injuriously affected
by subsequent writings and investigations; but the Histoire
des Fran^ais, as a careful and accurate sketch on the great scale,
has now been superseded. Sainte-Beuve has with benevolent
sarcasm surnamed the author " the Rollin of French History,"
and the praise and the blame implied in the comparison are both
perfectly well deserved. In April 1819 Sismondi married an
English lady, Miss Allen, whose sister was the wife of Sir James
Mackintosh, and the marriage appears to have been a very happy
one. His later years were chiefly spent at Geneva, in the politics
of which city he took a great, though as time and changes went
on a more and more chagrined, interest. Indeed, in his later days
he became a kind of reactionary. He died at Geneva on the
25th of June 1842.
Besides the works above mentioned he had executed many others,
his custom for a long period of years being never to work less than
eight hours a day. The chief of these are Litterature du rnidi de
I'Europe (1813), an historical novel entitled Julia Severa ou Van 492
(1822), Histoire de la Renaissance de la liberte en Italic (1832),
Histoire de la chute de I'empire remain (1835), Precis de I'histoire
des Franfais, an abridgment of his own book (1839), with several
others, chiefly political pamphlets.
Sismondi's journals and his correspondence with Channing, with
the countess of Albany and others have been published chiefly by
Mile. Mongolfier (Paris, 1843) and M. de Saint-Rene" Taillandier
(Paris, 1863). The latter work serves as the chief text of two
admirable Lundis of Sainte-Beuye (September 1863), republished in
the Nouveaux Lundis, vol. vi.
SISSEK (Hungarian, Sziszek; Croatian, Sisak), a town of
Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Agram; situated at the
confluence of the Save and Kulpa, 30 m. by rail S.E. by S. of
Agram. Pop. (1900) 7047. Sissek has a considerable trade
in grain and timber. Its only noteworthy building is an ancient
castle, constructed of brick.
As the vestiges of its Roman walls tend to prove, Sissek was a
large and flourishing city under Roman rule. Augustus made it
i6o
SISTER SISTOVA
a military station; Tiberius chose it as his headquarters against
the Pannonian rebels; and from Septimius Severus, who made it
the centre of a military government, it gained the name of
Septimia Sissia. A Segesla, on the Save, is mentioned by
Appian, and Strabo distinguishes between this town and the
neighbouring Siscia. It seems likely, as St Aymour suggests,
that two towns, the native Segesta and the Roman fortress
called by Strabo i) 2t(ma Qpovpiov, ultimately united under the
single name of Siscia. In the 3rd century, under Gallienus
and Probus, the city contained the chief imperial mint and
treasury; and an engraved coffer, found in Croatia, dating from
the 4th century, and representing the five foremost cities of the
Empire, includes Siscia along with Rome, Byzantium, Carthage
and Nicomedia. Its bishopric was removed to Salona, in 441,
when Attila appeared, and thenceforward the city declined.
For a brief period, in the 7th and 8th centuries, the conquering
Slavs made it one of their Zupanates, or governments; but in
the loth century it was sacked by the Magyars, and in 1092 its
territories were bestowed upon the cathedral chapter of Agram
by Ladislaus I., king of Hungary. Under the walls of its castle,
built by this chapter in 1544, the Turks were thrice defeated
in 1593- At a fourth venture the city fell, only to be evacuated
in 1594. It witnessed a final Turkish defeat in 1641.
See C. de St Aymour, Les Pays sud-slaves de I' Autriche-Hongrie
(1883), ch. ii.
SISTER, the correlative of brother (q.v.), a female in her relation
to the other children born of the same parents, also one who has
acquired such relationship by marriage, a sister-in-law, or by
adoption. The O. Eng. word was sweostor; cf. Dutch zuster, Ger.
Schwester, Goth, swislar; in M. Eng. this appears as suster; the
Scandinavian form appears in Icel. systir, Swed. systor, Dan.
sbstor, and this has curiously taken the place of the true English
form suster. Outside Teut. are found Lat. soror for sosor, Skt.
svasti; the origin is not known, but it may be related with
Skt. svasti, happiness, joy. The Lat. consobrinus, which has
given " cousin," is from con-sobrinus, sosbrinus, from the stem
of soror, sister. Ay " brother " and " brethren " are used for
the male members of a religious body or community, so also
is " sister " for the female members; more particularly it is
applied to the members of a female religious order or community,
a " sisterhood," in the Roman and other churches, who are de-
voted to a religious life, works of charity or mercy, whether
bound by irrevocable vows or not.
SISTERHOODS (MODERN ANGLICAN). The dissolution of
religious houses in England (1536-1540) under Henry VIII.
swept away more than 140 nunneries, and the Anglican Church
was left without sisterhoods for three centuries. But as these
had for 900 years formed part of her system, there were protests
from time to time and attempts at restoration. Amongst such
protests, which generally dwelt a good deal on the want of
provision for unmarried women, may be mentioned three in
successive centuries. The historian Fuller would have been
glad " if such feminine foundations had still continued," those
" good shee-schools," only without vows (Bk. vi.). Richardson
the novelist, in Sir Charles Grandison, wishes there could be a
Protestant nunnery in every county, " with a truly worthy
divine, at the appointment of the bishop of the diocese, to direct
and animate the devotion of such a society "; in 1829 the poet
Southey, in his Colloquies (cxiii.), trusts that " thirty years
hence this reproach also may be effaced, and England may have
its Beguines and its sisters of mercy. It is grievously in need of
them." Also small practical efforts were made in the religious
households! of Nicholas Ferrar at Little Gidding, 1625, and of
William Law at King's Cliff e, 1743; and under Charles II.,
says Fr. Bede, Aulob., " about 12 Protestant ladies of gentle
birth and considerable means " founded a shortlived convent,
with Sancroft, then Dean of St Paul's, for director.
Southey's appeal had weight, and before the thirty years
had passed, compassion for the needs of the destitute in great
cities, and the impulse of a strong Church revival, aroused a
body of laymen, among whom were included Mr Gladstone,
Sir T. D. Acland, Mr A. J. Beresford-Hope, Lord Lyttelton
and Lord John Manners (chairman), to exertions which restored
sisterhoods to the Church of England. On 26th March 1845
the Park Village Community was set on foot in Regent's Park,
London, to minister to the poor population of St Pancras. The
" Rule " was compiled by Dr Pusey, who also gave spiritual
supervision. In the Crimean War the superior and other sisters
went out as nurses with Florence Nightingale. The community
afterwards united with the Devonport Sisters, founded by Miss
Sellon in 1849, and together they form what is known as Ascot
Priory. The St Thomas's sisterhood at Oxford commenced
in 1847; and the present mother-superior of the Holy Trinity
Convent at Oxford, Marian Hughes, dedicated herself before
witnesses to such a life as early as 1841 (Liddon's Life of Dr
Pusey, Hi.).
Four sisterhoods stand together as the largest : those of Clewer,
Wantage, All Saints and East Grinstead ; and the work of the first
may stand as a specimen of that of others. The " Community of
St John the Baptist " at Clewer, near Windsor, arose in 1849 through
the efforts of Mrs Tennant and the vicar, afterwards warden of the
society, the Rev. T. T. Carter, to save fallen women. Under the first
superior, Harriet Monsell, the numbers grew apace, and are now
above 200. Their services to society and the Church include 6
houses for fallen women, 7 orphanages, 9 elementary and high schools
and colleges, 5 hospitals, mission work in 13 parishes and visiting in
several "married quarters" of barracks. Many of these are im-
portant institutions, and their labours extend over a wide area ; two
of the settlements are in India and two in the United States. A list
of 26 sisterhoods is given in the Official Year-Book of the C.E. (1900),
to which may bf, added 10 institutions of deaconesses, many of whom
live in community under rule. The Episcopal Church of Scotland has
3 sisterhoods' and they are found also at Toronto, " Saint John the
Divine "; Brisbane, " Sacred Advent "; Grahamstown, " Resurrec-
tion"; Blaemfontein, " St Michael and All Angels"; Maritzburg,
" Saint John the Divine." The Year-Book (1911) of the Protestant
Episcopal Church of America (Anglican) mentions 1 8 American sister-
hoods and 7 deaconess homes and training colleges.
Practically all Anglican sisterhoods originated in works of
mercy, and this fact largely accounts for the rapidity with which
they have won their way to the good will and confidence of the
Church. Their number is believed to exceed 3000, and the de-
mand for their services is greater than the supply. Bishops
are often their visitors, and Church Congresses, Convocation
and Lambeth Conferences have given them encouragement and
regulation. This change in sympathy, again, has gained a hearing
from modern historians, who tend more and more to discredit the
wholesale defamation of the dissolution period. This charitable
activity, however, distinguishes the modern sister from the nuns
of primitive and medieval times, who were cloistered and con-
templative, and left external works to deaconesses, or to laywomen
of a " third order," or to the freer societies like the Beguines.
St Vincent de Paul is considered to have begun the new era with
his institution of " Sisters of Charity " in 1634. Another modern
feature is the fuller recognition of family ties: Rule 29 of the
Clewer sisters directs that " the sisters shall have free intercourse
with relations, who may visit them at any time." But in most
essential respects modern sisterhoods follow the ancient traditions.
They devote themselves to the celibate life, have property in
common, and observe a common rule of prayer, fellowship
and work. Government is by a sister superior, assisted by various
officers. The warden and chaplain are clergy, and the visitor
is commonly a bishop. In one important regard there has been
hesitation, and authorities like Dr Littledale and Bishop Grafton
contend strongly for the primitive ideal of the convent as family,
with a constitutional government, as against the later and wide-
spread Jesuit ideal of the convent as regiment, with a theory
of despotic rule and absolute obedience. If some early mistakes
in the restoration of sisterhoods were due to this exaggerated
doctrine of obedience, the doctrine itself may be trusted to
disappear among a Church and people accustomed to free institu-
tions and to respect for individuality.
AUTHORITIES. T. T. Carter, Memoir of Harriet Monsell; Dr R. F.
Littledale, Papers on " Sisterhoods " in the Monthly Packet (July
i874-November 1879); Parl. Report on Convent, and Monast. Inst.
(1870); Lina Eckenstein, Woman under Monasticism; Bishop
Grafton, Vocation. (J. O. N.)
SISTOVA (Bulg. Svishtov), the capital of the department
of Sistova, Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 40 m. W.
SISTRUM SITKA
161
of Rustchuk. Pop. (1906), 13,408. Despite the lack of railway
communication, and the migration of the Turkish inhabitants
after the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), Sistova is an important
commercial centre, exporting wine and grain and importing
petroleum.
Sistova is identified with the Roman colony Novae mentioned
by Ptolemy. The exact site appears to have been Staklen, to
the west of the present town, which has gradually moved east-
ward since the i6th century, when it was almost destroyed in
the Turkish wars. It was at Sistova that the peace of 1790 was
signed, by which the Austrian-Turkish boundary was determined.
The town was burned in 1810 by the Russians; but after 1820
it began to revive, and the introduction of steam traffic on the
lower Danube (1835) restored its prosperity. The Walachian
town of Alexandria was founded by fugitives from Sistova in
1878.
SISTRUM (Gr. aiia-rpov, Ger. Rappel), an ancient Egyptian
instrument of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, a kind of
metal rattle. The sistrum consists of a metal frame in the shape
of an egg, fastened to a handle, frequently surmounted by a
grotesque head or by a figure of the sacred lioness Sekhet. The
frame is crossed by four metal horizontal rods passing through
holes large enough to allow them to rattle when the sistrum is
shaken, the rods being prevented from slipping out altogether
by little metal stops in the shape of a leaf; sometimes metal
rings are threaded over the rods to increase the jingling. The
sistrum is played also by beating it with a metal stick. This
ancient instrument was extensively used by the priests in the
temple of Isis to attract the attention of worshippers to different
parts of the ritual. The Egyptians attributed to it, as well as
to the tambourine, the power of dispersing and terrifying evil
spirits and more especially the Typhon. Queen Cleopatra 1
made use of a large number of sistra at the battle of Actium
(31 B.C.), and accordingly the instrument was satirically called
Queen Cleopatra's war trumpet. (K. S.)
SISYPHUS, in Greek mythology, son of Aeolus and Enarete,
and king of Ephyra (Corinth). He was the father of the sea-god
Glaucus and (in post-Homeric legend) of Odysseus. He was said
to have founded the Isthmian games in honour of Melicertes,
whose body he found lying on the shore of the Isthmus of Corinth
(Apollodorus iii. 4). He promoted navigation and commerce,
but was avaricious and deceitful. From Homer onwards Sisyphus
was famed as the craftiest of men. When Death came to fetch
him, Sisyphus put him into fetters, so that no one died till Ares
came and freed Death, and delivered Sisyphus into his custody.
But Sisyphus was not yet at the end of his resources. For before
he died he told his wife that when he was gone she was not to
offer the usual sacrifice to the dead. So in the under world he
complained that his wife was neglecting her duty, and he per-
suaded Hades to allow him to go back to the upper world and
expostulate with her. But when he got back to Corinth he
positively refused to return, until forcibly carried off by Hermes
(Schol. on Pindar, Ol. i. 97). In the under world Sisyphus was
compelled to roll a big stone up a steep hill; but before it
reached the top of the hill the stone always rolled down, and
Sisyphus had to begin all over again (Odyssey, xi. 593). The
reason for this punishment is not mentioned in Homer, and is
obscure; according to some, he had revealed the designs of the
gods to mortals, according to others, he was in the habit of
attacking and murdering travellers. The subject was a common-
place of ancient writers, and was depicted by the painter Poly-
gnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi (Pausanias x. 31).
According to the solar theory, Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that
rises every day and then sinks 'below the horizon. Others see in
him a personification of the waves rising to a height and then
suddenly falling, or of the treacherous sea. It is suggested by
Welcker that the legend is symbolical of the vain struggle of man
in the pursuit of knowledge. The name Sisyphus is generally
explained as a reduplicated form of cro^os ( = " the very wise ");
Gruppe, however, thinks it may be connected with <riavs (" a
'Virgil, Aen. viii. 696; Lucan x. 63; Ovid, Am. ii. 13. n;
Mart xiv. 54.
xxv. 6
goat's skin "), the reference being to a rain-charm in which
goats' skins were used. S. Reinach (Revue archeologique, 1904) finds
the origin of the story in a picture, in which Sisyphus was repre-
sented rolling a huge stone up Acrocorinthus, symbolical of the
labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum.
When a distinction was made between the souls in the under
world, Sisyphus was supposed to be rolling up the stone per-
petually as a punishment for some offence committed on earth;
and various reasons were invented to account for it.
The way in which Sisyphus cheated Death is not unique in folk-
tales. Thus in a Venetian story the ingenious Beppo ties up Death
in a bag and keeps him there for eighteen months; there is general
rejoicing; nobody dies, and the doctors are in high feather. In a
Sicilian story an innkeeper corks up Death in a bottle; so nobody
dies for years, and the long white beards are a sight to see. In another
Sicilian story a monk keeps Death in his pouch for forty years
(T. F. Crane, Italian Popular Tales, 1885). The German parallel is
Gambling Hansel, who kept Death up a tree for seven years, during
which no one died (Grimm, Household Tales). The Norse parallel
is the tale of the Master Smith (E. W. Dasent, Popular Tales from
the Norse). For a Lithuanian parallel, see A. Schleicher, Litauische
Marchen, Sprickworte, Rdtsel und Lieder (1857); for Slavonic
parallels, F. S. Krauss, Sagen und Marchen der Sudslaven, ii. Nos.
125, 126; see also Frazer's Pausanias, iii. p. 33; O. Gruppe, Grie-
chische^Mythologie (1906), ii., p. 1021, note 2.
SITAPUR, a town and district of British India in the Lucknow
division of the United Provinces. The town is on the river
Sarayan, half-way between Lucknow and Shahjahanpur, and on
the Lucknow-Bareilly railway, 55 m. N.W. from Lucknow.
Pop. (1901) 22,557. It is a cantonment, garrisoned by a portion
of a British regiment. It has a considerable trade, principally
in grain.
The DISTRICT or SITAPUR has an area of 2250 sq. m. It
presents the appearance of a vast plain, sloping imperceptibly
from an elevation of 505 ft. above sea-level in the north-west to
400 ft. in the south-east. The country is well-wooded with
numerous groves, and well cultivated, except in those parts
where the soil is barren and cut up by ravines. It is intersected
by numerous streams, and contains many shallow ponds and
natural reservoirs, which overflow during the rains, but become
dry in the hot season. Except in the eastern portion, which lies
in the doabs between the Kewani and Chauka and the Gogra
and Chauka rivers, the soil is as a rule dry, but even this moist
tract is interspersed with patches of land covered with saline
efflorescence called reh. The principal rivers are the Gogra,
which is navigable by boats of large tonnage throughout the year,
and the Chauka. The climate is considered healthy, and the
cantonments of Sitapur are famous for the low mortality of the
British troops stationed there. The annual rainfall averages
about 38 in.
In 1901 the population was 1,175,473, showing an increase of
9% in the decade. The principal crops are wheat, rice, pulses,
millets, barley, sugar-cane and poppy. The district is traversed
by the Lucknow-Bareilly section of the Rohilkhand and Kumaon
railway. The history of Sitapur is closely associated with that
of the rest of Oudh. The district figured prominently in the
Mutiny of 1857, when the native troops quartered in the canton-
ments fired on their officers, many of whom were killed, as were
also several military and civil officers, with their families, in
attempting to escape.
See Sitapur District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1905).
SITKA (formerly New Archangel), a city and historically the
most notable settlement of Alaska, on the W. coast of Baranof
Island, in Sitka Sound, in lat. 57 03' N. and long. 135 19' W.
(from Greenwich), and about 100 m. S.S.W. of Juneau. Pop.
(1890) 1193 (300 white and 893 natives); (1900) 1396. It is
served by steamer from Seattle, Washington; there is cable
connexion with the United States, and a six-day mail service
from Pacific ports, via Juneau. The city is prettily situated on
an island-studded and mountain-locked harbour, with a back-
ground of forest and snow-capped mountain cones; an extinct
volcano, Mt Edgecumbe (3467 ft.), on Kruzof Island, is a con-
spicuous landmark in the bay. Sitka's mean annual tempera-
ture is 2 higher than that of Ottawa, and its climate is more
equable. The mean annual temperature is about 43 F.; the
SITTINGBOURNE SIVAJI
monthly means range from 33 (January) to 56 (August), and
the extreme recorded temperature from 4 to 87 F. Two-
thirds of the days of the year are cloudy; on about 208 days in
the year it rains or snows; the normal rainfall is 88-1 in., the
extreme recorded rainfall (in 1886) is 140-26 in. The city in-
cludes an American settlement and an adjoining Indian village.
In addition to U.S. government buildings (marine hospital and
barracks, agricultural experiment station, wireless telegraph
station and magnetic observatory), there are two public schools
(one for whites and one for Thlinkets), the Sheldon Jackson
(ethnological) Museum, which is connected with the Presbyterian
Industrial Training School, a parochial school of the Orthodox
Greek (Russian) Church, a Russian-Greek Church, built in 1816,
and St Peter's-by-the-Sea, a Protestant Episcopal mission,
built in 1899. Sitka is the see of a Greek Catholic and of a
Protestant Episcopal bishop. In its early history it was the
leading trading post of Alaska. After the discoveries of gold in
the last decade of the ipth century it wholly lost its commercial
primacy, but business improved after the discovery of gold in
1905 on Chicagoff Island, about 50 m. distant. There is a very
slight lumber industry; salmon fisheries are of greater import-
ance. In the surrounding region there are gold and silver mines.
Old Sitka or Fort Archangel Gabriel, about 6 m. from the
present town, was founded in May 1799. The fort was over-
whelmed by the Thlinkets in 1802, but was recaptured by the
Russians in September 1804. The settlement was removed at
this time by Alexander Baranof to the present site. Thereafter
until 1867 it was the chief port and (succeeding Kodiak) the seat
of government of Russian America; it is still the headquarters
of the Assistant Orthodox Greek bishop of the United States.
The formal transfer of Alaska from Russian to American posses-
sion took place at Sitka on the i8th of October 1867. During
the next ten years Alaska was governed by the department of
war, and Sitka was an army post. It was the seat of govern-
ment of Alaska until 1906, when Juneau became the capital.
SITTINGBOURNE, a market town in the Faversham parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, on a navigable creek of the
Swale, 44f m. E.S.E. of London by the South Eastern and
Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 8943. It con-
sists principally of one long street (the Roman Watling Street)
and the northern suburb of Milton, a separate urban district
(pop. 7086), celebrated for its oysters, the fishery of which
used to employ a large number of the inhabitants. Brick and
cement making is an important industry, and there are corn and
paper mills. The export trade in corn and import trade in coal
is considerable. St Michael's church, originally Early English,
underwent extensive restoration in 1873. An earthwork known
as Castle Rough, in the marshes below Milton, was probably the
work of Hasten the Dane in 892, and Bayford Castle, a mile
distant, occupies the site of one said to have been built in opposi-
tion by King Alfred. Tong Castle is about 2 m. E. of Sitting-
bourne It consists of a high mound surrounded by a moat,
and is said to have been erected by Hengest. Fragments of
masonry exist about the mound. The story of the founding of
the castle resembles that connected with the city of Carthage.
Vortigern is said to have granted Hengest as much land as an
ox-hide could encompass, and the hide being cut into strips the
site of Tong Castle was accordingly marked out. The same
tradition attaches to Tong Castle in Shropshire. Tradition also
asserts, according to the I2th century chronicler, Geoffrey of
Monmouth, that it was in Tong Castle that Vortigern met
Rowena, Hengest's daughter, and became so enamoured of her
as to resign his kingdom to her father In the time of Richard II.
Tong Castle belonged to Edmund Mortimer, earl of March.
Sittingbourne (Saedungburna, Sidyngbourn) is mentioned in
Saxon documents in 989 and frequently in contemporary records
of the 1 3th and I4th centuries. The first charter was not ob-
tained until 1573, when it was incorporated by Elizabeth under
the title of a " guardian and free tenants " of the town of Sitting-
bourne. A weekly market was granted, two fairs yearly at
Whitsuntide and Michaelmas, and many other privileges. This
charter obtained until in 1599 a second one incorporated the
town by the name of " mayor and jurats " and regranted the
market and fairs together with some additional privileges,
among others that of returning members to parliament, which,
however, was never exercised.
SITTING BULL (c. 1837-1890), a chief and medicine man of the
Dakota Sioux, was born on Willow Creek in what is now North
Dakota about 1837, son of a chief named Jumping Bull. He
gained great influence among the reckless and unruly young
Indians, and during the Civil War led attacks on white settle-
ments in Iowa and Minnesota. Though he had pretended to-
make peace in 1866, from 1869 to 1876 he frequently attacked
whites or Indians friendly to whites. His refusal to return to the
reservation in 1876, led to the campaign in which General
George A. Custer (q.v.) and his command were massacred.
Fearing punishment for his participation in the massacre,
Sitting Bull with a large band moved over into Canada. He
returned to the United States in 1881, and after 1883 made his
home at the Standing Rock Agency. Rumours of a coming Indian
Messiah who should sweep away the whites, and Indian dissatis-
faction at the sale of their lands, created such great unrest in
Dakota in 1880-1890 that it was determined to arrest Sitting
Bull as a precaution. He was surprised and captured by Indian
police and soldiers on Grand river on the i5th of December 1890,
and was killed while his companions were attempting to rescue
him.
SIVA, in Hindu mythology, a god who forms the supreme
trinity with Brahma and Vishnu. As Brahma is the creator
and Vishnu the preserver, so Siva is the destroyer. His name
does not occur in the Vedas, but in later Hinduism he is an
important divinity. Though Siva's personal appearance is.
fully described in the Puranas, it is in the form of the linga
(phallic emblem) that he is almost universally worshipped.
Death being a transition to a new form of life, the destroyer is
really a re-creator, and thus Siva is styled the Bright or Happy
One. He is exclusively a post-Vedic god, though he has been
identified by the Hindus with the Rudra of the Vedas, and
numerous features of Siva's character and history are developed
from those of Rudra. See further BRAHMANISM and HINDUISM.
SIVAGANGA, a town of British India, in the Madura district
of Madras, 25 m. E. of Madura. Pop. (1901) 9097. It contains
the residence of a zamindar, whose estate covers an area of 1680
sq. m. and pays a permanent land revenue of 20,000. The
succession has been the subject of prolonged litigation.
SIVAJI (1627-1680), founder of the Mahratta power in India.
was born in May 1627 He was the son of Shahji Bhonsla, a
Mahratta soldier of fortune who held a jagir under the Bijapur
government. From an early age he excelled in horsemanship
and the use of weapons, and regarded himself- as appointed to-
free the Hindus from the Mahommedan yoke. With this object
he formed a national party among the Hindus of the Deccan, and
opposed in turn the vassal power of Bijapur and the imperial
armies of the Mogul of Delhi. By dint of playing off his enemies
against each other and by means of treachery, assassination and
hard fighting, Sivaji won for the Mahrattas practical supremacy
in western India. In 1659 he lured Afzul Khan, the Bijapur
general, into a personal conference, and killed him with his own
hand, while his men attacked and routed the Bijapur army.
In 1666 he visited- the Mogul emperor, Aurangzeb, at Delhi,
but on his expressing dissatisfaction at not being treated with
sufficient dignity, he was placed under arrest. Having effected
his escape in a sweetmeat basket, he raised the standard of
revolt, assumed the title of raja, and the prerogative of coining
money in his own name. But whilst at the height of his power
he died on the 5th of April 1680 at the age of fifty-three.
Sivaji was an extraordinary man, showing a genius both for war
and for peaceful administration; but he always preferred
to attain his ends by fraud rather than by force. He is the
national hero of the Mahrattas, by whom he is regarded almost as
a deity.
See Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas (1826) ; Krishnaji
Ananta, Life and Exploits of Sivaji (1884) ; and M. G Ranade, Rise
of the Maratha Power (Bombay, 1900).
SIVAS SIWALIK HILLS
163
SIVAS, one of the largest and most important vilayets of Asia
Minor, lying between 38 30' and 41 N. and 35 30' and 39 E.
It is rich in mineral wealth silver, lead, copper, iron, manganese,
arsenic, alum, salt and coal; and has several hot and cold mineral
springs, and large forests of fir, pine, beech and oak. The climate
is good, the average elevation of the province being over 3500 ft.,
and the soil fertile. Wheat and barley are largely grown on the
plateau, and in the lower districts there are extensive fruit
orchards and vineyards. The port of the vilayet is Samsun
(q.v.), whence a chaussee runs through Amasia, Tokat, and
Sivas to Kharput; but Sivas is also connected by road with the
minor Black Sea ports, Unieh, Ordu and Kerasund. The rates
for transport are, however, prohibitive. Angora is the nearest
railway point.
SIVAS (anc. Megalopolis-Sebasteia), altitude 4420 ft., is also
the name of the chief town of the vilayet (and of a sanjak of the
same name). It is situated in the broad valley of the Kizil
Irmak, on one of its right bank tributaries, the Murdan Su.
Pop. over 43,000, fully two-thirds Mussulman. The climate is
healthy but severe in winter. Coarse cotton cloth and woollen
socks are manufactured. The medresses (colleges), built in the
i3th century by the Seljuk sultans of Rum, are amongst the
finest remains of Moslem art in Asia Minor. In one of them is the
tombof its founder, Izz ud-din Kai Kausl. (1210-1219). Near
the town is the Armenian monastery of the Holy Cross, in which
are kept the throne of Senekherim and other relics. There are
several Armenian churches of interest, a flourishing American
mission with church and schools, and a Jesuit mission. Under
Diocletian Sebasteia became the capital of Armenia Minor, and
in the 7th century .that of the Sebasteia Theme. Justinian
rebuilt the walls and, under the Byzantine emperors, it was
second only to Caesarea in size and wealth. In 1021 Senekherim,
king of the Armenian province of Vaspuragan (Van), ceded his
dominions to Basil II., and became the Byzantine viceroy of
Sebasteia and the surrounding country. This position was held
by his successors until the town fell into the hands of the Turko-
mans after the defeat of Romanus II. by the Seljuks (1071).
After having been ruled for nearly a century by the Danishmand
amirs, it was taken (1172) by the Seljuk sultan of Rum, and
in 1224 was rebuilt by Sultan Ala-ed-din Kaikobad I. In 1400,
when captured by Timur, the city is said to have had 100,000
inhabitants, and to have been famous for its woollen stuffs.
On this occasion the bravest defenders were massacred, and 4000
Armenians were buried alive. Mahommed the " Conqueror "
restored the citadel, and the place has ever since been an import-
ant Ottoman provincial capital. Early in the igth century,
like all other Ottoman towns, it was terrorized by janissaries,
with whom Mahmud II. commissioned the great Dere Bey of
Yuzgat, Chapan Oglu, to deal in 1818. The news of his drastic
success provoked a dangerous riot in Stambul, which postponed
by some years the final tragedy of the janissaries. From 1880
to 1882 Sivas was the residence of the British military consul-
general for Asia Minor; but it has now only an American vice-
consulate. Mechithar, the founder of the Mechitharists (q.ii.)
and of the famous monastery at Venice, was born (1676) at Sivas.
(C. W. W., D. G. H.)
SIVORI, ERNESTO CAMILLO (1815-1804), Italian violinist,
was born at Genoa on the 25th of October 1815, and was taught
by Restano, Paganini, Costa and Dellepiane. His talent was
extraordinarily precocious. From 1827 Sivori began the career
of a travelling virtuoso, which lasted almost without interruption
until 1864. He played Mendelssohn's concerto for the first time
in England, in 1846, and was in England again in the seasons of
1851 and 1864. He lived for many years in Paris, and died at
Genoa on the i8th of February 1894.
SIVRI-HISSAR, " Pointed-Castle," a town of Asia Minor, in
the Angora vilayet, situated 8 m. N. of the site of Pessinus, at
the foot of a lofty double-peaked ridge of rock, which bears the
ruins of a Byzantine castle. It is a road and commercial centre,
with a trade in opium and mohair. The population includes a
large Armenian community. The town occupies the site of
ancient Palia, re-founded and re-named Justinianopolis by the
emperor Justinian. It was one of the chain of fortresses on the
Byzantine military road across Asia Minor, and became the chief
city of Galatia Salutaris about A.D. 700, succeeding to the
heritage of Pessinus, whose metropolitan transferred his seat to
the new capital, and held the title of " archbishop of Pessinus
or of Justinianopolis."
SIWA, an oasis in the Libyan Desert, politic'ally part of Egypt.
It is also known as the oasis of Ammon or Jupiter Ammon ;
its ancient Egyptian name was Sekhet-am, " Palm-land." The
oasis lies about 350 m. W.S.W. of Cairo, its chief town, also
called Siwa, being situated in 29 i2'N., 253o'E. The oasis
is some 6 m. long by 4 to 5 wide. Ten miles north-east is the
small oasis of Zetun, and westward of Siwa extends for some
50 m. a chain of little oases. The population of Siwa proper
(1907 census) was 3884. Thainhabitants are of Libyan (Berber)
stock and have a language of their own, but also speak Arabic.
The oasis is extremely fertile and contains many thousands of
date palms. The town of Siwa is built on two rocks and resembles
a fortress. The houses are frequently built on arches spanning
the streets, which are narrow and irregular.
The oasis is famous as containing the oracle temple of Ammon,
which was already famous in the time of Herodotus, and was
consulted by Alexander the Great. The remains of the temple
are in the walled village of Aghormi, 2 m. E. of the town of Siwa.
It is a small building, with inscriptions dating from the 4th
century B.C. The oracle fell into disrepute during the Roman
occupation of Egypt, and was reported dumb by Pausanias,
c. A.D. 160. Siwa was afterwards used as a place of banishment
for criminals and political offenders. After the Mahommedan
conquest of Egypt Siwa became independent and so remained
until conquered by Mehemet Ali in 1820. It is now governed
by its own sheikhs under the supervision of an Egyptian mamur
responsible to the mudir of Behera.
Siwa contains many relics of antiquity besides the ruins of
the temple of Ammon. Near that temple are the scanty remains
of another temple of the same century, Umm Beda, with reliefs
depicting the prince of the oasis making offerings to Ammon,
"lord of oracles." At JebelMuta, i m. N.E. of Siwa, are tombs
of Ptolemaic and Roman date; 10 m. E. of Aghormi is a well-
preserved chapel, with Roman graves; at Kasr Rumi is a Doric
temple of the Roman period.
The oasis lies close to the Tripolitan frontier and is largely
dominated by the sect of the Senussi (q.ii.), whose headquarters
were formerly at Jarabub, 80 m. to the north-west. The Senussi
successfully prevented various explorers penetrating westward
beyond Siwa. The first European to reach Siwa since Roman
time was W. G. Browne, who visited the oasis in 1792. He was
followed in 1798 by F. Hornemann. Both these travellers
started from Cairo; in 1820 General H. Minutoli gained the
oasis from the Gulf of Solum. In 1869 Gerhard Rohlfs reached
Siwa via Tripoli, and subsequently the ruins were examined
by Professor G. Steindorff. After the occupation of Egypt by
the British steps were taken to enforce the authority of the
government in Siwa, where order proved difficult to maintain.
There were serious disturbances in 1909, and as a result in 1910
a telegraph line was built across the desert from Alexandria to
the oasis.
See G. Steindorff, Durch die Libysche Wiiste zur Amonsoase (Biele-
feld and Leipzig, 1904); A. Silva White, From Sphinx to Oracle
(London n.d., 1898); Murray's Handbook for Egypt (nth ed.,
London, 1907) ; T. B. Hohler, Report on the Oasis of Siva (Cairo,
1900) ; also the works of the earlier travellers named. (F. R. C.)
SIWALIK HILLS, a name given to the foot-hills of the Hima-
layas in Dehra Dun district of the United Provinces of India,
and in Nahan state and Hoshiarpur district of the Punjab.
The range runs parallel with the Himalayan system from Hardwar
on the Ganges to the banks of the Beas, with a length of 200 m.
and an average width of 10 m. The elevation varies from 2000
to 3500 ft. Geologically speaking the Siwaliks belong to the
tertiary deposits of the outer Himalayas, and are chiefly composed
of low sandstone and conglomerate hills, the solidified and
upheaved detritus of the great range in their rear The inter-
mediate valley lying between the outer hills and the Mussoorie
164
SIWARD SIXTUS (POPES)
mountains is known as the Dehra Dun (or Dehra valley) and
contains a considerable Eurasian colony and some British tea-
planters. The principal pass is that of Mohan by which the main
road from Saharanpur to Dehra and Mussoorie traverses the
range. The Siwalik formation (distinguished for its extraordinary
wealth of palaeontological remains) is found on the North-West
Frontier occupying much the same position relatively to the
Suliman range as it does to the Himalayas, i.e. it faces the plains
and becomes the outermost wall of the hills.
SIWARD (d. 1055), earl of Northumbria, was a Dane by birth
and probably came to England with Canute. He became earl
of Deira after the death of Eadwulf Cutel, earl of Northumbria,
about 1038, and earl of all Northumbria after murdering Eadwulf,
earl of Bernicia, in 1041. He supported Edward the Confessor
in his quarrel with Earl Godwine in 1051, and was appointed
earl of Huntingdon soon after this date. In 1054 Siward invaded
Scotland in the interests of his kinsman Malcolm Canmore, and
he completely routed King Macbeth in a battle in which his son
Osbeorn was killed. Early in 1055 the earl died at York. Shake-
speare introduces Siward and his son, whom he calls young
Siward, into the tragedy of Macbeth, and represents the old man
as saying when he heard that his son's wounds were in front,
" Had I as many sons as I have hairs, I would not wish them
to a fairer death." Siward, a man of unusual strength and size,
is said to have risen from his bed at the approach of death, and
to have died dressed in all his armour. He built a minster near
York which he dedicated to St Olaf, and where he was buried;
and one of his sons was Earl Waftheof .
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. ii. and iii. (1870
1876); and W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (1876-1880).
SIXTUS, the name of five popes.
SIXTUS I. (Xystus) was the sixth bishop of Rome (c. 116-125)
and took the name on that account. SIXTUS II., successor of
Stephanus I. as bishop of Rome in 257, suffered martyrdom
under Valerian on the 6th of August 258. He restored the
relations with the African and Eastern Churches which had
been broken off by his predecessor on the question of heretical
baptism. Dionysius succeeded him.
SIXTUS III. was bishop of Rome from the 3ist of July
432 to the i gth of August 440. Before his elevation to the
pontificate he had been suspected of favouring the Pelagians,
but when he became pope he disappointed their expecta-
tions, and repelled their attempts to enter again into com-
munion with the Church. During his pontificate the dispute
was settled between Cyril of Alexandria and John of Antioch,
who had been at variance since the council of Ephesus, but he
himself had some difficulties with Proclus of Constantinople
with regard to the vicariate of Thessalonica. (L. D.*)
SIXTUS IV. (Francesco della Rovere), pope from the pth
of August 1471 to the I2th of August 1484, was born of a
poor family near Savona in 1414. He entered the Franciscan
order at an early age and studied philosophy and theology
at the universities of Padua and Bologna. He speedily acquired
a great reputation as an eloquent preacher, and, after filling
the offices of procurator at Rome and provincial of Liguria,
he was chosen general of his order in 1464. Three years later
he was, to his own surprise, made cardinal-priest of St Pietro in
Vincoli by Paul II., whom he succeeded as pope. Some writers
have maintained that this sudden elevation of the most recent
member of the Sacred College was due to bribery in the conclave,
whilst the apologists of Sixtus affirm it was due to the friend-
ship of the powerful and upright Cardinal Bessarion, and explain
that the pope, having been brought up in a mendicant order,
was inexperienced and did not appreciate the liberality of his
donations after his election. There is no doubt that the expendi-
tures of his pontificate were prodigal. Sixtus sent Cardinal
Caraffa with a fleet against the Turks, but the expedition was
unsuccessful. He continued to condemn the Pragmatic Sanction
in France, and denounced especially the ordinance of Louis
XL which required (8th of January 1475) the royal placet for
the publication of all papal decrees. He likewise continued
his predecessor's negotiations with the Tsar Ivan III. for the
reunion of the Russian Church with the Roman see and for
support against the Turks, but without result. He was visited
in 1474 by King Christian of Denmark and Norway, and in the
following year (i2th of June) he established the university of
Copenhagen. Sixtus soon abandoned his universal policy in
order to concentrate attention on Italian politics, and the
admirable energy which he had shown at first was clouded by the
favours which he now heaped upon unworthy relations. Not
content with enriching them by gifts and lucrative offices, he
made their aggrandizement the principal object of his policy
as a secular prince. Sixtus was cognisant of the conspiracy of
the Pazzi, plotted (1478) by his nephew, Cardinal Riario, against
Lorenzo de' Medici. He entered into a fruitless and inglorious
war with Florence, which kept Italy for two years (1478-80) in
confusion. He next incited the Venetians to attack Ferrara, and
then, after having been delivered by their general, Roberto
Malatesta, from a Neapolitan invasion, he turned upon them
and eventually assailed them for refusing to desist from the
hostilities which he had himself instigated. He relied on the
co-operation of Lodovico Sforza, who speedily forsook him;
and vexation at having peace forced upon him by the princes
and cities of Italy is said to have hastened his death. Several
events of his pontificate are noteworthy: he granted many
privileges to the mendicant orders, especially to the Franciscans;
he endeavoured to suppress abuses in the Spanish Inquisition;
he took measures against the Waldenses; he approved (1475)
the office of the Immaculate Conception for the 8th of December;
in 1478 he formally annulled the decrees of the council of Con-
stance; and he canonized St Bonaventura (i4th of April 1482).
The most praiseworthy side of his pontificate was his munificence
as a founder or restorer of useful institutions, and a patron of
letters and art. He established and richly endowed the first
foundling hospital, built and repaired numerous churches,
constructed the Sistine Chapel and the Sistine Bridge, improved
church music and instituted the famous Sistine choir, commis-
sioned paintings on the largest scale, pensioned men of learning,
and, above all, immortalized himself as the second founder
of the Vatican library. These great works, however, were not
accomplished without grievous taxation. Annates were increased
and simony flourished. Though himself pious, of blameless
morality, hospitable to a fault, and so exempt from avarice,
says his secretary Conti, that he could not endure the sight
of money, it was Sixtus's misfortune to have had no natural
outlet for strong affections except unworthy relatives; and his
great vices were nepotism, ambition and extravagance. He
died on the i2th of August 1484, and was succeeded by
Innocent VIII.
See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. iv., trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1898); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. iy.
(London, 1901) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. vii.,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 19001902); Jacob Burck-
hardt, Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien (4th ed., 1904); J. A.
Symonds, Renaissance in Italy; E. Frantz, Sixtus IV. u. die Republik
Florenz (Regensburg, 1880); I. Schlecht, "Sixtus IV. u. die deut-
schen Drucker in Rom," in S. Ehses, Festschrift zu elfhundertjdhrigen
Jubilaum des Campo Santo (Freiburg, 1897); Aus den Annaten-
Registern der Pdpste Eugen IV., Pius II., Paul II. u. Sixtus IV.,
ed. by K. Hayn (Cologne, 1896). (C. H. HA.)
SIXTUS V. (Felice Peretti), pope from 1585 to 1590, was born
at Grottamara, in Ancona, on the i3th of December 1521. He
was reared in extreme poverty; but the story of his having
been a swineherd in his youth appears to be open to question.
At an early age he entered a Franciscan monastery. He soon
gave evidence of rare ability as a preacher and a dialectician.
About 1552 he came under the notice of Cardinal Carpi, pro-
tector of his order, Ghislieri (later Pius V.) and Caraffa (later
Paul IV.), and from that time his advancement was assured.
He was sent to Venice as inquisitor general, but carried matters
with a high hand, became embroiled in quarrels, and was forced
to leave (1560). After a brief term as procurator of his order, he
was attached to the Spanish legation headed by Buoncampagno
(later Gregory XIII.) 1565. The violent dislike he conceived
for Buoncampagno exerted a marked influence upon his subse-
quent actions. He hurried back to Rome upon the accession of
SIZAR SKAGWAY
165
Pius V., who made him apostolic vicar of his order, and, later
(1570), cardinal. During the pontificate of Gregory XIII. he
lived in retirement, occupied with the care of his villa and with
his studies, one of the fruits of which was an edition of the works
of Ambrose; not neglecting, however, to follow the course of
affairs, but carefully avoiding every occasion of offence. This
discreetness contributed not a little to his election to the papacy
on the 24th of April 1585; but the story of his having feigned
decrepitude in the Conclave, in order to win votes, is a pure
invention. One of the things that commended his candidacy
to certain cardinals was his physical vigour, which seemed to
promise a long pontificate.
The terrible condition in which Gregory XIII. had left the
ecclesiastical states called for prompt and stern measures.
Against the prevailing lawlessness Sixtus proceeded with an
almost ferocious severity, which only extreme necessity could
justify. Thousands of brigands were brought to justice: within
a short time the country was again quiet and safe. Sixtus next
set to work to repair the finances. By the sale of offices, the
establishment of new " Monti " and by levying new taxes, he
accumulated a vast surplus, which he stored 'up against certain
specified emergencies, such as a crusade or the defence of the
Holy See. Sixtus prided himself upon his hoard, but the method
by which it had been amassed was financially unsound: some of
the taxes proved ruinous, and the withdrawal of so much money
from circulation could not fail to cause distress. Immense sums,
however, were spent upon public works. Sixtus set no limit to
his plans; and what he achieved in his short pontificate is
almost incredible; the completion of the dome of St Peter's;
the loggia of Sixtus in the Lateran; the chapel of the Praesepe
in Sta Maria Maggiore; additions or repairs to the Quirinal,
Lateran and Vatican palaces; the erection of four obelisks,
including that in the piazza of St Peter's; the opening of six
streets; the restoration of the aqueduct of Severus (" Acqua
Felice " ) ; besides numerous roads and bridges, an attempt to
drain the Pontine marshes, and the encouragement of agriculture
and manufacture. But Sixtus had no appreciation of antiquity:
the columns of Trajan and Antoninus were made to serve as
pedestals for the statues of SS Peter and Paul; the Minerva
of the Capitol was converted into " Christian Rome " ; the
Septizonium of Severus was demolished for its building materials.
The administrative system of the church owed much to Sixtus.
He limited the College of Cardinals to seventy; and doubled the
number of the congregations, and enlarged their functions,
assigning to them the principal role in the transaction of business
(1588) . The Jesuits Sixtus regarded with disfavour and suspicion.
He meditated radical changes in their constitution, but death
prevented the execution of his purpose. In 1589 was begun a
revision of the Vulgate, the so-called Edilio Sixtina.
In his larger political relations Sixtus, strangely enough,
showed himself visionary and vacillating. He entertained
fantastic ambitions, such as the annihilation of the Turks, the
conquest of Egypt, the transporting of the Holy Sepulchre to
Italy, the accession of his nephew to the throne of France. The
situation in which he found himself was embarrassing: he could
not countenance the designs of heretical princes, and yet he
distrusted Philip II. and viewed with apprehension any extension
of his power. So, while he excommunicated Henry of Navarre,
and contributed to the'League and the Armada, he chafed under
his forced alliance with Philip, and looked about for escape.
The victories of Henry and the prospect of his conversion to
Catholicism raised Sixtus's hopes, and in corresponding degree
determined Philip to tighten his grip upon his wavering ally.
The pope's negotiations with Henry's representative evoked a
bitter and menacing protest and a categorical demand for the
performance of promises. Sixtus took refuge in evasion, and
temporized until death relieved him of the necessity of coming
to a decision (2 ;th of August 1 590).
Sixtus died execrated by his own subjects; but posterity has
recognized in him one of the greatest popes. He was impulsive,
obstinate, severe, autocratic; but his mind was open to large
ideas, and he threw himself into his undertakings with an energy
and determination that often compelled success. Few popes can
boast of greater enterprise or larger achievements.
Lives of Sixtus are numerous: Cicarella's, in Platina, De vitis
pontiff. Rom., is by a contemporary of the pope, but nevertheless
of slight importance; Leti's Vita di Sisto V (Amsterdam, 1693,
translated into English by Farneworth, 1779) is a caricature, full of
absurd tales, utterly untrustworthy, wanting even the saving merit
of style; Tempesti's Storia della vita e geste di Sisto Quinto (Rome,
I 754~ I 755) is valuable for the large use it makes of the original
sources, but lacks perspective and is warped by the author's blind
admiration for his subject; Cesare's Vita di Sisto V (Naples, 1755)
is but an abridgment of Tempesti. Of recent works the best are
Htibner, Sixte-Quint, &c. (Paris, 1870, translated into English by
H. E. H. Jerningham, London, 1872); and Capranica, Papa Sisto,
storia del s. XVI (Milan, 1884). See also Lorentz, Sixtus V. u. seine
Zeit (Mainz, 1852); Dumesml, Hist, de Sixte-Quint (Paris, 1869,
2nd ed.); Segretain, Sixte-Quint et Henri IV (Paris, 1861, strongly
Ultramontane) ; Ranke's masterly portrayal, Popes (Eng. trans.,
Austin), i. 446 sq., ii. 205 sq. ; and v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt
Rom, iii. 2, 575 sq., 733 sq. Extended bibliographies may be
found in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, s.v. "Sixtus V."; and
Cambridge Mod. Hist. iii. 835 sq. (T. F. C.)
SIZAR, one of a class of students at a college of Cambridge
University and at Trinity College, Dublin, who, being persons of
limited means, are received for lower fees, and obtain free
commons, lodgings or other assistance towards their education
during their terms of residence. At Oxford there was formerly
a similar class, known as "Battelers" or " Batlers," who
originally waited on the Fellow of the College who had nominated
them, and a still more humble class, the " servitors," who,
perhaps, answered more to a " subsizar " at Cambridge. The
name " sizar " is to be connected with the " sizes " or " sizings "
(" size " being a shortened form of " assize ") , that is the specified
portions of food and drink issued at a fixed price from the buttery
of the college; the sizar was so styled either because as one of
his former duties he had to fetch the " sizes " for others, or
because he obtained his own free. The menial duties of " sizars "
at Cambridge have long become obsolete.
SIZE, a general term for bulk or quantity; also an agglutinant
consisting of undried glue. The two words, though they are
so widely separate in meaning, are by etymology the same.
" Size" (Lat. assidere, to sit down to) is a shortened form of
" assize," through the French and Italian respectively. The
O. Fr. assis, assise, and Eng. " assize," meant a sitting of a
deliberative or other body; hence decree, ordinance of such a
body, specifically of such as regulated weights, measures, prices;
thus it came to mean a standard of measure price, quantity thus
fixed, and so merely quantity or measure, in which sense it
remains in the shortened form " size." In the sense of an agglut-
inant, " size " is an adaptation of Ital. sisa, a shortened form of
assisa (Lat. assidere), and seems to have meant by derivation
" that which painters use to make the colours sit well or suitably."
SKAGERRACK, the arm of the North Sea which gives access
to the Cattegat and so to the Baltic. It is about 140 m. long
and 75 broad. On the Danish shore, which is low and beset with
sand-banks, the strait is shallow. Towards the steep Norwegian
coast its deepest part is found, 443 fathoms.
For the currents, temperature and salinity of the water, &c., see
NORTH SEA.
SKAGWAY (a native name said to mean " home of the north
wind"), a city in S.E. Alaska, in lat. 59 28' N. and long. 135 20'
W., at the mouth of the river Skagway, on an indentation of
Taiya Inlet, a branch of Chilkoot Inlet, leading out of Lynn
Canal. Pop. (1900) 3117. It is the seaward terminus of the
Yukon & White Pass railway, by which goods and passengers
reach the Klondike; and is connected with Dawson by telegraph
and with Seattle by cable, and with Seattle, San Francisco and
other Pacific ports by steamers. The climate is comparatively
dry (annual precipitation about 21-75 in-); between 1898 and
1902 the minimum recorded temperature was 10 (March),
the maximum 92 (July), and the greatest monthly range 73
(March). Though settled somewhat earlier, Skagway first
became important during the rush in 1896 for the Klondike
gold-fields, for which it is the most convenient entrance by the
trail over White Pass, the lower of the two passes to the
i66
SKARGA SKATING
headwaters of the Yukon. A post-office was established here in
November 1897.
SKARGA, PIOTR (1532-1612), Polish writer and reformer,
was born at Grojec near Warsaw in 1532. He was a member
of the noble Pawenski family, but his pseudonym of Skarga
(from " skarga" a " complaint" or " accusation" ) speedily
superseded his real name. Educated at Grojec and Cracow, he
began life as a tutor to the family of Andrew Tenczynski, castellan
of Cracow, and, some years later, after a visit to Vienna, took
orders, and from 1563 was attached to the cathedral church of
Lemberg. His oratory was so successful that he determined to
become a missionary-preacher among the people, in order the
better to combat the social and political evils of the day. By
way of preparation he studied theology in Italy from 1568 to
1570, and finally entered the Society of Jesus. On his'return he
preached successively at Pultusk, Jaroslaw and Plock under the
powerful protection of Queen Anne Jagielonika. During a sub-
sequent mission to Lithuania he converted numerous noble
families, including the Radziwills, and held for some years the
rectorship of the Jesuit Academy at Wilna, where he composed
his Lives of the Saints. In 1384 he was transferred to the new
Jesuit College at Cracow. He was protected by the valiant
Stephen Bathory, and the first act of the pious Sigismund III.,
on ascending the Polish throne, was to make Skarga his court
preacher, an office he held for twenty-four years (1588-1611).
With perfect fearlessness and piercing eloquence, he rebuked
the sloth, the avarice, and the lawlessness of the diets which
were doing their best to make government in Poland impossible.
Sometimes, as for instance during the insurrection of Zebrzy-
dowski, Skarga intervened personally in politics, and on the side
of order and decency, for his loyalty to the crown was as un-
questionable as his devotion to the Church. Wearied out at
last, he begged to be relieved of his office of preacher, quitted
the court, and resided for the last few months of his life at
Cracow, where he died on the 27th of September 1612.
The most important of his works are: Lives of the Saints (Wilna,
!579> 2 ?th edition, 1884); Sermons on Sundays and Saints' Days
(ist ed., Cracow, 1595, Latin ed., Cracow, 1691); Sermons preached
before the Diet (last and best edition, Cracow, 1904) and numerous
other volumes of sermons, some of which have already run through
thirty editions. Of less importance are his very numerous polemical
works, though his famous book On the Unity of the Church of God
(ist edition, Wilna, 1577) directed against the dissenters, especially
the Greek Orthodox schismatics, will always have an historical
interest.
See Izydor Dzieduszycki, Peter Skarga and his Age. (Pol.)
(Cracow, 1850-1851). (R. N. B.)
SKAT, a game of cards, much played in central and northern
Germany. It is generally supposed to have been invented about
1817 by an advocate of the name of Hempel in Saxe-Altenburg.
There is, however, some reason for believing that the game is of
much earlier origin and was played by the Slav inhabitants of
Saxe-Altenburg long before that date. In the home of the game
of skat (Saxony and Thuringia) the old German single-ended
cards are usually employed, while in north and south Germany
French cards are ordinarily used. The German cards are thirty-
two in number and of four suits, Schellen (bells), the equivalent
of diamonds; Roth (red), hearts; Griln (green), spades; and
Eichel (acorn), clubs. The eight cards of each suit are the seven,
eight, nine, ten, Wenzel or knave, queen, king, ace. This arrange-
ment denotes at once the value of the single cards, each following
card being higher in value than the preceding; i.e. hearts are
higher than diamonds, spades than hearts, and clubs (the highest
colour) takes spades, hearts and diamonds. Again 8 takes 7,
9 takes 8 and 7; but the knave (called Wenzel or Unter) is an
exception (see below).
The game is played by three persons; where four play, the
dealer takes no part in the play though he shares in the winnings
and losings of the opponents of the player. The cards are dealt
from right to left or (as skat players say) in the direction
the coffee-mill is turned. After the cards have been shuffled
and cut, the dealer first deals three cards to each player, then
four and again three, laying aside two cards (the skat). Each
player has now ten cards in his hand, which he arranges in suits.
The Wenzel or knaves occupy a peculiar position. They are
not regarded as colour cards, but are essentially trumps and take
all other trumps. The player sitting to the left of the dealer is
"first hand," and if he himself intends to make a game, invites
the others to declare theirs, or if he wishes to reserve all rights to
himself, simply says " Ich bin iiorn "- " I have the lead, " and
then his next neighbour on the left has to offer a game.. If this
neighbour holds such cards as to give him no prospect of winning
he passes, and his neighbour to the left has the right to offer
a game. If he in his turn passes, then the first hand is at liberty
to determine the game or declare " Ramsch " (see below). But
if the first neighbour thinks he can risk a game, he offers one.
If the first hand reserves this game (see above " I have the lead"),
either because he intends to play it himself or to play a higher
game, the second hand must go higher or pass, i.e. renounce a
game, and then his neighbour to the left has the right to offer,
and if he again passes and does not offer a higher game than that
which the first hand intends to play, the latter determines the
game to be played.
The usual games in skat are the following. First the simple
colour game, which is, however, seldom played by skat enthusiasts.
The player has here the right to take up the skat, and to determine
the suit of the game; but here the rule is that the colour must not
be lower in value than that of the game offered, though it may be
higher. For instance, if spades are offered, the player cannot take
hearts as trumps, though he may take clubs, because they are
higher in value than spades.
Next to the colour game comes " tourne 1 ," the player turning up
one of the skat cards, the suit of which becomes trumps. If a knave
be turned up the player may announce " grando." Then comes
the game of " solo," where the player declares which suit shall be
trumps, and the skat remains intact. The highest " sob," still
higher than clubs, is " grando." In this game only the four knaves
are trumps. If the hand playing grando thinks he can make all the
tricks, he declares open grando i.e. shows his hand. If in open
grando a single trick be lost, the player loses the game. If one of
the players holds such cards as to enable him to force his opponents
to take all the tricks, he can declare nullo. But here the game is
lost if even a single trick falls to the player. In nullo, the knaves
are regarded as colour, i.e. are not trumps. Nullo can be played
open, if there is no probability of the player taking a single trick.
Simple nullo counts higher than diamond solo; open nullo comes
after clubs solo. In Ramsch, which takes place when none of the
players will risk a game, each player takes (as in whist) all the tricks
he makes but only knaves are trumps-^-and the loser is he who
makes most points. The value of the individual cards given in
figures is as follows. The seven, eight and nine count nothing, the
knave counts 2, the queen 3, king 4, ten 10 and ace II points. This
gives the value of the whole game as 120 points. The game is won
if the player gets one above the half of this sum, i.e. 61. The hand
that does not make 30 is " Schneider," that is " cut," and " Schwarz "
(black) if he does not make a single point.
Skat is almost invariably played for money, and the calculation
is made thus. Every game and every suit have a set value :
Colour game . . 3, 4, 5 and 6, according to the suits.
Tourne 1 . . . . 5, 6, 7, 8 and 12 (the last the grando).
Solo . . . . 9, 10, n, 12 and 16 (grando).
These figures are increased by the number of " matadores." Suppose
a player of club solo holds all four knaves and the ace and ten of clubs,
he has a game with 6 matadores. By matadores is accordingly
meant an uninterrupted sequence, e.g. from the knave of clubs down
to the seven of trumps. If the player has then all four knaves and
all the cards of the trump suit in his hand (or in the skat), he has a
game with 1 1 matadores. But if a single card is missing in the series,
only the matadores of higher value than the missing card count. If,
for instance, the knave of hearts is missing, the game in question has
only 3 matadores. To the number of matadores is added I if the
game is simply won, 2 if won with Schneider (cut), and 4 if the
opponents are Schwarz (black). Thus, if a spade solo with 5 mata-
dores is won with Schneider, the winner makes 5+2X11 = 77 points.
SKATING (Dutch schaats, a skate), a mode of progression
on ice with the aid of appliances called skates, attached to the
sole of the shoe by straps, clamps or screws. The earliest form
of skate that we know is that of the bone " runners" (still
preserved in museums) worn by the primitive Norsemen. These
were bound to the foot with thongs. The Norse sagas speak
with pride of the national achievements in skating, and the early
development of the art was due principally to the Norsemen,
Swedes, Danes, Finns and the Dutch. Whatever its origin in
Great Britain, skating was certainly a common sport in England
in the i2th century, as is proved by an old translation of
SKATING
167
Fitz-Steven's Description of London, published in 1180, in which
the following words occur:
" When the great fenne or moore (which watereth the walls of the
citie on the North side) is frozen, many young men play on the yce
. . . asome tye bones to their feete and under their heeles, and
shoving themselves with a little picked staffe do slide as swiftlie as a
birde nyeth in the aire or an arrow out of a cross-bow."
At what period the use of metal runners was introduced is
unknown, but it was possibly not long after the introduction
into northern Europe, in the 3rd century after Christ, of the art
of working in iron. By the time of Charles II. skating had
become popular, with the aristocracy as well as with the people,
as is proved by entries in the diaries of Pepys and Evelyn.
Skating does not appear to have been known in America
before its colonization by Europeans, though bone slides were
used to a limited extent by certain Eskimo tribes.
The modern skate is in the form of a steel blade mounted upon
a wood or metal base. In the old-fashioned skate the wooden
base was strapped to the boot and kept firm by low spikes or
screws that entered the sole. The next step in development was
the " club-skate," originally Canadian, a patent appliance
adjusted by clamps to fit the sole. There are several varieties
of club-skates still popular. They have a broad blade with
slightly curved edge, and are more suitable for figure-skating than
for speed. The best skaters now use skates fixed permanently
to special skating-boots.
As in ancient times, skating is most practised by the Scandi-
navians, Finns, Dutch and British, to whom in modern days
have been added the Germans, Swiss, Austrians, and especially
the Canadians and Americans. All these nations have central
organizations which control skating, the British, founded in 1879,
being the National Skating Association. The American, founded
in 1884, is also called the National Skating Association, and
generally co-operates with the Canadian Amateur Skating
Association, founded in 1888.
Speed Skating. Of the earliest skating races no records have
been kepi. That racing was a popular pastime in Holland two
centuries and longer ago is proved by the numerous paintings
of the time depicting racing scenes. In England the first skating
match recorded was that in which Youngs of Mepal beat Thomson
of Wimblingdon, both men of the Fens, in the year 1814. The
Fen country has remained the chief English home of skating,
owing to the abundance of ice in that district, and most British
champions have been Fensmen, notably the Smarts of Welney.
In January 1823 the Sporting Magazine recorded the first amateur
match, which was between teams of six gentlemen from March
and Chatteris, Mr Drake of Chatteris finishing first. In the same
year a match took place for a silver bowl on the Maze Lake,
Hertfordshire, over a course 5 m. long, the winner being Mr
Blenkinsop. Racing, more or less intermittent, continued
annually, the Fen skaters generally triumphing. In 1854
appeared the celebrated William (" Turkey ") Smart, who, after
defeating Larmen Register in that year, remained champion for
more than a decade. His nephew George (" Fish" ) Smart won
the championship in 1878 and held it until 1889, only to relinquish
it to his younger brother James. The first amateur championship
of England was held in 1880 at Hendon, and was won by Mr F.
Norman, a Fen skater.
Owing to the great area of Canada and the northern United
States, and the long and cold winter, the sport of skating is
indulged in to a greater extent in North America than anywhere
else, and local matches have been held for years in many places.
Owing to the reputation of Charles June, who was considered
to be the best American skater from 1838 for many years, his
place of residence, Newburgh, N.Y., on the Hudson river,
became the headquarters of American speed skating. This city
also is the birthplace of the Donoghue family, who may be called
the Smarts of America. The most noted members of this family
were Mr T. Doncghue and his two sons, Tim and J. F. Donoghue,
each in his day the fastest skater in the world, Joseph Donoghue
winning every event at the international championship meeting
at Amsterdam in 1891. There is practically no professional
skating in America.
Skating received a great impetus during the last decade of the
i gth century, profiting both by the growing devotion of athletics
and by increased facilities of communication, which led to inter-
national competitions and the institutions of skating clubs in
Switzerland and elsewhere, especially those of Davos, St Moritz
and Grindelwald, where ice is available every winter. Although
skating instruments are so simple, the evolution of the skate has
advanced considerably, contributing to marked improvement in
the skater's skill. In speed-skating an epoch was marked, first,
by the almost universal adoption of the Norwegian type of racing
skate; and, secondly, by the institution in 1892, at an inter-
national congress held in Holland, of annual races for the cham-
pionships of Europe and of the world.
The Norwegian skate, introduced and perfected (-1887-1902)
by Axel Paulsen and Harald "Hagen, is constructed with a view
to lightness, strength, and diminution of friction. The blade,
of specially hardened steel, is set in a hollow horizontal tube of
aluminium, and connected by similar vertical tubes with foot-
plates riveted to a closely-fitting boot with thin leather sole.
It is 16-171 in. long and \-2 millimetres thick (i.e. -019-078 in.),
the average employed for hard ice being f mm., often thinner
towards the heel. This thickness is suitable for hard ice, but for
softer ice T V or A in. is preferable. The blade is flat on the ice
throughout, except for an inch in front; this flatness distributes
the weight, and with the extreme thinness of blade reduces
friction to a minimum. The edges are right-angled and sharp.
The skater's style has been modified. ' The blade, when planted
on the ice with weight upon it, describes a nearly . straight line, the
last few feet only curving slightly outwards as the skate leaves the
ice. Hence the stroke of the best modern skaters is almost, if not
entirely, on the inside edge, a gain in directness and speed, the outside
edge being used for curves only. The length of stroke has tended to
diminish. Contrasted with the 12-18 yards' stroke attributed to the
old English champion, W. "Turkey" Smart, which was partly on
the outside edge, the modern racing stroke rarely exceeds 10 yds., and
is usually nearer 6 or 7. Particular instances vary with conditions
of ice, &c., but at St Petersburg, in 1896, Eden's stroke in the 10,000
metre race averaged about 75 yds., that of P. Oestlund at Davos, in
1900, the same (for one lap, 8 yds.). J. F. Donoghue's stride in 1891
was computed at about 6 yds. The general effect has been vastly
increased speed, and a conjoint cause is the stricter training under-
gone before important races.
The races held annually since 1892-1893 for the championships of
Europe and of the world, under the auspices of the International
Skating Union, have assembled representatives from the skating
countries of Europe and from America.
The races are four in number, over distances of 500, 1500, 5000 and
10,000 metres, and to obtain the title of champion a skater must win
three races and finish in the fourth. In addition, each country, when
possible, holds its own championship races.
In England races are still skated, with rare exceptions, on straight
courses, with a sharp turn round a post or barrel, the distance
prescribed for N.S.A. championships being i J m. with three turns.
The Continental and international system involves a course with
straight sides and curved ends of such a radius that no slackening of
speed is necessary. In both instances the competitors race two at a
time on a double track, and the time test is used. Each skater must
keep his own course, to prevent either from using the other as pace-
maker or wind-shield. The international regulations (Eiswettlauf-
Ordnung) prescribe that, if a single track be used, the hindmost
skater must keep at a minimum distance of 5 metres from the other,
on pain of disqualification. The advantage of inner curve on a
Continental course is given alternately, and a space left open between
the tracks at one point for the skaters to cross.
The curves are skated with a step-over-step action, and the direc-
tion is always from right to left. Hence, on entering the curve the
right foot is brought across in front and set down on the inside edge,
the left passing behind on the outside edge, and being in its turn set
down on an outside edge in front. The strokes thus form a series of
tangents to the curve, and are little shorter than in the straight.
With a radius of 25 and 30 metres, as at Davos, the curves can be
skated with safety at full speed.
The following are the amateur speed records at the principal
distances:
Distance.
m. s.
Name.
Nationality.
500 metres(546 yds.)
1,000 ,, (1093 yds.)
1,500 ,, (1639 yds.)
5,000 ,, (3 m. l88yds.)
10,000 ,, (6 m. 376 yd O
44f
1 34
2 22|
8 37f
17 50?
R. Gundersen
P. Oestlund
P. Oestlund
[. Eden
P. Oestlund
Norway
Holland
Norway
i68
SKEAT, W. W.
The following times and distances have also been recorded in
America :
Distance.
h. m. s.
Name.
too yds
i m. . .
91
35i
J. S. Johnson
H. P. Mosher
I m. : .
2 36
J. Neilson
2m. . .
5 42!
O. Rudd
5m.
14 24
O. Rudd
10 m. . .
50 m. .
3i n&
3 15 59s
J. S. Johnson
. F. Donoghue
loo m. . . .
7 ii 3&
J. F. Donoghue
See contemporary records in the Field, Outing, and other sporting
journals, as well as the annual almanacs ; A Bibliography of Skating.,
by F. W. Foster (London, 1898); Skating, in the Badminton
Library (1892) ; Skating, in the Oval Series (1897) ; " Skating," article
in the Encyclopaedia of Sport (1899); Skating, in the Isthmian
Library (1901); Skating, by W. T. Richardson (New York, 1903).
Figure Skating. This variety of skating,, as subjected to
definite rules, is quite modern, having originated in the igth
century, though the cutting of figures on the ice was regarded as
an accomplishment by skaters long before.
Although the " Edinburgh Skating Club," founded in 1642,
is the oldest skating organization in Great Britain, the " Skating
Club" of London, formed in 1830, is the most important, and
for many years practically controlled figure skating. Many other
important figure skating clubs now exist in Great Britain, for
entrance into which a certain standard of proficiency is demanded.
Figure skating championships are now held in many countries
under the auspices of the national associations, the world's
championship meeting being held by the International Skating
Union. In England great impetus has been given to figure
skating by the multiplication of clubs (e.g. Wimbledon, founded
1870, Thames Valley, Crystal Palace, &c.) in addition to the
original " Skating Club" and those in Switzerland already
mentioned; and from the construction of numerous artificial
rinks, such as at Niagara and Prince's Club in London, as well as
by the encouragement afforded by the National Skating Associa-
tion, which offers ist, 2nd and 3rd class badges (and a special
or " Diamond" badge for figure skating) for figure tests as well
as for speed; in 1893 the Association founded a " London
Skating Council," while in 1898 and in 1902 it held the figure
skating championship of the world in London. In America
comparatively little interest is shown in this branch of the sport.
In the British style of figure skating, which is not recognized
by the International Skating Union, the body is held as nearly
as possible upright, the employed leg is kept straight, the un-
employed leg carried behind, the arms hang loosely at the sides,
and the head is turned in the direction of progress. In the so-
called Anglo-Swiss style, affected by British skaters trained
at Davos and St Moritz, the upright, almost rigid position is
insisted on, even the unemployed leg being held straight. Much
more latitude is allowed by the Continental school, though no
definite rules of form have been laid down. The knee of the
employed leg is slightly bent, and the unemployed leg is in
constant action, being used to balance the body during the
execution of the figures. The Continental is less difficult in
execution than the British style, but its movements are less
graceful. There are, of course, local modifications, the strictest
exponents of the English school being the Davos and St Moritz
skaters, while the Continental varies from the complete abandon
of the French to the more restrained style of the Germans;
Canadians cultivate also grape-vines and other two-footed figures.
The essential features are, however, identical. Thus Englishmen
consider of secondary importance loops, cross-cuts, continuous
and hand-in-hand skating, though such figures are included in
the ist class test of the N.S.A., and devote themselves mainly
to " combined figures." Combined figures have been defined as
" symmetrical execution of a figure by one or more pairs of
skaters." Originally known as the " skating club figures,"
they have been gradually developed, and in 1891 delegates from
the principal clubs established a regular terminology. The ideal
number of skaters for a combined figure is four, though sixes and
eights are seen, one being chosen " caller" of the movement to
be skated. Various sets of " calls " are arranged at the discretion
of different clubs, and consist ordinarily of " turns " and
" changes." The N.S.A. offer a challenge shield for an annual
competition in combined figure skating. There has, however,
been a marked tendency towards unification of style, through
Englishmen adopting Continental methods, rendered almost a
necessity by the circumscribed area of artificial rinks. In 1901
the Figure Skating Club was established for this purpose, and its
members attained such success that an English lady, Mrs Syers,
gained the second place in the world's championship competition
in 1902, and with her husband won the International Pair
Skating in that year, and again in 1904; and in 1906 she won
the ladies' amateur championship of the world, established in
that year.
The World's Figure Skating Championship was won in 1896
by Fuchs, Austria; 1897, G. Hugel, Austria; 1898, H. Grenander,
Sweden; 1899 and 1900, G. Hugel, Austria; 1901, 1902, 1903,
1904, U. Salchow, Sweden. The competition consists of two
parts, (a) compulsory figures, (b) free skating, the latter affording
scope for the performance of dance steps and brilliant individual
figures, such as the " sitting pirouette," and the " star," consist-
ing of four crosses (forward rocker, back loop, back counter),
invented by Herr Engelmann and splendidly rendered by
Herr Salchow.
The skates used for the English and Continental styles are shorter
than those used for speed-skating, and differ in radius, though both
are of the same type, i.e. a blade fastened to the boot by sole-plates,
the " Mount Charles " pattern being the one generally adopted by
Englishmen. The English radius is 7 ft., or now more usually 6 ft. ;
the foreign, 5^ or even 5 ft., and the result is seen in the larger curves
skated on the former, and the greater pace obtained owing to de-
creased friction; at the same time,. the difficulty of making a turn is
greater. The English skate has generally right-angled edges and
blade of same thickness throughout, except in the " Dowler " variety,
which is thicker towards the extremities. The foreign skate is some-
times thicker in the middle than at the ends.
See Skating, in the Badminton Library (1892); Skating, in the
Oval Series (1897); A System of Figure-Skating, by T. Maxwell
Witham (5th ed., 1897); On the Outside Edge, by G. H. Fowler
(1897); Combined Figure-Skating, by George Wood (1899); "Skat-
ing, in the Encyclopaedia of Sport (1899); Handbook of Figure-
Skating, by G. H. Brown (Springfield, Mass., 1900); Lessons in
Skating, by G. A. Meagher (1900); Figure-Skating, by M. S. Monier-
Williams, in the Isthmian Library (1901); How to become a Skater,
by G. D. Phillips, in Spalding's Athletic Library, New York. See also
ROLLER-SKATING.
SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1833- ), English philo-
logist, was born in London on the 2 ist of November 1835, and
educated at King's College, Highgate Grammar School, and
Christ's College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in
July 1860. In 1878 he was elected Ellington and Bosworth
Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge. He completed Mitchell
Kemble's edition of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels, and did much
other work both in Anglo-Saxon and in Gothic, but is perhaps
most generally known for his labours in Middle English, and for
his standard editions of Chaucer and Piers Plowman (see LANG-
LAND). As he himself generously declared, he was at first mainly
guided in the study of Chaucer by Henry Bradshaw, with whom
he was to have participated in the edition of Chaucer planned in
1870 by the University of Oxford, having declined in Bradshaw's
favour an offer of the editorship made to himself. Bradshaw's
perseverance was not equal to his genius, and the scheme
came to nothing for the time, but was eventually resumed
and carried into effect by Skeat in an edition of six volumes
(1894), a supplementary volume of Chaucerian Pieces being
published in 1897. He also issued an edition of Chaucer in one
volume'for general readers, and a separate edition of his Treatise
on the Astrolabe, with a learned commentary. His edition of
Piers Plowman in three parallel texts was published in 1886;
and, besides the Treatise on the Astrolabe, he edited numerous
books for the Early English Text Society, including the Bruce
of John Barbour, the romances of Havelock the Dane and William
of Palerne, and /Elfric's Lives of the Saints (4 vols.). For the
Scottish Text Society he -edited The Kingis Quair, usually
ascribed to James I. of Scotland, and he published an edition
(2 vols., 1871) of Chatterton, with an investigation of the sources
SKEFFINGTON SKELETON
169
of the obsolete words employed by him. In pure philology
Skeat's principal achievement is his Etymological English
Dictionary (4 parts, 1879-1882; rev. and enlarged, 1910), the most
important of all his works, which must be considered in connexion
with the numerous publications of the English Dialect Society,
in all of which, even when not edited by himself, he had a hand
as the founder of the society and afterwards its- president.
His other works include : Specimens of English from 1394 to 1597
(1871); Specimens of Early English from 1298 to 1393 (1872), in
conjunction with R. Morris; Principles of English Etymology (2
series, 1887 and 1891); A Concise Dictionary of Middle English
(1888), in conjunction with A. L. Mayhew; A Student's Pastime
(1896), a volume of essays; The Chaucer Canon (1900); A Primer
of Classical and English Philology (1905), &c., &c.
SKEFFINGTON, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1465-1535), lord deputy
of Ireland, belonged to a Leicestershire family and was sheriff
of Leicestershire and Warwickshire under Henry VII. He was
master of the ordnance and a member of parliament during the
reign of Henry VIII., and in 1529 was appointed deputy in
Ireland for Henry's son, the duke of Richmond, the nominal
lord lieutenant of that country. He crossed over in August
1829, but his power was so circumscribed by instructions from
Henry that the head of the Fitzgeralds, Gerald, 9th earl of
Kildare, and not Skeffington, was the real governor of Ireland.
This state of affairs lasted for three years and then in 1532 the
deputy was recalled. In 1534, Kildare being in prison in England
and his son Thomas, afterwards the loth earl, being in revolt,
Skeffington was again appointed deputy. After some delay
he landed at Dublin in October 1534 and marched at once to
relieve Drogheda, but further progress in the work of crushing
the rebellion was seriously delayed by his illness. However, in
the spring of 1535 he was again in the field. He took Maynooth,
the heavy artillery used by him o"n this occasion earning for him
his surname of " the gunner "; he forced some of Kildare's
allies to make peace and he captured Dungarvan. He died on
the 3ist of December 1535.
SKEGNESS, a seaside resort in the S. Lindsey, or Horncastle
parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; 131 m. N.
by E. from London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 2140. Since 1873, when railway connexion
was given with Firsby on the Grimsby branch line, the place
has undergone a complete transformation, and now possesses
good hotels and a pier. There are broad, firm sands, on which
accou u t Skegness is much visited. On bank holidays and
similar occasions thousands of excursionists come from the
manufacturing towns within reach. It is said that a former
Skegness, an important haven, was obliterated by the encroach-
ments of the sea; Leland, writing in the middle of the i6th
century, states that proofs of this were then extant.
SKELETON. In most animals, and indeed in plants, the
shape could not be maintained without a thickening and harden-
ing of certain parts to form a support for the whole. These
hardened parts are called the skeleton (Gr. <7KXXo>, I dry),
because they dry up and remain after the rest of the body has
disappeared. In animals the skeleton is usually, and in higher
animals always, rendered more rigid and permanent by the
deposit in it of lime salts, thus leading to the formation of bone.
Sometimes, as in most of the lower or invertebrate animals,
the skeleton is on the surface and thus acts as a protection as
well as a framework. This is known as an exoskeleton. In the
higher or vertebrate animals there is an internal or endoskelelon
and the exoskeleton is either greatly modified or disappears.
The following descriptive account is divided into (i) axial, or
skeleton of the trunk, (2) appendicular or skeleton of the limbs,
(3) skull, (4) visceral skeleton, or those parts which originally
form the gill supports of water breathing vertebrates, (5) the
exoskeleton, which is considered under the heading SKIN AND
EXOSKELETON. These divisions, although they seem logical,
cannot in practice be strictly adhered to, especially in the case
of the visceral skeleton, because doing so would involve, among
other things, separating the description of the upper jaw from
that of the rest of the skull. For the microscopical structure of
bone see CONNECTIVE TISSUES.
xxv. 6 a
Axial.
The axial skeleton, from a strictly scientific point of view,
should comprise a good deal of the skull as well as the spinal
column, ribs and breast bone, but, as the skull (q.v.) is dealt with
in a separate article, the three latter structures alone are dealt
with here.
The SPINE, SPINAL or VERTEBRAL COLUMN, chine or backbone in
man consists of a number of superimposed bones which are named
vertebrae, because they can move or turn somewhat on Soine
each other. It lies in the middle of the back of the neck
and trunk; has the cranium at its summit; the ribs at its sides,
which in their turn support the upper limbs ; whilst the pelvis, with
the lower limbs, is jointed to its lower end. The spine consists in an
adult of twenty-six bones, in a young child of thirty-three, certain
of the bones in the spine of the child
becoming ankylosed or blended with
each other in the adult. These blended
bones lose their mobility and are called
false vertebrae; whilst those which
retain their mobility are the true verte-
brae. The bones of the spine are
arranged in groups, which are named
from their position vertebrae of the
neck or cervical ; of the chest, thoracic,
formerly called dorsal; of the loins,
lumbar; of the pelvis, sacral; and of
the tail, coccygeal or caudal; and the
number of vertebrae in each group may
be expressed in a formula. In man the
formula is as follows: C 7 Thi2L 5 S s Coc4
= 33 bones, as seen in the child ; but the
five sacral vertebrae fuse together into a
single bone the sacrum and the four
coccygeal into the single coccyx. Hence
the sacrum and coccyx of the adult are
the false, whilst the lumbar, dorsal and
cervical are the true vertebrae.
The vertebrae are irregularly-shaped
bones, but as a rule have certain
characters in common. Each possesses
a body and an arch, which enclose a
ring, with certain processes and notches.
The body, or centrum, is a short
cylinder, which by its upper and lower
surfaces is connected by means of fibro-
cartilage with the bodies of the verte-
brae immediately above and below. The
collective series of vertebral bodies forms
the great column of the spine. The
arch, also called neural arch, because
it encloses the spinal marrow or nervous
axis, springs from the back of the cen-
trum, and consists of two symmetrical C? The cervical vertebrae,
halves united behind in the middle line. p 12 The thoracic
Each half hasan anterior part or pedicle, L 6 ~ The lumbar,
and a posterior part or lamina. The g 5 The sacral
rings collectively form the spinal canal. Coc/The coccygeal
The processes usually spring from the CC The series of' twelve
arch. The spinous process projects ribs on one side,
backward from the junction of the two p s The presternum
laminae, and the collective series of Ms The mes o-sternum.
these processes gives to the entire X s The xiphisternum.
column the spiny character from which The dotted line W
has arisen the term spine, applied to it. represents the vertical
I he transverse processes project out- ax j s o f tne S pi ne .
ward, one from each side of the arch.
The articular processes project, two upward and two downward,
and are for connecting adjacent vertebrae together. The notches,
situated on the upper and lower borders of the pedicles, form in
the articulated spine the intervertebral foramina through which the
nerves pass out of the spinal canal.
The vertebrae in each group have characters which specially dis-
tinguish them. In man and all mammals, with few exceptions,
whatever be the length of the neck, the cervical vertebrae cervical
are seven in number. In man the body of a cervical ver tebrae
vertebra is comparatively small, and its upper surface
is transversely concave; the arch has long and obliquely sloping
laminae; the ring is large and triangular; the spine is short, bifid,
and horizontal ; the transverse process consists of two bars of bone,
the anterior springing from the side of the body, the posterior from
the arch, and uniting externally to enclose a foramen (vertebrarterial)
through which, as a rule, the vertebral artery passes; the articular
processes are flat and oblique, and the upper pair of notches are
deeper than the lower. The first, second and seventh cervical
vertebrae have characters which specially distinguish them. The
first, or atlas, has no body or spine: its ring is very large, and on
each side of the ring is a thick mass of bone, the lateral mass, by
Coc*
FIG. i. The Axial
Skeleton.
170
SKELETON
[AXIAL
which it articulates with the occipital bone above and the second
vertebra below. The second vertebra, axis, or Vertebra dentata,
has its body surmounted by a thick, tooth-like odontoid process,
which is regarded as the body of the atlas displaced from its proper
vertebra and fused with the axis. This process forms a pivot round
which the atlas and head move in turning the head from one side
to the other; the spine is large, thick and deeply bifid. The
seventh, called Vertebra prominens,
is distinguished by its long prominent
spine, which is not bifid, and by the
small size of the foramen at the root
of the transverse process. In the
human spine the distinguishing char-
acter of all the cervical vertebrae is
the foramen at the root of the trans-
verse process.
The thoracic vertebrae, formerly
called dorsal, are twelve i.i number
in the human spine. They
are intermediate in size
and position to the cervical
and lumbar vertebrae, and are all
distinguished by having one or two
smooth surfaces on each side of the
body for articulation with the head
of one or two ribs. The arch is short
and with imbricated laminae; the
ring is nearly circular; the spine is
oblique, elongated and bayonet-
shaped; the transverse processes are
directed back and out, not bifid, and
with an articular surface in front for
the tubercle of a rib ; and the articular
processes are flat and nearly vertical.
The first, twelfth, eleventh, tenth and
sometimes the ninth, thoracic verte-
brae are distinguished from the rest.
The first is in shape like the seventh
cervical, but has no foramen at the
root of the transverse process, and
has two articular facets on each side
of the body ; the ninth has sometimes
only one facet at the side of the
body; the tenth, eleventh, and
twelfth have invariably only a single
facet on the side of the body, but the
eleventh and twelfth have stunted
transverse processes, and the twelfth
has its lower articular processes
shaped like those of a lumbar vertebra.
The lumbar vertebrae in man are
five in number. They are the lowest
of the true vertebrae, and
vertebrae. ? lso the 'argest, especially
in the centrum. The arch
has short and deep laminae; the
ring is triangular; the spine is mas-
sive and hatchet-shaped; the trans-
verse processes are long and pointed ;
the articular are thick and strong,
the superior pair concave, the inferior
convex, and the inferior notches, as
in the thoracic vertebrae, are deeper
than the superior. In the lumbar
vertebrae and in the lower thoracic
an accessory process projects from
the base of each transverse process,
and a mammillary tubercle from each
superior articular process. The fifth
lumbar vertebra has its body much
deeper in front than behind and its
spine is less massive.
The sacrum is composed of five
originally separate vertebrae fused
into a single bone. It forms
" m - the upper and back wall of
the pelvis, is triangular in form, and
possesses two surfaces, two borders,
a base, and an apex. The anterior
or pelvic surface is concave, and is
marked by four transverse lines, which indicate its original
subdivision into five bones, and by four pairs of foramina,
through which are transmitted the anterior sacral nerves. Its
posterior surface is convex; in the middle line are four spines,
because in the last sacral vertebra the spinal canal is not closed
behind. On each side of these are two rows of tubercles, the
inner of which are the conjoined articular and mammillary processes,
the outer the transverse processes of the originally distinct vertebrae.
Between these rows four pairs of foramina are found transmitting
the posterior sacral nerves from the sacral canal, which extends
From Arthur Thomson, Cunning-
ham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 2. Vertebral Column
as seen from behind.
through the bone from base to near the apex, and forms the lower
end of the spinal canal. By its borders the sacrum is articulated
with the haunch-bones by its base with the last lumbar vertebra,
by its apex with the coccyx. The human sacrum is broader in
proportion to its length than in other mammals; this great breadth
gives solidity to the lower part of the spine, and, conjoined with the
size of the lateral articular surfaces, it permits a more perfect junction
with the haunch-bones, and is correlated with the erect position.
Owing to the need in woman for a wide pelvis, the sacrum is broader
than in man. (For details see A. M. Paterson, " The Human Sac-
rum," Sci. Trans. R. Dublin Soc. vol. v. ser. 2.)
The coccyx consists of four or five vertebrae in the human spine
though the last one is sometimes suppressed. It is the rudimentary
tail, but instead of projecting back, as in mammals _^
generally, is curved forward, and is not visible externally, mw*-
an arrangement which is also found in the anthropoid apes and in
Hoffmann's sloth. Not only is the tail itself rudimentary in man,
but the vertebrae of which it is composed are small, and represent
merely the bodies and transverse processes of the true vertebrae.
As there are no arches, the ring is not formed, and the spinal canal
does not extend, therefore, beyond the fourth piece of the sacrum.
The first coccygeal vertebra, in addition to a body, possesses two
processes or horns, which are the superior articular processes.
The human spine is more uniform in length in persons of the same
race than might be supposed from the individual differences in
stature, the variation in the height of the body in adults being due
chiefly to differences in the length of the lower limbs. The average
length of the spine is 28 in.; its widest part is at the base of the
sacrum, from which it tapers down to the tip of the coccyx. It
diminishes also in breadth from the base of the sacrum upwards to
the region of the neck. Owing to the projection of the spines behind
and the transverse processes on each side, it presents an irregular
outline on those aspects; but in front it is more uniformly rounded,
owing to the convex form of the antero-lateral surfaces of the bodies
of its respective vertebrae. In its general contour two series of curves
may be seen, an antero-posterior and a lateral. The antero-posterior
is the more important. In the infant at the time of birth the sacro-
coccygeal part of the spine is concave forward, but the rest of the
spine, except a slight forward concavity in the series of thoracic
vertebrae, is almost straight. When the infant begins to sit up in
the arms of its nurse, a convexity forward in the region of the neck
appears, and subsequently, as the child learns to walk, a convexity
forward in the region of the loins. Hence in the adult spine a series
of convexo-concave curves are found, which are alternate and
mutually dependent, and are associated with the erect attitude of
man. A lateral curve, convex to the right, opposite the third,
fourth, and fifth thoracic vertebrae, with compensatory curve
convex to the left immediately above and below, is due apparently
to the much greater use of the muscles of the right arm over those
of the left, drawing the spine in that region somewhat to the right.
In disease of the spine its natural curvatures are much increased,
and the deformity known as humpback is produced. As the spine
forms the central part of the axial skeleton, it acts as a column to
support not only the weight of the body, but of all that can be
carried on the head, back and in the upper limbs: by its transverse
and spinous processes it serves also to give attachment to numerous
muscles, ana the transverse processes of its thoracic vertebrae are
also for articulation with the ribs.
The THORAX, PECTUS, or CHEST is a cavity or enclosure the walls
of which are in part formed of bone and cartilage. Its skeleton
consists of the sternum in front, the twelve thoracic _.
vertebrae behind, and the twelve ribs, with their corre- '
spending cartilages, on each side.
The sternum or breast bone is an elongated bone which inclines
downward and forward in the front wall of the chest. It consists of
three parts -an upper, called manubrium or presternum ;
a middle, the gladiolus or mesosternum ; and a lower, the
ensiform process or xiphisternum. Its anterior and posterior
surfaces are marked by transverse lines, which indicate not only the
subdivision of the entire bone into three parts, but that of the meso-
sternum into four originally distinct segments. Each lateral border
of the bone is marked by seven depressed surfaces for articulation
with the seven upper ribs: at each side of the upper border of the
presternum is a sinuous depression, where the clavicle, a bone of
the upper limb, articulates with this bone of the axial skeleton. The
xiphisternum remains cartilaginous up to a late period of life, and
Irom its pointed form has been named the ensiform cartilage.
The ribs or costae, twenty-four in number, twelve on each side
of the thorax, consist not only of the bony ribs, but of a bar of
cartilage continuous with the anterior end of each bone, c st e
called a costal cartilage, so that they furnish examples of a
cartilaginous skeleton in the adult human body; in aged persons
these cartilages usually become converted into bone. The upper
seven ribs are connected by their costal cartilages to the side of the
sternum, and are called sternal or true ribs; the lower five do not
reach the sternum, and are named a-sternal or false, and of these
the two lowest, from being comparatively unattached in front, are
called free or floating. Another and perhaps more useful classification
is to speak of the first seven ribs as vertebro-sternal, the next three
as vertebro-costal, and the last two as vertebral. All the ribs are
AXIAL]
SKELETON
171
articulated behind to the thoracic vertebrae, and as they are sym-
metrical on the two sides of the body, the ribs in any given animal
are always twice as numerous as the thoracic vertebrae in that
animal. They form a series of osseocartilaginous arches, which
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 3. The Thorax as seen from the Front.
extend more or less perfectly around the sides of the chest. A rib
is an elongated bone, and as a rule possesses a head, a neck, a tubercle
and a shaft. The head usually has two articular surfaces, and is
connected to the side of the body of two adjacent thoracic vertebrae ;
the neck is a constricted part of the bone, uniting the head to the
shaft; the tubercle, close to the junction of the shaft and neck, is
the part which articulates with the transverse
process of the vertebra. The shaft is com-
pressed, possesses an inner and outer surface,
and an upper and lower border, but from the
shaft being somewhat twisted on itself, the
direction of the surfaces and borders is not
uniform throughout the length of the bone.
The ribs slope from their attachments to the
spine, at first outward, downward and back-
ward, then downward and forward, and where
the curve changes from the backward to the SoP_j
forward direction an angle is formed on the rib.
The angle and the tubercle are at the same
place in the first rib and in each succeeding rib
the angle is a little farther from the tubercle SpP,
than in the last.
The first, tenth, eleventh and twelfth ribs
articulate each with only one vertebra so that
there is only one surface on the head. The
surface of the first rib which is not in contact
with the lung is directed upward, forward and
outward while that of the second rib is much
more outward; the eleventh and twelfth ribs
are rudimentary, have neither neck nortubercle,
and are pointed anteriorly. The ribs are by no
means uniform in length: they increase from
the first to the seventh or eighth, and then
diminish to the twelfth; the first and twelfth
are therefore the shortest ribs. The first and
second costal cartilages are almost horizontal, but the others are
directed upward and inward.
In its general form the chest may be likened to a barrel which is
wider below than above. It is rounded at the sides and flattened in
front and behind, so that a man can lie either on his back or his belly.
Its upper opening slopes downward and forward, is small in size, and
allows the passage of the windpipe, gullet, large veins and nerves
into the chest, and of several large arteries out of the chest into the
neck. The base or lower boundary of the cavity is much larger than
the upper, slopes downward and backward, and is occupied by the
diaphragm, a muscle which separates the chest from the cavity of
the abdomen. The transverse diameter is greater than the antero-
posterior, and the antero-posterior is greater laterally, where the
lungs are lodged, than in the mesial plane, which is occupied by the
heart.
Embryology. The first appearance of any stiffening of the embryo
is the formation of the notochord, which in the higher vertebrates is
a temporary structure and is not converted into cartilage or bone.
It also differs from the bony skeleton in that it is derived from the
entoderm or inner of the three layers of the embryo while the bony
skeleton is formed from the mesoderm or middle layer and, just as
the entoderm is an older layer of the embryo than the mesoderm,
so the notochord or entodermal skeleton precedes, both in embryology
and in phylogeny or comparative anatomy, the bony mesodermal
skeleton.
In the accompanying figure (fig. 4) the notochord is seen in section
fully formed and lying between the entoderm and the neural canal.
Its first formation is at an earlier period than this, before the neural
groove has closed into a canal, and it appears at first as an upward
groove from the most dorsal part of the entoderm in what will later on
be the cervical region of the embryo. The groove, by the union of
its edges, becomes a tube, sometimes spoken of as the chordal tube,
but the cavity of this is soon obliterated by the growth of its cells,
so that a solid elastic rod is formed which grows forward as far as the
pituitary region of the skull and backward to where the end of the
coccyx will be.
While the development of the notochord is going on the mesoderm
on each side of it is dividing itself into a series of masses called
mesodermic somites (see fig. 4, PS) or protovertebrae. This process
begins in the cervical region and proceeds forward and backward
until thirty-eight pairs have been formed for the neck and trunk and
probably four extra ones for the occipital region of the skull. Each
of these somites consists of three parts: that nearest the surface
ectoderm is the cutaneous lamella (fig. 4, CL). Deep to this and
separated in the earlier-formed somites by a space is the muscle
layer (fig. 4, ML) while deepest of all and nearest the nerve cord and
notochord is the scleratogenous layer (fig. 4, SL). It is this layer
which gradually meets its fellow of the opposite side and encloses the
nerve cord and the notochord in continuous tubes of mesodermal
tissue, thus forming the membranous vertebral column, which is
perforated forthe exit of the spinal nerves, but the intervals between
the successive mesodermic somites are still marked by the tissue
being rather denser there. The next stage is that of chondrification
or the conversion into cartilage of each segment of the membranous
vertebral column surrounding the notochord. In this way the bodies
of the cartilaginous vertebrae are formed and each of these is
segmental, that is, it corresponds to a muscle segment and a spinal
nerve. The cartilaginous neural arch, however, which surrounds the
nerve cord is intersegmental and is formed in the denser fibrous
tissue which separates each somite from the next. This also applies
to the cartilaginous ribs which appear in the fibrous intervals (myo-
EN
From Alfred H. Young and Arthur Robinson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 4. Transverse Section of a Ferret Embryo, showing further differentiation of
the mesoderm.
CC Central canal.
CL Cutaneous lamella
of protovertebral
somite.
CO Coelom.
EC Ectoderm.
EN EntoJerm.
GC Germinal cell.
SG
SL
SoM
ML Muscular layer of meso-
dermic somite.
N Notochord.
NC Neural crest.
PA Primitive aorta.
PS Mesodermic somite.
SB Spongioblast.
SC Spinal cord.
commata) between the muscle plates (myotomes), and so it is easy
to realize that each typical rib must articulate with the bodies of
two adjacent vertebrae, but with the neural arch, through its trans-
verse process, of only one.
The intersegmental tissue between the bodies of the vertebrae
becomes the intervertebral discs and in the centre of these a pulpy
Spinal ganglion.
Scleratogenous layer
of protovertebral
somite.
Somatic mesoderm.
SoP Somatopleure.
SpM Splanchnic mesoderm.
SpP Splanchnopleure.
172
SKELETON
[AXIAL
mass is found which contains some remnants of the notochord.
Elsewhere this structure is pressed out of existence and there is no
further use for it when the cartilaginous vertebrae are once formed.
One other series of structures must be mentioned though they do not
16
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 5. -Ossification of Vertebrae.
Cervical Vertebra.
Centre for body.
Superior epiphysial plate.
Anterior bar of transverse process
developed by lateral extension from
pedicle.
Neuro-central synchondrosis.
Inferior epiphysial plate.
a
which
Lumbar Vertebra.
6 Body.
7 Superior epiphysial plate.
8 Epiphysis for mammillary process.
9 Epiphysis for transverse process.
10 Epiphysis for spine.
11 Neuro-central synchondrosis.
12 Inferior epiphysial plate.
Dorsal Vertebra.
13 Centre for body.
14 Superior epiphysial plate, appears
about puberty; unites at 25th
year.
15 Neuro-central synchondrosis does not
ossify till 5th or 6th year.
1 6 Appears at puberty; unites at 25th
year.
17 Appears at puberty; unites at 25th
year.
18 Appears about 6th week.
Axis.
19 Centre for transverse process and
neural arch; appears about 8th
week.
20 Synchondroses close about 3rd year. 5th to 6th year.
play any great part in human development. In the intersegmental
tissue ventral to each of the interyertebral disks a transverse rod of
cells, known as a hypochordal bar, is formed which connects the heads
of two opposite ribs. In man the greater number of these either
disappear or form the middle fasciculus of the stellate ligament
which joins the head of the rib to the intervertebral disk, but in the
case of the atlas the rod chondrifies to form the anterior (ventral)
arch which is therefore intersegmental, while the segmental body
of the atlas, through which the notochord is passing, joins the axis to
form the odontoid process. These hypochordal bars are interesting
as the last remnant in man of the haemal arch of the vertebrae of
fishes (see subsection on comparative anatomy). In the cervical
region the ribs are very short and form the ventral boundary of the
foramen for the vertebral artery. They are so short that little
movement occurs between them and the rest of the vertebra, hence
no joints are formed and the rib element becomes fused with the
centrum and transverse process, leaving the vertebrarterial canal
between. Sometimes in the seventh cervical vertebra the rib element
is much longer and then of course more movement occurs, and instead
of fusing with the rest of the vertebra it remains as a separate cervical
rib with definite joints.
The sternum is developed according to G. Ruge by a fusion of the
ventral ends of the ribs on each side thus forming two parallel longi-
tudinal bars which chondrify and eventually fuse together in the mid
line. The anterior seven or sometimes eight ribs reach tlje sternum,
but the ventral ends of the ninth and sometimes the eighth probably
remain as the xiphisternum, indeed a fibrous band is sometimes seen
joining the caudal end of that structure to the ninth rib. The fusion
of the two parallel bars begins at their cephalic ends and sometimes is
interrupted toward the caudal end, thus leading to
cleft or perforate sternum. At the cephalic end of
each sternal bar, close to the place where the
clavicles articulate, is an imperfectly separated
patch of cartilage which usually fuses completely
with the presternum, though sometimes it remains
distinct and may later acquire a separate centre of
ossification and so form a separate episternal bone
on each side. If the sternum is to be regarded as
the fused ventral ends of the thoracic ribs, the
episternal elements are probably the remnants of
the ventral ends of the seventh cervical ribs. The
question of the morphological meaning of the
sternum and surrounding parts cannot be settled
entirely by a study of their development even when
combined with what we know of their comparative
anatomy or phylogeny. Professor A. M. Paterson
(The Human Sternum, London, 1904) takes a dif-
ferent view from the foregoing and regards the
sternum as derived from the shoulder girdle. To
this point of view we shall return in the section
on comparative anatomy.
The last stage in the development of the axial
skeleton is the ossification of the cartilage; bony
21 Centre for summit of odontoid pro- centres appear first in each half of the neural arches
cess; appears 3rd to 5th year, fuses of the vertebrae and a little later (tenth week)
8th to 1 2th year. double centres are deposited in the centra though
22 Appears about 5th or 6th month ; these are so close together and fuse so rapidly that
unites with opposite side 7th to 8th their double nature is often only indicated by their
month. oval or dumb-bell-like appearance. The bone in the
23 Synchondrosis closes from 4th to 6th two halves of the neural arch spreads and fuses in
year. the mid dorsal line, and later on joins the ossified
24 Inferior epiphysial plate; appears centrum ventral to the facet for the rib. This point
about puberty, unites about 25th of junction remains as a narrow strip of cartilage for
a long time and is known as the neuro-central
suture or synchondrosis. The head of the rib
therefore articulates with the developmental neural
arch instead of the centrum. About the age of
body;
year.
25 Single or double centre for
appears about 5th month.
Atlas.
26 Posterior arch and lateral
developed from a single centre on as thm plates - ust aboye and - be , ow t - he body (gee
11 fig. 52 and 3).- These are fully united by the
twenty-fifth year. In the lower two cervical verte-
puberty secondary centres or epiphyses appear at
' s the tips of the transverse and spinous processes and
appears
either side,
7th week.
27 Anterior arch and portion of superior braeYhere ''is' often a separate centre for the part
articular surface developed from correspondmg to the rib , while the l umba r have an
single or double centre, appearing cxtra epiphysis for the ma mmillary process. The
during ist year. atlas has one centre for each side of the dorsal part
Dorsal Vertebra. o f the arch and one (probably two fused) for the
28 Epiphysis for transverse process ; ventral part, which has already been referred to as
appears about puberty, unites about a hypochordal bar. In the axis, in addition to the
25th year. ordinary centres, there is one for each side of the
29 Epiphysis appears about puberty; odontoid process and one for the tip (see fig. 5
unites about 25th or 27th year. 20, 21, 22). The sacral vertebrae have the usual
30 Centre for neural arch on either side ; centres, except that the anterior part of the lateral
appears about 6th or 7th week, the mass (costal element) has a separate centre and
laminae unite from birth to 1 5th that there are two extra centres on each side of
month. the whole sacrum where it articulates with the ilium
31 Centre for body; appears about 6th (see fig. 6).
week, unites with neural arch from The ribs ossify by one primary centre appearing
about the sixth week and by secondary ones
for the tubercle and head. The sternum is ossified
by centres which do not appear opposite the attachment of
the ribs but alternately with them, so that although the original
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 6. Ossification of Sacrum a,a, Centres for bodies; 6,5,
Epiphysial plates on bodies; c,c, Centres for costal elements; d,d,
Centres for neural arches ; e,e, Lateral epiphyses.
cartilaginous structure is probably intersegmental the bony segments
are segmental like those of the vertebral centra. As seven ribs
articulate with the sternum six centres of ossification between them
might be looked for, but there is so little room between the points
of attachment of the sixth and seventh ribs that centres do not occur
AXIAL]
SKELETON
here as a rule. Consequently five centres are found; those for the
two higher segments being single while the lower ones are often double.
Later on in life a centre for the xiphisternum appears.
At birth.
At 3 years.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 7. Ossification of the Sternum. In this figure the second as
well as the third segment of the body possesses two centres, j^
1 Appears about 5th or 6th month; III. segment unites
month. with II. about puberty; IV.
2 Appear about 7th month; segment unites with III-
unite from 20 to 25. early childhood. [later.
3 Appear about 8th or gth 4 Appears about 3rd year or
For further details see C. S. McMurrich, The Development of the
Human Body (London, 1906). This includes bibliography, but G.
Ruge's paper on the development of the sternum (Morph. Jahrb. vi.
1880) is of special importance.
Comparative Anatomy. Just as in development the [notochord
forms the earliest structure for stiffening the embryo, so in the
animal kingdom it appears before the true backbone or vertebral
column is evolved. This is so important that the older phylum of
Vertebrata has now been expanded into that of Chordata to include
all animals which either permanently or temporarily possess a noto-
chord. In the subphylum Adelochorda, which includes the worm-
like Balanoglossus, as well as the colonial forms Rhabdopleura and
Cephalodiscus, an entodermal structure, apparently corresponding
to the notochord of higher forms, is found in the dorsal wall of the
pharynx. In the subphylum Urochorda or Tunicata, to which the
ascidians or sea-squirts belong, the notochord is present in the tail
region only and as a rule disappears after the metamorphosis from
the larval to the adult form. In the Acrania, which are represented
by Amphioxus (the lancelet), and are sometimes classed as the
lowest division of the subphylum Vertebrata, the notochord is
permanent and extends the whole length of the animal. Both this
and the nerve cord dorsal to it are enclosed in tubes of mesodermal
connective tissue which are continuous with the fibrous myocom-
mata between the myotomes. Here then is a notochord and a
membranous vertebral column resembling a stage in man's develop-
ment. In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) the notochord and
its sheath persist through life, but in the adult lamprey (Petromyzon)
cartilaginous neural arches are developed. In cartilaginous ganoid
fishes like the sturgeon, the notochord is persistent and has a strong
fibrous sheath into which the cartilage from the neural arches
encroaches while in the elasmobranch fishes (sharks and rays) the
cartilaginous centra are formed and grow into the notochord, thus
causing its partial absorption. The growth is more marked peri-
pherally than centrally, and so each centrum when removed is seen
to be deeply concave toward both the head and tail ; such a vertebra
is spoken of as amphicoelous and with one exception is always found
in fishes which have centra. In the body fish (Teleostei) and mud-
fish (Dipnoi) the vertebrae are ossified.
If a vertebra from the tail of a bony fish like the herring be ex-
amined, it will be seen to have a ventral (haemal) arch surrounding
the caudal blood-vessels and corresponding to the dorsal or neural
arch which is also present. In the anterior or visceral part of the
body the haemal arch is split and its two sides spread out deep to
the muscles and lying between them and the coelom to form the ribs.
In the elasmobranchs on the other hand the ribs lie among the
muscles as they do in higher vertebrates, and the fact that both
kinds of ribs are coexistent in the same segments in the interesting
and archaic Nilotic fish Polypterus bichir shows that they are de-
veloped independently of one another. The sternum is never found
in fishes with the possible exception of the comb-toothed shark
(Notidanus). Among the Amphibia the tailed forms (Urodela) have
amphicoelous vertebrae in embryonic life and so have some of the
adult salamanders, but usually the intercentral remnants of the
notochord are pressed out of existence by the forward growth of
the centrum behind it, so that in the adult each vertebra is only
concave behind (opisthocoelous). In the Anura (frogs and toads),
on the other hand, the centra are usually concave forward (procoelous)
and some of the posterior ones become fused into a long delicate
bone, the urostyle. The ribs of urodeles have forked vertebral ends
and are thus attached to the centrum as well as to the neural arch
of a vertebra; this forking is supposed to be homologous with the
double ribs of Polypterus already referred to. The sternum as a
constant structure first appears in amphibians and is more closely
connected with the shoulder girdle than with the ribs, the ventral
ends of which, except in the salamander Necturus, are rudimentary.
It is not certain whether it is the homologue of the sternum of the
fish Notidanus, but the subject is discussed by T. J. Parker and
A. M. Paterson (The Human Sternum, London, 1904, p. 50), and
still requires further research. If the sternum be regarded as a
segmental structure or series of segmental structures corresponding
to the centra of the vertebrae there is no reason why it should not
develop independently of the intersegmental ribs and, when the ribs
are suppressed, gain a secondary connexion with the shoulder girdle
In Reptilia the centra of the vertebrae are usually procoelous,
though there are a few examples, such as the archaic Tuatera lizard
(Sphenodon), in which the amphicoelous arrangement persists.
There are several cervical vertebrae instead of one, which is all the
amphibians have. The odontoid bone is usually separate both from
the atlas and axis while, between the atlas and the skull, there are
rudiments of an extra intervertebral dorsal structure or pro-atlas
in some forms such as the crocodile and Sphenodon lizard. Two
sacral vertebrae (i.e. vertebrae articulating with the ilium) are
generally present instead of the one of the Amphibia, but they are
not fused together as in mammals. In the tail region haemal arches
are often found enclosing the caudal artery and vein as they are
also in urodele amphibians; in some species these are separate and
arc then spoken of as chevron bones. In the Crocodilia intervertebral
disks first appear. Ribs are present in the cervical, thoracic and
lumbar regions, and in the Chelonia (tortoises) the cervical ones
blend with the vertebrae as they do in higher forms. In crocodiles
a definite vertebrarterial canal is established in the cervical region
which henceforward becomes permanent. The shafts of the ribs are
sometimes all in one piece as in snakes or they may be developed by
three separate centres as in Sphenodon with intervening joints.
In these cases dorsal, intermediate and ventral elements to each
shaft are present. In Crocodilia and Sphenodon there are spurs
from each thoracic rib which overlap the next rib behind and are
known as uncinate processes; they are developed in connexion with
the origin of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen and are
very constant in birds. The ventral elements of some of the hinder
ribs are found in the Crocodilia lying loose in the myocommata of
the rectus and obliquus internus (inscriptiones tendineae) and are
known as abdominal ribs, while the sacral vertebrae articulate with
the ilium through the intervention of short rods of bone, sometimes
called pleurapophyses, which are no doubt sacral ribs. The sternum
of reptiles is a broad plate of cartilage which may be calcified but is
seldom converted into true bone; it always articulates with the
coracoids (see section Appendicular) anteriorly and with a variable
number of ribs laterally and posteriorly. It should not be confounded
with the dagger-shaped interclavicle which, like the clavicles, is a
membrane bone and overlaps the sternum ventrally. It is also
probable that the interclavicle is morphologically quite distinct
from the episternum, of which vestiges are present in man and
are referred to above in the section on embryology (see fig. 27). In
birds the characteristics are largely reptilian with some specialized
adaptations to their bipedal locomotion and power of flight. One
effect of this is that the two true sacral vertebrae become secondarily
fused with the adjacent lumbar, caudal and even thoracic, and these
again fuse with the ilium so that the posterior part of a bird's trunk
is very rigid. The neck, on the other hand, is very movable and
the centra articulate by means of saddle-shaped joints which give
the maximum of movement combined with strength (see JOINTS).
The caudal vertebrae are fused into a flattened bone, the pygostyle,
to support the tail feathers. In the fossil bird Archaeopteryx the
centra are amphicoelous and the long tail has separate caudal
vertebrae. The ribs are few and consist of dorsal (vertebral) and
ventral (sternal) parts; the former almost always have uncinate
processes. Free cervical ribs are often present and Archaeopteryx
possessed abdominal ribs. The sternum is very large and in flying
birds (Carinatae) has a median keel (carina) projecting from it,
while the non-flying, ostrich-like birds (Ratitae) have no such
structure.
In Mammalia the centra articulate by means of the intervertebral
disks and it is only in this class that the epiphysial plates appear
though these are absent in the Monotremata (duck-mole, &c.) and
Sirenia (sea-cows). The cervical vertebrae are with a few exceptions
(two-toed and three-toed sloths and the manatee or sea-cow) always
seven in number, and some, usually all, of them have a vertebrar-
terial canal in the transverse process. In some of the Cetacea they
are fused together. In the Ornithorhynchus the odontoid is a
separate bone, as it is in many reptiles, but this part includes the
facets by means of which the axis and atlas articulate. The thoracic
'74
SKELETON
[AXIAL
vertebrae vary from ten in some of the whales and the peba armadillo
to twenty-four in the two-toed sloth, though thirteen or fourteen is
the commonest number. In the anterior part of the thoracic region
the spines point backward, while in the posterior thoracic and
lumbar regions they have a forward direction. There is always one
spine in the posterior thoracic region, which is vertical, and the
vertebra which bears this is known as the anticlinal vertebra. The
FIG. 8. Anterior Surface
of Sixth Cervical Vertebra
of Dog.
s Spinous process.
as Anterior zygapophysis.
a Vertebrarterial canal.
t Transverse process.
I' Its costal lamella.
FIG. 9. Side View of the
First Lumbar Vertebra of a
Dog (Canis familiaris).
s Spinous process.
m Metapophysis.
az Anterior zygapophysis.
pz Posterior zygapophysis.
a Anapophysis.
I Transverse (costal) pro-
lumbar vertebrae vary from two in the Ornithorhynchus and some
of the armadillos to twenty-one in the dolphin, the average number
being probably six. Both the mammillary and accessory tubercles
(meta- and ana-pophyses) are in some forms greatly enlarged. It
is usually held that the former are morphologically muscular pro-
cesses while the latter represent the transverse processes of the
thoracic vertebrae. In the American edentates additional articular
processes (zygapophyses) are developed, so that these animals are
sometimes divided from the old-world edentates and spoken of as
Xenarthra.
Lying ventral to the intervertebral disks in many mammals
small paired ossicles are occasionally found; these are called inter-
centra and are ossifications in the hypochordal bar (see subsection
on embryology). They probably represent the places where the
chevron bones or haemal arches would be attached and are the
serial homologues of the anterior arch of the atlas (see fig. 10).
Boulenger has pointed out that
these intercentra, either as
paired or median ossicles, are
often found in lizards (P.Z.S.,
1891, p. 114). The sacrum con-
sists of true sacral vertebrae,
which directly articulate with
the sacrum, and false, which are
caudal vertebrae fused with the
others to form a single bone.
There is also reason to believe
that vertebrae which are
originally lumbar become
secondarily included in the
sacrum because in the develop-
ment of man the pelvis is at
first attached to the thirtieth
vertebra, but gradually shifts
forward until it reaches the
twenty -fifth, twenty-sixth and
twenty-seventh ; the twenty-
fifth or first sacral vertebra has,
however, a frequent tendency to
revert to the lumbar type and
sometimes may do so on one
After F. G. Parsons, "On Anatomy of s jd e but not on the other. A.
AihtrwAfncw.-ProcZool.Soc.,^ Pa terson, on the other hand,
FIG. io. The Intercentra of brings f orwar d evidence to
'the Lower Part of the Vertebral prove that the human sacrum
Column, a, a, a, Intercentra. undergoes a backward rather
than a forward shifting
(Scientif. Trans. R. Dublin Society, vol. v., ser. II, p. 123). Taking
the vertebrae which fuse together as an arbitrary definition of the
sacrum, we find that the number may vary from one in Cercopithecus
patas to thirteen in some of the armadillos, and, if the Cetacea are
included, seventeen in the bottle-nosed dolphin, Tursiops. Four
seems to be about the average of sacral vertebrae in the mammalian
class and of these one or two are true sacral. In some of the Edentata
the posterior sacral vertebrae are fused with the ischium, in other
words the great sacro-sciatic ligament is ossified. The lateral
centres of ossification which form the articular surface for the ilium
probably represent rib elements. The caudal or tail vertebrae vary
from none at all in the bat Megaderma to forty-nine in the pangolin
(Manis macrura). The anterior ones are remarkable for usually
having chevron bones (shaped like a V) on the ventral surface of the
intercentral articulation. These protect the caudal vessels and give
attachment to the ventral tail muscles. The ribs in mammals
correspond in number to the
thoracic vertebrae. In mono-
tremes the three parts of the
rib (dorsal, intermediate and
ventral) already noticed in the
reptiles are found, but usually
the intermediate part is sup-
pressed. The ventral part
generally remains cartilaginous
as it does in man though
sometimes it ossifies as in the
armadillos. In the typical
pronograde mammals the shape
of the ribs differs from that of
the higher Primates and man:
they are so curved that the
dorso-ventral diameter of the
thorax is greater than the
transverse while in the higher
Primates the thorax is broader
from side to side than it is FiG. II. Anterior Surface of
Fourth Caudal Vertebra of Por-
poise (Phocaena communis).
s Spinous process.
dorso-ventrally. In this respect
the bats agree with man and
the lemurs with the pronograde
mammals.
In some whales the first rib
articulates by an apparently
double head with two verte-
brae; this is probably the result of a
m
t
Metapophysis.
Transverse process.
h Chevron bone.
cervical rib joining it
a little way from the vertebral column, and the result is
homologous with those cases in man in which a cervical rib joins
the first thoracic as it sometimes does. In the toothed whales, of
which the porpoise is an example, the more posterior ribs lose their
heads and necks and only articulate with the transverse processes.
The sternum of mammals typically consists of from seven to nine
narrow segments or sternebrae, the first of which (presternum) is
often broader than those behind. As a rule the second rib articulates
with the interval between the first and second pieces, but sometimes,
as in the gibbon, it is the third rib which does so. When this is the
case, as it sometimes is in man, the first two sternebrae have pro-
bably fused (see A. Keith, Journ. Anal, and Phys. xxx. 275). The
segmental character of the separate sternebrae contrasts strongly
with the intersegmental of the ribs. When the pectoralis major
muscle is largely developed, as in the mole and bats, the sternum,
especially the presternum, develops a keel as in birds. In the
toothed whales there is usually a cleft or perforation throughout life
between the two lateral halves of the sternum. In the whalebone
whales the mesosternum is suppressed and consequently only the
first ribs reach the ster-
num; this is of great
interest when the
oblique position of the
diaphragm (see art.
DIAPHRAGM) in these
animals is remembered,
and makes one suspect
that the development
of the sternum in mam-
mals is dependent on
and subservient to the
attachment of the dia-
phragm. The broad-
ened thorax of the
anthropomorpha is ac-
companied by a broad-
ened sternum and the
sternebrae of the
mesosternum fuse to-
gether early, though in
the orang they not only
remain separate but
each half of them re- FIG. 12. Sternum and strongly ossified
mains separate until the Sternal Ribs of Great Armadillo (Priodon
animal is half-grown, gigas). ps, Presternum; xs, xiphisternum.
The episternum is re-
presented by small ossicles which occasionally occur in man, while in
the Ornithorhynchus and the tapir there is a separate bone in front
(cephalad) of the presternum which in the former animal is distinct
at first from the interclavicle, and this probably represents the
episternum, though it was called by W. K. Parker by the noncom-
mittal name of proosteon.
For further details and literature see S. H. Reynolds, The Verte-
brate Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897); W. H. Flower and H. Gadow,
APPENDICULAR]
SKELETON
175
Osteology of the Mammalia (London, 1885); R. Wiedersheim,
Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, adapted and translated by
\V. N. Parker (London, 1907) ; R. Wiedersheim and G. Howes, The
Structure of Man (London, 1897); C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anal,
der Wirbeltiere, Band i. (Leipzig, 1901).
Appendicidar.
The bony framework of the two appendages or extremities,
as the upper and lower limbs are called, is built up on the same
plan in both. Each consists of a limb girdle (shoulder and hip
girdles) connecting it with the axial skeleton, a proximal single
bone segment (humerus, femur), a distal double bone segment
(radius, ulna; tibia, fibula), the hand and foot segments (carpus,
metacarpus; tarsus, metatarsus) and the digits (phalanges).
It should be understood that in the following descriptions the
terms internal and external are used in relation to the mid-line
of the body and not to that of the limb.
The upper limb in man may be subdivided into a proximal part or
shoulder, a distal part or hand, and an intermediate shaft, which
consists of an upper arm or brachium, and a forearm or
ante-brachium. In each of these subdivisions certain
bones are found : in the shoulder, the clavicle and scapula ;
in the upper arm, the humerus; in the forearm, the radius and
ulna, the bone of the upper arm in man being longer than the bones
v of the forearm ; in
the hand, the car-
pal and metacar-
pal bones and the
phalanges. The
scapula and
clavicle together
form an imperfect
bony arch, the
Scapular Arch or
FIG. 13. Diagrammatic Section to represent Shoulder Girdle;
the Relations of the Shoulder Girdle to the t he shaft and'
Trunk.
The clavicle.
Upper
Utah.
V
C
St
Sc
Cr
A thoracic vertebra.
A rib.
The sternum.
The scapula.
The coracoid.
hand form a free
Cl The clavicle. divergent A p-
M The meniscus at p e n d a g e. The
its sternal end. shoulder girdle is
H The humerus. the direct medium
of connexion be-
tween the axial
skeleton and the divergent part of the limb; its anferior segment,
the clavicle, articulates with the upper end of the sternum, whilst
its posterior segment, the scapula, approaches, but does not reach,
the dorsal spines.
The clavicle, or collar bone (fig. 14), is an elongated bone which
extends from the upper end of .the sternum horizontally outward,
Clavicle. to articulate with the acromion process of the scapula.
It presents a strong sigmoidal curve, which is associated
with the transverse and horizontal direction of the axis of the human
shoulder. It is slender in the female, but powerful in muscular
males; its sternal end thick and somewhat triangular; its acromial
end, flattened from above downward, has an oval articular surface
for the acromion. Its shaft has four surfaces for the attachment
of muscles; and strong ligaments connecting it with the coracoid,
is attached to the under surface, nea-- the outer end, whilst near the
inner a strong ligament passes between it and the first rib.
The scapula, or shoulder blade (fig. 14), is the most important
bone of the shoulder girdle, and is present in all mammals. It lies
Scapula at ^e u PP er anc l back part of the wall of the chest,
reaching from the second to the seventh rib. Its form is
plate-like and triangular, with three surfaces, three borders, and
three angles. Its costal or ventral surface is in relation to the ribs,
from which it is separated by certain muscles: one, called sub-
scapularis, arises from the surface itself, which is often termed
subscapular fossa. The dorsum or back of the scapula is traversed
from behind forward by a prominent spine, which lies in the proper
axis of the scapula, and subdivides this aspect of the bone into a
surface above the spine, the supra-spinous fossa, and one below the
spine, the infra-spinous fossa. The spine arches forward to end in
a broad flattened process, the acromion, which has an oval articular
surface for the clavicle; both spine and acromion are largely de-
veloped in the human scapula in correlation with the great size of
the trapezius and deltoid muscles, which are concerned in the
elevation and abduction of the upper limb. The borders of the
scapula, directed upward, backward, and downward, give attach-
ment to several muscles. The angles are inferior, antero-superior,
and postero-superior. The antero-superior is the most important;
it is truncated, and has a large, shallow, oval, smooth surface, the
Ctenoid fossa, for articulation with the humerus, to form the shoulder
joint. Overhanging the glenoid fossa is a curved beak-like process,
the coracoid, which is of importance as corresponding with the
separate coracoid bone of monotremes, birds and reptiles. The line
of demarcation between it and the scapula proper is marked on the
upper border of the scapula by the supra-scapular notch
The humerus, or bone of the upper arm (fig. 14), is a long bone,
and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity
possesses a convex spheroidal smooth surface, the head,
for articulation with the glenoid fossa of the scapula; it
is surrounded by a narrow constricted neck, and where the neck
and shaft become continuous with each other, two processes or
tuberosities are found, to which are attached the rotator muscles
arising from the scapular fossae. Between the tuberosities is a
groove in which the long tendon of the biceps rests. A line drawn
through the head of the humerus perpen-
dicular to the middle of its articular
surface, forms with the axis of the shaft
of the bone an angle of 40. The shaft
of the humerus is triangular in section
above, but flattened and expanded
below; about midway down the outer
surface is a rough ridge for the insertion
of the deltoid muscle, and on the inner
surface another rough mark for the
insertion of the coraco brachialis. A
shallow groove winds round the back of
the bone, in which the musculo-spiral
nerve is lodged. The lower extremity
of the humerus consists of an articular
and a non-articular portion. The articular
has a small head or capitellum externally
for the radius, and a pulley or trochlea
internally for the movements of the ulna
in flexion and extension of the limb.
The non-articular part has a projection
both on its inner and outer aspect; these
are known as the internal and external
condyles, and of these the internal is the
more prominent; each is surmounted by
a supracondylar ridge, and the internal
condyle and ridge attach the muscles
passing to the flexor surface of the fore-
arm, while the external are for those
passing to the extensor surface.
A small, downwardly directed, hook-
like process of bone is occasionally
found above the internal condyle and
is the vestige of the supracondylar fora-
men found in so many of the lower
animals (see below Comparative Anatomy).
Before describing the two bones of the
forearm, the range of movement which
can take place between them should be
noticed. In one position, which is called
supine, they lie parallel to each other,
the radius being the more external bone,
and the palm of the hand being directed p JG 54 _ The Appen-
forward; in the other or prone position dicular Skeleton of the
the radius crosses obliquely in front of L e ft Upper Limb.
the ulna, and the palm of the hand is r , r , ,
directed backward. Not only the bones Jr
of the forearm, but those of the hand \ c
are supposed to be in the supine position
when (hey are described. C
The radius (fig. 14) is the outer bone of H
the forearm, and like all long bones
possesses a shaft and two ex- ..
tremities. The upper extremity Ka< "" s -
or head has a shallow, smooth cup for
moving on the capitellum of the humerus ; , , ,-. Cc
the outer margin of the cup is also Mc Opposit
smooth, for articulation with the ulna
P rocess -
^oracoid P>cs of
x
" u >7} erus -
11?,?,
^ lna " ., ,, . . ,
Opposite the eight
Cc
the five
p metacarpal bones.
and orbicular ligament; below the cup f. Pollex, or thumb.
is a constricted neck, and immediately iiy i!????/
below the neck a tuberosily for the in- if, 1 ' '. iaale -
sertion of the biceps. The shaft of the i, V ' JV"?' ,
bone possesses three surfaces for the V "
attachment of muscles, and a sharp inner border for the in-
terosseous membrane. The lower end of the bone is much
broader than the upper, and is marked posteriorly by grooves
for the lodgment of tendons passing to the back of the hand :
from its outer border a pointed styloid process projects down-
ward ; its inner border has a smooth shallow fossa (the sig-
moid cavity of the radius) for articulation with the ulna, and
its broad lower surface is smooth and concave, for articu-
lation with the scaphoid and semilunar bones of the wrist.
The ulna (fig. 14) is also a long bone. Its upper end is subdivided
into two strong processes by a deep fossa, the greater sigmoid cavity,
which possesses a smooth surface for articulation with Ulaa
the trochlea of the humerus. The anterior or coronoid
process is rough in front for the insertion of the brachialis anticus,
whilst the posterior or olecranon process gives insertion to the large
triceps muscle of the upper arm. Immediately below the outer
border of the great sigmoid cavity is the small sigmoid cavity for
articulation with the side of the head of the radius. The shaft of
176
SKELETON
[APPENDICULAR
the bone has three surfaces for the attachment of muscles, and a
sharp outer border for the'interosseous membrane. The lower end,
much smaller than the upper, has a pointed styloid process and a
smooth articular surface, the outer portion of which is for the lower
end of the radius, the lower part for moving on a cartilage of the
wrist joint called the triangular fibro-cartilage.
The hand consists of the carpus or wrist, of the metacarpus or
palm, and of the free digits, the thumb and four fingers. Anatomists
H ad describe it with the palm turned to the front, and with its
axis in line with the axis of the forearm.
The carpal or wrist bones (fig. 14) are eight in number and small
in size: they are arranged in two rows, a proximal, i.e. a row
Carpus next tne f rearm >~7 cons i st; i n g of the scaphoid, semilunar,
cuneiform and pisiform; and a distal, i.e. a row next
the bones of the palm, consisting of a trapezium, trapezoid, os
magnum and unciform; the bones in each row being named in the
order they are met with, from the radial or outer to the ulnar or
inner side of the wrist. It is unnecessary to give a separate de-
scription of each bone. Except the pisiform or pea-shaped bone,
which articulates with the front of the cuneiform, each carpal bone
is short and irregularly cuboidal in shape; its anterior (or palmar)
surface and its posterior (or dorsal) being rough, for the attachment
of ligaments; its superior and inferior surfaces being invariably
smooth, for articulation with adjacent bones; whilst the inner and
outer surfaces are also smooth, for articulation, except the outer
surfaces of the scaphoid and trapezium (the two external bones of
the carpus), and the inner surfaces of the cuneiform and unciform
(the two internal bones). Occasionally extra bones are found, but
they are apparently the remnants of cartilaginous elements found in
the hand of the early embryo (see G. Thilenius, Morph. Arbeiten,
v., 1896).
The metacarpal bones, or bones of the palm of the hand, are five
in number (fig. 14). They are miniature long bones, and each
possesses a shaft and two extremities. The metacarpal of the
thumb is the shortest, and diverges outward from the rest; its
carpal extremity is saddle-shaped, for articulation with the trapezium ;
its shaft is somewhat compressed, and its phalangeal end is smooth
and rounded, for the first phalanx of the thumb. The four other
metacarpal bones belong to the four fingers; they are almost parallel
to each other, and diminish in size from the second to the fifth.
Their carpal ends articulate with the trapezoid, os magnum and
unciform: their shafts are three-sided: their phalangeal ends
articulate with the proximal phalanges of the fingers.
The number of digits in the hand is five. They are distinguished
by the names of pollex or thumb, index, medius, annularis and
m it minimus. Their skeleton consists of fourteen bones,
named phalanges, of which the thumb has two, and each
of the four fingers three. The phalanx next the metacarpal bone is
the proximal, that which carries the nail, the terminal or ungual
phalanx, whilst the intermediate bone is the middle phalanx. Each
is a miniature long bone, with two articular extremities and an
intermediate shaft, except the terminal phalanges, which have an
articular surface only at their proximal ends, the distal end being
rounded and rough, to afford a surface for the lodgment of the
nail.
The INFERIOR or PELVIC EXTREMITY, or LOWER LIMB, consists of
a proximal part or haunch, a distal part or foot, and an intermediate
shaft subdivided into thigh and leg. Each part has its
appropriate skeleton (the thigh-bone in man being longer
than the leg-bones). The bone of the haunch (os innomina-
tum) forms an arch or pelvic girdle, which articulates behind with the
side of the sacrum, and arches forward to articulate with the opposite
haunch-bone at the
pubic symphysis. It
is the direct medium
of connexion between
the axial skeleton and
the shaft and foot,
which form a free
divergent appendage.
The os innominatum,
or haunch-bone, is a
FIG. 15. Diagrammatic section to repre- large irregular plate-
sent the relations of the Pelvic Girdle to like bone, which forms
Lower
limb.
the lateral and inferior
boundary of the cavity
of the pelvis. In early
the Trunk.
V A sacral vertebra.
II The ilium.
P The two pubic bones meeting in front at life it consists of three
the symphysis. bones ilium, ischium
F The femur. and pubis which unite
about the twenty-fifth
year into a single bone. These bones converge, and join to form a
deep fossa or cup, the ace.tabulum or cotyloid cavity, on the outer
p elvtc surface of the bone, which lodges the head of the thigh-
rirdle ^ one at tne h>P-Ji nt - One-fifth of this cup is formed by
the pubes, and about two-fifths each by the ischium and
ilium. At the bottom of the acetabulum is a depression, to the
sides of which the ligamentum teres of the hip-joint is attached.
From the acetabulum the ilium extends upward and backward, the
ischium downward and backward, the pubis forward, inward and
downward. Below the acetabulum is a large hole, the obturator or
thyroid foramen, which is bounded by the ischium and pubes;
behind and above the acetabulum is the deep sciatic notch, which
is bounded by the ischium and ilium, and below this is the small
sciatic notch.
The ilium (fig. 16) in man is a broad plate-like bone, the lower end
of which aids in forming the acetabulum, while the upper end forms
the iliac crest, which, in man, in
conformity with the general expan-
sion of the bone, is elongated into
the sinuous crest of the ilium. This
crest is of great importance, for it
affords attachment to the broad
muscles which form the wall of the
abdominal cavity. One surface of
the ilium is external, and marked by
curved lines which subdivide it into
areas for the origin of the muscles
of the buttock; another surface is
anterior, and hollowed out to give
origin to the iliacus muscle; the
third, or internal, surface articulates
posteriorly with the sacrum, whilst
anteriorly it forms a part of the wall
of the true pelvis. The external is
separated from the anterior surface
by a border which joins the anterior
end of the crest, where it forms a
process, the anterior superior spine.
About the middle of this border is
the anterior inferior spine. Between
the external and internal surfaces is
a border on which are found the
posterior superior and inferior spines ;
between the anterior and internal
surfaces is the ilio-pectineal line,
which forms part of the line of
separation between the true and
false pelvis.
The pubis (fig. 16) is also a three-
sided, prismatic," rod-like bone, the
fundamental form of which Pubis
is obscured by the modi-
fication in shape of its inner end. In
human anatomy it is customary to
regard it as consisting of a body and
of two branches, an upper and a
lower ramus.
The upper ramus runs downward,
forward and inward from the aceta-
bulum to the body of the pubis, which
is a plate of bone placed nearly hori-
zontally in the upright position of v
the subject and articulating with its FIG. 16. The Appendicular
fellow of the opposite side at the Skeleton of the Left Lower
symphysis pubis (see JOINTS). Pro- Limb,
jecting forward from the junction of II
the body and upper ramus is the Is
pubic spine, an important landmark Pb Pubis, the three parts of
in surgery, and to this the ilio-pec- the innominate bone,
tineal line, already mentioned, may F Femur,
be traced. P Patella.
The lower ramus is really more Tb Tibia,
horizontal than the upper (which Fb Fibula,
used to be called the horizontal Tr
ramus), and runs backward and
outward from the body to meet the C
ramus of the ischium and so form the
subpubic arch. Mt
The ischium (fig. 16), like the ilium
and pubis, has the fundamental form H
of a three-sided prismatic ischium H-
rod. One extremity (the ' III.
upper) completes the acetabulum, IV. Fourth,
whilst the lower forms the large V. Fifth or little toe.
prominence, or tuber ischii. The
surfaces of the bone are internal or
pelvic, antero-external, and postero-
external. The pelvic and postero-
external surfaces are separated from
each other by a sharp border, on
which is seen the ischial spine. The
pelvic and antero-external surfaces are separated by a border,
which forms a part of the boundary of the obturator foramen; but
the margin between the antero- and postero-external surfaces is
feebly marked. The tuberosity, a thick, rough and strong process,
gives origin to several powerful muscles : on it the body rests in the
sitting posture ; a flattened ramus ascends from it to join the lower
ramus of the pubis, and completes both the pubic arch and the
margin of the obturator foramen.
Ilium.
Ischium.
Opposite the seven tarsal
bones.
Os calcis, forming promi-
nence of heel.
Opposite the five meta-
tarsal bones.
Hallux or great toe.
Second.
Third.
The
dotted line HH repre-
sents the horizontal
plane, whilst the dotted
tine V is in line with
the vertical axis of the
spine.
APPENDICULAR]
SKELETON
177
By the articulation of the two innominate bones with each other
in front at the pubic symphysis, and with the sides of the sacrum
Pelvis. behind, the osseous walls of the cavity of the PELVIS are
formed. ' This cavity is subdivided into a false and a true
pelvis. The false pelvis lies between the expanded wing-like portions
of the two ilia. The true pelvis lies below the two ilio-pectineal lines
and the base of the sacrum, which surround the upper orifice or brim
of the true pelvis, or pelvic inlet ; whilst its lower orifice or outlet is
bounded behind by the coccyx, laterally by the ischial tuberosities,
and in front by the pubic arch. In the erect attitude the pelvis is
so inclined that the plane of the brim forms with the horizontal
plane an angle of from 6p to 65. The axis of the cavity is curved,
and is represented by a line dropped perpendicularly from the planes
of the brim, the cavity and the outlet; at the brim it is directed
downward and backward, at the outlet downward and a little for-
ward. Owing to the inclination of the pelvis, the base of the sacrum
is nearly 4 in. higher than the upper border of the pubic symphysis.
The female pelvis is distinguished from the male by certain sexual
characters. The bones are more slender, the ridges and processes
for muscular attachment more feeble, the breadth and capacity
greater, the depth less, giving the greater breadth to the hips of a
woman; the inlet more nearly circular, the pubic arch wider,
the distance between the tuberosities greater, and the aceta-
bulum smaller in the female than in the male. The greater capacity
of the woman's over the man's pelvis is to afford greater room for
the expansion of the uterus during pregnancy, and for the expulsion
of the child at the time of birth.
The femur or thigh-bone (fig. 16) is the longest bone in the body,
and consists of a shaft and two extremities. The upper extremity
_ or head has a smooth hemispherical surface, in which an
" ' oval roughened fossa, for the attachment of the liga-
mentum teres of the hip, is found; from the head a strong elongated
neck passes downward and outward to join the upper end of the
shaft ; the place of j unction is marked by two processes or trochantcrs ;
to the external or great trochanter are attached many muscles; the
internal or lesser trochanter gives attachment to the psoas and iliacus.
A line drawn through the axis of the head and neck forms with a
vertical line drawn through the shaft an angle of 30; in a woman
this angle is a little less obtuse than in a man, and the obliquity of the
shaft of the femur is slightly greater in the former than in the latter.
The shaft is almost cylindrical about its centre, but expanded above
and below; its front and sides give origin to the extensor muscles
of the leg; behind there is a rough ridge, which, though called linea
aspera, is really a narrow surface and not a line; it gives attachment
to several muscles. The lower end of the bone presents a large
smooth articular surface for the knee-joint, the anterior portion of
which forms a trochlea or pulley for the movements f the patella,
whilst the lower and posterior part is subdivided into two convex
cpndyles by a deep fossa which gives attachment to the crucial
ligaments of the knee. The inner and outer surfaces of this end of
the bone are rough, for the attachment of muscles and the lateral
ligaments of the knee.
The femur constitutes usually about 0-275 of the individual
stature; but this proportion is not constant, as this bone forms a
larger element in the stature of a tall than of a short man. The
human femur presents also a concave popliteal surface, thus differing
from that of Pithecanthropus, whose popliteal surface is convex.
In the bones of some races the dorsal ridge of the thigh-bone (linea
aspera) projects as a prominent crest causing the bones to appear
" pilastered," a condition the amount of which is indicated by the
increased relative length of the sagittal of the coronal diameter of
the bone. Pilastering, though characteristic of lower and primitive
races of man, is never found in the anthropoids. The upper third
of the femur in some races is sagittally flattened, a condition which
is called platymeria. Its degree is indicated by the excess of the
coronal over the sagittal diameter in this region.
The patella or knee-pan (fig. 16) is a small triangular flattened
bone developed in the tendon of the great extensor muscles of the
p l II ' e S- ' ts anterior surface and sides are rough, for the
attachment of the fibres of that tendon; its posterior
surface is smooth, and enters into the formation of the knee-
joint.
Between the two bones of the leg there are no movements of
pronation and supination as between the two bones of the forearm.
The tibia and fibula are fixed in position ; the fibula is always
external, the tibia internal.
The tibia or shin-bone (fig. 1 6) is the larger and more important
of the two bones of the leg; the femur moves and rests upon its
Tibia upper end, and down it the weight of the body in the
erect position is transmitted to the foot. Except the
femur, it is the longest bons of the skeletpn, r and consists of a shaft
and two extremities. The upper extremity is broad, and is expanded
into two tuberosities, the external of which has a small articular
facet inferiorly, for the head of the fibula; superiorly, the tuber-
osities have two smooth surfaces, for articulation with the condyles
of the femur; they are separated by an intermediate rough surface,
from which a short spine (really a series of elevations) projects,
which gives attachments to the interarticular crucial ligaments and
semilunar cartilages of the knee, and lies opposite the intercondylar
fossa of the femur. The shaft of the bone is three-sided; its inner
surface is subcutaneous, and forms the shin; its outer and posterior
surfaces are for the origin of muscles; the anterior border forms
the sharp ridge of the shin, and terminates superiorly in a tubercle
for the insertion of the extensor tendon of the leg; the outer border
of the bone gives attachment to the interosseous membrane of the
leg. The lower end of the bone, smaller than the upper, is pro-
longed into a broad process, internal malleolus, which forms the inner
prominence of the ankle : its under surface is smooth for articulation
with the astragalus; externally it articulates with the lower end
of the fibula.
The tibia in most civilized races is triangular in the section of its
shaft, but in many savage and prehistoric races it is two-edged.
The condition is named platycnemia, and is indicated by the pro-
portional excess of the sagittal over the coronal diameter. The
foetal tibia has its head slightly bent backward with regard to the
shaft, a condition which usually disappears in the adult, but which
is shown in the prehistoric tibae found in the cave of Spy. In
races_that squat on their heels the front margin of the lower end of
the tibia is marked by a small articular facet for the neck of the
astragalus.
The fibula, or splint-bone of the leg (fig. 16), is a slender long bone
with a shaft and two extremities. The upper end or head articulates
with the outer tuberosity of the tibia. The shaft is four- _..
sided, and roughened for the origins of the muscles. "*"
Separating the anterior from the internal surface is a slender ridge
for the attachment of the interosseous membrane. The lower end
has a strong process (external malleolus)
projecting downward to form the outer
prominence of the ankle, and a smooth
inner surface for articulation with the
astragalus, above which is a rough surface
for the attachment of ligaments which
bind together the tibia and fibula.
The foot consists of the tarsus, the
metatarsus and the five free digits or
toes. The human foot is placed ,-,
in the prone position, with the
sole or plantar surface in relation to the
ground; the dorsum or back of the foot
directed upward; the axis of the foot at
about a right angle to the axis of the leg;
and the great toe or hallux, which is the
corresponding digit to the thumb, at the
inner border of the foot. The human foot,
therefore, is a pentadactylous, plantigrade
foot.
The bones of the tarsus or ankle (fig.
16, Tr), are seven in number, and are
arranged in three transverse _,
rows a proximal, next the
bones of the leg, consisting of the astra-
galus and os calcis, a middle, of the
scaphoid and a distal next the meta-
tarsus, consisting of the cuboid, ecto-
meso- and ento-cuneiform. If the tarsal
bones be looked at along with those of
the metatarsus and toes, the bones of the
foot may be arranged in two longitudinal
columns an outer, consisting of the os ~~ Metatarsus,
calcis, cuboid and the metatarsal bones " Phalanges,
and phalanges of the fourth and fifth c
toes; an inner column consisting of the a
FIG. 17. Bones of the-
right Human Foot.
T Tarsus.
Calcaneum.
Astragalus.
astragalus, scaphoid, three cuneiform and c " V T 9 .
the metatarsal bones and phalanges of the n , Navicular.
first, second and third toes. The tarsal, c I n '<: r , nal cuneiform,
like the carpal bones, are short and, with c Middle cuneiform,
the exception of the cuneiforms which are c T fe xter , na cuneiform,
wedge-shaped, irregularly cuboidal; the ine digits are in-
dorsal and plantar surfaces are as a rule dicated by Roman
rough for ligaments, but as the astragalus numerals, counting
is locked in between the bones of the f r m *"<: tlblal to the
leg and the os calcis, it's dorsal and "Dular side,
plantar surfaces, as well as the dorsum of the os calcis, are
smooth for articulation; similarly, its lateral surfaces are smooth
for articulation with the two malleoli. The posterior surface of the
os calcis projects backward to form the prominence of the heel.
With this exception, the bones have their anterior and posterior
surfaces smooth for articulation. Their lateral surfaces are also
articular, except the outer surface of the os calcis and cuboid, which
form the outer border; and the inner surface of the os calcis,
scaphoid and ento-cuneiform, which form the inner border of the
tarsus. Supernumerary bones are occasionally found as in the
hand.
The metatarsal bones and the phalanges of the toes agree in
number and general form with the metacarpal bones and the phalanges
in the hand. The bones of the great toe or hallux are Tofs
more massive than those of the other digits, and this digit, -
unlike the thumb or pollex, does not diverge from the other digits,
but lies almost parallel to them.
Embryology. The development of the appendicular skeleton takes.
i 7 8
SKELETON
[APPENDICULAR
place in the core of mesenchyme in the centre of each limb. 1 This
substance first becomes changed into cartilage, except perhaps in the
case of the clavicle, though there is at present some doubt as to how
much of this bone is chondrified before ossification reaches it.
The present belief is that, although a deposit of lime salts constitut-
ing the process of calcification may and frequently does occur in
cartilage, true ossification or the orderly disposal of that deposit into
bony tissue can only take place through the intervention of osteo-
blasts and osteoclasts, and as these cells are not formed in cartilage
they must make their way in from the surrounding fibrous tissue
which constitutes the periohpndrium.
The factors which determine the general shape and proportionate
size of each limb bone are at work while the cartilage is being formed,
because each future bone has a good cartilaginous model laid down
before ossification begins. Calcification usually begins at one point
in each bone, unless that bone be a compound one formed by the
fusion of two or more elements which were distinct in lower verte-
brate types, as is the case with the os innominatum.
It is interesting to notice that this centre of calcification, which
will later on be the centre of ossification, is usually in the middle of
the shaft of a long bone, or, when a cuboidal block of cartilage is
dealt with, as in the case of the carpal and tarsal bones, in that place
which is farthest away from the periphery, and which is likely to be
least well nourished. There seems, too, to be a general tendency for
larger masses of cartilage to begin calcifying before smaller ones.
Contrasting these facts with the behaviour of tumours, which contain
cartilage and which are liable to undergo a process of calcareous
degeneration, the present writer is led to suspect that the calcification
which precedes ossification in cartilage may be a degensrative change
brought about by ill-nutrition. However this may be, there is little
doubt that the calcification, once established, acts as an attraction
for blood-vessels, which probably bring with them osteoblasts, and
the subsequent ossification is a process which needs and receives a
plenteous supply of nourishment. After a long bone has reached a
certain size it very often has extra centres of ossification developed
at its ends as well as at places where important muscles have raised
lever-like knobs of cartilage on the model. These extra centres are
called epiphyses, and it is convenient to distinguish three varieties of
these: (a) pressure epiphyses at the joint ends of long bones; (6)
traction epiphyses, where muscles pull; and (c) atavistic epiphyses,
the mechanical causes of which are more remote, but which represent
structures of greater import in the lowlier vertebrates. With regard
to the pressure epiphyses, they form a cap which protects the
epiphysial line, or plate of cartilage, by means of which the bone in-
creases in length, but they are certainly not essential to the growth
of a bone, because they often do not appear until the bone has been
growing for a long time, while in birds they are not found at all.
The traction epiphyses are, in the opinion of the writer, originally
pieces of cartilage which have the same nature as sesamoid cartilages
developed in the play of a tendon, where it presses against a neigh-
bouring cartilaginous model of a bone, and which, instead of remain-
ing separate structures throughout life, as is the case with the patella,
fuse early with the model against which they are pulled, and so form
a knob. For practical purposes the coracoid process of man may be
regarded as an example of an atavistic epiphysis or perhaps of two
atavistic epiphyses. (For further details on this subject see the
writer's papers on epiphyses, Jour. Anal, and Phys. vol. xxxvii.
P- 3 T S; vol. xxxviii. p. 248; vol. xxxix. p. 402.)
Turning now to the development of the individual bones of the
axial skeleton, the clavicle, as has been mentioned, is partly fibrous,
and partly cartilaginous, but the exact proportions are still imperfectly
Sternal epiphysis ossifies about
2oth year; fuses about 25th year.
Primary centre appears about
5th or 6th month of foeta! life.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of -Anatomy.
FIG. 18. Ossification of the Clavicle.
known ; its primary centre is the earliest of all in the body to appear,
while its sternal epiphysis does not come till the bone is fully grown,
and so can have no effect on the growth of the bone. It is probably
one of the atavistic class, and is often regarded as the vestige of the
precoracoid (see subsection on comparative anatomy), though it may
represent the inter-clavicle, which, as has been pointed out in the
article on the axial skeleton, is quite distinct from the episternum.
It sometimes fails to appear at all.
The centres for the scapula are shown in the accompanying figures
(fig. 19). G. B. Howes regarded the subcoracoid centre as the
atavistic epiphysis representing the coracoid bone of lower verte-
1 By mesenchyme is meant that part of the mesoderm, or middle
layer of the embryo, in which the cells are irregularly scattered in a
matrix, and are not arranged in definite rows or sheets as in the
coelomic membrane.
brates, while the human coracoid he looked upon as the equivalent
of the epicoracoid. The epiphyses in the vertebral border are ata-
vistic and represent the supra-scapular element (see section below on
Comparative Anatomy).
In the humerus the centre for the shaft appears about the eighth
week of foetal life, which is the usual time for primary centres. The
head, trochlea and capitellum have pressure epiphyses, while those
for the t jberosities and condyles are of the traction variety.
The ulna is a very interesting bone because there is no pressure
epiphysis for its upper end. The upper epiphysis shown in fig. 21
does not encroach upon the articular surface, but is a pure traction
epiphysis developed in the triceps tendon and serially homologous
with the patella (a sesamoid bone) in the lower limb.
In the radius there are two terminal pressure epiphyses and one
traction for the insertion of the biceps.
The carpus ossifies after birth, one centre for each bone occurring
in the following order: os magnum, II to 12 months; unciform, 12
Appears about
1 6-i 7 yrs.; fuses
Acromial centres about 20 yrs.
app_ar 1 5-16 yrs. ;
fuse about 25 yrs.
Secondary centres for
coracoid appea/s
about end ist year;
fuses about 18 yrs.
Primary centre
appears about
2nd m. foeta"
Subcoracoid centre
appears 10 yrs.; fuses
16-17 yrs.
Appears about
1 7 yrs. ; fuses
about 20 yrs.
Appears about
16 or 17 yri. ;
fuses 18-20 yr5.
Appears 16-17 yrs.
fuses 20-25 yfs.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
Scapula at end of First Year. Scapula about the Age of Puberty.
FIG. 19. Ossification of the Scapula.
to 14 months; cuneiform, 3 years; semilunar, 5 to 6 years; trap-
ezium, 6 years; scaphoid, 6 years; trapezoid, 6 to 7 years; pisiform,
10 to 12 years.
Up to the third month of foetal life a separate cartilage for the os
centrale (see subsection on comparative anatomy) is found, but this
later on fuses with the scaphoid. It will be noticed that, broadly
speaking, the larger cartilaginous masses ossify before the smaller.
The metacarpal bones have one centre each for the shaft and one
epiphysis for the head, except that for the thumb which has one
centre for the shaft and one epiphysis for the proximal end.
The phalanges develop in the same way that the metacarpal bone
of the thumb does.
The os innominatum has three primary centres for the ilium,
ischium and pubis.
The special centres for the crest of the ilium are probably a serial
repetition of those for the vertebral border of the scapula (see fig. 19) ;
that for the anterior inferior spine is a purely human traction
epiphysis connected with the use of the straight head of the rectus
femoris in the upright position. The centre for the pubic symphysis
probably represents the epipubis of amphibians, while that for the
tuberosity of the ischium is the hypoischium of reptiles (see sub-
section on comparative anatomy). The most anterior of the epi-
physes in the acetabulum is the os acetabtili of lower mammals,
while the occasional one for the spine of the pubis is often looked on
as the vestige of the marsupial bone of monotremes and marsupials.
It will thus be seen that many of the secondary centres of the os
innominatum are of the nature of atavistic epiphyses.
The femur has two pressure epiphyses, one for the head and
another for the lower end, and two traction for the great and small
trochanters.
The cartilaginous patella does not appear until the third month of
foetal life, that is well after the quadriceps extensor cruris, in the
tendon of which it is formed, is defined. Its ossification begins in the
third year. The patella is usually looked upon as the largest and
most typical example of a sesamoid bone in the body.
The tibia has a pressure epiphysis at either end, but that for the
upper comes down in front so as to include a good deal of the tubercle.
In almost any other mammal, and often in man himself, it may be
APPENDICULAR]
SKELETON
179
seen that this down-growth is a traction epiphysis developed in the
quadriceps tendon below the patella and joining the main upper
epiphysis before uniting with the diaphysis or shaft.
The fibula has two pressure epiphyses, the lower of which appears
At birth. About 5 years. About 12 years.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 20. Ossification of the Humcrus.
1 Appears early in 2nd month foetal life.
2 For tuberosity, appears 2 to 3 years.
3 For head, appears within first 6 months.
4 For internal condyle, appears about 5 years.
5 For capitellum, appears 2 to 3 years.
6 Appears about 12 years.
7 Centres for head and great tuberosity
coalesce about 5 years.
as a little bone at the back of the astragalus, known as the a
trigonum.
The centre for the calcaneum appears in the sixth month of foetal
life, that for the astragalus in the seventh, the cuboid about birth,
the external, middle and internal cuneiforms
in the first and second years, while the
navicular is the last to appear in the third
year. It will be noticed that, although
ossification occurs in the bigger cartilaginous
masses earliest, e.g. calcaneum astragalus
and cuboid, the large navicular is the last
cartilage to ossify, and this is an exception to
the general rule which is probably caused
by some factor which we do not at present
understand.
The calcaneum has a very definite traction
epiphysis developed in the insertion of the
tendo Achillis behind.
The development of the metatarsal bones
and phalanges of the foot is the same as that
of the hand.
For further details and literature see
J. P. M'Murrich's Development of the Hurr.an
Body (London, 1906) and D. J. Cunning-
ham's Text-Book of Anatomy (Edinburgh,
1906).
Comparative Anatomy. It is only when the
class of pisces is reached that paired ap-
pendages are found, and there are two main
theories to account for their first occurrence.
The one which is at present most favoured
is that in some ancestral fishes two folds ran
along the ventro-lateral part of the body,
like the bilge keels of a boat, and that these
joined one another in the mid-ventral line
behind the cloacal orifice to form the median
caudal fin. Into these folds the segments of
the body including myotorr.es and myocom-
mata, extended. Later on parts of these
8 Centre for small tuberosity fuses with ridges were suppressed, but in the pectoral
About 1 6 years.
other centres about 7 years.
9 Appears about II or 12 years.
10 Inferior epiphysis fuses with shaft about
16 to 17 years.
1 1 Superior epiphysis fuses with shaft
about 25 years.
12 Fuses with shaft about 17 to 1 8 years.
first. The general rule with the long bones of the extremities is that
the epiphysis nearest the elbow or farthest from the knee is the first
to appear and the last to join. The writer accounts for the neglect
of this rule in the case of the fibula by the fact that the lower cartil-
aginous end is larger than the upper (see fig. 26).
In the tarsus the cartilages are at an early stage arranged m three
Fuses with shaft about 16 years
Appears about 10 years
Appears about 6 years
Fuses with shaft 20-23 yeari
At birth. About 12 years. About 16 years.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book oj Anatomy.
FIG. 21. The Ossification of the Ulna.
rows in just the same way that those of the hand are, but in the
proximal row the middle one (intermedium), corresponding to the
semilunar in the hand, fuses with the one on the tibial side to form
the astragalus, though sometimes a vestige of it seems to persist
and pelvic regions they were retained to form
l he paired fins. This theory was first fore-
shadowed by Goodsir, and has been elaborated
by Balfour, Dohrn and many others. It is
supported by the fact that in some elasmo-
branch embryos the whole length of the folds
can be traced.
The second theory is that the limbs are
elaborated gills; this was proposed by C. Gegenbaur, and has
lately been supported by Graham Kerr. It is probable that the
limb girdles are of later evolution than the skeleton of the fins
themselves.
In the elasmobranch fishes (sharks and rays) there is a crescentic
Fuses with shaft 18-20 years
Unites with shaft 20-25 years
At birth. About 12 years. About 16 years.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 22. The Ossification of the Radius.
bar of cartilage (pectoral girdle), concave upward, which girdles the
ventral and lateral parts of the body; it is divided into a dorsal
part (scapula) and a ventral part (precoracoid and coracoid) by a
i8o
SKELETON
[APPENDICULAR
facet for the articulation of the fin. This of course is the glenoid
_^ . cavity. In some forms, e.g. the shark Heptanchus, there
. ' . ra is a perforation in the ventral part of the bar on each
side, which possibly indicates the division between the
precoracoid and coracoid elements.
In many of the bony fish (Teleostei) the outline is obscured by a
Appears about
later end of 2nd
m. of foetal life
Appears about 15
years; fuses 22-25
years
Appears about
4th m. of foetal
life
App:ars about 15
years: fuses 22-
25 years
years
Appears
about 18
years
nite about 10 years
At birth. About 12 or 13 years.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 23. Ossification of the Innominate Bone.
series of bones which connect the girdle with the skull and may be the
precursors of the clavicle.
In the Amphibia the dorsally-placed scapula (fig. 27, S) has more
dorsally still a cartilaginous plate, the supra-scapula (fig. 27, S.S),
which may be calcified. The precoracoid (fig. 27, P.C) and coracoid
(C) are quite distinct, the former being in front (cephalad) and over-
laid by a dermal bone, the clavicle (Cl). The attachment of the
coracoids to the sternum has been noticed in section Axial of this
article. Uniting the ventral ends of the precoracoid and coracoid is
the epicoracoid on each side (fig. 27, E.C).
In the Reptilia the same general plan is evident, but in the lizards
Appears about early
part of first year
Appears about
2-3 years
Fuses with shaft
about i8-ig years /
Usually appears in
the gth month of
foetal life
Fuses with shaft about 20-22 years
At birth. About 12 years. About 16 years.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 24. Ossification of Femur.
the ventral ends of the two clavicles are united by a median dagger-
like dermal bone, the interclavicle (fig. 27, I.C), which lies on a
plane superficial to the sternum and epicoracoids.
In birds the scapula has the shape of a sabre blade, and there is a
rudimentary acromion process, though this is also indicated in some
reptiles. The pre- and epi-coracoids are aborted, but the coracoids
are very strong. The clavicles and interclavicle unite into a V-
shaped bar which forms the furcula or " merrythought."
In the Mammalia the Monotremata(Ornithorhynchusand Echidna)
retain the reptilian arrangement of large coracoids and epicora-
coids articulating with the sternum, while the clavicles and inter-
Fuses with shaft about 20-24 years
May appear
Appears independently
before birth about 1 1 years
Appears about ij years
Fuses about i8th year ^
At birth. About 12 years. About 16 years.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 25. Ossification of the Tibia.
clavicle are also largely developed; the scapula too is more bird-
like in shape than mammalian. In the higher mammals the scapula
develops a spine and usually an acromial process, and has a triangular
outline. As long as the forelimb is used for support, the vertebral
border is the shortest of the three, and the long axis of the bone runs
from this border to the glenoid cavity; but when the extremity is
used for prehension, as in the Primates, or for flight, as in the Chir-
optera, the vertebral border elongates and the distance from it to
the glenoid cavity decreases so that the long axis is now parallel with
that of the body instead of being transverse.
Above the monotremes too the coracoid becomes a mere knob for
muscles, and no longer articu-
lates with the sternum. There
is thus a sudden transition
from the way in which the
forepart of the body is propped!
up on the forelimbs when the
coracoid is functional (as in
reptiles) to the way in which it
is suspended like a suspension
bridge between the two scapulae
in pronograde mammals, the
serratus magnus muscles form-
ing the chains of the bridge
(see fig. 28).
The clavicle is often entirely
suppressed in mammals; this
is the case in most of the
Ursidae, all the Pinnipedia,
Manis among edentates, the
Cetacea, Sirenia, all Ungulata
S
I
Fuses with shaft
about 20-24 years
Appears about
3-4 years
and some of the Rodentia. It
is complete in all the Primates,
Chiroptera, Insectivora (except
Potamogale), many of the
Rodentia, most Edentata, and
all the Marsupialia except
Perameles. In the Monotre-
mata it is fused with a well-
developed interclavicle, but in
other mammals the inter-
clavicle is either suppressed or
possibly represented by the
sternal epiphysis of the clavicle
of the Primates. The pre-
coracoid as a distinct structure
entirely disappears, though vestiges of it may remain m the
cartilaginous parts of the clavicle.
The chief modifications of the humerus are the development of the
pectoral ridge, which is large whenever the pectoral muscles are strong,
and is represented in man by the outer lip of the bicipital groove
and the supracondylar foramina. In the tuatera lizard (Sphenodon)
Appears about
2nd year
Fuses with shaft
about i g years
At About About
birth. 12 years. 16 years.
From Arthur Thomson, Cunningham's
Text-Book of A natomy.
FIG. 26. Ossification of Fibula.
APPENDICULAR]
SKELETON
18
there are two of these, one on the outer side for the musculo- spiral
nerve, and one on the inner for the median nerve; in other living
and fossil reptiles one or other of these may be present.
The three bars bounding these two foramina in Sphenodon
humenis. ar ^ somet ; mes regarded as indications that the humerus
contains vestiges of three fin rays in its evolution from the fin of the
fish. In the mammals the internal supracondylar (entepicondylar)
foramen is most erratic
in its appearance and
disappearance, very few
orders being without
some family or genus
which shows it. In some
mammals, e.g. dog, a
supratrochlear foramen is
present just above the
trochlea; it transmits
nothing. Epiphyses are
found in this, as in
other long bones, in
amphibians, reptiles and
mammals, but not in
birds.
In the tailless am-
FIG. 27. Diagrammatic Representa- phibians (Anura) the
tion of a Generalized Form of Shoulder radius and ulna are fused,
Girdle. while in the Urodela
S Scapula. E.C Epicoracoid. and reptiles they are
Coracoid. St Sternum. always distinct. In some
Glenoid cavity. E.S Epi- or omo- lizards (Iguana, Spheno-
sternum (dotted don, &c.) the olecranon
deep to inter- epiphysis remains a
clavicle). distinct sesamoid bone
just as the patella does,
and this is also the case in some bats. In the pronograde mammals
the radius is in a position of permanent pronation, and is a much
more important bone than the ulna, which is sometimes
suppressed, so that little more than the olecranon process
remains (e.g. horse, giraffe). In the lower Primates the
ulna articulates directly with the cuneiform and (some-
times) pisiform bones, and is not shut off from the carpus by a
meniscus as in man.
The carpus of the higher vertebrates may be reduced from a gener-
alized type by the fusion or suppression of certain of its elements.
A perfect generalized type is not known to exist in any
vertebrate, though it is very closely approached by the
carpus. primitive reptile Sphenodon. In such a type the .bones
are arranged in three rows; proximal, nearest the forearm, middle
and distal. There are five bones in the proximal row, which bear the
C
G
Cl Clavicle.
I.C Interclavicle.
P.C Precoracoid.
Radius
and
ulna.
B
\
FIG. 28. Diagrams representing the change of Mechanism in
supporting the Thorax in the Reptilian (A) the Mammalian (B)
types of Shoulder Girdle.
St Sternum. H Humerus. The dotted line
C Coracoid. represents the serratus
S Scapula. magnus muscle.
Tr Section of trunk.
following names, beginning at the outer or radial side of the wrist :
(i) Radiate marginale (fig. 29, R.M); (2) Radiale (R) ; (3) Inter-
medium (I); (4) Ulnare (U) ; (5) Ulnare marginale (U.M). In the
middle row there are two: (i) Ce.nlra.le radiate (C.R); (2) Centrale
ulnare (C.U). 1 In the distal row there are again five bones, which
are spoken of as the first, second, third, fourth and fifth distalia.
Sphenodon has all these bones except the radiale marginale.
In many of the urodele amphibians, e.g. the salamander and newt
(Molge), the carpus is very generalized, the only elements wanting
being the radiale marginale, ulnare marginale, centrale ulnare and
distale V. In the tailless forms (Anura), however, it is more special-
ized, although the radiale marginale is sometimes present and by some
morphologists is spoken of as the prepollex. When only four distalia
are present it is doubtful whether the fifth is suppressed, or whether
it has fused with the fourth.
1 In the giant salamander of Japan (Megalo-batrachus) three
centralia are sometimes found, so that possibly the generalized
carpus should have three instead of two of these elements in the
middle row.
In the Reptilia the carpus is often very generalized, as in Spheno-
don and Chelydra (see fig. 30).
In the birds the radiale and ulnare are distinct, but the distal bones
are fused with the metacarpus to -form a carpo-metacarpus. In
Mammalia various examples of fusion and suppression occur. All
that space will here allow is to attempt to show how the human
carpus is derived from the generalized type. In man the radiale,
radiale marginale, and centrale radiale fuse to form the scaphoid; the
semilunar is the intermedium; the cuneiform the ulnare; and the
pisiform the ulnare marginale.
The trapezium and trapezoid are distalia I. and II.; the os
magnum distale III. fused with the centrale ulnare; while distalia
IV. and V. have either fused to form the unciform, or, as some
believe, distale V. has been suppressed.
In some mammals the radiale marginale is very large, e.g. mole and
elephant, and is regarded as a stage in the evolution of a digit on the
radial side of the pollex, hence named the prepollex. In the Cape
jumping hare (Pedetes) this digit is two-jointed and bears a rudi-
mentary nail. Feebler indications of another digit on the ulnar side
of the carpus, called the post-minimus, are sometimes seen in relation
with the pisiform, which is therefore no longer regarded as a sesamoid
bone, but, with the radiale marginale, as a stage in the progress from
a pentadactylous_to ajieptadactylous manus. The centrale radiale
FIG. 29. Diagram
of a generalized carpus.
Rad. Radius.
Uln. Ulna.
R.M Radiale margin-
ale (prepollex).
R Radiale.
I Intermedium.
U Ulnare.
U.M .Ulnare marginale.
C.R Centrale radiale.
C.U Centrale ulnare.
D Distalia.
M Metacarpalia.
FIG. 30. Dorsal Surface
of the Right Manus of a
Water Tortoise (Chelydra
serpentina). After Gegen-
baur.
U Ulna.
R Radius.
u Ulnare.
i Intermedium. <
r Radiale.
c Centrale.
1-5 The five bones of the
distal row of the carpus.
The five meta-
carpals.
persists as a distinct bone throughout life in many monkeys, as also
does the radiale marginale.
In the suppression of digits in vertebrates a regular sequence
occurs; the pollex is the- first to go, then the minimus, index and
annularis one after another, so that an animal like the horse, which
has only one digit, has lost all except the medius.
In the mammals the number of the phalanges usually corresponds
with that of man, though in the lower vertebrates they are often
much more numerous.
When the extremity is modified to form a paddle, as in Ichthyo-
saurus and the Cetacea, the phalanges are often greatly increased in
number.
In the elasmobranch fishes the pelvic girdle is a repetition of the
pectoral though it is not quite so well marked. The acetabulum
corresponds to the glenoid cavity, and the part of the p e j v ic
girdle dorsal to this is the ilium; the ventral part, uniting girdle
with its fellow in the mid-line, is the ischio-pubis, the two
elements of which are sometimes separated by a small foramen for
the passage of a nerve. When this is the case the anterior (cephalic)
part is the pubis, and is in series with the precoracoid, while the
ischium (caudad) repeats the coracoid.
In Amphibia the connexion between the ilium and sacrum becomes
established, and some of the extinct Labyrinthodontia have separate
pubic and ischial symphyses, though in existing forms the ischium
and pubis are generally fused.
In the Urodela there is usually a bifid cartilage just in front
(cephalad) of the pubes, in the mid-line, which is called the epipubis
(see subsection on embryology).
In the Reptilia the ilium always projects backward towards the
182
SKELETON
[VISCERAL
FIG. 31. Pelvis of Sphenodon
Lizard.
A Pubic symphysis.
B Ischial symphysis.
C Epipubis.
D Hypoischium.
(The dotted part is cartila-
ginous, the white and darkly
shaded parts bony.)
tail; the ischia usually meet in a ventral ischial symphysis, from
which a cartilage or bone projects backward to support the anterior
lip of the cloacal orifice ; this is the hypoischium, a structure which is
traceable throughout the Verte-
brata to man (see fig. 31).
The hypoischium and epipubis
are parts of a cartilaginous pelvic
sternum, the former representing
are xiphisternum and the latter
the episternum of the shoulder
girdle (see F. G. Parsons, " Epi-
physes of the Pelvis," /. Anat. and
Phys. vol. xxxvii. p. 315). The
pubis may or may not form a
symphysis; occasionally it is
double and then a pre- and post-
pubis are recognized.
In birds the ilium extends for-
ward and backward, and is fused
with the vertebral column, as has
been noticed in section Axial of
this article. The ischia and pubes
do not form a symphysis except in
the struthious birds (ostrich and
rhea). The acetabulum is always
perforate.
In mammals the ilium projects
forward toward the head, and an
ischio-pubic symphysis is common,
though sometimes it is only pubic as in man. In Echidna among the
monotremes the acetabulum is perforate as in birds. In the mono-
tremes and marsupials part of the external oblique muscle is ossified
to form the marsupial bones; these are sometimes regarded as part
of the epipubis, though it is more probable that they are merely
adaptive strengthenings of the external oblique to support the
traction of the pouch. A cotyloid bone (os acetabuli) is usually
present, at all events in early life, and it often shuts out the pubis
from taking any part in the formation of the acetabulum.
The femur is comparatively a very stable bone. Sometimes,
especially in the odd-toed ungulates (Perissodacty la) , the gluteal
Femur ridge forms a large third trochanter, while in most
mammals, though not in ungulates, there are two
sesamoid bones, called fabellae, developed in the gastrocnemius
just above the condyles.
The patella first appears in the reptiles, though it is not present
in all of them. Most of the Lacertilia show it as a small sesamoid
p structure in the quadriceps extensor tendon. It is
present in all birds and mammals, with the exception of
some bats. In most marsupials it remains cartilaginous throughout
life.
The tibia and fibula fuse in the Anura and also in some mammals
(e.g. rodents). The fibula is often nearly or quite suppressed in birds
and mammals, while in birds the tibia fuses with the
proximal row of tarsal bones, so that the ankle joint is
fibula. obliterated and a tibio-tarsus formed. In the marsupials
the upper'end of the fibula is large and may articulate with the femur
in certain positions of the knee, but, as a whole, it reaches its maxi-
mum development in the Carnivora in the aquatic suborder of
which (Pinnipedia) it is as large as the tibia. It is curious that the
only epiphysis which occurs in the long bones of birds is in the head
of the tibia of the Gallinaceae.
In the tarsus the bones are arranged on the same generalized plan
as in the carpus; the proximal row consists of tibiale marginals,
T tibiale, intermedium, fibulare and fibulare marginale; the
' us ' middle row as far as we know only contains one centrale,
while the distal row has five distalia.
It is more difficult to trace the fate of these structures in existing
vertebrates than it is with the carpal bones. In man the astragalus
probably contains the tibiale, tibiale marginale and intermedium,
the latter structure possibly accounting for the occasional os tri-
gpnum, already mentioned in the subsection on embryology. The
fibulare and fibulare marginale probably form the calcaneum, though
it is unlikely that the epiphysis at the back of that bone represents
any integral part of a generalized tarsus. The centrale persists as the
navicular, while the three cuneiform represent tarsalia I., II. and III.
and the cuboid tarsalia IV. and V., unless V. is suppressed as some
believe. Vestiges of a prehallux are found in the Cape jumping hare
and other rodents, though they are usually more closely connected
with the navicular and internal cuneiform than with the bones of
the proximal row. The large size of the hallux in man is an adapta-
tion to the erect position.
Most of the remarks already made about the metacarnals and
phalanges of the hand apply equally to the foot, though there is a
greater tendency to reduction of digits in the hind limb than in the
fore.
For further details and literature seeS. H. Reynolds, TheVertebrate
Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897); W. Flower and H. Gadow, Osteology
of the Mammalia (London, 1885); R. Wiedersheim, Comparative
Anatomy of Vertebrates, adapted by W. N. Parker, (London 1907);
C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich Anat. der Wirbeltiere (Bd. i.) (Leipzig, 1901).
Visceral.
In the lower vertebrates as well as in the embryo of man, a
number of cartilaginous or bony arches encircle the mouth and
pharynx (anterior part of the food tube), just as hoops encircle
a barrel. There is little doubt that, when they first appeared
in the history of evolution, all these bars supported gills and
bounded gill slits, but in all existing types the first arch has been
modified to surround the mouth and to act as both upper and
lower jaws, gaining in different animals a more or less complete
connexion with the cranium or brain-containing part of the
skull. The first of these visceral arches, therefore, is known
as the oral or jaw arch and, as has been shown, the muscles in
connexion with it are supplied by the fifth nerve (see MUSCULAR
SYSTEM; and NERVE: Cranial). The second visceral arch is
the hyoid and is accompanied by the seventh or facial nerve.
The third visceral or first branchial arch of most writers has the
ninth or glosso-pharyngeal for its nerve supply, while the arches
behind this are supplied by the vagus or tenth nerve.
It will be seen, on reading the subsections devoted to embry-
ology and comparative anatomy, that in man the maxilla, palate,
internal pterygoid plate, malar and tympanic bones as well as
the ear ossicles, mandible, hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage are
developed in connexion with this visceral skeleton. Of these
the ear ossicles are described in the article EAR, the thyroid
cartilage in that on the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, while the other
bones, with the exception of the hyoid, are treated under the
head of SKULL. It therefore only remains to describe here the
hyoid bone of man.
The hyoid bone, so called from its likeness to the Greek letter u, 'lies
in the upper part of the neck in close connexion with the root of the
tongue and just above the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. It con-
sists of a body across the mid-ventral line and a great and small cornu
on each side (see fig. l).
The body (basihyal) is rectangular with its long axis placed hori-
zontally; behind it is markedly concave both from above down-
liatly
HMO-RIM
From Gray's Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical.
FIG. 32. Hyoid Bone, anterior surface (enlarged).
ward and from side to side. In front it attaches several muscles,
but behind it is smooth and is separated from the thyrohyoid
membrane by a bursa. From its upper border this membrane runs
downward to the thyroid cartilage. The great cornua (ihyrohyals)
are attached to each side of the body by cartilage until middle life
and afterwards by bony union. They curve upward and backward
round the side of the pharynx and are laterally compressed. To
their inner surfaces the thyrohyoid membrane is attached, while their
knob-like ends are connected with the superior cornua of the thyroid
cartilage by the lateral thyrohyoid ligaments.
The small cornua (ceratohyals) are conical structures about a
quarter of an inch long attached to the upper part of the body at its
junction with the great cornua. It is only in late life that they
become united with the body by bony union, if they ever do so. At
their apices they are connected with the tips of the styloid pro-
cesses by the long stylohyoid ligaments (epihyals).
Embryology. In the early embryo (see MOUTH and SALIVARY
GLANDS) the mandibular processes grow forward on each side of the
slit-like stomatodaeum or primitive mouth, and at length join one
another in the mid- ventral line. From the proximal part of each of
these another process, the maxillary, grows forward (ventrad), only
more slowly, to blend with the fronto-nasal process. In each of these
processes cartilage is formed in the lower vertebrates, which in the
case of the mandible (lower jaw) reaches to the mid-ventral line and
VISCERAL]
SKELETON
183
forms what is known as Meckel's cartilage; but in the maxillary
process the stage of chondrification is suppressed in man and other
mammals, and the palato-quadrate cartilaginous bar which is so
evident in embryo fishes and amphibians is not formed. It will thus
be seen that both the maxillary and mandibular bars are derivatives
of the first visceral arch. In the maxillary process a membrane bone
is formed which blends with the sphenoid to form the internal
pterygoid plate, while in front (ventrad) of this the upper jaw
(maxilla) is developed in membrane by several centres. Of these,
according to the usual description, (l) forms the body of the bone on
the outer side of theinfraorbital canal; (2) forms the body of the
bone on the inner side of that canal ; (3) forms the nasal process and
the socket for the canine tooth ; (4) makes the posterior three-
quarters of the palatine process; while (5) and (6) form the pre-
maxilla, each of the latter contributing a socket for one of the two
incisor teeth. When these premaxillary sutures fail to unite, the de-
formity known as " cleft palate " is produced and this may occur
either between the lateral incisor and the canine or between the
central and lateral incisor teeth. The recent researches of Professor
E. Fawcett point to the conclusion that these centres are not really
as numerous as is generally thought. He regards (l) and (2) as a
single centre which grows up round the infraorbital canal, while the
premaxilla he finds need not necessarily have two centres. The
maxillary antrum is first developed as an outgrowth from the
cartilaginous olfactory capsule into the membranous maxilla,
though the cartilage soon disappears. The palate bone is developed
by one centre which is formed in what will be the vertical plate of
that bone in the membrane, behind the centre or centres for the
body of the maxilla and at a little later date (see E. Fawcett, Journ.
Anal, and Phys. vol. 40, p. 400).
The mandibular or Meckel's cartilage is continued up into the
tympanum where it joins the proximal end of the cartilage of the
second or hyoid arch, and it is from this junction (hyomandibular
plate) that, according to H. Gadow, Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. 19, p. 396,
the malleus and incus bones of the middle ear are developed (see
EAR). Between the slender process of the malleus and the region of
the inferior dental foramen, the cartilage later on disappears and its
fibrous sheath forms the long internal lateral or sphenomandibular
ligament (see fig. 33, L.I.L).
Hitherto each half of the lower jaw has been considered to be com-
posed of several distinct skeletal elements, homologous with the
elements found in the jaws of lower vertebrates. This view is still
held by Professor K. von Bardeleben, who contends that there are
present in the lower jaws of man and mammals six separate elements,
the os mentale, coronoid, condyloid, angular, marginal and dentary.
The researches of B. Henneberg, Professor E. Fawcett and of Dr A.
Lowe, however, are so complete and correspond so closely that one
cannot help believing that the human lower jaw, at all events, is
ossified from one centre only on each side, which appears in membrane
near the symphysis and extends into a small part of Meckel's cartilage
near the incisor tooth germs. From this centre, which represents the
dentary of lower vertebrates, the whole adult bony jaw is formed and
the greater part of Meckel's cartilage disappears by a process of
resorption. But, although this bone is mainly membranous, patches
of cartilage appear in the coronoid and condylar processes as well as
near the symphysis and perhaps at the angle. These, however, do
not ossify by separate centres, but are invaded by the main dentary
ossification already described. It seems evident, therefore, that in
man the process of ossification is slurred over although some of the
original elements of the lower vertebrates are repeated as temporary
cartilaginous masses, e.g. coronary, condylar and angular. (See E.
Fawcett, " Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Medicine," University
Library, Edinburgh, 1906; also A. Lowe, " Development of Lower
Jaw in Man," Proc. Anat. Soc. of the University of Aberdeen, 1905, p.
59. In the latter paper the literature is reviewed.)
At birth the two halves of the mandible are separate as they are
throughout life in many mammals (e.g. rodents), but in man they
join together about the end of the first year.
It has been stated that within the tympanum the dorsal or proximal
ends of the first and second visceral arches unite to form the hyo-
mandibular plate from which, following H. Gadow, the malleus and
incus are derived. The stapes is also probably formed from the
proximal end of the second or hyoid arch (see fig. 33, St), and just
ventral to this the cartilage of the arch fuses with that of the periotic
capsule, where it is later on ossified as the tympanohyal element of the
temporal bone (fig. 33, T.H). From this point the cartilage becomes
free from the skull and runs round the pharynx until it meets its
fellow of the opposite side in the mid-ventral line. That part of the
cartilage which is nearest the skull remains as the stylohyal element
(fig. 33, S.H) and this later on ossifies to form the styloid process
which fuses with the tympanohyal between twenty and twenty-five.
For some distance beyond the stylohyal element the cartilage de-
generates into fibrous tissue forming the stylohyoid ligament; this
represents the epihyal element, and occasionally instead of degenerat-
ing it ossifies to form an abnormal bone (fig. 33, E.H). Near the
middle line the cartilage persists as the ceratohyal element or lesser
cornu of the hyoid bone (fig. 33, C.H), while the most ventral part,
where it fuses with its fellow of the opposite side as well as with the
ventral part of the third arch, is the basihyal or body of the hyoid bone
(fig. 33, B.H).
The dorsal part of the cartilage of the third arch is wanting, but its
lateral part forms the thyrohyal or great cornu of the hyoid bone (fig.
33, Th.H), while its ventral part fuses with its fellow of the opposite
side as well as with the ventral part of the second arch to form the
body of the hyoid bone. The fourth and fifth arches only develop
cartilage in their Ventro-lateral parts and fuse to form the thyroid
cartilage of the larynx (fig. '33, Th.C) (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM).
For further details see J. P. McMurrich, Development of theHuman
Body (1906); A. Keith, Human Embryology and Morphology (1905);
H. Gadow, " Modifications of the first and second Visceral Arches,"
Phil. Trans, vol. 179 (1888), and " The Evolution ot the Auditory
Ossicles," Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. xix. (1901).
Comparative Anatomy. In the Amphipxus the pharynx is stiffened
by chitinous bars which lie between the gill slits, but it is unlikely that
ist. Arch
Th.C.
FIG. 33. Diagram to show the fate of the Visceral Arches in man
and (with modifications) other mammals. Membrane bones white.
Cartilage and cartilage bones black. Cartilage which has degenerated
into ligaments dotted.
P.M Premaxilla.
Max. Maxilla.
Pal. Palate.
Pt Pterygoid (internal ptery-
goid plate).
T.R Tympanic ring (quad-
rate?).
Mand. Mandible surrounding
Meckel's cartilage (black).
L.I.L Long internal lateral liga-
ment.
M Malleus.
I Incus.
St Stapes.
T.H Tympanohyal.
S.H Stylohyal (styloid process).
E.H Occasional epihyal cartil-
age or bone in stylohyoid
ligament.
C.H Ceratohyal (lesser cornu of
hyoid bone).
B.H Basihyal (body of hyoid
bone).
Th.H Thyrohyal (great cornu of
hyoid bone).
Th.C Thyroid cartilage of larynx.
these are really homologous with the visceral skeleton of higher
forms, though, in serving the same purpose, they are certainly
analogous.
Among the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) there is an arrange-
ment known as the " branchial basket," which has a more super-
ficial position than the visceral arches of fish and probably corre-
sponds to the extra-branchials of those vertebrates. The oral and
hyoid arches are very rudimentary and probably have degenerated
in consequence of the suctorial mode of nourishment. In the Elasmo-
branchii (sharks and rays) the visceral skeleton is entirely cartilagin-
ous. In the more primitive types such as the comb-toothed shark
(Notidanus) the oral and hyoid arches are quite distinct. The oral
arch consists of the upper jaw, or palato-quadrate cartilage, and the
lower jaw, or Meckel's cartilage; these articulate with one another
posteriorly and also with the skull. Behind these and distinct from
them is the hyoid arch. Such a type of suspensorium or jaw articula-
tion is called autostylic. In the rays, on the other hand, the oral arch
is connected with the skull by the proximal segment of the hyoid
arch, which, since it connects both the hyoid and mandibular (oral)
arches with the skull, is called the hyomandibular cartilage. This
type of suspensorium is termed hyostylic.
Below the hyomandibular cartilage the hyoid arch has two other
184
SKELTON
segments, the ceratohyal laterally and the basihyal yentrally where
it fuses with its fellow of the opposite side. Sometimes an epihyal
intervenes between the hyomandibular and the ceratohyal. Behind
the hyoid arch are usually five branchial arches, though in Hept-
anchus there are as many as seven. These are divided into a number
of segments, and outside these there is often another series of arches
called extra-branchials which are probably homologous with the
branchial basket of the Cyclostomata.
The chimaeroid fishes are called Holocephali because in them the
palato-quadrate bar is fused with the rest of the skull. In the bony
ganoids and teleosteans (Teleostomi) the palato-quadrate bar ossifies
to form the palatine, ecto-, meso- and meta-pterygoids and quadrate
bones from before backward, while outside these is another row of
dermal bones formed by the premaxilla, maxilla and jugal or malar.
In the lower jaw, Meckel's cartilage is ossified at its proximal end
to form the articular bone, but distally it remains and is partly en-
cased by the dentary, and more posteriorly by the angular, both of
FIG. 34. Longitudinal and Vertical Section of the Skull of a Dog
(Canis familiaris) , with mandible and hyoid arch.
PS Presphenoid.
PI
Vo
an Anterior narial aperture.
MT Maxillo-turbinal bone.
ET Ethmo-turbinal.
Na Nasal.
ME Ossified portion of the mes-
ethmoid.
CE Cribriform plate of the
ethmo-turbmal.
Fr Frontal.
Pa Parietal.
IP Interparietal.
SO Supra-occipital.
ExO Ex-occipital.
BO Basi-occipital.
Per Periotic.
55 Basi-sphenoid.
Pt Pterygoid.
AS Alisphenoid.
OS Orbito-sphenoid.
MX
Palatine.
Vomer.
Maxilla.
PMx Premaxilla.
In the Reptilia the site of the palato-quadrate bar is surrounded
by the same series of bones that are found in the Amphibia, but in
lizards and chelonians a para-quadrate bone is found which, according
to E. Gaupp, is the precursor of the tympanic ring of mammals.
In the crocodiles the maxilla and palate grow inwards to meet one
another and so form a hard palate. The mandible has dentary,
splenial, angular, surangular, articular and coronoid ossifications and
in some cases a mento-meckellian as well. The quadrate bone with
which it still articulates is becoming included in the wall of the
tympanic cavity, and, according to H. Gadow, it is this bone and not
the para-quadrate which will become the tympanic of mammals.
The hyoid arch is sometimes suppressed in snakes, but in Sphenodon
its continuity with the columella or stapes can be demonstrated.
The branchial skeleton is reduced with the cessation of branchial
respiration and only the ventral parts of two arches can be seen;
these unite to form a plate with the hyoid (basihyobranchial) and with
this the glottis is closely connected. In birds the morphology of the
visceral skeleton is on the reptilian plan, and, although the modi-
fications are numerous, they are not of special interest in
elucidating the problems of human morphology,
hf In the Mammalia the premaxilla, maxilla, palate and pterygoid
bones can be seen in connexion with the region where the palato-
quadrate cartilage lay in the lower Vertebrata (see fig. 34).
The premaxilla bears the incisor teeth, and except in man the
suture between it and the maxilla is evident on the face if a
young enough animal be looked at. The maxilla bears the rest
of the teeth and articulates laterally with the jugal or malar,
which in its turn articulates posteriorly with the zygomatic pro-
cess of the squamosal, so that a zygomatic arch, peculiar to
mammals, is formed. Both the maxilla and palate form the hard
palate as in crocodiles, though the pterygoid bone does not do so
but fuses with the sphenoid to form the internal pterygoid plate
(see fig. 34, Pt). The mandible no longer articulates with the
quadrate but forms a new articulation, by means of the con-
dyle, with the glenoid cavity of the squamosal, and many modern
morphologists, including the writer, are inclined to agree with
H. Gadow that the quadrate has probably become the tympanic
bone. In many mammals (e.g. Carnivora) this bone swells out
to form the bulla tympani. The derivation of the auditory
ossicles has been discussed in the section on embryology as well
as in the article EAR. The presence of a chain of ossicles is
peculiar to the Mammalia.
In many of the lower mammals (e.g. Ungulata and Carnivora)
the hyoid arch is much more completely ossified than it is in
man, tympana-, stylo-, epi-, cerato- and basihyal elements all
being bony (see fig. 34). It is of interest to notice that in the
hares and rabbits the body of the hyoid has occasionally been
found in two pieces, indicating its derivation from the second
and third visceral arches. The fourth and fifth arches, which
form the thyroid cartilage in mammals, are considered in the
article RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
.For further details see S. H. Reynolds, The Vertebrate Skeleton
(Cambridge, 1897); W. Flower, Osteology of the Mammalia
(London, 1885); R. Wiedersheim, Comparative Anatomy of
Vertebrates, adapted and translated by W. N. Parker (London,
1907) ; C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbeltiere, Bd. i.
(Leipzig, 1901). (F. G. P.)
SKELTON, JOHN (c. 1460-1529), English poet, is variously
asserted to have belonged to a Cumberland family and to
have been a native of Diss in Norfolk. He is said to have been
which are membrane bones. The jaw joint therefore is between the
quadrate and the articular. In comparing this description with the
section on human embryology it will be seen that certain bones, like
the palate and pterygoids, which in the fish are ossifications in
cartilage, become in the higher vertebrates membrane bones, and so
it is clear that too great stress must not be laid on the histological
history of a bone in determining its morphological significance.
The branchial arches of the Teleostomi closely resemble those of
the Elasmobranchii except that they are ossified and that the extra-
branchials have disappeared.
In the Dipnoi (mudfish) the suspensorium is autostylic, and either
five or six branchial arches are present. In the Amphibia, too, the
suspensorium is autostylic, the palato-quadrate bar remains largely
cartilaginous, though its posterior part is often ossified to form the
quadrate. The membranous premaxilla, maxilla, palatine, pterygoid,
quadratojugal and squamosal bones are developed in connexion with
it, though it is interesting to notice that the pterygoid is sometimes
partly cartilaginous and the quadrato-jugal is absent in the tailed
forms (Urodela). In the lower jaw a splenial ^ element has appeared,
and in the frog a cartilaginous mento-meckellian bone develops close
to the symphysis. In the larval stages there are rudiments of four
branchial arches behind the hyoid, but in the adult these are re-
duced in the Anura and their ventral ends are united into a broad
basilingual plate.
Stylo-hyal.
Epi-hyal.
Cerato-hyal.
Basihyal.
Thyro-hyal.
Symphysis of mandible.
Coronoid process.
Condyle.
Angle.
Inferior dental canal.
The mandible is displaced down- educated at Oxford. He certainly studied at Cambridge, and
^1^*1^^^^?.!,^^ he is P robabl y the " one Scheklton " mentioned by William
Cole (MS.Athen. Cantabr.) as taking his M.A.degree in 1484. In
1490 Caxton writes of him, in the preface to The Boke ofEneydos
compyled by Vyrgyle, in terms which prove that he had already
won a reputation as a scholar. " But I pray mayster John
Skelton," he says, " late created poete laureate in the unyversite
of Oxenforde, to oversee and correct this sayd booke . . . for
him I know for suffycyent to expowne and englysshe every
dyffyculte that is therin. For he hath late translated the
epystlys of Tulle, and the boke of dyodorus siculus, 1 and diverse
other works ... in polysshed and ornate termes craftely ... I
suppose he hath drunken of Elycons well." The laureateship
referred to was a degree in rhetoric. Skelton received in 1493
the same honour at Cambridge, and also, it is said, at Louvain.
He found a patron in the pious and learned countess of Richmond,
Henry VII. 's mother, for whom he wrote Of Marines Lyfe the
Peregrynacioun, a translation, now lost, of Guillaume de Deguille-
ville's Pelerinage de la vie humaine. An elegy " Of the death of
the noble prince Kynge Edwarde the forth," included in some of
the editions of the Mirror for Magistrates, and another (1489)
1 The MS. of this translation is preserved at Corpus Christ! College,
Cambridge.
SKELTON
185
on the death of Henry Percy, fourth earl of Northumberland,
are among his earliest poems. In the last decade of the century
he was appointed tutor to Prince Henry (afterwards Henry VIII.) .
He wrote for his pupil a lost Speculum principis, and Erasmus,
in dedicating an ode to the prince in 1500, speaks of Skelton as
" unum Britannicarum literarum lumen ac decus." In 1498
he was successively ordained sub-deacon, deacon and priest.
He seems to have been imprisoned in 1502, but no reason is
known for his disgrace. Two years later he retired from regular
attendance at court to become rector of Diss, a benefice which he
retained nominally till his death. Skelton frequently signed
himself " regius orator " and poet-laureate, but there is no
record of any emoluments paid in connexion with these dignities,
although the Abbe du Resnel, author of Recherches sur les
poetes couronnez, asserts that he had seen a patent (1513-1514)
in which Skelton was appointed poet-laureate to Henry VIII.
As rector of Diss he caused great scandal among his parishioners,
who thought him, says Anthony a Wood, more fit for the stage
than for the pew or the pulpit. He was secretly married to a
woman who lived in his house, and he had earned the hatred
of the Dominican monks by his fierce satire. Consequently
he came under the formal censure of Richard Nix, the bishop
of the diocese, and appears to have been temporarily suspended.
After his death a collection of farcical tales, no doubt chiefly,
if not entirely, apocryphal, gathered round his name The
Merie Tales of Skelton. During the rest of the century he figured
in the popular imagination as an incorrigible practical joker.
His sarcastic wit made him some enemies, among them Sir
Christopher Garnesche or Garneys, Alexander Barclay, William
Lilly and the French scholar, Robert Gaguin (c. 1425-1502).
With Garneys he engaged in a regular " flyting," undertaken,
he says, at the king's command, but Skelton's four poems read
as if the abuse in them were dictated by genuine anger. Earlier
in his career he had found a friend and patron in Cardinal
Wolsey, and the dedication to the cardinal of his Replycacion
is couched in the most flattering terms. But in 1522, when
Wolsey in his capacity of legate dissolved convocation at St
Paul's, Skelton put in circulation the couplet:
" Gentle Paul, laie doune thy sweard
For Peter of Westminster hath shaven thy beard."
In Colyn Cloute he incidentally attacked Wolsey in a general
satire on the clergy, but Speke, Parrot and Why come ye nat to
Courte ? are direct and fierce invectives against the cardinal who
is said to have more than once imprisoned the author. To
avoid another arrest Skelton took sanctuary in Westminster
Abbey. He was kindly received by the abbot, John Islip, who
continued to protect him unt 1 '! his death on the 2ist of June
1529. The inscription on his tomb in the neighbouring church
of St Margaret's described him as vatcs pierius.
In his Garlande of Laurell Skelton gives a long list of his works,
only a few of which are extant. The garland in question was
worked for him in silks, gold and pearls by the ladies of the
countess of Surrey at Sheriff Hutton Castle, where he was the
guest of the duke of Norfolk. The composition includes compli-
mentary verses to the various ladies concerned, and a good
deal of information about himself. But it is as a satirist that
Skelton merits attention. The Bowge of Court is directed against
the vices and dangers of court life. He had already in his Bake
of the Thre Poles drawn on Alexander Barclay's version of the
Narrenschiff of Sebastian Brant, and this more elaborate and
imaginative poem belongs to the same class. Skelton, falling
into a dream at Harwich, sees a stately ship in the harbour called
the Bowge of Court, 1 the owner of which is the Dame Saunce
Pere. Her merchandise is Favour; the helmsman Fortune;
and the poet, who figures as Drede (modesty), finds on board
Favell (the flatterer), Suspect, Harvy Hafter (the clever thief),
Dysdayne, RyoHe, Dyssymuler and Subtylte, who all explain
themselves in turn, until at last Drede, who finds they are secretly
.his enemies, is about to save his life by jumping overboard, when
he wakes with a start. Both of these poems are written in the
1 Bowge Fr. bouche; court rations. The term is explained as the
right to eat at the king's table.
seven-lined Chaucerian stanza, but it is in an irregular metre
of his own that his most characteristic work was accomplished.
The Bake of Phyllyp Sparowe, the lament of Jane Scroop, a
schoolgirl in the Benedictine convent of Carowe near Norwich,
for her dead bird, was no doubt inspired by Catullus. It is a
poem of some 1400 lines and takes many liberties with the
formularies of the church. The digressions are considerable.
We learn what a wide reading Jane had in the romances of
Charlemagne, of the Round Table, The Four Sons of Aymon
and the Trojan cycle. Skelton finds space to give his opinion of
Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate. He seems fully to have realized
Chaucer's value as a master of the English language. Gower's
matter was, he said, " worth gold," but his English he regarded
as antiquated. The verse in which the poem is written, called
from its inventor " Skeltonical," is here turned entirely to
whimsical use. The lines are usually six-syllabled, but vary
in length, and rhyme in groups of two, three, four and even more.
It is not far removed from the old alliterative English verse,
and well fitted to be chanted by the minstrels who had sung the
old ballads. For its comic admixture of Latin Skelton had
abundant example in French and Low Latin macaronic verse.
He makes frequent use of Latin and French words to carry
out his exacting system of frequently recurring rhymes. This
breathless, voluble measure was in Skelton's energetic hands
an admirable vehicle for invective, but it easily degenerated
into doggerel. By the end of the i6th century he was a " rude
rayling rimer " (Puttenham, Arte of English Poesie), and at the
hands of Pope 2 and Warton he fared even worse. His own
criticism is a just one :
" For though my ryme be ragged,
Tattered and jagged,
Rudely rayne beaten,
Rusty and moughte eaten,
It hath in it some pyth."
Colyn Cloute represents the average country man who gives
his opinions on the state of the church. There is no more scathing
indictment of the sins of the clergy before the Reformation. He
exposes their greed, their ignorance, the ostentation of the
bishops and the common practice of simony, but takes care to
explain that his accusations do not include all and that he
writes in defence of, not against, the church. He repeatedly
hits at Wolsey even in this general satire, .but not directly.
Speke, Parrot has only been preserved in a fragmentary form,
and is exceedingly obscure. It was apparently composed at
different times, but in the latter part of the composition he
openly attacks Wolsey. In Why come ye nat to Courte? there
is no attempt at disguise. The wonder is not that the author
had to seek sanctuary, but that he had any opportunity of doing
so. He rails at Wolsey's ostentation, at his almost royal
authority, his overbearing manner to suitors high and low,
and taunts him with his mean extraction. This scathing invective
was not allowed to be printed in the cardinal's lifetime, but it
was no doubt widely circulated in MS. and by repetition. The
charge of coarseness regularly brought against Skelton is based
chiefly on The Tunnynge of Elynoure Rummynge, a realistic
description in the same metre of the drunken women who gathered
at a well-known ale-house kept by Elynour Rummynge
at Leatherhead, not far from the royal palace of Nonsuch.
" Skelton Laureate against the Scottes " is a fierce song of
triumph celebrating the victory of Flodden. " Jemmy is ded
And closed in led, That was theyr owne Kynge," says the poem;
but there was an earlier version written before the news of James
IV.'s death had reached London. This, which is the earliest
singly printed ballad in the language, was entitled A Ballade
of the Scottysshe Kynge, and was rescued in 1878 from the wooden
covers of a copy of Huon de Bordeaux. " Howe the douty Duke
of Albany, lyke a cowarde knight " deals with the campaign
of 1523, and contains a panegyric of Henry VIII. To this is
attached an envoi to Wolsey, but it must surely have been
2 (Spence, Anecdotes, p. 87): Pope said: " Skelton's poems are all
low and bad, there is nothing in them that is worth reading," and
(in Satires and Epigrams, v. 38) " And beastly Skelton heads of
houses quote."
i86
SKELTON AND BROTTON SKI
misplaced, for both the satires on the cardinal are of earlier
date.
Skelton also wrote three plays, only one of which survives.
Magnificence is one of -the best examples of the morality play.
It deals with the same topic as his satires, the evils of ambition ;
its moral, " how suddenly worldly wealth doth decay," being
a favourite one with him. Thomas Warton in his History of
English Poetry described another piece Nigramansir, printed
by Wynkyn de Worde in 1 504, and dealing with simony and the
love of money in the church; but no copy is known to exist,
and some suspicion has been cast on Warton's statement.
Illustration of the hold Skelton had on the public imagination
is supplied from the stage. A play (1600) called Scogan and
Skelton, by Richard Hathway and William Rankins, is mentioned
by Henslowe. In Anthony Munday's Downfall of Robert, earl
of Huntingdon, Skelton acts the part of Friar Tuck, and Ben
Jonson in his masque, The Fortunate Isles, introduced " Skogan
and Skelton in like habits as they lived."
Very few of Skelton's productions are dated, and their titles are
here necessarily abbreviated. Wynkyn de Worde printed the Bowge
of Court twice. Diners Baletlys and dyties salacious devysed by Master
Skelton Laureat, and Skelton Laureate agaynste a comely Coystroune. . .
have no date or printer's name, but are evidently from the press of
Richard Pynson, who also printed Replycacion against certain yong
scoters, dedicated to Wolsey. The Garlande or Chapelet of Laurell was
printed by Richard Faukes (1523); Magnificence, A goodly interlude ,
. . . probably by John Rastell about 1533, reprinted (1821) for the
Roxburghe Club. Hereafter foloweth the Boke of Phyllyp Sparowe
was printed by Richard Kele (1550 ?), Robert Toy, Antony Kitson
(1560?), Abraham Veale (1570?), John Walley, John Wyght
(1560?). Hereafter foloweth certaine bakes compyled by mayster
Skelton . . . including " Speke, Parrot," " Ware the Hawke," " Ely-
noure Rummynge " and others, was printed by Richard Lant (1550?) ,
John King and Thomas March (1565 ?), by John Day (1560). Here-
after foloweth a litle boke called Colyn Cloute and Hereafter . . . why
come ye nat to Courte ? were printed by Richard Kele (1550 ?) and in
numerous subsequent editions. Pithy, plesaunt and profitable workes
of maister Skelton, Poete Laureate. Nowe collected and newly published
was printed in 1568, and reprinted in 1736. A scarce reprint of
Elinour Rummin by Samuel Rand appeared in 1624.
See The Poetical Works of John Skelton; with Notes and some
account of the author and his writings, by the Rev. Alexander Dyce
(2 vols., 1843). A selection of his works was edited by W. H.
Williams (London, 1902). See also Zur Charakteristik John Skeltons
by Dr Arthur Koelbing (Stuttgart, 1904) ; F. Brie, " Skelton
Studien " in Englische Studien, vol. 38 (Heilbronn, 1877, etc.);
A. Rey, Skelton's Satirical Poems . . . (Berne, 1899); A. Thummel,
Studien iiber John Skelton (Leipzig- Reudnitz, 1905) ; G. Saintsbury,
Hist. ofEng. Prosody (vol. i., 1906) ; and A. Kolbing in the Cambridge
History of English Literature (vol. iii., 1909).
SKELTON AND BROTTON, an urban district in the Cleveland
parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 17 m. E. by S. of Middlesbrough by a branch of the
North-Eastern railway, with stations at Brotton and North
Skelton. Pop. (1901) 13,240. This is one of the largest town-
ships in the Cleveland ironstone district, and its industrial
population is wholly employed in the quarries. The modern
Skelton Castle incorporates part of the ancient stronghold of
Robert de Brus who held it from William the Conqueror. A
modern church replaces the ancient one, of which there are
ruins, and a fine Norman font is preserved. The large ironstone
quarries have not wholly destroyed the beauty of the district.
The Cleveland hills rise sharply southward, to elevations some-
times exceeding 1000 ft., and are scored with deep and picturesque
glens. On the coast, which is cliff-bound and fine, is the watering-
place of Saltburn by the Sea.
SKENE, WILLIAM FORBES (1809-1892), Scottish historian
and antiquary, was the second son of Sir Walter Scott's friend,
James Skene (1775-1864), of Rubislaw, near Aberdeen, and was
born on the 7th of June 1809. He was educated at Edinburgh
High School, in Germany and at the university of St Andrews,
taking an especial interest in the study of Celtic philology and
literature. In 1832 he became a writer to the signet, and shortly
afterwards obtained an official appointment in the bill department
of the Court of Session, which he held until 1865. His early
interest in the history and antiquities of the Scottish Highlands
bore its first fruit in 1837, when he published The Highlanders of
Scotland, their Origin, History and Antiquities. His chief work,
however, is his Celtic Scotland, a History of Ancient Alban (3 vols.,.
Edinburgh, 1876-1880), perhaps the most important contribu-
tion to Scottish history written during the ipth century. In
1879 he was made a D.C.L. of Oxford, and in 1881 historiographer
royal for Scotland. He died in Edinburgh on the 2gth of August
1892.
The most important of Skenc's other works are: editions of John
of Fordun's Chronica gentis Scotorum (Edinburgh, 1871-1872); of
the Four Ancient Books of Wales (Edinburgh, 1868) ; of the Chronicles
of the Picts and Scots (Edinburgh, 1867) ; and of Adamuar.'s Vita S.
Columbae (Edinburgh, 1874); an Essay on the Coronation Stone of
Scone (Edinburgh, 1869); and Memorials of the Family of Skene of
Skene (Aberdeen, 1887). *
SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schels, which was
taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something
hastily made, Gr. <rxe8to$, sudden, off-hand, cx^Sov, near by;
Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquissc are from the same source) , a rough or
hasty preliminary outline or draft serving as a note or material
for a finished work. Though used of literary composition, as for
a short slightly constructed play, or of a rapid delineation in
words of an event or character, the term is chiefly used of the
putting on paper or other material of the immediate impression
of an object, figure, landscape, &c., by an artist, or of an artist's
first idea or conception of a work whether in painting or sculpture.
SKI (pronounced " skee," Icel. scidh, snow-shoe, properly
" piece of wood "), the wooden snow-shoe on which the inhabit-
ants of Scandinavia and neighbouring countries travel over the
snow. Implements for this purpose were used by many nations,
of antiquity. Xenophon (Anab. iv. 5) describes the shoes or
pattens of skins with which the horses of the Armenians were shod,
to prevent them from sinking into the snow, and Procopius made
mention of the ancient Lapps, known in Scandinavia as " Skrid-
Finnen," or sliders. Snow-shoes have always been used by the
Mongols of north-western Asia. From the evidence of the old
Norse sagas they must have been general in Scandinavia long
before the Christian era. Uller, the god of winter, is always
spoken of as walking upon skis, the curved toes of which gave
rise to the legend that they were really ships upon which the god
was wafted over hill and dale. Skis have been used time out of
mind by Lapps, Finns and Scandinavians for hunting and
journeying across the frozen country. The first skis of which
there is any record were elongated, curved frames covered with
leather. Those of the Skrid-Finnen of the i6th century were
leather shoes, pointed at the toe, about 3 ft. long, into which,
a few inches from the rear end, the feet were thrust up to the
ankles. The form of the shoe varied in different districts.
Modern skis are not, like the North American snow-shoe, made
of broad frames covered with a thong web, but long, narrow,
nearly flat pieces of ash, oak or spruce, pointed and turned up
for about a foot at the toe. Their length is usually the distance
their wearer can reach upwards with his hand, that for the
average man being about 7 ft. 6 in., although some advocate less
length.
Their width at the broadest part is about 5 in., and their
greatest thickness (just under the foot) about ij in., tapering
towards both ends. The under surface is usually perfectly
smooth, although some skis are provided with narrow strips
running lengthwise on the under surface, to prevent side-
slipping. The feet, encased in stout deer-hide shoes, heelless or
nearly so, are fastened to the middle of the skis by an arrange-
ment of straps, called the binding. A staff from 4 to 5 ft. long
completes the touring outfit. On level ground the skis are
allowed to glide over the snow without being lifted from it, the
heels being raised while the toes remain fast to the skis. At
this gait very long steps can be taken. Climbing hills one must
walk zigzag, or even directly sideways step by step. Gentle
slopes can be ascended straight ahead by planting the skis
obliquely. Downhill the skis become a sledge upon which great
velocity is attained. The staff is used as a brake in coasting,
and is provided with a small disc a few inches from the lower ,
end, to prevent it sinking into the snow.
Skiing as a sport began about 1860 in the Norwegian district
of Telemark and rapidly spread over all the Scandinavian
SKIBBEREEN SKIMMER
peninsula. The climax of the racing season is the great inter
national ski tournament held annually in February at Holmen
kollen, 6 m. from Christiania. This " Norwegian Derby " i
divided into two parts, the first devoted to jumping contests, th
other to long-distance racing. The take-off for the jumpin,
contests is built into the side of a hill, and each competitor mus
jump three times. No staff is allowed and no jump is counted i
the jumper falls in alighting. The distances covered are extra
ordinary, 134 | ft. being the record. The jumper, who starts some
distance up the hill, descends at top speed, stoops as he nears th(
take-off and launches himself into the air with all his force
He maintains an erect position until he reaches the ground
alighting with bended knees, on both feet, one a little in advano
of the other, and " giving " with his legs to overcome the fore-
of the fall and to preserve his balance. Another feature is doubl
jumping, performed by two persons hand in hand. The highes
prize is the King's Cup. The principal distance race is over a
difficult course of about 20 m. The record for 25 kilometres
( r sl m -) is 2 hours, 7 min. A Lapp once covered 220 kilometres
(about 138 m.) in 21 hrs., 22 min., the country being level
Skiing is very popular in Norway with both men and women; in
fact it may be called the national sport of Norway.
The sport has been introduced into other countries where the
winter is severe, and has become very popular in Switzerlanc
and the United States, especially in Minnesota and the Rocky
Mountain country. The principal club in the British Isles is
the " Ski Club of Great Britain." The mails between Chile and
the Argentine Republic are carried in winter by relays of
Norwegian ski-runners, about 300 being employed. The skis
worn by them are usually shod with horn. Skis cannot be used
with advantage during a thaw or where the snow is less than
6 in. deep. On this account, and because of their general un-
wieldiness, they are less convenient in thick forests than the
Indian snow-shoe, though faster in the open country.
Ski have been used for military purposes by the Northern
peoples for several centuries, and of late years other nations
which have mountainous regions of snow have turned their
attention to this most useful mode of winter marching. The
army of Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus and his successors
one of the foremost in Europe employed infantry provided
with ski in its military operations. In Norway special units so
provided were organized in 1710. Recently (1902) the Alpine
infantry of France and Italy have taken up the question. In
Briancon, attached to the ispth regiment of French infantry,
is an ecole militaire de ski (established 1903) which trains the
Chasseurs Alpins of the ist line, and also the regional troops
which are intended to take part in the defence of the south-
eastern frontier of France. These regiments as a rule furnish
one officer, one non-commissioned officer and a few soldiers
each to every course of instruction, which lasts two months.
At the end of the first month the skieur is expected in full
marching order to cover 60 kilometres (37! m.) of Alpine territory
in the day. The ski are put to a variety of ingenious uses;
to form a stretcher-sledge for wounded men; and if rapidity
of movement is desired, a horse or pony pulls the skieur along
by means of long reins attached to the horse's girth. Even
camps in the mountains are improvised. The skieur is thickly
clothed and muffled, and his eyes are protected against snow-
blindness by blue or black spectacles. Some of the 1 performances
of soldiers on ski have been notable. Captain Bernard, chief
of the ecole of Briancon, ascended the cols of Arsine (2400 metres)
and of the Cauterel (2080 metres) in 16 hours with a party of
25 men. In Russia some Finland troops in full marching order
executed a long hunting march in Carelia. In 29 days they
covered 860 kilometres. In Switzerland a skieur took less than
1 2 hours^to cover 25 kilometres, including altitudes of 1547
metres. In order to witness this competition, which took place
in Glarus, the soldiers from the S. Gothard garrison made a
march of 48 kilometres including the ascent of the Klausengrass
(2000 metres). A Norwegian soldier named Holte covered with
one leap a distance of 21 m. 20 cm., and his companion Heyder-
dahl later achieved 24.
187
In Italy each company of Alpini has an annual credit for the
provision of ski. Their duties in war time are almost the same
as those of mounted infantry exploration and communication,
and the seizure of advanced positions.
In the seven months of snow on these frontiers the garrisons
of the lonely posts cannot go out save on ski or snow-shoes, as
to the respective merits of which military opinion is divided.
See Norway's National Sport, by T. W. Schreiner, Outing, vol.
37; Auf Schneeschuhen durch Gronland, by F. Nansen (Ham-
burg, 1891); Ski-running, edited by E. C. Richardson (London,
1904) ; Year-Book of the Ski Club of Great Britain.
SKIBBEREEN, a market town of county Cork, Ireland, on
the river Hen about 3 m. from its estuary, 53! m. S.W. of Cork
by the Cork, Bandon and South Coast railway. Pop. (1901)
3208. The river is navigable for small vessels to Skibbereen
itself, and for larger ones to Old Court on the estuary; and the
town is a nourishing fishing-station. Trade in corn and other
agricultural produce is considerable. This district suffered
terribly in the famine of 1847, and hundreds of victims were
buried in pits in the graveyard adjoining the ruined Cistercian
cell of Abbeystrowry, a mile west of the town. The Hen offers
fishing, late in the season, for brown and sea trout. The main
railway continues south to Baltimore, and a light railway runs
to the pleasant seaside village of SkuU (or Schull), 15 m. W.
Skibbereen is governed by an urban district council.
SKIEN, a seaport of southern Norway, in Bratsberg ami
(county), on the river Skien, 5 m. below its issue from Lake Nord,
and 6 m. above its outflow into Frier Fjord. Pop. (1900) 11,343.
It was mostly rebuilt after a fire in 1886. Here Henrik Ibsen,
the dramatist, was born in 1828. In 1892 a canal ascending
189 ft. by means of 17 locks was made between lakes Bandak
and Nord, giving access to the Telemark district by way of Dalen.
The whole distance between the lakes is 40 m., and several
fine falls, as the Ulefos, Eidsfos, and Vrangfos, are passed.
The engineering is noteworthy. In the town and district are
numerous saw-mills, planing, cotton-spinning and flour-mills,
factories for wood-pulp and domestic commodities, also a copper
mine (at Omdal). The exports are ice, timber (including tele-
graph poles for the British government), wood-pulp and copper,
and the imports coal and china-clay. The town (the ancient
Skida) dates from the i4th century. A fine view is obtained
r rom the Bratsberg Kiev, S. E. of the town, with ruins of a chapel.
SKIERNIEWICE, a town of Russian Poland, in the govern-
ment of Warsaw, 41 m. by rail S.W. from the city of Warsaw.
Pop. (1897) 9846. It was formerly the see of the archbishop
of Gnesen, primate of Poland. Here is an imperial castle, in
which the emperors of Russia, Austria and Germany met in
conference on the isth-iyth of September 1884. Cloth and
inen are manufactured.
SKIMMER, the English name bestowed by T. Pennant '
n 1781 on a North American bird which had already been
figured and described by M. Catesby (B. Carolina, i. pi. 90)
as the " Cut-water," as it appears still to be called on some
>arts of the coast, 2 remarkable for the unique formation of
ts bill, in which the maxilla, or so-called upper mandible, is
capable of much vertical movement, while the lower mandible,
vhich is considerably the longer of the two, is laterally compressed
o as to be as thin as a knife-blade. This bird is the Rhynchops
nigra of Linnaeus, who, however, united with it what proves
o be an allied species from India that, having been indicated
many years before by Petiver (Gazoph. naturae, tab. 76, fig. 2),
>n the authority of Buckley, was only technically named and
lescribed in 1838 by W. Swainson (Anim. Menageries, p. 360)
s R. albicottis. A third species, R. Jlavirostris, inhabits Africa;
ind examples from South America, though by many writers
egarded as identical with R. nigra, are considered by Howard
aunders (Proc. Zoo/. Society, 1882, p. 522) to form a fourth,
he R. melanura of Swainson (ut supra, p. 340). All these
" I call it Skimmer, from the manner of its collecting its food
ith the lower mandible, as it flies along the surface of the water "
len. of Birds, p. 52).
2 Other English names applied to it in America are " Razorbill,"
Scissorbill," and " Shearwater."
i88
SKIN AND EXOSKELETON
resemble one another very closely, and, apart from their singularly-
formed bill, have the structure and appearance of Terns (q.v.).
Some authors make a family of the genus Rhynchops, but it
seems needless to remove it from the Laridae (see GULL). In
breeding-habits the Skimmers thoroughly agree with the Terns,
the largest species of which group they nearly equal in size,
and indeed only seem to differ from them in the mode of taking
their food, which of course is correlated with the extraordinary
formation of their bill. (A. N.)
SKIN AND EXOSKELETON, in anatomy. The skin (A.-S.
scinn) is the covering of the whole body, and is continuous at
the different orifices with the mucous membrane. It acts firstly
as a protective layer, secondly as a regulator of the temperature,
thirdly as an excretory organ and fourthly as a tactile and
sensory organ in which nerves end.
The skin varies in thickness from -5 mm. in the eyelids to
4 or more mm. in the palms and soles; it is also very thick over
the back of the body. Two main layers are recognized in the
Stratum lucidum
Blood-vessels
and nerves
From Robert Howden in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy,
FIG. I. Vertical section of Epidermis and Papillae of Corium
(highly magnified).
skin; superficially there is the scarf skin or epidermis and more
deeply the dermis or true skin. The epidermis under the micro-
scope is seen to consist of five layers. On the surface is the horny
layer or stratum corneum (see fig. i) composed of layers of scale-
like cells, the walls of which are turned into the horny substance
keratin. Deep to this is a thin layer of scale-like cells without
keratin known as the stratum lucidum. Deeper still is a layer,
the stratum granulosum, in which the cells are not so flattened
and contain granules of a substance known as eleidin. In the
fourth layer, stratum mucosum or stratum Malpighii, the cells
are polygonal and are connected together by delicate prickle-like
processes. It is in the deeper layers of these cells that the pig-
ment of the negro's skin is found. The fifth and deepest layer
of the epidermis is the stratum germinalivum, in which there is
only one layer of columnar cells. The whole of the epidermis is
non-vascular, and it will be noticed that as the different layers
approach the surface the cells become more and more flattened.
The true skin, dermis or corium is composed of a felted network
of white fibrous tissue with a small number of yellow elastic
fibres interspersed. It is divided into two layers.
The superficial or papillary layer lies next to the epidermis
and is raised into a number of papillae or conical projections
which fit into corresponding depressions on the deep surface of
the epidermis. In sensitive parts like the palms and soles these
papillae are specially prominent and form wavy lines, each of
which consists of a double row between which the ducts of the
sweat glands pass on their way to the surface. So large are the
papillae in these situations that the epidermis is also raised into
ridges, and these in the fingers form the characteristic whorls
so valuable for purposes of identification. The papillae contain
leashes of blood-vessels, and in some of them are special tactile
corpuscles in which the nerves end (see NERVOUS SYSTEM).
In the deeper or reticular layer of the true skin the fibrous
feltwork is looser and encloses pellets of fat. It also contains a
network of blood-vessels and nerves, and in some places a layer
of striped or unstriped muscle. Where hairs are present the hair
follicles lie in this deeper layer, which gradually merges with the
subcutaneous fatty tissue (see fig. 2).
As appendages of the skin are found the hairs, the nails and
the sebaceous and sweat glands.
Hair. The hairs are found in man on the scalp, eyelids,
eyebrows, armpits, pubic region, vestibule of the nose, external
auditory meatus, face, ventral surface of the trunk and dorsal
surfaces of the leg, forearm and hand; indeed the only places
which are quite free from them are the palms of the hands, soles
of the feet and the glans penis. In some places, such as the
armpits, pubic region and the face of the male they grow to a
considerable length at and after puberty. They are of great
anthropological interest since they differ in colour and texture
in different races, sometimes being straight, sometimes wavy,
sometimes curly. The amount and distribution of long hairs
also vary with the race. In section it is only the straight hairs
which are circular; wavy and curly hairs are oval. In the centre
of each hair is the medulla or pith, though this is not always
present; it is composed of nucleated cells containing pigment,
fat and air spaces. Outside this is the fibrous layer or cortex,
also containing pigment and air spaces, while most superficially
is the cuticle made up of overlapping scales. The hair grows at
its root from a hair follicle (see fig. 2), which is a tubular inpushing
of the epidermis into the true skin or, in the case of large hairs,
deeper still into the superficial fascia. It is divided into an inner
and outer root sheath, the former representing the more superficial
layers of the epidermis, the latter the deeper layers. At the
bottom of the follicle the hair enlarges to form the bulb, and into
the lower part of this a vascular papilla projects from the true
skin. The cells of the hair are derived from, and are continuous
at the bulb with those of the outer root sheath, and therefore
with the deeper layers of the epidermis.
The hair follicle always projects somewhat obliquely into
the skin, and attached to the side toward which it is leaning is
a small band of non-striated muscular fibres called arrector pili.
When this acts it diminishes the obliquity of the hair and so
makes it " bristle " or " stand on end," while a general con-
traction of these small muscles leads to the familiar condition
of " gooseflesh."
Nails. The nails are specially thickened parts of the epidermis,
and are divided into a root and a body. The former is concealed
by a fold of skin, and the corium on which it lies is known as the
nail matrix. The body of the nail also lies on the corium, or true
skin, which forms the nail bed and is very sensitive. This body
of the nail is formed by the stratum germinativum and stratum
mucosum in its deeper part, and more superficially by the stratum
lucidum, which is here very much thickened and converted into
keratin or horn. Near the root of each nail is a semi-lunar area
which is more opaque than the rest and forms the white lunula.
Sweat Glands. Sebaceous glands are found wherever there are
hairs, however rudimentary, and open by their ducts into the
superficial part of the hair follicle (see fig. 2). Their deeper or
secreting part divides into a number of bag-like alveoli composed
of cells, which secrete oil droplets. There may be two or three
glands to each hair follicle, and their size does not vary directly
with that of the hair, since they are very large in the nose, where
the hairs are quite rudimentary. They are also found on the
labia minora and nipples, where no hairs are. Sudoriparous or
sweat glands (see fig. 2) are found all over the surface of the body,
SKIN AND EXOSKELETON
189
but are specially numerous on the palms and soles. It is esti-
mated that in the palm there are nearly 3000 to a square inch,
while in the skin of the back they do not reach 500 to the same
area. In the armpits and groins they are very large. Each consists
of a single long tube, lined by columnar epithelium, and coiled up
into a ball or glomerulus in the subcutaneous tissue, after which
it pierces the corium and epidermis to reach the surface at the
porus sudoriferus. Where the stratum corneum of the epidermis
is thick the duct is twisted like a corkscrew as it goes through.
The glands of Moll in the eyelids and the ceruminous or wax
glands of the ear are modified sweat glands; the former, when
inflamed, cause a " sty."
EMBRYOLOGY
The skin ft derived partly from the ectoderm and partly
from the mesoderm of the embryo. The whole of the epidermis
Duct of
sweat gland
Hair
Papillae of
corium
Hair follicle
Glomerulus
Oblique section through
Papilla of hair a Pacinian corpuscle
From Robert Howden, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 2. Vertical section of the Skin (schematic).
and its appendages are ectodermal, and in the early embryo
consist of a single layer of cells ; later on this becomes double, and
the superficial layer is called the epitrichium, which, after the- sixth
month, is cast ofif and mixes with the secretion of the large sebaceous
glands to form the soapy vernix caseosa with which the foetus is
coated at birth. In the meantime the cells of the deeper layer divide
and form the various layers of the epidermis already enumerated.
It is held, however, by some observers that part of the epitrichium
remains as the stratum corneum. The mesodermal cells belong to
the mesenchyme, and form the fibrous tissue of the true skin as well
as the arrectores pilorum muscles and, in the scrotum, the dartos
layer of unstriped muscle. In the sixth month fatty tissue appears
in the deeper parts, and so the fat of the superficial fascia or sub-
cutaneous tissue is formed. The nails are said to appear as thicken-
ings of the epidermis at about the ninth week, quite at the tips of the
digits. Later on they shift to the dorsal side, and in doing so carry
the nerves in the nail bed with them. This is trie only explanation
available of the fact that the ventral nerves to the tips of the fingers
encroach on the dorsal area. By about the twelfth week the nails are
perfectly formed, but tney do not reach the level of the finger tips
until the eighth month. The hairs are developed in the third month
of foetal life by ingrowths of the stratum mucosum ol the epidermis
into the conum. During the fourth and fifth months the body
becomes covered by fine unpigmented hairs which are known as
lanugp; these begin to disappear about the eighth month, but some
remain until after birth. On the scalp, however, the hair at birth is
often more deeply pigmented than that which succeeds it. The
sebaceous and sweat glands, like the hair follicles, are ingrowths of
the stratum mucosum of the epidermis into the corium. The former
become very large in the later months oi embryonic life, and secrete
a large part of the above-mentioned vernix caseosa. The develop-
ment of the mammary gland from modified sebaceous glands has
already been referred to (see MAMMARY GLAND).
For further details see J. P. M'Murrich, Development of the Human
Body (London, 1906) ; J. C. Heisler, Text-book of Embryology (London,
!9O7) ; Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908).
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
In the larval (gastrula) stage of the Amphioxus (lancelet) cilia are
present on the surface, and in the superficial epidermal cells of some
fishes and amphibian larvae there is a striated layer on the free edge
which is looked upon as a relic of ancestral cilia.
Skin Glands. The skin glands of the Cyclostomata (hags and
lampreys) and fishes are generally unicellular and secrete slime which
protects the surface of the body ; the amount of slime poured cut by
some of the cyclostomes is enormous. Many of these slime cells,
from their shape, are spoken of as goblet cells. Some of the tele-
ostean fish have poison glands at the bases of their dorsal
fins and opercula.
In the mud fish (Dipnoi) and amphibians multicellular
spherical glands appear as involutions of the ectoderm.
.2 Sometimes, as in the so-called parotids of the toad, these form
large masses. Reptiles and birds are singularly wanting in
*o skin glands, though the latter have a large uropygial gland at
, the root of the tail which secretes oil to lubricate the
feathers; it is the chief constituent of the " parson's nose "
of the fowl. In mammals, except the Cetacea, the sebaceous
and sudoriparous glands already described in man are found ;
some of the former sometimes attain a large size, as in the inter-
digital gland of the sheep, Miiller's gland at the back of the
pig's knee and the suborbital gland of ruminants. In addi-
3 tion to these, special scent-producing glands are often found
o in different parts, the most remarkable of which, perhaps, are
the scent glands beneath the tail of the skunk, while in male
monotremes there is a special poison gland in the leg which is
connected with a spur in the foot.
Pigment. Pigment cells are present both in the dermis
and epidermis of fishes and amphibians, and the pigment may
be either intra- or extra-cellular. In many cases it is under the
control of the nervous system, so that forms like the flat-fish and
the common frog can adapt their coloration to that of their
g background. In animals permanently excluded from the light,
J pigment is absent. In reptiles movable pigment cells are often
, found, as in the chameleon, while in birds the pigment is some-
^ times of great brilliancy in the necks and wattles. In mam-
7 mals, as in man, the pigment is confined to the cells of the
stratum mucosum layer of the epidermis.
5 Scales. In the elasmpbranch fishes scales are found com-
J posed of enamel superficially, and of dentine and bone deeply.
_, They are developed from the epidermis and dermis, and in
"* almost every way resemble the teeth of these animals, which
are only modifications of them. The bony basal part of each
scale is plate-like, hence this kind of scale is known as placoid.
In the ganoid fishes, such as the sturgeon, much larger plaques
called ganoid scales form a complete armature. In the teleos-
tean fishes the scales overlap like tiles and are either cycloid,
having a smooth border, or ctenoid, in which the free posterior
border is serrated. Existing amphibians are usually remark-
able for absence of any skin armour, though in fossil forms
(Stegocephala) it was very complete. The reptilian class is.
specially noticeable for the production of epidermal scales, which
undergo many modifications. In the Ophidia they are cast off
periodically in one mass as the snake's slough, while in the Chelonia
they form the different varieties of tortoise-shell. Bony structures,
developed in the dermis, may underlie these epidermal horny
thickenings, and are very strongly developed in the dorsal and
ventral bony shields of the Chelonia (carapace and plastron), which
secondarily fuse with the true endoskeleton. The armadillo is the
only mammal which has a true bony exoskeleton.
Feathers. Birds are remarkable for the possession of feathers,
which are highly modified scales. The embryonic or down feathers
are simple, and consist of a brush of hair-like barbs springing from a
basal quill or calamus. From the whole length of each barb a series
of smaller barbules comes off like branches of a shrub. The adult or
contour feathers are formed at the bottom of the same follicles which
lodge the down feathers and, by their growth, push these out. At
first they are nothing more than enlarged down feathers, but soon one
of the barbs grows enormously, and forms a main shaft or rachis to
which the other barbs are attached on either side. From the sides
of the barbs grow the barbules, just as in the down feathers, and these,
in the case of the large wing feathers (remiges) and tail leathers
(rectrices), are connected by minute hooks so that the feather vane,
as opposed to the shaft, has a more resistant texture than it has in the
feathers of the back or breast. The bird's moult is comparable to the
casting of the scales in the reptiles.
Hairs. Hairs are only found in the mammalian class, and are
divided into the long tactile bristles or vibrissae and the smaller hairs
which maintain the warmth of the body. In some animals the hair,
of the body is composed of long, stiff hairs, which are probably
1 90
SKIN DISEASES
specialized for protective purposes, and short, soft hairs, which form
the fur and keep in the warmth. Sometimes these long hairs are
greatly enlarged and hardened to form protective spines as in the
porcupine, hedgehog, spiny mouse and spiny ant-eater (Echidna).
Horns. Horns are of three kinds: (l) antlers, (2) hollow horns
and (3) hairy horns of the rhinoceros.
Antlers are growths of true bone and, except for their very vascular
covering of skin (velvet), are not exoskeletal structures. They grow
with great rapidity, and in the deer family are renewed each year.
As soon as their growth is finished the skin covering dries up and
strips off. The small horns of giraffes are also bony structures though
permanent.
The hollow horns of the ruminants (Bovidae) are cases of hardened
epidermis which fit over a bony core and are permanent. They are
found in both sexes, and in this differ from the antlers of the deer,
which, except in the reindeer, are confined to the male. In the
prongbuck (Antilocapra) the hollow horns are shed periodically.
The hairy horns of the rhinoceros are a mass of hairs cemented
together by cells. The hairs grow from dermal papillae, but differ
from true hairs in not being sunk into hair follicles.
Claws and Hoofs. These are modifications of nails, but whereas in
nails and claws the structures are confined to the dorsal aspect of the
digits, in hoofs they spread to the plantar surface as well. It has
been shown in the embryological section of this article that the nail
appears at the very tip of the digit, and in this position it remains in
many amphibians, e.g. giant salamander, while in hoofed mammals it
develops both ventrally and dorsally. In the Felidae the claws are
retractile, but the real movement occurs between the middle and
terminal phalanges of the digits.
Spurs. Spurs are quite distinct from nails and claws; they are
very common in birds as horny epidermal sheaths covering bony
outgrowths of the radial side of the carpus, metacarpus or meta-
tarsus. The spur- winged goose has a carpal spur; in the screamers
(Palamedea and Chauna) the spur or spurs are metacarpal, while
in many gallinaceous birds (e.g. common fowls and pheasants)
metatarsal spurs are found. In the mammals the male monotremes
(Echidna and Ornithorhynchus) have spurs attached to an extra
(? sesamoid) bone in the hind leg, perforated for the duct of the
already mentioned poison gland.
Beaks. Certain fishes belonging to the family Mormyridae have a
fleshy prolongation of the lower lip, and are hence termed beaked
fishes. In the Amphibia Siren and the tadpoles of most Anura
(frogs and toads) have small horny beaks. In the Reptilia horny
beaks are found in the Chelonia, while in birds beaks are constant
and replace the teeth in modern species. In mammals a horny beak
is found in Ornithorhynchus, though it coexists with true teeth in
the young and with horny pads in adult specimens. In all these
cases the beaks are formed from cornified epidermal scales.
Baleen. The baleen which is found in the mouths of the Balae-
nidae or whalebone whales is a series of flattened triangular horny
plates arranged on either side of the palate. The inner edges and
apices of these are frayed out into long fibres which act as strainers.
In Balaena mysticetus, the Greenland whale, there are nearly four
hundred of these plates, the longest of which often exceed 10 ft.
In its development baleen resembles rhinoceros horn in that it
consists of a number of epidermal hair-like fibres cemented together
and growing from dermal papillae, though not from true hair follicles.
For further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim, Com-
parative Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London,
1907) ; S. H. Reynolds, TheVertebrate Skeleton (Cambridge, 1897).
(F. G. P.)
ETHNOLOGY
The colour of the human skin has always held an important
place among physical criteria of race. Physiology explains colour
as a consequence of climate and even diet. The pigment or colour-
ing matter under the epidermis, or rather under the second or
Malpighian skin, is not peculiar to the Negroid and other coloured
races, but is common to all human beings. It is simply more
abundant in certain peoples, and this abundance is attributed to
the stimulating action of the solar heat, combined with moisture
and an excess of vegetable food, yielding more carbon than can
be assimilated, the character being then fixed by heredity.
Theodor Waitz quotes examples proving " that hot and damp
countries favour the darkening of the skin," and that the same
race inclines to be darker in low marshy districts than on the
hills. C. R.' Lepsius asserts that the hotter the climate the
darker the negro, pointing out that if you-follow the line of greatest
heat from Africa into Asia, it is in those regions of the latter
continent that the darkest Asiatics are found. Many apparent
exceptions to this general law occur, but they may be explainable
as due to local causes. Thus Schweinfurth (Heart of Africa)
believes that the reddish tint of the Bongos and other of the
peoples inhabiting the hot, moist White Nile district is due to the
ferruginous nature of the laterite soil: the hue of the A-Zandeh
(Niam-Niam) of the Welle valley being possibly explicable in
the same way. In South America all shades of complexion
intermingle. Thus in Bolivia the coppery Maropas, the dark
brown Aymaras, the yellowish Moxos, and the light Mosetenos,
Siriones, and Guarayos are, so to speak, neighbours. In Austral-
asia there is the contrast between the yellow-brown Malays
and the sooty-black Tasmanians. Such deviations from the
colour-law may be attributed'to descent (dark peoples migrating
to cold, light to tropical countries), or to such varied causes as
dryness, moisture, food and the vegetable peculiarities of the
land, by all of which the complexion may be affected, and the
influence of temperature mitigated.
The colour of the human skin cannot, then, be regarded as an
entirely trustworthy racial test, even blackness not being an
exclusively negro characteristic. It serves, however, to divide Man
into three fundamental types corresponding to the three great
ethnic groups, viz. the White, the Yellow and the Black man.
The first predominate in Europe, the second in Asia, while the
third have their chief centres in Africa and Melanesia. Inter-
breeding and, in a lesser degree, the influence of environment
have caused the occurrence within the three main groups of
almost every shade and tint of complexion. Thus the colour of
the skin affords a faulty basis of ethnological classification,
since in the same ethnic group it varies so widely and races of
one group resemble in this particular races of another. The
so-called Red Indians are usually classified as a fourth group,
but they are not really red-skinned. The name has come about
through their custom of smearing their faces with red ochre.
But among the American aborigines, side by side with the
yellow, olive brown or even black (e.g. the Charruas of Uruguay) ,
there are tribes of reddish-yellow or coppery hue. This tint is
found also in certain African tribes. The palms of the hands and
the soles of the feet of negroes are never black, but always
yellowish, and in all coloured races the back of the body is a
shade darker than the front.
It is noteworthy that the skin of the coloured races is always of
a lighter tint in the newly-born than in the adult ; the negro baby
is born a light grey colour, and the dark pigment is absent in the
negro foetus. On the eighth day, sometimes as early as the third,
the negro infant changes its colour to a hue nearly as dark as that
of its parents. It would seem as if the blackness is associated with
the general thickening of the skin and is an accompaniment of the
:neral organic adaptation of the negro to his hot malarious climate,
he effects of sunburn vary with different races. It is with the
races having intermediate pigmentation, such as the dark Europeans
and the yellow peoples, that the effect is most noticeable. With the
former the sun burns the skin uniformly, making them of the tint
of mulattoes. The colour so acquired is merely temporary. It
diminishes in winter, and disappears entirely on their return to a
cold temperate climate. With the Asiatics the sun causes different
tints. The skins of the Indo-Chinese and the Malays become dark
olive. The Fuegians and Galibis turn brick-colour or dull red.
The Chinese skin turns darker in winter and paler in summer.
Among certain peoples whose skins are naturally dark the parts of
the body exposed to the light and air are often lighter than those
covered by their clothes. This is the case with the Fuegians and
the Sandwich Islanders. The fair European skin reddens under the
sun, passing from pale red to brick red or to patches of deep red.
SKIN DISEASES. The diseases of the skin do not essentially
differ from those of the other organs of the body. Like these,
the skin is composed of cells resting on a connective tissue
framework, in which run the vessels which nourish it and the
nerves which keep up its communications with the rest of the
body. But it has certain differences from other organs, some
dependent on its structure and some on its exposed position.
Thus, .instead of, like the kidney, to which it may best be com-
pared, having its epithelium faced by epithelium, all lies open,
and the various processes are all " one-sided." There are no
depths to be attacked, and any diseases, if they spread, must
do so superficially; spreading as they often do equally in all
directions, the diseases of the skin have a tendency to assume a
circular form, independently of any parasitic cause, though when
such cause is present the patches are of a more perfectly circular
shape. Further, from the extent of its superficial area and its
exposed position, the skin is liable to be attacked by more forms
SKIN DISEASES
191
of irritation, parasitic or other, than any other organ of the body.
Every stage and variety of disease is open to view; minute
differences, minor or important, are at once noted; and thus
it is that the recognized distinct maladies of the skin are so
numerous. In no other organ, with the partial exception of the
eye, can the changes be watched from day to day; in none can
so many stages of the same disease be simultaneously observed;
and in no other is it so simple a matter to remove and instantly
fix for microscopic examination the living tissue.
The multitude of its affections renders the difficulties of arrang-
ing the diseases of the skin very great, and the absence of any
generally accepted scheme of classification has always been and
still remains one of the main obstacles to their intelligent study.
The older systems, constructed before the days of bacteriology,
were commonly based on the form which the eruption assumed
(scaly, moist, purulent), but they usually contained in addition
a certain number of diseases under the heading of Parasitic.
Though obviously illogical, such systems served well enough
while the recognized parasitic diseases were few, such as those
caused by such gross parasites -as the Acarus scabiei (the itch
mite), the pediculi (lice), and the hyphomycetic fungi such as the
Achorion Schonleinii. The discoveries of bacteriology have
enormously enlarged this class, but the difficulty is that one and
the same disease is regarded as parasitic by one authority, as
dependent on nerve influence by another, while a third assumes
an agnostic position.
The following is a useful working classification.
1. THE DERMATONEUROSES. (a) Sensory: anaesthesia, hyper-
aesthesia, pruritus; (b) vaso-motor: urticaria, erythema multiforme,
angio-neurotic oedema, pellagra, purpura, certain forms of eczema,
erythema pernip (chilblains), erythema nodosum, herpes, cheiropom-
pholyx, alterations of pigment; (c) trophic: sclerodermia, perforating
ulcer, Charcot's bed-sore, the lesions of certain forms of leprosy,
Raynaud's disease, Morvan's disease, pemphigus, lupus erythematosus,
the skin lesions of syringomyelia ; (d) glandular, according to the gland
affected, as the sweat-glands, hyperidrosis, haematidrosis, bromi-
drosis, miliaria papulosa, or prickly heat; the sebaceous glands,
rosacea, seborrhoea; the hair follicles, alopecia, greyness.
2. LOCAL INOCULABLE DISEASES. The agents producing these are
parasitic in origin and may be divided into those caused by animal
parasites, vegetable parasites and various micro-organisms, (a)
Animal parasites: scabies, due to the Acarus scabiei or itch mite;
pediculosis, guinea-worm disease, due to the Dracunculus medinensis;
trichinosis, due to the cysticercus cellulosae; elephantiasis, due to
the filaria sanguinis hominis; various eruptions produced by
accidental parasites such as the harvest bug (leptus autumnalis) , the
jigger or sand flea (Dermatophilus penetrans), met with in the tropics.
(b) Vegetable parasites: ringworm, caused by the Trichophylon
tonsurans; favus, caused by the Achorion Schonleinii; tinea
versicolor, caused by the Microsporon Furfur; erythrasma, due to
the Microsporon minutissimum ; actinomycosis, due to the A cti-
nomyces or ray fungi; mycetoma or Madura foot, due to Dyscomyces;
aspergillosis and pinto, caused by an unknown fungus; streptothrix
infections other than from the ray fungus, sporo/richosis; blastomy-
cetic dermatitis, due to a fungus of the yeast family, (c) Micro-
organisms: impetigo contagiosa, caused by inoculation with strepto-
cocci; furunculosis or boils, due to the staphylococcus pyogenes
aureus and albus; carbuncle, a deeper infection also caused by
staphylococci ; anthrax, caused by the bacillus anthracis; sycosis,
due to a staphylococcic infection of the hairy parts; acne, due to a
bacillus called by Gilchrist the bacillus acnes, thought to be identical
with the micro-organism of Sabouraud and Unna; furunculosis
orientalis (Delhi boil, Aleppo boil, Biskra button), a tropical disease
in which the parasite is not yet identified; certain forms of eczema,
notably the pustular forms.
3. GENERAL INOCULABLE DISEASES. Tuberculosis, manifesting
itself as lupus vulgaris, verruca necrogenica, erythema induratum
or as tuberculous ulcerations. In all these Koch's bacillus has been
identified. Syphilis, caused by the Spirochaeta pallida of Schaudinn
and Hoffmann, in which there are primary, secondary and tertiary
skin lesions. Leprosy due to the bacillus lepra. Yaws (framboesia),
caused by a specific parasite, the Spirochaeta pertenius. Glanders,
due to inoculation with the bacillus mallei. Added to these are
erysipelas and the various exanthematous fevers.
4. DISEASES OF UNCERTAIN AETIOLOGY. Psoriasis, pityriasis
rubra, pityriasis rosea.
5. ERUPTIONS DUE TO DRUGS. These may follow on the internal
administration of chloral belladonna, copaiba, phenazone, mercury,
quinine, tar, stramonium, sulphonal, salicylic acid and the salicylates
and bromides.
6. NEW GROWTHS. Benign: cheloid and fibroma, naevus pigmen-
tosus, vascular naevi, telangiectasis , lymphangioma, myoma, mycosis
fungoides, papilloma, adenoma, moluscum contageosum, rhinoscleroma,
cysts and warts (including corns and horny growths). Malignant:
sarcoma, carcinoma, rodent ulcer, Paget's disease.
The skin is liable to the same pathological conditions as other
structures of the body, such as changes in vascularity, inflammations,
invasion by parasites and new growths together with changes due
to the special structure of the skin such as hypertrophy and atrophy,
disorders of the sweat glands and sebaceous glands and alterations
of pigment. Some of the groups of diseases classed as the der-
matoneuroses are manifestations of widely different diseases; thus
anaesthesia and hyperaesthesia occur in hysteria ; while the acute
bed-sore of Charcot (a form of local gangrene) and perforating ulcer
are generally due to an inflammatory condition of the nerve trunks.
In the group of diseases known as purpura, where haemorrhages of
varying size make their appearance on different parts of the skin,
the lesion is considered to be due to a toxin or autotoxin acting
directly on the vascular walls. In some cases we know it to be
inorganic, such as phosphorus or mercury, in others organic as
smallpox, measles, typhus or tuberculosis; or the haemorrhages
may occur in connexion with new growths such as sarcoma and
lymphadenoma. Why these very different causes should combine
to produce the phenomenon of haemorrhage is not clear.
The disease known as urticaria or nettle-rash is probably due to
some irritant poison circulating in the blood, but the causes pro-
ducing it vary from constitutional diseases such as gout and malaria
to certain articles of diet which act as gastro-intestinal irritants such
as pork and shell-fish. It has been known also to follow on mental
emotion and is said to be frequent in the neurotic diathesis, but an
attack may be set up by any local irritant such as stings or bites.
The pathology of the lesions in this disease is as follows: reacting
to some irritant, the blood-vessels dilate, serum is poured out from
them into the tissues around, and compressing the vessels from
without empties them of blood. This explains the white centre of
the urticarial weal, the red margin cf which is the clinical expression
of the dilated and uncompressed vessels at the border. In those
diseases grouped together under the name of erythema, although the
majority of authors place them under the heading of inflammation,
there is a good deal suggestive of a close relation to urticaria. Some
cases are caused by the ingestion of certain drugs, a good many are
directly associated with the rheumatic poison, while others are
apparently connected with fermentative changes in the gastro-
intestinal tract. Thus all those examples of the disease with the
cause of which we are approximately acquainted arc readily enough
attributed to some circulating irritant. This disease differs histologi-
cally from urticaria in the persistent dilatation of the vessels.
Although serum is poured out from them as freely as in urticaria,
the dilatation of the vessels is so active that they are not compressed
as in that disease, while the presence of numerous cells around the
vessels seems to suggest a more severe irritant, and the fact that the
lesions are clinically more persistent further confirms that suggestion.
When certain irritants are applied to the skin we know before-
hand what effects they will produce. Thus croton oil produces a
vesicular and pustular eruption, that of cantharides is vesicular
or bulbous, while other drugs are followed by results dependent
on their concentration, ranging from a mere redness produced by
dilute applications to actual death of the skin from concentrated
ones. With the milder irritants which produce the results clinically
known as eczema we have invariably more or less pronounced certain
definite phenomena. The blood-vessels dilate; serum is exuded
from them it may be merely into the deeper layers of the skin, or
it may reach into and among the epidermic cells, or burst its way
through these and appear in drops on 'the surface. The epithelial
cells are, immediately if the irritation be slight, later if it be more
severe, stimulated to increased activity of growth and production ;
and this activity, often misdirected, is so great that the normal
process of hardening in the cells is interfered with, and we have what
is known as parakeratosis (irregular cornification) and the conse-
quent production of scales. Should this be the prominent pathologi-
cal change, the exudation spends itself among the cells of the scales,
and a condition pathologically moist appears to the clinical observer
as a dry eruption. Thus according to the reaction which is pre-
sumably largely dependent on the irritant to which it is due we
have various degrees and forms of inflammation of the skin, all of
them covered clinically by the term eczema. When such a dermatitis
is produced experimentally by the application of such an irritant
as croton oil we can more or less accurately predict the duration of
the inflammation, which gradually becomes less and less and usually
terminates in dry scaling. So in eczema, as long as the irritant con-
tinues to act, so long will its results be evident on the skin. Un-
fortunately the irritant which is the cause of eczema is still a matter
of dispute.
In studying other inflammations we have the advantage of de-
finitely knowing their cause. Thus in impetigo contagiosa we know,
mainly owing to the work of Saboraud, that the cause of the disease
is the streptococcus pyogenes. The first result of inoculation is a
minute red spot (dilatation of the vessels), which is rapidly followed
by the appearance on the surface of a vesicle or bleb (exudation of
serum), which is soon converted into a pustule, the whole dries up
into a scab, which when thrown off discloses a healthy or slightly
reddened skin. Fresh areas may be constantly attacked.
In ringworm, where the cause of the disease is the growth in the
192
SKINNER SKIPPON
superficial layers of the skin of one or other of the different varieties
of fungus grouped together under the common name of ringworm,
a reaction more resembling that of eczema is produced. There is the
same dilatation of the vessel with exudation of fluid, sometimes
reaching the surface in the form of vesicles, sometimes spending
itself through and among the epidermic cells and only evidenced
clinically by the presence of more or less scaling. In other cases the
exudation early becomes purulent (this is said to occur regularly
when the disease is contracted from the horse), a change which,
though occasionally noted, is by no means frequent in eczema.
The inflammations of the corium or deeper layer of the skin are
due, with very few exceptions, to the growth of well-known organ-
isms. Erysipelas, furuncle, anthrax and glanders are diseases which run
an acute course and rapidly terminate, the two former usually in re-
covery, the two latter often fatally. The other more chronic affections
all follow one course; in their earlier stages there is a new growth
of connective tissue cells in their lowest forms (granuloma), and this
later breaks down, either rapidly, as in syphilis, or slowly, as in
tuberculosis and leprosy. Most of these diseases leave behind them
a well-defined scar.
The new growths of the skin are the same as those found else-
where. Only two present special characters requiring notice here.
Keloid is a peculiar form of fibroma which, although benignant as
regards any general infection, invariably recurs locally after re-
moval. Rodent ulcer is a form of cancer which occurs usually on the
face, and whose malignancy is almost entirely local. The class of
atrophies of the skin comprises those diseases where the atrophy
is primary, and those where it succeeds to previous hypertrophic or
inflammatory changes. Anomalies of pigmentation are those of
excess and lack. Chloasma, in which dark patches appear, most
frequently on the face, is usually associated with disease of some
internal organ, such as the liver or uterus, being frequently observed
in pregnancy. The cause of vitiligo, in which the pigment normally
present disappears from certain areas, a phenomenon more striking
in coloured than in white races, is unknown.
Diseases of the skin tend to manifest themselves in certain parts
of the body; i.e. certain diseases exert a selective influence on the
Selective s ' tes ' tne ' r eruption. Symmetry is characteristic of
distrlb - eczema > psoriasis, drug rashes and the eruptions of
s rjpu- specific fevers, while others, such as herpes zoster, ring-
worm, tertiary syphilis and new growths, tend to be
asymmetrical. Eczema selects the flexor aspect of the limbs and the
neighbourhood of folds of skin and opposed surfaces, while psoriasis
favours the extensor surfaces and the outer side of the elbows and
knees. In certain diseases of nervous origin, notably in herpes
zoster, the eruption follows the course of a certain nerve. In the
face we get erythema, lupus erythematosus, rosacea, eczema,
actinomycosis, &c., and syphilitic and malignant ulcers. Rodent
ulcer usually selects the face, and generally the nose or orbit. The
face too is usually the selective site of lupus vulgaris. The scalp is
the chief site of two varieties of lesion the pustular, as in pustular
eczema and impetigo contagiosa, or the dry and scaly eruptions, as
psoriasis, ringworm and squamous syphilides. The genital organs
are the seat of vesicular eruptions such as herpes or eczema or
occasionally scabies; they are also the seat of ulcers, chiefly venereal,
and of secondary syphilides. Scabies or itch tends to occur on the
hands, and the characteristic burrows are noticeable between the
fingers. The hands too are subject to various forms cf eruption
known as trade eruptions, due to the handling of paraffin, tar, sugar,
salt, lime, sulphur, &c. The lesions mostly simulate eczema, and are
frequent amongst tanners, dyers, chemists, bakers and washer-
women, and workers in the electro-plating trade. Exposure to the
X-rays sets up a form of dermatitis, either an acute erythematous
form due to a single prolonged exposure or a chronic form affecting
operators who have been exposed over prolonged periods. Ulceration
and considerable destruction of the epidermis may take place
together with the occurrence of warty growths which tend to become
epitheliomatous.
For an account of the treatment of the best known skin diseases
see under their separate headings.
SKINNER, JAMES (1778-1841), British military adventurer
in India, son of Lieut.-Colonel Hercules Skinner, was born in
India in 1778, his mother being a Rajput lady. At the age of
eighteen he entered the Mahratta army under de Boigne, where
he soon showed military talents; and he remained in the same
service under Perron until 1803, when, on the outbreak of the
Mahratta War, he refused to serve against his countrymen.
He joined Lord Lake, and raised a regiment of irregular horse
called " Skinner'3 Horse " or the " Yellow Boys," which became
the most famous regiment of light cavalry in the India of that
day. He was present at the siege of Bharatpur, and in 1818 was
granted ajagir yielding Rs. 20,000 a year, appointed lieutenant-
colonel in the British service and made C.B. He had an intimate
knowledge of the character of the natives of India, and his advice
was highly valued by successive governor-generals and com-
manders-in-chief. He died at Hansi on the 4th of December
1841, and was buried in a church at Delhi which is called after his
name.
See J. Baillie Fraser, Military Memoir of Lieut.-Colonel James
Skinner (1851).
SKINNER, JOHN (1721-1807), Scottish author, son of John
Skinner, a parish schoolmaster, was born at Balfour, Aberdeen-
shire, on the 3rd of October 1721. He had been intended for the
Presbyterian ministry, but, after passing through Marischal
College, Aberdeen, and teaching for a few years, he took orders in
the Episcopal Church, and was appointed to the charge of Longside
in 1742. Very soon after Skinner joined the Episcopalians they
became, in consequence of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745, a much
persecuted remnant. Skinner's church was burnt; his house
was plundered; for some years he had to minister to his congrega-
tion by stealth; and in 1753 he suffered six months' imprison-
ment for having officiated to more than four persons besides his
own family. After 1760 the penal laws were less strictly en-
forced, but throughout the century the lot of the Episcopalian
ministers in Scotland was far from comfortable, and only the
humblest provisions for church services were tolerated. He died
at the house of his son, John Skinner, bishop of Aberdeen,
on the i6th of June 1807. It is by his few songs that Skinner
is generally known. A correspondence took place between him
and Burns, who considered his " Tullochgorum " " the best Scotch
song Scotland ever saw," and procured his collaboration for
Johnson's Musical Museum. Other of his lyrics are: "The
Monymusk Christmas Ba'ing," a football idyll; " The Ewie wi'
the Crookit Horn " and " John o' Badenyon." His best songs
had stolen into print; a collection was not published till 1809,
under the title of Amusements of Leisure Hours. Throughout his
life Skinner was a vigorous student, and published in 1788 an
Ecclesiastical History of Scotland (2 vols.) in the form of letters.
A Life of Skinner, in connexion with the history of Episcopacy in
the north of Scotland, was published by the Rev. W. Walker in 1883.
His songs and poems were edited by H. G. Reid (1859).
SKINNER'S CASE, the name usually given to the celebrated
dispute between the House of Lords and the House of Commons
over the question of the original jurisdiction of the former house
in civil suits. In 1668 a London merchant named Thomas
Skinner presented a petition to Charles II. asserting that he could
not obtain any redress against the East India Company, which,
he asserted, had injured his property. The case was referred
to the House of Lords, and Skinner obtained a verdict for 5000.
The company complained to the House of Commons which
declared that the proceedings in the other House were illegal.
The Lords defended their action, and after two conferences
between the Houses had produced no result the Commons
ordered Skinner to be put in prison on 'a charge of breach of
privilege; to this the Lords replied by fining and imprisoning
Sir Samuel Barnardiston, the chairman of the company. Then
for about a year the dispute slumbered, but it was renewed in
1669, when Charles II. advised the two Houses to stop all pro-
ceedings and to erase all mention of the case from tHeir records.
This was done and since this time the House of Lords has tacitly
abandoned all claim to original jurisdiction in civil suits.
See Lord Holies, The Grand Question concerning the Judicature of
the House of Peers (1689); T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Con-
stitutional History (1905); L. O. Pike, Constitutional History of the
House of Lords (1894); and H. Hallam, Constitutional History,
vol. iii. (1885).
SKIPPON, PHILIP (d. 1660), English soldier in the Civil
Wars, was born at West Lexham, Norfolk. At an early age
he adopted the military profession and in 1622 was serving with
Sir Horace Vere in the Palatinate. He took part in most of the
battles and sieges of the time in the Low Countries. At the
sieges of Breda in 1625 and 1637 he was wounded, and under
his old commander, Lord Vere, he was present when Bois-le-Duc
('s Hertogenbosch) and Maestricht were attacked in 1629. A
veteran of considerable experience, Captain Skippon returned
to England in 1639, and was immediately appointed to a command
in the (Honourable) Artillery Company. In 1642 the Civil
War was fast approaching, and in January Skippon was made
SKIPTON SKOBELEV
commander of the City troops. He was not present at Edgehill,
but he rode up and down the lines of his raw militiamen at
Turnham Green, cheering and encouraging them in the face of
the king's victorious army. Essex, the Lord General of the
Parliament forces, soon made Skippon his major-general, a
post which carried with it the command of the foot and the
complicated duty of arranging the line of battle. He was with
Essex at Gloucester, and at the first battle of Newbury distin-
guished himself at the head of the infantry. At the end of 1644
the amazing desertion of Essex when his army was surrounded
at Lostwithiel left Skippon in command; compelled to surrender
without firing a shot, the old soldier bore himself with calmness
and fortitude in this adversity. At the second battle of Newbury
he and Essex's old foot had the satisfaction of recapturing six
of the guns they had lost at Lostwithiel. The appointment as
major-general of the New Model Army soon followed, as, apart
from his distinguished services, there was scarcely another man
in England with the knowledge of detail requisite for the post.
In this capacity he supported Fairfax as loyally as he supported
Essex, and at Naseby, though dangerously wounded, he would
not quit the field. For his conduct on this decisive field the
two Houses of Parliament thanked him, and they sent him
special physicians to cure him of his wound. It was long before
he was fit to serve in the field again. He only reappeared at
the siege of Oxford, which he directed. At the end of the
war he was selected for the command of the forthcoming Irish
expedition, with the rank of marshal-general. The discontent
of the soldiery, however, which ended in open mutiny, put an
end to a command which Skippon had only accepted under
great pressure. He bore a part in all the movements which
the army leaders now carried out. A Presbyterian himself,
he endeavoured to preserve a middle position between his own
sect and the Independents, and to secure by any means a firm
treaty with the king. The army outstripped Fairfax and
Skippon in action. The major-general was named as one of the
king's judges, but, like his chief, did not take his place. During
the Commonwealth period he held high office, military and civil,
but ceased to influence passing events. He was one of the
members of Cromwell's House of Lords, and, in general, was
universally respected and beloved. Age and infirmities prevented
him from taking any part in the revolutions which culminated
in the restoration of the Monarchy, and in March 1660 he died.
Skippon was a deeply religious man, and wrote several books
of devotion for the use of soldiers. One of his few sayings in
Parliament, that on the fanatic Naylor, has become famous:
" If this be liberty, God deliver us from such liberty! "
See Vicars, English Worthies (1647).
SKIPTON, a market town in the Skipton parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 26 m. N.W.
of Leeds by the Midland railway, served also by the Lancashire
and Yorkshire railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,986.
It is picturesquely situated in the hilly district of the upper
valley of the river Aire, the course of which is followed by the
Leeds and Liverpool canal. The strong castle built by Robert
de Romille in the time of the Conqueror was partly demolished
in 1648, but was restored by the countess of Pembroke. Of
the ancient building of de Romille all that remains is the
western doorway of the inner castle. In the castle grounds are
the remains of the ancient chapel of St John. The church
of the Holy Trinity, mainly Perpendicular, was also partly de-
molished during the Civil War, but was restored by the countess
of Pembroke. The free grammar-school was founded in 1548
by William Ermysted, a canon of St Paul's, London. There are
also science and art schools. There are extensive woollen and
cotton factories, and, in the neighbourhood, a large limestone
quarry.
Skipton was the capital of the ancient district of Craven.
At the Norman accession it became part of the possessions of
Earl Edwin, and was granted to Robert de Romille. Subse-
quently it went to the Albemarle family, but was again vested
in the Crown, and Edward II. bestowed it on Piers de Gaveston.
In 1311 it came into the possession of the Cliffords. The castle
xxv. 7
was taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645 after a desultory
siege of three years.
SKIRRET, known botanically as Sium Sisarum (natural
order Umbelliferae), a fleshy-rooted perennial, the roots of which
are boiled, and afterwards served up like salsify. It requires
a free, deep and much enriched soil, and is generally raised from
seeds, which should be sown in drills a foot apart about the end
of March, the bed being well- watered in dry weather. The
roots will be in use about November, and will continue fresh
through the winter if carefully stored.
SKIRVING, ADAM (1719-1803), Scottish song-writer, was
born in Haddington in 1719. He became a farmer at Garleton,
near Haddington, and died in April 1803. He was buried at
Athelstaneford. His reputation rests on two Jacobite ballads
on the battle of Prestonpans, one of which, " Hey, Johnnie
Cope, are Ye Waking Yet?" has a well-deserved place in most
collections of Scottish songs.
SKITTLES (from O. Eng. sceoten, to shoot), a game played on
the green or an alley with a number of " pins " of wood, which
are knocked down by an oval, flattened missile called the cheese,
about 10 ft in weight, thrown by the player. The game has
been in existence for centuries in many countries under different
names, quilles in France, Kegelspiel in Germany, skayles, kails,
clash, cloddynge, roly-poly, Dutch bowls, &c., in Great Britain.
In early days in England " sheepe's joynts " were thrown at
the pins, and in many varieties of the game, for instance in the
German and Dutch, balls were used, which were rolled along the
ground at the pins. As now played, nine large, -oval-headed
pins are set up in a square, three pins on each side, with a corner
angle presented to the player, who stands about 21 ft. from the
pins. One step in advance is allowed in delivery. The object
is to knock down the greatest number of pins in the fewest
throws. In the eastern counties of England four pins only, one
on each corner, are generally used. In Dutch skittles the centre
pin is called the " king-pin " and often has a crown on its head.
The object of this game is to knock down the " king " without
touching any of the other pins, or to knock down all the other
pins and leave the king. In Germany and Holland balls have
always been used, and the game in that form was introduced into
America from the latter country early in the i8th century, but
is not now played there, being replaced by bowling.
SKOBELEV, MIKHAIL DIMITRIEVICH (1843-1882), Russian
general, was born near Moscow on the 29th of September 1843.
After graduating as a staff officer at St Petersburg he was sent
to Turkestan in 1868 and, with the exception of an interval of
two years, during which he was on the staff of the grand duke
Michael in the Caucasus, remained in Central Asia until 1877.
He commanded the advanced guard of General Lomakine's
column from Kinderly Bay, in the Caspian, to join General
Verefkin, from Orenburg, in the expedition to Khiva in 1874,
and, after great suffering on the desert march, took a prominent
part in the capture of the Khivan capital. Dressed as a Turko-
man, he intrepidly explored in a hostile country the route from
Khiva to Igdy, and also the old bed of the Oxus. In 1875 he
was given an important command in the expedition against
Khokand under General Kaufmann, showing great capacity in
the action of Makram, where he out-man ceuvred a greatly superior
force and captured 58 guns, and in a brilliant night attack in the
retreat from Andijan, when he routed a large force with a handful
of cavalry. He was promoted to be major-general, decorated
with the order of St George, and appointed the first governor of
Fergana. In the Turkish War of 1877 he seized the bridge over
the Sereth at Barborchi in April, and in June crossed the Danube
with the 8th corps. He commanded the Caucasian Cossack
Brigade in the attack of the Green Hills at the second battle of
Plevna. He captured Lovtcha on the 3rd of September, and
distinguished himself again in the desperate fighting on the Green
Hills in the third battle of Plevna. Promoted to be a lieutenant-
general, and given the command of the i6th Division, he took
part in the investment of Plevna and also in the fight of the 9th
of December, when Osman Pasha surrendered, with his army.
In January 1878 he crossed the Balkans in a severe snowstorm,
194
SKOPTSI SKRAM
defeating the Turks at Senova, near Schipka, and capturing
36,000 men and 90 guns. Dressed with care in white uniform
and mounted on a white horse, and always in the thickest of the
fray, he was known and adored by his soldiers as the " White
General." He returned to Turkestan after the war, and in 1880
and 1 88 1 further distinguished himself in retrieving the disasters
inflicted by the Tekke Turkomans, captured Geok-Tepe, and,
after much slaughter, reduced the Akhal-Teke country to
submission. He was advancing on Askabad and Kalat i-Nadiri
when he was disavowed and recalled. He was given the com-
mand at Minsk. In the last years of his short life he engaged
actively in politics, and made speeches in Paris and in Moscow
in the beginning of 1882 in favour of a militant Panslavism,
predicting a desperate strife between Teuton and Slav. He was
at once recalled to St Petersburg. He was staying at a Moscow
hotel, on his way from Minsk to his estate close by, when he died
suddenly of heart disease on the 7th of July 1882.
SKOPTSI (Russian skopets, a eunuch), a secret religious sect
of Russia. It is an offshoot of the sect known as the " People
of God " or Khlysti (see RUSSIA: Religion). It was in 1771 in the
government of Orel that the Skoptsi were first discovered by the
authorities. A peasant, Andrei Ivanov, was convicted of having
persuaded thirteen other peasants to mutilate themselves. His
assistant was another peasant, known as Selivanov. A legal
investigation followed. Ivanov was knouted and sent to
Siberia: Selivanov fled, but was arrested in 1775. Skoptsism,
however, increased, and Selivanov escaped from Siberia and
proclaimed himself the Son of God incarnate in the person of
Peter III. Peter had been popular among the Raskolniki
(schismatics, or dissidents) because he granted them liberty of
conscience, and among the peasants because when pillaging the
convents he divided their lands among the labourers. Selivanov
claimed the title " God of Gods and King of Kings," and
announced his accomplishment of the salvation of believers
through a self-inflicted mutilation. For eighteen years he lived
in St Petersburg, in the house of one of his disciples, receiving
double homage as Christ and tsar. In 1797 he was rearrested
by order of Paul I. and imprisoned in a madhouse. Under
Alexander I. Selivanov regained his liberty, but in 1820 was again
shut up, this time in a monastery at Suzdal, where he died
in 1832 in his hundredth year. Skoptsism was, however, not
exterminated, and grave scandals constantly arose. The most
remarkable feature of this extraordinary sect has always been
the type of people who joined it. Nobles, military and naval
officers, civil servants, priests and merchants were to be found in
its ranks, and so rapidly did the numbers increase that 515 men
and 240 women were transported to Siberia between 1847 and
1866 without seriously threatening its existence. In 1872 many
trials of Skoptsi took place all over Russia. In 1874 the sect
numbered at least 5444, including 1465 women. Of these
703 men and 160 women had mutilated themselves. Repres-
sive measures proving useless, an unsuccessful attempt was
made to kill the sect by ridicule: Skoptsi were dressed up in
women's clothes and paraded with fools' caps on through the
villages. In 1876 130 Skoptsi were sentenced in a batch to
transportation. To escape prosecution some of the sect have
emigrated, generally to Rumania, where they are known as
Lipovans. But though the law is strict every eunuch being
compelled to register Skoptsism still continues to hold its own
in Russia.
As their title indicates, the main feature of the sect is sexual
mutilation. This they call their " baptism of fire." Of this there
are two kinds, the " lesser " and " greater seal " (i.e. partial and
complete mutilation). In this the Skoptsi maintain that they are
fulfilling Christ's counsel of perfection in Matt. xix. 12 and xviii. 8, 9.
A terrible operation with similar purpose is sometimes performed on
the women. The earliest records of such female mutilations date
from 1815. Usually the breasts only are amputated. The Skoptsi
do not absolutely condemn marriage, and some are allowed to have
one child, those at Bucharest two, before being fully admitted.
They are not pessimists, desiring the end of the species, but aim-
rather at the perfection of the individual. Their religious ceremonies
include hymn-singing, addresses and frenzied dancing ending m
ecstasy, like that of the Khlysti and the Mussulman dancing der-
vishes. Strict oaths of secrecy are demanded from all members,
who form a kind of mutual-aid association. Meetings are held late
at night in cellars, and last till dawn. At these the men wear long,
wide, white shirts of a peculiar cut with a girdle and large white
trousers. Women also dress in white. Either all present wear white
stockings or are barefoot. They call themselves " White Doves."
They have a kind of eucharist, at which pieces of bread consecrated
jy being placed for a while on the monument erected at Schlusselberg
to Selivanov are given the communicants. The society has not
ilways been content with proselytism. Bribes and violence have
Deen often used. Children are bought from poor parents and brought
up in the faith. The Skoptsi are millenarians, and look for a Messiah
who will establish an empire of the saints, i.e. the pure. But the
Messiah, they believe, will not come till the Skoptsi number 144,000
(Rev. xiv. I, 4), and all their efforts are directed to reaching this
total. The Skoptsi's favourite trade is that of money-changer, and
on 'Change in St Petersburg there was for long a bench known as
the " Skoptsi's bench." Of late years there is said to have been
a tendency on the part of many Skoptsi to consider their creed
fulfilled by chaste living merely.
See Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars (Eng. trans.,
1896), vol. iii. ; E. Pelikan, Geschichtlich-medizinische Untersuchungen
iiber das Skopzentum in Russland (Giessen, 1876); K. K. Grass, Die
geheime heilige Schrift der Skopzen (Leipzig, 1904) and Die russischen
Sekten (Leipzig, 1907, &c.).
SKOWHEGAN, a township and the county-seat of Somerset
county, Maine, U.S.A., on the Kennebec river, about 39 m. N.
of Augusta. Pop. (1890) 5068, (1900) 5180, of whom 4266 were
inhabitantsof Skowhegan village; (1910) 5341. Skowhegan is the
terminus of a branch of the Maine Central railway. The township
covers an area of about 50 sq. m., and has a public library, a fine
court house and Coburn Park. The farms of the township are
devoted largely to dairying. Paper and pulp, wooden-ware,
woollen and worsted goods, &c., are manufactured. Skowhegan
was settled as a part of Canaan about 1770. In 1814 the township
of Bloomfield was erected out of the southern portion of Canaan.
In 1823 a second township was erected out of what then remained;
this was called Milburn at first, but in 1836 the former Indian
name, Skowhegan, said to mean " spearing " or " watching
place," was adopted. Bloomfield was annexed to Skowhegan in
1861. The village of Skowhegan was incorparated about 1856.
SKRAM, PEDER (c. 1500-1581), Danish senator and naval
hero, born between 1491 and 1503, at his father's estate at
Urup near Horsens in Jutland. He first saw service in the
Swedish war of Christian II. at the battle of Brannkyrka, 1518,
and at the battle of Upsala two years later he saved the life of
the Danish standard-bearer. For his services in this war he
was rewarded with an estate in Norway, where he settled
for a time with his young consort Elsebe Krabbe. During
" Grevens Fejde," or " the Count's War," Skram, whose reputa-
tion as a sailor was already established, was sent by the Danish
government to assist Gustavus Vasa, then in alliance with
Christian III. against the partisans of Christian II., to organize
the untried Swedish fleet; and Skram seems, for the point is
still obscure, to have shared the chief command with the Swedish
Admiral Mans Some. Skram greatly hampered the movements
of the Hanseatic fleets who fought on the side of Christian II.,
captured a whole Liibeck squadron off Svendborg, and prevented
the revictualling of Copenhagen by Liibeck. But the incurable
suspicion of Gustavus I. minimized the successes of the allied
fleets throughout 1535. Skram's services were richly rewarded
by Christian III., who knighted him at his coronation, made him
a senator and endowed him with ample estates. The broad-
shouldered, yellow-haired admiral was an out-and-out patriot
and greatly contributed as a senator to the victory of the Danish
party over the German in the councils of Christian III. In
1555, feeling too infirm to go to sea, he resigned his post of
admiral; but when the Scandinavian Seven Years' War broke
out seven years later, and the new king, Frederick II., offered
Skram the chief command, the old hero did not hesitate a
moment. With a large fleet he put to sea in August 1562 and
compelled the Swedish admiral, after a successful engagement
off the coast of Gotland, to take refuge behind the Skerries.
This, however, was his sole achievement, and he was superseded
at the end of the year by Herluf Trolle. Skram now retired
from active service, but was twice (1565-1568) unsuccessfully
besieged by the Swedes in his castle of Laholm, which he and his
SKRZYNECKI SKUA
wife defended with great intrepidity. His estates in Halland
were also repeatedly ravaged by the enemy. Skram died, at
an advanced age, at Urup on the nth of July 1581.
Skram's audacity won for him the nickname of " Denmark's
dare-devil," and he contributed perhaps more than any other
Dane of his day to destroy the Hanseatic dominion of the
Baltic. His humanity was equally remarkable; he often im-
perilled his life by preventing his crews from plundering.
See Axel Larsen, Dansk-Norske Heltehistorier (Copenhagen, 1893).
(R. N. B.)
SKRZYNECKI, JAN ZYGMUNT (1787-1860), Polish general,
was born in Galicia in 1787. After completing his education
at the university of Lemberg, he entered the Polish Legion
formed in the grand duchy of Warsaw, as a common soldier
and won his lieutenancy at the battle of Raszyn in 1809. At
the battle of Leipzig he greatly distinguished himself and at
Arcis-sur-Aube, in 1814, saved Napoleon from the sudden on-
slaught of the enemy by sheltering him in the midst of his
battalion. On the formation of the kingdom of Poland in 1815
Skrzynecki was put in command of five infantry regiments of
the line, and on joining the insurrection of 1830 was entrusted
with the organization of the Polish army. After the battle of
Grochow, he superseded Prince Radziwill as commander in
chief; but avoided all decisive operations as he hoped for the
pacific intervention of the powers in favour of Poland. In the
beginning of March 1831 he even entered into correspondence
with the Russian Field-marshal Diebitsch, who was taken
very ill both at Paris and London. When at last Skrzynecki
did take the offensive his opportunity was gone, and he com-
mitted more than one tactical blunder. At Ostrolenka (26th
of May 1831) he showed his usual valour and considerable
ability, but after a bloody contest Diebitsch prevailed and
Skrzynecki fell back upon Warsaw, where he demanded a recon-
struction of the government and his own appointment as dictator.
To this the diet would not consent, though it gave Skrzynecki
a vote of confidence. But public opinion was now running
strongly against him and he was forced on the roth of August,
in his camp at Bolimow, to place his resignation in the hands
of his successor, Dembinski. Skrzynecki thereupon joined a
guerilla corps and on the 22nd of September took refuge in
Austrian territory. Subsequently he resided at Prague, but
migrated to Brussels where he was made commander in chief
of the Belgian army, an appointment he was forced to resign
by the combined and emphatic protest of Russia, Austria and
Prussia, in 1839. With the permission of the Austrian govern-
ment he finally settled at Cracow, where he died in 1860.
Skrzynecki w.as remarkable for his personal courage and made
an excellent general of division, but he was unequal to the heavier
responsibility of supreme command, and did much harm in that
capacity by his irresolution. He wrote Two Victorious Days
(Pol.) (Warsaw, 1831); undMes Erreurs (Paris, 1835).
See 5. J. N. Montalembert et sa correspondance inedite avec le
generalissime Skrzynecki (Montligcon, 1903); Ignacy Pradzynski,
The last four Polish Commanders (Pol.) (Posen, 1865). (R. N. B.)
SKUA, 1 the name for a long while given to certain of the
Laridae (see GULL), birds which sufficiently differ in structure,
appearance and habits to justify their separation as a distinct
genus, Stercorarius (Lestris of some writers), or even subfamily,
Stercorariinae. Swift of flight, powerfully armed, but above
all endowed with extraordinary courage, they pursue their
weaker cousins, making the latter disgorge their already
swallowed prey, which is nimbly caught before it reaches the
water; and this habit, often observed by sailors and fishermen,
has made these predatory, and parasitic birds locally known as
"Teasers," "Boatswains," 2 and, from a misconception of their
1 Thus written by Hoier (circa 1604) as that of a Faeroese bird
(hodie Skuir) an example of which he sent to Clusius (Exotic. Auc-
tarium, p. 367). The word being thence copied by Willughby has
been generally adopted by English authors, and applied by them
to all the congeners of the species to which it was originally peculiar.
* This name in seamen's ornithology applies to several other
kinds of birds, and, though perhaps first given to those of this group,
is nowadays most commonly used for the species of TROPIC-BIRD
(q.v.), the projecting middle feathers of the tail in each kind being
intent, " Dunghunters." On land, however, whither they
resort to breed, they seek food of their own taking, whether
small mammals, little birds, insects or berries; but even here
their uncommon courage is exhibited, and they will defend
their homes and offspring with the utmost spirit against any
intruder, repeatedly shooting down on man or dog that invades
their haunts, while every bird almost, from an eagle down-
wards, is repelled by buffets or something worse.
The largest species known is the Stercorarius catarrhactes of ornith-
ologists the " Skooi " or " Bonxie " of the Shetlanders, a bird in
size equalling a herring-gull, Larus argentatus. The sexes do not
differ appreciably in colour, which is of a dark brown, somewhat
lighter beneath ; but the primaries have at the base a patch of
white, visible even when the wings are closed, and forming, when
they are spread, a conspicuous band. The bill and feet are black.
This is a species of comparatively limited range, breeding only in
some two or three localities in the Shetlands, about half a dozen in the
Faeroes, 3 and hardly more in Iceland. Out of the breeding-season
it shows itself in most parts of the North Atlantic, but never seems
to stray farther south than Gibraltar or Morocco, and it is therefore
a matter of much interest to find the Southern Ocean inhabited by
a bird the " Port Egmont Hen " of Cook's Voyages which so
closely resembles the Skua as to have been for a long while regarded
as specifically identical with it, but is now usually recognized as
distinct under the name of 5. antarcticus. This bird, characterized
by its stout deep bill and want of rufous tint on its lower plumage,
has an extensive range, and would seem to exhibit a tendency to
further differentiation, since Howard Saunders, in a monograph of
the group (Proc. Zool. Society, 1876, pp. 317-332), says that it
presents three local forms one occurring from New Zealand to
Norfolk Island and past Kerguelen Land to the Cape of Good Hope,
another restricted to the Falklands, and the third hitherto only met
with near the south-polar ice. On the western coast of South
America, making its way into the Straits of Magellan, and passing
along the coast so far as Rio Janeiro, is found S. chilensis, distinguished
among other characters by the cinnamon tint of its lower plumage.
Three other smaller species of the genus are known, and each is
more widely distributed than those just mentioned, but the home
of all is in the more northern parts of the earth, though in winter
two of them go very far south, and, crossing the equator, show
themselves on the seas that wash the Cape of Good Hope, Australia,
New Zealand and Peru. The first of them is 5. pomatorhinus (often
incorrectly spelt pomarinus), about the size of a common gull,
Larus canus, and presenting, irrespective of sex, two very distinct
phases of plumage, one almost wholly sooty-brown, the other parti-
coloured -dark above and white on the breast, the sides of the neck
being of a glossy straw-colour, and the lower part of the neck and
the sides of the body barred with brown; but a singular feature in
the adults of this species is that the two median tail-feathers, which
are elongated, have their shaft twisted towards the tip, so that in
flight the lower surfaces of their webs are pressed together vertically,
giving the bird the appearance of having a disk attached to its tail.
The second and third species so closely resemble each other, except
in size, that their distinctness was for many years unperceived, and
in consequence their nomenclature is an almost bewildering puzzle.
H. Saunders (loc. cit.) thinks that the larger of them, which is about
the size of a black-headed gull, should stand as 5. crepidatus, and the
smaller as 5. parasiticus, though the latter name has been generally
used for the larger when that is not termed, as it often is, S. richard-
soni, a name that correctly applies only to whole-coloured examples,
for this species too is dimorphic. Even its proper English name 4 is
disputable, but it has been frequently called the Arctic gull or
Arctic skua, and it is by far the commonest of the genus in Britain,
and perhaps throughout the northern hemisphere. It breeds
abundantly on many of the Scottish islands, and in most countries
lying to the northward. The nest is generally in long heather, and
contains two eggs of a dark olive-colour, suffused with still darker
brown patches. Birds of either phase of plumage pair indiscrimin-
ately, and the young show by their earliest feathers whether they
will prove whole or parti-coloured ; but in their immature plumage
the upper surface is barred with pale reddish brown. The smallest
species, commonly known in English as the long-tailed or Button's
generally likened to the marlinespike that is identified with the
boatswain's position; but perhaps the authoritative character
assumed by both bird and officer originally suggested the name.
* It has long been subjected to persecution in these islands, a
reward being paid for its head. On the other hand, in the Shetlands
a fine was exacted for its death, as it was believed to protect the
sheep against eagles. Yet for all this it would long ago have been
extirpated there, and have ceased to be a British bird in all but
name, but for the special protection afforded it by several members
of two families (Edmonston and Scott of Melby), long before it was
protected by modern legislation.
4 It is the " Fasgadair " of the Hebrides, the " Shooi " of the
Shetlands, and the " Scouti-allen " of the fishermen on the east coast
of Scotland.
196
SKULL
skua, is not known to exhibit the remarkable dimorphism to which
the two preceding are subject. It breeds abundantly in some seasons
on the fells of Lapland, its appearance depending chiefly on the
presence of lemmings (Lemmus norvegicus), on which it mainly preys.
All these three species occasionally visit the southern coasts of
Europe in large flocks, but their visitations are highly irregular.
(A. N.)
SKULL, the skeleton of the head, composed of 22 bones,
8 of which form the skeleton of the cranium, 14 that of the
face. Except the lower jaw, which is movable, the bones are
all firmly united by immovable joints. In the following article
it is considered more profitable to treat the skull as a whole
than to detail the bones separately, and for this purpose a normal
European skull will be studied from in front (norma facialis),
from above (norma verticalis), from the side (norma later alls),
from behind (norma occipitalis) and from below (norma basalis).
Afterwards the interior of it will be considered by means of
sections.
THE SKULL FROM IN FRONT (norma facialis) (see fig. i). The fore-
head region is formed by the frontal bone, the two halves of which
usually unite in the second year; sometimes, however, they fail
to do so and then a suture (metopic) may remain to an advanced age.
The lower limit of the forehead is formed by the upper margin of
the orbit on each side, and by the articulation between the frontal
and nasal bones near the mid line. At the junction of the inner and
middle third of each supra-
orbital margin is the supra-
orbital notch for the nerve
of that name. Above each
supra-orbital margin is an
elevation, better marked in
adult males, called the supra-
ciliary ridge, while between
these ridges in the middle
line is a slight prominence,
the glabella. Below the fore-
head the two nasal bones
form the skeleton of the
upper part of the nose ; they
articulate with one another
in the mid line, but laterally
they are joined by a suture
to the nasal processes of the
maxillae which run up to
articulate with the frontal
at the internal orbital pro-
cess, thus forming the inner
margin of the orbit.
Externally the malar
bones (fig. I, g) articulate
with the frontal at the
external orbital process and
form the lower and outer quadrant of the orbital margin.
The maxillae or upper jaws (fig. I, M) form the greater part of
the skeleton of the face ; they complete the lower and inner quadrant
of the orbit, and below the nasal bones leave the anterior nasal
aperture (apertura pyriformis) between them, and project slightly
at the middle of the lower border of this aperture to form the anterior
nasal spine. About a quarter of an inch below the infra-orbital
margin and just below the articulation with the malar the infra-
orbital foramen, for the infra-orbital branch of the fifth nerve, is
seen on each side. The lower parts of the maxillae form the alveolar
margin in which all the upper teeth are set. Laterally each maxilla
is prolonged out into a buttress, the zygomatic process, which sup-
ports the malar bone.
Below the maxillae the mandible or lower jaw is seen in perspective
(fig. I, m). The horizontal part or body is in two halves up to the
second year, but after that complete bony union takes place, forming
the symphysis. Above the body of the mandible is an alveolar
margin containing the sockets of the lower teeth, while below, near
the mid line, the bone projects forward to a variable extent and so
forms the mental prominence (fig. I, o), one of the special character-
istics of a human skull. Below the second bicuspid tooth on each
side is the mental foramen for the exit of the mental branch of the
fifth nerve.
The Orbit. Each orbit is a pyramidal cavity, the base of the
pyramid being in front, at the orbital margin, and the apex behind,
at the optic foramen, where the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery
pass through. The four sides of the pyramid form the roof, floor,
inner and outer walls of the orbit. The roof is arched from side to
side and is made up of the frontal bone anteriorly, and the lesser
wing of the sphenoid posteriorly. The floor is chiefly formed by the
maxilla, though the malar forms a little of it in front. There is a
groove for the infra-orbital nerve running forward in it, but before
the margin of the orbit is reached the groove becomes a tunnel.
The inner wall is antero-posterior and parallel with its fellow of the
FIG. i.
opposite orbit; in front it is formed by the nasal process of the
maxilla, behind which the lachrymal bone articulates ; together they
enclose a vertical groove, for the lachrymal sac, which leads down
into the nose, through the naso-lachrymal canal, transmitting the
nasal duct (see EYE). Behind the lachrymal bone is the orbital
plate of the ethmoid and in the suture between this and the frontal
the anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina are seen. Posteriorly
the ethmoid articulates with the sphenoid, while at its lower and
hinder part a small piece of the palate bone comes into the orbit.
The outer wall of the orbit slopes backward and inward, the two
opposite sides therefore converge as they run back. The malar
bone, in front, and the great wing of the sphenoid, behind, form this
wall. Between the roof and the outer wall there is a slit in the
posterior part of the orbit called the sphenoidal fissure because it lies
between the great and small wings of the sphenoid ; it transmits the
third, fourth, first division of the fifth and sixth cranial nerves, as
well as the ophthalmic vein.
Another slit called the spheno-maxillary fissure lies in the line of
junction of the outer wall and floor, it leads into the spheno-maxil-
lary and zygomatic fossae and transmits the second division of the
fifth nerve and some veins.
THE SKULL FROM ABOVE (norma verticalis). When looked at from
above the frontal bone is seen forming the anterior part of the vertex
and articulating with the two parietals posteriorly by a nearly
transverse serrated suture (coronal suture). Running back from the
middle of this is the median sagittal suture extending as far as the
lambda on the norma occipitalis. The point where the sagittal and
coronal sutures join is the bregma, the site of the lozenge-shaped
anterior fontanelte in the infant's skull, but this closes during the
second year of life. Small ossicles called Wormian bones are often
found in the cranial sutures, and one of these (the interfrontal or os
anti-epilepticum) is sometimes found at the bregma. About two-
thirds of the way back the sagittal suture becomes less serrated and
on each side of it the small parietal foramen may be seen. This
only transmits a small emissary vein (see VEINS) in the adult, but,
as will be seen later, is of considerable morphological interest. As
middle life is reached the cranial sutures tend to become obliterated
and the bones can no longer be separated ; this fusion begins at the
places where the sutures are least deeply serrated, and as a rule the
sagittal suture disappears between the two parietal foramina between
thirty and forty years of age.
THE SKULL FROM THE SIDE (norma lateralis). -On looking at the
accompanying figure (fig. 2) it will be seen that the Calvaria or brain
FIG. 2. Profile of the Skull.
Fr, Frontal bone.
Pa, Parietal.
SO, Supra-occipital.
Sq, Squamous-temporal.
MT.Mastoid-temporal.
Ty, Tympanic.
St, Styloid-temporal.
As, Ali-sphenoid.
E, Os planum of ethmoid.
L, Lachrymal.
N, Nasal.
MX, Superior maxilla.
Ma, Malar.
Mn, Mandible.
bh, Basi-hyal.
th, Thyro-hyal.
ch, Cerato-hyal.
em. External meatus.
cs, Coronal suture.
Is, Lambdoidal suture.
ss, Squamous suture.
case forms all the upper part, while the face is below the anterior
half. Taking the calvaria first the side view of the frontal bone
(fig. 2, Fr) is seen extending back as far as the coronal suture (cs).
Just above Fr is an elevation on each side, the frontal eminence,
better seen in female than in male skulls. The junction between the
frontal and malar (Ma) at the outer margin of the orbit has already
been referred to as the external angular process and is an important
SKULL
197
landmark for measurements, and from it a curved line (the temporal
crest) runs back crossing the coronal suture to reach the parietal
bone (Pa, fig. 2) ; as it runs back this line divides into two. Below
the crossing of the temporal crest the coronal suture is less serrated
than above, and here it becomes obliterated first. The quadrilateral
outline of the parietal bone is seen as well as its articulations;
above it touches its fellow of the opposite side; in front, the frontal
(Fr) ; below the great wing of the sphenoid or alisphenoid (As),
the squamous part of the temporal or squamosal (Sq) and the
mastoid part of the temporal (MT), while behind it articulates with
the supra-occipital (SO), through the lambdoid suture (Is). All four
angles of the parietal are points of special interest; the antero-
superior angle or bregma has been already noticed, and it will be
seen to lie nearly above the ear opening or external auditory
meatus in the temporal bone (em). The antero-inferior angle where
the frontal, parietal and alisphenoid meet is the pterion and is the
site of an occasional Wormian bone (epipteric). The posterior
superior angle is the lambda and will be better seen on the nprma
occipitalis, while the posterior inferior angle, where the parietal,
supra-occipital, and mastoid temporal bones meet, is known as the
asterion and marks the lateral sinus within the cranium. A little
above and behind the middle of the parietal bone, and just above
the superior temporal crest, is the parietal eminence where ossification
starts. The squamous part of the temporalbone overlaps the parietal
at the squamous suture, while from its lower part the zygomatic
process projects forward to articulate with the malar. At the root
of this process is the glenoid cavity where the condyle of the lower
jaw articulates, and just behind this the external auditory meatus is
seen (em). Behind this again the mastoid temporal is prolonged
down into a nipple-shaped swelling, the mastoid process (MT), con-
taining air cells and only found in the adult human skull, while just
in front of the external auditory meatus is the styloid process (St),
connected with the hyoid bone by the stylo-hyoid ligament (dotted).
In the side view of the face the nasal and maxillary bones are seen,
and from this point of view it will be noticed that just below the
nasal aperture the maxillae, where they join, are produced forward
into a little spur, the anterior nasal spine, which is a purely human
characteristic. At the side of the maxilla the malar or jugal (Ma)
bone is placed, and its lozenge-shaped outline is apparent; it forms
the anterior part of the zygomatic arch. When the mandible is
disarticulated and removed the posterior part of the maxilla is seen,
and behind it the external pterygoid plate of the sphenoid. Between
these two bones there is a vertical slit-like opening into a cave, the
spheno-maxillary fossa, which communicates with the orbit through
the spheno-maxillary fissure, with the nasal cavity through the
spheno-palatine foramen, with the cranial cavity through the foramen
rotundum, and with the mouth through the posterior palatine canal,
as well as having other smaller openings.
The side view of the mandible or lower jaw shows the body,
already seen from in front, and the ramus projecting up from the
back part of it at an angle of from 1 10 to 120 in the adult. Before
the teeth come and after they are lost the angle is greater. The point
just above ch (fig. 2) is known as the angle of the jaw. At the upper
part of the ramus are two projections; the most anterior is the
coronoid process for the attachment of the temporal muscle, while
posteriorly is the condyle which articulates with the glenoid cavity
of the temporal bone.
THE SKULL FROM BEHIND (norma occipitalis) (fig. 3). From this
point of view the posterior ends of the parietal bones (PP), with
the sagittal suture between
them, are seen. Below these
comes the supra-occipital
bone (fig. 3, O) separated
from them by the lambdoid
suture which is deeply ser-
rated and a frequent site
of Wormian bones. Where
the sagittal and lambdoid
sutures meet is the lambda
(L), and here a small
Wormian bone is sometimes
found, called the preinter
parietal. In the mid line
about a hand's breadth
(2^-3 in.) below the lambda
is a prominence, the external
occipital protuberance or
inion, for the attachment of
the ligamentum nuchae, while
running out on each side
from this are the superior
curved lines which attach
muscles of the neck.
THE SKULL FROM BELOW
(norma basalis) (fig. 4).
Starting from in front, the superior alveolar arcade with the teeth
sockets is seen. This in a European skull approaches a semicircle,
but in lower races the sides become more parallel; this is known
as a hypsiloid arcade. Within the arcade is the hard palate formed
by the maxillae in front (fig. 4, m), and the palate bones (p) behind.
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4.
At the front of the median suture between the maxillae is the
anterior palatine canal which, if it is looked into closely, will be seen
to lead into four small foramina, two antero-posterior known as
Scarpa's foramina, for the naso-palatine nerves, and two lateral
called Stensen' s foramina for
small arteries and the re-
mains of the mouth opening
of Jacobson's organ (see
OLFACTORY SYSTEM). In
young skulls a suture runs
outward from the anterior
palatine canal to between
the lateral incisor and canine
sockets, and sometimes
another runs from the same
place to between the central
and lateral incisor teeth.
At each postero-lateral
angle of the palate are the
posterior palatine canals for
the descending palatine
nerves. The posterior mar-
gin of the hard palate is a
free edge which forms the
lower boundary of the pos-
terior nasal apertures or
choanae and attaches the soft
palate (see PHARYNX). Be-
hind the alveolar arcade on
each side are the external
and internal pterygoid plates pf the sphenoid; the external
is a muscular process for the attachment of the pterygoid
muscles, while the internal ends below in the hook-like hamular
process which is directed backward and outward. Dividing the
posterior nasal aperture into two is the vertical hind edge of the
vomer (v), which articulates above with the body of the sphenoid
(basi-sphenoid), and just behind this the sphenoid is united by bone
with the basioccipital (b), though up to twenty years of age there
is a synchrondrosis (see JOINTS) called the basilar suture) between
them. It is therefore very easy to tell an adult's skull from that of a
young person. Passing back in the mid line the foramen magnum
(f) is seen, through which pass the spinal cord and its membranes,
the vertebral arteries and the spinal accessory nerves. A little in
front of this is a small tubercle, the pharyngeal spine, to which the
constrictors of the pharynx are attached. On each side of the fora-
men magnum and in front of its mid transverse diameter are the
condyles (c), which articulate with the atlas, while just above these
are the anterior condylar foramina, one on each side, for the exit of
the hypoglossal nerves.
External to the pterygoid plates the base of the skull is formed by
the ali-sphenoid, which projects backward into a point, the spine of
the sphenoid, and just in front of this is the small foramen spinosum
for the passage of the middle meningeal artery. In front and a
little internal to the foramen spinosum is a larger opening, the
foramen male, through which the third division of the fifth nerve
leaves the skull. Into the re-entering angle between the ali-sphenoid
and basi-occipital is fitted the petrous part of the temporal, which,
however, does not quite fill the gap but leaves a space on each side
of the site of the basilar suture to be closed in by fibro-cartilage, and
this is known as the middle lacerated foramen. On the lower surface
of the petrous bone is the round opening of the carotid canal through
which the internal carotid artery and its accompanying sympathetic
nerves pass into the skull, while more externally the styloid process
projects downward and forward and is more or less ensheatned at
its root by the rampart-like ridge of the vaginal process. Between
the styloid process and the occipital condyle lies the jugular or
posterior lacerated foramen through which pass the lateral and
inferior petrosal sinuses, and the glosso-pharyngeal, vagus and spinal
accessory nerves. The bone which bounds this foramen behind, and
which bears the posterior two-thirds of the occipital condyle, is the
ex-occipital part of the occipital. A little behind and external to the
styloid process is the tip of the mastoid process, just internal to
which is the deep antero-posterior groove for the digastric muscle,
and internal to that another slighter groove for the occipital artery.
Behind the styloid process and between it and the mastoid is the
stylo-mastoid foramen through which the facial nerve passes, while
in front of the process the glenoid cavity can be seen in its entirety,
bounded in front by the eminentia articularis and divided into
an anterior articular part and a posterior tympanic plate by the
Glaserian fissure. Just internal to the glenoid cavity is the opening
of the bony Eustachian tube.
The posterior part of the norma basalis behind the foramen
magnum is formed by the supra-occipital part of the occipital bone,
so that all the four parts of the bone, which are separate up to the
"third year, help in the formation of that large opening. Between
the foramen magnum and the external occipital protuberance and
superior curved line already noticed, the bone attaches the deep
muscles of the neck.
THE INTERIOR OF THE CRANIUM. If the roof of the skull be sawn
off the interior or cerebral surface of both the vault and the base
SKULL
may be examined. The vault shows the cerebral aspects of parts
of the frontal, parietal and occipital bones, and of the sutures
between them. In the mid line is a shallow antero-posterior groove
for the superior longitudinal blood sinus, and on each side of this
irregular depressions
are often seen for the
Pacchionian bodies
(see BRAIN). The base
(fig. 5) is divided into
three fossae, anterior,
middle and posterior,
each being behind and
on a lower level than
the one in front of it.
The anterior cranial
fossa is formed by the
cribriform plate of the
ethmoid, near the mid
line, freely perforated
for the passage of the
olfactory nerves. In
the mid line, near the
front, is a triangular
plate rising up which
attaches the falx
cerebri (see BRAIN)
and is called the crisis,
galli. On each side of
p IG - this is the nasal slit
for the nasal branch
of the first division of the fifth nerve. On each side 'of the
cribriform plate is the orbital plate of the frontal, while the
back part of the fossa has for its floor the body of the sphenoid
(pre-sphenoid) near the mid line and the lesser wing (orbito-sphenoid)
on each side. Each lesser wing is prolonged back into a tongue-like
process, the anterior clinoid process, just internal to which is the
optic foramen (fig. 5, n), and the two foramina are joined by the
optic groove for the optic commissure. Behind this groove is a
transverse elevation, the olivary eminence (22), which marks the
junction of the pre- and basi- sphenoid parts of the body of the
sphenoid bone.
The middle cranial fossa is like an hour-glass placed transversely,
as there is a central constricted, and two lateral expanded, parts.
The central part forms the pituitary fossa (fig. 5, 3) for the pituitary
body (see BRAIN) and is bounded behind by the wall-like dorsum
sellae, at the sides of which are the posterior clinoid processes (5, 4).
The olivary eminence, pituitary fossa and dorsum sellae together
resemble a Turkish saddle and are often called the sella turcica. The
lateral expanded part of the middle cranial fossa is bounded in front
by the great wing of the sphenoid (alisphenoid), behind by the front
of the petrous part of the temporal (periotic) and laterally by the
squamous part of the temporal (squampsal). Between the ali-
sphenoid and orbitosphenoid is the sphenoidal fissure ; already noticed
in the orbit, and a little behind this, piercing the alisphenoid, is the
posterior opening of the foramen rotundum, through which the
second division of the fifth nerve passes into the spheno-maxillary
fossa. Further back the alisphenoid is pierced by the foramen ovale
(o) and foramen spinosum (s), both of which have been already
noticed on the norma basalis. From the latter a groove for the
middle meningeal artery runs forward and outward, and soon
divides into anterior and posterior branches, the former of which
deepens into a tunnel near the pterion. At the apex of the petrous
bone and at the side of the dorsum sellae is the middle lacerated
foramen (c), already noticed, and running inward to this from an
aperture in the petrous bone is a groove for the great superficial
petrosal nerve which is overlaid by the Casserian ganglion of the
fifth nerve.
The posterior cranial fossa is pentagonal in outline, having an
anterior border formed by the dorsum sellae, two antero-lateral
borders, by the upper borders of the petrous bones, and two postero-
lateral curved borders, by the grooves for the lateral sinuses (fig. 5,
ll). In the middle of this fossa is the foramen magnum, bounded
by the four parts of the occipital bone, which unite during child-
hood. In front of the foramen magnum the floor of the fossa is
formed by the basi-occipital and basi-sphenoid bones, which unite
soon after twenty and form a steep slope, downward and backward,
known as the clivus (b). This is slightly grooved from side to side,
and lodges the pons and medulla (see BRAIN) and the basilar artery.
On each side of the basi-occipital the posterior surface of the
petrous bone bounds the fossa, and lying over the suture between
them is the groove for the inferior petrosal venous sinus which leads
backward and outward to the jugular foramen already noticed on the
norma basalis. About the middle of the posterior surface of the
petrous bone is the internal auditory meatus, through which pass
the facial and auditory nerves, the pars intermedia (see NERVES,
CRANIAL) and the auditory artery. Close to the antero-lateral part
' of the foramen magnum is the inner opening of the anterior condylar
foramen which is sometimes double for the two bundles of the
hypoglossal nerve, and a little in front of and outside this is a heaping
up of bone called the tuberculum jugulare, which marks the union of
the basi- and ex-occipital bones. The hindmost limit of the posterior
fossa in the mid line is marked by an elevation called the internal
occipital protuberance, and at this point the grooves for the superior
longitudinal (s), and two lateral sinuses (ll) join to form the torcular
Herophili (see VEINS). Running from the internal occipital pro-
tuberance toward the foramen magnum in the mid line is the
internal occipital crest, which attaches the falx cerebelli (see BRAIN)
and on each side of this is the cerebellar fossa.
From the internal occipital protuberance the two wide grooves
for the lateral venous sinuses (n) run nearly horizontally outward
till they reach the posterior inferior angles of the parietal bones;
here they turn downward with an S-shaped curve, grooving the
mastoid portion of the temporal and later on the exoccipital bones,
until they reach the jugular foramina. To the edges of the hori-
zontal parts of these grooves, and to the upper edge of the petrous
bones the tentorium cerebelli is attached.
THE SKULL IN SAGITTAL SECTION. If the skull be sawn down just
to the right of the mid line and the left half be looked at, the appear-
ance will be that reproduced in fig. 6. The section of the cranial
bones shows that they are formed of an outer and inner table of hard
bone, while between the two is a layer of cancellous tissue called the
diploe. In certain places the diploe is invaded by ingrowths from
the air passage which separate the two tables and form the air
sinuses of the skull, though it is important not to confuse these with
the intracranial blood or venous sinuses. In the section under con-
sideration two of these spaces, the frontal (fs) and the sphenoidal
(PS) air sinuses are seen. Behind the frontal sinus is the crista
r>
th
FIG. 6. Section through the Skull immediately to the right of the
Mesial Plane (see also lettering in fig. 2) :
BO, Basi-occipital. SC, Septal cartilage of nose.
EO, Ex-occipital. V, Vomer.
PT, Petrous-temporal. PI, Palate.
BS, Basi-sphenoid. Pt, Pterygoid of sphenoid.
PS, Pre-sphenoid (the letters are fs, Frontal sinus.
placed in the sphenoidal Pf, Pituitary fossa.
sinus). fm, Foramen magnum.
OS, Orbito-sphenoid. a, Angle.
ME, Mes-ethmoid. s, Symphysis of lower jaw.
galli already mentioned, while below is the bony septum of the nose
formed, by the mes-ethmoid plate (ME), the vomer (V), and the line of
junction of the palatine processes of the two maxillae and two palate
bones. The re-entering angle between the mes-elhmoid and vomer
is filled in the recent state by the septal cartilage (SC).
Below the face is the inner surface of the body and ramus of the
mandible, and half-way down the latter is the inferior dental foramen
where the inferior dental branch of the fifth nerve accompanied by
its artery passes into the inferior dental canal in the substance of
the bone to supply the lower teeth. Just in front of this foramen is
a little tongue of bone called the lingula attaching the spheno-mandi-
bular (long internal lateral) ligament, while running downward and
forward from this is the mylo-hyoid ridge with the groove of the
same name just below it.
If the cut surface of the right half of the skull be looked at, the
outer wall of the nasal cavity will be seen with the three turbinated
bones each overhanging its own meatus, but the anatomy of this
part has already been dealt with in the article on the olfactory system
For further details see any standard anatomical textbook
uain, Gray, Cunningham, &c. For charm of style, The Human
keleton by G. M. Humphry (London, 1858), although somewhat out
of date, is unsurpassed.
Embryology.
The notochord (see SKELETON: Axial) extends forward to the
ventral surface of the middle cerebral vesicle (see BRAIN) or as far
SKULL
199
as the place where the dorsum sellae will be. It is partly surrounded
by the mesenchyme just as it is completely in the rest of the axial
skeleton, and this mesenchyme extends dorsally on each side to
wrap round the nerve cord, which is here the brain. In this way the
brain becomes enclosed in a primitive membranous cranium, the
inner part of which persists in its primitive condition as the dura
mater, while the outer part may chondrity, chondrify and ossify, or
ossify without a cartilage stage. That part of the cranium which is
in front of the notochord is called prechordal, while the posterior
part into which the notochord extends is chordal. On each side of
the notochord chondrification takes place and a basicranial plate of
cartilage is formed which soon meets its fellow of the opposite side,
and forms the floor of the skull as far forward as the dorsum sellae,
and as far back as the external occipital protuberance. Laterally it
comes in contact with the mesenchyme surrounding the jnternal ear,
which is also chondrifying to form the cartilaginous periotic capsule,
and the two structures fuse together to form a continuous floor for
the back of the skull. A. Froriep has shown that in the hinder
occipital region of the calf there are evidences of four vertebrae
having been incorporated with the basicranial plate, that is to say
that the plate and its coalesced vertebrae represent five mesodermic
somites (" Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Wirbelsaule, insbeson-
dere des Atlas und Epistropheus und der Occipitalregion," Archiv
fur Anal. u. Phys., Anat. Abth., 1886). It has more recently been
shown by Levi that the same thing is true for man. K. Gegenbauer
has pointed out that the primitive membranous skull shows, in the
chordal region, signs of metameric segmentation in the way in which
the cranial nerves pierce the dura mater one behind the other.
These segments, however, had lost their distinctness even before the
cartilaginous cranium had become developed, so that there is no real
segmental value in the elements of this, still less in those of the bony
skull. The only place in which segmental elements can be dis-
tinguished is in the occipital region, which is in structure transitional
between the head and vertebral column. The notochord, it has
been shown, ends just behind the place where the stomodaeum
pouches up through the cranial base to form the anterior part of the
pituitary body (see BRAIN). Where it ends two curved bars of
cartilage are formed, which run forward till they meet the olfactory
capsules, which are also now chondrifying. These bars are the
prechordal cartilages or trabeculae cranii and enclose between them the
cranio-pharyngeal canal by which the pituitary body ascends, but
later on, as they grow, they join together and cut off the pituitary
body from the pharynx. By their growth outward they form the
floor of the prechordal part of the chondro-cranium, so that from
them is developed that part of the cartilaginous skull which will
later on be part of the basisphenoid, the presphenoid, orbito-
sphenoid and alisphenoid regions. It has hitherto been assumed
that this process held good for man, but recent research shows that
the anterior part of the base of the skull chondrifies in the same
way that ice appears on a pond and that the trabeculae are at no
time definite structures. Chondrification of the nasal capsules is
later than that of the parts of the skull behind, so that there is a
steady progress in the process from the occipital to the ethmoidal
region. There is a median centre of chondrification, the mesethmoid
cartilage, which projects down into the fronto-nasal process (see
OLFACTORY SYSTEM), and two lateral ectethmoid cartilages which
eventually join with the mesethmoid to form the cartilaginous
ethmoid.
The cartilaginous base of the cranium is now formed, but the
vault is membranous. While -the base has been developing the
two anterior visceral arches have been also forming and have gained
an attachment to the cranium, but the formation and fate of these
is recorded in the article SKELETON ( Visceral). About the sixth week
of foetal life ossification begins at different points in the membranous
vault of the skull. In this way the frontal, parietal, supra-occipital,
c b a b c and a little later the
squamous part of the
temporal bones are
formed. About the
eighth week, too, the
lachrymal, nasal and
vomer appear in the
membrane lying
superficial to dif-
ferent parts of the
olfactory capsule. All
these are dermal
bones, comparable to
the deeper parts of
the scales of fishes,
and developed in the
mesenchyme lying
deep to and in con-
tact with the ecto-
derm. It is therefore
necessary to think of the primitive skull as a three-layered structure,
the deepest layer persisting as the dura mater, the middle forming
the chondro-cranium, which ossifies to form the base, and a super-
ficial layer close to the skin or mucous membrane (ectoderm), from
which the bones of the vault and superficial parts of the olfactory
TeilBaok of
d e d
Arthur Thomson, in Cunningham'^
Anatomy.
FIG. 7. Ossification of Sphenoid. a, Pre-
sphenoid; 6, Orbito-sphenoids ; c, Ali-
sphenoids; d, Internal pterygoid plates; e,
Basi-sphenoid.
capsules are derived. At the four angles of the parietal, ossification
is checked for some time to form fontanelles, of which the bregma is
the most important, and at each of these points, as well as elsewhere
in the sutures, accessory
centres of ossification may
occur to form Wormian
bones.
Along the middle line of
the base of the skull the
same progress of ossifica-
tion from behind forward ,. j^~ - - \*~&3t& ' ' -i f
is seen that was noticed in * 7^ 3)5 /
the process of chondrifica-
tion. Bilateral centres for
the basioccipital appear
about the sixth week, for
the basisphenoid in the
eighth, and for the pre-
sphenoid in the tenth,
while the lateral mass of
the ethmoid does not ossify
till the fifth month and
the mesethmoid not until
the first year of extra-
uterine life. In the lateral
part of the base the ex-
occipitals and alisphenoids
begin to ossify about the
eighth week and the pre-
sphenoids about the tenth.
In connexion with the
alisphenoid there is a Arthur Thomson, in Cunningham's Text-Book o]
small extra centre of Anatomy.
morphological interest FlG - S.-^-Ossification or Occipital Bone,
only, which forms a little a > Basilar centre.
Exoccipital.
Ossicle of Kerkring.
Supra-occipital (from cartilage).
Fissure between supra-occipital and
interparietal.
Interparietal (from membrane).
Fissure between interparietals.
The auditory or periotic capsule, like the olfactory, is late in
ossifying; it has four centres (pro-otic, epiotic, opisthotic and
pterotic) which do not come until the fifth month.
Some parts of the chondro-cranium do not ossify at all; this is
the case in the anterior part of the mesethmoid, which remains as
the septal cartilage of the nose, while, as has been already pointed
out, a buffer of cartilage persists between the basioccipital and basi-
sphenoid until the twentieth year of life.
From what has been said it is evident, and it will be still more
evident if the article SKELETON
(Visceral) be looked at, that
some of the bones of the adult
skull are compounded of
various contributions from the
different elements which make
up the adult cranium. These,
recapitulated, are (i) the dura
mater or entocranium, which
in man does not ossify except
perhaps in the crista galli. (2)
The chondro-cranium or meso-
cranium. (3) The superficial
part of the mesenchyme (ecto-
cranium) from which dermal
bones are formed. (4) The
olfactory and auditory sense
capsules. (5) The visceral
arches. (6) Some fused verte-
brae posteriorly.
tongue-shaped process ,
called the lingula, pro- c <
jecting back into the "-,
middle lacerated foramen e <
and apparently corre-
sponding to the sphenotic /
bone of lower vertebrates.
b a
Arthur Thomson, in Cunningham's
Text-
ampfe h C as Pi th a e t^pit^ ^J^^^Z?**
exoccipital and basal part of Right lemporal Bone at Birth.
the supra-occipital derived ?'
from the chondro-cranium '
and fused vertebrae, while the C J
d,
Tympanift ring.
Inner wall of tympanum.
Fenestra rotunda.
Foramen ovale.
Mastoid.
Mastoid process.
with
foramen for transmission of
vessels.
h, Squamo-zygomatic.
latter centres have fused with the interparietal, but an indica-
tion of their line of junction is seen on each side of g. The
bone of Kerkring (c) is an abnormality, the meaning of which
is not understood.
The temporal is also a very composite bone; in it the petro-
mastoid portion represents the auditory sense capsule; the tabular
vault part of the supra-
. occipital has four dermal $'
centres of ossification corre- '' ,
sponding to the interparietal - Masto-squamosal suture,
and preinterparietal bones of
2OO
SKULL
external auditory meatus is formed by the outgrowth of the tym-
panic ring (fig. 9, a) which is probably part of the first visceral
arch (see SKELETON, Visceral) ; the squamozygomatic part is a
dermal bone, while the styloid process is a part of the second visceral
arch.
The mastoid process is not present at birth, but appears about the
second year and becomes pneumatic about puberty. From what
has been seen of the skull bones in the above necessarily concen-
trated and abridged account, it is obvious that they do not corre-
spond to the traces of segmentation as indicated by the cranial
nerves, and for this and other reasons the " vertebrate theory of the
skull " is no longer believed in.
For further details and references see Quain's Anatomy (London,
1908) ; Cunningham's Anatomy (Edinburgh, 1906) ; The Develop-
ment of the Human Body, J. P. McMurrich (London, 1906).
Comparative Anatomy.
In this section only those parts of the skull which form the covering
for the brain and the capsules for the olfactory and auditory apparatus
are considered. Those parts of the face and jaws which are developed
in connexion with the visceral arches are dealt with in the article
SKELETON (Visceral). In the Acrania (Amphioxus) the enlarged
anterior end of the nerve cord is merely surrounded by fibrous tissue
continuous with the sheath of the rest of the nerve cord; there is
therefore, in a sense, no true cranium.
In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) a cartilaginous cranium
is developed, the anterior part of which forms an unpaired olfactory
capsule connected with the rest of the cranium by fibrous tissue
only. In the floor, just in front of the anterior end of the notochord,
an aperture, the basi-cranial fontanelle, remains unchondrified for
the passage of the pituitary diverticulum into the skull.
In the Elasmobranchh (sharks and rays) and Holocephali
(Chimaera) among the fishes the skull is still a complete cartilaginous
box, though calcification of the cartilage often takes place. Taking
the skull of the dogfish as a type, two large olfactory capsules are
seen in front, and behind these the cranial brain-box is narrowed,
being excavated at its sides for the great orbits. More posteriorly
the auditory capsules widen the skull, and on the posterior (caudal)
aspect the foramen magnum is seen with an occipital condyle on
each side of it for the first vertebra to articulate with. On the
upper (dorsal) surface of the skull are two apertures in the middle
line; the more anterior of these is sometimes called the anterior
fontanelle, though it has nothing to do with the bregma, described
in man's skull, but forms a rudimentary median orbit for the
pineal eye (see BRAIN). The posterior fontanelle is a depression
which leads into two lateral tubes, each of which passes into
the auditory capsule and is known as an aqiieductus vestibuli
(see EAR).
In the cartilaginous ganoid fishes (sturgeon), which, like the
elasmobranchs, are of great antiquity, the chondro-cranium is
partly ossified so that ali- and orbito-sphenoids are found; in
addition to this a large number of dermal bones have made their
appearance, such as nasals, frontals, parietals, supra and post tem-
porals, while in the roof of the mouth and pharynx a long membrane
bone, the parasphenoid, is formed, and lies ventral to and strengthens
the cartilaginous base of the skull. It will be noticed that these
fish are important morphological landmarks, because in them the
almost unchanged chondro-cranium coexists with a dermal ecto-
cranium.
In the bony ganoids such as the " bow fin " (Amia) the dermal
bones are still more numerous and, among others, squamosals, pro-
otics and exoccipitals appear. These fish are also remarkable for a
fusion of the anterior part of the vertebral column with the occipital
region of the skull, an arrangement recalling Froriep's observations
on the skull of the calf embryo mentioned in the section on em-
bryology.
In the bony fishes (Teleostei) the membrane or dermal bones are
still more numerous, and many of them are unrepresented in the
mammalian skull, while others, which are there quite rudimentary,
are very large. The chondro-cranium tends to disappear in the
vault, but the base is fully ossified. Among other cartilage bones
the five ossifications of the auditory capsule are seen, the pro-, epi-,
opisth-, pter- and sphen-otics, all of which are found as centres of
ossification in man. Jn the cod, for example, the sphenotic, which
is represented in man by the little lingula sphenoidahs, is larger than
the alisphenpid.
In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) the chondro-cranium is very slightly
ossified, only exoccipitals being found, but there is the same coales-
cence with anterior vertebrae which was noticed in the ganoids.
Dermal bones are plentiful.
In the Amphibia the chondro-cranium persists and is only ossified
in front by the girdle bone or sphenethmoid, and behind by the pro-
otics and exoccipitals, the latter of which bear the two cpndyles.
The anterior fontanelle is well marked in the chondro-cranium, but
is completely overlaid and concealed by the dermal fronto-parietals.
The membrane bones though large are much less numerous than in
the bony fishes.
In the Reptilia the skull varies immensely in the different orders,
but speaking broadly, the chondro-cranium is less distinct than in
the Amphibia, except in the ethmoidal region. In the base of the
skull the basioccipital and basisphenoid are tending to replace the
membranous parasphenoid, and instead of two exoccipital condyles
only one in the mid line is present, though this in many forms (e.g.
Chelonia) consists of three parts, a median borne on the basioccipital
and two lateral on the exoccipitals. The parietal foramen is usually
definitely marked in the dermal part of the skull and forms a median
orbit for the pineal eye; this is especially the case in the Lacertilia
(lizards). Except in the Ophidia (snakes) and Amphisbaenidae
(worm-like lizards) there is a fibro-cartilaginous septum between
the orbits so that the cranial cavity does not reach forward to the
ethmoidal region. The pro-, epi- and opisth-otic bones are all
developed, but the epiotic usually fuses with the supra-occipital and
the opisthotic with the exoccipital.
In the Crocodilia the first attempt at pneumaticity is seen in the
basisphenoid, which is traversed by a complicated system of Eus-
tachian passages leading eventually to the tympanum. In the class
Aves the general scheme of the reptilian skull is maintained, though
the bones fuse together very early, thus obliterating the sutures
between them. Almost all of them have air in their interior, and
so are said to be pneumatic.
The single occipital condyle, if looked at in a young specimen, is
seen to consist of a basioccipital and two exoccipital elements,
though these are indistinguishable in the adult. The parasphenoid
is represented by a broad plate which is called the basitemporal.
The pro-, epi- and opisth-otic bones fuse together to form the
auditory capsule.
In the Mammalia the calvaria varies considerably in the different
orders, the characteristic features being best marked in adult males.
Usually the different bones are interlocked by sutures, as in man,
until adult life, but in some orders (e.g. Monotremata, Edentata and
Carnivora) they fuse together quite early.
In the basicranium the cartilage bones presphenoid, basisphenoid,
and basioccipital, are so well developed that the parasphenoid has
disappeared. In the basisphenoid of the rabbit the cranio-pharyn-
geal canal (see section on embryology) persists as a foramen at the
bottom of the pituitary fossa. In the lower orders the face lies well
in front of the brain case, as it does in reptiles and amphibians, but
as the Primates are reached the increasing size of the calvaria causes
it to overlie the face. Many of the bones are pneumatic, the process
reaching its maximum in the elephant and the adult male gorilla.
The periotic capsule blends with the squamosal and tympanic to
form the petrous bone, though it is practically only in man that the
second visceral arch ossifies on to this as a styloid process. There
are usually two occipital condyles which have basi- and exoccipital
elements, though there are many mammals in which there is one
large crescentic condyle surrounding the anterior half of the foramen
magnum.
Ossification of the processes of the dura mater occurs in the
tentorium cerebelli of the carnivora and in the falx cerebri of the
ornithorhynchus and porpoise. The orbits are in most mammals
continuous with the temporal fossae. Sometimes, as in many of
the ungulates and in the lemurs, they are outlined by a bony ring,
but it is not until the higher Primates are reached that the two
cavities are shut off and even then a vestige of their original con-
tinuity remains in the spheno-maxillary fissure.
For further details see W. H. Flower, Osteology of the Mammalia
(London, 1885) ; S. H. Reynolds, The Vertebrate Skeleton (Cambridge,
1897); R. Wiedersheim ; C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der
Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1901). (F. G. P.)
CRANIAL SURGERY
Surgery of the Skull. Fractures of the vault of the skull may
occur without the bone being driven in to compress the brain,
and in such cases their existence may be revealed only after
death. But if there is also a severe scalp wound the line of
fracture may be traced in the bare bone as a thin red crack.
" Think lightly," said the old physician, " of no injury to the
head." The patient with a suspected fracture of the skull is
put to bed in a dark, quiet room, and he is watched. It may
be that the crack has extended across a bony groove in which
an artery is running, and, the artery being torn, haemorrhage
may take place within the skull and the symptoms of compression
of the brain may supervene. Experiments upon the lower
animals have taught the surgeon how to recognize the exact
spot at which the compression is situated. One set of muscles
after another being thrown out of work in regular order, he knows
exactly where the bleeding is going on, so, having made a hole
in the skull by trephining, he turns out the clot and secures the
leaking vessel.
Compression of the brain may be the direct and immediate
result of a head-injury, a piece of the vault of the skull being
driven in, and a local or a general paralysis of muscles being at
SKULL
2OI
once observed. In addition to the muscular paralysis, which
may enable the surgeon to localize the spot at which there is
pressure upon the brain, there is the grave symptom of coma
or insensibility. And, as in deep sleep, there is often loud
snoring, due to the vibration of the paralysed soft-palate. The
heart being loaded with imperfectly aerated blood, the face is
dusky or livid, and the pulse is slow and full. No notice is taken
by the man of a loud shout into his ear, and on the surgeon
raising his eyelids the pupils are found dilated and fixed, which
signifies that the reflex to light is lost a very grave sign.
There may be complete paralysis of one side or of both sides of
the body. Not only may the pressure of a blood-clot, an abscess,
a foreign body (such as a bullet) or a depressed piece of the skull-
wall give rise to coma, but so may a syphilitic, a malignant
or an innocent tumour, and in cases in which the administration
of iodide of potassium fails to afford relief, the operation of
trephining may perhaps be resorted to, as giving the only chance
of recovery. As regards treatment short of trephining it
may be advisable to relieve the heart by bleeding. Inasmuch
as the reflex actions are in abeyance, it will be necessary to have
the bladder regularly emptied. The man should be placed
on his side in bed, so that his tongue may not fall back and
choke him, and if it is thought inadvisable to bleed him, a full
dose of calomel should be administered.
For the operation of trephining, the head is shaved and the
skin rendered aseptic, a large horse-shoe flap is then turned
down and the skull laid bare. With an instrument on the principle
of a centre-bit, a disk of bone of the size of a florin, a crown or
a napkin-ring or even larger is then taken out of the skull
wall, and the dura mater is opened up if the cause of the compres-
sion is beneath it; otherwise, on the disk of bone being removed,
the particular condition is dealt with without opening the dura
mater. When the clot or the tumour, or whatever it is, has been
removed, the disk of bone which, during the operation, has been
kept in a warm liquid, is cut up into pieces which are put back
into the opening and the skull flap is brought up into its proper
position.
Fractures of the base of the skull are always serious, in that
they may run across important nerves and large blood-vessels;
passing through the roof of the nose, or the ear, they may be
compound that is to say, they may communicate with air-
cavities from which pathogenic germs may readily enter the
injured tissues. Thus, the dangers of sepsis are added to those of
concussion or compression of the brain. Fractures of the base of
the skull are of ten associated with bleeding from the nose, mouth
or ear, or with extravasation of blood over the eyeball. Facial
paralysis is the result of the line of fracture passing across the
bony channel in which the seventh or facial nerve is running.
When the fracture passes across the temporal bone and the middle
ear, and ruptures the membrane of the tympanum, not only
blood may escape from the ear, but an apparently unlimited
amount of cerebro-spinal fluid. In all cases the ear should be
made surgically clean, and watch and guard kept against the
entrance of septic micro-organisms. When the fracture extends
through the anterior part of the base of the skull this same
clear fluid may escape from the nose. In both cases its appearance
implies that the dura mater has been lacerated and the sub-dural
space opened.
Concussion of the brain (stunning) may result from a blow
upon the head or from a fall from a height. The symptoms
may be those of a mere giddiness, and a feeling of stupidity,
which may quickly pass off, or they may be those of severe shock
(see SHOCK). The person may die from the concussion, or he may
slowly or quickly recover. The insensibility may be for a time
complete. The pulse may be small, quick and imperceptible, and,
no blood being pumped up by the enfeebled heart, the face will
be pale and the surface of the body cold. The respiratory move-
ments are likely to be sighing and shallow, or scarcely perceptible.
As a rule, the pupils react to light, contracting as the lids are
raised. This shows that the light-reflex is not lost, and is a good
omen. One of the first signs of returning consciousness is that
the person vomits, and after this he gradually comes round.
xxv. 7 a
As a result of the injury, however, he may remain irritable, and
liable to severe headaches or to lapses of memory.
Surgery of the Brain. Abscess of the brain is most likely to be
the result of extension inwards of septic inflammation from
the middle ear, or of a fracture of the skull which passes across the
aural, nasal or. pharyngeal air-space, giving the opportunity for
the entrance of the germs of suppuration. As the collection of
pus forms, persistent headache is complained of together with,
perhaps, localized pain or tenderness. A constant feature of
intra-cranial pressure, whether the result of tumour or of abscess,
is the presence of headache and of vomiting. Later the patient
becomes drowsy. On looking into the back of the eyeball by the
ophthalmoscope, it is noticed that the optic nerve is congested
("choked"), the result of the increased intra-cranial pressure.
The pulse becomes strangely slow, and is apt to drop a beat
now and then. The temperature is high. The patient may have
attacks of giddiness, and he is subject to fits of an epileptic
nature; growing steadily worse, he may be found paralysed on
one side, or on both sides, and, becoming insensible, may pass
away in the deep sleep known as coma.
The symptoms of tumour of the brain are much like those of
abscess, though they come on more slowly and steadily; and
inasmuch as the disease is not septic, the temperature may be
undisturbed, or but little raised above normal. In the case of the
abscess or the tumour being on the left side of the brain, and
involving the speech centre (Broca's convolution), the patient
becomes aphasic.
Tumours of the brain are likely to be sarcomatous(see CANCER) ,
but they may occur as the result of tuberculous or syphilitic
deposit, or of infection by the ova of the dog's tape-worm
hydatid cyst.
In cases of suspected cerebral tumours in which there is even
a bare possibility of the patient having been the subject of
syphilis, iodide of potassium is prescribed in large doses. Indeed,
whilst waiting the development of further symptoms in any
obscure case, it is usual to try the effect of this drug, the good
influence of which is by no means confined to cases of syphilis.
If in spite of the administration of the iodide the symptoms
are increasing, the question of opening the skull and exploring the
region may arise. Before the days of anaesthetics and of anti-
septics such a procedure could scarcely have been considered,
but now the operation can be undertaken in suitable cases with a
good hope of success.
If the case be one of abscess secondary to disease of the middle
ear, the skull will probably be opened in the continuation of the
operation by which the septic disease in the temporal bone was
cleared away, the aperture having been enlarged by the use of the
trephine, gouge or chisel. The side of the head is shaved and
rendered aseptic before the operation is begun, and when the
dura mater has been incised search is made for pus by the use
of a grooved director. Pus having been found, the cavity is
treated by gentle irrigation and drainage. When the operation is
undertaken for a cerebral tumour the whole of the head is shaved
and the skin duly prepared, so that the operation may be carried
out with the least possible risk of the occurrence of sepsis. A
large horse-shoe incision having been made, the flap of skin and
muscle is turned down, and a disk of the skull-wall, about 2 in.
in diameter, is removed by a trephine, worked by electricity or by
the hand. The thick covering of the brain, the dura mater, is
thus exposed, and if the presence of a tumour (or an abscess)
has caused an excess of intra-cranial pressure, the membrane
will bulge into the opening. The dura mater is then incised and
turned down, and if the tumour is upon the cortex of the brain,
and not too extensive, it is taken away. It may be necessary,
however, to enlarge the opening made in the skull, and to break
through a considerable mass of brain-tissue before the tumour
can be removed. Bleeding having been arrested by pressure with
a firm plug of gauze, a soft drainage tube is introduced and the
dura mater is stitched in position. The disk of bone (which, since
its removal, has been kept in some salted warm water) may be
replaced before the horse-shoe flap is stitched in position, a notch
having been cut in its border to allow for the drainage. In some
202
SKUNK SKY
cases the large horse-shoe flap is so made as to include a part of the
bony wall of the skull. The flap of bone is shaped by wire saws
and then forcibly broken out by elevators.
The general result of operations for the removal of tumours of
the brain is far from being satisfactory. But it must be remem-
bered that without operation the outlook is without hope. In-
asmuch as many of the tumours are destitute of a limiting wall,
a considerable mass of brain-tissue has to be traversed in order
to remove the growth, and the ultimate result, so far as the
impairment of functions is concerned, is a serious disappoint-
ment. If, however, the tumour is found to be encapsuled, its
removal is sometimes quite easily effected, and perfect recovery
is then likely to be the result. (E. 0.*)
SKUNK (probably derived from " Seecawk," the Cree name
for the skunk; another form given is " seganku "), an evil-
smelling North American carnivorous mammal. Its existence
was first notified to European naturalists in 1636, in Gabriel
Sagard-Theodat's History of Canada, where, in commencing his
account, he describes it as " enfans du diable, que les Hurons
appelle Scangaresse, . . . une beste fort puante," &c. This
shows in what reputation the skunk was then held, a reputation
which has become so notorious that the mere name of skunk is
one of opprobrium. The skunks, of whom there are several
species, arranged in three genera, are members of the family
Mustelidae (see CARNIVORA). The common skunk (Mephitis
mephitica) is a native of North America, extending from Hudson
Bay to the middle United States. It is a beautiful animal, about
the size of a cat, though of a stouter and heavier build, with rich
lustrous black fur, varied on the back by a patch or streak of
white. The muzzle is long and pointed, the eyes are sharp and
bead-like, and the grey or white tail is long and unusually bushy.
The premolars number .
The following account of the skunk is extracted from Dr C. H.
Merriam's Mammals of the Adirondack Region, New York, 1884:
" The skunk preys upon mice, salamanders, frogs and the eggs
of birds that nest on or within reach from the ground. At times
he eats carrion, and if he chances to stumble upon a hen's nest the
eggs are liable to suffer; and once in a while he acquires the evil
habit of robbing the hen-roost, but as a rule skunks are not addicted
to this vice. Of all our native mammals perhaps no one is so uni-
versally abused and has so many unpleasant things said about it as
the innocent subject of the present biography; and yet no other
species is half so valuable to the farmer. Pre-eminently an insect-
eater, he destroys more beetles, grasshoppers and the like than all
our other mammals together, and in addition to these he devours
vast numbers of mice.
" He does not evince that dread of man that is so manifest in the
vast majority of our mammals, and when met during any of his
circumambulations rarely thinks of running away. He is slow in
movement and deliberate in action and does not often hurry him-
self in whatever he does. His ordinary gait is a measured walk,
but when pressed for time he breaks into a low shuffling gallop.
It is hard to intimidate a skunk, but when once really frightened
he manages to get over the ground at a very fair pace. Skunks
remain active throughout the greater part of the year in this region,
and hibernate only during the severest portion of the winter. They
differ from most of our hibernating mammals in that the inactive
period is apparently dependent solely on the temperature, while the
mere amount of snow has no influence whatever upon their move-
ments.
" Skunks have large families, from six to ten young being com-
monly raised each season; and as a rule they all live in the same
hole until the following spring."
The overpowering odour which has brought the skunk into
such notoriety arises from the secretion of the anal glands.
These glands, although present in all Mustelidae, are especially
developed in skunks, but are so entirely under control that at
ordinary times these animals are cleanly and free from smell.
Similar glands are possessed by nearly all Carnivora, but in
the skunks are enormously enlarged, and provided with thick
muscular coats. The secretion often propelled by the muscles
surrounding to a distance of from 8 to 12 ft. is a clear yellowish
liquid, with a marvellously penetrating ammoniacal and nauseous
smell. Dr Merriam writes, " I have known the scent to become
strikingly apparent in every part of a well-closed house, in winter,
within five minutes after a skunk had been killed at a distance of
more than a hundred yards," and under favourable conditions
it may be perceived at a distance of more than a mile. Instances
are also on record of persons having become unconscious after
inhaling the smell.
The long-tailed skunk (M. macrura), a native of central and
southern Mexico, differs from the typical species by having two
white stripes along its sides, and by its longer and bushier tail.
The little striped skunk (Spilogale putorius), found in the southern
United States, and ranging southwards to Yucatan and Guate-
mala, is smaller than M . mephitica, and marked with four inter-
rupted longitudinal white stripes on a black ground. There are
likewise differences in the skull; and this species is also distin-
guished from other skunks by its arboreal habits.
The conepatl (Conepatus mapurito) represents a third genus,
with several species, confined to tropical and South America.
In this group there is one pair less of premolars (p. f); the build
is heavier than in Mephitis; the snout and head are more pig-
like, and the nostrils open downwards and forwards instead of
laterally on the sides of the muzzle. (O. T.; R. L.*)
SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected
with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat.
obscurus, dark, &c.), the apparent covering of the atmosphere,
the overarching heaven.
The Colour of the Sky. It is a matter of common observation
that the blue of the sky is highly variable, even on days that are
free fronAlouds. The colour usually deepens toward the zenith
and also with the elevation of the observer. It is evident that
the normal blue is more or less diluted with extraneous white
light, having its origin in reflections from the grosser particles
of foreign matter with which the air is usually charged. Closely
associated with the colour is the polarization of the light from
the sky. This takes place in a plane passing through the sun,
and attains a maximum about 90 therefrom. Under favourable
conditions more than half the light is polarized.
As to the origin of the normal blue, very discrepant views have
been held. Some writers, even of good reputation, have held
that the blue is the true body colour of the air, or of some in-
gredient in it such as ozone. It is a sufficient answer to remark
that on this theory the blue would reach its maximum develop-
ment in the colour of the setting sun. It should be evident that
what we have first to explain is the fact that we receive any
light from the sky at all. Were the atmosphere non-existent
or absolutely transparent, the sky would necessarily be black.
There must be something capable of reflecting light in the wider
sense of that term.
A theory that has received much support in the past attributes
the reflections to thin bubbles of water, similar to soap-bubbles,
in which form vapour was supposed to condense. According
to it, sky blue would be the blue of the first order in Newton's
scale. The theory was developed by R. Clausius (Fogg. Ann.
vols. 72, 76, 88), who regarded it as meeting the requirements of
the case. It must be noticed, however, that the angle of maxi-
mum polarization would be about 76 instead of 90.
Apart from the difficulty of seeing how the bubbles could arise,
there is a formidable objection, mentioned by E. W. Briicke
(Fogg. Ann. 88, 363), that the blue of the sky is a much richer
colour than the blue of the first order. Briicke also brought
forward an experiment of great importance, in which he showed
that gum mastic, precipitated from an alcoholic solution poured
into a large quantity of water, scatters light of a blue tint. He
remarks that it is impossible to suppose that the particles of
mastic are in the form of bubbles. Another point of great
importance is well brought out in the experiments of John
Tyndall (Phil. Mag. (4), 137, 388) upon clouds precipitated
by the chemical action of light. Whenever the particles are
sufficiently fine, the light emitted laterally is blue in colour
and, in a direction perpendicular to the incident beam, is
completely polarized.
About the colour there can be no prima facie difficulty; for, as
soon as the question is raised, it is seen that the standard of
linear dimension, with reference to which the particles are called
small, is the wave-length of light, and that a given set of particles
would (on any conceivable view as to their mode of action)
SKY
203
produce a continually increasing disturbance as we pass along
the spectrum towards the more refrangible end.
On the other hand, that the direction of complete polarization
should be independent of the refracting power of the matter
composing the cloud has been considered mysterious. Of course,
on the theory of thin plates, this direction would be determined
by Brewster's law; but, if the particles of foreign matter are
small in all their dimensions, the circumstances are materially
different from those under which Brewster's law is applicable.
The investigation of this question upon the elastic solid theory
will depend upon how we suppose the solid to vary from one
optical medium to another. The slower propagation of light in
gas or water than in air or vacuum may be attributed to a
greater density, or to a less rigidity, in the former case; or we
may adopt the more complicated supposition that both these
quantities vary, subject only to the condition which restricts the
ratio of velocities to equality with the known refractive index.
It will presently appear that the original hypothesis of Fresnel,
that the rigidity remains the same in both media, is the only one
that can be reconciled with the facts; and we will therefore
investigate upon this basis the nature of the secondary waves
dispersed by small particles.
Conceive a beam of plane polarized light to move among a
number of particles, all small compared with any of the wave-
lengths. According to our hypothesis, the foreign matter may be
supposed to load the aether, so as to increase its inertia without
altering its resistance to distortion. If the particles were away,
the wave would pass on unbroken and no light would be emitted
laterally. Even with the particles retarding the motion of the
aether, the same will be true if, to counterbalance the increased
inertia, suitable forces are caused to act on the aether at all
points where the inertia is altered. These forces have the same
period and direction as the undisturbed luminous vibrations
themselves. The light actually emitted laterally is thus the same
as would be caused by forces exactly the opposite of these acting
on the medium otherwise free from disturbance, and it only
remains to see what the effect of such force would be.
On account of the smallness of the particles, the forces acting
throughout the volume of any individual particle are all of the
same intensity and direction, and may be considered as a whole.
The determination of the motion in the aether, due to the action
of a periodic force at a given point, is discussed in the article
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT ( n). Before applying the solution to a
mathematical investigation of the present question, it may be
well to consider the matter for a few moments from a more
general point of view.
In the first place, there is necessarily a complete symmetry
round the direction of the force. The disturbance, consisting of
transverse vibrations, is propagated outwards in all directions
from the centre; and, in consequence of the symmetry, the
direction of vibration in any ray lies in the plane containing the
ray and the axis of symmetry; that is to say, the direction of
vibration in the scattered or diffracted ray makes with the direc-
tion of vibration in the incident or primary ray the least possible
angle. The symmetry also requires that the intensity of the
scattered light should vanish for the ray which would be pro-
pagated along the axis; for there is nothing to distinguish one
direction transverse to the ray from another. The application of
this is obvious. Suppose, for distinctness of statement, that the
primary ray is vertical, and that the plane of vibration is that of
the meridian. The intensity of the light scattered by a small
particle is constant, and a maximum, for rays which lie in the
vertical plane running east and west, while there is no scattered
ray along the north and south line. If the primary ray is un-
polarized, the light scattered north and south is entirely due to
that component which vibrates east and west, and is therefore
perfectly polarized, the direction of its vibration being also east
and west. Similarly any other ray scattered horizontally is
perfectly polarized, and the vibration is performed in the hori-
zontal plane. In other directions the polarization becomes less
and less complete as we approach the vertical.
The observed facts as to polarization are thus readily explained,
and the general law connecting the intensity, of the scattered
light with the wave-length follows almost as easily from con-
siderations of dimensions.
The object is to compare the intensities of the incident and
scattered light, for these will clearly be proportional. The number
(i) expressing the ratio of the two amplitudes is a function of the
following quantities: (T) the volume of the disturbing particle;
(r) the distance of the point under consideration from it; (X) the
wave-length; (b) the velocity of propagation of light; (D) and (D')
the original and altered densities: of which the first three depend
only upon space, the fourth on space and time, while the fifth and
sixth introduce the consideration of mass. Other elements of the
problem there are none, except mere numbers and angles, which
do not depend upon the fundamental measurements of space, time
and mass. Since the ratio (i), whose expression we seek, is of no
dimensions in mass, it follows at once that D and D' occur only
under the form D : D', which is a simple number and may therefore
be disregarded. It remains to find how i varies with T, r, X, b.
Now, of these quantities, b is the only one depending on time;
and therefore, as i is of no dimensions in time, b cannot occur in its
expression. Moreover, since the same amount of energy is pro-
pagated across all spheres concentric with the particle, we recognize
that varies as r. It is equally evident that i varies as T, and
therefore that it must be proportional to T/Xr, T being of three
dimensions in space. In passing from one part of the spectrum
to another, X is the only quantity which varies, and we have the
important law:
When light is scattered by particles which are very small com-
pared with any of the wave-lengths, the ratio of the amplitudes of
the vibrations of the scattered and incident lights varies inversely
as the square of the wave-length, and the ratio of intensities as the
inverse fourth power.
The light scattered from small particles is of a much richer blue
than the blue of the first order as reflected from a very thm plate.
From the general theory (see INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT, 8), or by
the method of dimensions, it is easy to prove that in the latter case
the intensity varies as X" 2 , instead of X~ 4 .
The principle of energy makes it clear that the light emitted
laterally is not a new creation, but only diverted from the main
stream. If I represent the intensity of the primary light after
traversing a thickness x of the turbid medium, we have
dl = -hl\-*dx,
where h is a constant independent of X. On integration,
log(I/I ) = -AX-** . . . . . (i)
if I correspond to x=o, a law altogether similar to that of ab-
sorption, and showing how the light tends to become yellow and
finally red as the thickness of the medium increases (Phil. Mag.,
1871, 41, pp. 107, 274).
Sir William Abney has found that the above law agrees remark-
ably well with his observations on the transmission of light through
water in which particles of mastic are suspended (Proc. Roy. Soc.,
1886).
We may now investigate the mathematical expression for the
disturbance propagated in any direction from a small particle upon
which a beam of light strikes. Let the particle be at the origin of
coordinates, and let the expression for the primary vibration be
= sin(nt-kx) .... (2)
The acceleration of the element at the origin is n 2 sin nt; so that
the force which would have to be applied to the parts where the
density is D' (instead of D), in order that the waves might pass on
undisturbed, is, per unit of volume,
(D'-D)n 2 sin nt.
To obtain the total force which must be supposed to act, the factor
T (representing the volume of the particle) must be introduced.
The opposite of this, conceived to act at the origin, would give the same
disturbance as is actually caused by the presence of the particle.
Thus by equation (18) of 1 1 of the article DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT,
the secondary disturbance is expressed by
D'-D 2 Tsin sin (nt-kr)
. , , . .
sm(nt kr)
(3) 1
The preceding investigation is based upon the assumption that
in passing from one medium to another the rigidity of the aether
does not change. If we forego this assumption, the question is
1 In strictness the force must be supposed to act upon the medium
in its actual condition, whereas in (18), previously cited, the medium
is supposed to be absolutely uniform. It is not difficult to prove
that (3) remains unaltered, when this circumstance is taken into
account; and it is evident in any case that a correction would
depend upon the square of (D' D).
204
SKY
the component rotations in the secondary wave are
necessarily more complicated; but, on the supposition that the
changes of rigidity (AN) and of density (AD) are relatively small,
the results are fairly simple. If the primary wave be represented
by
(4)
. (5)
. (6)
where
AN
AD x . AN0 2 -x 2 \
P =4T
The expression for the resultant rotation in the general case would
be rather complicated, and is not needed for our purpose. It is
easily seen to be about an axis perpendicular to the scattered ray
(*, y, 2), inasmuch as
XWl+J p U2 + ZU3=O.
Let us consider the more special case of a ray scattered normally
to the incident ray, so that x = o. We have
- F i - (7).
If AN, AD be both finite, we learn from (7) that there is no direction
perpendicular to the primary (polarized) ray in which the secondary
light vanishes. Now experiment tells us plainly that there is such a
direction, and therefore we are driven to the conclusion that either
AN or AD must vanish.
The consequences ol supposing AN to be zero have already been
traced. They agree very well with experiment, and require us to
suppose that the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane ot
polarization. So far as (7) is concerned the alternative supposition
that AD vanishes would answer equally well, if we suppose the
vibrations to be executed in the plane of polarization; but let us
now revert to (5), which gives
._PAN yz_
r v
.PAN
. PAN z 2 -* 8
According to these equations there would be, in all, six directions
from O along which there is no scattered light, two along the axis
of y normal to the original ray, and four (y = o, z= jc) at angles
of 45 with that ray. So long as the particles are small no such
vanishing of light in oblique directions is observed, and we are thus
led to the conclusion that the hypothesis of a finite AN and of vibra-
tions in the plane of polarization cannot be reconciled with the facts.
No form of the elastic solid theory is admissible except that in which
the vibrations are supposed to be perpendicular to the plane of
polarization, and the difference between one medium and another
to be a difference of density only (Phil. Mag., 1871, 41, p. 447).
It is of interest to pursue the applications of equation (3) so as to
connect the intensity of the scattered and transmitted light with the
number and size of the particles (see Phil. Mag., 1899, 47, p. 375).
In order to find the whole emission of energy from one particle (T),
we have to integrate the square of (3) over the surface of a sphere
of radius r. The element of area being 2*r 2 sin <t>d<j>, we have
/
"sin
A , . , , , , 8?r
! -27rr 2 sin *<i>d<l> = ;
3
so that the energy emitted from T is represented by
(9)
on such a scale that the energy of the primary wave is unity per
unit of wave-front area.
The above relates to a single particle. If there be n similar
particles per unit volume, the energy emitted from a stratum of
thickness dx and of unit area is found from (9) by the introduction
of the factor ndx. Since there is no waste of energy upon the whole,
this represents the loss of energy in the primary wave. Accordingly,
if E be the energy of the primary wave,
i dE
whence
where
7T 2 rc (D'-D) 2 T2
3 " D 2 X 4 '
,_8ir 2 n (D'-D) 2 T 2
*"1 D 2 X 4 ' '
(10)
(n)
(12)
If we had a sufficiently complete expression for the scattered light,
we might investigate (12) somewhat more directly by considering the
resultant of the primary vibration and of the secondary vibrations
which travel in the same direction. If, however, we apply this
process to (3), we find that it fails to lead us to (12), though it fur-
nishes another result of interest. The combination of the secondary
waves which travel in the direction in question have this peculiarity :
that the phases are no more distributed at random. The intensity
of the secondary light is no longer to be arrived at by addition of
individual intensities, but must be calculated with consideration
of the particular phases involved. If we consider a number of
particles which all lie upon a primary ray, we see that the phases
of the secondary vibrations which issue along this line are all the
same.
The actual calculation follows a similar course to that by which
Huygens's conception of the resolution of a wave into components
corresponding to the various parts of the wave-front is usually
verified (see DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT). Consider the particles which
occupy a thin stratum dx perpen-
dicular to the primary ray x. Let
AP (fig. l) be this stratum, and O
the point where the vibration is to be
estimated. If AP=p, the element of
volume is dx2irpdp, and the number A
of particles to be found in it is
deduced by the introduction of the
factor n. Moreover, if OP = r, and
AO = x, then r 2 =* 2 +p 2 , and pdp = rdr. FIG. I.
The resultant at O of all the secondary vibrations which issue from
the stratum dx is by (3), with sin <j> equal to unity,
ndx
/"D'-D TrT
j x jj ^c
D' D TrT 2x
ndx g ^-sin-^-(to-x) . . . (13)
To this is to be added the expression for the primary wave itself,
supposed to advance undisturbed, viz. cos(2ir/\)(btx), and the
resultant will then represent the whole actual disturbance at O as
modified by the particles in the stratum dx.
It appears, therefore, that to the order of approximation afforded
by (3), the effect of the particles in dx is to modify the phase, but
not the intensity, of the light which passes them. If this be repre-
sented by
6 is the retardation due to the particles, and we have
8=nTdx(D'-D)/2D. .
(14)
(15)
If M be the refractive index of the medium as modified by the
particles, that ot the original medium being taken as unity, then
d = (it i)dx, and
M-i=nT(D'-D)/2D. . . . (16)
If /*' denote the refractive index of the material composing the
particles regarded as continuous, D'/D=^' 2 , and
reducing to
(17)
(18)
in the case when (it' l) can be regarded as small.
It is only in the latter case that the formulae of the elastic sclid
theory are applicable to light. On the electric theory, now generally
accepted, the results are more complicated, in that when fjt' l) is
not small, the scattered ray depends upon the shape and not merely
upon the volume of the small obstacle. In the case of spheres, we
are to replace (D'-D)/D by 3(K'-K)/(K'+2K), where K, K' are
the dielectric constants proper to the medium and to the obstacle
respectively (Phil. Mag., 1881, 12, p. 98); so that instead of (17)
On the same suppositions (12) is replaced by
On either theory
: d9)
. - (20)
(21)
a formula giving the coefficient of transmission in terms of the
refraction, and of the number of particles per unit volume. As Lord
Kelvin has shown (Baltimore Lectures, p. 304, 1904) (16) may also
be obtained by the consideration of the mean density of the altered
medium.
Let us now imagine what degree of transparency of air is admitted
by its molecular constituents, viz. in the absence of all foreign
SKY
205
matter. We may take X=6Xlo~ 5 cms., /u 1=0-0003; whence
from (21) we obtain as the distance x, equal to I /h, which light
must travel in order to undergo alteration in the ratio e : I,
* = 4-4Xio~ 18 X (22)
The completion of the calculation requires a knowledge of the
value of n, the number of molecules in unit volume under standard
conditions, which, according to Avogadro's law, is the same for all
gases. Maxwell estimated I -9X10", but modern work suggests
a higher 'number, such as 4-3 Xio 19 (H. A. Wilson, Phil. Mag.,
1903; see A. Schuster, Theory of Optics, 178). If we substitute the
latter value in (22) we find a: = 19 Xio 6 cm. = 190 kilometres.
Although Mount Everest appears fairly bright at loo miles'
distance, as seen from the neighbourhood of Darjeeling, we cannot
suppose that the atmosphere is as transparent as is implied in the
above numbers; and, of course, this is not to be expected, since
there is certainly suspended matter to be reckoned with. Perhaps
the best data for a comparison are those afforded by the varying
brightness of stars at different altitudes. P. Bouguer and others
estimate about 0-8 for the transmission of light through the entire
atmosphere from a star in the zenith. This corresponds to 8-3
kilometres of air at standard pressure. At this rate the transmission
through 190 kilometres would be (-8) 23 or 0-006 in place of e -1 or 0-37.
Or again ifwe inquire what, according to (21), would be the trans-
mission through 8-3 kilometres, we find 10-044=0-956.
The general conclusion would appear to be that, while as seen
from the earth's surface much of the light from the sky is due
to comparatively gross suspended matter, yet an appreciable
proportion is attributable to the molecules of air themselves,
and that at high elevations where the blue is purer, the latter
part may become predominant.
For a further discussion founded upon the observations of Q.
Majorana and A. Sella, reference may be made to Lord Kelvin's
Baltimore Lectures, p. 317, where a higher estimate of the value
of n is favoured. It may be remarked that it is only the constant
part of sky-light that can be due to detached molecules. Ordinary
observation of the landscape shows that there is another part,
highly variable from day to day, and due to suspended matter,
much of which is fine enough to scatter light of blue quality.
The experiments of Tyndall upon precipitated clouds have
been already referred to. So long as the precipitated particles
are very fine, the light dispersed in a perpendicular direction is
sky-blue and fully polarized. At a further stage of their growth
the particles disperse in the perpendicular direction a light which
is no longer fully polarized. When quenched as far as possible
by rotation of a nicol prism, it exhibits a residue of a more
intense blue colour; and further it is found that the direction of
the most nearly complete polarization becomes inclined to the
direction of the primary rays.
A discussion of these and other questions upon the basis of the
electromagnetic theory of light is given in the Phil. Mag., 1881,
12, p. 8l. Here we must be content with a statement of some of the
results. So long as the particles are supposed to be very small and
to differ little from their environment in optical properties, there is
little difference between the electric and the elastic solid theories,
and the results expressing the character of the scattered light are
equivalent to (5). Whatever may be the shape or size of the particles,
there is no scattered light in a direction parallel to the primary
electric displacements. In order to render an account of Tyndall's
" residual blue " it is necessary to pursue the approximation further,
taking for simplicity the case of spherical shape. We learn that
the light dispersed in the direction of primary vibration is not only
of higher order in the difference of optical quality, but is also of
order 2 c 2 in comparison with that dispersed in other directions,
where c is the radius of the sphere, and k = 2ir/\ as before. The
incident light being white, the intensity of the component colours
scattered in this direction varies as the inverse eighth power of the
wave-length, so that the resultant light is a rich blue.
As regards the polarization of the dispersed light as dependent on
the angle at which it is emitted, we find that although, when terms
of the second order are included, the scattered light no longer
vanishes in the same direction as before, the peculiarity is not lost
but merely transferred to another direction. The angle 9 through
which the displacement occurs is measured backwards, i.e. towards
the incident ray, and its value is given by
AK &*
" K 25
(23)
AK being the difference of specific inductive capacities.
Experiments upon this subject are not difficult. In a darkened
room a beam of sunlight (or electric light) is concentrated by a
large lens of 2 or 3 ft. focus ; and in the path of the light is placed a
glass beaker containing a dilute solution of sodium thiosulphate
(hyposulphite of soda). On the addition, well stirred, of a small
quantity of dilute sulphuric acid, a precipitate of sulphur slowly
forms, and during its growth manifests exceedingly well the pheno-
mena under consideration. The more dilute the solutions, the
slower is the progress of the precipitation. A strength such that
there is a delay of 4 or 5 minutes before any effect is apparent will
be found suitable, but no great nicety of adjustment is necessary.
In the optical examination we may, if we prefer it, polarize the
primary light; but it is usually more convenient to analyse the
scattered light. In the early stages of the precipitation the polariza-
tion is complete in a perpendicular direction, and incomplete in
oblique directions. After an interval the polarization begins to be
incomplete in the perpendicular direction, the light which reaches
the eye when the nicol is set to minimum transmission being of a
beautiful blue, much richer than anything that can be seen in the
earlier stages. This is the moment to examine whether there is a
more complete polarization in a direction somewhat oblique; and
it is found that with 8 positive there is, in fact, a direction of more
complete polarization, while with 6 negative the polarization is
more imperfect than in the perpendicular direction itself.
The polarization in a distinctly oblique direction, however, is not
perfect, a feature for which more than one reason may be put for-
ward. In the first place, with a given size of particles, the direction
of complete polarization indicated by (23) is a function of the colour
of the light, the value of 6 being 3 or 4 times as large for the violet
as for the red end of the spectrum. The experiment is, in fact,
much improved by passing the primary light through a coloured
glass. Not only is the oblique direction of maximum polarization
more definite and the polarization itself more complete, but the
observation is easier than with white light in consequence of the
uniformity in the colour of the light scattered in various directions.
If we begin with a blue glass, we may observe the gradually increasing
obliquity of the direction of maximum polarization; and then by
exchanging the blue glass for a red one, we may revert to the original
condition of things, and observe the transition from perpendicularity
to obliquity over again. The change in the wave-length of the light
has the same effect in this respect as a change in the size of the
particles, and the comparison gives curious information as to the
rate of growth.
But even with homogeneous light it would be unreasonable to
expect an oblique direction of perfect polarization. So long as the
particles are all very small in comparison with the wave-length,
there is complete polarization in the perpendicular direction; but
when the size is such that obliquity sets in, the degree of obliquity
will va"ry with the size of the particles, and the polarization will be
complete only on the very unlikely condition that the size is the
same for them all. It must not be forgotten, too, that a very
moderate increase of dimensions may carry the particles beyond the
reach of our approximations.
The fact that at this stage the polarization is a maximum, when
the angle through which the light is turned exceeds a right angle,
is the more worthy of note, as the opposite result would probably
have been expected. By Brewster's law (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT)
this angle in the case of regular reflection from a plate is less than
a right angle; so that not only is the law of polarization for a very
small particle different from that applicable to a plate, but the first
effect of an increase of size is to augment the difference.
The simple theory of the dispersion of light by small particles
suffices to explain not only the blue of the zenith, but the com-
parative absence of small wave-lengths from the direct solar
rays, and the brilliant orange and red coloration of the setting
sun and of the clouds illuminated by his rays. The hyposulphite
experiment here again affords an excellent illustration. But we
must not expect a simple theory to cover all the facts. It is
obvious that the aerial particles are illuminated not only by the
direct solar rays, but also by light dispersed from other parts of
the atmosphere and from the earth's surface. On this and other
accounts tl\e coloration of the sky is highly variable. The transi-
tion from blue to orange or red at sunset is usually through green,
but exceptional conditions may easily disturb the normal state
of things. The brilliant sunset effects observed in Europe after
the Krakatoa eruption may naturally be attributed to dust of
unusual quality or quantity in the upper regions of the atmo-
sphere (see DUST).
Related to abnormalities of colour we may expect to find corre-
sponding polarization effects. Of this nature are the neutral points,
where the polarization changes character, observed by F. J. D.
Arago, J. Babinet and Sir D. Brewster, for an account of which
reference may be made to E. Mascart, Traite d'optique. The normal
polarization at the zenith, as dependent upon the position of the
sun, was the foundation of Sir C. Wheatstone's polar clock. (R.)
2O6
SKYE SLADE
SKYE, the largest island of the Inner Hebrides, Inverness-
shire, Scotland. From the mainland it is separated by the Sound
of Sleat, Kyle Rhea, Loch Alsh and the Inner Sound, and from
the Outer Hebrides by the Minch and Little Minch. At Kyle
Rhea and Kyleakin, on the western end of Loch Alsh, the channel
is only about | m. wide, and there is a ferry at both points. The
length of the island from S.E. to N.W. is 485 m., but its coast is
deeply indented, so that no part of the interior is more than 5 m.
from the sea. It has a total area of 411,703 acres or 643 sq. m.
From 20,627 in 1821 its population had grown to 23,082 in 1841,
but since that date it has steadily diminished and was 15,763
in 1891, and in 1901 only 13,833 (or 21 to the sq. m.), 2858 of
whom spoke Gaelic only and 983 7 Gaelic and English. The chief
arms of the sea are Lochs Snizort and Dun vegan in the N., Loch
Bracadale in the W., Lochs Scavaig and Eishort in the S. and
Loch Sligachan in the E. The mountains generally assume
commanding and picturesque shapes. The jagged mass of the
Cuillins (Coolins) dominates the view whether by land or sea.
Their highest point is Sgurr na Banachdich (3234 ft.), and at least
six other peaks exceed 3000 ft. To the north of Loch Slapin
stands the group of Red Hills, of which the highest points are
Ben Caillich (2403) and Ben Dearg More (2323 ft.), and north of
Lord Macdonald's forest near Loch Ainort rises Ben Glamaig
(2537 ft.). About 8 m. N. of Portree is the curious basaltic
group of the Storr (2360), consisting of pinnacles and towers, the
most remarkable of which, " The Old Man," forms a landmark
for sailors. Towards the north of the island, not far from
Staffin Bay, is Quiraing (1779 ft.), a basaltic mass with a variety
of quaint shapes, of which the best known are " The Needle,"
" The Prison " and " The Table," the last named a plateau of
level turf 1500 ft. above sea-level, measuring 120 ft. by 60 ft.
In the peninsula of Duirinish are the two circular hills of Healaval
More (1538 ft.) and Healaval Beg (1601), usually styled " Mac-
leod's Tables," while the two pyramidal rocks rising out of the sea,
near the southernmost point of Duirinish, are called " Macleod's
Maidens." The only important lake is the wild and gloomy
Loch Coruisk, overshadowed by the precipices of the Cuillin.
It is commonly approached by boat from Loch Scavaig, from the
shore of which it is about i m. distant. It is 15 m. long by J m.
broad.
The greater part of the island, all the western and central part,
is occupied by igneous plateaux consisting of basaltic lava flows of
Tertiary age alternating with intrusive sills of dolerite; they are
penetrated by numerous basic dikes and by a smaller number of acid
ones. The Cuillin hills owe their striking features to the intrusion
of a great laccolitic mass of gabbro within the basalts. East of
these hills a large area is covered by acid intrusions granite felsite,
&c. including the Red Hills, Marsco and Glamaig. The western
portion of the island has suffered the disturbances of the N.W.
highland thrusting. Torridonian rocks occupy the whole of Sleat,
with the exception of a strip between the Point of Sleat and Ormsay
Island which is composed of Dalradian schists. In the north of
Sleat the Torridonian Sandstones have been thrust on top of Cambrian
Durness limestones. Soay is wholly Torridonian. In the narrow
part of the island between Broadford Bay on the N.E. and Lochs
Staffin, Eishart and Scavaig on the S.W., and in a narrow strip on
the east coast, also in Loch Bay, there is an interesting series of
Mesozoic rocks beginning with Triassic conglomerates and marls, and
passing upwards through Rhaetic, Lower Lias (Broadford Bay),
Middle Lias and Upper Lias (Strathaird, Portsea, Prince Charlie's
Cove), to beds representing the Great Oolite and Oxford Clay (Loch
Staffin, Uig, &c.). A lignite bed of Tertiary age has been worked
in a small way at Portsea, and diatomite is excavated from some
ancient lake deposits at Loch Cuithir, Loch Monkstadt, Loch Mealt
and other places. There is abundant evidence of glacial action on
the lower ground.
The rainfall amounts to 80 in. for the year. The mean temperature
for the year is 47~5 F., for January 39-5 F. and for July 56-5 F.
Most of the land is moor and hill pasture, with cultivated patches
here and there, chiefly on Lochs Snizort and Bracadale, the Sound of
Sleat, Kyleakin and Portree. The crofters do best with turnips and
potatoes. The climate is better adapted for sheep and cattle (West
Highland) than for crops, and the sheep farms include some of the
finest in Scotland and carry famous stocks, principally black-faced
with some Cheviots. The condition of the crofters, which was
pitiable in the extreme, has been improved by the Crofters' Holdings
Act of 1886. The old black huts have been replaced, in those
parishes where stone is obtainable, by well-built houses. Between
1840 and 1880 ejection had certainly been carried to great lengths,
and, in consequence of the emigration that followed, was mainly
responsible for the serious decline of the population. The railways
to Strome Ferry, Kyle of Loch Alsh and Mallaig, by rendering
markets more accessible, effected an improvement in the fisheries,
which have always been a mainstay of the inhabitants. The fisheries
include herring, cod, ling and salmon, and oysters are reared in some
places. Seals are not uncommon at certain points, but the walrus
and sperm whale, once occasional visitants, are now rarely if ever
seen. It is significant of the change in the circumstances of the
people that recruiting is now sluggish, though once Skye supplied
more soldiers to the British army than any other area of similar
size and population. Whisky is distilled at several places, the
Talisker brand of the distillery at Carbost, on the western shore
of Loch Harport, being well known.
The inhabited isles off the coast of Skye are mainly situated
near the eastern shore. Of these the principal is Raasay (pop.
419). Brochel Castle, now a ruin, stands on the eastern coast.
The island is 13 m. long, by about 3^ m. at its widest. Off its
north-western shore lies the isle of Flodda. To the north of
Raasay, separated by a narrow strait, is South Rona (Seal Island,
from the Gaelic ran, a seal), 4^ m. long with a maximum breadth
of i \ m., and is a lighthouse, the light of which is visible for 21 m.
Scalpay, immediately south of Raasay, has a hill of 1298 ft., and
the Sound of Scalpay, parting it from the mainland, abounds
with oysters. The other isles are Pabbay in Broadford Bay,
Ornsay in the Sound of Sleat, and Soay near Loch Scavaig.
Portree (pop. 872), the capital, lies at the head of a fine
harbour about the middle of the eastern seaboard. Steamers run
daily in connexion with the mail train at Mallaig, and there is,
besides, other communication by steamer with Oban and other
ports on the mainland and in the islands. Among the buildings
in the town are the Episcopal church of St'Columba, erected in
1884 to the memory of Bishop George R. Mackarness, the Ross
Cottage Hospital, the Combination poorhouse and the court-
house, and there is a factory for tweeds, plaids, carpets and other
woollens. The exports are principally sheep, cattle, wool, salmon
and other fish. The name of the town was derived from the fact
that James V. landed there on the occasion of his tour in the
Western Highlands. The place thus became, in Gaelic, Port-an
Righ, or the King's Harbour. It was to Portree that Flora
Macdonald (17 22-1 790) conducted Prince Charles Edward when
he escaped from Benbecula. Prince Charlie's Cave is situated
on the coast about 5 m. north of the harbour. Among other
places in Skye associated with the Young Pretender are Prince
Charles's Point near Monkstadt, on the west of the peninsula of
Trotternish, where he landed with Flora Macdonald, and Kings-
burgh, on the eastern shore of Loch Snizort. The castle at Dun-
vegan, of the Macleods of Macleod, was erected in the gth century
and extended by later chieftains, especially by Alastair Crotach,
or the Humpback, in 1458, and by Rory (Roderick) More, who
was knighted by James VI. Built on a rocky promontory which
is difficult of access, the fortress must have been almost impreg-
nable in the era of clan warfare. Among the interesting relics
preserved in it are the Fairy Flag, a yellow silk banner captured
from a Saracen general by a crusading Macleod, and Rory More's
drinking-horn, which held two quarts and had to be drained at a
single draught by the new chief before he could wield authority.
The MacCrimmons, the famous race of hereditary pipers, hailed
from this quarter of Skye and were attached to the Macleods of
Dunvegan. At Duntulm is the ancient castle of the Macdonalds,
another of the great Skye chieftains. Close to it is the Hill of
Pleas, where, in former days, the chieftain sat dispensing justice
in the fashion of primitive times. The modern seat of Lord
Macdonald is Armadale Castle, a fine Gothic mansion on the
shore of the Sound of Sleat.
SLADE, FELIX (1790-1868), English art collector and patron,
was born at Lambeth, London, in August 1790, the son of Robert
Slade, a Surrey landowner, from whom he inherited considerable
means. He became widely known as a purchaser of books and
engravings, and made a valuable collection of glass. He died
unmarried on the 2gth of March 1868, leaving personalty to the
value of 160,000. He bequeathed the bulk of his art collection
to the British Museum, and 35,000 for the endowment of art
professorships, to be known as Slade Professorships, at Oxford,
SLANDER SLANG
207
Cambridge, and University College, London. University College
received the additional bequest of six art scholarships.
SLANDER, a false tale or report, defamation. The word is a
doublet of " scandal " and comes through the O. Fr. esclandre,
which, through the earlier forms scandele, escandele, escandre, is
derived from Lat. scandalum (see further SCANDAL). In law,
slander is the malicious defamation of a person in his reputation,
profession or business, by words (see LIBEL AND SLANDER).
SLANG, in what is now the usual sense, a general name for the
class of words and senses of words, more or less artificial or affected
in origin or use, which are not recognized as belonging to the
standard vocabulary of the language into which they have been
introduced, but have an extensive currency in some section of
society either as a means of concealing secrets or as intentionally
undignified substitutes for those modes of expression that are
employed by persons who value themselves on propriety of
speech.
As thus defined, slang includes many varieties of speech,
which are current respectively among different sections of the
population. The one, however, which most perfectly answers
to the definition, and may be regarded as the primary type, is
the artificial jargon, partly cryptic and partly facetious, used by
vagrants and professional thieves. It is true that the name of
slang is now seldom applied to this jargon; it is more commonly
designated by its older name of " cant." Nevertheless in the
i8th century it was chiefly used in this particular application.
The earliest example of the word hitherto discovered occurs in
Toldervy's History of Two Orphans, published in 1756. One of
the characters in this story is a man who, " in return for the
numerous lies which he told, was called the cannon-traveller ";
and it is said of him that " he had been upon the town, and knew
the slang well." It is not clear whether " slang " here has its
modern sense, or whether it means the ways of fast life in London. t
A more unequivocal instance, two years later in date, is quoted
in J. C. Hotten's Slang Dictionary (1864) from a book entitled
Jonathan Wild's Advice to his Successor, apparently one of the
many catchpenny publications that were called forth by the
popularity of Fielding's burlesque romances. No copy of this
book is in the British Museum or the Bodleian Library, and
inquiries have failed to discover any trace of its existence; but
there is no reason to doubt that Hotten had seen it. The passage,
as quoted by him, is as follows: " Let proper Nurses be assigned
to take care of these Babes of Grace (i.e. young thieves). . . .
The Master who teaches them should be a man well versed in
the Cant Language, commonly called the Slang Patter, in which
they should by all means excel." Four years later, in 1762,
the word is found with a different and now obsolete meaning,
in Foote's play The Orators. A fast young Oxford man, invited
to attend a lecture on oratory, is asked, " Have you not seen the
bills?" He replies," What, about the lectures? ay, but that's
all slang, I suppose." Here the word seems to be equivalent to
" humbug." In the ist edition of Hugh Kelly's comedy, The
School for Wives, there is a passage (omitted in some of the later
reprints) in which one of a company of sharpers, who pretend
to be foreigners and speak broken English, says: " There's a
language called slang, that we sometimes talk in. ... It's a
little rum tongue, that we understand among von another."
Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (1785) has the
entry " Slang, the cant language"; and after this instances of
the word are abundant. In the early part of the ipth century it
appears in literature chiefly as a general term of condemnation
for " low-lived " and undignified modes of expression. It seems
probable that the word came from some dialect of the north of
England; but this is difficult to establish, as most of the dialect
glossaries date from a time long after it had obtained general
currency, so that it would escape the notice of the compilers as
being outside their proper scope. The English Dialect Diction-
ary mentions only the sense of " abusive language," which is said
to be current in Yorkshire and the Lake Country. Some reason
for believing that the word is genuinely dialectal an inheritance
from the language of the Scandinavian settlers in the north of
England is afforded by the coincidence of its uses with those
of the modern Norwegian verb slengja (etymologically equivalent
to the English " to sling ") and related words, as given in the
dictionary of Ivar Aasen. Slengja kjeften (literally, to sling the
jaw), means to pour out abuse; the compound slengje-ord
(ord = word) is explained by Aasen as " a new word without any
proper reason," which comes very near to the notion of a " slang
word." The English word has, in cant speech, certain applica-
tions to matters other than those of language; and although
these have not been found recorded at any very early date, they
may possibly be old, and may contribute to the determination
of the primary sense. Any particular mode of thieving or of
making a living by fraudulent means is called a " slang "; and
the same term is applied to the particular line of business of a
showman or a troupe of strolling players. Further, the word
is used adjectively to designate fraudulent weights and measures,
and the early slang dictionaries explain the verb slang as mean-
ing " to defraud." The precise relation between these various
senses cannot be determined, but they seem to agree in having
some reference to what is lawless or irregular, and this general
notion may be regarded as having a certain affinity to the mean-
ing of the verb " to sling," with which the word is probably
etymologically allied. It is unlikely that the word slang, in the
senses here under consideration, has any direct connexion with
the homophonous word meaning " a strip of land."
The modern extended application of the term, which is closely
paralleled by that of the French synonym argot, is not difficult
to account for. In the first place, the boundaries of the world
in which slang in the original sense is current are somewhat
indeterminate. It is, for instance, not easy to draw the line
between the peculiar language of " rogues and vagabonds "
and that of the lowest order of travelling showmen and strolling
players, or between this latter and the strictly analogous body
of expressions common to all grades of the histrionic profession.
Similarly, the prize-ring, the turf, the gaming-table and all the
varieties of " fast " and " Bohemian " life have their own
eccentric vocabularies, partly identical with, and in general
character altogether resembling, the slang of the criminal and
vagrant classes. In the second place, a little consideration is
sufficient to show that thieves' cant is only one species of an
extensive genus, its specific difference consisting in the unessential
circumstance that its use is confined to one particular class of
persons.
Although the term " slang " is sometimes used with more or
less intentional inexactness, and has often been carelessly defined,
the notion to which it corresponds in general use seems to be
tolerably precise. There are two principal characteristics which,
taken in conjunction, may serve to distinguish what is properly
called slang from certain other varieties of diction that in some
respects resemble it. The first of these is that slang is a conscious
offence against some conventional standard of propriety. A mere
vulgarism is not slang, except when it is purposely adopted, and
acquires an artificial currency, among some class of persons to
whom it is not native. The other distinctive feature of slang is
that it is neither a part of the ordinary language, nor an attempt
to supply its deficiencies. The slang word is a deliberate sub-
stitute for a word of the vernacular, just as the characters of
a cipher art substitutes for the letters of the alphabet, or as
a nickname is a substitute for a personal name. The latter
comparison is the more exact of the two; indeed nicknames, as
a general rule, may be accurately described as a kind of slang
A slang expression, like a nickname, may be used for the purpose
of concealing the meaning from uninitiated hearers, or it may be
employed sportively or out of aversion to dignity or formality of
speech. The essential point is that it does not, like the words
of ordinary language, originate in the desire to be understood.
The slang word is not invented or used because it is in any respect
better than the accepted term, but because it is different. No
doubt it may accidentally happen that a word which originates
as slang is superior in expressiveness to its regular synonym
(much as a nickname may identify a person better than his name
does), or that in time it develops a shade of meaning which the
ordinary language cannot convey. But when such a word comes
208
SLANG
to be used mainly on account of its intrinsic merit, and not
because it is a wrong word, it is already ceasing to be slang. So
long as the usage of good society continues to proscribe it, it
may be called a vulgarism; but unless the need which it serves
is supplied in some other way, it is likely to find its way into the
standard speech.
The account here given of the distinctive characteristics of
slang conflicts with the view of those writers who so define the
term as to make it include all words and uses of words that are
current only among persons belonging to some particular class,
trade or profession. But such an extended application of the
word is not supported by general usage. It is true that it is
not uncommon to apply the name of slang to the technical
language of trades and professions, or even of arts and sciences.
This, however, is really a consciously metaphorical use, and is
intended to convey the imputation that the employment of
technical language has no better motive than the desire to be
unintelligible to the uninitiated, to or excite admiration by a
display of learning. If the imputation were true, the designation
would be strictly applicable. Technical and scientific terms may
justly be stigmatized as slang when they are used pretentiously
without any good reason, but not when they are chosen because,
to those who understand them, they afford a clearer, more
precise, or more convenient expression of the meaning than is
found in the ordinary vocabulary. At the same time, it is true
that every trade or profession has a real slang of its own; that
is to say, a body of peculiar words and expressions that serve as
flippant or undignified substitutes for the terms that are recog-
nized as correct. It happens not infrequently that words of this
kind, owing to frequency of use and' the development of specific
meanings, lose the character of slang and pass into the category
of accepted technicalities.
A class of words that has a certain affinity with slang, though
admitting of being clearly distinguished from it, consists of those
which are proscribed from the intercourse of reputable society
because they express too plainly ideas that are deemed indelicate,
or because they are brutally insulting. Such words share with
slang the characteristic that they are ordinarily employed only
in intentional defiance of propriety; they differ from it in being
really part of the original vernacular, and not of an artificial
vocabulary which is substituted for it. The customary euphem-
isms which take the place of these condemned words are, of
course, far removed from slang; but the name is strictly ap-
plicable to those grotesque metaphors which are sometimes sub-
stituted, and emphasize the offensiveness of the notion instead
of veiling it.
The known history of European slang begins (leaving out of
account the meagre references in German documents hereafter to be
mentioned) with the " Ballades " of Francois Villon in the I5th
century. The French argot of these compositions contains much
that is still obscure, but the origin of some of its words is evident
enough. Facetious expressions relating to the destined end of the
malefactor are prominent. Paroir and montjoye (for which later the
less ironical monte a regret was substituted) are nicknames for the
scaffold. Acollez, hanged, corresponds to the English " scragged ";
the synonymous grup seems to be an onomatopoeic formation sug-
gestive of choking. There are some derivatives formed with the
suffix art: riflart is a police-officer, abrouart fog. A few words from
foreign languages occur: audinos, prayer, is the Latin audi nos of
the litanies; arton, bread, is obviously Greek, and its appearance
in the I5th century is somewhat hard to account for. Matter, to
eat, may perhaps be the Latin molere to grind. Anse, the ear, is no
doubt the Latin ansa, handle. In the 15th century and later the
ranks of vagabondage were often recruited from the class of poor
students, so that the presence of some words of learned origin in the
vocabulary of the vagrant and criminal classes is not surprising.
Among the prominent features of later French slang may be noted
the use of the suffix mare to form derivatives such as perruquemare,
a wig-maker, and the practice of rendering conversation unintelligible
to outsiders by tacking on some unmeaning ending to every word.
In Germany the word Rotwalsch (the modern Rotwelsch, still the
name for the cant of vagrants) occurs as early as the middle of the
1 3th century, and during the following century there appear lists of
slang terms for various species of malefactors and begging impostors.
The earliest attempt at a vocabulary of " Rotwelsch " is that of
Gerold Edlibach, compiled about 1490. A second vocabulary,
containing nearly the same set of words, is contained in the famous
Liber vagatorum, first printed in 1510 in High German; versions in
Low German and the dialect of the Lower Rhine appeared shortly
afterwards. An edition of this work printed in 1529 has a preface
by Martin Luther. The most remarkable feature of the jargon
represented in these eady glossaries is the large number of Hebrew
words that it contains. It is not clear whether this fact indicates
that Jews formed a large proportion of the German vagabond class
at the beginning of the 1 6th century; the explanation may be
simply that the Hebrew words contributed by Jewish vagrants
found acceptance because they were unintelligible to ordinary people.
However this may be, the later dictionaries of " Rotwelsch " not
only retain most of the Hebrew words found in the earliest authorities,
but add greatly to their number. There are some words from
Italian, as bregan, to beg, from pregare, and barlen, to speak, from
parlare. The language of the gipsies seems to have contributed
nothing, nor are there any words from Latin or Greek. Some of
the words are ordinary German words used mataphorically, like
wetterhan (weathercock) for a hat, zwicker (twitcher) for the hangman,
brief (letter) for a playing-card. Others are descriptive compounds
such as breitfuss (broad-foot) for a duck or goose, or derivatives
formed by means of the suffixes -hart (or -art) and -ling, as grunhart
(from gr-iin, green), a field, glathart (from glatt, smooth), a table,
fluckart (horciflug, flight), a bird, funckart (fromfunke, spark), fire,
flossart (from floss, stream), water, flossling, a fish, liissling (from
lussnen to listen), the ear. It is noteworthy that modern Dutch
thieves' cant, as presented in the dictionary of I. Teirlinck, is closely
similar in its principles of formation, and in many of its actual words,
to that of the early German vocabularies.
The earliest English " cant " or " Pedlers' French," as exhibited
in R. Copland's The Hye Waye to the Spyttel House (1517), John
Awdeley's Fraternitye of Vacabondes (1561), Thomas Harman's
Caueat for Cursetours (1567) and various later writers, bears a close
resemblance in its general character to the German Rotwelsch of the
Liber vagatorum, the most noteworthy point of difference being the
absence of Hebrew words. The suffix corresponding to the -hart and
-ling of German slang is -mans, as in lightmans, day, darkmans, night,
ruffmans, the woods. The word cheat, a thing (whether this is
etymologically connected with the verb to cheat is uncertain), is used
to form a great variety of descriptive compounds, such as grunting
cheat, a pig, bleting cheat, a sheep, cackling cheat, a cock or capon,
mofling cheat, a napkin, smelling cheat, the nose, pratling cheat, the
tongue. There are some ordinary English words used as descriptive
nicknames for things, as glasyers, eyes, stampes, legs, stampers, shoes,
prauncer, a horse, glymmar, fire, lap, buttermilk or whey, high pad,
the highway, pek, meat. Obviously of Latin origin are grannam,
corn, pannam, bread, cassan, cheese. Commission, a shirt, is from
the Late Latin camisia; it afterwards appears shortened to mish.
Perhaps boon and bene, good, may be Latin, but a French origin is
possible. Vyle, a town, is probably French; deuse a vyle, the
country, seems to be a compound of this. A few words seem to
be of Dutch or Low German origin, as bung, a purse (Low Ger.
pung), kinchin, a child, cranke, a malingerer, and perhaps feague or
feak (Low Ger. fegen), which appears in modern slang as fake.
Certainly from this source is the gambling term foist, to palm a die,
which has become recognized English in a figurative sense. Harman's
list includes a considerable number of words of obscure and perhaps
undiscoverable origin, as towre, to see, lowre, money, wyn, a penny,
trine, to hang, cofe or cove, a man, mart, a woman. Attempts to
discover an etymology for some of these in Romany are unsuccessful.
Ken, a house, is used by English gipsies, but may be an importation
from cant. Even in later English slang the number of Romany
words is surprisingly small; pal, originally meaning brother, is one
of the few certain examples.
From the I7th century onwards it has been more and more
difficult to distinguish between the cant of thieves and vagrants and
the slang of other classes more or less characterized by disorderly
habits of life, such as pugilists, the lower orders of strolling players,
professional gamblers and persons of all ranks addicted to low
pleasures. Many words that were once peculiar to the outcasts from
society are now in general slang use. While a few of the words of
the " Pedlers' French " of the l6th century have survived to the
present or recent times, the majority have been superseded by later
inventions. The older slang names of coins or sums of money, for
instance, are nearly all obsolete, and their modern synonyms, mostly
of obscure origin, cannot be traced very far back. Quid, a guinea
or sovereign, was used in the I7th century; bob, a shilling, bull,
a crown piece, tanner, a sixpence, and others, are of 19th-century
date. In recent times the vocabulary of low-class slang has ob-
tained several words from Yiddish or Jewish-German, such as
gonnof, a thief (Hebrew gannabh as pronounced by German Jews),
foont, a pound (German Pfund), ooftish, contracted to oof, money
(from the German auftischen, to regale a person with something).
A peculiar growth of the 1 9th century is the so-called " back slang,"
current chiefly among London costermongers, which is a cryptic
jargon formed by pronouncing words backwards, as in ecilop or slop
for " police," " eno dunop and a flah," one pound and a half, thirty
shillings. What is called " riming slang," consisting of such fantastic
expressions as mutton-pie for eye, lord of the manor for " tanner,"
i.e. sixpence, is a jocular invention which does not seem to have
had any considerable currency except in the columns of the sporting
newspapers.
SLANG
209
The varieties of slang that have their origin and currency in
the reputable classes of society owe their existence partly to
impatience with the constraint of ceremonious propriety of
speech, and partly to the kind of esprit de corps which leads
those who are associated in any common pursuit, or whose
mutual intercourse is especially intimate, to take pleasure in the
possession of modes of speech that are peculiar to their own
" set." The former feeling is naturally strongest among those
who are under the control of superiors in whose presence they
have to observe an uncongenial formality of expression. It is
therefore only what might be expected that every public school
and every university has its own elaborately developed slang
vocabulary, and that there is also a good deal of slang that is
common to schoolboys and to undergraduates in general. Even
among persons of riper years there are many to whom cere-
monious speech is unwelcome. The motive for the creation of
slang is therefore widely diffused throughout all classes. Besides
the general slang that is current among all who rebel against the
laws of conventional decorum of language, there are innumerable
special varieties. As a rule, every trade and profession, and
every closely associated group of persons, has its own slang;
indeed, there are probably few family circles that have not
certain peculiar expressions used only within the household.
It may be noted that some classes of workmen printers and
tailors for example -are more than others remarkable for the
copiousness of their trade slang. The theatrical profession has
in all countries an abundant vocabulary of sportively meta-
phorical and allusive words and phrases. The slang current in
the orderly portions of society, in England at least, does not
present many insoluble puzzles of etymology, the words of
obscure origin being for the most part such as have been imported
from a lower level. There is no difficulty in accounting for the
many jocularly similative uses of ordinary words, such as " tin "
for money, " bags " for trousers, " tile " for hat. Especially
characteristic of university slang is the distortion of the form of
words, sometimes with the appending of a conventional termina-
tion, as in the German student's " schleo " for schlecht, " Kneo "
for Kneipe, " Bim " for Busen, " Respum " for Respekt, or the
English " rugger " and " soccer " for the Rugby and Association
varieties of the game of football, " tosher " for unattached
student, " progging " for the disciplinary function of the proctor,
" ekker " for exercise, " congratters " or " congraggers " for
congratulations. Such shortened forms of words as " thou "
for thousand, " exes " for expenses, " exam " for examination,
" vac " for vacation, " photo " for photograph, " bike " for
bicycle, may reasonably be classed as slang when they are used
with intentional impropriety or flippancy, but many such forms,
on account of their convenient brevity, have acquired a degree
of currency that entitles them to rank as respectable colloquial
English.
It is generally admitted that in the United States the currency
of slang is wider, and its vocabulary more extensive, than in other
English-speaking countries. Indeed, an American encyclopaedia
has the entry " Slang, see Americanisms." The two things, of
course, are not identical, and some of those American expressions
that are in England regarded and used as slang have no such
character in their native country. But the invention of new
words of grotesque sound and ludicrously descriptive point is a
favourite form of "humour in America, and the freedom with
which these coinages are used in many newspapers contrasts
with the more sober journalistic style usual in England. Much
of the current slang of America is used only in the land of its
origin, and it is not uncommon to meet with newspaper articles
of which an untravelled Englishman would hardly be able to
understand a sentence, and on which the dictionaries of American-
isms afford little light. The American contribution to the current
slang of the British Isles consists mainly of words and expressions
that are recommended by their oddity, such as " scallywag,"
" absquatulate," " skedaddle," " vamoose " (from the Span.
vdmos, let us go), and words relating to political life, such as
" mugwump " (originally an Indian word meaning " great
chief "), " carpet-bagger," and " gerrymander." Australia,
also, as may be seen from the novels of Rolf Boldrewood and
other writers, possesses an ample store of slang peculiar to itself,
but of this " larrikin " is the only word that has found its way
into general use in the mother-country.
To the philologist the most interesting question connected
with slang is that relating to the importance of the share which
it has in the development of ordinary language. It is probably
true that the standard vocabulary of every modern European
language includes some words that were originally slang; but
there is certainly much exaggeration in the view that has been
sometimes maintained, that slang is one of the chief sources
from which languages obtain additions to their means of ex-
pression. The advocates of this view point to the fact that a
certain number of Italian and French words descend, not from
the Latin words of identical meaning, but from other words
which in vulgar Latin were substituted for these by way of
jocular metaphor. Thus the Italian testa, FT. ttie, head, repre-
sent the Lat. testa, pot or shell; the Fr.joue, cheek, corresponds
by strict phonetic law to the Late Lat. gabata, porringer. It may
be conceded that in these instances, and a few others, words of
popular Latin slang have become the accepted words in the
languages descended from Latin. But the number of instances
of this kind is, after all, inconsiderable in comparison with the
extent of the whole popular vocabulary; and the conditions under
which the Romanic languages were developed (from Latin as
spoken by peoples mainly of non-Latin origin) are somewhat
abnormal. A consideration of the essential characteristics of
slang, as previously explained in this article, will show that it is
only to a limited extent that it is likely to be absorbed into the
general language. It has been pointed out that slang words,
for the most part, do not express notions which ordinary language
cannot express quite as efficiently. This fact implies a note-
worthy limitation of the capabilities of slang as a source from
which the deficiencies of a language can be supplied. As the
prevailing tendency of words is toward degradation of meaning,
one of the most frequently recurring needs of language is that
of words of dignified and serious import to take the place of
those which have become cheapened through ignoble use. It is
obvious that slang can do nothing to meet this demand. The
less frequent want of terms of contempt or reprobation may,
of course, be supplied by adoptions from slang; and in the
exceptional instances in which, as has already been indicated,
a slang word has no synonym in ordinary speech, it may very
naturally find its way into recognized use.
On the whole, the debt of modern standard English to slang of
all kinds is probably smaller than most persons would suppose.
A few words have been furnished by thieves' cant, and, as might
be expected, most of these relate to criminal or vicious practices.
No one will be surprised to learn that rogue and bully, and the
verbs to filch and to foist, are derived from this source. On the
other hand, one would hardly have expected to find " drawers,
hosen " in Harman's vocabulary of " Pedlers' French " in 1567.
The word soon came into general use, probably because (though
not euphemistic in original intention) it suited the same affected
notion of delicacy which led to the substitution of " shift "
for " smock." There are some words, such as prig, to steal,
which were once vagrant slang, but are now universally
understood and widely used, without, however, losing their
" slangy " character. The utmost that can be said is that they
are on the debatable ground between slang and merely jocular
language.
Although it often happens that words belonging to the more
reputable kinds of slang undergo some improvement in status
acquiring some degree of toleration in refined circles where they
would once have been considered offensive there are few in-
stances in which such a word has come to be regarded as unex-
ceptionable English. One example of this is prig (a distinct
word from the term of thieves' cant already mentioned), which
originally denoted a person over-scrupulous in his attire and
demeanour, but has now acquired a different sense, in which it
supplies a real need of the language. Other words that were once
slang but are so no longer are mob, humbug, tandem (apparently
210
SLATE
a university joke founded on " at length " as the dictionary
rendering of the Latin adverb).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. English: Most of the authorities for the early
history of English vagrant slang are reprinted in vol. ix. of the
Extra Series of the Early English Text Society, edited by E. Viles
and F. J. Furnivall (1869), which contains John Awdeley's The
Fraternitye of Vacabondes (from the edition of 1575), Thomas Har-
man's Caueat for Commen Cursetours (1567-1573), and The Ground-
work of Conny-catching (anonymous, 1592), besides extracts from
other early works which furnish glossaries. The Dictionary of the
Canting Crew, by B. E. (no date, but printed at the end of the 1 7th
century; photographic reprint by J. S. Farmer), is valuable as
containing the earliest known record of many words still in use;
while mainly treating of thieves' and vagrants' language, it includes
much that belongs to slang in the wider sense. Among the many
later works, only the following need be mentioned here: Francis
Grose's Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (3rd ed., 1796);
The Slang Dictionary, anonymous, but understood to be by the
publisher, J. C. Hotten (new edition, 1874), a work of considerable
merit, with an excellent bibliography; A Dictionary of Slang,
Jargon and Cant, by A. Barrere and C. G. Leland (1889); and
Slang and its Analogues, by J. S. Farmer and W. E. Henley (1890-
1904), which surpasses all similar works in extent of vocabulary
and abundance of illustrative matter, though the dates and even
the text of the quotations are often inaccurate. For the slang of
public schools see The Winchester Word-book, by R. G. K. Wrench
(1901) and The Eton Glossary, by C. R. Stone (1902).
French: The earliest systematic treatment of argot is found in
La Vie genereuse des Mattois, Gueux Bohemiems et Cagoux, by
Pechon de Ruby (a pseudonym), which went through several editions
in the early part of the I7th century, and has been reprinted in 1831
and 1868. The slang of the 1 5th century is discussed in Le Jargon au
quinzieme siecle, by Auguste Vitu (1883), which includes an edition
of the Ballades of Villon ; in Le Jargon et jobelin de F. Villon, by
Lucien Schone (1887), and in L' Argot ancien, by L. Sainean (1907).
Francisque Michel's Etudes de philologie comparee sur I'argot (1856)
is important for its rich collection of material and its copious refer-
ences to sources. Later works deserving attention are Dictionnaire
de la langue verte, by AlTred Delvau (2nd ed., 1867), and Dictionnaire
de I'argot, by LoreVian Larchey (1889). For modern slang, taken in
a very comprehensive sense, the chief authority is Lucien Rigaud,
Dictionnaire de I'argot moderne (1881). For the special slang of
printers, see Eugene Boutmy, Dictionnaire de I'argot des typo-
graphes (1883).
German: An admirable collection of the original documents for
the history of thieves' and vagrant slang from the earliest period
has been published by F. Kluge, under the title Rotwelsch (1901).
An earlier book of great importance is Av6-Lallemant, Das deutsche
Gaunertum (1858). For modern popular slang see A. Genthe,
Deutsches Slang (1892). University slang is ably treated in Deutsche
Studentensprache, by F. Kluge (1895).
Dutch: Isidor Teirlinck, Woprdenboek van Bargoensch (1886).
Italian and Spanish: F. Michel, in Etudes de philologie comparee
sur I'argot (see above), gives a vocabulary of Italian thieves' slang
from Nuovo modo da intendere la lingua zerga (1619, reprinted at the
end of the Trattato dei Bianti, 1828), and one of Spanish slang from
Romances de Germania (ed. 6, shortly before 1800). For Spanish
thieves' language see also A. Besses, Argot espanol (Barcelona,
no date) ; a large proportion of the words given by this writer is
gipsy. (H. BR.)
SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from
O. Fr. esclal, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to
break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen
also in Ger. schleissen, to split), in geology, a fissile, fine-grained
argillaceous rock which cleaves or splits readily into thin slabs
having great tensile strength and durability. Many other rocks are
improperly called slate, if they are thin bedded and can be used
for roofing and similar purposes. One of the best known of these
is the Stonesfield slate, which is a Jurassic limestone occurring
near Oxford and famous for its fossils. Slates properly so-called
do not, except on rare occasions, split along the bedding, but
along planes of cleavage, which intersect the bedding usually at
high angles. The original material was a fine clay, sometimes
with more or less of sand or ashy ingredients, occasionally with
some lime; and the bedding may be indicated by alternating
bands of different lithological character, crossing the cleavage
faces of the slates, and often interrupting the cleavage, or rendering
it imperfect. Cleavage is thus a superinduced structure, and its
explanation is to be found in the rearrangement of the minerals,
and the development of a certain degree of crystallization by
pressure acting on the rock. Slates belong mostly to the older
geological systems, being commonest in Pre-Cambrian, Cambrian
and Silurian districts, though they may be found of Carboniferous
or even of Tertiary age, where mountain-building processes have
folded and compressed these more recent formations. The action
of pressure is shown also by the fossils which sometimes occur in
slates; they have been drawn out and distorted in such a way
as to prove that the rock has undergone deformation and has
behaved like a plastic mass. Evidence of the same kind is
afforded by the shape of the knots and concretions sometimes
present in the slate. If the bedding be traced, either in the
slates or in the other rocks which accompany them, flexures will
be frequently observed (the folding often being of an isoclinal
type), while reversed faulting, or thrusting, is usually also con-
spicuous.
The origin of slaty cleavage is in some measure obscure.
This structure is by no means confined to slates, though always
best exemplified in
them, owing prob-
ably to the fine-
grained, argillaceous
materials of which
they consist. Grits,
igneous rocks, ash-
beds and limestones
may and often do
show cleavage.
Coarse rocks and
rocks consisting of
hard minerals are
always imperfectly
cleaved. The cleav-
age of slates must
be distinguished
from cleavage of
minerals, the latter
being due to different
degrees of cohesion
along definite crystal- Sketch (by Du Noyer) of a block of varie-
lcrrnr,V,iV rvlar, B ate " S ' ate frOm DeVl1 S Gle "> C " WJCMOW.
lographic planes The crumpled bands raark the be dding, and
Ihe connexion of the fine perpendicular striae in front are
cleavage with pres- the cleavage planes; the fine lines on the
sure, however is darkened side merely represent shadow, and
' f v. 11 ' Tt must not be taken for planes of division in
^K : A therock - It will be observed that the cleav-
is never exhibited a ge planes do not pass through the white
except by rocks bands,
which have been sub-
jected to the tangential stresses set up in the earth's crust by fold-
ing. These stresses may operate in several ways. They will alter
the shape of mineral particles by broadening them in a direction
at right angles to the principal pressures, while they are thinned
in the direction in which the pressure acted. Probably the size of
the particle will be slightly reduced. This method of reasoning,
however, does not carry us far, as the minerals of slates vary
considerably in form. Pressure will also tend to produce an
expansion of the rock mass in a direction (usually nearly vertical)
at right angles te the compression, for such rocks as slates are
distinctly plastic in great masses. This flowage will help to
orientate the particles in the direction of movement, and, opera-
ting conjointly with the flattening above explained, will accentuate
the liability to cleave in a definite set of planes. The recrystalliza-
tion induced by pressure is probably of still greater importance.
Slates consist largely of thin plates of mica arranged parallel
to the cleavage faces. This mica has developed in the rock as it
was folded and compressed. In the moist and plastic slate the
mineral particles slowly enlarged by the addition of new crystal-
line molecules. Those faces which were perpendicular to the
pressure would grow slowly, as the great'pressure would promote
solution, and inhibit deposition; the edges or sides, on the other
hand, being less exposed to the pressure would receive fresh
deposits. In this way thin laminae would form, lying at right
angles to the direction of greatest stress. Micas and other
platy minerals (such as chlorite), which naturally grow most
rapidly on their edges, would show this tendency best, and such
minerals usually form a large part of the best slates; but even
SLATE ISLANDS SLATER, J. F.
21 I
quartz and felspar, which under ordinary conditions form more
equidimensional crystals, would assume lenticular forms. In
the necessary co-operation of these three causes, viz. flattening
of particles by compression, orientation of particles by flow and
formation of laminar crystals, the fundamental explanation of
slaty cleavage is found. The planes of cleavage will be approxi-
mately perpendicular to the earth pressures which acted in the
district; hence the strike of the cleavage (i.e. its trend when
followed across the country) will be persistent over considerable
areas.
Where the rock masses are not homogeneous (e.g. slates alter-
nating with gritty bands), the cleavage is most perfect in the finest
grained rocks. In passing from a slate to a grit the direction of
the cleavage changes so that it tends to be more nearly per-
pendicular to the bedding planes. A structure akin to cleavage,
often exemplified by slates especially when they have been some-
what contorted or gnarled, is the Ausweichungsdivage of Albert
Heim. It is produced by minute crumplings on the cleavage
faces all arranged so that they lie along definite planes crossing
the cleavage. These slight inflections of the cleavage may be
sharp-sided, and may pass into small faults or steps along which
dislocation has taken place. A secondary or false cleavage, less
perfect than the true cleavage, may thus be produced (see
PETROLOGY, PI. IV. fig. 7). The faces of slates have usually
a slightly silky lustre due to the abundance of minute scales of
mica all lying parallel and reflecting light simultaneously from
their pearly basal planes. In microscopic section the best slates
show much colourless mica in small, thin, irregular scales.
Green chlorite is usually also abundant in flakes like those of the
mica. The principal additional ingredient is quartz in minute
lens-shaped grains. The size of the individual particles may be
approximately one-five-hundredth of an inch. Minute rods or
needles of rutile are also common in slates, and well-formed cubes
of pyrites are often visible on the splitting faces. The brownish
colour of some slates is due to limonite and haematite, but
magnetite occurs in the darker coloured varieties. Other
minerals which occur in the rocks of this group are calcite, garnet,
biotite, chloritoid, epidote, tourmaline and graphite or dark
carbonaceous materials.
By advancing crystallization and increased size of their com-
ponents, slates pass gradually into phyllites, which consist also
of quartz, muscovite and chlorite. In the neighbourhood of
intrusive granites and similar plutonic igneous rocks, slates
undergo " contact alteration," and great changes ensue in their
appearance, structure and mineral composition. They lose their
facile cleavage and become hard, dark-coloured, slightly lustrous
rocks, which have a splintery character or break into small
cuboidal fragments. These are known as " hornfelses " (q.v.).
Farther away from the granite the slates are not so much altered,
but generally show small rounded or ovoid spots, which may be
darker or lighter in colour than the matrix. The spots contain
a variety of minerals, sometimes mainly white mica or chlorite.
In these spotted slates andalusite, chiastolite, garnet and
cordierite often occur; chiastolite is especially characteristic;
cordierite occurs only where the alteration is intense. The
chiastolite-slates show elongated, straight-sided crystals with
black cores (see PETROLOGY, PI. IV. fig. 9), which, on transverse
section, have the form of a cross constituting the two diagonals
of the rhombic or squarish pattern of the mineral. These crystals
may be half an inch to several inches in length; they are usually
more or less completely weathered to white mica and kaolin.
In other cases, especially near mineral veins, slates are filled with
black needles of tourmaline or are bleached to pale grey and
white colours, or are silicified and impregnated with mineral ores.
Frequently in districts where slates are much crumpled they are
traversed by numerous quartz veins, which have a thickness
varying from several inches up to many feet, and may occasionally
be auriferous. (J. S. F.)
Slates are widely used for roofing houses and buildings of every
description, and for such purposes they are unequalled, the better
sorts possessing all the qualities necessary for protection against
wind, rain and storm. The finer varieties are made into writing
slates, and in districts where cross cleavage exists slate pencils
are made. Slabs are also manufactured, and, being readily cut,
planed, dressed and enamelled, are used for chimney pieces,
billiard tables, wall linings, cisterns, paving, tomb-stones, ridge
rolls, electrical switch-boards and various other architectural
and industrial purposes.
Slate rocks are quarried both above ground and below ground,
according as they lie near to or distant from the surface. When they
are near the surface, and their dip corresponds with the slope of the
ground, they are in the most favourable position, and are worked
in terraces or galleries formed along the strike of the beds and
having a height of about 50 ft. The galleries are generally carried
on in sections of 10 yds., worked across the beds, and may rise to
any height or be sunk below the surrounding level by excavations.
When the rock is much removed from the surface, or inconveniently
situated for open workings, it is quarried in underground chambers
reached by levels driven through the intervening mass and across or
along the beds. Or it may be necessary to sink shafts as in coal-pits
before the rock is arrived at, but the cost of doing so forms a serious
drawback. The material is sometimes won by the aid of channelling
machines which make a series of cuts at right angles to each other
in the face of the rock; a block is then broken off at its base by
wedges forced into the cuts, and its removal permits access to other
blocks. When blasting is resorted to, advantage is taken of the
natural cuts or joints, as the rock is readily thrown or worked off
these. The explosive used should be of such a character as to
throw out or detach masses of rock without much splintering, which
would destroy the blocks for slate-making. From the mass thrown
out by the blast, or loosened so as readily to come away by the use
of crowbars, the men select and sort all good blocks and send them
in waggons to the slate huts to be split and dressed into slates. Two
men are employed at this operation one splitting and the other
dressing, performing their work in a sitting posture. The splitter
places a block on end between his knees, and with chisel and mallet
splits it into as many plates as possible of the usual thickness for
roofing purposes namely, a quarter of an inch more or less according
to the size and strength required. These plates are then placed
horizontally by the dresseron a vertical iron" stand," and cut with
a sharp knife into slates of various sizes suitable for the market.
For an enumeration of these sizes, see ROOFS, where also will be
found an account of the different varieties of slates and of the ways
in which they are fixed.
SLATE ISLANDS, a group belonging to the parish of Kilbrandon
and Kilchattan off the coast of Lome, Argyllshire, Scotland.
They comprise Seil, Easdale, Torsay, Luing and Shuna, and owe
their name to the fact that they are composed mainly of meta-
morphic rocks, Easdale, Torsay and Luing being entirely slate,
Seil mostly slate with some porphyrite in the north, and Shuna
gneissose. The quarries provide occupation for most of the
inhabitants. The steamers to and from Oban usually call at
Luing and Easdale. SEIL (pop. 424), the most northerly, is con-
nected with the mainland by means of Clachan bridge on its
north-east side, near Rue. It measures 4 m. N. and S. by 2 m.
E. and W. at its widest, and contains Kilbrandon church. Off
a promontory on its west coast, divided only by a narrow strait,
is the comparatively flat island of EASDALE (pop. 284), measuring
roughly \ m. each way. The quarries have been worked since
1630 and yield some eight million slates every year. The experi-
ment of leasing them to the workers on co-operative lines has been
tried unsuccessfully. LUING (pop. 620) is situated S. of Seil,
is 6 m. long and i\ m. broad. TORSAY (pop. 7), i m. long by f m.
broad, lies off its north-east, and SHUNA (pop. 8), 2^ m. long by
i ^ m. broad, off its south-east, shore.
SLATER, JOHN FOX (1815-1884), American philanthropist,
son of John Slater (Samuel Slater's brother and partner), was
born in Slatersville, Rhode Island, on the 4th of March 1815.
He was educated in academies at Plainfield, Connecticut, and
Wrentham and Wilbraham, Massachusetts. At seventeen he
entered his father's woollen mill in Hopeville, Conn., of which
he took charge in 1 836. This and other mills he owned in partner-
ship with his brother, William S. Slater, until 1873, when his
brother took over the Slatersville Mills and he assumed sole
ownership of the mills at Jewett City, Conn. In 1842 he re-
moved from Jewett City to Norwich ; there he helped to endow
the Norwich Free Academy, to which his son presented the
Slater Memorial Hall; and there he died on the 7th of May
1884. In 1882 he had made over to a board of ten trustees,
incorporated in New York state, $1,000,000 for "the uplifting
of the lately emancipated population of the Southern states,
212
SLATER, S. SLAUGHTER-HOUSE
and their posterity, by conferring on them the benefits of Christian
education." Among the original trustees of the Slater Fund were
Rutherford B. Hayes, Morrison R. Waite, William E. Dodge,
Phillips Brooks, Daniel C. Oilman, Morris K. Jesup and the
donor's son, William A. Slater; and among members chosen
later were Melville W. Fuller, William E. Dodge, Jr., Henry
C. Potter, Cleveland H. Dodge and Seth Low. In 1909 by careful
investment the fund had increased, in spite of expenditures,
to more than $1,500,000. The fund has been of great value in
aiding industrial schools in the South, its largest beneficiaries
being the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute of
Hampton, Virginia, the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial In-
stitute of Tuskegee, Alabama, Spelman Seminary in Atlanta,
Georgia, Claflin University in Orangeburg, S.C., and Fisk
University, in Nashville, Tennessee. At Winston-Salem, N.C.,
is the Slater State Normal and Industrial School, founded in
1892 and named after the founder of the fund. Other state
normal schools for negroes have received assistance from the
fund; and in some cases it has contributed directly to the
school boards of Southern cities.
SLATER, SAMUEL (1768-1835), American textile manu-
facturer, was born in Belper, Derbyshire, England, on the
9th of June 1768. In 1783, the year after his father's death,
he was apprenticed to Jedediah Strutt, his neighbour and a
partner of Richard Arkwright in spinning cotton, and served
under him six and a half years. Learning that the Pennsylvania
legislature had granted 100 in 1789 to the inventor of a power
carding machine, he removed to the United States in that year,
but was unable because of British laws to bring with him drawings
of cotton-spinning machinery. He wrote to Moses Brown of
Providence, R.I., who had made unsuccessful attempts to
manufacture cotton cloth, and in January 1790 on Brown's
invitation went to Pawtucket, R.I., where he entered into a
partnership with William Almy (Moses Brown's son-in-law)
and Smith Brown, a kinsman of Moses Brown, designed (from
memory) machines for cotton-spinning, and turned out some
yarn in December of the same year. In 1799 he established
in his mills one of the first Sunday Schools in America. In
1801 he built a factory in Rehoboth, Mass., and with his
brother John, who joined him in 1804, established in 1806 the
manufacturing village of Slatersville, in Smithfield township,
Rhode Island. He began the manufacture of woollen cloth in
1815-1816 at Oxford, now Webster, Mass., where he had built
cotton mills in 1812. In his later years he was interested
in other textile mills and in iron foundries in Rhode Island.
He died at Webster, Mass., on the 2ist of April 1835. He has
been called the " father of American manufactures " and it
is no exaggeration to call him the founder of American cotton
manufacturing.
See G.S. White, Memoir of Samuel Slater (2nd ed., Philadelphia,
1846).
SLATIN, SIR RUDOLF CARL VON (1857- ), Anglo-
Austrian soldier and administrator in the Sudan, was born on
the 27th of June 1857 at Ober St Veit near Vienna. At the age
of seventeen he made his first journey to the Sudan, reaching
Khartum by the Nile route in October 1875 in company with
Theodor von Heuglin (q.v.). Thence he went through Kordofan
to Dar Nuba, exploring the mountains of that region. He
returned to Khartum in consequence of a revolt of the Arabs
against the Egyptian government. There Slatin met Dr Emin
(Emin Pasha) and with him purposed visiting General C. G.
Gordon at Lado, Gordon at that time being governor of the
equatorial provinces. Slatin, however, was obliged to return to
Austria without accomplishing his desire, but Emin went to
Lado and at Slatin's request recommended the young traveller
to Gordon for employment in the Sudan. In 1878, while Slatin
was serving as a lieutenant in the crown prince Rudolf's regi-
ment in the Bosnian campaign he received a letter from Gordon
inviting him to the Sudan, of which country Gordon had become
governor-general. At the close of the campaign Slatin received
permission to go to Africa and he arrived at Khartum in January
1879. After a brief period during which he was financial
inspector, Slatin was appointed mudir (governor) of Dara, the
south-western part of Darfur, a post he held until early in
1881, when he was promoted governor-general of Darfur and
given the rank of bey. While administering Dara, Slatin con-
ducted a successful campaign against one of the Darfur princes
in revolt, and as governor of Darfur he endeavoured to remedy
many abuses. He had soon to meet the rising power of the
mahdi Mahommed Ahmed (q.v.). Early in 1882 the Arabs in
southern Darfur were in revolt. With insufficient resources and
no succour from Khartum, Slatin gallantly defended his province.
Though victorious in several engagements he lost 'ground. His
followers attributing his non-success to the fact that he was a
Christian, Slatin nominally adopted Islam. But all hope of
maintaining Egyptian authority vanished with the news of the
destruction of Hicks Pasha's army and in December 1883 Slatin
surrendered, refusing to make any further sacrifice of life in a
hopeless cause. In the camp of the mahdi an attempt was made
to use him to induce Gordon to surrender. This failing, Slatin
was placed in chains, and on the morning of the 26th of January
1885, an hour or two after the fall of Khartum, the head of
Gordon was brought to the camp and shown to the captive.
Slatin was kept at Omdurman by the khalifa, being treated
alternately with savage cruelty and comparative indulgence.
At length, after over eleven years' captivity, he was enabled,
through the instrumentality of Sir Reginald (then Major)
Wingate of the Egyptian Intelligence Department, to escape,
reaching Egypt in March 1895. In a remarkable book, Fire and
Sword in the Sudan, written in the same year and issued in
English and German in 1896, Slatin gave not only, as stated in
the sub-title, " a personal narrative of fighting and serving the
dervishes " but a connected account of the Sudan under the rule
of the khalifa. Raised to the rank of pasha by the khedive,
Slatin received from Queen Victoria the Companionship of the
Bath. On the eve of his surrender to the mahdi at Christmas
1883 he had resolved, if he regained his liberty, to use the know-
ledge he would acquire while in captivity for the eventual benefit
of the country, and after a year's rest he took part, as an officer
on the staff of the Egyptian army, in the campaigns of 1897-98
which ended in the capture of Omdurman. For his services in
these campaigns he was made a K.C.M.G. and in 1899 was
ennobled by the emperor of Austria. In 1900 he was appointed
Inspector-General of the Sudan, in which capacity his mastery
of Arabic and his profound knowledge of the land and peoples
proved invaluable in the work of reconstruction undertaken by
the Anglo-Egyptian government in that country. In 1907 he
was made an honorary major-general in the British army.
SLAUGHTER-HOUSE, or ABATTOIR. In the United Kingdom
slaughter-houses are of two kinds, those which belong to in-
dividual butchers and those which belong to public
authorities; the former are usually called private
slaughter-houses, the latter public slaughter-houses. Private
slaughter-houses in existence in England before the passing of the
Public Health Act 1875 were established without licence by
the local authority, except in those towns to which the provisions
of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act 1847, relating to
slaughter-houses, were applied by special Act. By the Act of
1875 these provisions were extended to all urban districts. Subse-
quently to 1890 urban authorities adopting Part III. of the Public
Health (Amendment Act) of that year could license for limited
periods of not less than one year all slaughter-houses coming into
existence after such adoption. In London, slaughter-houses have
been licensed since 1855. Private slaughter-houses are fre-
quently situated at the rear of the shop in which the meat is
sold. Each consists of a compartment in which the animals
are killed, and in association with this are the pounds in which a
few animals can be kept pending slaughter. These buildings
are regulated by by-laws made under the Public Health Act
by the several urban sanitary authorities. The by-laws usually
provide for the floor to be made of jointless paving, to ensure
that the earth shall not be fouled in the process of slaughtering;
for the walls to be cemented to a certain height above the floor,
to provide a surface which can be easily cleaned; for the doors
Private.
SLAUGHTER-HOUSE
213
to be of sufficient width to enable cattle to enter the slaughter-
house without difficulty; and for the poundage to have floor-
space sufficient for each animal. These by-laws also provide
for water-supply to the slaughter-house for cleansing, and to
the pounds for the use of the animals, for the periodical lime-
whiting of the premises, and for the observance of care to prevent
the blood escaping into the drains. Private slaughter-houses,
especially those which were established without licence, are often
in too close proximity to inhabited buildings. In towns in which
by-laws are not strictly enforced they are often sources of
nuisance. Private slaughter-houses are also objectionable on
other grounds. They lead to the driving of cattle through the
towns on the way to the slaughter-house, sometimes to the
danger of the inhabitants, and they render impossible any sys-
tematic inspection of meat. It is in connexion with the increasing
demand for such meat-inspection that the objections to private
slaughter-houses are most manifested; and hence, in countries
in which the law provides for the obligatory inspection of meat,
private slaughter-houses are ceasing to exist, and public abattoirs
are being substituted for them.
Public slaughter-houses are of great antiquity and owe their
beginnings to Roman civilization. In 300 B.C. animals were
_ . slaughtered in the open air in the Forum in Rome.
Later, to meet the convenience of butchers, a house on
the river Tiber was given to them for the purposes of their
trade. This house had been occupied by a Roman citizen
named Macellus. The building appears to have retained
his name, and hence the macellum of Livy's time subsequently
erected in the Forum, which, inter alia, is believed to have con-
tained rooms for the slaughter of animals. The rooms actually
used for slaughter were lanienae, from laniare, but the word
macellum has been preserved in the Italian macellare, to
slaughter, and in the German metzgen or metzgeln, and in the
English massacre.
Public slaughter-houses existed in many large towns of
Germany in medieval times under the name of Kultelhofe; they
were mostly situated on the rivers, which provided an ample
supply of water, and afforded rneans for the removal of blood.
Some of these Kutlelhofe continued to exist within recent years.
No law other than a town law governed their establishment and
management. They were owned .or controlled by the butchers'
corporations or gilds, but all butchers were not members of the
gilds; and this appears to have led to a ministerial order in
Prussia in 1826, which made it inadmissible to require every
butcher to slaughter in them. Shortly after the middle of the
1 9th century the prevalence of trichinosis compelled a return
to the use of public slaughter-houses; and the enactment of
laws in 1868 and 1881 in Prussia, and similar laws in other German
states, empowered urban authorities to require that all animals
killed in towns should be slaughtered in public slaughter-houses.
(Schwarz, Bau, Einrichtung mid Betrieb ofentlicher Schlacht- und
Viehhofe.)
In France, in the isth and i6th centuries, numerous towns
were provided with public slaughter-houses. It was required
that they should be used by all persons killing animals the flesh
of which was to be sold; but their position and the conditions
they created were such as urgently to demand amelioration,
and some effort was made in this direction in 1567. It was not,
however, until the time of Napoleon I. that it was decided that
the atrocious nuisance which these slaughter-houses created
should be removed. By decrees passed in 1807 and 1810 public
slaughter-houses were required to be provided in all large towns
in France, the needs of Paris being determined by a Commission,
which recommended the establishment of five abattoirs or public
slaughter-houses. In 1838 the requirement that public slaughter-
houses should be provided in large centres was extended to all
towns in France, and it was further required that the slaughter-
houses should be situated at a distance from dwelling-houses.
In 1867 the large abattoir of La Villette was constructed to
meet the needs of Paris, two of the five constructed under the
decrees of Napoleon being closed. In 1 898 the additional abattoir
of Vaugirard was opened, and the remainder of the five were
Regula-
tions.
closed except Villejuif, which was restricted in its use to the
slaughter of horses for human food.
In Belgium public slaughter-houses have been provided in all
the large and many of the small towns. In Switzerland there
are public slaughter-houses in nearly all places having more
than two thousand inhabitants. In Italy a law of 1890 required
that public slaughter-houses should be erected in all communities
of more than six thousand inhabitants. In Austria a law of
1850 required the provision of such places in all the large and
medium-sized towns. In Norway and Sweden a law of 1892
required the provision of public slaughter-houses; but it has only
partially been fulfilled. In Denmark there are public slaughter-
houses in a few towns, including Copenhagen. In the Nether-
lands and Rumania a number of public slaughter-houses have
been provided. It is in Germany, however, that the greatest
progress has been made, and especially in Prussia, where, Pro-
fessor Ostertag of Berlin states, they have " grown out of the
ground " (Handbuch der Fleischbeschau) ; so much so that in 1897
there were 321 public slaughter-houses in the kingdom, 40 of
which were provided in the period 1895-1897. A later work
(Les Abattoirs publics, by J. de Loverdo, H. Martel and Mallet,
1906) gives the number of public slaughter-houses as 839 in
Germany, 84 in England, 912 in France and nearly 200 in
Austria. In some other countries public slaughter-houses have
been provided, but they are of a primitive form.
In England the power to provide public slaughter-houses was
given by the Public Health Act 1848 to the local authorities of
cities, towns, boroughs, &c., to which the Act was applied
by Order; and later, was given to all urban sanitary
authorities by section 169 of the Public Health Act 1875.
These authorities have, however, suffered from the disadvantage
that they have had no power to control the continuance of private
slaughter-houses (except in so far as these were annually licensed),
and they have therefore been unable to ensure that the public
provision would be used by the butchers. In Ireland and Scotland
much the same powers exist; but in Scotland, if the burgh com-
missioners provide a public slaughter-house, no other slaughter-
house can be used. Some English local authorities have obtained
in local acts powers similar to those possessed by the burgh com-
missioners in Scotland. The need for still wider control is, however,
manifest. Belfast may be cited as an illustration of a town in which
a public slaughter-house has been provided, and in which there are
no private slaughter-houses, but which receives a quantity of meat
from private slaughter-houses erected beyond the boundaries of the
city. The outcome of these difficulties is that the power of local
authorities to provide public slaughter-houses has been but sparingly
used. There is no law requiring that meat shall be inspected before
sale for human food, hence there is no obligation upon butchers
to make use of public establishments for the slaughter of their cattle.
This, indeed, is the position of some of the Continental slaughter-
houses; but the increasing strictness of the laws as to meat-in-
spection, and especially in requiring that all animals shall be inspected
at the time of slaughter, is making the use of public slaughter-houses
obligatory. Such a law now exists in Belgium, where it has served
as a model to other countries. An Imperial German law of 1900
extends to all parts of that country the same requirement, and
enacts that " neat cattle, swine, sheep, goats, horses, and dogs, the
meat of which is intended to be used for food for man, shall be
subjected to an official inspection both before and after slaughter."
Antecedent to that year it was in force in southern Germany, in
Brunswick and Saxony, but only in some parts of northern, western
and central Germany. A similar law exists in Norway and Sweden,
but, as already stated, provision of public slaughter-houses is still
meagre; in Austria-Hungary there is a similar requirement, but
Ostertag states that the administration is lacking in uniformity;
in Italy, he writes, the regulation of meat-inspection having been left
to provincial authorities, thorough reform is impossible. In the
British colonies advance is being made. New Zealand has a number
of public slaughter-houses. The Meat Supervision Act of Victoria
empowers the Board of Health to make regulations for ensuring the
wholesomeness of meat supplies. Regulations have been made for
Melbourne. Cattle are killed in public slaughter-houses and the
carcases are stamped, thus showing in which slaughter-house they
have been killed.
The planning and construction of public slaughter-houses have
been the subject of excellent treatises by German writers, among
whom may be mentioned Dr Oscar Schwarz, of Stolp, coastruc-
and Herr Osthoff, a former city architect of Berlin, to <ton<
whose works the writer of this article is largely indebted
for information. After inspection of the public slaughter-houses in
England and in a number of Continental cities, the writer considers
that those of Germany are most deserving of description.
The slaughter-house should be situated outside the town, or so
214
SLAUGHTER-HOUSE
placed as to be isolated, and approached by wide roads, so that if
cattle are driven through them there should not be interference
with the traffic. If possible, the slaughter-house should be con-
nected with the railway system by a branch line, with a platform
which has an impervious surface capable of being readily cleansed
and disinfected. The most convenient shape of the site is a rectangle
or square, having one side abutting on the principal road and another
side bounded by the railway. A cattle-market is usually provided in
connexion with the slaughter-house, and the position should be such
that cattle brought by train can be taken immediately into the cattle-
market and from the market or the railway to the slaughter-house.
The cattle-market should be entirely separate from the slaughter-
house area. Osthoff states (Schlachthiife fiir kleine und mittelgrosse
Stadte) that the area of the slaughter-house should be as follows :
Sq. Metres.
Towns of 5,000- 7,000 inhabitants . 0-40 per inhabitant.
7,000-10,000 . 0-35 ,,
10,000-50,000 ,, . 0-30 ,,
,, over 50,000 . 0-25 ,,
It is of course assumed that the population derives the whole of
its meat-supply from this source.
The parts required, according to Dr Oscar Schwarz, are: (i) an
administrative block; (2) a slaughtering-hall, with a special room
for scalding swine; (3) cattle lairs; (4) room for scalding and
cleansing tripe and intestines; (5) an engine-house; (6) separate
slaughtering-room, with lairs for animals suffering from, or suspected
to be suffering from, contagious disease.
In small towns the slaughtering-hall and room for cleansing
intestines may, to save cost of construction, be under the same
roof. A necessary adjunct is a cold chamber, to which carcases can
be removed from the slaughtering-hall. The actual slaughter-
ing compartment has been built on two plans one providing a
separate slaughtering-room for each butcher, the other a common
slaughtering-hall. The latter is greatly to be preferred, inasmuch
as it is the only arrangement which gives adequate opportunity for
inspection by the officials whose duty it is to examine the meat.
The slaughter-house in Berlin was constructed on the separate-room
system; but the system gave rise to difficulties of inspection.
During recent years in Germany the practice has been to construct
slaughter-houses with common halls. The part occupied by each
butcher at the time of slaughtering is, however, sufficiently dis-
tinguishable, and at Hamburg the position of the hooks hanging
from above divides the hall into separate areas, each of which has
an entrance from without. Schwarz gives the following as the most
convenient arrangement of the buildings: The administrative
building (with the house of the superintendent) at the entrance, so
that from it the entrance and whole place can be seen. In the
vicinity should be a weighing-machine for cattle. The centre of the
area is occupied by the slaughtering-halls, and the lairs belonging to
them are only separated from them by a road or passage way. The
manure-house and tripe-house must be easily accessible from all the
slaughtering-halls, but not in direct communication with them, or
smell from them may enter the hall.
The manure-house must abut upon a road, to enable its contents
to be removed without passing through the premises. Next to
the tripe and pig-scalding houses is the engine-house. The building
for diseased animals, with the slaughter-house for them, must be
isolated from all other buildings. All buildings should be so arranged
that they may be capable of extension as the population of the town
increases. By the provision of grass plots and trees every effort
should be made to relieve the premises of the dreary appearance they
will otherwise present.
Cold chambers, although not included among the absolute essentials
for small slaughter-houses, are an almost necessary adjunct, for
they serve for the preservation of the meat after slaughter, and are
indeed absolutely necessary when the slaughter-house is of large
size. The cold chamber should be situated opposite the slaughtering-
halls, so that carcases can be conveyed by overhead carriers directly
from these halls to it. Within the cold chamber are separate com-
partments or cages of different sizes, rented by butchers, who are
thus able to preserve their meat and draw upon their supply as
their business may require. The cold chamber is therefore a great
convenience to the butchers, and is a source of profit to the authority
owning the slaughter-house. A frequent adjunct to large German
slaughter-houses is the " Freibank, at which is sold at low price
cooked meat of quality which renders it unfit to be sold under
ordinary conditions.
Much depends upon the design and details of construction of the
several component parts of a public slaughter-house, upon the
provision of adequate lighting and ventilation of the buildings,
upon the construction of walls, floors, and fittings which are imper-
meable and can be readily cleansed, and upon the provision of an
abundant water-supply. It is essential that the buildings should
be well lighted, especially those which are used for the slaughtering
operations, or for any detailed examination of meat which may be
needed such, for instance, as for trichinae. The material generally
used for the floor of the slaughtering-hall is cement or granolithic
pavement which must not present so smooth a surface as to be
slippery. The floor must have an adequate fall, so that the washings
may discharge into a system of drainage.
The plans of the public slaughter-house of Neusalz on the Oder
and of Diisseldorf well illustrate the provision which is now made
respectively for a small and for a large town. The writer is indebted
to Dr Schwarz for the plan and a description of the slaughter-house
at Neusalz. It was completed in October 1899, and is erected on
the Oder below the town, on land of an area of 8500 square metres.
The building was carefully planned by the town architect, Herr
Brannaschk, so as to admit of increase within the next 10-20 years.
Brickwork is used for the construction of the buildings, and the
roofs are of wood and cement. The walls of all the rooms except
those of the administrative block are lined partly with polished
stone, partly with cement, to a height of two metres above the floor.
The floors consist of stone slabs set in cement (fig. i).
The administrative block (A) is situated at the entrance and is a
three-storey building, containing an office, a room for examination
of meat for trichinae, and dwelling-rooms for the superintendent.
In the central block (B) two slaughter-halls are provided (a) for
swine and (b) for cattle and sheep. With these are associated (c)
an engine-house, (d) a boiler and fuel room, (e) a workshop, (/) a
passage communicating with the two slaughter-halls, (g) a cold
chamber, (h) ante-rooms to the cold chamber, (i) dressing-rooms for
assistants, and (k) stabling. The cold chamber has an area of 169
square metres and contains 28 cells of various sizes. In order to
attain an even temperature of 2 C. to 4 C., air rendered cold by
< Hirer Oder
Slaty 'hterhause Street
The figures give measurements in metres.
FIG. i. Plan of Public Slaughter-house at Neusalz on the
Oder (1899).
the ammonia process is conveyed to the room by channels. In the
engine-house (c) are a 48-horse-power engine, the cooling machines,
and the water-pump, which pumps water from a well into two
cisterns situated in a water-tower over the passage between the two
slaughter-halls. In the outbuilding (C) are (a) and (b) the gut-
washing rooms for cattle and swine respectively, (c) an ante-room
with (d) openings for manure to be thrown into carts. The road
(e) slopes downwards, so as to enable a cart to be driven below the
openings through which the manure is discharged. In the out-
building (D) are (a) a horse slaughtering-room, (6) a stable, (c) a
bathroom, (d) a room in which the floor washings are treated
chemically or by filtration before discharge into the river, and (e) a
urinal. In the outbuilding (E) are (a) a stable for sick animals,
(b) a slaughter-house for diseased animals, (c) a sterilizing-room for
meat to be subsequently sold in (d) the " Freibank," (e) a stable
for horses, and (f) a cart-shed. The slaughter-house is lighted with
electric light. The cost of the buildings is about 19,000, and
provides for a population of 20,000 to 25,000 inhabitants.
The slaughter-house at Diisseldorf is on a more extensive scale.
It was erected at an estimated cost of from 162,000 to 175,000,
and covers an area of about 23-2 acres. Provision is made for each
department to be practically doubled in size. It is unnecessary to
describe it in any detail, but it may be noted that it has a market
associated with it, and that separate slaughter-halls are provided
for large cattle, for small cattle (sheep and calves), and for swine
(fig. 2). The population of Diisseldorf was 212,949 m I 9
SLAUGHTER-HOUSE
215
EXT" SMllUlTLEli lRCECATTU EXTENSION
FIG. 2. Plan of Public Slaughter-house and Cattle-market, Diisseldorf (1898).
The average cost of slaughter-houses in Germany is given by
Osthoff, of Berlin (Handbuch der Hygiene), as 7 to 8 marks per
inhabitant if no cold chamber is provided, and from 10 to 12 marks
per inhabitant if there is a cold chamber, or, in more detail, as
follows :
Number of Inhabitants.
Cost of Slaughter-house per
Inhabitant, in Marks.
Without Cold
Chamber.
With Cold
Chamber.
5,000- 6,000
6,000- 8,000
8,000-15,000
15,000-20,000
Over 20,000
8
6
8
12
10
9
10
10
Slaughter-houses in Germany pay their own expenses, the fees
received for the use of the slaughter-house, and for examination of
meat and stamping after examination, providing a sufficient sum
for this purpose. The fees vary in different places. From the
works of Osthoff and Schwarz it would appear that these fees
average about one pfennig per kilogramme of the living animal, or
about half a farthing per B> of meat.
The corporation of the city of London have erected a slaughter-
house at their cattle market in Islington in which slaughtering is
done in a large hall divided by partitions into separate compartments.
The compartments are not let to separate butchers but are used in
common. The partitions do not extend to the ceiling, but are
sufficiently high to prevent the slaughtering in one compartment
being seen by the occupants of other compartments, and thus they
necessarily provide less opportunity for inspection than is afforded
by the open-slaughtering halls of Germany. The fees charged are
is. 6d. per head for bullocks, 4d. for calves, 2d. for sheep, and 6d.
per head for pigs. The accommodation is estimated as sufficient
for the slaughter of 400 cattle, 1200 sheep, and 1200 calves and pigs
per day.
The centralization of the slaughtering and packing industries
in the United States has not required slaughter-houses on the
same plan as in Europe. Acts of Congress of 1890, 1891 and
1895 endeavoured to provide some amount of inspection, but
sufficient appropriations were never made to carry it out, and
there were also certain loopholes in the legislation. Although
there were from time to time frequent cases of sickness directly
traceable to the consumption of canned meats from the great
packing centres, it was not until the publication of Upton Sinclair's
The Jungle (1906), which dealt with the conditions in the Chicago
packing yards, that steps were taken adequately to guard the
public against insanitary conditions. A commission of inquiry
was appointed by President Roosevelt, and as a result of its
report there was passed in 1906 a national meat inspection law.
This act required the department of agriculture to appoint
inspectors to examine and inspect all cattle, sheep, swine and
goats before being allowed to enter into any slaughtering, pack-
ing, meat-canning, rendering or similar establishments. All such
animals found to show any symptoms of disease must be set apart
and slaughtered separately. All carcases must be inspected and
labelled as either " inspected and passed " or " inspected and
condemned." The act also provides for the inspection (and
condemnation if necessary) of all meat food products as well as for
the sanitary examination of all slaughtering, packing and canning
establishments. Inspection and examination is now carried out
very carefully at all stages of the industry, from inspection of the
animals before they enter the slaughtering establishments up to
the finished product.
The important feature of the Chicago and certain other western
American cities slaughter-houses is their adaptation for rapidly
dealing with the animals which they receive. At the Chicago
slaughter-houses the cattle to be slaughtered are driven up a winding
viaduct, by which, in certain of the houses, they eventually reach
the roof. Each animal now passes into a narrow pen, where it is
at once stunned by a blow on the head. It then falls through a trap-
door in the pen into an immense slaughtering-room, where the hind
legs are secured, and the animal hoisted by a wire rope suspended
from a trolley-line. A knife is then plunged into its throat and the
2l6
SLAVE COAST SLAVERY
carcase made to travel along the line. The carcase is next lowered
to the floor, the hide taken off, the head and feet cut off, and the
internal parts removed. The carcase again travels along the trolley-
line to a place where it is divided into halves, which then, after
washing, travel to the refrigeration-room, being trimmed while on
the way. The extent of the business may be judged by the fact
that over 400 cattle are killed per hour in the slaughtering-room.
The cooling-rooms are so large that 13,000 halves of beef hang there
at one time. The method of dealing with sheep is very similar.
The animals are driven into narrow alleys, then into the slaughter-
room, where their throats are cut. They next travel along a route
where their skins and the internal organs are removed, and finally
pass into the cooling-rooms. Swine are raised in the slaughter-
room on to the trolley-line by a chain attached to the animals' feet
and to a solid disk or wheel, which in revolving carries them until
a mechanical contrivance throws the chain upon the trolley-line,
where a knife is plunged into their throat. In its subsequent passage
the carcase is scalded, scraped by a machine through which it passes,
later.decapitated, the internal parts removed, and the interior washed.
The carcase then travels to the cooling-room.
In 1904 a British departmental (Admiralty) committee on the
humane slaughtering of animals recommended that all animals
should be stunned before being bled, and, with a view to sparing
animals awaiting slaughter the sights and smells of the slaughter-
house, that " cattle should, when possible, be slaughtered screened
off from their fellows. This can be arranged in moderate-sized
abattoirs by dividing up the side of the slaughter-chamber opposite
to the entrance doors into stalls somewhat similar to those in a
stable, but considerably wider. For quiet home-grown cattle a
width of 10 ft. is sufficient, but where wilder cattle have to be killed
a wider space is probably desirable. It is important that these stalls
should be so arranged as not to screen the operations of slaughter
from the view of the inspecting officials. Immediately after the
carcases have been bled, they should be moved on to and ' dressed '
in an adjoining room, screened off from the view of animals entering
the slaughter-chamber. This is easily accomplished by hitching a
rope (from the winch, if necessary) round the head or forelegs of the
carcase, and by dragging it along the floor for the short distance
into the ' dressing room. ' The slaughter-stall should then at once be
flushed down with the hose, so as to remove all traces of blood. This
method leaves the slaughter spaces clear for the next batch of
animals, whereas under the existing system there is either a loss of
time through the slaughter spaces being blocked up with dressing
operations, or else the next batch of animals on being brought into
the slaughter-chamber are confronted with mutilated and disem-
bowelled carcases."
The provision of public slaughter-houses enables control to be
exercised over the methods of slaughtering. The above-mentioned
committee state that they practically tested a large number of
appliances designed for felling and stunning animals previous to
" pithing," among which they mention the Bruneau and Baxter
masks, the Greener patent killer, the Blitz instrument, and the
Wackett punch, all ot which are suitable for quiet cattle or horses.
In view of the difficulty of adjusting these instruments in the case
of wild or restive animals, the committee express the opinion that
the poll-axe when used by an expert is on the whole the most satis-
factory implement, but they recommend that no man should be
permitted to use the poll-axe on a living animal until he has gone
through a thorough course of training, firstly upon a dummy animal
and secondly upon dead bodies. Calves, the committee state,
should be stunned by a blow on the head with a club. With respect
to the method of slaughter of sheep the committee discuss the
method usually adopted in England, which is " to lay the sheep on
a wooden crutch and then to thrust a knife through the neck below
the ears, and with a second motion to insert the point, from within,
between the joints of the vertebrae, thus severing the spinal cord."
Observations made for the committee by Professor Starling showed
that the interval between the first thrust of the knife and complete
loss of sensibility varied from five to thirty seconds, and they there-
fore recommended that sheep should be stunned before being stuck,
a practice required in Denmark, many parts of Germany, and
Switzerland. It is necessary that the sheep should be struck on the
top of the head between the ears and not on the forehead. The
insensibility produced by the blow was found to last fully twenty
seconds, a period sufficiently long for the killing to be completed if
the animal is laid on the crutch before being stunned. The stunning
of pigs, the committee recommended, should be insisted upon in
all cases, and not, as sometimes at present, only practised in the
case of large pigs which give trouble or with a view to the avoidance
of noise.
The Jewish method of slaughter by cutting the throat is con-
demned by the committee after careful observation and after re-
ceiving reports by Sir Michael Foster and Professor Starling, the
chief objection to this method being that it fails in the primary
requirements of rapidity, freedom from unnecessary pain, and
instantaneous loss of sensibility.
The use of public slaughter-houses has not been found to affect
the prices of meat, although one of the numerous arguments used
by butchers against being required to slaughter in public slaughter-
houses was that they would have this effect. Inquiry on this
subject by a Swedish veterinary surgeon of Stockholm, Kjerrulf,
of 560 towns possessing public slaughter-houses, elicited replies from
388. Of these, 261 towns declared that as a result of the compulsory
use of the abattoirs and compulsory meat inspection the price of
meat had not been raised. In the case of twenty-two towns prices
rose temporarily but soon reverted to their normal level. In many
cases it was alleged that the temporary rise was due, not to the
abattoir, but to other causes, notably the scarcity of live stock
{Our Slaughter-house System by C. Cash, and The German Abattoir
by Hugo Heiss, 1907).
The increasing recognition in European countries of the need for
inspection, at the time of slaughter, of the flesh of all cattle intended
to suppy food for man, the necessity for the provision of public
slaughter-houses to make such inspection practicable, the convenience
which these slaughter-houses afford to those engaged in the business
of butcher, combine to ensure that, at any rate in all populous places,
they will in time entirely supersede private slaughter-houses, which
offer none of these advantages. No doubt the provision of public
slaughter-houses will continue to be opposed by the butchers' trade
so long as private slaughter houses are permitted, and, as already
stated, local authorities in England are discouraged from making
public provision by their inability to prevent the continuance of the
use of all existing private slaughter-houses. Probably the extension
to English local authorities of the power which the law of Scotland
gives to the commissioners of Scottish burghs of closing private
slaughter-houses when a public slaughter-house has been, provided,
would facilitate the much-needed substitution of public for private
slaughter-houses. (S. F. M.)
SLAVE COAST. The name given to that part of the coast of
West Africa extending from the river Volta to the Niger delta;
forming part of the Guinea coast (see GUINEA). From the
beginning of the i6th to the end of the i8th century this region
was a principal resort of the Europeans engaged in the slave
trade. Politically the Slave Coast is divided between Germany,
France and Great Britain, the German section forming part
of Togoland (q.v.), the French section the seaboard of Dahomey
(q.v.), and the British section the Lagos province of Nigeria (see
LAGOS).
SLAVERY. It appears to be true that, in the words of
Dunoyer, the economic regime of every society which has recently
become sedentary is founded on the slavery of the industrial
professions. In the hunter period the savage warrior does not
enslave his vanquished enemy, but slays him; the women of
a conquered tribe he may, however, carry off and appropriate
as wives or as servants, for in this period domestic labour falls
almost altogether on their sex. In the pastoral stage slaves will
be captured only to be sold, with the exception of a few who
may be required for the care of flocks or the small amount of
cultivation which is then undertaken. It is in proportion as a
sedentary life prevails, and agricultural exploitation is practised
on a larger scale, whilst warlike habits continue to exist, that the
labour of slaves is increasingly introduced to provide food for
the master, and at the same time save him from irksome toil.
Of this stage in the social movement slavery seems to have been,
as we have said, a universal and inevitable accompaniment.
But wherever theocratic organizations established themselves
slavery in the ordinary sense did not become a vital element in
the social system. The members of the lowest class were not in a
state of individual subjection: the entire caste to which they
belonged was collectively subject. It is in the communities in
which the military order obtained an ascendancy over the
sacerdotal, and which were directly organized for war, that
slavery (as the word is commonly understood) had its natural
and appropriate place. It is not merely that in its first
establishment slavery was an immense advance by substitut-
ing for the immolation of captives, often accompanied by
cannibalism, their occupation in labour for the benefit of the
victor. This advantage, recalled by an old though erroneous l
l Servus is not cognate with servare, as has often been supposed;
it is really related to the Homeric ppos and the verb elpa, with
which the Latin sero is to be connected. It may be here mentioned
that slave was originally a national name ; it meant a man of Slavonic
race captured and made a bondman to the Germans. " From the
Euxine to the Adriatic, in the state of captives or subjects, . . . they
[the Slavonians] overspread the land, and the national appellation of
the Slaves has been degraded by chance or malice from the significa-
tion of glory to that of servitude " (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. lv.).
The historian alludes to the derivation of the national name from
slava, glory. See Skeat's Etym. Diet., s.v. ; see also SLAVS.
SLAVERY
217
etymology, is generally acknowledged. But it is not so well
understood that slavery discharged important offices in the
later social evolution first, by enabling military action to
prevail with the degree of intensity and continuity requisite for
the system of incorporation by conquest which was its final
destination; and, secondly, by forcing the captives, who with
their descendants came to form the majority of the population
in the conquering community, to an industrial life, in spite of the
antipathy to regular and sustained labour which is deeply rooted
in human nature. As regards the latter consideration, it is enough
to say that nowhere has productive industry developed itself in
the form of voluntary effort; in every country of which we have
any knowledge it was imposed by the strong upon the weak,
and was wrought into the habits of the people only by the stern
discipline of constraint. From the former point of view the free-
man, then essentially a warrior, and the slave were mutual
auxiliaries, simultaneously exercising different and comple-
mentary functions each necessary to the community. In
modern slavery, on the other hand, where the occupations of
both parties were industrial, the existence of a servile class
only guaranteed for some of them the possibility of self-indulgent
ease, whilst it imposed on others the necessity of indigent idleness.
It was in the Roman state that military action in Greece often
purposeless and, except in the resistance to Persia, on the whole
fruitless worked out the social mission which formed its true
justification. Hence at Rome slavery also most properly found
its place, so long as that mission was in progress of accomplish-
ment. As soon as the march of conquest had reached its natural
limit, slavery began to be modified; and when the empire was
divided into the several states which had grown up under it,
and the system of defence characteristic of the middle ages was
substituted for the aggressive system of antiquity, slavery
gradually disappeared, and was replaced by serfdom.
We have so far dealt with the political results of ancient slavery,
and have found it to have been in certain respects not only
useful but indispensable. When we consider its moral effects,
whilst endeavouring to avoid exaggeration, we must yet pro-
nounce its influence to have been profoundly detrimental. In
its action on the slave it marred in a great measure the happy
effects of habitual industry by preventing the development of the
sense of human dignity which lies at the foundation of morals.
On the morality of the masters whether personal, domestic, or
social the effects of the institution were disastrous. The habit
of absolute rule, always dangerous, was peculiarly corrupting
when it penetrated every department of daily life, and when no
external interference checked individual caprice in its action
on the feelings and fortunes of inferiors. It tended to destroy the
power of self-command, and exposed the master to the baneful
influences of flattery. As regards domestic morality, the system
offered constant facilities for libertinism, and tended to subvert
domestic peace by compromising the dignity and ruining the
happiness of the wife. The sons of the family were familiarized
with vice, and the general tone of the younger generation was
lowered by their intimate association with a despised and de-
graded class. These deplorable results were, of course, not uni-
versally produced; there were admirable exceptions both among
masters and among slaves instances of benevolent protection
on the one side and of unselfish devotion on the other; but the
evil effects without doubt greatly preponderated.
Greece. We find slavery fully established in the Homeric period.
The prisoners taken in war are retained as slaves, or sold (//. xxiv.
752) or held at ransom (II. vi. 427) by the captor. Some-
times the men of a conquered town or district are slain
and the women carried off (Od. ix. 40). Not unfrequently
free persons were kidnapped by pirates and sold in other regions, like
Eumaeus in the Odyssey. The slave might thus be by birth of equal
rank with his master, who knew that the same fate might befal 1
himself or some of the members of his family. The institution does
not present itself in a very harsh form in Homer, especially if we
consider (as Grote suggests) that " all classes were much on a level ir
taste, sentiment and instruction." The male slaves were employee
in the tillage of the land and the tending of cattle, and the females in
domestic work and household manufactures. The principal slaves
often enjoyed the confidence of their masters and had important
duties entrusted to them; and, after lengthened and meritorious
service, were put in possession of a house and property of their own
[Od. xiv. 64). Crete's idea that the women slaves were in a more
jitiable condition than the males does not seem justified, except
perhaps in the case cf the aletrides, who turned the household mills
jvhich ground the flour consumed in the family, and who were some-
times overworked by unfeeling masters (Od. xx. 110-119). Homer
marks in a celebrated couplet his sense of the moral deterioration
commonly wrought by the condition of slavery (Od. xvii. 322).
It is, however, in historic Greece, where we have ample docu-
mentary information, that it is most important to study the system.
The sources of slavery in Greece were: (i) Birth, the condition
neing hereditary. This was not an abundant source, women slaves
jeing less numerous than men, and wise masters making ms<orfc
the union of the sexes rather a reward of good service than period
a matter of speculation (Xen. Oecon. 9. 5). It was in sources /
general cheaper to buy a slave than to rear one to the age s i avery ,
)f labour. (2) Sale of children by their free parents, which
was tolerated, except in Attica, or their exposure, which was per-
mitted, except at Thebes. The consequence of the latter was some-
times to subject them to a servitude worse than death, as is seen in
the plays of Plautus and Terence, which, as is well known, depict
Greek, not Roman, manners. Freemen, through indigence, some-
times sold themselves, and at Athens, up to the time of Solon, an
nsolvent debtor became the slave of his creditor. (3) Capture in war.
Not only Asiatics and Thracians thus became slaves, but in the many
wars between Grecian states, continental or colonial, Greeks were
reduced to slavery by men of their own race. Callicratidas pro-
nounced against the enslavement of Greeks by Greeks, but violated
liis own principle, to which, however, Epaminondas and Pelopidas
appear to have been faithful. (4) Piracy and kidnapping. The descents
of pirates on the coasts were a perpetual source of danger; the pirate
was a gainer either by the sale or by the redemption of his captives.
If ransomed, the victim became by Athenian law the slave of his
redeemer till he paid in money or labour the price which had been
given for him. Kidnappers (andrapodistoe) carried off children even
in cities, and reared them as slaves. Whether from hostile forays or
from piracy, any Greek was exposed to the risk of enslavement.
(5) Commerce. Besides the sale of slaves which took place as a result
of the capture of cities or other military operations, there was a
systematic slave trade. Syria, Pontus, Lydia, Galatia, and above
all Thrace were sources of supply. Egypt and Ethiopia also furnished
a certain number, and Italy a few. Of foreigners, the Asiatics bore
the greatest value, as most amenable to command, and most versed
in the arts of luxurious refinement. But Greeks were highest of all
in esteem, and they were much sought for foreign sale. Greece
proper and Ionia supplied the petty Eastern princes with courtesans
and female musicians and dancers. Athens was an important slave
market, and the state profited by a tax on the sales; but the principal
marts were those of Cyprus, Samos, Ephesus and especially Chios.
The slaves were employed either in domestic service as house-
hold managers, attendants or personal escorts or in work of other
kinds, agricultural or urban. In early Attica, and even otov-
,down to the time of Pericles, the landowners lived in the " tsof
country. The Peloponnesian War introduced a change;
and after that time the proprietors resided at Athens, and
the cultivation was in the hands of slaves. In manufactures and
commerce, also, servile gradually displaced free labour. Speculators
either directly employed slaves as artisans or commercial and banking
agents, or hired them out, sometimes for work in mines or factories,
sometimes for service in private houses, as cooks, flute-players, &c.,
or for viler uses. There were also public slaves; of these some
belonged to temples, to which they were presented as offerings,
amongst them being the courtesans who acted as hieroduli at Corinth
and at Eryx in Sicily ; others were appropriated to the service of the
magistrates or to public works; there were at Athens 1200 Scythian
archers for the police of the city; slaves served, too, in the fleets,
and were employed in the armies, commonly as workmen, and
exceptionally as soldiers.
The condition of slaves at Athens was not in general a wretched
one. Demosthenes (In Mid. p. 530) says that, if the barbarians
from whom the slaves were bought were informed of the cond/tfoo.
mild treatment they received, they would entertain a
great esteem for the Athenians. Plautus in more than one place
thinks it necessary to explain to the spectators of his plays that
slaves at Athens enjoyed such privileges, and even licence, as must
be surprising to a Roman audience. The slave was introduced with
certain customary rites into his position in the family; he was in
practice, though not by law, permitted to accumulate a private fund
of his own ; his marriage was also recognized by custom ; though in
general excluded from sacred ceremonies and public sacrifices, slaves
were admissible to religious associations of a private kind ; there were
some popular festivals in which they were allowed to participate;
they had even special ones for themselves both at Athens and in
other Greek centres. Their remains were deposited in the family
tomb of their master, who sometimes erected monuments in testi-
mony of his affection and regret. They often lived on terms of
intimacy either with the head of the house or its younger members;
but it is to be feared that too often this intimacy was founded,
not on mutual respect, as in the heroic example of Ulysses and
Eumaeus, but on insolent self-assertion on the one side and a spirit of
21 8
SLAVERY
unworthy compliance on the other, the latter having its raison d'etre
in degrading services rendered by the slave. Aristophanes and
Plautus show us how often resort was had to the discipline of the lash
even in the case of domestic slaves. Those employed in workshops,
whose overseers were themselves most commonly of servile status,
had probably a harder lot than domestics; and the agricultural
labourers were not unfrequently chained, and treated much in the
same way as beasts of burden. The displeasure of the master some-
times dismissed his domestics to the more oppressive labours of the
mill or the mine. A refuge from cruel treatment was afforded by
the temples and altars of the gods and by the sacred groves. Nor
did Athenian law leave the slave without protection. He had, as
Demosthenes boasts, an action for outrage like a freeman, and his
death at the hand of a stranger was avenged like that of a citizen
(Eurip. Hec. 288), whilst, if caused by his master's violence, it had
to be atoned for by exile and a religious expiation. Even when the
slave had killed his master, the relatives of the house could not
themselves inflict punishment; they were obliged to hand him over
to the magistrate to be dealt with by legal process. The slave who
had just grounds of complaint against his master could demand to
be sold; when he alleged his right to liberty, the law granted him
a defender and the sanctuaries offered him an asylum till judgment
should be given. Securities were taken against the revolt of slaves
by not associating those of the same nationality and language; they
were sometimes fettered to prevent flight, and, after a first attempt
at escape, branded to facilitate their recovery. There were treaties
between states for the extradition of fugitives, and contracts of
mutual assurance between individuals against their loss by flight.
Their inclination to take advantage of opportunities for this purpose
is shown by the number that escaped from Athens to join the
Spartans when occupying Decelea. There were formidable revolts
at the mines of Laurium, and more than once in Chios. The evidence
of slaves women as well as men was often, with the consent of
their masters, taken by torture; and that method is generally
commended by the orators as a sure means of arriving at the truth.
The slave could purchase his liberty with his peculium by agree-
ment with his master. He could be liberated by will, or, during his
Bmaacl- master's life, by proclamation in the theatre, the law
pation. courts, or other public places, or by having his name
inscribed in the public registers, or, in the later age of
Greece, by sale or donation to certain temples an act which did
not make the slave a hierodulus but a freeman. Conditions were
sometimes attached to emancipation, as of remaining for life or a
definite time with the former master, or another person named by
him, or of performing some special service; payments or rights of
succession to property might also be reserved. By manumission
the Athenian slave became in relation to the state a metic, in relation
to his master a client. He was thus in an intermediate condition
between slavery and complete freedom. If the freedman violated
his duties to his patron he was subject to an action at law, and if
the decision were against him he was again reduced to slavery.
He became a full member of the state only, as in the case of foreigners,
by a vote in an assembly of six thousand citizens; and even this,
vote might be set aside by a graphs paranomon. Slaves who had
rendered eminent services to the public, as those who fought at
Arginusae and at Chaeronea, were at once admitted to the status of
citizens in the class of (so-called) Plataeans. But it would appear
that even in their case some civic rights were reserved and accorded
only to their children by a female citizen. The number of freedmen at
Athens seems never to have been great. (See further GREECE,
Ancient History, 5.)
It is well known that Aristotle held slavery to be necessary and
natural, and, under just conditions, beneficial to both parties in
Theoretic ^ e re ' a ti n vie\vs which were correct enough from the
views oa political side, regard being had to the contemporary
avery social state. His practical motto, if he is the author of
the Economics attributed to him, is " no outrage, and
no familiarity." There ought, he says, to be held out to the slave
the hope of liberty as the reward of his service. Plato condemned
the practice, which the theory of Aristotle also by implication sets
aside as inadmissible, of Greeks having Greeks for slaves. In the
Laws he accepts the institution as a necessary though embarrassing
one, and recommends for the safety of the masters that natives of
different countries should be mixed and that they should all be well
treated. But, whilst condemning harshness towards them, he
encourages the feeling of contempt for them as a class. The later
moral schools of Greece scarcely at all concern themselves with the
institution. The Epicurean had no scruple about the servitude of
those whose labours contributed to his own indulgence and tran-
quillity. The Stoic regarded the condition of freedom or slavery as
an external accident, indifferent in the eye of wisdom; to him it
was irrational to see in liberty a ground of pride or in slavery a subject
of complaint; from intolerable indignity suicide was an ever-open
means of escape. The poets especially the authors of the New
Comedy strongly inculcate humanity, and insist on the funda-
mental equality of the slave. The celebrated " homo sum " is a
translation from Alexis, and the spirit of it breathes in many passages
of the Greek drama. A fragment of Philemon declares, as if in reply
to Aristotle, that not nature, but fortune, makes the slave. Euripides,
as might be expected from his humanitarian cast of sentiment, and
the " premature modernism " which has been remarked in him,
rises above the ordinary feelings of his time in regard to the slaves.
As Paley says, he loves " to record their fidelity to their masters,
their sympathy in the trials of life, their gratitude for kindness and
considerate treatment, and their pride in bearing the character of
honourable men. . . . He allows them to reason, to advise, to
suggest; and he even makes them philosophize on the follies and
the indiscretions of their superiors " (compare Med. 54; Orest.
869; Hel. 728; Ion. 854; Frag. Melan. 506; Phrix. 823). But
we are not to suppose that even he, latitudinarian and innovator as
he was, could have conceived the possibility of abolishing an in-
stitution so deeply rooted in the social conditions, as well as in the
ideas, of his time.
(For the Helots in Laconia, see HELOTS.)
Rome. We have already observed that the Roman system of
life was that in which slavery had its most natural and relatively
legitimate place; and accordingly it was at Rome that, as Blair
has remarked, the institution was more than anywhere else
" extended in its operation and methodized in its details."
We must distinguish from the later slavery at Rome what
Mommsen calls " the old, in some measure innocent," slavery,
under which the farmer tilled the land along with his
slave, or, if he possessed more land than he could manage, Sources.
placed the slave-^eifher as a steward, or as a sort of lessee obliged to
render up a portion of the produce over a detached farm. Though
slaves were obtained by the early victories of Rome over her Italian
neighbours, no large number was employed on the small holdings of
those periods. But the extension of properties in the hands of the
patricians, and the continued absences of citizens required by the
expanding system of conquest, necessarily brought with them a
demand for slave labour, which was increasingly supplied by captives
taken in war. Of the number furnished from this source a few
particulars from the time of the mature republic and the first century
of the empire will give some idea. In Epirus, after the victories of
Aemilius Paullus, 150,000 captives were sold. The prisoners at
Aquae Sextiae and Verccllae were 90,000 Teutons and 60,000
Cimbri. Caesar sold on a single occasion in Gaul 63,000 captives.
But slavery, as Hume has shown, is unfavourable to population.
Hence a regular commerce in slaves was established, which was based
on the " systematically-prosecuted hunting of man," and indicated
an entire perversion of the primitive institution, which was essentially
connected with conquest. The pirates sold great numbers of slaves at
Delos, where was the chief market for this kind of wares; and these
sales went on as really, though more obscurely, after the successful
expedition of Pompey. There was a regular importation to Rome of
slaves, brought to some extent from Africa, Spain and Gaul, but
chiefly from Asiatic countries Bithynia, Galatia, Cappadocia
and Syria. A porlorium apparently one-eighth for eunuchs, one-
fortieth for others was paid on their import or export, and a duty
of 2 or 4 % on their sale.
There were other sources from which slavery was alimented,
though of course in a much less degree. Certain offences reduced
the guilty persons to slavery (seroi poenae), and they were employed
in public work in the quarries or the mines. Originally, a father
could sell his children. A creditor could hold his insolvent debtor
as a slave, or sell him out of the city (trans Tiberim). The enslave-
ment of creditors, overwhelmed with usury in consequence of losses
by hostile raids or their own absence on military service, led to the
secession to the Mons Sacer (493 B.C.). The Poetelian law (326 B.C.)
restricted the creditor's lien (by virtue of a nexum) to the goods of
his debtor, and enacted that for the future no debtor should be put
in chains; but we hear of debtors addicti to their creditors by the
tribunals long after even in the time of the Punic Wars.
There were servi publici as well as privati. The service of the
magistrates was at first in the hands of freemen; but the lower
offices, as of couriers, servants of the law courts, of prisons
and of temples, were afterwards filled by slaves. The
execution of public works also came to be largely com-
mitted to them as the construction of roads, the cleansing of the
sewers and the maintenance of the aqueducts. Both kinds of
functions were discharged by slaves, not only at Rome, but in the
rural and provincial municipalities. VThe slaves of a private Roman
were divided between the familia rustica and the familia urbana.
At the head of the familia rustica was the milieus, himself a slave,
with the wife who was given him at once to aid him and to bind him
to his duties. Under him were the several groups employed in the
different branches of the exploitation and the care of the cattle and
flocks, as well as those who kept or prepared the food, clothing and
tools of the whole staff and those who attended on the master in the
various species of rural sports. A slave prison (ergastulum) was
part of such an establishment, and there were slaves whose office it
was to punish the offences of their fellows. To the familia urbana
belonged those who discharged the duties of domestic attendance,
the service of the toilet, bath, table and kitchen, besides the enter-
tainment of the master and his guests by dancing, singing and other
arts. There were, besides, the slaves who accompanied the master
and mistress out of doors, and were chosen for their beauty and
grace as guards of honour, for their strength as chairmen or porters.
SLAVERY
219
or for their readiness and address in remembering names, delivering
messages of courtesy and the like. There were also attached to a
great household physicians, artists, secretaries, librarians, copyists,
preparers of parchment, as well as pedagogues and preceptors of
different kinds readers, grammarians, men of letters and even
philosophers all of servile condition, besides accountants, managers
and agents for the transaction of business. Actors, comic and tragic,
pantomimi, and the performers of the circus were commonly slaves,
as were also the gladiators. These last were chosen from the most
warlike races as the Samnites, Gauls and Thracians. Familiae of
gladiators were kept by private speculators, who hired them out;
they were sometimes owned by men of high rank.
Several special examples and other indirect indications show that
the wealthier Romans possessed large familiae. This may be inferred
from the columbaria of the house of Livia and of other great houses.
The slaves of Pedanius Secundus, who, in spite of a threatened
outbreak of the indignant populace, were all put to death because
they had been under their master's roof when he was murdered,
were four hundred in number. Pliny tells us that Caecilius, a
freedman of the time of Augustus, left by his will as many as 4116.
The question as to the total number of slaves at Rome or in Italy
is a very difficult one, and it is not, perhaps, possible to arrive with
any degree of certainty at an approximate estimate. Gibbon sup-
poses that there were in the Roman world in the reign of Claudius
at least as many slaves as free inhabitants. But Blair seems right
in believing that this number, though probably correct for an earlier
period, is much under the truth for the age to which it is assigned.
He fixes the proportion of slaves to free men as that of three to one
for the time between the conquest of Greece (146 B.C.) and the reign
of Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235). The entire number of slaves
in Italy would thus have been, in the reign of Claudius, 20,832,000.
By the original Roman law the master was clothed with absolute
dominion over the slave, extending to the power of life and death,
which is not surprising when we consider the nature of the patria
Laws potestas. The slave could not possess property of any kind ;
whatever he acquired was legally his master's. He
was, however, in practice permitted to enjoy and accumulate chance
earnings or savings, or a share of what he produced, under the
name of peculium. A master could not enter into a contract with
his slave, nor could he accuse him of theft before the law; for, if
the slave took anything, this was not a subtraction, but only a
displacement, of property. The union of a male and female slave
had not the legal character of a marriage; it was a cohabitation
(contubernium) merely, which was tolerated, and might be terminated
at will, by the master; a slave was, therefore, not capable of the
crime of adultery. Yet general sentiment seems to have given a
stronger sanction to this sort of connexion; the names of husband
and wife are freely used in relation to slaves on the stage, and even
in the laws, and in the language of the tombs. For entering the
military service or taking on him any state office a slave^was punished
with death. He could not in general be examined as a witness,
except by torture. A master, when accused, could offer his slaves
for the " question," or demand for the same purpose the slaves of
another; and, if in the latter case they were injured or killed in the
process, their owner was indemnified. A slave could not accuse his
master, except of adultery or incest (under the latter name being
included the violation of sacred things or places) ; the case of high
treason was afterwards added to these. An accused slave could not
invoke the aid of the tribunes. The penalties of the law for crime
were specially severe on slaves.
Columella, like Xenophon, favours a certain friendliness and
familiarity in one's intercourse with his farm slaves. Cato ate and
Treatment drank the same coarse victuals as his slaves, and even had
of slaves *^ c children suckled by his wife, that they might imbibe a
fondness for the family. But he had a strict eye to profit
in all his dealings with them. He allowed the contubernium of
male and female slaves at the price of a money payment from
their peculium. Columella regarded the gains from the births as a
sufficient motive for encouraging these unions, and thought that
mothers should be rewarded for their fecundity; Varro, too, seems
to have taken this view. The immense extension of the rural estates
(latifundia) made it impossible for masters to know their slaves,
even if they were disposed to take trouble for the purpose. Effective
superintendence even by overseers became less easy; the use of
chains was introduced, and these were worn not only in the field
during working hours but at night in the ergastulum where the
slaves slept. Urban slaves had probably often a We as little enviable,
especially those who worked at trades for speculators. Even in
private nouses at Rome, so late as the time of Ovid, the porter was
chained. In thefamilia urbana the favourites of the master had good
treatment, and might exercise some influence over him which would
lead to their receiving flattery and gifts from those who sought his
vote or solicited his support. Doubtless there was often genuine
mutual affection; slaves sometimes, as in noted instances during the
civil wars, showed the noblest spirit of devotion to their masters.
Those who were not inmates of the household, but were employed
outside of it as keepers of a shop or boat, chiefs of workshops, or
clerks in a mercantile business, had the advantage of greater freedom
of action. The slaves of the leno and the lanista were probably in
most cases not only degraded but unhappy. The lighter punish-
ments inflicted by masters were commonly personal chastisement or
banishment from the town house to rural labour; the severer were
employment in the mill (pistrinum) or relegation to the mines or
quarries. To the mines also speculators sent slaves; they worked
half-naked, men and women, in chains, under the lash and guarded
by soldiers. Vedius Pollio, in the time of Augustus, was said to
have thrown his slaves, condemned sometimes for trivial mistakes
or even accidents, to the lampreys in his fishpond. Cato advised
the agriculturist to sell his old oxen and his old slaves, as well as his
sick ones; and sick slaves were exposed in the island of Aesculapius
in the Tiber; by a decree of Claudius slaves so exposed, if they
recovered, could not be reclaimed by their masters.
Though the Roman slaves were not, like the Spartan Helots, kept
obedient by systematic terrorism, their large numbers were a constant
source of danger. The law under which the slaves of Pedanius were
put to death, probably introduced under Augustus and more fully
enacted under Nero, is sufficient proof of this anxiety, which indeed
is strongly stated by Tacitus in his narrative of the facts. There had
been many conspiracies amongst the slaves in the course of Roman
history, and some formidable insurrections. The growth of the
latifundia made the slaves more and more numerous and formidable.
Free labour was discountenanced. Cato, Varro and Columella all
agree that slave labour was to be preferred to free except in unhealthy
regions and for large occasional operations, which probably tran-
scended the capacity of the permanent familia rustica. Cicero and
Livy bear testimony to the disappearance of a free plebs from the
country districts and its replacement by gangs of slaves working on
great estates. The worst form of such praedial slavery existed
in Sicily, whither Mommsen supposes that its peculiarly harsh
features had been brought by the Carthaginians. In Sicily, accord-
ingly, the first really serious servile insurrections took place. The
rising under Eunus in 133 B.C. was with some difficulty suppressed by
Rupilius. Partial revolts in Italy succeeded; and then came the
second Sicilian insurrection under Trypho and Athenio, followed by
the Servile War in Italy under Spartacus (g.f.). Clodiusand Miloused
bands of gladiators in their city riots, and this action on the part of
the latter was approved by Cicero. In the First Civil War they were
to be found in both camps, and the murderers of Caesar were escorted
to the Capitol by gladiators. Antony, Octavius, and Sextus Pompeius
employed them in the Second Civil War; and it is recorded by
Augustus on the Monumentum Ancyranum that he gave back to
their masters for punishment about 30,000 slaves who had absconded
and borne arms against the state. Under Tiberius, at the death of
Caligula, and in the reign of Nero there were threatening movements
of the slaves. In the wars from Otho to Vespasian they were em-
ployed, as Tacitus tells us, even by the most scrupulous generals.
Blair, in comparing the Greek and Roman systems of slavery,
points with justice to the greater facility and frequency of emancipa-
tion as the great superiority of the latter. No Roman slave, he says,
" needed to despair of becoming both a freeman and a citizen."
Manumission was of two kinds justa or regular, and minus justa.
Of manumissio justa there were four modes: (l) by adoption, rarely
resorted to; (2) by testament, already recognized in the Twelve
Tables; (3) by census^, which was of exceptional use, and did not
exist later than the time of Vespasian; and (4) by vindicla, which
was the usual form. In the last method the master turned the slave
round, with the words " liber esto," in the presence of the praetor, that
officer or his lictor at the same time striking the slave with his rod.
The manumissio minus justa was effected by a sufficient manifesta-
tion of the will of the master, as by letter, by words, by putting the
pileus (or cap of liberty) on the slave, or by any other formality
which had by usage become significant of the intention to liberate, or
by such an act as making the slave the guardian of his children.
This extra-legal sort of manumission was incomplete and precarious;
even after the lex Junta Norbana (A.D. 19), which assimilated the
position of those so liberated to that of the Latin colonists, under
the name of Latini juniores, the person remained in the eye of the
law a slave till his death and could not dispose of his peculium.
A freedman, unless he became such by operation of law, remained
client of his master, and both were bound by the mutual obligations
arising out of that relation. These obligations existed also in the
case of freedmen of the state, of cities, temples and corporations.
The freedman took his former master's name ; he owed him deference
(obsequium) and aid .(officium) ; and neglect of these obligations was
punished, in extreme cases even with loss of liberty. Conditions
might be annexed by the master to the gift of freedom, as of continued
residence with him, or of general service or some particular duty to be
performed, or of a money payment to be made. But the praetor
Rutilius, about the beginning of the 1st century B.C., limited the
excessive imposition of such conditions, and his restrictions were
carried further by the later jurists and the imperial constitutions.
Failing natural heirs of an intestate freedman, the master, now
patron, succeeded to his property at his death; and he could dispose
by will of only half his possessions, the patron receiving the other
half. Freedmen and their sons were subject to civil disabilities ; the
third generation became_ ingenui (full citizens). Thus, the slave
element tended to merge itself in the general popular body.
It was often a pecuniary advantage to the master to liberate his
slave ; he obtained a payment which enabled him to buy a substitute,
a^.d at the same time gained a client. This of course presupposes the
220
SLAVERY
recognition of the right of the slave to his fectdium; and the same
is implied in Cicero s statement that a diligent slave could in six
years purchase his freedom. Augustus set himself against the
undue multiplication of manumissions, probably considering the
rapid succession of new citizens a source of social instability, and
recommended a similar policy to his successor. The lex Aelia
Sentia (about A.D. 3) forbade manumission, except in strictly limited
cases, by masters under 20 years of age or of slaves under 30; and
the lex Furia Caninia (about A.D. 7) fixed the proportion of a man's
slaves which he could liberate by testament, and forbade more than
a hundred being so enfranchised, whatever might be the the number of
the famtiia. Under the empire the freedmen rose steadily in influ-
ence; they became admissible to the rank of equites and to the
senate; they obtained provincial governments, and were appointed
to offices in the imperial household which virtually placed them at
the head of administrative departments (see PALLAS and NARCISSUS).
Freedmen of humbler rank, on the other hand, filled the minor
offices in the administrative service, in the city cohorts, and in
the army; and we shall find that they entered largely into the
trades and professions when free labour began to revive. They
appeared also in literature, e.g. Tiro, the amanuensis of Cicero;
Hyginus, the librarian of Augustus; Livius Andrpnicus, Caecilius,
Statius, Terence, Publilius Syrus, Phaedrus and Epictetus.
In the 2nd century of the Christian era we find a marked change
with respect to the institution of slavery, both in the region of
thought and in that of law. Already the principles of reason and
humanity had been applied to the subject by Seneca. But it was
in the 2nd century, as we have said, that " the victory of moral
ideas " in this, as in other departments of life, became " decisive. . . .
Dio Chrysostom, the adviser of Trajan, is the first Greek writer who
has pronounced the principle of slavery to be contrary to the law of
nature " (Mark Pattison). And a parallel change is found in the
practical policy of the state. The military vocation of Rome was
now felt to have reached its normal limits; and the emperors, under-
standing that, in the future, industrial activity must prevail,
prepared the abolition of slavery as far as was then possible, by
honouring the freedmen, by protecting the slave against his master,
and by facilitating manumissions. The general tendency both of the
imperial constitutions and of the maxims of the legists is in favour
of liberty. The practices of exposure and sale of children, and of
giving them in pledge for debt, are forbidden. Diocletian forbade a
free man to sell himself. Kidnappers (plagiarii) were punished with
death. The insolvent debtor was withdrawn from the yoke of his
creditor. While the slave trade was permitted, the mutilation of
boys and young men, too often practised, was punished with exile
and even with death. In redhibitory actions (for the annulment
of sales), if a slave were returned to the seller, so must also be his
parents, brothers and personae contubernio conjunctae. In the inter-
pretation of testaments it was to be assumed that members of the
same family were not to be separated by the division of the succession.
The law also favoured in special cases the security of the pec-ulium,
though in general principle it still remained the property of the
master. The state granted to public slaves the right of bequeathing
half their possessions; and private persons sometimes permitted
similar dispositions even to a greater extent, though only within the
familia. Hadrian took from masters the power of life and death and
abolished the subterranean prisons. Antoninus Pius punished him
who killed his own slave as if he had killed another's. Already in the
time of Nero the magistrates had been ordered to receive the slave's
complaint of ill-treatment; and the lex Petronia, belonging to the
same or an earlier period, forbade masters to hand over their slaves
to combats with wild beasts. Antoninus directed that slaves treated
with excessive cruelty, who had taken refuge at an altar or imperial
image, should be sold; and this provision was extended to cases in
which the master had employed a slave in a way degrading to him or
beneath his character. M. Aurelius gave to masters an action against
their slaves for any cause of complaint, thus bringing their relation
more directly under the surveillance of law and public opinion.
A slave's oath could still not be taken in a court of law; he was
interrogated by the "question"; but the emperors and jurists
limited in various ways the application of torture, adding, however,
as we have mentioned, to the cases in which it could previously be
appealed to that of the crime of majestas. For certain alleged
offences of the master the slave could bring an action, being
represented for the purpose by an adsertor. Emancipation was
facilitated. The power of imposing conditions on testamentary
manumissions was restricted, and these conditions interpreted in the
sense most favourable to freedom. The emperor could confer liberty
by presenting a gold ring to a slave with the consent of the master,
and the legal process called restitutio nalalium made him a full citizen.
It was decided that liberty could not be forfeited even by a prescrip-
tion of sixty years' duration.
The rise of Christianity in the Roman world still further improved
the condition of the slave. The sentiments it created were not only
favourable to the humane treatment of the class in the
fch present, but were the germs out of which its entire libera-
" tion was destined, at a later period, in part to arise. It is
sometimes objected that the Christian church did not
denounce slavery as a social crime and insist on its abolition. We
have seen that slavery was a fundamental element of the old Roman
constitution. When the work of conquest had been achieved, it could
not be expected that a radical alteration should be suddenly wrought
either in the social system which was in harmony with it, or even in
the general ideas which had grown up under its influence. The latter
would, indeed, be gradually affected; and accordingly we have
observed a change in the policy of the law, indicating a change in
sentiment with respect to the slave class, which does not appear to
have been at all due to Christian teaching. But the institution
itself could not be at once seriously disturbed. The results must
have been disastrous, most of all to the slave population itself.
Before that end could be accomplished, an essentially new social
situation must come into existence. But in the meantime much
might be done towards further mitigating the evils of slavery,
especially by impressing on master and slave their relative duties and
controlling their behaviour towards one another by the exercise of an
independent moral authority. This was the work open to the
Christian priesthood, and it cannot be denied that it was well dis-
charged. Whilst the fathers agree with the Stoics of the 2nd century
in representing slavery as an indifferent circumstance in the eye of
religion and morality, the contempt for the class which the Stoics too
often exhibited is in them replaced by a genuine sympathy. They
protested against the multiplication of slaves from motives of vanity
in the houses of the great, against the gladiatorial combats (ulti-
mately abolished by the noble self-devotion of a monk) and against
the consignment of slaves to the theatrical profession, which was
often a school of corruption. The church also encouraged the emanci-
pation of individual slaves and the redemption of captives. And
its influence is to be seen in the legislation of the Christian emperors,
which softened some of the harshest features that still marked the
institution. But a stronger influence of Christianity appears in
Theodosius, and this influence is at the highest in the legislation of
Justinian. Its systematic effort is, in his own words, " pro libertate,
quam et fovere et tueri Romanis legibus et praecipue nostro numini
peculiare est." Law still refused in general to recognize the marriages
of slaves; but Justinian gave them a legal value after emancipation
in establishing rights of succession. Unions between slaves and free
women, or between a freeman and the female slave of another,
continued to be forbidden, and were long punished in certain circum-
stances with atrocious severity. As witness, the. slave was still
subject to the question; as criminal, he was punished with greater
rigour than the freeman. If he accused his master of a crime, unless
the charge was of treason, he was burnt. But he could maintain a
legal claim to his own liberty, not now merely through an adsertor,
but in person. A female slave was still held incapable of the offence
of adultery; but Justinian visited with death alike the rape of a
slave or freedwoman and that of a free maiden. Already the master
who killed his slave had been punished as for homicide, except in the
case of his unintended death under correction ; Constantine treated
as homicide a number of specially-enumerated acts of cruelty. Even
under Theodosius the combats of the amphitheatre were permitted,
if not encouraged, by the state authorities ; these sports were still
expected from the candidates for public honours. Combats of men
with beasts were longest continued ; they had not ceased even in the
early years of the reign of Justinian. A new process of manu-
mission was now established, to be performed in the churches
through the intervention of the ministers of religion; and it was
provided that clerics could at any time by mere expression of will
liberate their slaves. Slaves who were admitted to holy orders, or
who entered a monastery, became freemen, under certain restrictions
framed to prevent fraud or injustice. Justinian abolished the
personal conditions which the legislation of Augustus had required to
be satisfied by the master who emancipated and the slave who was
manumitted, and removed the limitation of number. The liberated
slave, whatever the process by which he had obtained his freedom,
became at once a full citizen, his former master, however, retaining
the right of patronage, the abolition of which would probably have
discouraged emancipation.
Transition to Serfdom. The slavery of the working classes
was not directly changed into the system of personal freedom.
There was an intermediate stage which has not always been
sufficiently discriminated from slavery. We mean the regime
of serfdom. In studying the origin of this transitional state of
things, four principal considerations have to be kept in view,
(i) As Gibbon observes, the cornpletion of the Roman system of
conquest reduced* the supply of slaves. It is true that, when
the barbarian invasions began in the 3rd century, many captives
were made, who, when not enrolled in the army, were employed
in agriculture or domestic service; but the regular importation
was increasingly diminished. This improved the condition of
the slave by rendering his existence an object of greater value
to his master. It was clearly to the interest of each family
to preserve indefinitely its own hereditary slaves. Hence the
abolition of the external slave trade tended, in fact, to put an
end to internal sales, and the slaves became attached to the
households or lands of their masters. (2) The diminished supply
SLAVERY
221
of slaves further acted in the direction of the rehabilitation of
free labour. A general movement of this kind is noticeable
from the and century onwards. Freemen had always been to
some extent employed in the public service. In private service
superior posts were often filled by freedmen; the higher arts
as medicine, grammar, painting were partly in the hands of
freedmen and even of ingenui; the more successful actors and
gladiators were often freedmen. In the factories or workshops
kept by wealthy persons slave labour was mainly employed;
but free artisans sometimes offered their services to these estab-
lishments or formed associations to compete with them. We
have seen that free persons had all along been to some extent
employed in the cultivation of land as hired labourers, and, as we
shall presently find, also as tenants on the great estates. How
all this operated we shall understand when we examine the
remarkable organization of the state introduced by Diocletian
and his successors. (3) This organization established in the
Roman world a personal and hereditary fixity of professions and
situations which was not very far removed from the caste system
of the East. The purpose of this was doubtless to resist by a
strong internal consolidation the shock of the invasions, to secure
public order, to enforce industrious habits, and to guarantee
the financial resources of the state. Personal independence
was largely sacrificed, but those still more important ends were
in a great measure attained. This system, by diminishing the
freeman's mastery over himself and his power to determine his
occupation, reduced the interval between him and the slave;
and the latter on the one hand, the free domestic servant and
workshop labourer on the other, both passed insensibly into the
common condition of serfdom. (4) The corresponding change,
in the case of the rural slaves, took place through their being
merged in the order of coloni. The Roman colonus was originally
a free person who took land on lease, contracting to pay to the
proprietor either a fixed sum annually or (when a colonus par-
tiarius) a certain proportion of the produce of the farm. Under
the emperors of the 4th century the name designated a cultivator
who, though personally free, was attached to the soil, and
transmitted his condition to his descendants; and this became
the regular status of the mass of Roman cultivators. The class
of coloni appears to have been composed partly of tenants by
contract who had incurred large arrears of rent and were detained
on the estates as debtors (obaerati), partly of foreign captives or
immigrants who were settled in this condition on the land, and
partly of small proprietors and other poor men who voluntarily
adopted the status as an improvement in their position. They
paid a fixed proportion of the produce (pars agraria) to the owner
of the estate, and gave a determinate amount of labour (operae)
on the portion of the domain which he kept in his own hands
(mansus dominicus). The law for a long time took no notice of
these customary tenures, and did not systematically constitute
them until the 4th century. It was indeed the requirements of the
fiscus and the conscription which impelled the imperial govern-
ment to regulate the system. The coloni were inscribed (adscript?)
on the registers of the census as paying taxes to the state, for
which the proprietor was responsible, reimbursing himself for the
amount. In a constitution of Constantine (A.D. 332) we find the
colonus recognized as permanently attached to the land. If he
abandoned his holding he was. brought back and punished; and
any one who received him had not only to restore him but to
pay a penalty. He could not marry out of the domain; if he
took for wife a colona of another proprietor, she was restored to
her original locality, and the offspring of the union were divided
between the estates. The children of a colonus were fixed in the
same status. They and their descendants were retained, in the
words of a law of Theodosius, " quodam aeternitatis jure,"
and by no process could be relieved from their obligations.
By a law of Anastasius, at the end of the sth century, a colonus
who had voluntarily come into an estate was by a tenure of
thirty years for ever attached to it. The master (dominus)
cojuld inflict on his coloni " moderate chastisement," and could
chain them if they attempted to escape, but they had a legal
remedy against him for unjust demands or injury to them or
theirs. In no case could the rent or the labour dues be increased.
The colonus could possess property of his own, but could not
alienate it without the consent of the master. Thus, whilst the
members of the class were personally free, their condition had
some incidents of a semi-servile character. They are actually
designated by Theodosius, " servi terrae cui nati sunt." And
Salvian treats the proposition " coloni divitum fiunt " as equi-
valent to " vertuntur in servos." This is indeed an exaggeration;
the colonatus was not an oppressive system; it afforded real
security against unreasonable demands and wanton disturbance,
and it was a great advance on the system of the familia rustica.
But the point which is important is that there was a certain
approximation between the condition of the colonus and the
slave which tended towards the fusion of both in a single
class.
Besides the coloni there were on a great estate^and those of
the 4th century were on a specially large scale a number of
praedial slaves, who worked collectively under overseers on the
part of the property which the owner himself cultivated. But
it was a common practice to settle certain of the slaves (and
possibly also of the freedmen) on other portions of the estate,
giving them small farms on conditions similar to those to which
the coloni were subject. These slaves are, in fact, described by
Ulpian as quasi coloni. They had their own households and were
hence distinguished as casati. In law these slaves were at first
absolutely at the disposal of their masters; they had no property
in the strict sense of the word, and could be sold to another
proprietor and separated from their families. But the landlord's
interest and the general tone of feeling alike modified practice
even before the intervention of legislation; they were habitually
continued in their holdings, and came to possess in fact a per-
petual and hereditary enjoyment of them. By a law of Valen-
tinian I. (377) the sale of these slaves was interdicted unless the
land they occupied were at the same time sold. The legal dis-
tinction between the coloni and the slave tenants continued to
exist after the invasions; but the practical difference was
greatly attenuated. The colonus often occupied a servile
mansus, and the slave a mansus originally appropriated to a
colonus. Intermarriages of the two classes became frequent.
Already at the end of the 7th century it does not appear that
the distinction between them had any substantial existence.
The influence of the Northern invasions on the change from
slavery to serfdom was, in all probability, of little account.
The change would have taken place, though perhaps not so
speedily, if they had never occurred. For the developments of
the Middle Ages see SERFDOM and VILLENAGE.
Modern Slave Trade. Not very long after the disappearance
of serfdom in the most advanced communities comes into sight
the new system of colonial slavery, which, instead of being the
spontaneous outgrowth of social necessities and subserving a
temporary need of human development, was politically as well as
morally a monstrous aberration.
In 1442, when the Portuguese under Prince Henry the
Navigator were exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa, one of
his officers, Antam Gonsalves, who had captured some
Moors, was directed by the prince to carry them back colonies
to Africa. He received from the Moors in exchange for
them ten blacks and a quantity of gold dust. This excited the
cupidity of his fellow-countrymen; and they fitted out a large
number of ships for the trade, and built several forts on the
African coast. Many negroes were brought into Spain from these
Portuguese settlements, and the colonial slave trade first appears
in the form of the introduction into the newly-discovered western
world of descendants of these negroes. When Nicolas de
Ovando was sent out in 1502 as governor of Haiti, whilst
regulations, destined to prove illusory, were made for the pro-
tection of the natives of the island, permission was given to carry
to the colony negro slaves, born in Seville and other parts of
Spain, who had been instructed in the Christian faith. It appears
from a letter of Ovando in 1503 that there were at that time
numbers of negroes in Haiti; he requested that no more might
be permitted to be brought out. In 1510 and the following years
222
SLAVERY
King Ferdinand ordered a number of Africans to be sent to
that colony for the working of the mines.
Before this time Columbus had proposed an exchange of his
Carib prisoners as slaves against live stock to be furnished to
Haiti by Spanish merchants. He actually sent home, in 1494,
above 500 Indian prisoners taken in wars with the caciques,
who, he suggested, might be sold as slaves at Seville. But,
after a royal order had been issued for their sale, Queen
Isabella, interested by what she had heard of the gentle and
hospitable character of the natives and of their docility, procured
a letter to be written to Bishop Fonseca, the superintendent of
Indian affairs, suspending the order until inquiry should be made
into the causes for which they had been made prisoners, and
into the lawfulness of their sale. Theologians differed on the
latter question, and Isabella directed that these Indians should
be sent back to their native country.
Bartolome de las Casas, the celebrated bishop of Chiapa,
accompanied Ovando to Haiti, and was a witness of the
cruelties from which the Indians suffered under his administra-
tion. He came to Spain in 1517 to obtain measures in their
favour, and he then made the suggestion to Charles that each
Spanish resident in Haiti should have h'cence to import a
dozen negro slaves. Las Casas, in his Historia de las Indias
(lib. iii. cap. 101), confesses the error into which he thus fell.
Other good men appear to have given similar advice about the
same time, and, as has been shown, the practice was not absolutely
new; indeed the young king had in 1516, whilst still in Flanders,
granted licences to his courtiers for the importation of negroes
into the colonies, though Jimenes, as regent of Castile, by a
decree of the same year forbade the practice. The suggestion of
Las Casas was no doubt made on the ground that the negroes
could, better than the Indians, bear the labour in the mines,
which was rapidly exhausting the numbers of the latter. 1 He
has sometimes on this plea been exonerated from all censure;
but, though entitled to honour for the zeal which he showed on
behalf of the natives, he must bear the blame for his violation
or neglect of moral principle. His advice was unfortunately
adopted. " Charles," says Robertson, " granted a patent to
one of his Flemish favourites, containing an exclusive right "
of supplying 4000 negroes annually to Haiti, Cuba, Jamaica
and Porto Rico. " The favourite sold his patent to some Genoese
merchants for 25,000 ducats "; these merchants obtained the
slaves from the Portuguese; and thus was first systematized
the slave trade between Africa and America.
The first Englishman who engaged in the traffic was Sir John
Hawkins (q.v,). The English slave traders were at first altogether
Eaeland occupied in supplying the Spanish settlements. Indeed
the reign of Elizabeth passed without any English colony
having been permanently established in America. But in 1620 a
Dutch ship from the coast of Guinea visited Jamestown in Virginia,
and sold a part of her cargo of negroes to the tobacco-planters.
This was the first beginning of slavery in British America; the
number of negroes was afterwards continually increased though
apparently at first slowly by importation, and the field-labour was
more and more performed by servile hands, so that in 1790 the state
of Virginia contained 200,000 negroes.
The African trade of England was long in the hands of exclusive
companies; but by an act of the first year of William and Mary it
became free and open to all subjects of the crown. The African
Company, however, continued to exist, and obtained from time to
time large parliamentary grants. By the treaty of Utrecht the
asiento, 2 or contract for supplying the Spanish colonies with 4800
negroes annually, which had previously passed from the Dutch to
the French, was transferred to Great Britain; an English company
was to enjoy the monopoly for a period of thirty years from 1st
May 1713. But the contract came to an end in 1739, when the
complaints of the English merchants on one side and of the Spanish
officials on the other rose to such a height that Philip V. declared his
'The Spaniards, in the space of fifteen years subsequent to the
discovery of the West Indies, had, as Robertson mentions, reduced
the natives of Haiti from a million to 60,000.
2 The Spaniards were prevented from forming establishments on
the African coast by the Bull of Demarcation (" Inter caetera ") of
Pope Alexander VI. (1493), which forbade their acquiring territory
to the east of the meridian line of 100 m. west of the Azores. They
could therefore supply their American possessions with slaves only
by contracts with other powers.
determination to revoke the asiento, and Sir Robert Walpole was
forced by popular feeling into war with Spain. Between 1680 and
1700 about 140,000 negroes were exported by the African Company,
and 160,000 more by private adventurers, making a total of 300,000.
Between 1700 and the end of 1786 as many as 610,000 were trans-
ported to Jamaica alone, which had been an English possession
since 1655. Bryan Edwards estimated the total import into all the
British colonies of America and the West Indies from 1680 to
1786 at 2,130,000, being an annual average of 20,095. The British
slave trade reached its utmost extension shortly before the War of
American Independence. It was then carried on principally from
Liverpool, but also from London, Bristol and Lancaster; the entire
number of slave ships sailing from those ports was 192, and in them
space was provided for the transport of 47,146 negroes. During the
war the number decreased, but on its termination the trade im-
mediately revived. When Edwards wrote (1791), the number of
European factories on the coasts of Africa was 40; of these 14 were
English, 3 French, 15 Dutch, 4 Portuguese and 4 Danish. As correct
a notion as can be obtained of the numbers annually exported from
the continent about the year 1790 by traders of the several European
countries engaged in the traffic is supplied by the following state-
ment: " By the British, 38,000; by the French, 20,000; by the
Dutch, 4000; by the Danes, 2000; by the Portuguese, 10,000;
total 74,000." Thus more than half the trade was in British hands.
The hunting of human beings to make them slaves was greatly
aggravated by the demand of the European colonies. The native
chiefs engaged in forays, sometimes even on their own
subjects, for the purpose of procuring slaves to be exchanged Bttects of
for Western commodities. They often set fire to a village he stave
by night and captured the inhabitants when trying to "'*"*
escape. Thus all that was shocking in the barbarism of Africa was
multiplied and intensified by this foreign stimulation. Exclusive
of the slaves who died before they sailed from Africa, I2j % were lost
during their passage to the West Indies ; at Jamaica 4^ % died whilst
in the harbours or before the sale and one-third more in the " season-
ing." Thus, out of every lot of loo shipped from Africa 17 died in
about 9 weeks, and not more than 50 lived to be effective labourers
in the islands. The circumstances of their subsequent life on the
plantations were not favourable to the increase of their numbers.
In Jamaica there were in 1690,40,000; from that year till 1820 there
were imported 800,000; yet at the latter date there were only
340,000 in the island. One cause which prevented the natural in-
crease of population was the inequality in the numbers of the sexes;
in Jamaica alone there was in 1789 an excess of 30,000 males.
Movement against the Slave Trade. When the nature of the
slave trade began to be understood by the public, all that
was best in England was adverse to it. Among those
who denounced it besides some whose names are now
little known, but are recorded in the pages of Clarkson were
Baxter, Sir Richard Steele (in Inkle and Varied), the poets
Southern (in Oroonoko), Pope, Thomson, Shenstone, Dyer,
Savage and above all Cowper (see his Charity, and Task, bk. 2),
Thomas Day (author of Sandford and Merton) , Sterne, Warburton,
Hutcheson, Beattie, John Wesley, Whitfield, Adam Smith,
Millar, Robertson, Dr Johnson, Paley, Gregory, Gilbert Wake-
field, Bishop Porteus, Dean Tucker. The question of the legal
existence of slavery in Great Britain and Ireland was raised in
consequence of an opinion given in 1729 by Yorke and Talbot,
attorney-general and solicitor-general at the time, to the effect
that a slave by coming into those countries from the West Indies
did not become free, and might be compelled by his master to
return to the plantations. Chief- Justice Holt had expressed a
contrary opinion; and the matter was brought to a final issue
by Granville Sharp in the case of the negro Somerset. It was
decided by Lord Mansfield, in the name of the whole bench, on the
22nd of June 1772, that as soon as a slave set his foot on the soil
of the British islands he became free. In 1776 it was moved in
the House of Commons by David Hartley, son of the author of
Observations on Man, that " the slave trade was contrary to the
laws of God and the rights of men "; but this motion the
first which was made on the subject failed.
The first persons in England who took united practical action
against the slave trade were the Quakers, following the expression
of sentiment which had emanated so early as 1671 from their
founder George Fox. In 1727 they declared it to be " not a
commendable or allowed" practice; in 1761 they excluded
from their society all who should be found concerned in it, and
issued appeals to their members and the public against the
system. In 1783 there was formed among them an association
" for the relief and liberation of the negro slaves in the West
SLAVERY
223
Indies, and for the discouragement of the slave trade on the
coast of Africa." This was the first society established in England
for the purpose. The Quakers in America had taken action on
the subject still earlier than those in England. The Pennsyl-
vanian Quakers advised their members against the trade in 1696;
in 1754 they issued to their brethren a strong dissuasive against
encouraging it in any manner; in 1774 all persons concerned
in the traffic, and in 1776 all slave holders who would not emanci-
pate their slaves, were excluded from membership. The Quakers
in the other American provinces followed the lead of their
brethren in Pennsylvania. The individuals among the American
Quakers who laboured most earnestly and indefatigably on
behalf of the Africans were John Woolman (1720-1773) and
Anthony Benezet (1713-1784), the latter a son of a French
Huguenot driven from France by the revocation of the edict of
Nantes. The former confined his efforts chiefly to America and
indeed to his coreligionists there; the latter sought, not without
success, to found a universal propaganda in favour of abolition.
A Pennsylvanian society was formed in 1 7 74 by James Pemberton
and Dr Benjamin Rush, and -in 1787 (after the war) was recon-
structed on an enlarged basis under the presidency of Franklin.
Other similar associations were founded about the same time
in different parts of the United States. The next important
movement took place in England. Dr Peckard, vice-chancellor
of the university of Cambridge, who entertained strong con-
victions against the slave trade, proposed in 1785 as subject for
a Latin prize dissertation the question, " An liceat invitos in
servitutem dare." Thomas Clarkson obtained the first prize,
translated his essay into English in an expanded form, and
published it in 1786 with the title Essay on the Slavery and
Commerce of the Human Species. In the process of its publication
he was brought into contact with several persons already deeply
interested in the question; amongst others with Granville Sharp,
William Dillwyn (an American by birth, who had known Benezet),
and the Rev. James Ramsay, who had lived nineteen years in
St Christopher, and had published an Essay on the Treatment and
Conversion of the African Slaves in the British Sugar Colonies.
The distribution of Clarkson's book led to his forming connexions
with many persons of influence, and especially with William
Wilberforce (q.v.). A committee was formed on the 22nd of May
1787 for the abolition of the slave trade, under the presidency of
Granville Sharp. It is unquestionable that the principal motive
power which originated and sustained their efforts was Christian
principle and feeling. The most earnest and unremitting
exertions were made by the persons so associated in investigating
facts and collecting evidence, in forming branch committees and
procuring petitions, information and support of those who pleaded
the cause in parliament. To the original members were afterwards
added several remarkable persons, amongst whom were Josiah
Wedgwood, Bennet Langton (Dr Johnson's friend), and, later,
Zachary Macaulay, Henry Brougham and James Stephen.
In consequence of the numerous petitions presented to parlia-
ment, a committee of privy council was appointed by the crown
in 1788 to inquire concerning the slave trade; and Pitt
moved that the House of Commons should early in the next
session take the subject into consideration. Wilberforce's first
motion for a committee of the whole House upon the question
was made on the ipth of March 1789, and this committee pro-
ceeded to business on the 1 2th of May of the same year. After
an admirable speech, Wilberforce laid on the table twelve
resolutions which were intended as the basis of a future motion
for the abolition of the trade. The discussion of these was post-
poned to the next session, and in 1790-1791 evidence was taken
upon them. At length, on the iSth of April of-the latter year,
a motion was made for the introduction of a bill to prevent the
further importation of slaves into the British colonies in the
West Indies. Opinion had been prejudiced by the insurrections
in St Domingo and Martinique, and in the British island of
Dominica; and the motion was defeated by 163 votes against
88. Legislative sanction was, however, given to the establish-
ment of the Sierra Leone Company, for the colonization of a
district on the west coast of Africa and the discouragement of
the slave trade there. It was hoped at the time that that place
would become the centre from which the civilization of Africa
would proceed; but this expectation was not fulfilled. On the
2nd of April 1792 Wilberforce again moved that the trade ought
to be abolished; an amendment in favour of gradual abolition
was carried, and it was finally resolved that the trade should cease
on the ist of January 1796. When a similar motion was brought
forward in the Lords the consideration of it was postponed to the
following year, in order to give time for the examination of wit-
nesses by a committee of the House. A bill in the Commons in
the following year to abolish that part of the trade by which
British merchants supplied foreign settlements with slaves was
lost on the third reading; it was renewed in the Commons in
1794 and carried there, but defeated in the Lords. Then followed
several years during which efforts were made by the abolitionists
in parliament with little success. But in 1806, Lord Grenville
and Fox having come into power, a bill was passed in both Houses
to put an end to the British slave trade for foreign supply, and to
forbid the importation of slaves into the colonies won by the British
arms in the course of the war. On the loth of June of the same
year Fox brought forward a resolution " that effectual measures-
should be taken for the abolition of the African slave trade in such
a manner and at such a period as should be deemed advisable,"
which was carried by a large majority. A similar resolution
was successful in the House of Lords. A bill was then passed
through both Houses forbidding the employment of any new
vessel in the trade. Finally, in 1807, a bill was presented by
Lord Grenville in the House of Lords providing for the abolition
of the trade, was passed by a large majority, was then sent to the
Commons (where it was moved by Lord Ho wick), was there
amended and passed, and received the royal assent on the 25th
of March. The bill enacted that no vessel should clear out for
slaves from any port within the British dominions after the ist
of May 1807, and that no slave should be landed in the colonies
after the ist of March 1808.
In 1807 the African Institution was formed, with the primary
objects of keeping a vigilant watch on the slave traders and
procuring, if possible, the abolition of the slave trade by the other
European nations. It was also to be made an instrument for
promoting the instruction of the negro races and diffusing in-
formation respecting the African continent.
The Act of 1807 was habitually violated, as the traders knew
that, if one voyage in three was successful, they were abundantly
remunerated for their losses. This state of things, it was plain,
must continue as long as the trade was only a contraband com-
merce, involving merely pecuniary penalties. Accordingly, in
1811, Brougham carried through parliament a bill declaring the
traffic to be a felony punishable with transportation. Some years
later another act was passed, making it a capital offence; but
this was afterwards repealed. The law of 1811 proved effectual
and brought the slave trade to an end so far as the British
dominions were concerned. Mauritius, indeed, continued it for a
time. That island, which had been ceded by France in 1810,
three years after the abolition, had special facilities for escaping
observation in consequence of the proximity of the African coast;
but it was soon obliged to conform.
The abolition of the French slave trade was preceded by struggles
and excesses. The western part of St Domingo, nominally belonging
to Spain, had been occupied by buccaneers, who were
recognized and supported by the French government, and
had been ceded to France at the peace of Ryswick in 1697. So vast
was the annual importation of enslaved negroes into this colony
before 1791 that the ratio of the blacks to the whites was as 16 to I.
In that year there were in French St Domingo 480,000 blacks,
24,000 mulattoes and only 30,000 whites. The French law for the
regulation of slavery in the plantations, known as the Code Noir
(framed under Louis XIV. in 1685), was humane in its spirit; but
we are informed that its provisions were habitually disregarded by
the planters, whilst the free mulattoes laboured under serious griev-
ances and were exposed to irritating indignities. A " Sojci<5t6 des
Amis des Noirs " was formed in Paris in 1788 for the abolition, not
only of the slave trade, but of slavery itself. The president was
Condorcet, and amongst the members were the due de la Roche-
foucault, the Abbs' Gregoire, Brissot, Clayiere, P<5tion and La
Fayette; Mirabeau was an active sympathizer. The great motor
224
SLAVERY
of the parallel effort in England was the Christian spirit ; in France
it was the enthusiasm of humanity which was associated with the
revolutionary movement. There were in 1789 a number of mulattoes
in Paris, who had come from San Domingo to assert the rights of the
people of colour in that colony before the national assembly. The
Declaration of the Rights of Man in August 1789 seemed to meet
their claims, but in March 1790 the assembly, alarmed by rumours
of the discontent and disaffection of the planters in San Domingo,
passed a resolution that it had not been intended to comprehend
the internal government of the colonies in the constitution framed
for the mother country. Vincent Oge, one of the mulatto dele-
gates in Paris, disgusted at the overthrow of the hopes of his
race, returned to San Domingo, and on landing in October 1790
addressed a letter to the governor announcing his intention of taking
up arms on behalf of the mulattoes if their wrongs were not redressed.
He rose accordingly with a few followers, but was soon defeated and
forced to take refuge in the Spanish part of the island. He was after-
wards surrendered, tried and sentenced to be broken on the wheel.
When the news of this reached Paris, it created a strong feeling
against the planters; and on the motion of the Abbe Gregoire it was
resolved by the assembly on the isthof May 1791 " thatthe people of
colour resident in the French colonies, born of free parents, were
entitled to, as of right, and should be allowed, the enjoyment of all the
privileges of French citizens, and among others those of being eligible
to seats both in the parochial and colonial assemblies." On the 23rd of
August a rebellion of the negroes broke out in the northern province
of San Domingo, and soon extended to the western province, where
the mulattoes and blacks combined. Many enormities were com-
mitted by the insurgents, and were avenged with scarcely inferior
barbarity. The French assembly, fearing the loss of the colony, re-
pealed on the 24th of September the decree of the preceding May. This
vacillation put an end to all hope of a reconciliation of parties in the
island. Civil commissioners sent out from France quarrelled with
the governor and called the revolted negroes to their assistance.
The white inhabitants of Cape Francois were massacred and the city
in great part destroyed by fire. The planters now offered their
allegiance to Great Britain; and an English force landed in the
colony. But it was insufficient to encounter the hostility of the re-
publican troops and the revolted negroes and mulattoes; it suffered
from disease, and was obliged to evacuate the island in 1798. On the
departure of the British the government remained in the hands of
Toussaint 1'Ouverture (q.v.). Slavery had disappeared; the blacks
were employed as hired servants, receiving for their remuneration the
third part of the crops they raised ; and the population was rapidly
rising in civilization and comfort. The whole island was now French,
the Spanish portion having been ceded by the treaty of Basel. The
wish of Toussaint was that San Domingo should enjoy a practical
independence whilst recognizing the sovereignty and exclusive
commercial rights of France. The issue of the violent and treacher-
ous conduct of Bonaparte towards the island was that the blacks
drove from their soil the forces sent to subdue them, and founded a
constitution of their own, which was more than once modified.
There can be no doubt that the government of the Restoration, in
seeking to obtain possession of the island, had the intention of re-
establishing slavery, and even of reopening the slave trade for the
purpose of recruiting the diminished population. But Bonaparte
abolished that trade during the Hundred Days, though he also failed
to win back the people of San Domingo, or, as it was now called by its
original name, Haiti, to obedience. The Bourbons, when again
restored, could not reintroduce the slave trade; the notion of
conquering the island had to be given up; and its independence was
formally recognized in 1825 (see HAITI).
England had not been the first European power to abolish the
slave trade; that honour belongs to Denmark; a royal order
was issued on the i6th of May 1792 that the traffic
should cease in the Danish possessions from the end of
movement. 1802. The United States had in 1 794 forbidden any par-
ticipation by American subjects in the slave trade to
foreign countries; they now prohibited the importation of slaves
from Africa into their own dominions. This act was passed on the
2nd of March 1807; it did not, however, come into force till ist
January 1808. At the congress of Vienna (November 1814) the
principle was acknowledged thatthe slave trade should be abolished
as soon as possible; but the determination of the limit of time
was reserved for separate negotiation between the powers. It
had been provided in a treaty between France and Great Britain
(May 30, 1814) that no foreigner should in future introduce slaves
into the French colonies, and that the trade should be absolutely
interdicted to the French themselves after the ist of June 1819.
This postponement of abolition was dictated by the wish to intro-
duce a fresh stock of slaves into Haiti, if that island should be
recovered. Bonaparte, as we have seen, abolished the French slave
trade during his brief restoration, and this abolition was confirmed
at the second peace of Paris on the 2oth of November, 1815, but it
was not effectually carried out by French legislation until March
1818. In January 1815 Portuguese subjects were prohibited from
prosecuting the trade north of the equator, and the term after
which the traffic should be everywhere unlawful was fixed to end
on the 2ist of January 1823, but was afterwards extended to
February 1830; England paid 300,00x3 as a compensation to the
Portuguese. A royal decree was issued on the loth of December
1836 forbidding the export of slaves from any Portuguese posses-
sion. But this decree was often violated. It was agreed that the
Spanish slave trade should come to an end in 1820, England paying
to Spain an indemnification of 400,000. The Dutch trade was
closed in 1814; the Swedish had been abolished in 1813. By the
peace of Ghent, December 1814, the United States and England
mutually bound themselves to do all in their power to extinguish
the traffic. It was at once prohibited in several of the South
American states when they acquired independence, as in La
Plata, Venezuela and Chile. In 1831 and 1833 Great Britain
entered into an arrangement with France for a mutual right of
search within certain seas, to which most of the other powers
acceded; and by the Ashburton treaty (1842) with the United
States provision was made for the joint maintenance of squadrons
on the west coast of Africa. By all these measures the slave trade,
so far as it was carried on under the flags of European nations or
for the supply of their colonies, ceased to exist.
Meantime another and more radical reform had been in pre-
paration and was already in progress, namely, the abolition of
slavery itself in the foreign possessions of the several
states of Europe. When the English slave trade had Aatl '
been closed, it was found that the evils of the traffic, Movement
as still continued by several other nations, were
greatly aggravated. In consequence of the activity of the
British cruisers the traders made great efforts to carry as many
slaves as possible in every voyage, and practised atrocities to
get rid of te slaves when capture was imminent. It was,
besides, the interest of the cruisers, who shared the price of the
captured slave-ship, rather to allow the slaves to be taken on
board than to prevent their being shipped at all. Thrice as
great a number of negroes as before, it was said, was exported
from Africa, and two-thirds of these were murdered on the high
seas. It was found also that the abolition of the British slave
trade did not lead to an improved treatment of the negroes in
the West Indies. The slaves were overworked now that fresh
supplies were stopped, and their numbers rapidly decreased.
In 1807 there were in the West Indies 800,000; in 1830 they
were reduced to 700,000. It became more and more evident
that the evil could be stopped only by abolishing slavery
altogether.
An appeal was made by Wilberforce in 1821 to Thomas Powell
Buxton to undertake the conduct of this new question in parliament.
An anti-slavery society was established in 1823, the principal
members of which, besides Wilberforce and Buxton, were Zachary
Macaulay, Dr Lushington and Lord Suffield. Buxton moved on
the 5th of May 1823 that the House should take into con-
sideration the state of slavery in the British colonies. The object
he and his associates had then in view was gradual abolition by
establishing something like a system of serfdom for existing slaves,
and passing at the same time a measure emancipating all their
children born after a certain day. Canning'carried against Buxton
and his friends a motion to the effect that the desired ameliorations
in the condition and treatment of the slaves should be recommended
by the home government to the colonial legislatures, and enforced
only in case of their resistance, direct action being taken in the
single instance of Trinidad, which, being a crown colony, had no
legislature of its own. A well-conceived series of measures of reform
was accordingly proposed to the colonial authorities. Thereupon
a general outcry was raised by the planters at the acquiescence
of the government in the principles of the anti-slavery party. A
vain attempt being made in Demerara to conceal from the know-
ledge of the slaves the arrival of the order in council, they became
impressed with the idea that they had been set free, and accordingly
refused to work, and, compulsion being resorted to, offered resistance.
Martial law was proclaimed; the disturbances were repressed with
great severity; and the treatment of the missionary Smith, which
was taken up and handled with great ability by Brougham, awakened
strong feeling in England against the planters. The question, how-
ever, made little progress in parliament for some years, though
Buxton, William Smith, Lushington, Brougham, Mackintosh,
Butterworth, and Denman, with the aid of Z. Macaulay, James
SLAVERY
225
Stephen, and others, continued the struggle, only suspending it
during a period allowed to the local legislatures for carrying into
effect the measures expected from them. In 1828 the free people
of colour in the colonies were placed on a footing of legal equality
with their fellow-citizens. In 1830 the public began to be aroused
to a serious prosecution of the main issue. It was becoming plain
that the planters would take no steps tending to the future liberation
of the slaves, and the leaders of the movement determined to urge
the entire abolition of slavery at the earliest practicable period. The
government continued to hesitate and to press for mitigations of the
existing system. At length in 1833 the ministry of Earl Grey took
the question in hand and carried the abolition with little difficulty,
the measure passing the House of Commons on the 7th of August
1833 and receiving the Royal assent on the 28th. A sum of
20 millions sterling was voted as compensation to the planters. A
system of apprenticeship for seven years was established as a transi-
tional preparation for liberty. The slaves were bound to work for
their masters during this period for three-fourths of the day, and
were to be liable to corporal punishment if they did not give the
due amount of labour. The master was, in return, to supply them
with food and clothing. All children under six years of age were
to be at once free, and provision was to be made for their religious
and moral instruction. Many thought the postponement of emanci-
pation unwise. Immediate liberation was carried out in Antigua, and
public tranquillity was so far from being disturbed there that the
Christmas of 1833 was the first for twenty years during which martial
law was not proclaimed in order to preserve the peace. Notwith-
standing protracted and strenuous opposition on the part of the
government, the House of Commons passed a resolution against the
continuance of the transitional system. When this was done the
local legislatures saw that the slaves would no longer work for the
masters; they accordingly cut off two years of the indentured
apprenticeship, and gave freedom to the slaves in August 1838
instead of 1840.
The example of Great Britain was gradually followed by the
other European states, and some American ones had already
taken action of the same kind. The immediate emancipation
of the slaves in the French colonies was decreed by the provisional
government of 1848. In 1858 it was enacted that every slave
belonging to a Portuguese subject should be free*in twenty
years from that date, a system of tutelage being established
in the meantime. This law came into operation on the 2Qth
of April 1878, and the status of slavery was thenceforth illegal
throughout the Portuguese possessions. The Dutch emanci-
pated their slaves in 1863. Several of the Spanish American
states, on declaring their independence, had adopted measures
for the discontinuance of slavery within their limits. It was
abolished by a decree of the Mexican republic on i5th September
1829. The government of Buenos Aires enacted that all children
born to slaves after the 3ist of January 1813 should be free;
and in Colombia it was provided that those born after the i6th
of July 1821 should be liberated on attaining their eighteenth
year.
Three of the most important slave systems still remained
in which no steps towards emancipation had been taken those
of the Southern United States, of Cuba and of Brazil.
Slavery was far from being approved in principle by the most
eminent of the fathers of the American Union. Washington in
his will provided for the emancipation of his own
slaves; he said to Jefferson that it was " among
his first wishes to see some plan adopted by which
slavery in his country might be abolished by law," and again he
wrote that to this subject his own suffrage should never be
wanting. John Adams declared his abhorrence of the practice
of slaveholding, and said that " every measure of prudence ought
to be assumed for the eventual total extirpation of slavery from
the United States." Franklin's opinions we have already
indicated; and Madison, Hamilton, and Patrick Henry all
reprobated the principle of the system. Jefferson declared in
regard to slavery, " I tremble for my country when I reflect
that God is just." The last-named statesman, at the first
Continental Congress after the evacuation by the British forces,
proposed a draft ordinance (March ist 1784) for the government
of the North- West Territory, in which it was provided that " after
the year 1800 there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary
servitude in any of the said states, otherwise than in punish-
ment of crime." This proviso, however, was lost; but in the
Ordinance of 1787 (13 July) for the government of the territory
xxv. 8
of the United States north-west of the Ohio river, which was
introduced by Nathan Dane and probably drafted by Manasseh
Cutler, slavery was forbidden in the Territory. At the con-
vention of Philadelphia in 1787, where the constitution
was drafted, the sentiments of the framers were against
slavery; but South Carolina and Georgia insisted on its
recognition as a condition of their joining the Union, and
even an engagement for the mutual rendition of fugitive slaves
was embodied in the federal pact. The words " slave " and
" slavery " were, however, excluded from the constitution,
" because," as Madison says," they did not choose to admit
the right of property in man " in direct terms; and it was at
the same time provided that Congress might interdict the foreign
slave trade after the expiration of twenty years. It must not be
forgotten that either before or soon after the formation of the
Union the Northern States beginning with Vermont in 1777,
and ending with New Jersey in 1804 either abolished slavery
or adopted measures to effect its gradual abolition within their
boundaries. But the principal operation of (at least) the latter
change was simply to transfer Northern slaves to Southern
markets.
We cannot follow in detail the several steps by which the slave
power for a long time persistently increased its influence in the
Union. The acquisition of Louisiana in 1803, which gave
a new field for the growth of the slave power, though not made
in its interest, the Missouri Compromise (1820), the annexation of
Texas(i84s), theFugitive Slave Law (1850), the Kansas-Nebraska
bill (1854), the Dred Scott decision (1857), the attempts to
acquire Cuba (especially in 1854) and to reopen the foreign slave
trade (1859-1860), were the principal steps only some of them
successful in its career of aggression. They roused a deter-
mined spirit of opposition, founded on deep-seated convictions.
The pioneer of the more recent abolitionist movement was
Benjamin Lundy (1789-1839). He was followed by William
Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879), Elijah P. Lovejoy (1802-1837) '
a martyr, if ever there was one Wendell Phillips, Charles
Sumner, John Brown (b. 1800, hanged 1859), all of whom were
in their several ways leading apostles or promoters of the cause.
The best intellect of America outside the region of practical
politics has been on the anti-slavery side. William E. Channing,
R. W. Emerson, the poets Bryant, Longfellow, pre-eminently
Whittier and Whitman, have spoken on this theme with no
uncertain sound. The South, and its partisans in the North,
made desperate efforts to prevent the free expression of opinion
respecting the institution, and even the Christian churches in the
slave states used their influence in favour of the maintenance of
slavery. But in spite of every such effort opinion steadily grew.
Public sentiment in the North was deeply stirred by the Uncle
Tom's Cabin (1852) of Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe, which, as
Senior said, under the disguise of a novel was really a pamphlet
against the Fugitive Slave Law. It gradually became apparent
that the question could not be settled without an armed conflict.
The election of Abraham Lincoln as president in November
1860 was the signal for the rising of the South. The North at
first took arms simply to maintain the Union; but the far-
sighted politicians from the first, and soon the whole nation, saw
that the real issue was the continued existence or the total
abolition of slavery. (See UNITED STATES.)
The war was practically closed by the surrender at Appomattox
(9th April 1865), but already in 1862 slavery in the Territories
had been abolished by Congress; on the 22nd of September of
the same year Lincoln (q.i>.) had issued the preliminary
emancipation proclamation, followed on the ist of January 1863
by the emancipation of all slaves in the states in arms against
the Union; and in December 1865 a constitutional amendment
was ratified abolishing and forever prohibiting slavery through-
out the United States.
The Spanish slave code, promulgated in 1789, is admitted on
all hands to have been very humane in its character; and, in con-
sequence of this, after Trinidad had become an English Cuba.
possession, the anti-slavery party resisted and success-
fully the attempt of the planters (1811) to have the Spanish law
in that island replaced by the British. But notwithstanding this
226
SLAVERY
mildness of the code, its provisions were habitually and glaringly
violated in the colonies of Spain, and in Cuba particularly the con-
ditions of slavery were very bad. The slave population of the island
was estimated in 1792 at 84,000; in 1817 at 179,000; in 1827 at
286,000; and in 1843 at 436,000. An act was passed by the Spanish
legislature in 1870, providing that every slave who had then passed,
or should thereafter pass, the age of sixty should be at once free, and
that all yet unborn children of slaves should also be free. The latter,
however, were to be maintained at the expense of the proprietors
up to their eighteenth year, and during that time to be kept, as
apprentices, to such work as was suitable for their age. This was
known as the Moret Law, having been carried through the house of
representatives by Senor Moret y Prendergast, then minister for the
colonies. By the census of 1867 there was in Cuba a total popula-
tion of 1,370,211 persons, of whom 764,750 were whites and 605,461
black or coloured; and of the latter number 225,938 were free and
379.5 2 3 were slaves. In 1873 the Cubans roughly estimated the
population at 1,500,000 of whom 500,000, or one-third, were
slaves. Mr Crowe, consul-general in the island, in 1885, stated that
" the institution was rapidly dying, that in a year, or at most
two, slavery, even in its then mild form, would be extinct."
There was a convention between Great Britain and Brazil in
1826 for the abolition of the slave trade, but it was habitually
Brazil. violated in spite of the English cruisers. In 1830 the
traffic was declared piracy by the emperor of Brazil.
England asserted by the Aberdeen Act (1845) the right of seizing
suspected craft in Brazilian waters. Yet by the connivance of the
local administrative authorities 54,000 Africans continued to be
annually imported. In 1850 the trade is said to have been decisively
put down. The planters and mine proprietors cried out against this
as a national calamity. The closing of the traffic made the labour
of the slaves more severe, and led to the employment on the planta-
tions of many who before had been engaged in domestic work; but
the slavery of Brazil had always been lighter than that of the United
States. On 28th September 1871 the Brazilian chambers decreed
that slavery should be abolished throughout the empire. Though
existing slaves were to remain slaves still, with the exception of
those possessed by the government, who were liberated by the act,
facilities for emancipation were given; and it was provided that
all children born of female slaves after the day on which the law
passed should be free. They were, however, bound to serve the
owners of their mothers for a term of 21 years. A clause was in-
serted to the effect that a certain sum should be annually set aside
from fines to aid each province in emancipating slaves by purchase.
Seven years before the passing of this act the emperor, whose influence
had always been exerted in favour of freedom, had liberated his
private slaves, and many Brazilians after 1871 followed his example.
Finally, in 1888 the chambers decreed the total abolition of slavery,
some 700,000 persons being accordingly freed.
In the colonies of more than one European country, after the
prohibition of the slave trade, attempts were made to replace it
Disguised ky a system of importing labourers of the inferior races
slave under contracts for a somewhat lengthened term; and
ffgjg this was in several instances found to degenerate into a
sort of legalized slave traffic. About 1867 we began to
hear of a system of this kind which was in operation between the
South Sea Islands and New Caledonia and the white settlements in
Fiji. It seems to have begun in really voluntary agreements; but
for these the unscrupulous greed of the traders soon substituted
methods of fraud and violence. The natives were decoyed into the
labour ships under false pretences, and then detained by force; or
they were seized on shore or in their canoes and carried on board.
The nature of the engagements to go and work on the plantations
was not fully explained to them, and they were hired for periods
exceeding the legal term. The area of this trade was ere long
further extended. In 1884 attention was drawn in a special degree
to the Queensland traffic in Pacific Islanders by the " Hopeful "
trials, and a government commission was appointed to inquire into
the methods followed by labour ships in recruiting the natives of
New Guinea, the Louisiade Archipelago, and the D'Entrecasteaux
group of islands. The result of the investigations, during which
nearly five hundred witnesses were examined, was the disclosure of
a system which in treachery and atrocity was little inferior to the
old African slave trade. These shameful deeds made the islanders
regard it as a duty to avenge their wrongs on any white men they
could entice upon their shores. The bishop of Melanesia, John
Coleridge Patteson, fell a victim to this retaliation on the island of
Nukapu 2Oth September 1871.
We have seen that the last vestiges of the monstrous anomaly
of modern colonial slavery are disappearing from all civilized
states and their foreign possessions. It now remains to consider
the slavery of primitive origin which has existed within recent
times, or continues to exist, outside of the Western world.
In Russia, a country which had not the same historical ante-
cedents with the Western nations, properly so called, and which is
in fact more correctly classed as Eastern, whilst slavery had dis-
appeared, serfdom was in force down to our own days. The rural
population of that country, at the earliest period accessible to
our inquiries, consisted of (l) slaves, (2) free agricultural labourers,
and (3) peasants proper, who were small farmers or cottiers and
members of a commune. The sources of slavery were there, ss ,
as elsewhere, capture in war, voluntary sale by poor . , , ,
freemen of themselves, sale of insolvent debtors, and the
action of the law in certain criminal cases. In the l8th century we
find the distinction between the three classes named above effaced
and all of them merged in the class of serfs, who were the property
either of the landed proprietors or of the state. They were not even
adscripts glebae, though forbidden to migrate; an imperial ukase of
1721 says, " the proprietors sell their peasants and domestic servants,
not even in families, but one by one, like cattle." This practice, at
first tacitly sanctioned by the government, which received dues on
the sales, was at length formally recognized by several imperial
ukases. Peter the Great imposed a poll-tax on all the members of
the rural population, making the proprietors responsible for the
tax charged on their serfs; and the " free wandering people " who
were not willing to enter the army were required to settle on the
land either as members of a commune or as serfs of some proprietor.
The system of serfdom attained its fullest development in the reign
of Catherine II. The serfs were bought, sold, and given in presents,
sometimes with the land, sometimes without it, sometimes in families
and sometimes individually, sale by public auction being alone for-
bidden, as " unbecoming in a European state." The proprietors
could transport without trial their unruly serfs to Siberia or send
them to the mines for life, and those who presented complaints against
their masters were punished with the knout and condemned to the
mines. The first symptoms of a reaction appear in the reign of
Paul (1796-1801). He issued an ukase that the serfs should not be
forced to work for their masters more than three days in each week.
There were several feeble attempts at further reform, and even
abortive projects of emancipation, from the commencement of the
igth century. But no decisive measures were taken before the
accession of Alexander II. (1855). That emperor, after the Crimean
War, created a secret committee composed of the great officers of
state, called the chief committee for peasant affairs, to study the
subject of serf-emancipation. Of this body the grand-duke Con-
stantine was an energetic member. To accelerate the proceedings
of the committee advantage was taken of the following incident.
In the Lithuanian provinces the relations of the masters and serfs
were regulated in the time of Nicholas by what were called in-
ventories. The nobles, dissatisfied with these, now sought to have
them revised. The government interpreted the application as im-
plying a wish for the abolition of serfdom, and issued a rescript
authorizing the formation of committees to prepare definite pro-
posals for a gradual emancipation. A circular was soon after sent
to the governors and marshals of the nobility all over Russia proper,
informing them of this desire of the Lithuanian nobles, and setting
out the fundamental principles which should be observed " if the
nobles of the provinces should express a similar desire." Public
opinion strongly favoured the projected reform ; and even the masters
who were opposed to it saw that, if the operation became necessary,
it would be more safely for their interests intrusted to the nobles
than to the bureaucracy. Accordingly during 1858 a committee
was created in nearly every province in which serfdom existed.
From the schemes prepared by these committees, a general plan had
to be elaborated, and the government appointed a special imperial
commission for this purpose. The plan was formed, and, in spite of
some opposition from the nobles, which was suppressed, it became
law, and serfdom was abolished (igth February = 3rd March 1861).
(See RUSSIA.) The total number of serfs belonging to proprietors
at the time of the emancipation was 21,625,609, of whom 20,158,231
were peasant serfs and 1 ,467,378 domestic serfs. This number does
not include the state serfs, who formed about one-half of the rural
population. Their position had been better, as a rule, than that of
the serfs on private estates; it might indeed, Mr (afterwards Sir)
R. D. M. Wallace says, be regarded as " an intermediate position
between serfage and freedom." Amongst them were the serfs on the
lands formerly belonging to the church, which had been secularized
and transformed into state demesnes by Catherine II. There were
also serfs on the apanages affected to the use of the imperial family ;
these amounted to nearly three and a half millions. Thus by the
law of 1861 more than forty millions of serfs were emancipated.
The slavery of the Mahommedan East is usually not the slavery
of the field but of the household. The slave is a member of the
family, and is treated with tenderness and affection. The Mahom-
Koran breathes a considerate and kindly spirit towards tnedaa
the class, and encourages manumission. The child of a slave slavery.
girl by her master is born free, and the mother is usually
raised to be a free wife. The traffic in slaves has been repeatedly
declared by the Ottoman Porte to be illegal throughout its dominions,
and a law for its suppression was published in 1889, but it cannot be
said to be extinct, owing to the laxity and too often the complicity
of the government officials. In Egypt it has practically died out.
In the days of the colonial slave trade its African centre was the
region about the mouths of the rivers Calabar and Bonny, whither
the captive negroes were brought from great distances Africa,
in the interior. As many slaves, Clarkson tells us, came
annually from this part of the coast as from all the rest of Africa
besides. The principal centres from which the supply was furnished
SLAVONIC, OLD
227
to Egypt, Turkey, Arabia, and Persia were three in number, (i) The
central Sudan appeared to be one vast hunting-ground. Captives
were brought thence to the slave market of Kuka in Bornu, where,
after being bought by dealers, they were, to the number of about
10,000 annually, marched across the Sahara to Murzuk in Fezzan,
from which place they were distributed to the northern and eastern
Mediterranean coasts. Their sufferings on the route were dreadful ;
many succumbed and were abandoned. Rohlfs informs us that
" any one who did not know the way " by which the caravans passed
41 would only have to follow the bones which lie right and left of
the track." Negroes were also brought to Morocco from the Western
Sudan and from Timbuktu. The centre of the traffic in Morocco
was Sidi Hamed ibn Musa, seven days' journey south of Mogador,
where a great yearly fair was held. The slaves were forwarded
thence in gangs to different towns, especially to Marrakesh, Fez
and Mequinez. About 4000 were thus annually imported, and an
ad valorem duty was levied by the sultan, which produced about
4800 of annual revenue. The control now exercised by the French
over the greater part of the western Sudan has deprived Morocco
of its chief sources of supply. Slavery, however, still flourishes in
that empire. (2) The basin of the Upper Nile, extending to the
great lakes, was another region infested by the slave trade; the
slaves were either smuggled into Egypt or sent by the Red Sea to
Turkey. The khedive Ismail in 1869 appointed Sir Samuel Baker
to the command of a large force with which he was " to strike a
direct blow at the slave trade in its distant nest." The work begun
by him was continued by Colonel C. G. Gordon (1874 to 1879), but
under the Mahdi and the Khalifa the slave trade was revived. Since
the reconquest of the eastern Sudan by an Anglo-Egyptian force in
1898 effective measures have been taken to suppress slave raiding
and as far as possible slavery itself. The conquest of the central
Sudan states by France completed in 1910 by the subjugation of
Wadai has practically ended the caravan trade in slaves across the
Sahara. (3) There was for long a slave trade from the Portuguese
possessions on the East African coast. The stream of supply came
mainly from the southern Nyasa districts by three or four routes to
Ibo, Mozambique, Angoche and Quilimane. Madagascar and the
Comoro Islands obtained most of their slaves from the Mozambique
coast. It was believed in 1862 that about 19,000 passed every year
from the Nyasa regions to Zanzibar, whence large supplies were
drawn for the markets of Arabia and Persia up to 1873. The mission
of Sir Bartle Frere to the sultan of Zanzibar in 1873 brought about a
treaty for the suppression of the slave trade. It is said that, whereas
10,000 slaves formerly passed the southern end of the Nyasa every
year, in 1876 not more than 38 were known to have been conveyed
by that route. Lieutenant O'Neill, British consul at Mozambique,
writing in 1880, fixed at about 3000 the number then annually ex-
ported from the coast between the rivers Rovuma and Zambesi.
With the establishment of a British protectorate at Zanzibar, and
of British and German protectorates on the mainland of East Africa
and in the region of the head-waters of the Nile, the East African
slave trade received its death-blow. Slavery itself has been abolished
in the Zanzibar, British, German and Portuguese dominions, and had
ceased in Madagascar even before its conquest by the French. The
complete control of the seaboard by European powers has rendered
the smuggling of slaves to Arabia and Persia a difficult and dangerous
occupation.
A new era was opened up by the discovery of the course of the
Congo by H. M. Stanley, the founding of the Congo Free State by
Leopold II. of Belgium and the partition of the greater part of
Africa between various European powers. Though the history of
the Congo Free State affords a painful contrast to the philanthropic
professions of its founder, in other parts of the continent the establish-
ment of protectorates by Great Britain, France and Germany was
followed by strenuous, and largely successful, efforts to put down
slave raiding. In parts where European authority remained weak,
as in the hinterland of the Portuguese province of Angola and the
adjacent regions of Central Africa, native potentates continued to
raid their neighbours, and from this region many labourers were
(up to 1910) Forcibly taken to work on the cocoa plantation in St
Thomas (q.v.). With the accession of Albert I. to the Belgian
throne in 1909 a serious endeavour was made to improve the state
of affairs in the Congo. At the close of the first decade of the 2Oth
century it might be said that over the greater part of Africa slave
raiding was a thing of the past.
Clarkson first, and Buxton afterwards, whilst they urged all
other means for the suppression or discouragement of the slave
trade and slavery, saw clearly that the only thoroughly effectual
method would be the development of legitimate commerce in
Africa itself. When Buxton published in 1840 his book entitled
The Slave Trade and its Remedy, this was the remedy he contem-
plated. The unfortunate Niger expedition of 1841 was directed to
similar ends; and it has been more and more felt by all who were
interested in the subject that here lies the radical solution of the
great problem. It was for some time thought that from Sierra
Leone as a centre industry and civilization might be diffused amongst
the nations of the continent; and in 1822 the colony (which in 1847
became the independent republic) of Liberia had been founded by
Americans with a similar object; but in neither case have these
expectations been adequately fulfilled.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. On the several branches of the subject of slavery
and serfdom information may be obtained from the following works :
On Ancient Slavery: H. Wallon, Histoire de I'esclavage dans
I'antiquite (3 vols., 1847; 2nd ed., 1879) ; A. Boeckh, Public Economy
of Athens, Eng. trans, by G. Cornewall Lewis (1828; 2nd ed., 1842);
William Blair, Inquiry into the State of Slavery among the Romans,
from the Earliest Period to the Establishment of the Lombards in Italy
(1833) ; Dureau de la Malle, iLconomie politique des Remains (2 vols.,
1840); M. Troplong, De I' influence du Christianisme sur le droit
civil des Remains (2nd ed., 1855); Ebeling, Die Sklaverei von den
dltesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart (Paderborn, 1889); W. W.
Buckland, The Roman Law of Slavery (Cambridge, 1909) ; A. Calderini,
La Manomissione dei liberti in Grecia (Milan, 1908).
On Medieval Slavery and Serfdom : G. Humbert, article " Colonat "
in the Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines of Daremberg
and Saglio; J. Yanoski, De I'abolition de I'esclavage ancien au
moyen dge et de sa transformation en servitude de la glebe (Wallon
and Yanoski had jointly composed a memoir to compete for a prize
offered by the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences in 1837;
Wallon's portion of the memoir became the foundation of his Histoire
de I'esclavage dans I'antiquite above mentioned; Yanoski's part, the
expansion of which was prevented by his early death, was posthu-
mously published in 1860; it is no more than a slight sketch);
Benjamin Guerard, Prolegomenes au Polyptyque d'Irminon (1844);
Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des institutions politiques de I'ancienne
France (2nd ed., 1877), and Recherches sur quelques problemes
d'histoire (1885) (the latter work contains an admirable discussion
of the whole subject of the colonatus, founded throughout on the
original texts) ; Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (3 vols.,
1874-1878). On the Colonial Slave Trade and Slavery: Washington
Irving, Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), several
times reprinted; Arthur Helps, Life of Las Casas (1868); Bryan
Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, of the British West Indies
(1793; 5th ed. in 5 vols., 1819); Thomas Clarkson, History of the
Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African
Slave Trade by the British Parliament (2 vols., 1808) ; T. Fowell
Buxton, African Slave Trade (2nd ed., 1838), and The Remedy, a
Sequel (1840); Memoirs of Sir T. F. Buxton, edited by his son
Charles Buxton (3rd ed., 1849). On North American Slavery: G. M.
Stroud, Laws relating to Slavery in America (2nd ed., 1856); H.
Greeley, The American Conflict (1865); John E. Cairnes, The Slave
Power, its Character, Career, and Probable Designs (1862; 2nd ed.,
1863); H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in
America (Boston, 1872); Johns Hopkins University Studies in
Historical and Political Science (Baltimore, 18891902); Du Bois,
Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States (New
York, 1896) ; Merriam, The Negro^ and the Nation (New York, 1906) ;
Sir H. H. Johnston, The Negro in the New World (London, 1910);
Ballagh, A History of Slavery in Virginia (Baltimore, 1902); B. B.
Munford, Virginia's Attitude toward Slavery (London, 1909), and A.
Johnston, History of American Politics (New York, 4th ed., 1898);
H. E. von Hoist, The Constitutional and Political History of the
United States (Chicago, 1899). On Brazilian: Fletcher and Kidder,
Brazil and the Brazilians (gth ed., 1879). On Russian Serfdom:
D. Mackenzie Wallace, Russia (1877). For the African slave trade,
and Egyptian and Turkish slavery, the Ismailia of Sir S. Baker, the
writings of Livingstone, and the biographies of Gordon may be
consulted, besides the many documents on these subjects published
by the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society. There are two
volumes by A. Tourmagne, entitled respectively Histoire de I'esclavage
ancien et moderne (1880) and Histoire du servage ancien et moderne
(1879), which bring together many facts relating to slavery and
serfdom; but they are somewhat loose and uncritical; the author,
too, repeats himself much, and dwells on many topics scarcely if at
all connected with his main themes; see also H. I. Nieboer, Slavery
as an Industrial System (The Hague, 1900); W. H. Smith, Political
History of Slavery (London, 1903). The largest and most philosophi-
cal views on slavery generally will be found in Hume's essay On
the Populousness of Antient Nations," and in Comte's Philosophic
positive, vol. v., and Politique positive, vol. iii. For its economic
effects, when it is regarded as an organization of labour, reference
may be had to Smith's Wealth of Nations, book iii. chap. 2, J. S.
Mill's Political Economy, book ii. chap. 5, and J. E. Cairnes's Slave
Power, chap. 2. (J- K - !! X.)
SLAVONIC, OLD. In the article SLAVS (under Languages) will
be found a fairly complete account of Old Slavonic in its first form,
as it is taken as representing, save for a few peculiarities noticed
in their place, the Proto-Slavonic. The reasons are there given
for believing it to be the dialect of Slavs settled somewhere
between Thessalonica and Constantinople and represented now
by the Bulgarians and Macedonians.
After the language had been fixed by the original translations
of the New Testament and other Church books it was no more
consciously adapted to the dialects of the various peoples, but
was used equally among the Croats (whose books were accom-
modated to the Roman use and written in Glagolitic), Serbs and
228
SLAVS
Russians. These insensibly altered them to make the words
easier and allowed their native languages to show through; and
the same was the case with the Bulgarians, whose language soon
began to lose some of the characteristics of O.S. Hence our
earliest MSS. already show departure from the norm which can
be established by comparison; about a dozen (8 Glagolitic)
MSS. and fragments afford trustworthy material dating from
the loth and nth centuries, but even then the S. Slavs were weak
in distinguishing i and y, the Russians mixed up <? with u, $
with ja and so on; but in the actual texts great conservatism
prevailed, whereas any additions, such as colophons or marks of
ownership, betray the dialect of the writer more clearly, and such
scraps and a few deeds are our earliest authorities for Servian
and Russian. But the Church language as insensibly modified
continued to be the literary language of Croatia until the i6th
century, of Russia until 1700, and of Bulgaria, Servia and
Rumania until the early part of the ipth century, and is still
the liturgical language of Dalmatia, the Balkans, Russia and the
Ruthenian Uniates.
Its literature was enriched in the second generation by the
works of Clement, bishop of Ochrida, and John, exarch of Bulgaria,
and other writers of the time of Tsar Simeon, but it is almost all
ecclesiastical in character. Perhaps the most interesting book
in Church Slavonic is the Russian chronicle, but that has many
old Russian forms. Otherwise certain translations of Greek
Apocrypha are of importance, especially when the Greek original
is lost, e.g. the Book of Enoch; other Apocrypha in Church
Slavonic are said to have been written by Jeremias, a Bogomil
priest, but they are probably derived from Eastern sources. The
Slavonic text of the Bible is not of importance for textual
criticism, as the translation was made late, and even so has never
been studied from that point of view. The whole Bible was not
finished till the isth century, some of the less necessary books
being translated from the Vulgate.
SLAVS. Judged by the language test, and no other is readily
available, the Slavs are the most numerous race in Europe,
amounting to some 140,000,000 souls. Outside Europe there
are the Russians in Siberia, a mere extension of the main body,
and a large number of emigrants settled in America, where,
however, although most of the nationalities have their own
newspapers, the second generation of immigrants tends to be
assimilated.
Divisions and Distribution. The Slavs are divided geo-
graphically into three main groups, Eastern, North-Western and
Southern; linguistically also the same division is convenient.
The Russians stand by themselves as the Eastern group.
They hold all the East European plain from the 27th meridian
to the Urals, the Finnish and Tatar tribes making up but a small
proportion of the population: beyond these limits to the east
they stretch into central Siberia and thence in narrow bands
along the rivers all the way to the Pacific; on the west the
Ruthenians (q.v.) of Galicia form a wedge between the Poles and
the Magyars and almost touch the 2oth meridian. The Russians
must number 100,000,000.
The North-Western group includes the Poles, about 1 5,000,000,
in the basin of the Vistula; the Kashubes (q.v.), about 200,000,
on the coast north-west of Danzig; the High and Low Sorbs
(q.v.) or Wends in Lusatia, 180,000 Slavs completely sur-
rounded by Germans; the Cechs (Czech, q.v.) in the square of
Bohemia, making up with theireastern neighbours, the Moravians,
a people of 6,000,000 in northern Austria surrounded on three
sides by Germans. In the north of Hungary, connecting up
Ruthenians, Poles and Moravians, but most closely akin to the
latter, are 2,500,000 Slovaks (q.v.). With the Sorbs, Poles and
Kashubes are to be classed the now teutonized Slavs of central
Germany, who once stretched as far to the north-west as Riigen
and Holstein and to the south-west to the Saale. They are gener-
ally called Polabs (q.v.), of Slavson the Elbe, as their last survivors
were found on that river in the eastern corner of Hanover.
The Southern Slavs, Slovenes (q.v.), Serbo-Croats (see SERVIA)
and Bulgarians (see BULGARIA), are cut off from the main body
by the Germans of Austria proper and the Magyars, both
of whom occupy soil once Slavonic, and have absorbed much
Slavonic blood, and by the Rumanians of Transylvania and the
Lower Danube, who represent the original Dacians romanized.
These Slavs occupy the main mass of the Balkan Peninsula
downwards from the Julian Alps and the line of the Muhr,
Drave and Danube. North of this all three races have consider-
able settlements in southern Hungary. Their southern boundary
is very ill-defined, various nationalities being closely intermingled.
To the south-west the Slavs march with the Albanians, to the
south-east with the Turks, and to the south and along the Aegean
coasts they have the Greeks as neighbours.
Although the Southern Slavs fall into these three divisions,
linguistically the separation is not sharp, nor does it coincide
with the political frontiers. Roughly speaking, the eastern half
of the peninsula is held by the Bulgarians, some 5,000,000 in
number, the western half by the Serbo-Croats, of whom there
must be about 8,000,000. This is the most divided of the
Slavonic races; its members profess three forms of religion and
use three alphabets the Serbs and Bosnians being mostly
Orthodox and using the Cyrillic alphabet, but including many
Mussulmans; the Croats being Roman Catholics, writing with
Latin letters; and the Dalmatians also Roman Catholics, but
using, some of them, the ancient Glagolitic script for their
Slavonic liturgy. The language also falls into three dialects
independent of the religions, and across all these lines run the
frontiers of the political divisions the kingdom of Servia (more
correctly written Serbia); the kingdom of Montenegro; the
Turkish provinces of Old Servia and Novibazar, still in Turkish
hands; those of Bosnia and Herzegovina, annexed by Austria;
the coast-line and islands of Istria and Dalmatia, which also form
part of Austria; and the kingdom of Croatia, which is included
in the dominion of Hungary, to say nothing of outlying colonies
in Hungary itself and in Italy. In the extreme north-west, in
Carniola, in the southern parts of Styria and Carinthia, and over
the Italian border in the province of Udine and the Vale of
Resia live the Slovenes, something under 1,500,000, much divided
dialectically. Between the Slovenes and the Croats there are
transition dialects, and about 1840 there was an attempt (Illyrism)
to establish a common literary language. In Macedonia and along
the border are special varieties of Bulgarian, some of which
approach Servian. Akin to the Macedonians were the Slavs, who
once occupied the whole of Greece and left traces in the place-
names, though they long ago disappeared among the older
population. Akin to the Slovenes were the old inhabitants of
Austria and south-west Hungary before the intrusion of the
Germans and Magyars.
History. This distribution of the Slavs can be accounted for
historically. In spite of traditions (e.g. the first Russian chronicle
of Pseudo-Nestor) which bring them from the basin of the Danube,
most evidence goes to show that when they formed one people
they were settled to the north-east of the Carpathians in the basins
of the Vistula, Pripet and Upper Dnestr (Dniester). To the
N. they had their nearest relatives, the ancestors of the Baltic
tribes, Prussians, Lithuanians and Letts; to the E. Finns; to the
S.E. the Iranian population of the Steppes of Scythia (q.v.);
to the S.W., on the other side of the Carpathians, various Thracian
tribes; to the N.W. the Germans; between the Germans and
Thracians they seem to have had some contact with the Celts,
but this was not the first state of things, as the Illyrians, Greeks
and Italians probably came between. This location, arrived
at by a comparison of the fragmentary accounts of Slavonic
migrations and their distribution in historic time, is confirmed
by its agreement with the place taken by the Slavonic language
among the other Indo-European languages (see below), and by
what we know of the place-names of eastern Europe, in that for
this area they seem exclusively Slavonic, outside it the oldest
names belong to other languages. The archaeological evidence
is not yet cleared up, as, for the period we have to consider,
the late neolithic and early bronze age, the region above defined
is divided between three different cultures, represented by the
fields of urns in Lusatia and Silesia, cist graves with cremation in
Poland, and the poor and little-known graves of the Dnepr
SLAVS
229
(Dnieper) basin. This variety may to some extent be due to the
various cultural influences to which the same race was exposed,
the western division lying on the route between the Baltic and
Mediterranean, the central being quite inaccessible, the eastern
part in time snowing in its graves the influence of the Steppe
people and the Greek colonies in Scythia. There is a gradual
transition to cemeteries with Roman objects which shade off
into such as are certainly Slavonic.
The physical type of the Slavs is not sufficiently clear to help
in throwing light upon the past of the race. Most of the modern
Slavs are rather short-headed, the Balkan Slavs being tall and
dark, those of central Europe dark and of medium height, the
Russians on the whole rather short though the White and Little
Russians are of medium height; in complexion the southern
Russians are dark, the northern light, but with less decided
colour than fair western Europeans. In spite of the prevalent
brachycephaly of the modern Slavs, measurements of skulls from
cemeteries and ancient graves which are certainly Slavonic have
shown, against all expectation, that the farther back we go the
greater is the proportion of long heads, and the race appears to
have been originally dolichocephalic and osteologically indis-
tinguishable from its German, Baltic and Finnish neighbours.
In its present seats it must have assimilated foreign elements,
German and Celtic in central Europe, Finnish and Turkish in
Great and Little Russia, all these together with Thracian and
Illyrian in the Balkans; but how much the differences between
the various Slavonic nations are due to admixture, how much
to their new homes, has not been made clear.
In spite of the vast area which the Slavs have occupied in
historic times there is no reason to claim for them before the
migrations a wider homeland than that above defined beyond
the Carpathians; given favourable circumstances a nation
multiplies so fast (e.g. the Anglo-Saxons in the last hundred and
twenty years) that we can set no limits to the area that a com-
paratively small race could cover in the course of four centuries.
Therefore the mere necessity of providing them with ancestors
sufficiently numerous does not compel us to seek for the Slavs
among any of the populous nations of the ancient world. Various
investigators have seen Slavs in Scythians, Sarmatians, Thracians,
Illyrians, and in fact in almost all the barbarous tribes which have
been mentioned in the east of Europe, but we can refer most of
such tribes to their real affinities much better than the ancients,
and at any rate we can be sure that none of these were Slavs.
There is no evidence that the Slavs made any considerable
migration from their first home until the ist century A.D.
Their first Transcarpathian seat lay singularly remote from
the knowledge of the Mediterranean peoples. Herodotus (iv. 17,
51, 105) does seem to mention the Slavs under the name of
Neuri (q.v.), at least the Neuri on the upper waters of the Dnestr
are in the right place for Slavs, and their lycanthropy suggests
modern Slavonic superstitions; so we are justified in equating
Neuri and Slavs, though we have no direct statement of their
identity. Other classical writers down to and including Strabo
tell us nothing of eastern Europe beyond the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the Euxine.
Pliny (N.H. iv. 97) is the first to give the Slavs a name which
can leave us in no doubt. He speaks of the Venedi (cf. Tacitus,
Germania, 46, Veneti); Ptolemy (Geog. iii. 5. 7, 8) calls them
Venedae and puts them along the Vistula and by the Venedic
gulf, by which he seems to mean the Gulf of Danzig: he also
speaks of the Venedic mountains to the south of the sources of
the Vistula, that is, probably the northern Carpathians. The
name Venedae is clearly Wend, the name that the Germans have
always applied to the Slavs. Its meaning is unknown. It has
been the cause of much confusion because of the Armorican
Veneti, the Paphlagonian Enetae, and above all the Enetae-
Venetae at the head of the Adriatic. Enthusiasts have set all
of these down as Slavs, and the last with some show of reason,
as nowadays we have Slovenes just north of Venice. However,
inscriptions in the Venetian language are sufficient to prove
that it was not Slavonic. Other names in Ptolemy which almost
certainly denote Slavonic tribes are the Veltae on the Baltic,
ancestors of the Wiltzi, a division of the Polabs (q.v.), the Sulani
and the Saboci, whose name is a Slavonic translation of the
Transmontani of another source.
Unless we are to conjecture Stlavani for Ptolemy's Stavani, or
to insist on the resemblance of his Suobeni to Slovene, the name
Slav first occurs in Pseudo-Caesarius (Dialogues, ii. no; Migne,
P.G. xxxviii. 985, early 6th century), but the earliest definite
account of them under that name is given by Jordanes (Getica,
v - 34) 3S> c - 55 A.D.): Dacia . . . ad coronae spenem arduis
Alpibus emunita, iuxta quorum sinistrum latus, qui in aquilone
vergit, ab ortu Vistulae fluminis per immensa spatia Venetharum
populosa natio consedit. Quorum nomina licet nunc per varias
familias et loca mutentur, principaliter tamen Sclaveni et Antes
nominantur. Sclaveni a civilate Novietunense (Noviodunum,
IsakCa on the Danube Delta) . . . usque ad Danastrum et in
bar earn Viscla tenus commorantur . . . Antes vero, qui sunt
corum fortissimi, qua Ponticum mare curiialur a Danastro exten-
duntur usque ad Danaprum; cf. xxiii. 119, where these tribes are
said to form part of the dominions of Hermanrich. Sclaveni, or
something like it, has been the regular name for the Slavs from
that day to this. The native form is Slovene; in some cases,
e.g. in modern Russian under foreign influence, we have an a
instead of the o. The combination si was difficult to the Greeks
and Romans and they inserted /, th or most commonly c, which
continues to crop up. So too in Arabic Saqaliba, Saqldb. The
name has been derived from slow, a word, or slava, glory, either
directly or through the -slav which forms the second element in so
many Slavonic proper names, but no explanation is satisfactory.
The word " slave " and its cognates in most European languages
date from the time when the Germans supplied the slave-markets
of Europe with Slavonic captives. The name Antes we find applied
to the Eastern Slavs by Jordanes; it may be another form of
Wend. Anlae is used by Procopius (B.C. iii. 14). He likewise
distinguishes them from the Sclaveni, but says that both spoke
the same language and both were formerly called Spori, which
has been identified with Serb, the racial name now surviving in
Lusatia and Servia. Elsewhere he speaks of the measureless
tribes of the Antae; this appellation is used by the Byzantines
until the middle of the 7th century.
The sudden appearance in the 6th-century writers of definite
names for the Slavs and their divisions means that by then the
race had made itself familiar to the Graeco-Roman world, that
it had spread well beyond its original narrow limits, and had
some time before come into contact with civilisation. This may
have been going on since the ist century A.D., and evidence of
it has been seen in the southward movement of the Costoboci
into northern Dacia (Ptolemy) and of the Carpi to the Danube
(A.D. 200), but their Slavonic character is not established. A few
ancient names on the Danube, notably that of the river Tsierna
(Cerna, black), have a Slavonic look, but a coincidence is quite
possible. The gradual spread of the Slavs was masked by the
wholesale migrations of the Goths, who for two centuries lorded
it over the Slavs, at first on the Vistula and then in south Russia.
We hear more of their movements because they were more
immediately threatening for the Empire. In dealing with
Ptolemy's location of the Goths and Slavs we must regard the
former as superimposed upon the latter and occupying the same
territories. This domination of the Goths was of enormous
importance in the development of the Slavs. By this we may
explain the presence of a large number of Germanic loan words
common to all the Slavonic languages, many of them words of
cultural significance. " King, penny, house, loaf, earring " all
appear in Slavonic; the words must have come from the Goths
and prove their strong influence, although the things must have
been familiar before. On the other hand " plough " is said to be
Slavonic, but that is not certain. When the Huns succeeded
the Goths as masters of central Europe, they probably made the
Slavs supply them with contingents. Indeed their easy victory
may have been due to the dissatisfaction of the Slavs. Priscus
(Miiller, F.H.G. iv. p. 69, cf. Jord. Get. xlix. 258) in his account
of the camp of Attila mentions words which may be Slavonic,
but have also been explained from German. After the fall of
230
SLAVS
the Hunnish power the Eastern Goths and Gepidae pressed
southwards and westwards to the conquest of the Empire, and
the Lombards and Heruli followed in their tracks. When next
we get a view of northern Germany we find it full of Slavs, e.g.
from Procopius (B.C. ii. 15) we know that they held the Mark
of Brandenburg by 512; but this settlement was effected without
attracting the attention of any contemporary writer. Modern
historians seem to adopt their attitude to the process according
to their view of the Slavs; German writers, in their contempt
for the Slavs, mostly deny the possibility of their having forced
German tribes to leave their homes, and assume that the riches
of southern Europe attracted the latter so that they willingly
gave up their barren northern plains; most Slavonic authors
have taken the same view in accordance with the idealistic
picture of the peaceful, kindly, democratic Slavs who contrast
so favourably with the savage Germans and their war-lords;
but of late they have realised that their ancestors were no more
peaceful than any one else, and have wished to put down to
warlike pressure from the Slavs all the southward movements
of the German tribes, to whom no choice was left but to try to
break through the Roman defences. A reasonable view is that
the expansion of the Eastern Germans in the last centuries B.C.
was made at the expense of the Slavs, who, while no more peaceful
than the Germans, were less capable than they of combining for
successful war, so that Goths and others were dwelling among
them and lording it over them; that the mutual competitions
of the Germans drove some of these against the Empire, and
when this had become weakened, so that it invited attack,
some tribes and parts of tribes moved forward without any
pressure from behind; this took away the strength of the
German element, and the Slavs, not improbably under German
organization, regained the upper hand in their own lands and
could even spread westwards at the expense of the German
remnant.
Almost as uncertain is the exact time when the Southern Slavs
began to move towards the Balkans. If already at the time of
Trajan's conquests there were Slavs in Dacia, it would account
for the story in Ps. Nestor that certain Volchi or Vlachi, i.e.
Romance speakers, had conquered the Slavs upon the Danube
and driven them to the Vistula, for the place that the name of
Trajan has in Slavonic tradition, and for the presence of an
agricultural population, the Sarmatae Limigantes subject to the
nomad Sarmatae (q.v.), on the Theiss. In any case, we cannot
say that the Slavs occupied any large parts of the Balkan Penin-
sula before the beginning of the 6th century, when they appear
in Byzantine history as a new terror; there seems to have been
an invasion in the time of Justin, and another followed in 527
(Procopius, B.C. iii. 40 and Hist. Arc. 18). At the same time as
the Slavs, the Huns, the Bulgars, and after 558 the Avars, were
also making invasions from the same direction. The first and
last disappeared like all nomads, but the Bulgars, making them-
selves lords of one section of the Slavs, gave it their own name.
By 584 the Slavs had overrun all Greece, and were the worst
western neighbours of the Eastern Empire. Hence the directions
how to deal with Slavs in the Strategicum of the emperor Maurice
(c. 600) and the Tactics of Leo.
By the end of the following century they were permanently
settled throughout the whole of the Balkan Peninsula. (For their
further history see SERVIA, BULGARIA, BOSNIA, DALMATIA,
CROATIA-SLAVONIA.) These Southern Slavs, though divided
into nationalities, are closely akin to one another. There is no
reason to think the Serbo-Croats an intrusive wedge, although
Constantine Porphyrogenitus (De adm. Imp. 30-33) speaks of
their coming from the north in the time of Heraclius the middle
of the 7th century. Their dialects shade into one another, and
there is no trace of any influence of 'the North-Western group.
Constantine was probably led astray by the occurrence of the
same tribal names in. different parts of the Slavonic world.
Meanwhile the Southern Slavs were cut off from the rest of the
race by the foundation in the 6th century of the Avar kingdom
in Pannonia, and after its destruction in the 7th, by the spread
of the Germans south-eastwards, and finally by the incursion of
another Asiatic horde, that of the Magyars, who have maintained
themselves in the midst of Slavs for a thousand years. Their
conquests were made chiefly at the expense of the Slovenes and
the Slovaks, and from their languages they have borrowed
many words in forms which have now disappeared.
Of the history of the Eastern Slavs, who were to become the
Russian people, we know little before the coming of the Swedish
Rus, who gave them their name and organization; we have but
the mention of Antae acting in concert with the other Slavs and
the Avars in attacking the Empire on the lower Danube, and
scattered accounts of Mussulman travellers, which show that
they had reached the Don and Volga and stretched up northward
to Lake Ilmen. The more southerly tribes were tributary to
the Khazars. An exact definition of the territory occupied by
each Slavonic people, and a sketch of its history from the time
that it settled in its permanent abode, will be found either under
its own name or under that of its country.
Culture and Religion. For all the works treating of Slavonic
antiquities we cannot draw a portrait of the race and show
many distinguishing features. Savage nations as described by
the Greeks and Romans are mostly very much alike, and the
testimony of language is not very easy to use. The general
impression is one of a people which lived in small communistic
groups, and was so impatient of authority that they scarcely
combined for their own defence, and in spite of individual bravery
only became formidable to others when cemented together by
some alien element: hence they all at one time or another fell
under an alien yoke; the last survivals of Slavonic licence being
the vece of Novgorod, and the Polish diet with its unpractical
regard for any minority. The Slavs were acquainted with the
beginnings of the domestic arts, and were probably more given
to agriculture than the early Germans, though they practised
it after a fashion which did not long tie them to any particular
district for all writers agree in telling of their errant nature.
They were specially given to the production of honey, from which
they brewed mead. They also appear to have been notable
swimmers and to have been skilled in the navigation of rivers,
and even to have indulged in maritime piracy on the Aegean, the
Dalmatian coast and most of all the Baltic, where the island of
Riigen was a menace to the Scandinavian and German sea-power.
The Oriental sources also speak of some aptitude for commerce.
Their talent for music and singing was already noticeable. Of
their religion it is strangely difficult to gain any real information.
The word Bogu, " god," is reckoned a loan word from the
Iranian Baga. The chief deity was the Thunderer Perun (cf.
Lith. Perkunas) , with whom is identified Svarog, the god of heaven ;
other chief gods were called sons of Svarog, Dazbog the sun,
Chors and Veles, the god of cattle. The place of this latter was
taken by St Blasius. A hostile deity was Stribog, god of storms.
There seem to have been no priests, temples or images among
the early Slavs. In Russia Vladimir set up idols and pulled
them down upon his conversion to Christianity; only the Polabs
had a highly developed cult with a temple and statues and a
definite priesthood. But this may have been in imitation of
Norse or even Christian institutions. Their chief deity was called
Triglav, or the three-headed; he was the same as Sv^tovit, appar-
ently a sky god in whose name the monks naturally recognized
Saint Vitus. The goddesses are colourless personifications, such
as Vesna, spring, and Morana, the goddess of death and winter.
The Slavs also believed, and many still believe, in Vily and
Rusalki, nymphs of streams and woodlands; also in the Baba-
Jaga, a kind of man-eating witch, and in Besy, evil spirits, as well
as in vampires and werewolves. They had a full belief in the
immortality of the soul, but no very clear ideas as to its fate.
It was mostly supposed to go a long journey to a paradise (raj)
at the end of the world and had to be equipped for this. Also
the soul of the ancestor seems to have developed into the house
or hearth god (Domovoj, Kfet) who guarded the family. The
usual survivals of pagan festivals at the solstices and equinoxes
have continued under the form of church festivals.
Christianity among the Slavs. The means by which was
effected the conversion to Christianity of the various Slavonic
SLAVS
231
nations has probably had more influence upon their subsequent
history than racial distinctions or geographical conditions.
Wherever heathen Slavonic tribes met Christendom missionary
effort naturally came into being. This seems first to have been
the case along the Dalmatian coast, where the cities retained their
Romance population and their Christian faith. From the 7th
century the Croats were nominally Christian, and subject to
the archbishops of Salona at Spalato and their suffragans. From
the beginning of the gih century Merseburg, Salzburg and Passau
were the centres for spreading the Gospel among the Slavonic
tribes on the south-eastern marches of the Prankish empire,
in Bohemia, Moravia, Pannonia and Carinthia. Though we need
not doubt the true zeal of these missionaries, it was still a fact
that as Germans they belonged to a nation which was once more
encroaching upon the Slavs, and as Latins (though the Great
Schism had not yet taken place) they were not favourable to the
use of their converts' native language. Still they were probably
the first to reduce the Slavonic tongues to writing, naturally using
Latirf letters and lacking the skill to adapt them satisfactorily.
Traces of such attempts are rare; the best are the Freisingen
fragments of Old Slovene now at Munich.
In the eastern half of the Balkan Peninsula the Slavs had
already begun to turn to Christianity before their conquest by
the Bulgars. These latter were hostile until Boris, under the
influence of his sister and of one Methodius (certainly not the
famous one), adopted the new faith and put to the sword those
that resisted conversion (A.D. 865). Though his Christianity came
from Byzantium, Boris seems to have feared the influence of the
Greek clergy and applied to the Pope for teachers, submitting
to him a whole series of questions. The Pope sent clergy, but
would not grant the Bulgarians as much independence as they
asked, and Boris seems to have repented of his application to him.
He raised the question at the Council of Constantinople (A.D. 870),
which decided that Bulgaria was subject to the Eastern Church.
Cyril and Methodius. In the same way Rostislav, prince of
Greater Moravia, fearing the influence of Latin missionaries,
applied to Byzantium for teachers who should preach in the
vulgar tongue (A.D. 861). The emperor chose two brothers, sons
of a Thessalonian Greek, Methodius and Constantine (generally
known as Cyril by the name he adopted upon becoming a monk).
The former was an organizer, the latter a scholar, a philosopher
and a linguist. His gifts had been already exercised in a mission
to the Crimea; he had brought thence the relics of S. Clement,
which he finally laid in their resting-place in Rome. But the
main reason for the choice was that the Thessalonians, surrounded
as they were by Slavonic tribes, were well known to speak
Slavonic perfectly. On their arrival in Moravia the brothers
began to teach letters and the Gospel, and also to translate the
necessary liturgical books and instruct the young in them.
But soon (in 864) Rostislav was attacked by Louis the German
and reduced to complete obedience, so that there could be no
question of setting up a hierarchy in opposition to the dominant
Franks, and the attempts to establish the Slavonic liturgy
were strongly opposed. Hearing of the brother's work Pope
Nicholas I. sent for them to Rome. On their way they spent
some time with Kocel, a Slavonic prince of Pannonia, about
Flatten See, and he much favoured the Slavonic books. In
Venice the brothers had disputes as to the use of Slavonic service-
books; perhaps at this time these found their way to Croatia
and Dalmatia. On their arrival in Rome Nicholas was dead, but
Adrian II. was favourable to them and their translations, and
had the pupils they brought with them ordained. In Rome
Constantine fell ill, took monastic vows and the name of Cyril,
and died on the i4th of February 869. Methodius was conse-
crated archbishop of Pannonia and Moravia, about 870, but Kocel
could not help him much, and the German bishops had him tried
and thrown into prison; also in that very year Rostislav was
dethroned by Svatopluk, who, though he threw off the Prankish
yoke, was not steadfast in supporting the Slavonic liturgy. In
873 Pope John VIII. commanded the liberation of Methodius
and allowed Slavonic services, and for the next few years the
work of Methodius went well. In 879 he was again called to
Rome, and in 880 the Pope distinctly pronounced in his favour
and restored him to his archbishopric, but made a German,
Wiching, his suffragan. Methodius died in 885, and Wiching,
having a new pope, Stephen V. (VI.), on his side, became his
successor. So the Slavonic service-books and those that used
them were driven out by Svatopluk and took refuge in Bulgaria,
where the ground had been made ready for them. Boris, having
decided to abide by the Greek Church, welcomed Clement, Gorazd
and other disciples of Methodius. Clement, who was the most
active in literary work, laboured in Ochrida and others in various
parts of the kingdom.
In spite of the triumph of the Latino-German party, the
Slavonic liturgy was not quite stamped out in the west; it seems
to have survived in out-of-the-way corners of Great Moravia until
that principality was destroyed by the Magyars. Also during the
life of Methodius it appears to have penetrated into Bohemia,
Poland and Croatia, but all these countries finally accepted the
Latin Church, and so were permanently cut off from the
Orthodox Servians, Bulgarians and Russians.
These details of ecclesiastical history are of great importance
for understanding the fate of various Slavonic languages, scripts
and even literatures. From what has been said above it appears
that Cyril invented a Slavonic alphabet, translated at any rate
a Gospel lectionary, perhaps the Psalter and the chief service-
books, into a Slavonic dialect, and it seems that Methodius
translated the Epistles, some part of the Old Testament, a
manual of canon law and further liturgical matter. Clement
continued the task and turned many works of the Fathers into
Slavonic, and is said to have made clearer the forms of letters.
What was the alphabet which Cyril invented, where were the
invention and the earliest translations made by him, and who
were the speakers of the dialect he used, the language we call
Old Church Slavonic (O.S.)? As to the alphabet we have the
further testimony of Chrabr, a Bulgarian monk of the next genera-
tion, who says that the Slavs at first practised divination by
means of marks and cuts upon wood; then after their baptism
they were compelled to write the Slavonic tongue with Greek
and Latin letters without proper rules; finally, by God's mercy
Constantine the Philosopher, called Cyril, made them an alphabet
of 38 letters. He gives the date as 855, six or seven years before
the request of Rostislav. If we take this to be exact Cyril must
have been working at his translations before ever he went to
Moravia, and the language was presumably that with which he
had been familiar at Thessalonica that of southern Macedonia,
and this is on the whole the most satisfactory view.
At any rate the phonetic framework of the language is
more near to certain Bulgarian dialects than to any
other, but the vocabulary seems to have been modified in Moravia
by the inclusion of certain German and Latin words, especially
those touching things of the Church. These would appear to have
been already familiar to the Moravians through the work of the
German missionaries. Some of them were superseded when O.S.
became the language of Orthodox Slavs. Kopitar and Miklosich
maintained that O.S. was Old Slovene as spoken by the subjects
of Kocel, but in their decision much was due to racial patriotism.
Something indeed was done to adapt the language of the Trans-
lations to the native Moravian; we have the Kiev fragments,
prayers after the Roman use in which occur Moravisms, notably
c and z where O.S. has it and zd, and fragments at Prague with
Eastern ritual but Cech peculiarities. Further, the Freisingen
fragments, though their language is in the main Old Slovene and
their alphabet Latin, have some connexion with the texts of an
O.S. Euchologium from Sinai.
Alphabets. Slavonic languages are written in three alphabets
according to religious dependence; Latin adapted to express
Slavonic sounds either by diacritical marks or else by conven-
tional combinations of letters among those who had Latin
services; so-called Cyrillic, which is the Greek Liturgical Uncial of
the gth century enriched with special signs for Slavonic letters
this is used by all Orthodox Slavs; and Glagolitic, in the " spec-
tacled " form of which certain very early O.S. documents were
written, and which in another, the " square," form has survived
232
SLAVS
as a liturgical script in Dalmatia, where the Roman Church
still allows the Slavonic liturgy in the dioceses of Veglia, Spalato,
Zara and Sebenico, and in Montenegro; the Croats now employ
Latin letters for civil purposes.
The annexed table gives these alphabets the Glagolitic in both
forms with numerical values (columns 1-3); the Cyrillic in its
fullest development (4, 5), with the modern version of it made for
Russian (6) by Peter the Great's orders; Bulgarian uses more
or less all the Russian letters but the reversed e and the last two,
while keeping more old Cyrillic letters, but its orthography
is in such a confused state that it is difficult to say which
letters may be regarded as obsolete; Servian (7) was reformed by
Karadzid (Karajich (q.v.)) on the model of Russian, with special
letters and ligatures added and with unnecessary signs omitted.
The old ways of writing Slavonic with Latin letters were so con-
fused and variable that none of them are given. The Cechs first
attained to a satisfactory system, using diacritical marks in-
vented by Hus; their alphabet has served more or less as a
model for all the other Slavonic languages which use Latin
letters, and for that used in scientific grammars, not only of
Slavonic but of Oriental languages. Column 8 gives the system
as applied to Croat, and corresponding^ exactly to Karadzic's
reformed Cyrillic. Column 9 gives the Cech alphabet with the
exception of the long vowels, which are marked by an accent; in
brackets are added further signs used in other Slavonic languages,
e.g. Slovene and Sorb, or in strict transliterations of Cyrillic.
Polish (10) still offers a compromise between the old arbitrary
combinations of letters and the Cech principle of diacritical marks.
The last column shows a convenient system of transliterating
Cyrillic into Latin letters for the use of English readers without
the use of diacritical marks; it is used in most of the non-
linguistic articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica which deal
with Slavs. With regard to Glagolitic (derived from Glagol, a
word) and Cyrillic, it is clear that they are closely connected.
The language of the earliest Glagolitic MSS. is earlier than that
of the Cyrillic, though the earliest dated Slavonic writing surviv-
ing is a Cyrillic inscription of Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria (A.D. 993).
On the whole Glagolitic is likely to be the earlier, if only that no
one would have made it who knew the simpler Cyrillic. It
certainly bears the impress of a definite mind, which thought
out very exactly the phonetics of the dialect it was to express,
but made its letters too uniformly complicated by a love for little
circles. A sufficiently large number of the letters can be traced
back to Greek minuscules to make it probable that all of them
derive thence, though agreement has not yet been reached as
to the particular combinations which were modified to make
each letter. Of course the modern Greek phonetic values alone
form the basis. The numerical values were set out according to
the order of the letters. Some subsequent improvement, especi-
ally in the pre-iotized vowels, can be traced in later documents.
The presumption is that this is the alphabet invented by Cyril
for the Slavs who formerly used Greek and Latin letters without
system.
When brought or brought back to Bulgaria by Clement and
the other pupils of Methodius, Glagolitic took root in the
west, but in the east some one, probably at the court of Simeon,
where everything Greek was in favour, had the idea of taking
the arrangement of the Glagolitic alphabet, but making the signs
like those of the Uncial Greek then in use for liturgical books,
using actual Greek letters as far as they would serve, and for
specifically Slavonic sounds the Glagolitic signs simplified and
made to match the rest. Where this was impossible in the case
of the complicated signs for the vowels, he seems to have made
variations on the letters A and B. With the uncials he took the
Greek numerical values, though his alphabet kept the Glagolitic
order. Probably the Glagolitic letters for $ and U have exchanged
places, and the value 800 belonged to 5, as the order in Cyrillic
isu,, N, ui, Ul. Who invented Cyrillic we know not; Clement
has been said to have made letters clearer, but only in a
secondary source and he seems to have been particularly
devoted to the tradition of Methodius, and he was bishop
of Ochrida, just where Glagolitic survived longest.
GLAGOLITIC
Old New Num.
I a 3
* A '
v on 3
cft> Ui) 5
3- 3 6
<K> [ft 7
$ 3l 8
Oo PD 9
8 S 2
/Vi HP 30
\ 3 40
ft> [ft] 50
2? rti 60
70
3 a
P
fi
">
P 90
b ioo
fl 200
an 300
*tt
a) 400
<f> 500
Jit ':',:
700
\y 800
V 900
III ill
>*
4 I
A &
T ?
If.
>
e-
fr
i 3
CYRILLIC
Old Num. Ruse.
456
A ' Aa
B E6
BB
B
r
A
',
3 r
4 AA
(Buif-.Ee)
5 g 3
Ee
S 6
Z3 3s
H S 11.11
I.T 10 I i
("Fj Serbian)
K 20 KK
A Jin
M 40 MM
N 50 HH
70 Oo
80 Tin
ioo Pp
n
f
C 200 CC
T 300 TT
500 <fcit>
600 Xx
Roo
4>
x
ID
9o
YS
Ui
2
H.1H
b
t
K)
HM
mm
1.1 1.1
bb
bt
IQlO
A.A
^v
(Bulg.* )
v (Bulg.r*)
C? 60
^ 700
0- q 0e
V 'jo Vv
456
LATIN
Serb. Croat Cech&c. Polish
9 10
7 8
Aa a a a
B6 b b b
BB v v w
TT S g g
An d d d
Ee e e .e
(je,e)je,ie
TKx z z z
(dz) dz hard
(dz)dzoft
3 3 Z Z Z hard
Z Z soft
j I
\ \ \ \
I i i i i
t)li dj.dd.d'
KK k k k
Jlx 1
PHONETIC
VALUES
g
d
eor ye
zh-Frj
dz
IfortHhard
(0 Isoft
U in endue
k
1 labialized
1 mouille"
MM m m m m
HH n in nard
ft>H> nj.ii n n soft
Oo o o o
U O
Tin p
Pp r
Cc s
TT t
Yy u
<t>$ f
Xx h
P P
(to'
r rz
S S hard
(s) S soft.
t t hard
t' soft
U U
n
Span, ft
O
U for older o.
P
between r&2
S
f f
ch ch
h h
O
UJT 5t St
U C C C hard
fl C (c) C soft
k.a M di
it. c cz
mm 5 s sz
(o)
(i)
CO
je.njee.je e ic
jy ju ju iu.ju
ja ja ja ia.ja
je je je ieje
(?) a
(j?) j?
(j?) j?
x ks
ps ps
t
u
f
kh-Germ.ch
horgh
Gr. to
sht
I SZCZ 'shL-h in Abhchurch-
ts
between e&c.t ini
Eng.j creacure
Ch in church
sh
U in but
mute
.. between i&u
/ cr.liny.rbythm
mute, softens
preceding conson.
VC in yes veiling
into yas
yu
ya
ye
in in Fr. fin
ya
On in Fr sun
ion in Fr. action
yfj
9 to
Gr.9but pron.f
Gr.uand so
pron. i or v
II
Mention must be made of Bruckner's theory that Cyril invented
Cyrillic first, but degraded it into Glagolitic to hide its Greek
origin from the Latin clergy, the whole object of his mission
SLAVS
233
being hostility to Rome, whereas in Orthodox countries this
caution was soon seen to be unnecessary. The Glagolitic
alphabets in the table are copied from Codex Marianus (nth
century) and the Reims gospel, an O.S. MS. of the i4th century,
on which the kings of France took their coronation oath.
As to the special sounds which these various scripts expressed,
we may notice in the vocalism a tendency to broaden the short
vowels and to narrow the long ones, a process which has left
results even where distinctions of quantity no longer exist;
further, the many changes which can be followed in historic time
and are due to the destruction of the old rule of open syllables
by the disappearance of the half vcwels 1 and u, or to their
developing into full vowels where indispensable for pronunciation
(No. I. inf.). But the ruling principle which has determined the
physiognomy of Slavonic speech is the degree in which consonants
have been affected by the following vowel. Where this has been
broad a, o, u, y, a, u, this has resulted only in an occasional
labialization most noticeable in the case of /; where it has been
narrow, i, e, I, (once ea or e), f, I, and I, the result has been palatal-
ization or " softening " in various degrees, ranging from a slight
change in the position of the tongue producing a faint j sound
in or just after the consonant expressed in column 9 by the sign ',
and in Cyrillic by the pre-iotizing of the following vowel to the
development out of straightforward mutes and sibilants of the
sibilants, palato-sibilants and affricates z, s, , S, f, dz, c, dz, i,
$c, &c. (see No. 9 and V. inf.).
Slavonic Languages. The Slavonic languages belong to the
Indo-European (I.E.) family. Within that family they are very
closely connected with the Baltic group, Old Prussian, Lithuanian
(Lithu.) and Lettish, and we must regard the linguistic ancestors
of both groups as having formed one for some time after
they had become separated from their neighbours. If the original
home of the I.E. family is to be set in Europe, we may take the
Balto-Slavs to have represented the north-eastern extension of it.
The Balto-Slavs have much in common with the northerly or
German group, and with the easterly or Aryan group, their next
neighbours on each side. The Aryans likewise split into two
divisions, Iranian and Indian, whereof the former, in the Sar-
matians, remained in contact with the Slavs until after the
Christian era, and gave them some loan words, e.g. Bogfi Pers.
Baga (god); Russian, Sobaka; Median, Qpaka (dog). The south-
eastern or Thracian group (Armenian) and beyond it the Illyrian
(Albanian) made up the four groups which have sibilants for
I.E. non-velar gutturals (see inf. No. 9), and in this stand apart
from most European groups, but in other respects the Balto-
Slavs were quite European.
The Baltic group and the Slavs were separated by the marshes
of White Russia, and after their early oneness did not have
much communication until the Slavs began to spread. Since then
the Baltic languages have borrowed many Slavonic words.
After the Aryans had moved eastwards Slavonic was left in
contact with Thracian, but we know so little about it that we
cannot measure their mutual influence. On the other side the
Germans, beginning as the next group to the Balto-Slavs, and
having thereby much in common with them (so much so that
Schleicher wanted to make a Germano-Slavo-Baltic group), have
never ceased to influence them, have given them loan words at
every stage and have received a few in return.
After the Baltic group had separated from the Slavonic, we
must imagine a long period when Slavonic (SI.) was a bundle of
dialects, showing some of the peculiarities of the future languages,
but on the whole so much alike that we may say that such and
such forms were common to them all. This stage may be
called Proto-Slavonic. Except for the few cases where Old
Church Slavonic (O.S.) has either definitely South Slavonic
characteristics or peculiar characteristics of its own, as written
down by Cyril it represents with wonderful completeness Proto-
Slavonic at the moment of its falling apart, and words cited
below may be taken to be O.S. unless otherwise designated.
Some of the main characteristics of the Slavonic languages as
a whole' in relation to I.E. are indicated below; restrictions
and secondary factors are necessarily omitted. As a rule O.S.
xxv. 8 a
represents the Slavonic languages fairly well, while Latin or
Greek equivalents are given as the most familiar examples of
I.E. Hypothetical forms are starred.
1. I.E. I becomes (>) i, gosti: hostis (ace. pi.); I.E. f>f,
vfdova: vidua; I.E,.j>j,jucha:jus (broth).
2. I.E. e becomes e, slmq: semen; I.E. &> & bera: fero.
3. I.E. a and ti are alike o in SI., orati: arare; 'osmf: octo;
I.E. in end syllables, >u; wzu: Sxos; I.E. a and o are alike
a, bratru: f rater; d&va: duo.
4. I.E. u becomes y, ty: tu; I.E. ti>u, snucha: nurus,
Sanskr. snuSa : I.E. u>v, iieza: veho.
5. I.E. r and / both long and short survived as vowels, *vlk&
written vttku, Sanskr. vr.kas, " wolf "; consonantal r and I sur-
vived unchanged.
6. I.E. m and n both long and short: the former gave I or -A;
suto: centum; the latter g or a, desetl: decem. Consonantal
m and n mostly survived before a vowel, after it they coalesced
with it to make the nasal vowels a and f; pali: pontis; pqtu:
7. I.E. Aspirates are represented by corresponding sonants,
bera: fero; medu ("honey," "mead"): p&Qv; mlgla: 6/itx^ 1 ?-
8. I.E. 5 often becomes ch; veinchu: vetus; not always, synu:
Lithu. sunus, " son "; otherwise ch generally renders Gothic h
in loan words; chlebu: hlaibs, " loaf "; chyzti: hus, " house."
9. I.E. velar gutturals k, g, gh and labio-velars, 1, g. gh become
in SI. k, g, g, kljuci: clavis; qglti: angulus; mlgla: ojuxXi?; kulo:
quis, govedo: jSoOs, Sanskr. gauS; snegu: nix, nivem, but the
Palato-gutturals k, g, gh become SI. s, z, z; desftf: decem; zrfno:
granum; zima: hiems; Lithu. S, , Z; deszimlis, zirnis, zema.
10. (a) Gutturals k, g, ch (for s) before e, e (for e}, i, I, q and j
early in the Proto-Sl. period became c, z, S, vlfce, voc. of vttku:
XvKe; zeladi: glandis; pluSf, 3rd pi. fr. pluchu: tir\ev<rav.
(b) Later k, g, ch before g, i (for oi or ai), and sometimes after
t, i, f, > c, dz (z), s. Vlice loc. cf. oi/cot; l$zi, imperat. of l$ga,
" lie ": Xeyois; dusi, duscchu, nom. loc. pi. of duchu, " spirit ";
kunezf: Ger. kuning: " king."
(c) I.E. or Proto-Sl. sj, zj became S, z, siti, Lithu. siuti, Lat. suo,
" sew "; nozl for *nozjo, " knife."
(d) Non-guttural consonants followed by j (tj, dj, nj; pj, bj,
tij, mj) gave different results (except nj) in different languages
(see below No. V.), but in Proto-Sl. there was already a tendency
for the.;' to melt into and so change the consonant.
n. Proto-Sl. gradually got rid of all its closed syllables, hence
(a) Final consonants were dropped, Domu: domus.
(b) Diphthongs became simple vowels ai, oi > e; levu: laevus;
vide: ol8a; ei > i; vidu: t5os; au, eu, ou> u; ucho: auris.
1 2. Proto-Slavonic had long, short and very short or half
vowels (those expressed above by I and u). It had a musical
accent, free in its position with different intonations when it fell
upon long syllables. (For the fate of these in different modern
languages see below, No. VIII.)
13. The phenomena of vowel gradation (Ablaut) as presented
by Slavonic are too complicated to be put shortly. In
the main they answer to the I.E., e.g. O.S. birati, bera, su-
born: 5i-0pos, </>epco, <jx>pos.
In their morphology the SI. languages have preserved or
developed many interesting forms. Nouns have three genders,
three numbers in O.S., Slovene, Serbo-Croat and Sorb (other
tongues have more or less numerous traces of the Dual), and,
except Bulgarian, seven cases Nom., Voc. (not in Gt. Russian
or Slovene), Ace., Gen., Dat., Instrumental and Locative. The
Abl. has coincided with the Genitive.
The -o, -a and -i declensions have gained at the expense of the
consonantal stems, and phonetic change has caused many cases
to coincide especially in the -i decl. The comparative of the
Adj. is formed on I.E. models with S < sj corresponding to
Latin r < s, mlnti, gen. mlnlSa, cf. minus, minoris. The pro-
nominal declension is less well preserved. There is no article,
but i (6s) has been added to the adj. to make it definite; also in
Bulgarian and in some dialects of Russian tu is postfixed as a
real article.
The SI. verb has lost most of the I.E. voices, moods and tenses.
234
SLAVS
The passive only survives in the pres. and past participles; of
the finite moods there are but the ind. and opt. (almost always
used as an imperat.) left; its only old tenses are the pres. and
the aor., to which it has added an impf. of its own. There is an
inf. (in -ti, being an old dat.) and a supine in -tu, an accusative.
Of active participles there are a pres. and a past and a second
past part, used in making compound tenses. There are a solitary
perfect form, ved: olSa, and a solitary fut. part, byie, gen.
byifsta: <t>vaui>, <t>ucrovTos. The verb has two stems; from the
pres. stem is formed the ind. pres. and impf., the imperat. and
the act. and pass. pres. participles. All other forms are based
upon the infinitive stem.
Personal Endings:
PRIMARY.
Non-Thematic.
Sing. Du. Plur.
1. -ml -ve -mu
2. -si -ta -te
3. -tt -te -fit
Thematic.
Sing. Du. Plur.
-(m) -ve -mu
-Si -ta -te
-If -te -(n)tf
SECONDARY.
Sing. Du. Plur.
-(m) -tie -mii
-(s) -ta -te
-(/) -te -(/)
ist Sing. In thematic verbs the vowel + m has given a, but
there has been a tendency to replace it according to the non-
thematic analogy, which has necessitated changes in ist plur.
2nd Sing. -Si has given -Sf everywhere but in O.S.
3rd Sing, -ti has been dropped everywhere but in Russian,
where the literary language has tu. The Dual only survives in
Serb, Sorb, Slovene and O.S., and in these the forms are confused.
ist plur. -mil, has developed a.full vowel where the ist sing, has
replaced the -m.
The secondary endings have lost their -m, -s, -t and-w/ by
phonetic change.
Non-thematic presents are, jesml, tlpl, sum; damf (redupl. for
*dadmf), 5i5o;/it; jam!, edo; nemf, Sanskr. vedmi, "I wit";
imamf (new form of emo), " I have."
The aorist has no augment; it is sigmatic and non-sigmatic.
The latter or 2nd aor. (cf . Horn. impf. tfipov, 4>tpt) survived only in
consonant stems and that in O.S. and Old Cech, peku = tmaaov.
It was common in the 2nd and 3rd sing, (where the -s- forms would
not be clear) pece<*peke-s,*peke-t=tincrcrts, tirtaae. The sigmatic
aorist very rarely and only in consonant stems in O.S. keeps its
-s-, vesii <*vedsu. In stems ending in k, r or a vowel, s > ch;
bychu = tyvaa and this ch >s before e. The ordinary later form
for consonant stems inserts a vowel, vedochu. The aorist has
survived in S. Slavonic and in Sorb, and is found in the older
stages of the other tongues. The same languages (except
Slovene) have kept the impf. which was present in Proto-Sl. but
does not go back to I.E., being formed on the analogy of the aor.
With the aor. has coalesced the opt. bimt, " be," used with the 2nd
past part, to make a conditional. Stem of pres. part. act. ends
in -nt- but the consonant decl. has become an -{o- decl., so we have
vezy < I.E. *ueghonts = tx lav i 8 en - wzq-sta < *vezonlja as against
'IXOVTOS. Pres. part. pass, ends in -mu; it has survived more or
less in Russian, elsewhere is obsolescent. Past part. act. I. is
formed with I.E. -ues-; nom. sing. masc. -yds (i5cos) gave u,
vedu, having led, byvii, having been; but in fern, and oblique cases
formed as from -io- stem i remained, hence Russian vedsij, byvsij.
Past part. act. II. in -/- cf. Lat. bibulus from bibo, used with an
auxiliary to form past and conditional. Past part. pass, in -t-
or -n-; terlu = lrilus. Znanu = known. I.E. future having been
lost, futurity is expressed by an auxiliary bada (era) chosta (will),
&c. with the inf. or by the pres. form of the perfective verb.
The passive is expressed either by the use of the passive
participles or by the reflexive s$, which can refer to the ist and
2nd persons as well as to the 3rd.
Syntactical peculiarities of the Slavonic languages that may
be noted are a tendency to use the genitive instead of the accu-
sative (which has often coincided in form with the nominative)
in the case of living beings, masculine -o- stems, and in the plur. ;
the use of the genitive for the accusative or even nominative in
negative clauses; the dative absolute and the dative as subject
to an infinitive; the instrumental instead of the nominative as
a predicate, and in oratio obliqua the preservation of the tense
of the original statement instead of our way of throwing it into
the past.
In the use of the verbs the development of " aspects " makes
up for the few tenses. Actions (or states) expressed by a verbal
form have a beginning, a continuance and an end. There are,
however, some (momentaneous) actions whose beginning and end
come together and allow no continuance. All verbs fall into two
great divisions, imperfective, which express the continuance of
an action, without regard to its beginning or end, and perfective,
which express the points of beginning or ending. The continuance
of an action may be unbroken or may consist of like acts which
are repeated. So imperfective verbs are divided into durative,
as nesti, " to be carrying," and iterative, as nosili, " to be wont
to carry "; the repeated acts of the iterative can either be each
of them momentaneous, e.g. Cech, stfileti, " to shoot," i.e. " be
firing single shots," or each have some continuance, e.g. nositi
above, or we can even express the occasional repetition of groups
of momentaneous actions, e.g. Cech. stfilivati, " to have the habit
of going out shooting."
Among perfective verbs we have (i) momentaneous, expressing
action which has no continuance, kriknati, " to give a cry,"
ststi, " to take a seat "; (2) finitive, expressing not the continu-
ance of the action, though that there has been, but its end or
completion, napluniti, "to fill to the brim"; (3) ingresshe,
expressing the moment of beginning an action, vuzl' ubiti, " to fall
in love with."
As perfective verbs do not express continuance, an idea
implied in the present, they cannot require a present form, so
this is used for perfective futures; e.g. sfda (pres. form from
perfective sesti) = " I shall take a seat," as opposed to imperfective
bada sideti, " I shall be sitting." If a preposition is compounded
with a durative verb as nesti, " to carry " (in general), " to be
carrying," it makes it perfective, as iznesti, " to carry out "
(one single action brought to a conclusion), so Eng. "sit" is
usually imperfective, " sit down " perfective. If an iterative has
a preposition it is mostly used as a durative; iznositi can
mean "habitually to carry out" but more of ten = " to be
carrying out," that is, it supplies the imperfective form to
iznesti. The development of this system has enabled some
Slavonic languages, e.g. Russian, to do with only two tenses,
pres. and past, to each verb morphologically considered, per-
fective and imperfective verbs supplementing each other; e.g.
if we take a Greek verb, the pres. (ind. and infin.) and imperf.
correspond to the present, inf. and past of a Russian imperfective
verb; the aor. indie, and inf. are represented by the perfective
past and infin., which has also to do duty for the Greek perfect
and plup.; the future and the future perfect in Greek do not
express the same distinctions as the imperfective future and
perfective future (in form a present) in SI., the Greek giving
chronological order of action, but not giving the distinction of
aspect, though the future perfect is naturally perfective.
The prepositions are very much like those in other I.E. lan-
guages both in actual forms and in use.
The formation of the sentence is not naturally complicated;
but SI. has in times past been largely influenced by Greek, Latin
and German with their involved periods; latterly there has been
a tendency to follow the simpler models of French and English.
Such being the Slavonic languages as a whole and regarded in
their relationship to I.E., they may now be considered in their
relationship to each other, and some of the principal character-
istics enumerated upon which their internal classification has
been founded. More or less complete accounts of each language
will be found under its name.
Distinctive Points of Different SI. Languages. 1 I. (it, ) The
fate of the Proto-Sl. half vowels u, 1, still preserved in O.S., e. g.
sunu, " sleep," dint, " day," is various; as a rule they disappear,
u entirely (though when final still written in R.), f leaves a trace
by softening the preceding consonant. But if needed to eke out
1 Bulg. = Bulgarian ; C. = Cech ; Kas. = Kasube ; Lit. R. = Little
Russian; P. = Polish; R. = Russian, i.e. Great Russian; Ser. =
Servian; Wh. R. = White Russian.
SLAVS
235
consonants, in Sorb, Slovak, Lit. R. and mostly in Gt. R.,
H, f develop into full vowels o, e R. sonu, gen. sna; d'enf, gen.
dn'a. In Polish and Cech both > e, but in P. I softens the
preceding cons., in C. it usually does not P. sen, dzien; C.
sen, den; in Slovene and Ser. they are not distinguished,
Slovene M, a or e, san, dan or den = Ser. a, san, dan, gen. dana,
Ser. keeping the middle vowel which is elsewhere dropped.
Bulgarian varies dialectically.
II. (y.) y only remains in Gt. Russian, Polish and Sorb
though still written in Cech; it has elsewhere become i, but in
Polish it becomes i after k and g, in Sorb and R. after k, g, ch
O.S. kysnati, " go sour," gybnati, " perish," chytrii, " cunning ";
P. kisnal, ginac, chyler; R. kisnutf, gibnuti, chit'erii.
III. (r, I.) The treatment of the liquids varies greatly.
(a) r is always a lingual trill, never alveolar. In S. Slav, it is
only softened before.;' and jf O.S. zorja, " dawn." In N.W. and
E. Slav, r became r' before f, i, e, f, e and.;. Russian and Slovak
have remained at this stage, C., Polish, Kas. have made r into
r (rz) in which r and z are run into one. (See Table I.) But
C. srdce, trh, vlk, since; P. serce, targ, wilk, sionce; R. s'erdce,
torgu, volkti,, solnce.
(e) Proto-Sl. ru, ri, lit, U had in S. Slav, and partly in C. the
same fate as r, /; in Polish and R. the vowel comes after the
liquid. O.S. bruvf, " brow," krtstft, " cross," plW, " flesh," sltea,
" tear"; Ser. brv, krst, put, suza; Slovene, brv, krst, poll, solza;
C. brv, but plet'; P. brew, krzest, ptec, (s]lza; R. brovt, kr'estu,
plott, sl'eza.
(/) Proto-Sl. -or-, -ol-, -er-, -el- before a consonant.
(i.) Type art, oil (ert, elt are not certain) beginning a word.
The liquid mostly comes first, sometimes the same vowel persists
in all languages, e.g. Proto-Sl. *ordlo (Lithu. drklas, aratrum),O.S.,
Bulg., Ser., Slovene, R. ralo, C. Polab. P., radio. But Proto-Sl.
*eldii (Lithu. eldija), O.S. aludiji, ladiji, "boat," Ser., Slovene,
ladja, R. lodlja, C. lodi, Polab, liid'a and *onm (Pruss. arms),
O.S. ravtnii, " even," Ser. rdvan, Bulg. Slovene, rdven, R. rov'enu,
C. rovny,P. rdwny show Russian agreeing with N.W. Slav against
S. Slav. The difference probably depends on intonation.
(ii.) Type tort, toll, tert, telt with a consonant before as well:
TABLE I.
I
i
e
?
S
j
O.S. . . .
Russian
zvert, " beast "
zvirf
veriti, "believe "
oer'itl
remeni, " strap "
r'em'enf
trfsa trfsesi, " Iremo "
tr'asu tr'as'oll
reka, " river "
r'eka
zorja, " dawn "
zor'a
Polish . . .
zwierz
wierzyt
rzemien
trzas$ trzfsiesz
rzeka
zorza
P. f for orig. a does not soften P. r$ka: O.S. raka, " hand."
In Sorb such a change only happened after k, p, t, in which case
High S. has S (written f), Low S. , but in Low S., r after k, p, t
becomes i even before hard vowels: Proto-Sl. tri, "three," High
S. tSi, Low S. tsi; Proto-Sl. kraj, " edge," High S. kraj, Low S. ksaj.
(b) I occurs in three varieties, I, I, I', but each language has
generally either middle / alone or else i and /'. Lit. R. and Bulg.
have all three. / has been arrived at in C. and Slovene by the
loss of the distinctions, perhaps under German influence; Ser.
has / and /', final i>o; but I occurs in dialects of all lan-
guages and was no doubt in O.S., Proto-Sl. and even Balto-Slav.
It has a velar and a labial element and in most languages tends
to appear as o, u, v or w,
though this is only written in
Ser. and Lit. R. O.S. dalu,
" gave," R. dalii, Lit. R. dav,
Wh. R. dav,^daw, P. dal
(dialect dau), C. dal, Ser. dao.
I' is very soft, like Fr. mile.
(c) N.W. Slav, keeps -//- -dl-
whereas S. Slav, (except some
cases of Slovene padl, pletla,
the va rious treatments of this combination are among the chief
criteria for classification, esp. the Russian speciality called full
vocalism (polnoglasie) torot, tolot, leret, telet (or tolot, telot) which
is probably archaic, is one of the chief reasons for putting
Russian in a separate division; Polish and Sorb come nearest
to it, with trot, tlot, tret, (let, but the N.W. division is not uniform
as Kasube and the extinct Polab have the interesting forms tort,
tlat, Irit, llat, which are partly archaic, partly a transition to the
most novel forms of the southern group to which Cech and
Slovak in this particular accede, trat, tlat, tret, tlet, but after I
and z Cech has tlat for tlet. Deviations due to intonation have
not been set forth. (See Table II.)
TABLE II.
Proto-Sl. Stem.
R.
P.
Polab, Kas.
C.
S. SI. e.g. O.S.
*gord- " hortus," " town "
gorodii
grdd
gord
hrad
gradii
*molt- " hammer "
mololii
mfot
mlat
mlat
mlatu
*berg- Ger. " berg," " shore"
Ver'egu
brzcg
brig
brch
brigu
*melk- " milk "...
moloko
mleko
mlak
mleko
mleko
*helm- " helm " . . .
Hel'emu or selomu
Slemil
*gelb- " groove " .
zclobii
zlob
(Kas.) zlob
zlab
zlebu
&c.) and R. drop the / and
d C. padl, " fell,"' radio, " aratrum," pletl, " plaited" ; O.S. and
R. palft, ralo, plelu, but R. drops / of masc. sing, past part. II.
after other consonants. O.S. neslfi, C. nesl, R. n'esA,
" carried."
(d) Proto-Sl. r, I or perhaps fir, tr, HI, tl gave S. Slav., C. and
Slovak f, I written in O.S. ru, rf, lu, ll indifferently, though soft
IV. The Proto-Slavonic nasals a and f could be either long or
short. This distribution is fairly kept in languages which have
quantity and governs the results in Polish in which the nasal
sound is preserved. The examples below show the main repre-
sentatives. Traces of nasal pronunciation survive in Bulgarian,
Slovene and Kasube. (See Table III.)
TABLE III.
Proto-Sl.
O.S.
Bulg. usu.
Ser.
Slovene.
C.
Sorb, High, Low.
R.
P.
Kasube.
6n, on; en, en.
a; ?
H, or &; e.
M; e.
8, o; e, e.
u, ou; e, e.
; a J e ; e , e.
u;ja.
e,a;je,ja.
a; i, i.
*m3nka, " pain "
maka
mtika
muka
mdka, monka,
muka
muka
muka
mqka
maka
*monkd, " flour "
maka
mftnka
muka
moka, muka
mouka
muka
mukd
maka
maka
*desimtt, " ten "
desflt
desetf
deset
deset
deset
dzesac, zaseS
d'es'att
dziesiqt
dzesic
*pentt, " five "
pelf
pM
pet
pet
pet
pjec, pfs
p'atl
piac>piq
pic or pSinc
and hard may once have been distinguished. Of this group
Slovene and Ser. later allowed the I to become ol, ou or u. Sorb,
Polish and R. developed various vowels, partly according to the
original quality, partly according to other influences, e.g. O.S.
srWce,"}\ezrt,"trugu, "market," vttku," woli," slunlce, "sol";
Ser. srdce, trg, vuk, sunce; Slovene srdce, trg, volk, solnce;
In Kasube a remains; ( becomes nasalized i or i and this may
lose the nasal or restore it as a full n or m; it has also nasalized
all the other vowels and has the power of using nasals in loanr
words, e.g. testamat, as did O.S. e.g. kolfda, kalendae,sadu = sund.
Polab has o, and f ronka, O.S. raka, " hand," mengsie
" carnis," but swante = sv$tu, " holy."
236
SLAVS
V. Softening (Palatalization, &c.). Nothing has so much
affected Slavonic speech as the effect of i, i, e, I, $ and j on pre-
ceding consonants, and the variations produced are among the
chief points of difference between the languages.
(a) The gutturals felt this first of all, k, g, ch, become (I.)
I, z, S and (II.) c, dz(z), s, and these changes are universal (see 10,
tv rv a ' * a b ve ) except that after the separation of the Slavs
the same process was continued in the S. and E. branches
even when a 11 intervened, whereas the N.W. branch remained
untouched. Proto-Sl. *kvlt&, " flower," *gvizda, " star " (vfilchvi),
magi; O.S. cvltA, dzvesda, (vlusvi) ; R. cvltu, zvezda; but Cech kvet,
hvlzda; P. kwiat, gwiazda.
(b) The action of j was the most general, influencing the
dentals in all languages and in some the labials as well, whereas
.. .. the narrow vowels act on the dentals only and that
not in all languages. The results of Proto-Sl. tj, dj in
O.S. and Bulg. are the most surprising, giving St? ', zd' , by way of $c
and zdz (as is shown by their agreeing with the results of Proto-Sl.
VII. Common Slav je and ju beginning a word appear in R.
as o and ; O.S. jedinu, " one," jucha, " broth "; R. odinti,
ucha.
VIII. Proto-Sl., as we have seen, had long, short and very short
or half vowels and a musical accent with differing intonations.
O.S. was probably similar, but we have no sufficient
materials for determining its quantities or accents as
systematic writing of the latter only came in from the
I4th century. The fate of the half vowels we have seen (I.).
Traces of former long vowels are very clearly to be seen in Sorb,
Polish and Lit. R., and less clearly in Bulg. and Gt. R., all of
which have lost distinctions of quantity; Slovene can have long
vowels only under the accent. In Kasube, C., Slovak and Serbo-
Cr. there are also unaccented long syllables. Russian has kept
the place of the original accent best, next to it Bulgarian; conse-
quently it seems very capricious, appearing on different syllables
in different flexions, but it has become merely expiratory. In
Slovene it is still musical, but is, so to speak, steadier. For the
Proto-Slav.
O.S.
Bulg.
Mac.
Serbo-Croat and Slovene.
C.
P.
R.
*svetja, " candle " . .
sveU'a
svllla
svek'a
svijet'a svjeta sveca
svlce
Swieca
sveca
*medja, " boundary " .
mezd'a
mtzda
meg'a
med'a medza meja
meze
miedza
m'eza
*pektj, "stove" . .
peM
peltl
pet pel
pec
piec
p'eif
*mogtj, " power " .
moSti
moltl
mot mot
moc
moc
moct
slj, skj, e.g. prelist'enu, " deceived," ist'a, " I seek," cf. R. IticenH,
ilcu). Some Macedonians have the strange result k' and g'.
Among the Serbo-Croats we find every grade between t', d', and
c','dz',orc, dz, the Slovenes having c', j (our y), the Cechs and
Sorbs c, z, the Poles and Polabs c, dz, and the Russians and;
the fate of ktj and gtj has been the same as that of tj throughout.
(c) Before the narrow sounds i, i, e, e and the descendants of ?
there has resulted a later softening which has gone farthest in
f a Low Sorb, producing S and z, and in High Sorb and
Polish, t and dz, not so far in Gt. R. where /' d' remain,
Wh. R. is intermediate with now c, dz, now /', d'; in C. even
t' d' only come before f, i and . In S. Slavonic this effect is
dialectical. C. ttto, "body," dilali, "make," deset, "ten";
P. cialo, dzieto, dziesiff; High Sorb, dzesac; Low Sorb, zaseS;
Wh. R. telo, dzelo, dzesac; Gt. R. t'elo, d'elo, d'es'att.
(d) S, z, n, before.;' gave S, z, n' throughout (No. 10, c, d, above).
Before the narrow vowels they give S, z, n in Sorb,
Polish, Slovak and Russian, but Cech has no S or z or A
before e nor always before t; S. Slavonic has n' before j. Other-
wise in it such softening is only dialectical, but Bulgarian forms a
transition to Russian.
(e) In Polish and Sorb we have the labials p' ', b' (J'),v',m r
softening before j and the narrow vowels, in Cech only before e,
in Slovak nowhere. In S. Slavonic they only soften
p. b. f. v. before j and tnen the y appears as ;' (^ j/' t v i> t m i>^
invariably in Serb, generally in Slovene, generally too
in Russian, but there before the narrow sounds of newer for-
mation they can all be softened in the ordinary way (p', b', /', v',
m'), in Bulgarian this / has disappeared and we have p', b', v', m'.
But O.S. followed the S. Slav, rule; and the / was probably once
present in N.W. Slav. It remains everywhere in one or two
roots O.S. pl'ujq. (TTTIKO for spjufo) , R. pl'uju, P. plujf, otherwise
O.S. zeml'a, R. z'eml'a, P. ziemia, " humus."
On the whole the various languages do not differ much in
principle in the treatment of j, but softening before f, i, e, I, f,
seems to have its extreme point in P., KaS. and Polab, spreading
from them to Sorb, White Russian and Gt. Russian; Cech,
Slovak and Lit. Russian have it in a far less degree, and in
S. Slavonic it is very little developed.
VI. Right across the Slavonic world from W. to E. g has
h become h, leaving the N. and the S. untouched. This
change is found in Cech, Slovak, High but not Low
Sorb, is 'traceable in Polish, and characteristic in White, South
Gt. Russian and Lit. Russian, also in the Russian pronunciation
of Ch. Slavonic. The h produced is rather the spirant gh than the
true aspirate. Low Sorb, R., O.S., &c., gora, P. gdra, "moun-
tain." C., Slovak, High Sorb, Wh. and Lit. R. hora.
intonations Serbo-Croat is the chief guide, but here the accent
intonation is spread over two syllables, in Croatian (ca dialect),
the main stress is usually on the old place, in Servian (Uo dialect) it
has shifted back one. In N.W. Slavonic, with the exception of
Kasube, in which it is free, the accent is fixed, in C., Slovak and
Sorb on the first syllable of the word, in Polish on the penultimate.
On the whole it may be said that the geographical classification
of the Slavs into N.W., S. and E. Slavs is justified linguistically,
though too much stress must not be laid upon it as the lines of
division are made less definite by the approximation of the
languages which come next each other, the special characteristics
of each group are generally represented in dialects of the others
if not in the written languages; also some peculiarities (e.g. VI.,
g>h) run right across all boundaries, and secondary softening
runs from N. to S., becoming less as it goes away from Poland
(V., c). In fact, the triple division might be purely arbitrary but
for the fact that the belt of Germans, Magyars and Rumanians
has made impossible the survival of transitional dialects con-
necting up Cech with Slovene, Slovak with Servian, Russian with
Bulgarian. Slovak, as it were, just fails to be a universal link :
in the north Russian and Polish have much in common, but
Lithuania made some sort of barrier and the difference of
religion favoured separate development.
In the north Polish is closely connected with Kasube, and
this with Polab, making the group of L'ach dialects in which the
nasals survived (IV.). The two Sorb dialects link the L'achs
on to the Cechs and Slovaks, the whole making the N.W. group
with its preference for c, z, s as against I, z, S (which were perhaps
unknown to Polab, V. b), its b' as against bl' (V. e), its keeping
kv' and gv' (V. a), tl and dl (III. c), its f (III. a, not in Slovak) and
the fixed accent (VIII. not in Kas.). The whole group (except
Sorb) agrees with R. in having lost the aor. and impf. Yet
C. and Slovak agree with S. Slav, in trat, trll (III./, ii.) in survival
of r and I (III. d) and of quantity (VIII.). Again, Slovene has
occasional //, dl (III. c), and its accent and quantity are not quite
southerly, but its many dialects shade across to Croat and Servian,
and they must all be classed together for the fate of tj, dj (V. J)
and a, f (I V.) . The Sopcy and Macedonians, among their numer-
ous dialects, make a bridge between Servian and Bulgarian.
The special mark of the latter is tj, dj>!>t, id, which is the main
philological argument for making O.S. Bulgarian. In general
S. Slav, shows less soft letters than N.W. and E. (V. c and d).
It shares with Russian bl < bj (V. e), tl, dl > / (III. c), kv', gv'>cv
zv (V. a) and the general loss of a, f (IV.), and is closer to it in the
fate of tj, dj (V. b). Bulgarian, especially in some dialects, is, as it
were, a transition to Russian, e.g. in accentuation.
Russian stands by itself by its torot, tolot (III. /, ii.) and its
SLAVYANSK SLEEMAN
237
treatment of tj and dj (V. b) and the place of its accent (VIII.)
in all of which it is rather archaic, while je>o, ju>u (VII.) is
its own innovation. In its secondary softenings Lit. R., Gt. R.
and Wh. R. make a gradual bridge between S. Slav and Polish
(V. c-e). In common with Polish, R. further has the retention of
y (II.) and the loss of the aor. and impf.
Finally, within historic time certain dialects have influenced
others through literary and political intercourse. O.S. has
influenced all the Orthodox Slavs and the Croats, so that Russian
is full of words with O.S. forms pronounced a la Russe (q>u,
$ >ja, $t'>!>c, &c.). Cech has almost overshadowed Slovak and
early afforded literary models to Polish. Polish has overshadowed
Kasube and much influenced Little and White Russian and Great
Russian in a less degree. Russian has in its turn supplied
modern Bulgarian with a model. Again, other tongues have
contributed something; in common Slavonic there are already
German loan words, and others have followed in various periods,
especially in Cech and Polish, while the very structure of Slovene
and Sorb has been affected. Polish has adopted many Latin
words. Bulgarian and Servian received many Turkish words.
Russian took over many Eastern words in the Tatar period, and
the common vocabulary of Western civilization since the time
of Peter the Great, but on the whole, though the Slav easily takes
to a fresh language, he has kept his own free from great
admixture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Ethnography: M. F. Mirkovic and A. S.
Budilovic, Etnograficeskaja Karta Slavjanskich Narodnostej (Ethno-
graphical Map of SI. Peoples) (St Petersburg, 1875); Le Monnier,
Sprachenkarte von Osterreich- Ungarn (Vienna, 1888); Osterreich-
Ungarn im Wort und Bild (Vienna and Teschen). 2. Antiquities
and Early History: P. J. Safarik, Slovanske Starozitnosti (Slavonic
Antiquities: German and Russian Translations) (Prague, 1862-
1863); A. Th. Hilferding, Collected Works (St P., 1868); A.
Harkavy, Skazania Musul'manskich Pisatelei o Slavjanach i Russach
(Information of Musulman writers about the SI. and Rus.) (St P.,
1870); M. Drinov, Zaselenie Balkanskago Poluostrova Slavjanami
(Occupation of the Balkan Peninsula by the SI.) (Moscow, 1873);
G. Krek, Einleitung in die slavische Literaturgeschichte (Graz, 1886);
Th. Braun, Razyskania v oblasti Goto- Slavjanskich Otnosenij (Investi-
gations into the province of Gotho-Slavonic Relations) (St P., 1899) ;
J. Marquart, Osteuropaische und ostasiatische Streifziige (Leipzig,
1903); L. Niederle, Lidstvo v dobe pfedhistoricke (Prague, 1893),
" Man in Prehistoric Time," Russian Trans. (St P., 1898), Slovanske
Starozitnosti (Slavonic Antiquities, a splendid review of the whole
subject) (Prague, 1902 ). 3. Proto-Slavonic and Comparative
Grammars, &c. : A. Schleicher, Vergleichende Grammatik der indo-
germanischen Sprachen (Weimar, 1866); J. Schmidt, Die Ver-
wandschaftsverhdltnisse der I.-G. Sprachen (Weimar, 1872); O.
Schrader, Reallexikon d. I.-G. Altertumskunde (Strassburg, 1907);
V. Jagic, " Einige Streitfragen : 3. Eine einheitliche slavische Ur-
sprache," in Arch. f. slav. Phil. xxii. (1900); Fr. Miklosich, Ver-
gleichende Grammatik der si. Spr. (Vienna, 1875-1883) ; T. Florinskij,
Lekcii po Slavjanskomy Jazykoznaniu (Lectures on Slavonic
Linguistics. Both Miklosich and Florinskij give short grammars
of each language) (Kiev, 1895-1897); V. Vondrak, Vergleichende
slavische Grammatik (a true comparative grammar) (Gottingen,
1906-1908) ; F. Miklosich, Etymologisches Worterbuch der slavischen
Sprachen (Vienna, 1886); R. Th. Brandt, Nacertanie Slavjanskoj
Akcentologii (Outline of SI. Accentuation) (St P., 1880); E. Berneker,
Slavische Chrestomathie mil Glossaren (specimens of all SI. tongues)
(Strassburg, 1902). The central organ for Slavonic studies is
Archiv fur slavische Philologie, conducted by V. Jagic (Berlin,
1876 ). 4. Literary History: A. N. Pypin and Spasowicz,
Isloria slavjanskich Literatur (2nd ed., St P., 1879); W. R. Morfill,
Slavonic Literature (S.P.C.K., London, 1883). 5. O.S. Grammar,
&c.: F. Miklosich, Altslovenische Formenlehre in Paradigmen
(Vienna, 1874); A. Leskien, Handbuch der altbulgarischen (alt-
kirchenslavischen) Sprache (with Texts) (4th ed., Weimar, 1905),
Russian trans, with account of Ostromir Gospel by Scepkin and
Sachmatov (Moscow, 1890); V. Vondrak, Altkirchenslavische
Grammatik (Berlin, 1900) ; F. Miklosich, Lexicon Palaeoslovenicum-
Graeco-Lalinum (Vienna, 1862-1865). 6. 0.5. Texts: Evangelium
Zographense (glag.), ed. Jagic (Berlin, 1879); Evangelium Marianum
(glag.), ed. Jagic (St P., 1883) ; Evangelium A ssemani (glag.), ed.Crncic
(Rome, 1878); Psalterium et Eucholpgium Sinaitica (glag.), ed.
Geitler (Agram, 1882-1883); Glagolita Clozianus, ed. Vondrak
(Prague, 1893) ; " Fragmenta Kieviana " (glag.), ed. Jagid, Denkschr.
k. Akad. d. W., phil.-hist. Kl. xxxviii. (Vienna, 1890); Codex
Suprasliensis (cyr.), ed. Miklosich (Vienna, 1851); Evangelium
Sawae (cyr.), ed. Scepkin (St P., 1900); Evangelium Ostromiri
(cyr.), ed. Sawinkov (St P., 1889). 7. Alphabets: P. J. Safafik,
Ober den Ursprung und Ileimat des Glagolismus (Prague, 1858);
I. Taylor, The Alphabet, vol. ii. (London, 1883); L. Geitler, Die
albanesischen und slavischen Schriften (facsimiles) (Vienna, 1883) ;
V. Jagic, Cetyre Paleograficeskia Statji (Four Palaeographical Articles)
(St P., 1884); Id. " Zur Entstehungsgeschichte der kirchenslavi-
schen Sprache," in Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss., phil.-hist. Kl.
xlvii. (Vienna, 1902); id. " Einige Streitfragen 5." (numerical value
and nasals in glag.), in Arch. f. si. Phil, xxiii. (1901); A. Leskien,
" Zur glagolitischen Schrift, ib. xxvi. (1905) ; A. Bruckner,
" Thesen zur Cyrillo-Methodianischen Frage," ib. xxvii. (1906);
E. Th. Karskij, Ocerk Slavjanskoj Kirillovskoj Paleografii (Outline of
SI. Cyrillic Palaeography) (Warsaw, 1901). (E. H. M.)
SLAVYANSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov,
158 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Kharkov, on the Torets river
and close by several salt lakes, from which salt is extracted.
Pop. (1897) 15,644. There are soap, candle and tallow-works.
Slavyansk carries on a brisk trade in salt, cattle and tallow.
The ancient name of Slavyansk was Tor. The town, which is
supposed to occupy the site of a former settlement of the Torks
(Turks), who inhabited the steppes of the Don, was founded in
1676 by the Russians to protect the salt marshes. Having
an open steppe behind it, this fort was often destroyed by the
Tatars. Its salt trade became insignificant in the 1 8th century
and only revived towards the end of the igth century.
SLEAFORD, a market town in the North Kesteven or Sleaford
parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, in a fertile
and partly fenny district on the river Slea. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 5468. It is 112 m. N. by W. from London by the Great
Northern railway, being the junction for several branch lines and
for the March-Doncaster joint line of the Great Northern and
Great Eastern companies. The church of St Denis is one of the
finest in the county, exhibiting transitional Norman work in the
base of the western tower, which is crowned by an Early
English spire, which, however, is mainly a copy of the original.
The nave is of beautiful late Decorated work with an ornate
south porch. There is a splendid carved rood screen of oak.
The chancel is Perpendicular. There are a few picturesque old
houses. The district is very fertile, and the trade of the town
is principally agricultural, while malting is also carried on.
The discovery of numerous coins of the Constantine period,
the earthworks of the castle-area, and its proximity to the ford
by which Ermine Street crossed the Witham, point to the prob-
ability of Sleaford (Slaforde, Lajford) being on the site of a Roman
settlement or camp, and that the Saxons occupied the site before
their conversion to Christianity is evident from the large cemetery
discovered here. Domesday Book records that the manor had
been held from the time of Edward the Confessor by the bishops
of Lindsey, whose successors, the bishops of Lincoln, retained
it until it was surrendered to the Crown in 1 546. It soon after-
wards passed to the family of Carr and from them, by marriage,
in 1688 to John Hervey, afterwards earl of Bristol. The quadri-
lateral castle, with its square towers and massive keep, was built
by Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, and became one of the chief
episcopal strongholds. King John rested here in 1216 after his
disastrous passage of the Wash, and in 1430 Bishop Richard
Fleming died here. The castle was in good repair on its surrender
in 1 546, but was dismantled before 1600. Sleaford never became
a municipal or parliamentary borough, and the government was
manorial, the bishops possessing full jurisdiction. The towns-
folk were, however, largely organized in the gilds of Corpus
Christi, St John and Holy Trinity, accounts for which are extant
from the year 1477. The origin of the markets and fairs is un-
known, but in answer to a writ of quo warranto of the reign of
Edward I., the bishop declared that they had been held from
time immemorial.
See Victoria County History, Lincolnshire; G. W. Thomas, " On
Excavations in an Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Sleaford, Lincolnshire,"
Archaeologia, vol. i. (London, 1887); Edward Trollope, Sleaford
and the Wapentakes of Flax-well and Aswardhurn in the county oj
Lincoln (London, 1872).
SLEEMAN, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1788-1856), Indian
soldier and administrator, was born at Stratton, Cornwall, on the
8th of August 1788. He was the son of Philip Sleeman, yeoman
and supervisor of excise. In 1809 he joined the Bengal army,
served in the Nepal War(i8i4-i8i6),and in 1820 became assistant
to the governor-general's agent in the Saugor and Nerbudda
SLEEP
territories. He is best known for his suppression of the Thugs
or religious murderers in India, becoming superintendent of the
operations against them in 1833, and commissioner for the
suppression of Thuggi and Dacoity in 1839. During these
operations more than 1400 Thugs were hanged or transported for
life, one of whom confessed to having committed over 700
murders. Detection was only possible by means of informers,
for whose protection from the vengeance of their associates a
special gaol was established at Jubbulpore. Sleeman was
resident at Gwalior 1843-1849, and at Lucknow 1849-1856.
He was opposed to the annexation of Oudh by Lord Dalhousie,
but his advice was disregarded. He died at sea on his way home
on the loth of February 1856.
See Sir H. Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official
(1844; 2nd edition, 1893), and A Journey through Oudh (1858).
SLEEP (O. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide,
and " slip "), a normal condition of the body, occurring periodic-
ally, in which there is a greater or less degree of unconsciousness
due to inactivity of the nervous system and more especially of the
brain and spinal cord. It may be regarded as the condition of
rest of the nervous system during which there is a renewal of the
energy that has been expended in the hours of wakefulness; for
in the nervous system the general law holds good that periods of
physiological rest must alternate with periods of physiological
activity, and, as the nervous system is the dominating mechanism
in the body, when it reposes all the other systems enjoy the
same condition to a greater or less extent. Rest alternates with
work in all vital phenomena. After a muscle has contracted
frequently at short intervals, a period of relaxation is necessary
for the removal of waste products and the restitution of energy;
the pulsating heart, apparently working without intermission, is
in reality not doing so, as there are short intervals of relaxation
between individual beats in which there is no expenditure of
energy; the cells in a secreting gland do not always elaborate,
but have periods when the protoplasm is comparatively at rest.
Nervous action also involves physico-chemical changes of matter
and the expenditure of energy. This is true even of the activity
of the brain associated with sensation, perception, emotion,
volition and other psychical phenomena, and therefore the higher
nervous centres require rest, during which they are protected
from the stream of impressions flowing in from the sense-organs,
and in which waste matters are removed and the cerebral material
is recuperated for another time of wakeful activity. (See also
HYPNOTISM, and the physiological sections of the articles BRAIN,
and MUSCLE AND NERVE.)
The coincidence of the time of sleep with the occurrence of the
great terrestrial phenomena that cause night is more apparent
than real. The oscillations of vital activity are not correlated to
the terrestrial revolutions as effect and cause, but the occurrence
of sleep, in the majority of cases, on the advent of night is largely
the result of habit. Whilst the darkness and stillness of night are
favourable to sleep, the state of physiological repose is deter-
mined more by the condition of the body itself. Fatigue will
normally cause sleep at any time of the twenty-four hours.
Thus many of the lower animals habitually sleep during the day
and prowl in search of food in the night; some hibernate during
the winter season, passing into long periods of sleep during both
day and night; and men whose avocations require them to work
during the night find that they can maintain health and activity
by sleeping the requisite time during the day.
The approach of sleep is usually marked by a desire for sleep,
or sleepiness, embracing an obscure and complicated group of
sensations, resembling such bodily states of feeling as hunger,
thirst, the necessity of breathing, &c. All of these bodily states,
although on the whole ill-defined, are referred with some precision
to special organs. Thus hunger, although due to a general bodily
want, is referred to the stomach, thirst to the fauces, and breath-
ing to the chest; and in like manner the desire for sleep is
referred chiefly to the region of the head and neck. There is a
sensation of weight in the upper eyelids, intermittent spasm
of the sub-hyoid muscles causing yawning, and drooping of
the head. Along with these signs there is obscuration of the
intelligence, depression both of general sensibility and of the
special senses, and relaxation of the muscular system. The half-
closed eyelids tend more and more to close; the inspirations
become slower and deeper; the muscles supporting the lower jaw
become relaxed, so that the mouth opens; the muscles of the
back of the neck that tend to support the head also relax and the
chin droops on the breast; and the limbs relax and tend to fall
into a line with the body. At the same time the hesitating
utterances of the sleepy man indicate vagueness of thought, and
external objects gradually cease to make an impression on the
senses. These are the chief phenomena of the advent of sleep.
After it has supervened there are many gradations in its depth
and character. In some cases the sleep may be so light that the
individual is partially conscious of external impressions and of
the disordered trains of thought and feeling that pass through
his mind, constituting dreams, and these may be more or less
vivid, according to the degree of consciousness remaining. On
thejother hand, the sleep may be so profound as to abolish all
psychical phenomena: there are no dreams, and when the sleeper
awakes the time passed in this unconscious state is a blank.
The first period of sleep is the most profound. After a variable
period, usually from five to six hours of deep sleep, the faculties
awaken, not simultaneously but often fitfully, so that there are
transient periods of consciousness. This is the time of dreaming.
As the period of waking approaches the sensibility becomes
more acute, so that external impressions are faintly perceived.
These impressions may influence and mould the flow of images
in the mind of the sleeper, frequently altering the nature of his
dreams or making them more vivid. The moment of waking is
usually not instantaneous, but is preceded by an intermediate
state of partial consciousness, and a strange play of the mental
faculties that has more of the character of an " intellectual
mirage " than of consecutive thought.
The intensity of sleep has been measured by Kohlschutter
by the intensity of the sound necessary to awaken the sleeper.
This intensity increases rapidly during the first hour, then
decreases, sometimes rapidly, sometimes slowly, during the next
two or three hours, and then very slowly until the time of waking.
This statement agrees generally with experience. As a rule the
deeper the sleep the longer it lasts.
Various physiological changes have been observed during
sleep, but much remains to be done in this direction. The pulse
becomes less frequent; the respiratory movements are fewer in
number and are almost wholly thoracic, not abdominal; all the
secretions are reduced in quantity; the gastric and intestinal
peristaltic movements are less rapid; the pupils of the eye are
contracted and during profound sleep are not affected by light;
and the eyeballs are rotated upwards. The pupils dilate slightly
when strong sensory or auditory stimuli are applied, and they
dilate the more the lighter the sleep; at the moment of waking
they become widely dilated. Whilst muscular relaxation is
general, there seems to be increased contraction of certain
sphincter muscles, as the circular fibres of the iris and the fibres
concerned in closing the eyelids. The state of the circulation of
the brain has been frequently investigated. The older view
was that there was a degree of plethora or congestion of the
vessels of the brain, as is the state of matters in coma, to which
the state of sleep has a superficial resemblance. Coma, however,
is not sleep, but a condition of inactivity of the cerebral matter
owing to the accumulation of dark venous blood in its vessels.
This has been actually observed in cases where it was possible to
see the brain. During sleep the surface of the exposed brain has
been observed to become pale and to shrink somewhat from the
sides of the opening (Johann Blumenbach, 1752-1840). A
careful experimental research was conducted by Arthur E.
Durham in 1860, in which he trephined a portion of bone as
large as a shilling from the parietal region of a dog, and, to
obviate the effects of atmospheric pressure, inserted a watch
glass into the aperture so that the surface of the brain could be
seen. His results are summarized thus:
" (i) Pressure of distended veins on the brain is not the cause of
sleep, for during sleep the veins are not distended; and, when they
SLEEP
239
are, symptoms and appearances arise which differ from those which
characterize sleep. (2) During sleep the brain is in a comparatively
bloodless condition, and the blood in the encephalic vessels is not
only diminished in quantity, but moves with diminished rapidity.
(3) The condition of the cerebral circulation during sleep is, from
physical causes, that which is most favourable to the nutrition of
the brain tissue; and, on the other hand, the condition which
prevails during waking is associated with mental activity, because
it is that which is most favourable to oxidation of the brain sub-
stance, and to various changes in its chemical constitution. _ (4)
The blood which is derived from the brain during sleep is distri-
buted to the alimentary and excretory organs. (5) Whatever in-
creases the activity of the cerebral circulation tends to preserve
wakefulness; and whatever decreases the activity of the cerebral
circulation, and, at the same time, is not inconsistent with the
general health of the body, tends to induce and favour sleep. Such
circumstances may act primarily through the nervous or through
the vascular system. Among those which act through the nervous
system may be instanced the presence or absence of impressions
upon the senses, and the presence or absence of exciting ideas.
Among those which act through the vascular system may be men-
tioned unnaturally or naturally increased or decreased force or
frequency of the heart's action."
Dr William A. Hammond and Dr Silas Weir Mitchell (b. 1830)
repeated and extended Durham's observations, with the same
general results (1866), and Ehrmann, Salathe (1877), Francois
Franck (1877) and Mosso (1881), by more refined methods of
observation arrived at the same general conclusions. Angelo
Mosso (b. 1846) in particular applied with great success the
graphic method of registration to the study of the movements of
the brain and of the circulation during sleep. He made observa-
tions on three persons who had lost a portion of the cranial vault
and in whom there was a soft pulsating cicatrix. They were a
woman of thirty-seven years of age, a man of thirty-seven years
and a child of about twelve years. By special arrangements,
Mosso took simultaneous tracings of the pulse at the wrist, of
the beat of the heart, of the movements of the wall of the chest
in respiration, and of the movements of the denuded brain.
Further, by means of the plethysmograph an instrument of
Mosso's own invention he obtained tracings showing changes
in the volume of the hand and forearm; and he succeeded in
showing that during sleep there is a diminished amount of blood
in the brain, and at the same time an increased amount in the
extremities. He showed further that there are frequent adjust-
ments in the distribution of the blood, even during sleep. Thus
a strong stimulus to the skin or to a sense organ but not strong
enough to awaken the sleeper caused a contraction of the vessels
of the forearm, an increase of blood pressure, and a determination
of blood towards the brain; and, on the other hand, on suddenly
awakening the sleeper, there was a contraction of the vessels
of the brain, a general rise of pressure, and an accelerated flow
of blood through the hemispheres of the brain. So sensitive is
the whole organism in this respect, even during sleep, that a
loudly spoken word, a sound, a touch, the action of light or any
moderate sensory impression modified the rhythm of respiration,
determined a contraction of the vessels of the forearm, increased
the general pressure of the blood, caused an increased flow to the
brain, and quickened the frequency of the beats of the heart.
These observations show how a physiological explanation can be
suggested of the influence of external impressions in modifying
the dreams of a sleeper. Further, Mosso found that during very
profound sleep these oscillations disappear: the pulsatory
movements are uniform and are not affected by sensory impres-
sions, and probably this condition exists when there is the
absolute unconsciousness of a " dead " sleep. By such methods
as have been employed by Mosso, three movements of the brain
have been observed (i) pulsations, corresponding to the beats
of the heart; (2) oscillations, or longer waves, sometimes coincid-
ing with the heart beats, or more generally consisting of longer
festoons, carrying each a number of smaller waves, and believed
to correspond generally to the respiratory movements; and
(3) undulations, still longer and less marked elevations and
depressions, first clearly observed by Mosso, and believed by
him to indicate rhythmic contractions of the vessels of the pia
mater and of the brain. This view is in keeping with the observa-
tions of Franz Cornelius Bonders (b. 1818), Adolf Kussraaul
(b. 1822), Tenner and others on changes of calibre observed in
the cerebral vessels, and with the experiments of many physio-
logists, showing that the vessels of the pia mater, like other
vessels, are controlled by the vaso-motor system of nerves.
It may therefore be considered certain that during sleep there is
an anaemia, or partially bloodless condition, of the brain, and
that the blood is drawn off to other organs, whilst at the same time
this anaemic condition may be modified by changes in the
circulation or in the respiratory mechanism caused by position,
by sensory impressions or by sudden changes in the state of
repose of the muscles. The examination of the retina (which
may be regarded as a cerebral outwork) by the ophthalmoscope
during sleep also shows a comparatively bloodless condition.
Such are the facts; the deficiency in the way of a theoretical
explanation is that physiologists cannot satisfactorily account
for the anaemic cdndition causing unconsciousness. Sudden
haemorrhage from the brain and nerve-centres, or a sudden
cessation of the supply of blood to the brain, as occurs in syncope
(failure of the heart's action a faint), no doubt causes uncon-
sciousness, but in these circumstances there is a tendency to
convulsive spasm. Such spasm is usually absent in sleep, but
sudden jerks of the limbs may sometimes be observed during the
time when there is the confusion of ideas preceding the passage
into sleep.
During sleep the amount of carbonic acid eliminated is very
much reduced, indicating that molecular changes in the tissues
do not occur to the same extent as in the waking state. This is
also shown by the fact that less heat is produced. Hermann von
Helmholtz (b. 1821) states that the amount of heat produced by
a man weighing 67 kilogrammes (147-410) is about 40 calories per
hour during sleep, as against 112 calories per hour while awake.
This diminished production of heat may be largely accounted for
by the quiet condition of the muscles of locomotion, but it also
indicates diminished tissue changes throughout the body. In
profound sleep the bodily temperature may fall from -6 to -2
Fahr. In consequence of diminished oxidation changes during
sleep, it is not improbable that excess of nutrient matter may
then be stored up in the form of fat, and that thus the proverb
" He who sleeps dines " is based on a correct appreciation of the
fact that sleep tends to produce plethora or obesity.
Whilst it is easy to state that sleep is caused by fatigue of the
nervous system, it is more difficult to explain what the precise
changes are that produce the state of unconsciousness. Various
hypotheses have been advanced, but it cannot be said that any
one is wholly satisfactory. Aware that the fatigue of muscle is
associated with the accumulation of sarcolactic acid, Thierry
William Preyer (b. 1841) surmised that the activity of nervous
matter might be interfered with by the accumulation in the nerve-
centres of some such acid, or of its soda salt (lactate of soda),
but this view has not been supported by the results of experiment,
as the injection into the blood of a dose of lactate of soda has not
produced sleep. Pfliiger has observed that frogs deprived for
a considerable time of oxygen passed gradually into a state
resembling profound sleep, and he has advanced the theory that
there is no organ of the body so quickly affected by deprivation
of oxygen as the brain. According to Eduard F. W. Pfliiger
(b. 1829), the phenomena of life depend on a dissociation of living
matter, and in particular the activity of the cerebral substance
connected with psychical states depends on dissociation changes
in the grey matter. To excite the dissociation, however,
oxygen is necessary. The oxygen unites with certain of the
compounds set free by the dissociation, forming, amongst other
substances, carbonic acid. If such matters as these that unite
with oxygen are in sufficient amount to use up all the oxygen,
the grey matter of the brain suffers from a deficiency of oxygen
(or from its absence), and also from the accumulation of carbonic
acid. According to such a theory, cerebral activity depends on
cerebral respiration, and sleep is a kind of cerebral asphyxia.
Some such condition is not improbable, but it must be stated that
the evidence at present in support of it is meagre. Possibly, in
attempting to account for the phenomenon of sleep, too much
importance has been attributed to the changes occurring in the
240
SLEEPER SLEET
brain, forgetting that not merely brain matter but every tissue
of the body becomes exhausted by work, and that sleep may be
partly due to phenomena occurring throughout the body and not
in the brain alone.
All the phenomena of sleep point to a diminished excitability
of the cerebral nerve-centres and of the spinal cord. Contrary
to what is often stated, there can be no doubt that reflex action
is in partial abeyance and that the spinal cord is in a state of
partial inactivity as well as the brain. The only nerve-centres
that do not sleep are those absolutely essential to life, such as
those connected with the heart, with respiratory movements,
and with the distribution of blood by the vaso-motor arrange-
ments; and Mosso's experiments indicate that even these have
a certain amount of repose in profound sleep.
There is little doubt that all living beings require periods of
repose alternating with periods of activity. Many plants close their
flowers and bend their petioles at certain times of the day. These
phenomena, called " the sleep of plants," depend apparently on
changes in solar radiation, and there is no reason to believe that
during the time of quiescence any reparative processes go on, as
during the sleeping period of animals. Naturalists have observed
many of the lower animals apparently in a state of sleep. Insects,
crustaceans, fishes, reptiles, may all be observed occasionally to be
almost motionless for considerable periods of time. The sleeping of
birds is familiar to all, and in these there are anatomical arrangements
by which the bird may, like the crane, sleep perched on one leg, or
grasping a branch with both feet, like perching birds generally,
without any muscular effort and consequently without fatigue.
The amount of sleep required by man varies according to age,
sex and habit. The popular notion that a child sleeps --half its time,
an adult one-third, whilst an old person may do little except eat and
sleep is not far wrong. In early life the cerebral faculties appear to
be easily exhausted and during the frequent and prolonged sleeps of
infancy the brain rests and the vegetative changes connected with
nutrition and growth go on actively. As life advances, less sleep
is required, until in adult life a period of seven or eight hours is
sufficient. As a rule, women require more sleep than men; but
much depends on habit. Thus most women bear the loss of sleep in
the first instance better than men, because they have been accus-
tomed more to loss or irregularity of sleep. The effect of habit is
well seen in nurses, both male and female, who will often be able to
work for weeks continuously with snatches of sleep, not amounting
to more than two or three hours daily. Sooner or later, however,
even in these cases nature asserts her demands, and prolonged sleep
is necessary to maintain health and vigour. Wakefulness during
the time when one ought to be asleep is frequently a distressing con-
dition, undermining the strength and incapacitating for active and
efficient work (see INSOMNIA).
It is a matter of common observation not only that certain persons
require more sleep than others but that they have less power of
resisting its onset and of awaking. This condition may become
morbid, constituting a veritable nervous disease, to which the name
" maladie du sommeil " or hypnosia may be given. It may be
described as invincible sleep, and it may continue for weeks and
for months, terminating in convulsive seizures, and even death.
A persistent drooping of the upper eyelid has been observed even
during waking hours. Dr W. Ogle has observed in such cases an
engorgement of the cervical ganglia of the sympathetic; but this
may nave nothing to do with the condition. Cases of very pro-
longed sleep are not uncommon, especially amongst hysterical
persons, lasting four, seven or ten days. On awaking the patient
is exhausted and pale, with cold extremities, and not infrequently,
after a brief interval of waking, passes off into another lethargic
sleep. Something similar to this may be seen in very aged persons
towards the close of life. (See also DREAMS, SOMNAMBULISM and
HYPNOTISM.)
Among older works, see article " Sommeil " in the Dictionnaire
encyclopedique des sciences medicates, where a bibliography is given
and where also there is an account of the medico-legal questions
connected with sleep and somnambulism; Macnish, Physiology of
Sleep; Durham, " On the Physiology of Sleep," in Guy's Hospital
Reports (1860); Kohlschiitter, "Die Mechanik des Schlafes," in
Z. f. ration. Med., vol. xxxiii. (1869) ; Pfliiger, " Theorie des Schlafes,"
in Pfliiger's Archiv, vol. x. (1875); Mpsso, Uber den Kreislauf des
Blutes im menschlichen Gehirn (Leipzig, 1881). Also Manace'i'ne,
Sleep, its Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene and Psychology (Eng. trans.
1897), with bibliography. (J. G. M.)
SLEEPER, a term used with many technical applications for
a piece of timber, metal, &c., used as a support; in carpentry it
is such a piece of timber laid on low cross walls as a plate to
receive ground joists; in shipbuilding, a strengthening timber
for the bows and stern frame; the most frequent use of the term
is for a timber or steel support on which the chairs are fixed for
carrying the rails on a railway; in America these are called
" ties " (see RAILWAYS). The common explanation of the origin
of the word is to connect it with " sleep," the timbers supposed
to be lying at rest. The real source of the word is the Norwegian
ship, a piece of timber used for dragging things over, a roller,
especially used of timbers laid in a row in making a road. This
word Skeat (Etymol. Diet., 1898) connects with " slab," a flat
piece of stone or wood. The French term dormant is used in
carpentry, but as part of the frame of a window or door.
SLEEPING-SICKNESS ( Trypanosomiasis) , a remarkable para-
sitic disease, familiar among West African natives since the
beginning of the igth century, and characterized by protracted
lethargy, fever and wasting. It is attributed to the trypanosoma
gambiense, a parasite which was discovered in the frog by Gruby
in 1847, and in 1880 by Griffith Evans in horses afflicted with
the disease called " surra " in India. In 1895 Surgeon-Major
(afterwards Sir) D. Bruce found a trypanosoma similar to
Evans's in cases of what was known in cattle as " tsetse-fly
disease "; and though the trypanosoma had not then actually
been found in man, Bruce suggested that this was akin to the
human " sleeping-sickness " which had now extended into the
Congo Free State, Uganda and elsewhere, and was causing great
mortality, many Europeans having died of the disease. In 1903
Castelani found the trypanosoma in the cerebro-spinal fluid of
human patients afflicted with the disease. The question of the
pathology of " sleeping-sickness " wag vigorously taken up, and
in June 1907 an international conference was held in London for
the purpose of organizing research on the subject. As was
pointed out by Lord Fitzmaurice (i8th of June), in his opening
address, it was already accepted that trypanosoma gambiense
was the cause of the disease, and it was even then " all but
proved " that the parasite was conveyed by at least one species
of tsetse fly (glossina palpalis), the distribution of which was
limited to the neighbourhood of open water. It had further been
ascertained, experimentally in animals, and therapeutically in
man, that the infection once acquired could be controlled, to
some extent, by various substances arsenic, certain colours,,
dyes, in combinations of arsenic and colour dyes, e.g. atoxyl
and by mercury. It remained a question how far certain un-
ascertained factors were at work in the spread of the disease, and
for this purpose the British government invited the co-operation
of all the powers interested in tropical Africa in considering
certain problems, annual or biennial conferences being suggested,
and the formation of a central bureau, in order to organize the
research. These problems were: (i) to determine whether the
tsetse fly (glossina palpalis) was a direct or indirect conveyor of
the parasite; (2) whether the parasite underwent necessary
developmental changes in the tsetse fly; .(3) if so, whether the'
developed germs were conveyed by the original fly or its larva
when arrived at the imago stage; (4) how long an infected
glossina palpalis remained infected; (5) whether other species
of glossina were concerned; (6) the geographical -distribution
and habits of the fly; (7) whether and how far the spread of
infection was the work of any of the vertebrate fauna (other than
man) ; (8) to suggest preventive methods for exterminating the
glossina, or protecting uninfected districts by segregation or
otherwise; (9) to study the therapeutics of the disease. In the
history of modern pathology, this organization of research in
respect of " sleeping-sickness " must hold an important place
as the application of state effort on behalf of the advancement of
science. (See NEUROPATHOLOGY and PARASITIC DISEASES.)
AUTHORITIES. Sir P. Manson, Lane Lectures on Tropical Diseases
(1905) ;W. F. M. Marshall, " Trypanosomiasis or Sleeping-Sickness,"
in Review of Neurology and Psychiatry (February 1906) ; F. W. Mott,
A rchives of Neurology, vol. iii. (1907) ; Reports of the Sleeping-Sickness
Commission; Castelfani, " Researches on the Aetiology of Sleeping-
Sickness," Journal of Tropical Medicine (June 1903).
SLEET (either from Nor. sletla, of the same meaning, or related
to Ger. Schlosse, hailstone), that form of precipitation of water
vapour condensed from the atmosphere, which reaches the ground
in a partly frozen condition. Sleet may originate in the upper
atmosphere either as rain, in which case, to become partly
frozen, it must have fallen into a stratum of air colder than that
in which it originated, or as snow, when the opposite must have
SLEEVE SLIGO
241
taken place, i.e. the snow in its descent must have encountered
an air-temperature slightly above the freezing-point.
SLEEVE (O. Eng. slieve, slyf, a. word allied to " slip," cf. Dutch
sloof, apron), that part of a garment which covers the arm, or
through which the arm passes or slips. The pattern of the sleeve
is one of the characteristics of fashion in dress, varying in every
country and period. Various survivals of the early forms of
sleeve are still found in the different types of academic or other
robes (q.v.). Where the long hanging sleeve is worn it has, as
still in China and Japan, been used as a pocket, whence has come
the phrase " to have up one's sleeve," to have something con-
cealed ready to produce. There are many other proverbial and
metaphorical expressions associated with the sleeve, such as " to
wear one's heart upon one's sleeve," " to laugh in one's sleeve,"
&c. In technical usage a " sleeve " is a tube into which another
tube is inserted, which in the case of small tubes is called a
thimble.
SLEIDANUS, JOHANNES (1506-1556), German historian, the
annalist of the Reformation, was born at Schleiden near Aix-la-
Chapelle. He studied ancient languages and literatures at
Liege and Cologne, and law and jurisprudence at Paris and
Orleans. Whilst among the humanists of Liege, he had adopted
Protestant opinions, and entering the service of Cardinal du
Bellay, was employed in the futile negotiations of the French
court to make an alliance with the German Protestants against
the emperor Charles V. In 1542 he settled at Strassburg.
Sleidanus had been accustomed to copy all papers bearing upon
the Reformation to which he had access, and Martin Bucer, who
had seen his collection, proposed to Philip of Hesse to appoint him
historian of the Reformation, giving him a salary and access to
all necessary documents. After some delay the heads of the
league of Schmalkalden agreed to the proposal, and Sleidanus
began his great work, finishing the first volume in 1545. In that
year he was recalled to diplomacy, and went to England in a
French embassy to Henry VIII. While there he collected
materials for his history. On his return he represented Strassburg
at the diets of Frankfort and Worms, and went on to Marburg to
explore the archives of Philip of Hesse. The war of the league
of Schmalkalden interfered with this work, and also prevented the
payment of Sleidanus, who in his difficulties applied to England
for aid, and at Cranmer's intercession received a yearly pension
from Edward VI., which, however, was not long continued. In
1551 Sleidanus went to the council of Trent as representative
from Strassburg, charged also with full powers to act for the
imperial cities of Esslingen, Ravensburg, Reutlingen, Biberach
and Lindau. He was afterwards appointed professor of law
in Strassburg, and finished his great task in 1554, though lack
of money and other misfortunes compelled him to delay printing.
Sleidanus died in poverty at Strassburg in October 1556. The
book appeared in the preceding year Commentariorum de statu
religionis el reipublicae, Carolo V. Caesare, libri XXVI.; it
was translated into English by John Daws in 1560 and by G.
Bohum in 1689. It was so impartial that it pleased no one, not
even Melanchthon. It remains the most valuable contemporary
history of the times of the Reformation, and contains the largest
collection of important documents.
See H. Baumgarten, ffber Sleidanus Leben und Briefwechscl
(1878), and Sleidans Briefwechsel (1881); and A. Hasenclever,
Sleid.an-Stud.ien (Bonn, 1905).
SLEIGH, SLED or SLEDGE (Dan. slaede, Dutch slede, akin to
"slide"), a vehicle on runners instead of wheels, for travelling
over snow or ice. Various forms are used according as the
object is utility or sport. The sleighs used in COASTING are
referred to in the article under that heading; but for ordinary
means of conveyance horse-drawn sleighs are employed as
carriages in countries such as Russia, Scandinavia, and North
America, where the roads are snow-bound in the cold season;
and in the Arctic regions dogs are harnessed to them.
SLIDELL, JOHN (1793-1871), American political leader and
diplomatist, was born in New York City in 1793. He graduated
from Columbia College in 1810, engaged in business for a short
time, then studied law, and became one of the leaders of the
bar at New Orleans, Louisiana, where he settled permanently
in 1825. He was a member of the national House of Repre-
sentatives as a state's rights Democrat from 1843 to 1845, when
he resigned and was sent by President Polk on a secret mission
to Mexico, with power to adjust the difficulties growing out of
the annexation of Texas to the United States, and to acquire
by purchase both New Mexico (including the present Arizona,)
and Upper California. He was not, however, received by the
Mexican government. From 1853 to 1861 he was a representative
of Louisiana in the United States Senate, and was an influential
working member of important committees, though he seldom
took part in debate. During this period he was intimately
associated with James Buchanan, and is supposed to have had
an important part in bringing about Buchanan's nomination
for the presidency in 1856. When Louisiana seceded in 1861,
Slidell withdrew from the Senate, and late in 1861 was sent
by the Confederate Government as commissioner to France.
With James M. Mason (q.v.), the Confederate commissioner to
England, he was taken from the British steamer " Trent " by
Captain Charles Wilkes of the United States navy, and was
imprisoned at Fort Warren in Boston harbour. In January
1862, at the demand of England, the Confederate commissioners
were released, and Slidell proceeded to France. His mission
there was to secure the recognition of the Confederate States;
in this he was unsuccessful, but he was able to keep France
sympathetic, and to help to secure supplies for the Confederate
army and navy. After the war he remained abroad, settling
in England, and his daughter married a French nobleman. He
died in London on the 2gth of July 1871.
SLIGO, a county of Ireland in the province of Connaught,
bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. by Leitrim, S.E. by Roscommon,
and S. and W. by Mayo. The area is 452,356 acres or about
707 sq. m. The coast-line is very irregular, and in some places
rises into grand escarpments and terraces. The principal inlets
are Killala Bay and Sligo Bay, the latter subdivided into Brown
Bay, Drumcliffe Bay and Ballysadare Bay. Near the coast
are the islands of Inishmurray and Coney and other smaller
islets. Though Sligo cannot be compared for scenery with the
western parts and north coast of County Mayo, it is well wooded
and possesses several beautiful lakes and rivers and some ranges
of hills finely situated and grouped. In the north are the lime-
stone elevations of Ben Bulbin (1712 ft.) and Knocknarea (1078),
contrasting with the adjacent rugged gneiss mountains, among
which are King's Mountain (1527) and Gullogherboy (1430).
On the boundary with Leitrim, Truskmore reaches a height
of 2113 ft. In the west are the ranges of the Slieve Gamph and
Ox Mountains, upwards of 1300 and 1600 ft. respectively. The
Curlew Mountains, an abrupt ridge of limestone gravel, upwards
of 800 ft. in height, with flattened summit, separate Sligo from
Roscommon. The principal rivers are the Moy, forming for
a part of its course the boundary with Mayo, and flowing south-
westward and then northward into Killala Bay; the Easky,
flowing northward from Lough Easky; and Ballysadare, with
its branches the Owenmore, Owenbeg, and Arrow, or Unshin;
and the Garvogue, or Garavogue, flowing from Lough Gill.
Except the finely-situated Lough Gill (extending into Leitrim),
Lough Arrow, and Lough Gara, all of which exceed 3000 acres
in extent, none of the lakes has so large an area as 400 acres.
The salmon, sea-trout and trout fishing is generally excellent
in these waters, especially during the autumn, but Lough Arrow
also provides sport during the Mayfly season.
This county essentially consists of Carboniferous Limestone,
broken by the Dalradian axis of the Ox Mountains. The gneisses
of this range, which obviously result from the intermingling of
granite and a seriesof schists and quartzites, form a ridge of rocky
hills, smoothed by glaciation, on the flanks of which Carboniferous
shales rest. Above these, the limestone is boldly developed, forming
great scarped tablelands north of Sligo, with some sandstone on the
summit of Truskmore. Knocknarea, conspicuous from Sligo, is an
outlier of the Upper Limestone. Lough Gill Is picturesquely bounded
by the gneissic range on the south and these high carboniferous masses
on the north. The limestone also produces fine features in the
south of the county, in Keishcorran and round Lough Arrow. East
of this point, it forms the slopes of the Leitrim and Roscommon
SLIGO SLING
coalfield, the summits being capped by the Millstone Grit series;
while on the south, bounded by a fault, rises the Old Red Sandstone
range of the Curlew Hills. Lead was mined at Ballysadare, and the
clay-ironstone from the east of the county was at one time smelted.
Industries. There is considerable variety both in the character
of the soil and in the agricultural advancement in different parts
of the county. In some parts it is a light sandy loam resting on a
freestone bottom, and in the lower districts a rich and deep mould
prevails resting on a substratum of limestone. Owing to the moist-
ness of the climate cattle feeding is found to be the most remunerative
method of farming, as may be gathered from the increasing or well-
maintained numbers of cattle, sheep and poultry. Oats and potatoes
are the principal crops, but the acreage devoted to them decreases,
and the proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as I to 3$.
Coarse woollens and linens are manufactured for home consumption,
and there are tanneries, distilleries, and breweries in the principal
towns. A considerable general trade is carried on at the ports of
Ballina (on the Moy) and Sligo. The fisheries on the coast are
valuable, and there are important salmon fisheries at the mouths of
the rivers. The town of Sligo is the chief centre.
The Sligo branch of the Midland Great Western railway enters
the county from the S.E., with a branch S.W. from Kilfree to
Ballaghaderreen in county Mayo; the Limerick and Sligo line of
the Great Southern and Western enters from S.W. ; and the Sligo,
Leitrimand Northern counties, from Enniskillen (county Fermanagh),
and Manor Hamilton (county Leitrim), from the N.E. These lines
unite at Cpllooney and share the railway from this junction to the
town of Sligo.
Population and Administration. The population (94,416 in 1891,
84,083 in 1901) decreases at a rate considerably above the average
of the Irish counties, and emigration is heavy. Of the total about
90 % are Roman Catholics and about 7 % Protestant Episcopalians.
About 88% is rural population. The county town is Sligo (pop.
10,870) ; Ballymote and Tobercurry (or Tubbercurry) are small
inland market towns. The county is divided into six baronies.
Assizes are held at Sligo and quarter-sessions at Ballymote, Easky
and Sligo. For parliamentary representation the county has since
1885 formed two divisions (North and South), each returning a
member. The county is mainly in the Protestant diocese of Kilmore,
and in the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh, Achonry, Elphin and
Killala.
History. The county was created by Sir Henry Sydney in
1579. On Carrowmore, between Sligo and Ballysadare, there
is a remarkable collection of ancient stone monuments (see
SLIGO, town). At Drumcliffe (5 m. N. of Sligo) are the only
round tower remaining in the county and a beautiful Celtic
cross 13 ft. in height. The principal monastic ruins are the
abbey of St Fechan at Ballysadare, with a church of the nth
or 1 2th century; the abbey of Sligo; and a remarkable group
of buildings on the island Inishmurray, which include a cashel
or walled enclosure; three oratories, one of which contains an
oaken figure in ecclesiastical garb; two holy wells; and also
altars, pillar stones, inscribed slabs (one of which is unique
among those of its kind in Ireland in having an inscription partly
in Latin), and several examples of beehive cells. This settlement
is associated with Molaise, a saint of the early 6th century (not
identical with the Molaise of Devenish in Loch Erne), and the
remains still attract pilgrims, who revere the oaken figure
mentioned as an image of the saint, though it is more probably
the figurehead of a vessel.
SLIGO, a municipal borough, seaport and market town, and
the county town of county Sligo, Ireland. Pop. (1901) 10,870.
It lies at the head of an arm of Sligo Bay on the north-west
coast, on the river Garvogue, 1345 m. N.W. from Dublin by the
Midland Great Western railway. This company shares with the
Great Southern and Western and the Sligo, Leitrim, and Northern
Counties railways the line to Collooney Junction, 65 m. S., from
which the former runs S. to Limerick and the latter E. to Ennis-
killen. The situation of Sligo is beautiful; the bay is separated
from the fine Lough Gill by less than 4 m. of a richly wooded
valley, with flanking hills exceeding 1000 ft. in elevation. Sligo
takes rank with Galway and Limerick as one of the three principal
ports of the west coast of Ireland. Regular communication by
steamer is maintained with Liverpool and Glasgow, and a con-
siderable export trade is carried on in grain, flour, pork and
cattle; while coals, iron, timber and provisions are imported.
There is a depth on the harbour bar of 16 ft. at low water, and
there are commodious quays and basins. Harbour commissioners
control the port. Brewing, flour-milling and saw-milling are the
chief industries, and there is an important butter-market.
Monthly fairs are held. Sligo is a centre of salmon and sea-
fishing industries.
The Dominican Abbey, founded in 1252 by Maurice Fitzgerald,
Lord-Justice, is one of the finest monastic ruins in Ireland. It
was partly destroyed by fire in 1414 and again in 1642. Three
sides of the cloisters remain, and the lofty quadrangular tower
at the junction of the nave and chancel is entire. The east
window is of the date of the original structure. The principal
modern church is the Roman Catholic cathedral (1869) for the
diocese of Elphin in the Norman style with a finely sculptured
doorway. There is also a Roman Catholic college.
A castle was built at Sligo by Maurice Fitzgerald in 1242,
which in 1270 was taken and destroyed by O'Donnel; in 1310
it was rebuilt by Richard, earl of Ulster, and was again partly
destroyed in 1369 and 1394. Of this and the walls with which
the town was fortified there are no remains. Early in the reign
of James I. the town received a market and two annual fairs;
in 1613 it was incorporated and received the privileges of a
borough; and in 1621.11 received a charter of the staple. In 1641
it was besieged by the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles
Coote, but was afterwards evacuated, and occupied by the
Royalists till the termination of the war. In 1688 it declared
in favour of James II., and, after being captured by the Ennis-
killeners, was retaken by General Sarsfield, but ultimately
surrendered to the earl of Granard. The borough was dis-
franchised in 1870. Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act,
1898 it retains its mayor and corporation, but the latter has
practically the status of an urban district council.
The country neighbouring to Sligo presents fine coast scenery,
west coast of Ireland, while inland it is wild and mountainous.
Three m. S.W. of the town, on Carrowmore, is a remarkable collection
of megalithic remains, including cromlechs, stone circles, and burial
cairns, which has been taken to mark the site of the traditional battle
of North Moytura. On Knocknarea (1078 ft.), south of Sligo, is a
huge cairn, which tradition sets down as the burial-place of Queen
Mab (Meave of Connaught). Five m. N. of Sligo is Drumcliffe, with
its round tower and Celtic cross. Rosses, on Sligo Bay, is a favourite
resort. Sligo is a centre for salmon and trout fishing.
SLING (from M. Eng. slingen, to fling, throw with a jerk, Icel.
slyngva, cf. Ger. schlingen, to twist), an implement for casting
missiles, also from its resemblance in form to the implement,
a hanging loop used as a support for a wounded limb, a chain
with hooks used for raising or lowering heavy goods or objects,
&c. The sling as a weapon is probably the earliest form of device
known to mankind by which an increase of force and range was
given to the arm of a thrower of missiles. Sling stones from
the stone age have been frequently found (see ARMS AND ARMOUR) .
The form of the weapon is of two kinds; the sling proper consists
of a small strap or socket of leather or hide to which two cords
are attached; the slinger holds the two ends in one hand, whirls
the socket and missile rapidly round the head and, loosing one
cord sharply, despatches the missile; the other type is the staff
sling, in which the sling itself is attached to a short staff, held in
both hands. This was used for heavier missiles especially in
siege operations during the middle ages. There are many refer-
ences to slings and to slingers in the Bible; the left-handed
slingers of Benjamin were famous (Judges xx. 16). The Assyrian
monuments show the sling of the ordinary type and slingers were
used in the ancient Egyptian army, but not before the 8th
century B.C. The sling (Gr. afavbbvT), Lat. fitnda) is not men-
tioned in Homer; Herodotus (vii. 158) speaks of the slingers
in the army offered by Gelon to serve against the Persians; it
seems to have been a weapon chiefly used by barbarian troops.
The Acarnanians, however, were expert slingers (Thuc. ii. 81),
and so also were the Achaeans, who later invented the sling
which discharged a shaft with an iron bolt head (Livy xlii. 65,
from Polybius). In the Roman army by the time of the Punic
Wars the slingers (jundilores) were auxiliaries from Greece,
Syria and Africa. The Balearic islanders, who were in Hannibal's
army, were always famous as slingers. In medieval times the
sling was much used in the Prankish army, especially in defending
trenches,, while the staff-sling was used against fortifications
SLIVEN SLODTZ
243
in the uth century. They were used down to the i6th and lyth
centuries to throw grenades.
SLIVEN, SLIVNO or formerly SELIMNIA (Turk. Islimye), a
town of Bulgaria, in Eastern Rumelia, at the southern foot of
the Balkan Mountains, 105 m. E.N.E. of Philippopolis and
near the southern entrance of the defile known as the Iron Gate.
Pop. (1906), 25,049. There are numerous mosques in the town,
but the greater part of the Turkish population emigrated after the
Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. Sliven contains the govern-
ment factory, founded in 1834, for the manufacture of military
clothing; it is the chief centre in Bulgaria for the rough and fine
homespuns known as aba and shayak, and its wine is locally
celebrated. Extensive mulberry orchards have been planted in
connexion with the silk industry.
Sliven, the Stlifanos of the Byzantine writers, owed its former
strategic importance to its position on one of the trans-Balkan
highways to Adrianople and the south. In the middle ages it
was a subject of dispute between Byzantium and Bulgaria.
After its capture by the Turks (1388) it was one of the voinik
towns which remained exempt from taxes and were allowed to
elect their own voivode; but these privileges were lost in the
i6th century. In 1829 Sliven was occupied by the Russian army
under Rudiger and Gorchakov.
SLOANE, SIR HANS (1660-1753), British collector and
physician, was born on the i6th of April 1660 at Killyleagh in
county Down, Ireland, where his father had settled at the head
of a Scotch colony sent over by James I. He had as a youth a
taste for collecting objects of natural history and other curiosities.
This led him to the study of medicine, which he went to London
to pursue, directing his attention to botany, materia medica
and pharmacy. His collecting propensities made him useful
to John Ray and Robert Boyle. After four years in London he
travelled through France, spending some time at Paris and
Montpellier, and taking his M.D. degree at the university of
Orange in 1683. He returned to London with a considerable
collection of plants and other curiosities, of which the former
were sent to Ray and utilized by him for his History of Plants.
Sloane was quickly elected into the Royal Society, and at the
same time he attracted the notice of Thomas Sydenham, who
gave him valuable introductions to practice. In 1687 he became
fellow of the College of Physicians, and proceeded to Jamaica
the same year as physician in the suite' of the duke of Albemarle.
The duke died soon after landing, and Sloane's visit lasted only
fifteen months; but during that time he got together about
800 new species of plants, the island being virgin ground to the
botanist. Of these he published an elaborate catalogue in Latin
in 1696; and at a later date (1707-1725) he made the experiences
of his visit the subject of two folio volumes. He became secretary
to the Royal Society in 1693, and edited the Philosophical
Transactions for twenty years. His practice as a physician
among the upper classes was large. In the pamphlets written
concerning the sale by Dr William Cockburn (1669-1739) of his
secret remedy for dysentery and other fluxes, it was stated for
the defence that Sloane himself did not disdain the same kind of
professional conduct; and some colour is given to that charge
by the fact that his only medical publication, an Account of a
Medicine for Soreness, Weakness and other Distempers of the Eyes
(London, 1745) was not given to the world until its author was in
his eighty-fifth year and had retired from practice.
In 1716 Sloane was created a baronet, being the first medical
practitioner to receive an hereditary title, and in 1719 he became
president of the College of Physicians, holding the office sixteen
years. In 1722 he was appointed physician-general to the army
and in 1727 first physician to George II. In 1727 also he suc-
ceeded Sir Isaac Newton in the presidential chair of the Royal
Society; he retired from it at the age of eighty. Sloane's
memory survives more by his judicious investments than by
anything that he contributed to the subject matter of natura"
science or even of his own profession. His purchase of the
manor of Chelsea in 1712 has perpetuated his memory in the
name of a " place, " a street, and a square. His great stroke as
a collector was to acquire (by bequest, conditional on paying off
certain debts) in 1701 the cabinet of William Courten, who had
made collecting the business of his life. When Sloane retired
rom active work in 1741 his library and cabinet of curiosities,
which he took with him from Bloomsbury to his house in Chelsea,
lad grown to be of unique value. On his death on the nth of
[anuary 1753 he bequeathed his books, manuscripts, prints,
drawings, pictures, medals, coins, seals, cameos and other
curiosities to the nation, on condition that parliament should
pay to his executors 20,000, which was a good deal less than
.he value of the collection. The bequest was accepted on those
terms by an act passed the same year, and the collection, together
with George II.'s royal library, &c., was opened to the public
at Bloomsbury as the British Museum in 1759. Among his
other acts of munificence may be mentioned his gift to the
Apothecaries' Company of the botanical or physic garden,
which they had rented from the Chelsea estate since 1673.
See Weld, History of the Royal Society, i. 450 (London, 1848);
and Munk, Roll of the College of Physicians, and ed., i. 466 (London,
1878).
SLOCUM, HENRY WARNER (1827-1894), American general,
was born at Delphi, Onondaga county, New York, on the 24th
of September 1827, and graduated at the United States Military
Academy in 1852. He resigned from the army in 1856 to practise
law at Syracuse, N.Y., and in 1859 he was a member of the state
Assembly. When the Civil War broke out he became colonel
(May 1861) of the 27th New York Volunteers, and was promoted
brigadier-general of volunteers (August 1861) and major-general
of volunteers (July 1862). He fought in all the Virginia cam-
paigns from the first battle of Bull Run, where he led a regiment,
to Gettysburg, where he commanded the XII. corps. With that
corps he was transferred in the autumn of 1863 under Hooker's
command to the Tennessee Valley, and took part in the battle of
Chattanooga. He remained with the Army of the Cumberland
after his corps was merged into that of Hooker, took part in the
Atlanta campaign, and after Hooker's retirement succeeded to
the command of the XX. corps (late XI. and XII.). He com-
manded the Atlanta garrison, and with Sherman took part in
the " march to the sea," and subsequently in the Carolinas
campaign from Savannah to Goldsboro, as commander of the
left wing. He resigned from the army in September 1865,
resumed professional practice at Brooklyn, and was a Democratic
representative in Congress in 1860-1873 and again in 1883-1885.
In 1876-1884 he was president of the Brooklyn city board of
public works. He died at Brooklyn on the i4th of April 1894.
A monument of General Slocum by Frederick MacMonnies was
unveiled at Brooklyn, N.Y., on the 3oth of May 1905.
SLODTZ, RENE MICHEL or MICHEL ANGE (1705-1764),
French sculptor, was born at Paris. He passed seventeen years at
Rome, where he was chosen to execute a statue of St Bruno, one of
the best modern works of the class in St Peter's. He was also the
sculptor of the tomb of Marquis Capponi in St John of the Floren-
tines. Other works of his are to be seen at the church of St Louis
of France and at Santa Maria della Scala. After his return to
France in 1747, Slodtz, in conjunction with his brothers, Antoine
Sebastien and Paul, produced many decorative works in the
churches of Paris, and, though much has been destroyed, his
most considerable achievement the tomb of Languet de Gergy
in St Sulpice (commissioned in 1750) still exists. Slodtz was,
like his brothers, a member of the Academy of Painting and
Sculpture, and many particulars of his life are preserved in a
memoir written by Cochin, and also in a letter from the same to
the Gazette litteraire, which was reproduced by Castilhon in the
Necrologe of 1766.
Slodtz's father, Sebastien (1655-1726), was also a sculptor, born
at Antwerp; he became a pupil of Girardon and worked mostly
under him at Versailles and the Tuileries. His chief works were
" Hannibal " in the Tuileries garden, a statue of St Ambrose in
the Palais des Invalides, and a bas-relief " Saint Louis sending
missionaries to India."
See C. N. Cochin, Mem. ined. (Paris, 1881); Barbet de Jouy,
Sculpture moderne du Louvre (Paris, 1856); Duissieux, Artistes
francflis a I' Stranger (Paris, 1852).
244
SLOGAN SLOVAKS
SLOGAN, the war-cry of the Highland clans. It was the
gathering call of the clan, often the name of the clan, the place of
meeting, and the like, and was uttered when charging in battle.
The Gaelic word, of which " slogan " is the English adaptation,
is sluagk-ghairm, from sluagh, army, host, and gairm, call, cry.
A variant form of " slogan " is " slogorne," which has given rise
to an invented word " slughorn," used by Chatterton (BaMeof
Hastings, ii. 10) and by Browning (Childe Roland) as if the term
meant some kind of war-trumpet or horn. Skeat (Etym. Diet.
1898, Errata and Addenda) has shown that Chatterton used an
edition of Gavin Douglas's translation of Virgil, where " slogorne "
is spelled " slughorne," and the context, " The deaucht trumpet
blawis the brag of were; the slughorne, enseule or the wache cry
went for the battall all suld be reddy," misled him.
SLONIM, a town of Russia, in the government of Grodno, 1 5 5 m.
by rail S.E. of the city of Grodno and 20 m. from the railway
from Moscow to Warsaw, on the high craggy banks of the
Shchara. Pop. (1883), 21,110; (1897) 15,893, including many
Jews. It derives its importance from the river, which is navigable
and joins the Oginsky canal, connecting the Niemen with the
Dnieper. Corn, tar, and especially timber are exported. Slonim
is mentioned in 1040, when Yaroslav, prince of Kiev, defeated
the Lithuanians in its neighbourhood. In 1241 the Mongols
pillaged it and burned its wooden fort. Owing to its position
between Galician Russia and Lithuania it often changed hands,
until it was conquered by the Lithuanians in the i4th century.
From 1631 to 1685 it was the seat of the Lithuanian diet and
became a flourishing city. In the i8th century, under the
hetman Oginsky, a canal was dug to connect the Shchara with
the Dnieper. Oginsky embellished the city and founded there
a printing-office. Russia annexed the town in 1795.
SLOOP, a type of small sailing-vessels which have one mast
rigged " fore and aft," carrying a mainsail, gaff-topsail, jib
and fore staysail. There is little in rig to distinguish a sloop
from a " cutter," and the terms are used indiscriminately;
sometimes a distinction is drawn by a sloop having a fixed
and a cutter a running bowsprit. In the sailing and early
steam days of naval warfare, a " sloop " was a small corvette,
ship-rigged, with all the guns mounted on the upper deck.
Like so many nautical terms the word was borrowed from the
Dutch, viz. sloep, boat. This is generally taken to be an adapta-
tion of the Fr. chaloupe, Span, and Port, chalupa, cf. Ital. scia-
luppa, Eng. " shallop," a light boat. These probably represent
some native word borrowed by Spanish or Portuguese sailors in
the East or American Indies. Other etymologists distinguish the
Dutch and French words and refer sloep to the common Teutonic
root, meaning to glide, to creep, seen in " slip," Ger. schleifen,
schliefen, &c. ,
SLOTH, the name for the various representatives of a group
of arboreal tropical American mammals belonging to the order
Edentata (q.v.). Sloths are some of the most completely
arboreal of all mammals, living entirely among the branches of
trees; and usually hanging beneath them, back downwards,
and clinging with the hook-line organs to which the terminations
of their limbs are reduced. When obliged to descend to the
ground, which they rarely, if ever, do voluntarily, sloths owing
to the unequal length of their limbs and the peculiar conforma-
tion of their feet, which allow the animals to rest only on the
outer edge crawl along a level surface with considerable diffi-
culty. Though generally slow and inactive, even when in their
natural haunts, they can on occasions travel with considerable
rapidity along the branches, and as they do not leap, like, most
other arboreal creatures, they avail themselves of the swaying
of the boughs by the wind to pass from tree to tree. They feed
on leaves and young shoots and fruits, which they gather in
their mouth, the fore-limbs aiding in dragging boughs within
reach, but not being used as hands. When sleeping, sloths
roll themselves up in a ball, and, owing to the dry shaggy character
of their hair, are inconspicuous among the mosses and lichens
with which the trees of their native forests abound. The con-
cealment thus afforded is heightened in some species by the
peculiar greenish tint of the hair, due not to the colour of the
hair itself, but to the presence upon its surface of an alga, the
lodgment of which is facilitated by the fluted or rough surface
of the exterior, and its growth is promoted by the dampness
of the atmosphere in the gloomy tropical forests. Sloths are
The Unau or Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni).
nocturnal, silent, inoffensive and solitary animals, and produce
usually but one young at birth. They appear to show an almost
reptilian tenacity of life, surviving the most severe injuries
and large doses of poisons, and exhibiting longer persistence
of irritability of muscular tissue after death than other mammals.
Several other animals, such as the African potto-lemurs, and
the Asiatic lorises, are popularly called sloths.
SLOUGH, a market town in the Wycombe parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 18 m. W. of London by
the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901),
11,453. It lies in the flat valley of the Thames, nearly 2 m.
from the river at Eton and Windsor, and is wholly modern in
appearance. The chief public building is the Leopold Institute
and Public Hall (1887), a memorial of Prince Leopold, Duke of
Albany. The British Orphan Asylum is also in the town. The
parish church of Upton-cum-Chalvey, St Laurence, has a Norman
doorway and other portions of the same period. It is the burial-
place of Sir William Herschel, who lived in the vicinity, set up
his great telescope here, and made many of his astronomical
discoveries.
SLOVAKS (Slovak, fern. Slovenka, adj. slovensk$, formerly
called Slovene, but to be distinguished from the Slovenes of
Carinthia, in Magyar T6t), a Slav people numbering about
2,500,000 and mostly living in the northern counties of Hungary.
On the west they extend into the neighbouring districts of Lower
Austria and Moravia where they march with the Germans and
the kindred Moravians, being bounded by the river Morava
and the Jablunka Mountains; on the north they touch the
Poles along the frontiers of Silesia and Galicia; on the east
about 22 E. they meet the Little Russians along an indented
boundary; on the south they have the Magyars as neighbours
along a line joining Pressburg and Zemplin. Within these
limits, save for the Germans in the towns, the Slovaks are not
much mixed: they have isolated settlements throughout the
western half of Hungary extending far enough south to meet
similar settlements of Servians. Their chief centre is S. Marton
on the Turocz. The Slovaks seem to have occupied this territory
in the sth or 6th century A.D. and also to have stretched far to
the south; they formed part of Same's empire (middle of 7th
century), but were subject to the Avars and the Franks, and then
formed part of Great Moravia until that kingdom was in 907
conquered by the Magyars, who displaced or assimilated the
southern Slovaks and have ever since been lords of the rest,
save for a short time when they were under Boleslav the Brave
(A.D. 973) of Poland, and early in the i4th century when a local
SLOVENES
245
magnate, Count Matthew of TrenCin, made himself an independent
ruler. In 1848-1849, when the Magyars rose against Austria, the
Slovaks rose against the Magyars, but were handed back to
them on the conclusion of peace. The Magyars have always
treated the Slovaks as an inferior race and have succeeded in
assimilating many districts where the prefix Tot in place-names
shows the former presence of Slovaks: those who take the
Magyar language and attitude are called Magyarones. The
Magyars, in pursuance of this policy, do their best to suppress
the Slovak nationality in every way, even to the extent of
taking away Slovak children to be brought up as Magyars, and
denying them the right to use their language in church and
school. The result is a large emigration to America. (See
letters by Scotus Viator in Spectator, 1906 sqq.)
The Slovaks are a peaceful, rather slow race ot peasants
(their aristocracy is Magyarized) , living almost exclusively upon
the land, which they till after the most primitive methods.
Where this does not yield sufficient, they wander as labourers and
especially as tinkers all over Austria-Hungary and even into
South Russia. They are fond of music, and their songs have
been collected.
The Slovak language is most closely connected with tech, the
difference being bridged by the transitional dialects of Moravia:
though Miklosich has classed it as a variety of tech, it is better to
take it separately, since it has not been subjected to the special
changes which have in that language assimilated the vowels to the
foregoing palatal consonants, nor developed the r which is char-
acteristic of the other North-Western Slavonic tongues, but has
remained in a more primitive stage and preserved (as might be
expected from its central position in the Slavonic world) many points
of agreement, phonetic, morphological and lexical, with South
Slavonic and Russian. The alphabet is founded on the tech, the
accent is always on the first syllable, long vowels are indicated by
acute accents. There are usually reckoned to be three groups of
dialects, Western, Central and Eastern; the first being nearest to
tech, the last to Little Russian; the Central dialects exhibit less
decided features. The Slovak dialects spoken in Moravia have been
well investigated by Bartos, the others still await satisfactory treat-
ment, as does the question of the relation of Slovak to other Slavonic
groups.
From the time of the Hussites and still more after the Reformation,
tech missionaries, colonists and refugees had brought with them their
Bible and service books; tech became the literary language, and is
still the church language of the Slovak Protestants. The use of the
local tongue was the result of a desire on the part of the Roman
Catholic clergy to get at their people. A. Bernolak (1762-1813), who
first systematized the orthography and made a dictionary, taking
Western Slovak as his basis, was a priest, and so was Jan Holly
(1785-1849), who wrote epics and odes in the classical taste. A new
start was made in the 'forties by L'udevit Stur, Josef Hurban and
M. Hodza who adopted the central dialect, united the Catholic and
Protestant Slovaks in its use and successfully opposed the attempts
to keep the Slovaks to the use of tech. However, Safarik the great
Slavist and the poet Kollar continued to write in tech, the argument
being that. Slavs should unite to oppose the enemies of the race: but
without their language the Slovaks, haying no traditions of inde-
pendent political life, would have nothing to cling to. The chief
Slovak writers since Stur (mostly poets) have been O. Sladkovic,
S. Chalupka, V. Pauliny-T6t, and at present Orszag-Hviezdoslav and
Svetozar Hurban-Vajansky. During the 'sixties the Slovaks founded
three gymnasia and a Matica, or literary, linguistic and educational
society, such as has been the centre of revival for the national life
of other Slavonic nations. These were all closed and their property
confiscated by the Magyars in the early 'seventies, but the struggle
continues, and national self-consciousness is too strong for the
attempts at Magyarization to have much probability of success.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. R. W. Seton-Watson, Racial Problems in
Hungary: a History of the Slovaks (1909), gives all that can be re-
quired, with special chapters on Popular Art, Poetry and Music by
D. Jurkovic the architect, S. Hurban-Vajansky and M. Lichard the
composer. See also T. Capek, The Slovaks (New York, 1906) ; Dr E.
Stodola, Prispevok ku Statistike Slovenska (contribution to statistics
of Slovakland) (Turocz S. Marton, 1902) ; Fr. Sasinek, Die Slovaken
(Prague, 1875); S. Czambel, in Die osterreichische Monarchic in
Wort una Bild; Ungarn; vol. v. pp. 434 sqq. (Vienna); K. Kalal,
Die Unterdruckung der Slovaken (Prague, 1903) ; J. Borbis, Die
evangelisch-lutheranische Kirche Ungarns (Nordlingen, 1861), gives
the religious history; J. Vlcek, Dejiny Literatury Slovenskej (history
of Slovak literature) (Turocz S. Marton, 1889; Russian trans., Kiev,
1889); Sbornik Slovenskych Ndrodnich piesni (collection of Slovak
Popular Songs, &c.), published by the Matica (1870-1874) ; Slovenske
Spevy (Slovak Ballads) (Tur. S. Mart., 1882); D. Jurkovig, Les
Ouyrages populaires des Slovaques, text in tech, headings in French
(Vienna, 1906); J. Loos, Worterbuch der slovakischen, ungarischen
und magyarischen Sprache (Budapest, 1871); L. Stur, Nauka reli
Slovenskej (Science of Slovak Speech) (Pressburg, 1846) ; J. Victorin,
Grammatik der slovakischen Sprache (Practical) (Budapest, 1878);
S. Czambel, Prispeyky k dejindm jazyka Slovenskeho (Budapest,
1887); Rukoval Spisovnej reci Slovenskej (Handbook of Literary
Slovak) (Tur. S. Mart., 1902); Slovdci a ich rec (Slovaks and their
speech) (Budapest, 1903), cf. a review in Archiv f. Slav. Phil. xxvi.
p. 290; Fr. Pastrnek, Beitrage zur Lautlehre der slovakischen Sprache
(Vienna, 1888); Fr. Barto, Dialektologie Moravskd with specimens
(Brunn, 1886) ; A. Sembera, Zdkladove Dialektologie Cecho-slovenske
(Foundations of techo-Slovak Dialectology) (Vienna, 1864).
(E. H. M.)
SLOVENES [Slavenci, Ger. Winden, to be distinguished from
the Slovaks (q.v.) and from the Slovinci (see KASHUBES) west of
Danzig], a Slavonic people numbering about 1,300,000. The
chief mass of them lives in Austria, occupying Carniola (Krajina,
Krain), the southern half of Carinthia (Chorutania, Korosko,
Karnten) and Styria (Stajersko, Steiermark) and some of the
northern part of Istria; a small division of them is found over
the Italian border in the vale of Resia; others in the extreme
south-west of Hungary. Their neighbours on the south-west
are Italians, on the west and north Germans: history and place-
names point to Slovenes having formerly held parts of Tirol,
Salzburg and Austria Proper; and on the east they have given
up south-west Hungary to the Magyars; to the south they have
the kindred race of the Croats. The boundary on this side is
difficult to fix, as the transition is gradual and a certain dialect
of Croatian (marked by the use of kaj = " what ") is by some con-
sidered to have been originally Slovene (see CROATIA-SLAVONIA).
Even within the limits above defined the Slovenes are much
mixed with Germans, especially in the towns; only in Carniola
are they fairly solid. Here they call themselves Krajinci rather
than Slovenes, in fact everywhere the general term gives place
to local names, because the race is so much split up geographically,
dialectically and politically that consciousness of unity is of
rather recent growth. The main intellectual centre has been
Laibach (Ljubljana) and next to it Klagenfurt (Celovec); in
Graz (Gradec) the German element, and in Gorz (Gorica) the
Italian, predominates.
The Slovenes arrived in these parts in the 7th century, appar-
ently pressed westwards by the Avars. By A.D. 595 they were
already at war with the Bavarians, later they formed part of
Same's great Slavonic empire and were not quite out of touch
with other Slavs. On its collapse they fell under the yoke of the
Bavarians and Franks. At first they had their own princes, but
in time these gave place to German dukes and margraves, who
had, however, to use the native tongue on certain occasions.
These fiefs of the empire finally fell to the Habsburgs and
never gave them any trouble, hence their language has had freer
play than that of most of the Austrian Slavs: they have been
allowed to use it in primary and secondary schools and to some
extent in local administration. The Slovenes were very early
(beginning with the 8th century) Christianized by Italian and
German missionaries; to them we owe the Freisingen fragments,
confessions and part of a sermon, the earliest monuments, not
merely of Slovene but of any Slavonic. The MS. dates from
c. 1000, but the composition is older. The language is not pure
Slovene, but seems to be an adaptation of an Old Slavonic trans-
lation. Yet it is enough to show that Old Slavonic is not Old
Slovene. Kocel, a prince on the Flatten See, to whom Cyril
and Methodius (see SLAVS) preached on their way to Rome, was
probably a Slovene, but no traces of their work survive in this
quarter. Except for a few isth-century prayers and formulae
we do not find any more specimens of Slovene until the Reforma-
tion, when Primus Truber translated a catechism, the New
Testament and other works (Tubingen, 1550-1582), and J.
Dalmatin issued a splendid Bible (Wittemberg, 1584), with an
interesting vocabulary to make his work intelligible to any
Slovene or Croat: at the same time and place A. Bohorizh
(zh = i) issued a good grammar (Arcticae Horulae, &c.). To
counteract this the Roman Catholics translated the work of their
English apologist Stapleton, but their final policy was to burn
all the Slovene books they could find, so that these are extremely
rare. The policy was successful and only about 15% of the
246
SLUM SMALL ISLES
Slovenes are Protestants. Slovene woke to a new life in the
latter part of the i8th century. Valentin Vodnik was the first
poet (see Arch. f. Slav. Phil. (1901), xxiii. 386, xxiv. 74),
but his successor France Preseren (1800-1849) appears to have
been really great, worthy of a larger circle of readers. Other
poets have been A. Janezic, S. Gregorcic and Murn-Aleksandrov;
Erjavec was a story-teller, Jurcic a novelist, but as usual with
these beginnings of literature the same man may make a grammar,
issue an almanack, and try all kinds of poetry. The two great
Slavists Kopitar and Miklosich were Slovenes, but were led
astray by race feeling to insist upon Old Slavonic being Old
Slovene. They were succeeded by G. Krek and V. Oblak.
The chief centres of Slovene letters are the Matica or Linguistic
and Literary Society and the Lyceum at Laibach. The Matica
publishes a chronicle (Letopis) and there are many periodicals,
chief of which are the Ljubljansky Zwn and Kres, the latter
published at Klagenfurt. The liberal and clerical organs carry
on a lively polemic.
The Slovene language is the most westerly of the South Slavonic
group. It is very closely allied to Serbo-Croatian, but shows some
points of resemblance to tech (retaining dl and //, loss of aorist, &c).
It is split into eight dialects which differ among themselves widely.
The people of Resia are sometimes classed quite apart. In phonetics
Slovene is remarkable for the change of the original /;' dj into I and j
(our y) respectively, of f into u, and for the coincidence of the old
half vowels i and u in a dull e. In morphology it has retained the
dual of both nouns and verbs more perfectly than any other living
language, also the supine and several periphrastic tenses: it has lost
its aorist and imperfect, and its participles have mostly been fixed
as so-called gerunds or verbal adverbs. The language has suffered
much from Germanisms and even developed an article which has
since been purified away. There is a free accent and the accented
syllables may be long or short. The Resia dialect has preserved the
Proto-Slavonic accent very exactly. The Slovenes have always used
the Latin alphabet more or less clumsily: recently the orthography
has been reformed after the manner of Cech, but uniformity has not
yet been reached.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. Suman, " Die Slovenen " in Die Vplker
Osterreich-Ungarns, vol. x. (Vienna, 1881); J. Sket, Slovenisches
Sprach- und Ubungsbuch (Klagenfurt, 1888); Slovenska Slovstvena
Citanka ("Slovene literary reading-book") (2nd ed., 1906); C.
Pecnik, Praktisches Lehrbuch der slovenischen Sprache (Leipzig,
1890); M. Pletersnik, Slovensko-Nemtki Slovar (SI. Ger. Diet.)
(Laibach, 1894-1895); Freisingen Fragments, bested. V. Vondrak,
Cech Akad., pt. iii. (Prague, 1896); V. Oblak, many articles on SI.
Grammar in Archiv f. slav. Philologie (1889 sqq.) ; J. Baudouin de
Courtenay, Opytfonetiki Rezjanskich Govorov (" Attempt at phonetics
of the dialects of Resia," Russian) (Warsaw, 1875); K. Strekelj,
Slovenske narodne Pesmi (" Slovene popular songs ") (Laibach, 1895
sqq.). (E. H. M.)
SLUM, a squalid, dirty street or quarter in a city, town or
village, inhabited by the very poor, destitute or criminal classes;
over-crowding is frequently another characteristic (see HOUSING).
The word is a comparatively recent one and is of uncertain
origin. It has been doubtfully connected with a dialectal use
of " slump " in the sense of a marshy, swampy place; cf. Ger.
Schlamm, mud, and Eng. dialect slammock, slattern (Skeat,
Etym. Diet., 1910).
SLUYS, BATTLE OF, fought on Saturday the 24th of June
1330, one of the two sea-fights in which King Edward III. of
England commanded in person, the other being that called
Espagnols-sur-Mer (q.v.). The place of the encounter was in
front of the town of Sluis, Sluys, or in French Ecluse, on the
inlet between West Flanders and Zeeland. In the middle of the
1 4th century this was an open roadstead capable of holding large
fleets. It has now been silted up by the river Eede. A French
fleet, which the king, in a letter to his son Edward the Black
Prince, puts at 190 sail, had been collected in preparation for
an invasion of England. It was under the command of Hue
Quieret, admiral for the king of France, and of Nicholas Behuchet,
who had been one of the king's treasurers, and was probably a
lawyer. Part of the fleet consisted of Genoese galleys serving
as mercenaries under the command of Barbavera. Although
English historians speak of King Edward's fleet as inferior in
number to the French, it is certain that he sailed from Orwell
on the 22nd of June with 200 sail, and that he was joined on the
coast of Flanders by his admiral for the North Sea, Sir Robert
Morley, with 50 others. Some of this swarm of vessels were no
doubt mere transports, for the king brought with him the house-
hold of his queen, Philippa of Hainault, who was then at Bruges.
As, however, one of the queen's ladies was killed in the battle,
it would appear that all the English vessels were employed.
Edward anchored at Blankenberghe on the afternoon of the
23rd and sent three squires to reconnoitre the position of the
French. The Genoese Barbavera advised his colleagues to go
to sea, but Behuchet, who as constable exercised the general
command, refused to leave the anchorage. He probably wished
to occupy it in order to bar the king's road to Bruges. The
disposition of the French was made in accordance with the usual
medieval tactics of a fleet fighting on the defensive. Quieret
and Behuchet formed their force into three or four lines, with
the ships tied to one another, and with a few of the largest
stationed in front as outposts. King Edward entered the road,
stead on the morning of the 24th, and after manoeuvring to
place his ships to windward, and to bring the sun behind him,
attacked. In his letter to his son he says that the enemy made
a noble defence " all that day and the night after." His ships
were arranged in two lines, and it may be presumed that the
first attacked in front, while the second would be able to turn
the flanks of the opponent. The battle was a long succession of
hand-to-hand conflicts to board or to repel boarders. King
Edward makes no mention of any actual help given him by his
Flemish allies, though he says they were willing, but the French
say that they joined after dark. They also assert that the king
was wounded by Behuchet, but this is not certain, and there is
no testimony save a legendary one for a personal encounter
between him and the French commander, though it would not
be improbable. The battle ended with the almost total destruc-
tion of the French. Quieret was slain, and Behuchet is said to
have been hanged by King Edward's orders. Barbavera escaped
to sea with his squadron on the morning of the 25th, carrying
off two English prizes. English chroniclers claim that the
victory was won with small cost of life, and that the loss of the
French was 30,000 men. But no reliance can be placed on
medieval estimates of numbers. After the battle King Edward
remained at anchor several days, and it is probable that his
fleet had suffered heavily.
AUTHORITIES. The story of the battle of Sluys is told from the
English side by Sir Harris Nicolas, in his History of the Royal Navy,
vol. ii. (London, 1847); and from the French side by M. C. de la
Ronciere, Hisloire de la marine fran<;aise, vol. i. (Paris, 1899).
Both make copious references to original sources. (D. H.)
SLYPE, a variant of " slip " in the sense of a narrow passage;
in architecture, the name for the covered passage usually found
in monasteries between the transept and the chapter-house, as
at Winchester, Gloucester, Exeter and St Albans.
SMACK, a general term for a small decked or half-decked
vessel, sailing under various rigs and used principally for fishing.
The word, like so many sea terms, was borrowed from the Dutch,
where smak, earlier smacke, is the name of a coasting vessel;
it is generally taken as a corruption of snack, cf. Swed. snacka,
Dan. snackke, a small sailing-vessel, and is to be referred to the
root seen in " snake," " snail," the original meaning a gliding,
creeping thing. " Smack," taste, and " smack," a smart sounding
blow or slap, also used of the sound of the lips in kissing or
tasting, must be distinguished. In the first case the word is in
O.E. smaec and is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dan. smag,
Ger. schmecken, &c.; the second word is onomatopoeic, cf.
" smash," and is also found in other Teutonic languages. It is
not connected with the word meaning " taste," though no
doubt confused owing to the sense of smacking the lips.
SMALL ISLES, a parish of islands of the Inner Hebrides,
Inverness-shire, Scotland. It consists of the islands of Canna,
Sanday, Rum, Eigg and Muck, lying, in the order named,
like a crescent with a trend from N.W. to S.E., Canna being
the most northerly and Muck the most southerly. They are
separated from Skye by Cuillin Sound and from the mainland
by the Sound of Ardnamurchan. The surface is moorland,
pasture and mountain. They are rich in sea-fowl, the most
common being the eider duck, puffin, Manx shearwater, black
SMALLPOX
247
guillemot, kittiwake and herring gull. The fisheries include cod,
ling and herring. The rainfall amounts to 56 in. for the year,
and the temperature is fairly high, the mean for the year being
47 5' F. Steamers call at Eigg at regular intervals and less often
at Rum and Canna. Canna (pop. 49), an island of basaltic rock,
is situated about 10 m. from the nearest point of Skye, and
measures 45 m. from E. to W. and ij m. from N. to S. Potatoes,
barley and a little oats are grown, and the pasture being good
the cattle are larger than most of the Hebridean breeds. The
harbour is screened from south-westerly gales by the isle of
Sanday. The antiquarian remains include a weather-worn
sculptured stone cross and the ruins of a chapel of St Columba.
Compass Hill (450 ft.) on the E. is so named from the alleged
disturbance of the compasses of vessels passing within its sphere
of influence. Sanday (pop. 44), another basaltic island, lies
close to the S.E. of Canna. It measures if m. from E. to W.
and 3j m. from N. to S. Some 35 m. S.E. of Canna is the
island of Rum (pop. 149), which is situated 8| m. from the
nearest point of Skye, and measures 8j m. N. to S. and 8 m. from
E. to W. Geologically, its northern half is composed of Torri-
donian sandstone, with basalt at points between the West coast
and the centre, of gabbro in the south-east, with a belt of gneis-
sose rocks on its east seaboard and of quartz-porphyry in the
south-west. It is mountainous in the south. Among the higher
peaks are Askival (2659 ft.), Ashval (2552), Sgor-nan-Gillean
(2503) and Allival (2368). On the north-west shore is a cliff
where bloodstones are quarried. The mountains are a haunt of
red deer. The harbour of the village of Kinloch, at the head of
Loch Scresort, is resorted to during gales from the N.W. and S.
Fully 4 m. S.E. and 7^ m. from the nearest point of the mainland
lies the island of Eigg, or Egg (pop. 211), measuring from N. to
S. s m. and from E. to W. 35 m. It is in the main basaltic, but a
band of quartz-porphyry runs from the centre in a north-westerly
direction to the coast, and there is some oolitic rock on the north
shores. On the north-east coast is a cave with a narrow mouth,
opening into a hollow 255 ft- long. In it Macleod of Skye,
towards the end of the i6th century, ordered 200 Macdonalds,
inhabitants of the isle men, women and children to be
suffocated, their bones being found long afterwards. The people
are chiefly engaged in fisheries and cattle-rearing. Three m.
S.W. is the island of Muck (pop. 42), which is about 15 m. long
by 25 m. broad and lies fully 5 m. from the nearest point of
Ardnamurchan. It is almost wholly basaltic, but has some
oolite at the head of the bay on its north side.
SMALLPOX, or VARIOLA (varus, " a pimple "), an acute
infectious disease characterized by fever and by the appearance
on the surface of the body of an eruption, which, after passing
through various stages, dries up, leaving more or less distinct
cicatrices. (For pathology see PARASITIC DISEASES.) Few
diseases have been so destructive to human life as smallpox,
and it has ever been regarded with horror alike from its fatality,
its loathsome accompaniments and disfiguring effects, and from
the fact that no age and condition of life are exempt from liability
to its occurrence. Although in most civilized countries its
ravages have been greatly limited by the protection afforded
by vaccination, yet epidemic outbreaks are far from uncommon,
affecting especially those who are unprotected, or whose pro-
tection has become weakened by lapse of time.
Much obscurity surrounds the early history of smallpox.
It appears to have been imported into Europe from Asia, where
it had been known and recognized from remote antiquity.
The earliest accounts of its existence reach back to the middle
and end of the 6th century, when it was described by Procopius
and Gregory of Tours as occurring in epidemic form in Arabia,
Egypt and the south of Europe. In one of the narratives of the
expedition of the Abyssinians against Mecca (c. 550) the usual
miraculous details are combined with a notice of smallpox break-
ing out among the invaders. 1 Not a few authorities, however,
'See Noldeke, Geschichte der Perser . . . aus Tabari (Leiden,
1879), p. 218. Noldeke thinks that this notice may be taken from
genuine'historical tradition, and seems to find an allusion to it in an
old poem.
regard these accounts as referring not to smallpox, but to plague.
The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the
disease are found in an account by the gth-century Arabian
physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described,
its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory,
and directions given for its treatment. During the period
of the Crusades smallpox appears to have spread extensively
through Europe, and hospitals for its treatment were erected
in many countries. But at this period and for centuries after-
wards the references to the subject include in all likelihood other
diseases, no precise distinction being made between the different
forms of eruptive fever. Smallpox was known in England as early
as the i3th century, and had probably existed there before.
It appears to have been introduced into America by the Spaniards
in the early i6th century, and there, as in Europe and throughout
the known world, epidemics were of frequent occurrence during
succeeding centuries.
The only known factor in the origin of smallpox is contagion
this malady being probably the most contagious of all diseases.
Its outbreak in epidemic form in a locality may frequently be
traced to the introduction of a single case from a distance.
The most direct means of communicating smallpox is inoculation.
By far the most common cause of conveyance of the disease,
however, is contact with the persons or the immediate surround-
ings of those already affected. The atmosphere around a small-
pox patient is charged with the products of the disease, which
likewise cling to clothing, furniture &c. The disease is probably
communicable from its earliest manifestations onwards to its
close, but it is generally held that the most infectious period
extends from the appearance of the eruption till the drying up
of the pustules. Smallpox may also readily be communicated
by the bodies of those who have died from its effects. No age
is exempt from susceptibility to smallpox. Infants are occasion-
ally born with the eruption or its marks upon their bodies, proving
that they had undergone the disease in utero. Dark-skinned
races are said to suffer more readily and severely than whites.
One attack of smallpox as a rule confers immunity from any re-
currence, but there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Over-
crowding and all insanitary surroundings favour the spread of
smallpox where it has broken out ; but the most influential con-
dition of all is the amount of protection afforded to a community
by previous attacks and by vaccination (q.ii.). Such protection,
although for a time most effectual, tends to become exhausted
unless renewed. Hence in a large population there is always
likely to be an increasing number of individuals who have
become susceptible to smallpox. This probably explains its
occasional and even apparently periodic epidemic outbreaks
in large centres, and the well-known fact that the most severe
cases occur at the beginning those least protected being
necessarily more liable to be first and most seriously attacked.
Symptoms. While the symptoms of smallpox are essentially
the same in character in all cases, they are variously modified
according to the form which the disease may assume, there being
certain well-marked varieties of this as of most other infectious
maladies. The following description applies to an average case.
After the reception into the system of the smallpox contagion
the onset of the symptoms is preceded by a period of incubation,
during which the patient may or may not complain. This period
is believed to be from about ten to fourteen days. In cases of
direct inoculation of the virus it is considerably shorter. The
invasion of the symptoms is sudden and severe, in the form of
a rigor followed by fever (the primary fever) , in which the tempera-
ture rises to 103 or 104 Fahr. or higher, notwithstanding that
perspiration may be going on. A quick pulse is present, together
with thirst and constipation, while intense headache accompanied
with vomiting and pain in the back is among the most char-
acteristic of the initial symptoms. Occasionally the disease is
ushered in by convulsions. These symptoms continue with
greater or less intensity throughout two entire days, and during
their course there may occasionally be noticed on various parts
of the body, especially on the lower part of the abdomen and
inner sides of the thighs, a diffuse redness accompanied by
248
SMALLPOX
slight spots of extravasation (pelechiae), the appearance some-
what resembling that of scarlet fever. These " prodromal rashes,"
as they are termed, appear to be more frequent in some epidemics
than in others, and they do not seem to have any special signifi-
cance. They are probably more frequently seen in cases of the
mildest form of smallpox (formerly termed varioloid), referred
to below as modified smallpox. On the third day the character-
istic eruption begins to make its appearance. It is almost always
first seen on the face, particularly about the forehead and roots of
the hair, in the form of a general redness; but upon this surface
there may be felt by the finger numerous elevated points more
or less thickly set together. The eruption, which is accompanied
by heat and itching, spreads over the face, trunk and extremities
in the course of a few hours continuing, however, to come out
more abundantly for one or two days. It is always most marked
on the exposed parts; but in such a case as that now described
the individual " pocks " are separated from each other (discrete).
On the second or third day after its appearance the eruption
undergoes a change the pocks becoming vesicles filled with a
clear fluid. These vesicles attain to about the size of a pea, and
in their centre there is a slight depression, giving the char-
acteristic umbilicated appearance to the pock. The clear
contents of these vesicles gradually become turbid, and by the
eighth or ninth day they are changed into pustules containing
yellow matter, while at the same time they increase still further
in size and lose the central depression. Accompanying this
change there are great surrounding inflammation and swelling of
the skin, which, where the eruption is thickly set, produce much
disfigurement and render the features unrecognizable, while the
affected parts emit an offensive odour, particularly if, as often
happens, the pustules break. The eruption is present not only
on the skin, but on mucous membranes, that of the mouth and
throat being affected at an early period; and the swelling
produced here is not only a source of great discomfort, but even
of danger, from the obstruction thus occasioned in the upper
portion of the air-passages. The voice is hoarse and a copious
flow of saliva comes from the mouth. The mucous membrane
of the nostrils is similarly affected, while that of the eyes may also
be involved, to the danger of permanent impairment of sight.
The febrile symptoms which ushered in the disease undergo
marked abatement on the appearance of the eruption on the
third day, but on the eighth or ninth, when the vesicles become
converted into pustules, there is a return of the fever (secondary
or suppuratiiie fever), often to a severe extent, and not in-
frequently accompanied by prominent nervous phenomena, such
as great restlessness, delirium or coma. On the eleventh or
twelfth day the pustules show signs of drying up (desiccation),
and along with this the febrile symptoms decline. Great itching
of the skin attends this stage. The scabs produced by the dried
pustules gradually fall off and a reddish brown spot remains,
which, according to the depth of skin involved in the disease,
leaves a permanent white depressed scar this " pitting "
so characteristic of smallpox being specially marked on the face.
Convalescence in this form of the disease is as a rule uninterrupted.
Varieties. There are certain varieties of smallpox depending
upon the form it assumes or the intensity of the symptoms.
Confluent smallpox (variola conflittns), while essentially the same
in its general characters as the form already described, differs
from it in the much greater severity of all the symptoms even
from the onset, and particularly in regard to the eruption, which,
instead of showing itself in isolated pocks, appears in large
patches run together, giving a blistered aspect to the affected
skin. This confluent condition is almost entirely confined to the
face, and produces shocking disfigurement, while subsequently
deep scars remain and the hair may be lost. The mucous
membranes suffer in a similar degree of severity, and dangerous
complications may arise from the presence of the disease in the
mouth, throat and eyes. Both the primary and secondary fevers
are extremely severe. The mortality is very high, and it is
generally estimated that at least 50% of such cases prove fatal,
either from the violence of the disease or from one or other of
the numerous complications which are specially apt to attend
upon it. Convalescence is apt to be slow and interrupted.
Another variety is that in which the eruption assumes the
haemorrhagic form owing to bleeding taking place into the pocks
after their formation. This is apt to be accompanied with
haemorrhages from various mucous surfaces (particularly in the
case of females), occasionally to a dangerous degree and with
symptoms of great prostration. Many of such cases prove fatal.
A still more serious form is that termed malignant, toxic or
purpuric smallpox, in which there is intense streptococcus septi-
caemia, and the patient is from the onset overwhelmed with the
poison and quickly succumbs the rash scarcely, if at all,
appearing or showing the haemorrhagic or purpuric character.
Such cases are, however, comparatively rare. The term modified
smallpox is applied to cases occurring in persons constitutionally
but little susceptible to the disease, or in whom the protective
influence of vaccination or a previous attack of smallpox still to
some extent exists. Cases of this mild kind are of very common
occurrence where vaccination has been systematically carried
out. As compared with an average case of the unmodified
disease as above described this form is very marked, the dif-
ferences extending to all the phenomena of the disease, (i) As
regards its onset, the initial fever is much milder and the pre-
monitory symptoms altogether less in severity. (2) As regards
the eruption, the number of pocks is smaller, often only a few
and mostly upon the body. They not infrequently abort before
reaching the stage of suppuration: but should they proceed to
this stage the secondary fever is extremely slight or even absent.
There is little or no pitting. (3) As regards complications and
injurious results, these are rarely seen and the risk to life is
insignificant.
Various circumstances affect the mortality in ordinary smallpox
and increase the_ dangers attendant upon it. The character of the
epidemic has an important influence. In some outbreaks the type of
the disease is much more severe than in others, and the mortality
consequently greater.
In 1901 and 1903 there were epidemics in the United States in
which it was only 2 %. The mortality in the Philadelphia epidemic
is given by Welch and Schamberg as 26-89 % > n 7204 cases, while in
the Glasgow epidemic of 1900-1901, it reached 51-6% in the un-
vaccinated and 10-4% in the vaccinated. Below are some particu-
lars of the annual death rate.
Smallpox Death Rate, England and Wales.
Years.
Number of
Deaths from
Smallpox.*
Deaths from
Smallpox
to every
Million living.
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
2464
760
5 l
116
21
IO
12
75
23
15
4
0-6
o-3
0-3
*Deaths entered as being from chicken-pox are not included,
though many are probably due to the graver disease.
Smallpox is most fatal at the extremes of life, except in the case of
vaccinated infants, in whom there is immunity from the disease.
Again, any ordinary case with discrete eruption is serious, and a case
of confluent or even semi-confluent character is much more grave,
while the haemorrhagic variety is frequently, and the toxic always,
fatah Numerous and often dangerous complications, although liable
to arise in all cases, are more apt to occur in the severer forms, and in
general at or after the supervention of the secondary fever. The
most important are inflammatory affections of the respiratory organs,
such as bronchitis, pleurisy or pneumonia, diphtheritic conditions of
the throat, and swelling of the mucous membrane of the larynx and
trachea. Destructive ulceration affecting the eyes or ears is a well-
known and formidable danger, while various affections of the skin,
in the form of erysipelas, abscess or carbuncles, are of not infrequent
occurrence.
The prophylaxis of smallpox'depends on successful vaccination
and re- vaccination (see VACCINATION), together with the estab-
lishment of smallpox hospitals for the treatment of the disease
when it has broken out, to which the patient should be at
once removed, and those who have been in contact with the
patient should be promptly re-vaccinated. The efficiency of the
SMALRIDGE SMART, C.
249
protection given by vaccination and systematic re-vaccination
is demonstrated by the almost entire suppression of the disease in
Germany (see Dr Bruce Low's Report to the Local Govern-
laxlsaaa ment Board, 1903-1904). MrsGarrettAnderson,writing
treatment, to The Times in September 1903, showed the enormous
expense laid on the rates in England for the main-
tenance of smallpox hospitals in order to counteract inefficient
vaccination. London with a population of 65 millions reserves
2500 beds in a hospital removed from the city; Berlin with a
population of 2 millions reserves 12 beds in the pavilion of a
general hospital; Dresden with a population of 500,000 reserves
20 beds in the Friedrichstadt Hospital, but no case was admitted
for 10 years previous to the Report. In Stuttgart (population
200,000) a hut of six beds is set aside for smallpox, but it has
fallen into bad repair from disuse. Smallpox cases in Germany
are usually sporadic cases introduced by foreigners. Where
persons have been exposed to the infection of smallpox, if
immediate vaccination fails to protect them from the disease,
it has been shown to considerably modify the type. The plan
of identification and surveillance of all contact cases has given
good results. In the Bristol epidemic of 1908 there were 35
cases and 9 deaths. The contacts numbered 1354, and 16,398
visits of inspection were paid.
The patient should lie on a soft bed in a well-ventilated but
somewhat darkened room and be fed with the lighter forms of
nutriment, such as milk, soups, &c. The skin should be sponged
occasionally with tepid water, and the mouth and throat washed
with an antiseptic solution. In a severe case, with evidence of
much prostration, stimulants may be advantageously employed.
The patient should be always carefully watched, and special
vigilance is called for where delirium exists. This symptom
may sometimes be lessened by sedatives, such as opium, bromides
or chloral. With the view of preventing pitting many applica-
tions have been proposed, but probably the best are cold or tepid
compresses of light weight kept constantly applied over the face
and eyes. The water out of which these are wrung may be a
weak solution of carbolic or boracic acid. When the pustules
have dried up the itching this produces may be much relieved by
the application of oil or vaseline.
What is known as the red light treatment, in which the actinic
or chemical rays are excluded, has been advocated by Prof.
Niels Finsen of Copenhagen and others. He considers it valuable
only in that it protects the pustule from the deleterious effects of
light, and he and other observers claim that if resorted to early
it abolishes suppuration in the pustules, lessens scarring and
shortens the course of the disease. Medical opinion in England
is divided as to its merit. Herbert Peck of Chesterfield, in 244
cases so treated in 1902-1905, had only 6 deaths, a mortality of
2-4%, while the case mortality during the same period was,
Lancashire 5-8%, Derbyshire 6%, Cheshire 6-4%, Liverpool
2-7% and Manchester 5-6% in cases treated without red light.
An interesting fact in connection with the treatment is its great
antiquity in China and Japan, while in England in the middle
ages smallpox patients wore red garments and lay in beds where
the light filtered through red curtains.
Complications are to be dealt with as they arise, and the
severer forms of the disease treated in reference to the special
symptoms presented. In cases where the eruption is tardy of
appearing and the attack threatens to assume the toxic form,
marked benefit attends the use of the wet pack. Disinfectants
should be abundantly employed in the room and its vicinity,
and all clothing, &c., in contact with the patient should be
exposed to the vapour of formalin. Beclere, Thomson and
Brownlee have advocated the use of the serum of immunized
heifers. The dose, however, requires to be very large, being
equivalent to one-fiftieth part of the body weight in adults and
one-twentieth part in children.
Inoculation. Previously to the introduction of vaccination (q.v.) the
method of preventive treatment by what was known as inoculation
had been employed. This consisted in introducing into the system
in a similar way to the method now commonly employed in vaccina-
tion the smallpox virus from a mild case with the view of repro-
ducing the disease also in a mild form in the person inoculated, and
thus affording him protection from further attack. This plan had
apparently been resorted to by Eastern nations from an early period
in the history of the disease. During the latter part of the Ming
dynasty there was introduced into China a system of inoculation in
which the method was to blow the pulverized germ-laden crusts from
a small-pox pustule through a silver tube into the nostril, the left
being chosen in a male, the right in a female. Inoculation was known
to be extensively practised in Turkey in the beginning of the 1 8th
century, when, chiefly through the letters of Lady Mary Wortley
Montagu, it became known and was speedily adopted in England.
There is no doubt, both from the statistics of the Smallpox and
Inoculation Hospital, London, and from the testimony of physicians
throughout the country, that this practice made a marked impression
upon the fatality of the disease, and was itself attended with ex-
tremely little risk to life. The objections to it, however, were great,
for, although usually conveying the smallpox in a mild form, it not
infrequently took effect severely, and, while death might be averted,
the disfiguring results of the disease remained. Further, each inocu-
lated person upon whom the operation took effect became for the
time being a possible source of infection to others, and in point of fact
the practice tended to spread the disease and so to increase the
general mortality. Although inoculation continued to be practised
for a number of years subsequently to Jenner's great discovery, it
gradually became displaced by vaccination, and in 1840 an Act of
Parliament was passed rendering smallpox inoculation unlawful in
England.
SMALRIDGE, GEORGE (1663-1719), English bishop, was
born at Lichfield, where he received his early education, this
being completed at Westminster school and at Christ Church,
Oxford. His political opinions were largely modelled on those of
his friend Francis Atterbury, with whom he was associated at
Oxford and elsewhere. After being a tutor at Christ Church, he
was minister of two chapels in London, and for six or seven years
he acted as deputy for the regius professor of divinity at Oxford ;
his Jacobite opinions, however, prevented him from securing this
position when it fell vacant in 1707. In 1711 he was made dean
of Carlisle and canon of Christ Church, and in 1713 he succeeded
Atterbury as dean of Christ Church. In the following year he
was appointed bishop of Bristol, but retained his deanery. In
1715 Smalridge refused to sign the declaration against the pre-
tender, James Edward, defending his action in his Reasons for
not signing the Declaration. In other ways also he showed
animus against the house of Hanover, but his only punishment
was his removal from the post of lord almoner to the king. He
died on the 27th of September 1719. The bishop was esteemed
by Swift, Steele, Whiston and other famous men of his day,
while Dr Johnson declared his sermons to be of the highest class.
His Sixty Sermons, preached on Several Occasions, was published
in 1726; other editions 1827, 1832, 1853 and 1862.
SMALTITE, a mineral consisting of cobalt diarsenide (CoAs 2 ).
It crystallizes in the cubic system with the same hemihedral
symmetry as pyrites; crystals have usually the form of cubes
or cubo-octahedra, but are imperfectly developed and of some-
what rare occurrence. More often the mineral is found as
compact or granular masses. The colour is tin-white to steel-
grey, with a metallic lustre; the streak is greyish black. Hard-
ness 55; specific gravity 6-5. The cobalt is partly replaced by
iron and nickel, and as the latter increases in amount there is a
passage to the isomorphous species chloanthite (NiAs 2 ). It
occurs in veins with ores of cobalt, nickel, copper and silver:
the best known locality is Schneeberg in Saxony. The name
smaltite was given by F. S. Beudant, in 1832, because the mineral
was used in the preparation of smalt for producing a blue colour
in porcelain and glass. (L. J. S.)
SMART, CHRISTOPHER (1722-1771), English poet, son of
Peter Smart, of an old north country family, was born at Ship-
bourne, Kent, on the nth of April 1722. His father was steward
for the Kentish estates of William, Viscount Vane, younger son
of Lord Barnard of Raby Castle, Durham. Christopher Smart
received his first schooling at Maidstone, and then at the grammar
school of Durham. He spent part of his vacations at Raby
Castle, and his gifts as a poet gained him the patronage of the
Vane family. Henrietta, duchess of Cleveland, allowed him a
pension of 40 which was paid until her death in 1742. Thomas
Gray, writing to his friend Thomas Wharton in 1747, warned him
to keep silence about Smart's delinquencies lest they should
250
SMART, SIR G. T. SMEATON
come to the ears of Henry Vane (afterwards earl of Darlington) ,
and endanger his allowance. At Cambridge, where he was
entered at Pembroke College in 1 739, he spent much of his time
in taverns, and got badly into debt, but in spite of his irregularities
he became fellow of his college, praelector in philosophy and
keeper of the common chest in 1745. . In November 1747 he was
compelled to remain in his rooms for fear of his creditors. At
Cambridge he won the Seaton prize for a poem on " one of the
attributes of the Supreme Being " in 1750 (he won the same prize
in 1751, 1752, 1753 and 1755); and a farce entitled A Trip to
Cambridge, or The Grateful Fair, acted in 1747 by 'the students
of Pembroke, was from his pen. In 1750 he contributed to
The Student, or The Oxford and Cambridge Monthly Miscellany.
During one of his visits to London he had made the acquaintance
of John Newbery, the publisher, whose step-daughter, Anna
Maria Carman, he married, with the result of forfeiting his fellow-
ship in 1753. About 1752 he permanently left Cambridge for
London, though he kept his name on the college books, as he had
to do in order to compete for the Seaton prize. He wrote in
London under the pseudonym of " Mary Midnight " and " Pent-
weazle." He had edited The Midwife, or the Old Woman's
Magazine (1751-1753), and had a hand in many other " Grub
Street " productions. Some criticisms made by " Sir " John
Hill (i7i6?-i775) on his Poems on Several Occasions (1752)
provoked his satire of the Hilliad (1753), noteworthy as providing
the model for the Rolliad. In 1756 he finished a prose transla-
tion of Horace, which was widely used, but brought him little
profit. He agreed in the same year to produce a weekly paper
entitled The Universal Visitor, for which Samuel Johnson wrote
some numbers. In 1751 Smart had shown symptoms of mental
aberration, which developed into religious mania, and between
1 7 56 and 1 7 58 he was in an asylum. Dr Johnson visited him and
thought that he ought to have been at large. During his confine-
ment he conceived the idea of the single poem that has made him
famous, " A Song to David," though the story that it was
indented with a key on the panels of his cell, and shaded in with
charcoal, may be received with caution. It shows no trace of
morbid origin. After his release Smart produced other religious
poems, but none of them shows the same inspiration. His wife
and children had gone to live with friends as he was unable to
support them, and for some time before his death, which took
place on the 2ist of May 1771, he lived in the rules of King's
Bench, and was supported by small subscriptions raised by Dr
Burney and other friends.
Of all that he wrote, " A Song to David " will alone bear the test of
time. Unlike in its simple forceful treatment and impressive
directness of expression, as has been said, to anything else in 18th-
century poetry, the poem on analysis is found to depend for its
unique effect also upon a certain ingenuity of construction, and
the novel way in which David's ideal qualities are enlarged upon.
This will be more readily understood on reference to the following
verse, the first twelve words of which become in turn the key-notes,
so to speak, of the twelve succeeding verses:
" Great, valiant, pious, good, and clean,
Sublime, contemplative, serene,
Strong, constant, pleasant, wise !
Bright effluence of exceeding grace ;
Best man ! the swiftness, and the race,
The peril, and the prize."
The last line is characteristic of another peculiarity in " A Song to
David," the effective use of alliteration to complete the initial energy
of the stanza in many instances. But in the poem throughout is
revealed a poetic quality which eludes critical analysis.
From the Poems of the late Christopher Smart (1791) the " Song to
David " (pr. 1763) was excluded as forming a proof of his mental
aberration. It was reprinted in 1819, and has since received abundant
praise. In an abridged form it is included in T. H. Ward's English
Poets, vol. iii., and was reprinted in 1895, and in 1901 with an
introduction by R. A. Streatfeild. Smart's other poems are in-
cluded in Anderson's British Poets. Christopher Smart is one of
Robert Browning's subjects in The Parleyings with Certain People
(1887). See also the contributions to Notes and Queries of March
25th and May 6th, 1905, by the Rev. D. C. Tovey, who has read, and
in some places revised, the above article.
SMART, SIR GEORGE THOMAS (1776-1867), English
musician, was born in London, his father being a music-seller.
He was a choir-boy at the Chapel Royal, and was educated in
music, becoming an expert violinist, organist, teacher of singing
and conductor; and in 1811 he was knighted by the lord-
lieutenant of Ireland, having conducted a number of successful
concerts in Dublin. Sir George Smart was, from that time
onwards, one of the chief musical leaders and organizers in
England, conducting at the Philharmonic, Covent Garden,
the provincial festivals, &c., and in 1838 being appointed com-
poser to the Chapel Royal. He was a master of the Handelian
traditions, was personally acquainted with Beethoven and a
close friend of Weber, who died in his house. His church music
and glees include some well-known compositions. He died in
London on the 23rd of February 1867. His brother Henry
(1778-1823), father of the composer Henry Smart (<?..), was also
a prominent musician in his day.
SMART, HENRY (1813-1879), English organist and musical
composer, born in London on the 26th of October 1813, was a
nephew of Sir George Smart (q.v.). He studied first for the law,
but soon gave this up for music. In 1831 he became organist of
Blackburn parish church, where he wrote his first important
work, a Reformation anthem; then of St Giles's, Cripplegate;
St Luke's, Old Street; and finally of St Pancras, in 1864, which
last post he held at the time of his death on the 6th of July 1879,
less than a month after receiving a government pension of 100
per annum. Although Smart is now known chiefly by his com-
positions for the organ, which are numerous, effective and
melodious, if not strikingly original, he wrote many vocal works,
including some of the best specimens of modern part songs. His
cantata, The Bride of Dunkerron, was written for the Birmingham
festival of 1864; Jacob for Glasgow, in 1873; and his opera,
Bertha, was produced with some success at the Haymarket in
1855. In the last fifteen years of his life Smart was practically
blind.
SMART, JOHN (c. 1740-1811), English miniature painter, was
born in Norfolk; he became a pupil of Cosway, and is frequently
alluded to in his correspondence. This artist was director and
vice-president of the Incorporated Society of Artists, and ex-
hibited with that society. He went to India in 1 788 and obtained
a number of commissions in that country. He settled down in
London in 1797 and there died. He married Edith Vere, and is
believed to have had only one son, who died in Madras in 1809.
He was a little man, of simple habits, and a member of the
Society of Sandemanians. Many of his pencil drawings still
exist in the possession of the descendants of a great friend of his
only sister. Several of his miniatures are in Australia and
belong to a cadet branch of the family. His work is entirely
different to that of Cosway, quiet and grey in its colouring, with
the flesh tints elaborated with much subtlety and modelled in
exquisite fashion. He possessed a great knowledge of anatomy,
and his portraits are drawn with greater anatomical accuracy and
possess more distinction than those of any miniature painter of
his time.
See The History of Portrait Miniatures, by G. C. Williamson,
vol. ii. (London, 1904). (G. C. W.)
SMEATON, JOHN (1724-1792), English civil engineer, was
born at Austhorpe Lodge, near Leeds, on the 8th of June 1724.
He received a good education at the grammar school of Leeds.
At an early age he showed a liking for the use of mechanical tools,
and in his fourteenth or fifteenth year contrived to make a turning-
lathe. On leaving school in his sixteenth year he was employed
in the office of his father, an attorney, but, after attending for
some months in 1742 the courts at Westminster Hall, he requested
to be allowed to follow some mechanical profession. He became
apprentice to a philosophical instrument maker, and in 1750 set
up in business on his own account. Besides improving various
mathematical instruments used in navigation and astronomy,
he carried on experiments in regard to other mechanical
appliances, amongst the most important being a series on which
he founded a paper for which he received the Copley medal
of the Royal Society in 1759 entitled An Experimental Inquiry
concerning the Native Powers of Water and Wind to turn Mills
and other Machines depending on a Circular Motion. In 1754
he made a tour of the Low Countries to study the great canal
SMEDLEY, F. E. SMELL
251
works of foreign engineers. Already by his papers read before
the Roval Society and his intercourse with scientific men his
abilities as an engineer had become well known, and in 1756
application was made to him to reconstruct the Eddystone
lighthouse, which had been burnt down in December of the
previous year. After the completion of the new tower in 1759,
Smeaton's advice was frequently sought in regard to important
engineering projects, including the construction of canals
(especially the Forth and Clyde canal), the drainage of fens, the
designing of harbours and the repair and erection of bridges,
though many of the schemes he drew up were not carried out on
account of the general lack of capital. He was also employed in
designing numerous waterwheels, windmills, pumps, and other
mechanical appliances. A considerable portion of his time was
devoted to astronomical studies and observations, on which he
read various papers before the Royal Society. A year before his
death he announced that he wished " to dedicate the chief
part of his remaining time to the description of the several
works performed under his direction," but he completed nothing
more than the Narrative of the Building of the Eddystone Light-
house, which had already appeared. He died at Austhorpe on
the 28th of October 1792, and was buried in the old parish church
of Whitkirk.
See John Holmes, A Short Narrative of the Genius, Life and Works
of the late Mr John Smeaton (1793); and S. Smiles, Lives of the
Engineers.
SMEDLEY, FRANCIS [FRANK] EDWARD (1818-1864),
English novelist, was born at Great Marlow, Buckinghamshire,
on the 4th of October 1818, a member of a Flintshire family.
A cripple from his birth, he was educated privately, and contri-
buted his first book, Scenes from the Life of a Private Pupil,
anonymously to Sharpc's London Magazine in 1846-1848. His
first essay proved so successful that it was expanded into Frank
Fairleigh, and published in book-form in 1850. His next book
Lewis Arundel: or the Railroad of Life was originally contributed
to the same magazine, which he for some time edited, and was
published in book-form in 1852. Of his other writings the best-
known is Harry Coverdale's Courtship (1855). These are all
capital stories, racily told. Either Hablot Knight Browne
(" Phiz ") or George Cruikshank supplied illustrations for most
of his books. Smedley died in London on the ist of May 1864.
SMEDLEY, WILLIAM THOMAS (1858- ), American artist,
was born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, of a Quaker family,
on the z6th of March 1858. He worked on a newspaper, then
studied engraving and art in Philadelphia, in the Pennsylvania
Academy of the Fine Arts, and after making a tour of the
South Seas in Paris under Jean Paul Laurens. He settled
in New York City in 1880; in 1882 went with the Marquis of
Lome through Canada, preparing sketches for Picturesque
Canada; and in 1905 became a member of the National Academy
of Design. Most of his work was magazine and book illustration
for stories of modern life, but he painted portraits and water
colours, and received the Evans Prize of the American Water
Color Society in 1890, and a bronze medal at the Paris Exposition
of 1900.
SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and
" smoke "), a sensation excited by the contact with the olfactory
region(see OLFACTORY ORGAN, for anatomy) of certain substances,
usually in a gaseous condition and necessarily in a state of fine
subdivision. The sense is widely distributed throughout the
animal kingdom. The lower animals, especially those breathing
in water, become cognizant of the presence of odoriferous matter
near them without touch, vision or hearing, and we suppose
that they do so by some sense of taste or smell, or a combination
of both. In such cases smell has been appropriately termed
" taste at a distance," by which is meant that particles of matter
may be diffused through the water so as to come into contact
with the terminal organ, and give rise to a sensation such as would
have been excited had the matter from which the particles
emanated come directly into contact with the nerve-endings.
It is therefore of no great importance whether such sensations in
humble aquatic organisms are termed taste or smell. In the
higher air-breathing animals, however, the senses are differen-
tiated: that of taste is found at the entrance of the alimentary
canal, whilst that of smell guards the opening of the respiratory
tract. This view assists in the interpretation of various structures
met with in the lower forms which have been fairly regarded by
naturalists as olfactory organs. It has not yet been decided
whether the sense of smell depends, in the first instance, on a
chemical or on a physical process. All that can be said is that
sensory impulses are excited when odoriferous particles come
into contact with the free ends of peculiar rod-like cells found
in the olfactory mucous membrane. The free olfactory surface
is always covered with a thin layer of fluid, and all odoriferous
matters must be dissolved in this fluid so as to reach the rod-cells.
There is Here an analogy with the conditions found in the sense
of taste, where sapid substances must be soluble in the fluid of
the mouth. The intensity of the sensation of smell depends on
the size of the area of the olfactory membrane affected. No
satisfactory classification of odours can be given.
The interior of the nose (see OLFACTORY ORGAN and EPI-
THELIAL AND ENDOTHELIAL TISSUE) is divided physiologically
into two portions (i) the upper (regio olfactoria), which
embraces the upper part of the septum, the upper turbinated
3 21
From Klein's Alias of Histology,'
Longitudinal section through the olfactory membrane of guinea-
pig. Xabout 400. I, Olfactory epithelium on free surface; 2, Plexus
of olfactory nerve-fibres; 3, Pouches of serous glands containing
epithelial cells.
bone, and a portion of the middle turbinated bone; and (2) the
lower portion of the cavity (regio respiraloria) . The olfactory
region proper has a thicker mucous membrane than the res-
piratory; it is covered by a single layer of epithelial cells, often
branched at their lower ends and containing a yellow or brownish
red pigment; and it contains peculiar tubular glands named
" Bowman's glands." The respiratory portion contains ordinary
serous glands. In the olfactory region also are the terminal
organs of smell. These are long narrow cells passing to the sur-
face between the columnar epithelium covering the surface. The
body of the cell is spindle-shaped and it sends up to the surface
a delicate rod-like filament, whilst the deeper part is continuous
with varicose nerve-filaments, the ends of the olfactory nerve.
Physical Causes of Smell. Electrical or thermal stimuli
do not usually give rise to olfactory sensations. J. Althaus
states that electrical stimulation caused a sensation of the smell
of phosphorus. To excite smell it is usually supposed that
substances must be present in the atmosphere in a state of fine
subdivision, or existing as vapours or gases. The fineness of
the particles is remarkable, because if the air conveying an
odour be filtered through a tube packed with cotton wool and
inserted into the nose a smell is still discernible. This proceeding
completely removes from the air micro-organisms less than the
oiTTrth of an inch in diameter. A grain or two of musk will
scent an apartment for years and at the end of the time no
appreciable loss of weight can be detected. Substances exciting
smell are no doubt usually gases or vapours. Sir William
Ramsay has endeavoured to connect the sense with the chemical
252
SMELL
constitution of the substance. The following gases have no
smell: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, water gas, marsh gas,
olefiant gas, carbon monoxide, hydrochloric acid, formic acid
vapour, nitrous oxide and ammonia. (It is necessary, of course,
to distinguish between the sensation of smell and the irritant
action of such a gas as ammonia.) The gases exciting smell
are chlorine, bromine, iodine, the compounds of the first two
with oxygen and water, nitric peroxide, vapours of phosphorus
and sulphur, arsenic, antimony, sulphurous acid, carbonic acid,
almost all the volatile compounds of carbon except those already
mentioned, 'some compounds of selenium and tellurium, the
compounds of chlorine, bromine and iodine with the above-
named elements, and some metals. Chlorine, bromine, iodine,
sulphur, selenium and tellurium, which are volatile and give off
vapour at ordinary temperatures, have each a characteristic
smell. Ramsay points out that as a general rule substances
having a low molecular weight have either no smell or simply
cause irritation of the nostrils. He also shows that in the carbon
compounds increase of specific gravity as a gas is associated
to a certain point with a sensation of smell. Take the marsh
gas or methane series commonly called the paraffins. The first
two have no smell; ethane (fifteen times as heavy as hydrogen)
has a faint smell; and it is not till butane (thirty times heavier
than hydrogen) that a distinct sensation of smell is noticed.
Again, a similar relation exists among the alcohols. Methyl
alcohol has no smell. Ethyl, or ordinary alcohol free from
ethers and water, has a faint smell; " and the odour rapidly
becomes more marked as we rise in the series, till the limit of
volatility is reached, and we arrive at solids with such a low
vapour tension that they give off no appreciable amount of
vapour at the ordinary temperature." Acids gain in odour with
increase in density in the form of gas. Thus formic acid is
devoid of smell; acetic acid has a characteristic smell; and the
higher acids of the series propionic, butyric, valerianic increase
in odour. It would appear also that " the character of a smell
is a property of the element or group which enters into the body
producing the smell, and tends to make it generic." Many
compounds of chlorine, hydrogen, compounds of sulphur, selenium
and tellurium, the paraffins, the alcohols, the acids, the nitrites,
. the amines, the pyridine series, the benzene group, have each a
characteristic odour. To produce the sensation of smell a sub-
stance must have a molecular weight at least fifteen times
that of hydrogen. For instance, the specific gravity of marsh
gas is eight (no smell), of ethane fifteen (faint smell), of propane
twenty-two (distinct smell). Again prussic acid has a specific
gravity of fifteen, and many persons fail to detect its odour.
There is a relation between the molecular weight of a gas and
the presence or absence of odour. Gases of less than a certain
molecular weight are odourless, and it is significant that to some
persons hydrocyanic acid, which has a low molecular weight,
gives rise to no sensation of smell. It has also been pointed out
by J. B. Haycraft that chemical compounds of elements belonging
to the same group, according to the well-known periodic law of
Mendeleeff, have sometimes odours of a similar character
(see article " Smell," Schafer's Physiology, vol. ii. p. 1254). T.
Graham pointed out that odorous substances are in general
readily oxidized. J. Tyndall showed that many odorous vapours
have a considerable power of absorbing heat. Taking the
absorptive capacity of the air as unity, the following absorptions
were observed in the respective cases:
Name of Perfume.
Absorption
per 100.
Name of Perfume.
Absorption
per 100.
Patchouli
Sandal-wood .
Geranium
Oil of cloves .
Otto of roses .
Bergamot .
Neroli ....
30
32
33
33-5
36-5
44
47
Lavender .
Lemon
Portugal .
Thyme
Rosemary .
Oil of laurel .
Cassia ....
60
65
67
68
74
80
109
In comparison with the air introduced in the experiments the
weight of the odours must be almost infinitely small. " Still we
find that the least energetic in the list produces thirty times the
effect of the air, whilst the most energetic produces 109 times
the same effect." l
Venturi, B. Prevost and Liegeois have studied the well-
known movements of odoriferous particles, such as camphor,
succinic acid, &c., when placed on the surface of water, and they
have suggested that all odoriferous substances in a state of fine
subdivision may move in a similar way on the moist surface of
the olfactory membrane, and thus mechanically irritate the nerve-
endings. This explanation is too coarse; but it is well known
that the odours of flowers are most distinctly perceived in the
morning, or after a shower, when the atmosphere contains a
considerable amount of aqueous vapour. It would appear also
that the odours of animal effluvia are of a higher specific gravity
than the air, and do not readily diffuse a fact which may
account for the pointer and bloodhound keeping their noses
to the ground. Such smells are very persistent and are apparently
difficult to remove from any surface to which they have become
attached. The smell of a coipse may haunt a living person for
days, notwithstanding copious ablutions and change of clothes
Special Physiology of Smell. It is necessary that the air containing
the odour be driven forcibly against the membrane. Thus the
nostrils may be filled with eau de Cologne in normal saline solution,
or with air impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and still no
odour is experienced if the person does not breathe. When a sniff is
made the air within the nasal passages is rarefied, and, as the air
rushes in to equilibrate the pressure, it is forcibly propelled against
the olfactory surface. When the air stream enters the nostrils, it
passes vertically upwards, bends round and sweeps backwards and
downwards at the level of the middle turbinated bones towards the
posterior nares. There is a motion of the air over, the olfactory
surface. The olfactory surface must be moist ; if it is dry, or is
covered with too thick a layer of mucus (as in catarrh), the sense is
much weakened or lost. The first moment of contact is the most
acute and the sense quickly becomes blunted. The first scent of a
flower is the strongest and sweetest; and after a few minutes' ex-
posure the intensity of even a foetid odour may not be perceived.
This fact may be accounted for on the supposition that the olfactory
membrane becomes quickly coated with a thin layer of matter, and
that the most intense effect is produced 'when the odoriferous
substances are applied to a clean surface. The intensity of smell
depends on (i) the area of olfactory surface affected, and (2) the
degree of concentration of the odoriferous matter. It is said that
musk to the amount of the two-millionth of a milligram, and one
part of sulphuretted hydrogen in 1,000,000 parts of air, may be
perceived. The smell of mercaptan has been experimentally de-
tected when the dilution was I to 50,000,000,000, and it was cal-
culated that the weight of mercaptan so detected in 50 cc. of air was
1/400,000,000 of a milligram (E. Fischer and Penzolalt). If the two
nostrils are filled with different odorous substances, there is no
mixture of the odours, but we smell sometimes the one and some-
times the other. Morphia, mixed with sugar and taken as snuff,
paralyses the olfactory apparatus, while strychnine makes it more
sensitive (Lichtenfels and Frolich). There is no evidence that there
are in the olfactory region different end organs or olfactory cells for
different odours. The sense, however, may be fatigued by one odour
so that other odours are not experienced. Thus camphor may so
fatigue the sense that ether and eau de Cologne cannot excite smell.
As a rule, we experience odours by the simultaneous use of both
nostrils. Stimulation of either nostril would give rise to the sensa-
tion, while there is a fusion of sensations when both are affected.
If, by means of a tube, an odour is conveyed into one nostril, while
an odour of a different kind is directed into the other, there may be
either a compound sensational effect, a sort of double-odour, or one
odour may so predominate as entirely to destroy the other. The
fusion of odours is not complete, and it is similar to the effect of
combining, say blue and red, in stereoscopic vision. When one odour
destroys the other, the obliteration must take place in the cerebral
centre. Certain odours are antagonistic, such as musk and oil of
bitter almonds, volatile oils anal iodoform, ammonia and acetic
acid. It is not unlikely that when one odour predpminates among
many, this may be due not to any chemical action of one substance
over another, but that the missing sensations may be accounted for
by their failure to excite the olfactory region of the cerebrum in the
presence of a stronger stimulus.
The delicacy of the sense is much greater in many of the lower
animals than in man, and it is highly probable that the dog or cat
obtain information by means of this sense which a human being
cannot get. Odours may excite in the minds of many animals vivid
impressions, and they have probably a memory of smells which the
human being does not possess. Even in man the sense may be
greatly improved 1 by exercising it. A boy, James Mitchell, was born
1 Tyndall, Contributions to Molecular Physics in Domain of
Radiant Heat, p. 99.
SMELT SMILES
253
blind, deaf and dumb, and chiefly depended on smell for keeping
up a connexion with the outer world. He readily observed the
presence of a stranger in the room and he formed his opinions of
persons apparently from their characteristic smells (see Dugald
Stewart's Works, iv. 300). In some rare cases, the sense of smell
is congenitally absent in human beings, and it may be much injured
by the practice of snuffing or by diseases of the nose affecting the
olfactory membrane. Subjective impressions of smells, like spectral
illusions or sounds in the ears, are occasionally, but rarely, observed
in cases of hysteria and in the insane. Excessive smoking injures
the sense. Finally, it may be observed that the sense of odour gives
information as to the characters of food and drink and as to the
purity of the air. Some persons are sensitive to certain smells while
they do not recognize others, such as hydrocyanic acid or mignonette.
In the lower animals also, the sense is associated with the sexual
functions. (J. G. M.)
SMELT (Osmerus eperlanus; Fr. eperlan; Scotch sparling
or spirling), the common small European fish of the genus
Osmerus, family Salmonidae. It breeds, unless land-locked,
in salt or brackish water, and though it often enters rivers
it does not ascend beyond tidal influence. Like other British
Salmonids it spawns in winter. The true smelt inhabits the
coasts of northern and central Europe, and allied species are
known from the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America
(Osmerus mordax, O. thaleichthys, 0. Japonicus).
SMERDIS (Pers. Bardiya; by Ctesias, Pers. 8, called Tany-
oxarces; by Xenophon, Cyrop. viii. 7. n, who takes the name
from Ctesias, Tanaoxares; by Justin i. 9, Mergis; in Aeschylus,
Pers. 774; Mardos), a Persian king of infamous memory; the
prevalent Greek form Smerdis has assimilated the Persian name
to the Greek (Asiatic) name Smerdis or Smerdies, which occurs
in the poems of Alcaeus and Anacreon. Smerdis was the younger
son of Cyrus the Great who, according to Ctesias, on his deathbed
appointed him governor of the eastern provinces (cf. Xen.
Cyrop. viii. 7, n). Before Cambyses set out to Egypt, he
secretly caused him to be murdered (Darius in the Behistun
Inscr. i. 10), being afraid that he might attempt a rebellion
during his absence. His death was not known to the people,
and so in the spring of 522 a usurper pretended to be Smerdis and
proclaimed himself king on a mountain near' the Persian town
Pishiyauvada. Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his
long absence in Egypt, " the whole people, Persians, Medes
and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially
as he granted a remission of taxes for three years (Herod, iii.
68). Cambyses began to march against him, but seeing that his
cause was hopeless, killed himself in the spring of 521 (but see
further CAMB VSES) . The real name of the usurper was, as Darius
tells us, Gaumata, a Magian priest from Media; this name has
been preserved by Justin i. 9 (from Charon of Lampsacus?),
but given to his brother (called by Herodotus Patizeithes),
who is said to have been the real promoter of the intrigue;
the true name of the usurper is here given as Oropastes; by
Ctesias as Sphendadates.
The history of the false Smerdis is narrated by Herodotus and
Ctesias according to official traditions; Cambyses before his death
confessed to the murder of his brother, and in public explained the
whole fraud. But, as Darius said, nobody had the courage to
oppose the new king, who ruled for seven months over the whole
empire. Some contracts dating from his reign have been found in
Babylonia, where his name is spelt Barziya (for the chronology
cf. Ed. Meyer, Forschungen zur alien Geschichte, ii. 472 ff.).
Darius says that he destroyed some temples, which Darius
restored, and took away the herds and houses of the people
(Behistun Inscr. i. 14). We have no means of explaining this
statement, nor can we fully understand all the incidents con-
nected with his usurpation; but the attempts of modern authors
to prove that Gaumata in reality was the genuine Smerdis and
Darius a usurper have failed. It is certain that Smerdis trans-
ferred the seat of government to Media; and here in a castle in
the district of Nisaya he was surprised and killed by Darius and
his six associates in October 521. His death was annually cele-
brated in Persia by a feast called " the killing of the magian,"
at which no magian was allowed to show himself (Herod, iii. 79,
Ctes. Pers. 15).
In the next year, another pseudo-Smerdis, named Vahyazdata,
rose against Darius in eastern Persia and met with great success.
But he was finally defeated, taken prisoner and executed (Behistun
Inscr. iii. 40 ff.; perhaps he is identical with the King Maraphis
" the Maraphian," name of a Persian tribe,who occurs as successor
in the list of Persian kings given by Aeschylus, Pers. 778).
See DARIUS (I.) and PERSIA, Ancient History. (En. M.)
SMETANA, FRIEDRICH (1824-1884), Bohemian composer and
pianist, was born at Leitomischl in Bohemia on the 2nd of
March 1824. He made such rapid progress in his studies
under Ikavec, at Neuhaus, that at the age of six he appeared in
public as pianist so successfully that his father's opposition to a
musician's career was overcome. He then went to Proksch, at
Prague, until he left for Leipzig to make the acquaintance
of Schumann and Mendelssohn. Limited means prevented
him from studying with the latter, and he returned to Prague,
where he at once became Konzert-meister to the Emperor
Ferdinand. In 1848 he married Katharina Kolar, pianist, and
with her founded a music school at Prague. At the same time
he met Liszt, who subsequently influenced him greatly, and with
whom he afterwards stayed at Weimar. In 1856 Smetana
accepted Alexander Dreyschock's suggestion to go as conductor
of the Philharmonic Society at Gothenburg. There he remained
five years, when, owing to his wife's ill-health, he returned to
Prague after a successful concert tour. The death of his wife at
Dresden on their return caused Smetana to change his mind, and
he went back to Sweden. But the opening of the Interims
Theater in 1866, and the offer of its conductorship, induced his
return. In Sweden he had already written Hakon Jarl, Richard
III., and Wallenstein's Lager, and had completed his opera
Die Brandenburger in Bohmen (sth January 1866). Five months
later it was followed by his best-known opera, Die verkaufte
Braut, and in 1868 Dalibor was given. Between 1874 and 1882
he produced Zwei Witwen, Hubicka (Der Kuss), Tajewstvi (Das
Geheimnis), Certova Stena, and Die Teufelsmauer, as well as the
" grand prize " opera Libuse, written for the opening of the
National Theatre at Prague, nth June 1881. In Die Teufels-
mauer were clear signs of decay in Smetana's powers, he having
already in 1874 lost his sense of hearing. To celebrate his sixtieth
birthday a fete was arranged by the combined Bohemian musical
societies; but on that day Smetana lost his reason and was
removed to a lunatic asylum, where he died on the i2th of May
1884. A great deal of his pianoforte music is interesting, the
Stammbuchbl alter, for example; while his series of symphonic
poems, entitled Mein Vaterland (Vlasi), and his beautiful string-
quartet, Aus mcinem Leben, have made the tour of the civilized
world. He was an admirable pianist, and in many ways justified
his countrymen's title of the " Czechisch Beethoven."
SMETHWICK, a municipal and county borough in the Hands-
worth parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, 3 m. W.
of Birmingham on the Great Western and the London & North
Western railways. Pop. (1891) 36,106; (1901) 54,539- There
are large glass, chemical and machine works; nuts and bolts are
made, and lighthouse fittings are a specialty. Adjoining Smeth-
wick on the E. is the district of Soho, famous as the scene of the
engineering experiments of James Watt during his partnership
with Matthew Boulton (c. 1770). The town of Smethwick is a
modern growth about an ancient village, the name of which
appears in Domesday. The borough, incorporated in 1899
(county borough, 1907), is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors. Area, 1929 acres.
SMILES, SAMUEL (1812-1904), British author, was born at
Haddington, Scotland, on the 23rd of December 1812. He was
the eldest of eleven children left, on their father's death, to be
supported by their mother on slender means. To her spirit and
example must be attributed some of the enthusiasm for self-
reliance and self-education, that was later embodied in Dr
Smiles's writings and led to their popularity and influence.
Educated at the Haddington Grammar School and at Edinburgh
University, where he studied medicine and graduated in 1832,
Smiles tried, unsuccessfully, to practise in his native village
among 3000 healthy Scotsmen and in competition with seven
254
SMILLIE SMITH,
other doctors. He added to his income by lecturing on chemistry
and by writing for the press, and, finally abandoning the medical
profession, he confined himself to journalism, and from 1838
till 1844 edited the weekly Leeds Times. Though he gave up
regular journalism in 1844, he continued to be a frequent con-
tributor to periodicals. From 1845 till 1854 he was secretary of
the Leeds and Thirsk railway, and from 1854 till 1866 of the South
Eastern railway. During his residence in Leeds he had oppor-
tunities of studying the characters of the remarkable men whose
biographies he afterwards wrote. Here he came in contact with
George Stephenson, whose Life by him, published in 1857,
passed through five editions in its first year and was the precursor
-bf a series of biographies of leaders in the world of industry,
such as Lives of the Engineers (3 vols., 1861-1862), Industrial
Biography (1863), James Brindley and the Early Engineers (1864),
Lives of Boulton and Watt (1865), Life of Thomas Telford (1867),
The Life of a Scotch Naturalist (Thomas Edward) (1876), Robert
Dick (1878), George Moore (1878), Men of Invention and Industry
(1884), Life and Labour (1887), A Publisher and his Friends
(a history of the house of John Murray) (1891), Jasmin (1891),
Josiah Wedgwood (1894). In 1859 had appeared his most success-
ful book, Self -Help, a volume of popular ethics; 20,000 copies
were sold the first year, and by 1889 the sales had reached
150,000 copies, while the book had been translated into 17
languages. Its success suggested others of similar purpose,
like Character (1871), Thrift (1875), Duty (1880). Smiles also
published two works dealing with the history of the Huguenots
and a History of Ireland. His works are not only admirable
for their simple and yet forcible style, but for the many useful
and practical lessons which they enforce. Wholesome and
stimulating, their whole tendency is to inculcate sound principles
of life and the building up of manly and upright character.
Dr Smiles was made hon. LL.D. of Edinburgh University in
1878, and in 1897 received from the king of Servia the Cross of
Knight Commander of the Order of St Sava. He died in Kensing-
ton in his ninety-second year, on the i6th of April 1904.
His Autobiography was edited (1905) by T. Mackay.
SMILLIE, JAMES DAVID (1833-1909), American artist, was
born in New York City on the i6th of January 1833. His
father, James Smillie (1807-1885), a Scottish engraver, emigrated
to New York in 1829, was elected to the National Academy of
Design in 1851, did much, with his brother William Gumming
(1813-1908), to develop the engraving of bank-notes, and was an
excellent landscape-engraver. The son studied with him and
in the National Academy of Design; engraved on steel vignettes
for bank-notes and some illustrations, notably F. O. C. Darley's
pictures for Cooper's novels; was elected an associate of the
National Academy in 1865 the year after he first began painting
and an academician in 1876; and was a founder (1866) of the
American Water Color Society, of which he was treasurer in
1866-1873 and president in 1873-1878, and of the New York
Etching Club. Among his paintings, in oils, are " Evening
among the Sierras" (1876) and "The Cliffs of. Normandy"
(1885), and in water colour, " A Scrub Race " (1876) and " The
Passing Herd " (1888). He wrote and illustrated the article
on the Yosemite in Picturesque America. He died on the i4th
of September 1909. His brother, GEORGE HENRY SMILLIE
(1840- ), studied under his father and under James M. Hart,
became a member of the National Academy of Design in 1882,
and, like his brother, painted both in oils and in water colour.
His favourite subjects were scenes along the New England coast.
In 1881 he married NELLIE SHELDON JACOBS (b. 1854), a
painter of genre pictures in oils and water colour.
SMIRKE, ROBERT (1752-1845), Engh'sh painter, was born at
Wigton near Carlisle in 1752. In his thirteenth year he was
apprenticed in London with an heraldic painter, and at the age
of twenty he began to study in the schools of the Royal Academy,
to whose exhibition he contributed in 1786 a "Narcissus" and
a " Sabrina," which were followed by many works, usually small
in size, illustrative of the English poets, especially Thomson.
In 1791 Smirke was elected an associate of the Royal Academy,
and two years later a full member. In 1814 he was nominated
keeper to the Academy, -but the king refused to sanction the
appointment on account of the artist's revolutionary opinions. He
was engaged upon the Shakespeare gallery, for which he painted
" Katharina and Petruchio," " Prince Henry and Falstaff "
and other subjects. He also executed many clever and popular
book-illustrations. His works, which are frequently humorous,
are pleasing and graceful, accomplished in draughtsmanship and
handled with considerable spirit. He died in London on the 5th
of January 1845.
SMITH, ADAM (1723-1790), English economist, was the only
child of Adam Smith, comptroller of the customs at Kirkcaldy
in Fifeshire, Scotland, and of Margaret Douglas, daughter of Mr
Douglas of Strathendry, near Leslie. He was born at Kirkcaldy
on the 5th of June 1723, some months after the death of his
father. When he was three years old he was taken on a visit
to his uncle at Strathendry, and when playing alone was carried
off by a party of " tinkers." He was at once missed, and the
vagrants pursued and overtaken in Leslie wood. He received
his early education in the school of Kirkcaldy under David
Miller, amongst whose pupils were many who were afterwards
distinguished men. Smith showed great fondness for books and
remarkable powers of memory; and he was popular among his
schoolfellows. He was sent in 1737 to the university of Glasgow,
where he attended the lectures of Dr Hutcheson; and in 1740
he went to Balliol College, Oxford, as exhibitioner on Snell's
foundation. He remained at that university for seven years.
At Glasgow his favourite studies had been mathematics and
natural philosophy; but at Oxford he appears to have devoted
himself almost entirely to moral and political science and to
ancient and modern languages. He also laboured to improve
his English style by translation, particularly from the French.
After his return to Kirkcaldy he resided there two years
with his mother, continuing his studies, not having yet
adopted any plan for his future life. In 1748 he removed to
Edinburgh, and there, under the patronage of Lord Kames, gave
lectures on rhetoric and belles-lettres. About this time began
his acquaintance with David Hume, which afterwards ripened
into friendship. In 1751 he was elected professor of logic at
Glasgow, and in 1752 was transferred to the chair of moral
philosophy, which had become vacant by the death of Thomas
Craigie, the successor of Hutcheson. This position he occupied
for nearly twelve years, which he long afterwards declared to
have been " by far the most useful, and therefore by far the
happiest and most honourable period of his life." His course of
lectures was divided into four parts (i) natural theology;
(2) ethics; (3) a treatment of that branch of morality which
relates to justice, a subject which he handled historically after
the manner of Montesquieu; (4) a study of those political
regulations which are founded, not upon the principle of justice,
but that of expediency, and which are calculated to increase the
riches, the power and the prosperity of a state. Under this
view he considered the political institutions relating to com-
merce, to finances, to ecclesiastical and military establishments.
He first appeared as an author by contributing two articles to
the Edinburgh Review (an earlier journal than the present,
which was commenced in 1755, but of which only two numbers 1
were published), one on Johnson's Dictionary and the other a
letter to the editors on the state of literature in the different
countries of Europe. In 1759 appeared his Theory of Moral
Sentiments, embodying the second portion of his university
course, to which was added in the 2nd edition an appendix with
the title, " Considerations concerning the first Formation of
Languages. " After the publication of this work his ethical
doctrines occupied less space in his lectures, and a larger develop-
ment was given to the subjects of jurisprudence and political
economy. Stewart gives us to understand that he had, as early
as 1752, adopted the liberal views of commercial policy which
he afterwards preached; and this we should have been in-
clined to believe independently from the fact that such views
1 These two numbers were reprinted in 1818. Smith's letter to the
editors is specially interesting for its account of the Encyclopedic and
its criticism of Rousseau's pictures of savage life.
SMITH, ADAM
255
were propounded in that year in the Political Discourses of
Hume.
In 1762 the senatus academicus of Glasgow conferred on him
the honorary degree of doctor of laws. In 1 763 he was invited
to take charge of the young duke of Buccleuchon his travels. He
accepted, and resigned his professorship. He went abroad with
his pupil in February 1764; they remained only a few days at
Paris and then settled at Toulouse, at that time the seat of a
parlement, where they spent eighteen months in the best society
of the place, afterwards making a tour in the south of France and
passing two months at Geneva. Returning to Paris about
Christmas of 1765, they remained there till the October of the
following year. Smith at this time lived in the society of Quesnay,
Turgot , d'Alembert, Morellet, Helvetius, Marmontel and the duke
de la Rochefoucauld. His regard for the young nobleman 1
last named dictated the omission in the later editions of his
Moral Sentiments of the name of the celebrated ancestor of the
duke, whom he had associated with Mandeville as author of one
of the " licentious systems " reviewed in the seventh part of that
work. Smith was much influenced by his contact with the
members of the physiocratic school, especially with its chief,
though Dupont de Nemours probably goes too far in speaking of
Smith and himself as having been " con-disciples chez M.
Quesnay." Smith afterwards described Quesnay as a man " of
the greatest modesty and simplicity," and declared his system
of political economy to be, " with all its imperfections, the nearest
approximation to truth that had yet been published on the
principles of that science." In October 1766 tutor and pupil
returned home, and they ever afterwards retained strong feelings
of mutual esteem. For the next ten years Smith lived with
his mother at Kirkcaldy, only paying occasional visits to Edin-
burgh and London; he was engaged in close study during most
of this time. He describes himself to Hume during this period
as being extremely happy. He was occupied on his Inquiry
into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, which there is
some reason for believing he had begun at Toulouse. That great
work appeared in 1776." After its publication, and only a few
months before his own death, Hume wrote to congratulate his
friend " Euge! belle! dear Mr Smith, I am much pleased with
your performance, and the perusal of it has taken me from
a state of great anxiety. It was a work of so much expectation,
by yourself, by your friends, and by the public, that I trembled
for its appearance, but am now much relieved. Not but that
the reading of it necessarily requires so much attention, and the
public is disposed to give so little, that I shall still doubt for some
time of its being at first very popular, but it has depth, and
solidity, and acuteness, and is so much illustrated by curious facts
that it must at last attract the public attention." Smith attended
Hume during a part of his last illness, and soon after the death of
the philosopher there was published, along with his autobiography
a letter from Smith to W. Strahan (Smith's publisher) in which
he gave an account of the closing scenes of his friend's life and
expressed warm admiration for his character. This letter excited
some rancour among the theologians, and Dr George Home,
afterwards bishop of Norwich, published in 1777 A Letter to
Adam Smith on the Life, Death and Philosophy of his Friend
David Hume, by one of the people called Christians. But Smith
took no notice of this effusion. 3 He was also attacked by Arch-
1 The duke undertook a translatipn of the Theory of Moral Senti-
ments, but the Abb6 Blavet's version appeared (1774) before his was
completed and he then relinquished the design. An earlier French
translation had been published (1764) under the title Metaphysique
de I'ame; and there is a later one the best by the marquis de
Condorcet (1798, 2nd ed., 1830).
1 J. E. Thorold Rogers published in the Academy, 28th February
1885, a letter of Smith to William Pulteney, written in 1772, from
which he thought it probable that the work lay " unrevised and
unaltered " in the author's desk for four years. A similar conclusion
seems to follow from a letter of Hume in Burton's Life, ii. 461.
3 A story was told by Sir Walter Scott, and is also related in the
Edinburgh Review, of an " unfortunate rencontre," arising out of the
publication of the same letter, between Smith and Dr Johnson,
during the visit of the latter to Glasgow. The same story is given in
a note in Wilberforce's Correspondence, the scene being somewhat
vaguely laid in " Scotland." But it cannot be true; for Johnson
bishop W. Magee (1766-1831) for the omission in subsequent
editions of a passage of the Moral Sentiments which that prelate
had cited with high commendation as among the ablest illustra-
tions of the doctrine of the atonement. Smith had omitted
the paragraph in question (an omission which had escaped notice
for twenty years) on the ground that it was unnecessary and mis-
placed; but Magee suspected him of having been influenced
by deeper reasons.
The greater part of the two years which followed the publica-
tion of the Wealth of Nations Smith spent in London, enjoying the
society of eminent persons, amongst whom were Gibbon, Burke,
Reynolds and Topham Beauclerk. In 1778 he was appointed,
through the influence of the duke of Buccleuch, one of the com-
missioners of customs in Scotland, and in consequence of this
fixed his residence at Edinburgh. His mother, now in extreme
old age, lived with him, as did also his cousin, Miss Jane Douglas,
who superintended his household. Much of his now ample in-
come is believed to have been spent in secret charities, and he
kept a simple table at which, " without the formality of an
invitation, he was always happy to receive his friends." " His
Sunday suppers," says M'Culloch, " were long celebrated at
Edinburgh." One of his favourite places of resort in these years
was a club of which Dr Hutton, Dr Black, Dr Adam Ferguson,
John Clerk the naval tactician, Robert Adam the architect, as well
as Smith himself, were original members, and to which Dugald
Stewart, Professor Playfair and other eminent men were after-
wards admitted. Another source of enjoyment was his small but
excellent library; it is still preserved in his family. 4 In 1787 he
was elected lord rector of the university of Glasgow, an honour
which he received with " heartfelt joy." If we can believe a note
in Wilberforce's Correspondence, he visited London in the spring of
the same year, and was introduced by Dundas 6 to Pitt, Wilber-
force and others. From the death of his mother in 1 784, and that
of Miss Douglas in 1788, his health declined, and after a painful
illness he died on the i7th of July 1790.
Before his decease Smith directed that all his manuscripts except
a few selected essays should be destroyed, and they were accordingly
committed to the flames. Of the pieces preserved by his desire the '
most valuable is his tract on the history of astronomy, which he
himself described as a " fragment of a great work " ; it was doubtless
a portion of the " connected history of the liberal sciences and
elegant arts " which, we are told, he had projected in early life.
Among the papers destroyed were probably, as Stewart suggests,
the lectures on natural religion and jurisprudence which formed
part of his course at Glasgow, and also the lectures on rhetoric
which he delivered at Edinburgh in 1748. To the latter Hugh Blair
seems to refer when, in his work on Rhetoric and Belles- Lettres (1783),
he acknowledges his obligations to a manuscript treatise on rhetoric
by Smith, part of which its author had shown to him many years
before, and which he hoped that Smith would give to the public.
Smith had promised at the end of his Theory of Moral Sentiments
a treatise on jurisprudence from the historical point of view.
As a moral philosopher Smith cannot be said to have won much
acceptance for his fundamental doctrine. This doctrine is that all
our moral sentiments arise from sympathy, that is, from the principle
of our nature " which leads us to enter into the situations of other
men and to partake with them in the passions which those situations
have a tendency to excite." Our direct sympathy with the agent
in the circumstances in which he is placed gives rise, according to
this view, to our notion of the propriety of his action, whilst our
indirect sympathy with those whom his actions have benefited or
injured gives rise to our notions of merit and demerit in the agent
himself. It seems justly alleged against this system by Dr Thomas
Brown that " the moral sentiments, the origin of which it ascribes
to our secondary feelings of mere sympathy, are assumed as previously
existing in the original emotions with which the secondary feelings
are said to be in unison." A second objection urged, perhaps with
less justice, against the theory is that it fails to account for the
made his tour in 1773, whilst Hume's death did not take place till
1776. Smith seems not to have met Johnson in Scotland at all.
It appears, however, from Boswell's Life, under date of 2gth April
1778, that Johnson had on one occasion quarrelled with Smith at
Strahan's house, apparently in London; it is clear that the
" unlucky altercation " at Strahan's must have occurred in 1761 or
1763, and could have had nothing to do with the letter on Hume's
death.
4 See Catalogue of the Library of Adam Smith, edited with notes
and introduction, by James Bonar (1894).
6 An interesting letter of Smith to Dundas (ist November 1779) on
free trade for Ireland is printed in the Eng. Hist. Review, No. 2.
256
SMITH, ADAM
authoritative character which is felt to be inherent in our sense of right
and wrong for what Butler calls the " supremacy of conscience."
It is on the Wealth of Nations that Smith's fame rests. But
it must at once be said that it is plainly contrary to fact to
represent him, as some have done, as the creator of political
economy. The subject of social wealth had always in some
degree, and increasingly in recent times, engaged the attention of
philosophic minds. The study had even indisputably assumed
a systematic character, and, from being an assemblage of frag-
mentary disquisitions on particular questions of national interest,
had taken the form, notably in Turgot's Reflexions, of an organ-
ized body of doctrine. The truth is that Smith took up the
science when it was already considerably advanced; and it was
this very circumstance which enabled him, by the production
of a classical treatise, to render most of his predecessors obsolete.
Even those who do not fall into the error of making Smith the
creator of the science, often separate him too broadly from
Quesnay and his followers, and represent the history of modern
economics as consisting of the successive rise and reign of three
doctrines the mercantile, the physiocratic and the Smithian.
The last two are, it is true, at variance in some even important
respects. But it is evident, and Smith himself felt, that their
agreements were much more fundamental than their differences;
and, if we regard them as historical forces, they must be con-
sidered as working towards identical ends. They both urged
society towards the abolition of the previously prevailing in-
dustrial policy of European governments; and their arguments
against that policy rested essentially on the same grounds.
The history of economic opinion in modern times, down to the
third decade of the igth century, is, in fact, strictly bipjirtite.
The first stage is filled with the mercantile system, which was
rather a practical policy than a speculative doctrine, and which
came into existence as the spontaneous growth of social condi-
tions acting on minds not trained ' to scientific habits. The
second stage is occupied with the gradual rise and ultimate
ascendancy of another system founded on the idea of the right
of the individual to an unimpeded sphere for the exercise of his
economic activity. With the latter, which is best designated as
the " system of natural liberty," we ought to associate the
memory of the physiocrats as well as that of Smith, without,
however, maintaining their services to have been equal to his.
The teaching of political ecomomy was associated in the
Scottish universities with that of moral philosophy. Smith
conceived the entire subject he had to treat in his public lectures ,
as divisible into four heads, the first of which was natural theo-
logy, the second ethics, the third jurisprudence; whilst in the
fourth " he examined those political regulations which are
founded upon expediency, and which are calculated to increase
the riches, the power, and the prosperity of a state." The last
two branches of inquiry are regarded as forming but a single
body of doctrine in the well-known passage of the Theory of
Moral Sentiments in which the author promises to give in another
discourse " an account of the general principles of law and
government, and of the different revolutions they have undergone
in the different ages and periods of society, not only in what
concerns justice, but in what concerns police, revenue and arms,
and whatever else is the subject of law." This shows how little
it was Smith's habit to separate (except provisionally), in his
conceptions or his researches, the economic phenomena of
society from all the rest. The words above quoted have, indeed,
been not unjustly described as containing " an anticipation,
wonderful for his period, of general sociology."
There has been much discussion on the question What
is the scientific method followed by Smith in his great work?
By some it is considered to have been purely deductive, a view
which Buckle has perhaps carried to the greatest extreme.
He asserts that in Scotland the inductive method was unknown,
and that although Smith spent some of the most important
years of his youth in England, where the inductive method was
supreme, he yet adopted the deductive method because it was
habitually followed in Scotland. That the inductive spirit
exercised no influence on Scottish philosophers is certainly not
true; Montesquieu, whose method is essentially inductive, was
in Smith's time closely studied by Smith's fellow-countrymen.
What may justly be said of Smith is that the deductive bent
was not the predominant character of his mind, nor did his great
excellence lie in the " dialectic skill " which Buckle ascribes
to him. What strikes us most in his book is his wide and keen
observation of social facts, and his perpetual tendency to dwell
on these and elicit their significance, instead of drawing conclu-
sions from abstract principles by elaborate chains of reasoning.
That Smith does, however, largely employ the deductive
method is certain; and that method is legitimate when the
premises from which the deduction sets out are known universal
facts of human nature and properties of external objects.
But there is another species of deduction which, as Cliffe
Leslie has shown, seriously tainted the philosophy of Smith in
which the premises are not facts ascertained by observation,
but the a priori assumptions which we found in the physiocrats.
In his view, Nature has made provision for social wellbeing by
the principle of the human constitution which prompts every
man to better his condition: the individual aims only at his
private gain, but is " led by an invisible hand " to promote
the public good; human institutions, by interfering with this
principle in the name of the public interest, defeat their own
end; but, when all systems of preference or restraint are taken
away, " the obvious and simple system of natural liberty
establishes itself of its own accord." This theory is, of course,
not explicitly presented by Smith as a foundation of his economic
doctrines, but it is really the secret substratum on which they
rest. Yet, whilst such latent postulates warped his view of things,
they did not entirely determine his method. His native bent
towards the study of things as they are preserved him from
extravagances into which many of his followers have fallen.
But besides this, as Leslie has pointed out, the influence of
Montesquieu tended to counterbalance the theoretic prepos-
sessions produced by the doctrine of the jus naturae. We
are even informed that Smith himself in his later years was
occupied in preparing a commentary on the Esprit des lois. He
was thus affected by two different and incongruous systems of
thought one setting out from an imaginary code of nature
intended for the benefit of man, and leading to an optimistic
view of the economic constitution founded on enlightened self-
interest; the other following inductive processes, and seeking
to explain the several states in which the human societies are found
.existing, as results of circumstances or institutions which have
Been in actual operation. And we find accordingly in his great
work a combination of inductive inquiry with a priori specu-
lation founded on the " Nature "hypothesis.
Some have represented Smith's work as of so loose a texture
and so defective in arrangement that it may be justly described
as consisting of a series of monographs. But this is certainly an
exaggeration. The book, it is true, is not framed on a rigid
mould, nor is there any parade of systematic divisions and
subdivisions. But, as a body of exposition, it has the real
unity which results from a mode of thinking homogeneous
throughout and the general absence of such contradictions
as would arise from an imperfect digestion of the subject.
Smith sets out from the thought that the annual labour of a nation
is the source from which it derives its supply of the necessaries and
conveniences of life. He does not of course contemplate labour as the
only factor in production; but it has been supposed that by empha-
sizing it at the outset he at once strikes the note of difference between
himself on the one hand, and both the mercantilists and the physiocrats
on the other. The improvement in the productiveness of labour
depends largely on its division ; and he proceeds accordingly to give
his unrivalled exposition of that principle, of the grounds on which it
rests, and of its greater applicability to manufactures than to agri-
culture, in consequence of which the latter relatively lags behind in
the course of economic development. The origin of the division of
labour he finds in the propensity of human nature " to truck, barter
or exchange one thing for another." He shows that a certain
accumulation of capital is a condition precedent of this division, and
that the degree to which it can be carried is dependent on the extent
of the market. When the division of labour has been established,
each member of the society must have recourse to the others for the
supply of most of his wants; a medium of exchange is thus found to
DC necessary, and money comes into use. The exchange of goods
SMITH, ADAM
257
against each other or against money gives rise to the notion of value.
This word has two meanings that of utility, and that of purchasing
power; the one may be called value in use, the other value in ex-
change. Merely mentioning the former, Smith goes on to study the
latter. What, he asks, is the measure of value? what regulates the
amount of one thing which will be given for another? " Labour,"
Smith answers, " is the real measure of the exchangeable value of all
commodities." " Equal quantities of labour at all times and places,
are of equal value to the labourer." " Labour alone, therefore, never
varying in its own value, is alone the ultimate and real standard by
which the value of all commodities can at all times and places be
estimated and compared. It is their real price; money is their
nominal price only." Money, however, is in men's actual trans-
actions the measure of value, as well as the vehicle of exchange; and
the precious metals are best suited for this function, as varying little
in their own value for periods of moderate length ; for distant times,
corn is a better standard of comparison. In relation to the earliest
social stage, we need consider nothing but the amount of labour
employed in the production of an article as determining its ex-
change value; but in more advanced periods price is complex, and
consists in the most general case of three elements wages, profit
and rent. Wages are the reward of labour. Profit arises as soon as
stock, being accumulated in the hands of one person, is employed
by him in setting others to work, and supplying them with materials
and subsistence, in order to make a gain by what they produce.
Rent arises as soon as the land of a country has all become private
property; " the landlords, like all other men, love to reap where they
never sowed, and demand a rent even for its natural produce." In
every improved society, then, these three elements enter more or less
into the price of the far greater part of commodities. There is in
every society or neighbourhood, an ordinary or average rate of wages
and profit in every different employment of labour and stock, regu-
lated by principles to be explained hereafter, as also an ordinary or
average rate of rent. These may be called the natural rates at the
time when and the place where they prevail; and the natural price of
a commodity is what is sufficient to pay for the rent of the land, the
wages of the labour, and the profit of the stock necessary for bringing
the commodity to market. The market price may rise above or fall
below the amount so fixed, being determined by the proportion
between the quantity brought to market and the demand of those
who are willing to pay the natural price. Towards the natural
price as a centre the market-price, regulated by competition, con-
stantly gravitates. Some commodities, however, are subject ts
a monopoly of production, whether from the peculiarities of a
locality or from legal privilege: their price is always the highest
that can be got; the natural price of other commodities is the
lowest which can be taken for any length of time together. The
three component parts or factors of price vary with the circum-
stances of the society. The rate of wages is determined by a " dis-
pute " or struggle of opposite interests between the employer and
the workman. A minimum rate is fixed by the condition that they
must be at least sufficient to enable a man and his wife to maintain
themselves and, in general, bring up a family. The excess above
this will depend on the circumstances ol the country, and the con-
sequent demand for labour wages being high when national wealth
is increasing, low when it is declining. The same circumstances
determine the variation of profits, but in an opposite direction; the
increase of stock, which raises wages, tending" to lower profit through
the mutual competition of capitalists. " The whole of the advantages
and disadvantages of the different employments of labour and stock
must, in the same neighbourhood, be either perfectly equal or con-
tinually tending to equality "; if one had greatly the advantage over
the others, people would crowd into it, and the level would soon be
restored. Yet pecuniary wages and profits are very different in
different employments either from certain circumstances affecting
the employments, which recommend or disparage them in men's
notions, or from national policy, " which nowhere leaves things at
perfect liberty." Here follows Smith's admirable exposition of the
causes which produce the inequalities in wages and profits just
referred to, a passage affording ample evidence of his habits of nice
observation of the less obvious traits in human nature, and also of
the operation both of these and of social institutions on economic
facts. The rent of land comes next to be considered, as the last of the
three elements of price. Rent is a monopoly price, equal, not to what
the landlord could afford to take, but to what the farmer can afford
to give. " Such parts only of the produce of land can commonly be
brought to market, of which the ordinary price is sufficient to
replace the stock which must be employed in bringing them thither,
together with the ordinary profits. If the ordinary price is more than
this, the surplus part will naturally go to the rent of the land. If it is
not more, though the commodity may be brought to market, it can
afford no rent to the landlord. Whether the price is or is not more
depends on the demand." " Rent, therefore, enters into the price of
commodities in a different way from wages and profits. High or low
wages and profit are the causes of high or low price; high or low rent
is the effect of it"
Rent, wages and profits, as they are the elements of price, are also
the constituents of income; and the three great orders of every
civilized society, from whose revenues that of every other order is
ultimately derived, are the landlords, the labourers and the capital-
XXV. 9
ists. The relation of the interests of these three classes to those of
society at large is different. The interest of the landlord always
coincides with the general interest : whatever promotes or obstructs
the one has the same effect on the other. So also does that of the
labourer: when the wealth of the nation is progressive, his wages
are high; they are low when it is stationary or retrogressive. " The
interest of the third order has not the same connexion with the
general interest of the society as that of the other two; ... it is
always in some respects different from and opposite to that of the
public."
The subject of the second book is " the nature, accumulation
and improvement of stock." A man's whole stock consists of two
portions that which is reserved for his immediate consumption,
and that which is employed so as to yield a revenue to its owner.
This latter, which is his " capital," is divisible into the two classes
of " fixed " and " circulating." The first is such as yields a profit
without passing into other hands. The second consists of such
goods, raised, manufactured or purchased, as are sold for a profit
and replaced by other goods; this sort of capital is therefore con-
stantly going from and returning to the hands of its owner. The
whole capital of a society falls under the same two heads. Its
fixed capital consists chiefly of (i) machines, (2) buildings which
are the means of procuring a revenue, (3) agricultural improve-
ments and (4) the acquired and useful abilities of all members of
the society (since sometimes known as " personal capital "). Its
circulating capital is also composed of four parts (i) money, (2)
provisions in the hands of the dealers, (3) materials and (4) com-
pleted work in the hands of the manufacturer or merchant. Next
comes the distinction of the gross national revenue from the net
the first being the whole produce of the land and labour of a country,
the second what remains after deducting the expense of maintaining
the fixed capital of the country and that part of its circulating capital
which consists of money. Money, " the gr.eat wheel of circulation,"
is altogether different from the goods which are circulated by means
of it; it is a costly instrument by means of which all that each
individual receives is distributed to him; and the expenditure
required, first to provide it, and afterwards to maintain it, is a
deduction from the net revenue of the society. In development of
this consideration, Smith goes on to explain the gain to the com-
munity arising from the substitution of paper money for that com-
posed of the precious metals; and here occurs the remarkable
illustration in which the use of gold and silver money is compared to
a highway on the ground, that of paper money to a wagon way
through the air. In proceeding to consider the accumulation of
capital, he is led to the distinction between productive and unpro-
ductive labour the former being that which is fixed or realized in
a particular abject or vendible article, the latter that which is not
so realized. The former is exemplified in the labour of the manu-
facturing workman, the latter in that of the menial servant. A
broad line of demarcation is thus drawn between the labour which
results in commodities or increased value of commodities, and that
which does no more than render services: the former is productive,
the latter unproductive. " Productive " is by no means equivalent
to " useful ": the labours of the magistrate, the soldier, the church-
man, lawyer and physician, are, in Smith's sense, unproductive.
Productive labourers alone are employed out of capital; unpro-
ductive labourers, as well as those who do not labour at all, are all
maintained by revenue. In advancing industrial communities, the
portion of annual produce set apart as capital, bears an increasing
proportion to that which is immediately destined to constitute a
revenue, either as rent or as profit. Parsimony is the source of the
increase of capital; by augmenting the fund devoted to the main-
tenance of productive hands, it puts in motion an additional quantity
of industry, which adds to the value of the annual produce. What
is annually saved is as regularly consumed as what is spent, but by a
different set of persons, by productive labourers instead of idlers or
unproductive labourers; and the former reproduce with a profit
the value of their consumption. The prodigal, encroaching on his
capital, diminishes, as far as in him lies, the amount of productive
labour, and so the wealth of the country; nor is this result affected
by his expenditure being on home-made, as distinct from foreign
commodities. Every prodigal, therefore, is a public enemy; every
frugal man a public benefactor. The only mode of increasing the
annual produce of the land and labour is to increase either the number
of productive labourers or the productive powers of those labourers.
Either process will in general require additional capital, the former
to maintain the new labourers, the latter to provide improved
machinery or to enable the employer to introduce a more complete
division of labour. In what are commonly called loans of money,
it is not really the money, but the money's worth, that the borrower
wants; and the lender really assigns to him the right to a certain
portion of the annual produce of the land and labour of the country.
As the general capital of a country increases, so also does the par-
ticular portion of it from which the possessors wish to derive a
revenue without being at the trouble of employing it themselves,
and, as the quantity of stock thus available for loans is augmented,
the interest diminishes, not merely " from the general causes which
make the market price of things commonly diminish as their quantity
increases," but because, with the increase of capital, " it becomes
gradually more and more difficult to find within the country a
SMITH, ADAM
profitable method of employing any new capital " whence arises a
competition between different capitals, and a lowering of profits,
which must diminish the price which can be paid for the use of
capital, or in other words the rate of interest. It was formerly
wrongly supposed, and even Locke and Montesquieu did not escape
this error, that the fall in the value of the precious metals consequent
on the discovery of the American mines was the real cause of the
general lowering of the rate of interest in Europe. But this view,
already refuted by Hume, is easily seen to be erroneous. " In some
countries the interest of money has been prohibited by law. But,
as something can everywhere be made by the use of money, some-
thing ought everywhere to be paid for the use of it," and will in
fact be paid for it; and the prohibition will only heighten the evil
of usury by increasing the risk to the lender. The legal rate should
be a very little above the lowest market rate; sober people will then
be preferred as borrowers to prodigals and projectors, who at a higher
legal rate would have an advantage over them, being alone willing
to offer that higher rate.
As to the different employments of capital, the quantity of pro-
ductive labour put in motion by an equal amount varies extremely
according as that amount is employed (i) in the improvement of
lands, mines or fisheries, (2) in manufactures, (3) in wholesale or
(4) retail trade. In agriculture " Nature labours along with man,"
and not only the capital of the farmer is reproduced with his pro-
fits, but also the rent of the landlord. It is therefore the employ-
ment of a given capital which is most advantageous to society.
Next in order come manufactures; then wholesale trade first the
home trade, secondly the foreign trade of consumption, last the
carrying trade. All these employments of capital, however, are not
only advantageous, but necessary, and will introduce themselves
in the due degree if left to individual enterprise. /
These first two books contain Smith's general economic scheme;
and we have stated it as fully as was consistent with the brevity here
necessary, because from this formulation of doctrine the English
classical school set out, and round it the discussions of more modern
times in different countries have in a great measure revolved.
The critical philosophers of the 1 8th century were often destitute
of the historical spirit, which was no part of the endowment needed
for their principal social office. But some of the most eminent of
them, especially in Scotland, showed a marked capacity and pre-
dilection for historical studies. Smith was among the latter; Karl
Knies and others justly remark on the masterly sketches of this
kind which occur in the Wealth of Nations. The longest and most
elaborate of these occupies the third book; it is an account of the
course followed by the nations of modern Europe in the successive
development of the several forms of industry. It affords a curious
example of the effect of doctrinal prepossessions in obscuring the
results of historical inquiry. Whilst he correctly describes the
European movement of industry, and explains it as arising out of
adequate social causes, he yet, in accordance with the absolute
principles which tainted his philosophy, protests against it as in-
volving an entire inversion of the " natural order of things." First
agriculture, then manufactures, lastly foreign commerce; any
other order than this he considers " unnatural and retrograde."
The fourth book is principally devoted to the elaborate and ex-
haustive polemic against the mercantile system which finally drove
it from the field of science, and has exercised a powerful influence on
economic legislation. When protection is now advocated, it is
commonly on different grounds from those which were in current use
before the time of Smith. He believed that to look for the restora-
tion of freedom of foreign trade in Great Britain would have been
" as absurd as to expect that an Oceana or Utopia should be estab-
lished in it." His teaching on the subject is not altogether un-
qualified; but, on the whole, with respect to exchanges of every kind,
where economic motives alone enter, his voice is in favour of freedom.
He has regard, however, to political as well as economic interests,
and on the ground that " defence is of much more importance than
opulence " pronounces the Navigation Act to have been " perhaps
the wisest of all the commercial regulations of England." Whilst
objecting to the prevention of the export of wool, he proposes a tax
on that export as somewhat less injurious to the interest of growers
than the prohibition, whilst it would "afford a sufficient advantage"
to the domestic over the foreign manufacturer. This is, perhaps, his
most marked deviation from the rigour of principle ; it was doubtless
a concession to popular opinion with a view to an attainable practical
improvement The wisdom of retaliation in order to procure the
repeal of high duties or prohibitions imposed by foreign govern-
ments depends, he says, altogether on the likelihood of its success in
effecting the object aimed at, but he does not conceal his contempt for
the practice of such expedients. The restoration of freedom in any
manufacture, when it has grown to considerable dimensions by means
of high duties, should, he thinks, from motives of humanity, be
brought about only by degrees and with circumspection though
the amount of evil which would be caused by the immediate abolition
of the duties is, in his opinion, commonly exaggerated The case in
which J. S. Mill justified protection that, namely, in which an
industry well adapted to a country is kept down by the acquired
ascendancy of foreign producers is referred to by Smith ; but he is
opposed to the admission of this exception for reasons which do not
appear to be conclusive. He is perhaps scarcely consistent in ap-
proving the concession of temporary monopolies to joint-stock com-
panies undertaking risky enterprises " of which the public is after-
wards to reap the benefit." 1
He is less absolute in his doctrine of governmental non-interference
when he comes to consider in his fifth book the " expenses of the
sovereign or the commonwealth." He recognizes as coming within
the functions of the state the erection and maintenance of those
public institutions and public works which, though advantageous to
the society, could not repay, and therefore must not be thrown upon,
individuals or small groups of individuals. He remarks in a just
historical spirit that the performance of these functions requires very
different degrees of expense in the different periods of society.
Besides the institutions and works intended for public defence and
the administration of justice, and those required for facilitating the
commerce of the society, he considers those necessary for promoting
the instruction of the people. He thinks the public at large may
with propriety not only facilitate and encourage, but even impose
upon almost the whole body of the people, the acquisition in youth
of the most essential elements of education. He suggests as the mode
of enforcing this obligation the requirement of submission to a test
examination " before any one could obtain the freedom in any
corporation, or be allowed to set up a trade in any village or town
corporate." Similarly, he is of opinion that some probation, even in
the higher and more difficult sciences, might be enforced as a con-
dition of exercising any liberal profession, or becoming a candidate
for any honourable office. The expense of the institutions for
religious instruction as well as for general education, he holds, may
without injustice be defrayed out of the funds of the whole society,
though he would apparently prefer that it should be met by the
voluntary contributions of those who think they have occasion for
such education or instruction.
To sum up, it may be said that the Wealth of Nations certainly
operated powerfully through the harmony of its critical side with the
tendencies of the half-century which followed its publication to the
assertion of personal freedom and " natural rights." It discredited
the economic policy of the past, and promoted the overthrow of
institutions which had come down from earlier times, but were un-
suited to modern society. As a theoretic treatment of social economy,
and therefore as a guide to social reconstruction and practice in the
future, it is provisional, not definitive. But when the study of its
subject comes to be systematized on the basis of a general social
philosophy more complete and durable than Smith's, no contribu-
tions to that final construction will be found so valuable as his.
Buckle has the idea that the two principal works of Smith, the
Theory of Moral Sentiments and the Wealth of Nations, are mutually
complementary parts of one great scheme, in which human nature
is intended to be dealt with as a whole the former exhibiting the
operation of the benevolent feelings, the latter of what, by a singular
nomenclature, inadmissible since Butler wrote, he calls " the passion
of selfishness." In each division the motive contemplated is re-
garded as acting singly, without any interference of the opposite
principle. This appears to be an artificial and misleading notion.
Neither in the plan of Smith's university course nor in the well-
known passage at the end of his Moral Sentiments is there any indica-
tion of his having conceived such a bipartite scheme. The object of
the Wealth of Nations is surely in no sense psychological, us is that of
the Moral Sentiments. The purpose of the work is to exhibit social
phenomena, not to demonstrate their source in the mental constitu-
tion of the individual.
The following may be referred to for biographical details : Dugald
Stewart, Biographical Memoir of Adam Smith, originally read (1793)
before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and afterwards prefixed to
Smith's Essays on Philosophical Subjects; J. A. Farrer, Adam Smith
(1881); R. B. Haldane, Life of Smith (1887), and the very full and
excellent Life of Adam Smith by John Rae (1895). Additional
particulars are given in Brougham's Men of Letters and Science,
Burton's Life of Hume and Alexander Carlyle's Autobiography; and
some characteristic anecdotes of him will be found in Memoirs of the
Life and Works of Sir John Sinclair (1837). For comments on his
Theory of Moral Sentiments, see, besides Stewart, as cited above, Dr
T. Brown's Philosophy of the Human Mind, lects. 80 and 81 ; Sir J.
Mackintosh's Dissertation onthe Progress of Ethical Philosophy; and the
art. ETHICS in the present work. On the Wealth of Nations, see the
prefaces to M'Culloch's, Rogers's, Shield Nicholson's and Cannan's
editions of that work; Rogers's Historical Gleanings (1869); the
art. " Smith " in Coquelin and Guillaumin's Dictionnaire de I'eco-
nomie politique; Bagehot's Economic Studies (1880); and Cossa's
Guide to the Study of Political Economy (Eng. trans., 1880), chap. v.
See also Professor Shield Nicholson's Project of Empire (1909),
which is a critical study of the Economics of Imperialism, with
special reference to the ideas of Adam Smith; and Professor W.
J. Ashley's essay in Compatriots Club Lectures (1905) on " Political
Economy and the Tariff Problem." See also Professor W. J.
Ashley's Select Chapters and Passages from the " Wealth of Nations "
(1895). (I. K. I.,- X.)
1 Professor Bastable calls attention to the interesting fact that
the proposal of an export duty on wool and the justification of a
temporary monopoly to joint-stock companies both appear for the
first time in the edition of 1784
SMITH, A. R. SMITH, CHARLOTTE
259
SMITH, ALBERT RICHARD (1816-1860), English author and
public entertainer, was born at Chertsey, Surrey, on the 24th of
May 1816. He studied medicine in Paris, and his first literary
effort was an account of his life there, which appeared in the
Mirror. He gradually relinquished his medical work for light
literature.' Though a journalist rather than a literary figure,
he was one of the most popular men of his time, and a favourite
humorist in the vein of humour then in vogue. He was one
of the early contributors to Punch and was also a regular contri-
butor to Benlley's Miscellany, in whose pages his first and best
book, The Adventures of Mr Ledbury, appeared in 1842. His
other books were, Christopher Tadpole (1848), issued in monthly
parts, Pottleton's Legacy (1849), and a series of so-called natural
histories, The Gent, The Ballet Girl, The Idler upon Town and
The Flirt. Albert Smith also wrote extravaganzas and adapted
some of Charles Dickens's-stories for the stage. He founded and
edited a monthly magazine called The Man in the Moon, from
1847 to 1849. In 1851 he ascended Mont Blanc, and the year
after produced at the Egyptian Hall the descriptive entertain-
ment, which he called " Mont Blanc," describing the ascent of
the mountain and the Englishman abroad. This success was
followed by other entertainments of the kind, among them
" China." Smith married in 1859 a daughter of Robert Keeley,
the comedian. He died in Fulham, London, on the 23rd of
May 1860. Smith received great help from his brother, Arthur
W. W. Smith (1825-1861), who had also been educated for
medicine. He managed the entertainments at the Egyptian
Hall from 1852 to 1860. He also planned Charles Dickens's
readings in 1858, and made arrangements for a second series,
but died before they were completed.
SMITH, ALEXANDER (1830-1867), Scottish poet, son of a
lace-designer, was born at Kilmarnock on the 3ist of December
1830. His parents being too poor to send him to college, he was
placed in a linen factory to follow his father's trade of a pattern
designer. His early poems appeared in the Glasgow Citizen,
in whose editor, James Hedderwick, he found a sympathizing
and appreciative friend. A Life Drama and other Poems (1853)
was a work of promise, ran through several editions, and gained
Smith the appointment of secretary to Edinburgh University
in 1854. As a poet he was one of the leading representatives
of what was called the " Spasmodic " School, now fallen into
oblivion. Smith, P. J. Bailey and Sydney Dobell were satirized
by W. E. Aytoun in 1854 in Firmilian: a Spasmodic Tragedy.
In the same year Sydney Dobell came to Edinburgh, and an
acquaintanceship at once sprang up between the two, which
resulted in their collaboration in a book of War Sonnets (1855),
inspired by the Crimean War. After publishing City Poems
(1857) and Edwin of Deira (1861), a Northumbrian epic poem,
Smith turned his attention to prose, and published Dreamthorp:
Essays written in the Country (1863) and A Summer in Skye.
His last work was an experiment in fiction, Alfred Hagart's
Household (1866), which ran first through Good Words. He
died on the 5th of January 1867.
A memoir of Smith by P. P. Alexander was prefixed to a volume
entitled Last Leaves.
SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897), American soldier,
was born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of April
1815 and graduated at West Point in 1838. He was engaged on
active service on the south-west frontier and in Mexico, and
afterwards in Indian warfare in Washington and Oregon terri-
tories, becoming first lieutenant in 1845, captain in 1847, and
major in 1861. In the latter year, on the outbreak of the Civil
War, he became a colonel of volunteer cavalry in the Federal
army, rising early in 1862 to the rank of brigadier-general
U.S.V., and to the chief command of the cavalry in the Missouri
department. Assigned afterwards to the Army of the Tennessee,
he took part in the first attack on Vicksburg and the capture of
Arkansas Post, and commanded a division of the XIII. corps in
the final Vicksburg campaign. Later he led a division of the
XVI. corps in the Red River expedition of Gen. N. P. Banks, and
received the brevet of colonel for his services at the action -of
Pleasant Hill. In May 1864 he became lieutenant-colonel U.S.A.
and major-general U.S.V., and during the greater part of the
year was employed in Missouri against the Confederate general
Sterling Price. Thence he was summoned to join forces with
G. H. Thomas at Nashville, then threatened by the advance of
Gen. J. B. Hood. He bore a conspicuous share in the crowning
victory of Nashville (q.v.), after which he commanded the XVI.
corps in the final campaign in the South. Just before the close of
the war he was breveted brigadier-general U.S.A. for his services
at the action of Tupelo, Mississippi, and major-general U.S.A.
for Nashville. He resigned his volunteer commission in 1866 and
became colonel of the 7th U.S. Cavalry. In 1869, however, he
resigned in order to become postmaster of St Louis, where- he
died on the 3oth of January 1897.
SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842-1908), American journalist
and political leader, was born in Mansfield, Connecticut, on the
i8th of February 1842. In 1849 his family removed to Albany,
New York, where he attended the public schools and the Albany
Academy. He graduated at Union College in 1861, was a recruit-
ing officer on the staff of General John F. Rathbone (1810-1901)
in 1861-1862, taught in the Albany Academy in 1862-1865, and
was editor of the Albany Express in 1865-1870; joined the staff
of the Albany Journal in 1870, and was editor-in-chief of this
paper from 1876 to 1880. In 1870-1880 he was a regent of the
University of the State of New York. From 1880 until his
death he was editor and part proprietor of the Philadelphia Press.
He was active as a Republican in state and national politics;
was chairman of the Committee on Resolutions of the New
York State Republican Conventions from 1874 to 1880 (excepting
1877), and was president of the convention of 1879; and was a
delegate to several National Republican Conventions, drafting
much of the Republican platforms of 1876 and 1896. In 1890-
1892 he was United States minister to Russia, and during that
period had charge of distributing among the Russian famine
sufferers more than $100,000 in money, and five shiploads of
food. He was postmaster-general in the cabinet of Presidents
McKinley and Roosevelt from April 1898 until January 1902, and
did much to develop the rural free delivery system. He died in
Philadelphia on the igth of January 1908.
SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807-1862), American soldier,
graduated from West Point Academy in 1825, and a few years
later became an instructor there, rising eventually to be com-
mandant. As a battalion commander he distinguished himself
at the Mexican War, at Palo Alto, Resaca, Monterey and
Churubusco. He commanded the Red River expedition of 1856,
and served under Albert Sidney Johnston in Utah (1857-1860).
On the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he accepted a commis-
sion as brigadier-general of Union volunteers, and found himself
under the command of Grant, who had been his pupil at West
Point. This difficult situation was made easy by Smith's
loyalty to his young chief, and the old soldier led his division
of raw volunteers with success at Fort Donelson. His ripe
experience, dignity, and unselfish character made him Grant's
mainstay in the early days. He went up the Tennessee with the
first expedition, but at Savannah, Tennessee, met with a serious
accident. His senior brigadier led his division at the battle of
Shiloh and he died on April 25, 1862. The early close of his
career in high command deprived the Union army of one of its
best leaders, and his absence was nowhere more felt than on the
battlefield of Shiloh, where the Federals paid heavily for the
inexperience of their generals. A month before his death he had
been made major-general of volunteers.
SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806), English novelist and poet,
eldest daughter of Nicholas Turner of Stoke House, Surrey, was
born in London on the 4th of May 1749. She left school when
she was twelve years old to enter society. She married in 1765
Benjamin Smith, son of a merchant who was a director of the
East India Company. . They lived at first with her father-in-law,
who thought highly of her business abilities, and wished to keep
her with him; but in 1774 Charlotte and her husband went to
live in Hampshire. The elder Smith died in 1776, leaving a com-
plicated will, and six years later Benjamin Smith was imprisoned
for debt. Charlotte Smith's first publication was Elegiac Sonnets
SMITH, C. SMITH, G.
and other Essays (1784), dedicated by permission to William
Hayley, and printed at her own expense. For some months Mrs
Smith and her family lived in a tumble-down chateau near Dieppe,
where she produced a translation of Manon Lescaut (1785) and a
Romance of Real Life (1786), borrowed from Les Causes Cllebres.
On her return to England Mrs Smith carried out a friendly
separation between herself and her husband, and thenceforward
devoted herself to novel writing. Her chief works are:
Emmeline, or the Orphan of the Castle (1788); Celestina (1792);
Desmond (1792); The Old Manor House (1793); The Young
Philosopher (1798); and Conversations introducing Poetry (1804).
She died at Tilford, near Farnham, Surrey, on the 28th of
October 1806. She had twelve children, one of whom, Lionel
(1778-1842), rose to the rank of lieutenant-general in the army.
He became K.C.B. in 1832 and from 1833 to 1839 was governor
of the Windward and Leeward Islands.
Charlotte Smith's novels were highly praised by her contem-
poraries and are still noticeable for their ease and grace of style.
Hayley said that Emmeline, considering the situation of the author,
was the most wonderful production he had ever seen, and not
inferior to any book in that fascinating species of composition
(Nichols, Illustrations of Literature, vii. 708). The best account of
Mrs Smith is by Sir Walter Scott, and is based on material supplied
by her sister, Mrs Dorset, with a detailed criticism of her work by
Scott (Misc. Prose Works, 1841, i. 348-359). Charlotte Smith is
best remembered by her charming poems for children.
SMITH, COLVIN (1795-1875), Scottish portrait-painter, was
born at Brechin, Scotland, in 1795. He studied in London in
the schools of the Royal Academy and worked in Nollekens's
studio. He then proceeded to Italy, where he executed some
fine copies from Titian; and at Antwerp he made studies from
the works of Rubens. Returning to Scotland in 1827, he settled
in Edinburgh, occupying the house and studio which had formerly
belonged to Raeburn. Soon he attained a wide practice as a
portrait-painter, and among his sitters were Lord Jeffrey, Henry
Mackenzie, author of The Man of Feeling, and many of the most
celebrated Scotsmen of the time. His portrait of Sir Walter
Scott was so popular that he executed some twenty replicas
of it, for seven of which he received fresh sittings. His works are
distinguished by excellent draftsmanship, by directness and
simplicity of treatment, and by well-marked individuality. He
died in Edinburgh on the 2ist of July 1875.
SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893), Confederate general
in the American Civil War, was the son of Joseph Lee Smith
(1776-1846), an American lawyer and soldier, who served with
credit in the War of 1812 and rose to the rank of colonel U.S.A.
His elder brother, Ephraim Kirby Smith (1807-1847), also a
soldier, fell at Molino del Rey; and Joseph Lee Kirby Smith,
Ephraim's son, who took the Federal side in the Civil War, was
mortally wounded at the battle of Corinth, having at the age of
twenty-six attained the rank of brevet-colonel U.S.A. Edmund
Kirby Smith was born at St Augustine, Fla., on the i6th of
May 1824, and graduated at West Point in 1845, being assigned
to the infantry. In the Mexican War he was breveted first
lieutenant, and captain for gallantry at Vera Cruz and Cerro
Gordo and at Contreras-Churubusco. He was assistant pro-
fessor of mathematics at West Point from 1849 to 1852 and
was later engaged in Indian warfare on the Texas frontier. In
1861 he attained the rank of major. When Florida seceded he
resigned his army commission and entered the Confederate service
as a lieutenant-colonel. He was made a brigadier-general on
the 1 7th of June 1861, and was wounded at the battle of Bull
Run (q.v.) . In command of the Confederate forces in the Cumber-
land Gap region Kirby Smith took part in General Bragg's
invasion of Kentucky in the autumn of 1862, and inflicted upon
the Federal forces a severe defeat at Richmond, Ky., on the
30th of August; and was present at the battles of Perry ville
and Murfreesboro (Stone River). From February 1863 to the
fall of the Confederacy he was in command of the trans-Missis-
sippi department, and was successful in making this section of
the Confederacy (isolated from the rest by the fall of Vicksburg)
self-supporting. He instituted a regular system of blockade-
running, and met and defeated the Red River expedition under
General N. P. Banks in 1864. Kirby Smith and his troops
surrendered on the 26th of May 1865, being the last armed forces
of the Confederate States to do so. After the war, he was from
1866 to 1868 president of the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph
company, from 1868 to 1870 president of the Western Military
Academy, from 1870 to 1875 chancellor of the university of
Nashville, and from 1875 to his death professor of mathematics
at the university of the South, Sewanee, Tennessee. He died at
Sewanee on the 28th of March 1893.
SMITH, FRANCIS HOPKINSON (1838- ), American
author, artist and engineer, was born in Baltimore, Maryland,
on the 23rd of October 1838, a descendant of Francis Hopkinson,
one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He
became a contractor in New York City and did much work for
the Federal government, including the stone ice-breaker at
Bridgeport, Connecticut, the jetties at the mouth of the Con-
necticut river, the foundation for the Bartholdi Statue of Liberty
in New York harbour, the Race Rock Lighthouse off New London,
Conn., and many life-saving stations. His vacations were spent
sketching in the White Mountains, in Cuba, in Mexico, and
afterwards in Venice, Constantinople and Holland. He pub-
lished various volumes of travel, illustrated by himself; they
include Old Lines in New Black and While (1885); Well-Worn
Roads (1886); A White Umbrella in Mexico (1889); Gondola
Days (1897), and The Venice of To-Day (1897). His novels
and short stories are especially felicitous in their portrayal of
the Old South. Among them are: Col. Carter of Cartersville
(1891), which was successfully dramatized; A Day at La Guerre' s
and other Days (1892); A Gentleman Vagabond (1895); Tom
Grogan (1896); Caleb West, Master-Diver (1898); The Other
Fellow (1899); The Fortunes of Oliver Horn (1902), which has
reminiscences of his artist friends; Col. Carter's Christmas
(1904); At Close Range (1905); The Tides of Barnegat (1906);
The Veiled Lady (1907); The Romance of an Old Fashioned
Gentleman (1907); Peter (1908); and Forty Minutes Late and
Other Stories (1909).
SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846), British publisher, founder of
the firm of Smith, Elder & Co., was born in Scotland in 1789.
From Elgin, where he was apprenticed to a bookseller, he migrated
to London, where he found employment first with Rivingtons,
and afterwards with John Murray. In 1816 Smith and another
Scot, Alexander Elder, began business at 158 Fenchurch Street
as booksellers and stationers; and in 1819 they became pub-
lishers also. It was here that GEORGE SMITH (2) (1824-1901), the
most famous member of the firm, was born on the igth of March
1824; and in the same year the business was removed to 65
Cornhill. At the age of fourteen George Smith (2) came into the
business, and in 1843 he took over the control of the publishing
department. On his father's death in 1846 the responsibility
of the business devolved principally upon him, and under his
management it increased thirteen times in twenty years. A
large portion of the business was connected with foreign agencies
and banking, especially with India, but this was relinquished in
1868 to his partner Henry S. King, who now separated from the
firm, retaining the old premises at Cornhill, while Smith removed
the publishing business, now under his sole control, to 1 5 Waterloo
Place. For over thirty years Smith was the friend and publisher
of Ruskin, and it was with him that Jane Eyre found a publisher.
In 1855 was started the Overland Mail, a weekly periodical for
Indian readers, and the Homeward Mail, containing Indian news
for English readers. By Smith, Elder & Co. were issued works
by Darwin, Ruskin, Thackeray, Robert and Mrs Browning,
Wilkie Collins, Matthew Arnold, Miss Martineau, James Payn
and Mrs Humphry Ward. In 1866 was published Trollope's
Last Chronicles of Barset, for which 3000 was paid. In January
1860 the first of George Smith's three great undertakings was
begun, the Cornhill Magazine being issued in that month under
the editorship of Thackeray. The second venture was the
founding in 1865 of the Pall Mall Gazette (see NEWSPAPERS).
The third and most important was the publication of the Diction-
ary of National Biography, the first volume of which was issued
in 1882; it was completed in 1901, in 66 volumes; and this
SMITH, GEORGE SMITH, GERRIT
261
monumental work was the crowning effort of a successful career.
Smith was a rich man, not only from his publishing business,
but on account of his large ownership in the mineral water
Apollinaris and other ventures. His second son, Alexander
Murray Smith, joined the firm in 1890, and with him was associ-
ated in 1894 his brother-in-law Reginald J. Smith, who in 1899
became acting partner. George Smith himself died at Byfleet,
near Weybridge, on the 6th of April 1901.
See the memoir (1901) of George Smith (2) prefixed to vol. j. of
the supplement to the Dictionary of National Biography; reminis-
cences contributed to the Cornhill Magazine (Nov. igoo-Feb. 1901)
by George Smith; an article by Sir Leslie Stephen in the same
magazine (May 1901); and the special number of the Cornhill in
January 1910, published on its soth anniversary.
SMITH, GEORGE [" George Smith of Coalville "] (1831-1895),
English philanthropist, was born near Tunstall, Staffordshire,
on the 1 6th of February 1831. His father was a brickmaker, and
when nine years old George Smith was working thirteen hours a
day in the brickfields. Nevertheless he contrived to obtain some
education, so that in time he improved his position, becoming
manager of a brick and tile works. In 1857 he discovered, at
Coalville, Leicestershire, valuable seams of clay, and on the
strength of this discovery organized a large brick-making business
there. He advocated legislation in the interests of brickmakers,
and in particular called attention to the cruelty suffered in the
brickfields by child-workers, whose claims he pressed at the
Social Science congresses. In 1871 he published The Cry of the
Children. This work awoke the interest of the (seventh) earl of
Shaftesbury and of A. J. Mundella, and, in the same year, was
passed an act providing for the government inspection of brick-
yards, and the regulation of juvenile and female labour there.
Smith's share in this act aroused great antagonism, and at the
end of 1872 he was dismissed from his position at Coalville, and
reduced to great poverty. Nevertheless he turned his attention
to the conditions of life of the hundred thousand persons living
on canals. As the result of his representations on the subject the
Canal Boats Bill was introduced by Mr Sclater-Booth (afterwards
Lord Basing). This bill, which came into force in 1878, provided
for the education of children on canal boats, and regulated the
sanitary condition of life on board. In 1884 was passed another
bill strengthening the provisions of the first. From that date
onwards Smith devoted his attention to improving the condition
of Gipsy children which he had described in his Gipsy Life (1880).
A Moveable Dwellings Bill embodying his views was several times
introduced into parliament, but always defeated. In 1885
Smith received a grant from the royal bounty fund. He died at
Crick near Rugby on the 2ist of June 1895.
See George Smith of Coalville, the Story of an Enthusiast, by E.
Hodder (1896).
SMITH, GEORGE (1840-1876), English Assyriologist, was born
on the 26th of March 1840 at Chelsea, London. His father
was a working man, and at fourteen the boy was apprenticed to
Messrs Bradbury and Evans to learn bank-note engraving. He
had already shown a keen interest in the explorations of Layard
and Rawlinson, and during the next few years he devoted all
his spare time to studying the cuneiform inscriptions at the
British Museum. His earnestness attracted the attention of Sir
Henry Rawlinson, who permitted him the use of his room at the
museum and placed the many casts and squeezes of the inscrip-
tions at his disposal. Smith was thus enabled to make his first
discovery (the date of the payment of the tribute by Jehu to
Shalmanezer), and Sir Henry suggested to the trustees of the
Museum that he should be associated with himself in the prepara-
tion of the third volume of Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western
Asia. Accordingly, in 1867., Smith was appointed assistant in the
Assyriology department, and the earliest of his successes was the
discovery of two inscriptions, one fixing the date of the total
eclipse of the sun in the month Sivan in May 763 B.C., and the
other the date of an invasion of Babylonia by the Elamites
in 2280 B.C. In 1871 he published Annals of Assur-bani-pal,
transliterated and translated, and communicated to the newly-
founded Society of Biblical Archaeology a paper on " The Early
History of Babylonia," and an account of his decipherment of the
Cypriote inscriptions. In 1872 Smith achieved world-wide
fame by his translation of the Chaldaean account of the Deluge,
which was read before the Society of Biblical Archaeology on the
3rd of December. In the following January Sir Edwin Arnold,
the editor of the Daily Telegraph, arranged with Smith that he
should go to Nineveh at the expense of that journal, and carry
out excavations with a view to finding the missing fragments of
the Deluge story. This journey resulted not only in the discovery
of the missing tablets, but of fragments which recorded the suc-
cession and duration of the Babylonian dynasties. In 1874
Smith again left England for Nineveh, this time at the expense
of the Museum, and continued his excavations at Kouyunjik.
An account of his work is given in Assyrian Discoveries, published
early in 1875. The rest of the year was spent in fixing together
and translating the fragments relating to the Creation, the re-
sults of which work were embodied in The Chaldaean Account of
Genesis. In March 1876 the trustees of the British Museum
despatched Smith once more to excavate the rest of Assur-bani-
pal's library. At Ikisji, a small village about 60 m. N.E. of
Aleppo, he was prostrated by fever, and finally died at Aleppo
on the igth of August. He left a wife and children, on whose
behalf a public subscription was made.
SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- ), Scottish divine, was
born in Calcutta on the igth of October 1856, where his father,
George Smith, C.I.E., was then principal of the Doveton College.
He was educated at Edinburgh in the Royal High School, the
University and New College. After studying at Tubingen and
Leipzig and travelling in Egypt and Syria, he entered the ministry
of the Free Church of Scotland and was appointed professor of
Old Testament subjects in the Free Church College at Glasgow
1892. In 1909 he was appointed principal of the University
of Aberdeen.
Among his works are The Book of Isaiah (2 vols., 1888-1890) ; The
Book of the Twelve Prophets (2 vols., 1876-1877); Historical Geo-
graphy of the Holy Land (1894); Jerusalem (2 vols., 1907); The
Preaching of the Old Testament to the Age (1893) ; The Life of Henry
Drummond (1898).
SMITH, GERRIT (1797-1874), American reformer and phil-
anthropist, was born in Utica, New York, on the 6th of March
1797. After graduating at Hamilton College in 1818, he assumed
the management of the vast estate of his father, Peter Smith
(1768-1837), long a partner of John Jacob Astor, and greatly in-
creased the family fortune. About 1828 he became an active
worker in the cause of temperance, and in his home village,
Peterboro, he built one of the first temperance hotels in the
country. He became an abolitionist in 1835, after seeing an anti-
slavery meeting at Utica broken up by a mob. In 1840 he took
a leading part in the organization of the Liberty party, and in
1848 and 1852 he was nominated for the presidency by the
remnant of this organization that had not been absorbed by
the Free Soil party. An " Industrial Congress " at Philadelphia
also nominated him for the presidency in 1848, and the " Land
Reformers " in 1856. In 1840 and in 1858 he was a candidate for
the governorship of New York on an anti-slavery platform.
In 1853 he was elected to the National House of Representatives
as an independent, and issued an address declaring that all men
have an equal right to the soil; that wars are brutal and un-
necessary; that slavery could be sanctioned by no constitution,
state or federal; that free trade is essential to human brother-
hood; that women should have full political rights; that the
Federal government and the states should prohibit the liquor
traffic within their respective jurisdictions; and that govern-
ment officers, so far as practicable, should be elected by direct
vote of the people. At the end of the first session he resigned
his seat. After becoming an opponent of land monopoly, he gave
numerous farms of fifty acres each to indigent families, and also
attempted to colonize tracts in N. New York with free negroes;
but this experiment was a failure. Peterboro became a station
on the " underground railroad "; and after 1850 Smith furnished
money for the legal expenses of persons charged with infractions
of the Fugitive Slave Law. With John Brown, to whom he gave
a farm in Essex county, New York, he became very intimate,
and from time to time* supplied him with funds, though it seems
262
SMITH, GOLDWIN SMITH, H. B.
without knowing that any of the money would be employed in an
attempt to incite a slave insurrection. Under the excitement
following the raid on Harper's Ferry he became temporarily
insane, and for several weeks was confined in an asylum in Utica.
He favoured a vigorous prosecution of the Civil War, but at its
. close advocated a mild policy toward the late Confederate states,
declaring that part of the guilt of slavery lay upon the North.
He even became one of the securities for Jefferson Davis, thereby
incurring the resentment of Northern radical leaders.
In religion as in politics Gerrit Smith was a radical. Believing
that sectarianism was sinful, he separated from the Presbyterian
Church in 1843, and was one of the founders of the Church at
Peterboro, a non-sectarian institution open to all Christians of
whatever shade of belief. His private benefactions were bound-
less ; of his gifts he kept no record, but their value is said to have
exceeded $8,000,000. Though a man of great wealth his life
was one of marked simplicity. He died on the 28th of December
1874, while on a visit to relatives in New York City.
See O. B. Frothingham, Gerrit Smith: a Biography (New York,
1879).
SMITH, GOLDWIN (1824-1910), British historian and publicist,
was born at Reading on the 2Oth of August 1824. He was
educated at Eton and Magdalen College, Oxford, and after an
undergraduate career of exceptional brilliancy was elected to
a fellowship at University College. He threw his keen intellect
and trenchant style into the cause of university reform, the
leading champion of which was another fellow of University
College, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley. On the Royal Commission
of 1850 to inquire into the reform of the university, of which
Stanley was secretary, he served as assistant-secretary; and he
was secretary to the commissioners appointed by the act of
1854. His position as an authority on educational reform was
further recognized by a seat on the Popular Education Com-
mission pf 1858. In 1868, when the question of reform at Oxford
was again growing acute, he published a brilliant pamphlet,
entitled The Reorganization of the University of Oxford. Besides
the abolition of tests, effected by the act of 1871, many of the
reforms there suggested, such as the revival of the faculties,
the reorganization of the professoriate, the abolition of celibacy
as a condition of the tenure of fellowships, and the combination
of the colleges for lecturing purposes, were incorporated in the
act of 1877, or subsequently adopted by the university. He
gave the counsel of perfection that " pass " examinations ought
to cease; but he recognized that this change " must wait on
the reorganization of the educational institutions immediately
below the university, at which a passman ought to finish his
career." His aspiration that colonists and Americans should be
attracted to Oxford has been realized by Mr Rhodes's will.
On what is perhaps the vital problem of modern education,
the question of ancient versus modern languages, he pronounced
that the latter " are indispensable accomplishments, but they
do not form a high mental training "an opinion entitled to
peculiar respect as coming from a president of the Modern
Language Association. The same conspicuous openness of mind
appears in his judgment, delivered after he had held the regius
professorship of Modern History at Oxford from 1858 to 1866,
that " ancient history, besides the still unequalled excellence of
the writers, is the best instrument for cultivating the historical
sense." As a historian, indeed, he left no abiding work; the
multiplicity of his interests prevented him from concentrating
on any one subject. His chief historical writings The United
Kingdom: a Political History (1899), and The United States:
an Outline of Political History (1893) though based on thorough
familiarity with their subject, make no claim to original research,
but are remarkable examples of terse and brilliant narrative.
The outbreak of the American Civil War proved a turning-
point in his life. Unlike most men of the ruling classes in
England, he warmly championed the cause of the North, and
his pamphlets, especially one entitled Does the Bible sanction
American Slavery? (1863), played a prominent part in converting
English opinion. Visiting America on a lecture tour in 1864,
he received an enthusiastic welcome, and was entertained at a
public banquet in New York. In 1868 he threw up his career
in England and settled in the United States, where he held the
professorship of English and Constitutional History at Cornell
University till 1871. In that year he removed to Toronto, where
he edited the Canadian Monthly, and subsequently founded the
Week and the Bystander. He did not, however, cease to take an
active interest in English politics. He had been a strong sup-
porter of Irish Disestablishment, but he refused to follow Glad-
stone in accepting Home Rule. He expressly stated that " if
he ever had a political leader, his leader was John Bright, not
Mr Gladstone." Speaking in 1886, he referred to his " standing
by the side of John Bright against the dismemberment of the
great Anglo-Saxon community of the West, as I now stand
against the dismemberment of the great Anglo-Saxon community
of the East." These words form the key to his views of the
future of the British Empire. He always maintained that
Canada, separated by great barriers, running north and south,
into four zones, each having unimpeded communication with
the adjoining portions of the United States, was destined by
its natural configuration to enter into a commercial union with
them, which would result in her breaking away from the British
empire, and in the union of the Anglo-Saxons of the American
continent into one great nation. These views are most fully
stated in his Canada and the Canadian Question (1891). Though
describing himself as " anti-imperialistic to the core," he was
yet deeply penetrated with a sense of the greatness of the
British race. Of the British empire in India he said that " it
is the noblest the world has seen. . . . Never had there been such
an attempt to make conquest the servant of civilization. About
keeping India there is no question. England has a real duty
there." His fear was that England would become a nation of
factory-workers, thinking more of their trade-union than of
their country. These forebodings were intensified in his Common-
wealth or Empire? (1902) a warning to the United States
against the assumption of imperial responsibilities. Among
other causes that he powerfully attacked were liquor prohibition,
female suffrage and State Socialism. All these are discussed
in his Essays on Questions of the Day (revised edition, 1894).
He also published sympathetic monographs on Cowper and
Jane Austen, and attempted verse in Bay Leaves and Specimens
of Greek Tragedy. In his Guesses at the Riddle of Existence
(1897), he abandons the faith in Christianity expressed in his
lecture of 1861 on Historical Progress (where he forecast the
speedy reunion of Christendom on the " basis of free conviction ") ,
and writes in a spirit " not of Agnosticism, if Agnosticism
imports despair of spiritual truth, but of free and hopeful inquiry,
the way for which it is necessary to clear by removing the wreck
of that upon which we can found our faith no more." In his
later years he expressed his views in a weekly journal, The
Farmer's Sun, and published in 1904 My Memory of Gladstone,
while occasional letters to the Spectator showed that he had lost
neither his interest in English politics and social questions nor
his remarkable gifts of style. He died at his residence, The
Grange, Toronto, on the 7th of June 1910.
Goldwin Smith left in manuscript a book of reminiscences, which
was edited by Mr Arnold Haultain, his private secretary.
SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877), American theologian,
was born in Portland, Maine, on the 2ist of November 1815.
He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1834; studied theology
at Andover, where his health failed, at Bangor, and, after a year
(1836-1837) as librarian and tutor in Greek at Bowdoin, in
Germany at Halle, where he became personally intimate with
Tholuck and Ulrici, and in Berlin, under Neander and Hengsten-
berg. He returned to America in 1840, was a tutor for a few
months (1840-1841) at Bowdoin, and in 1842, shut out from
any better place by distrust of his German training and by his
frank opposition to Unitarianism, he became pastor of the
Congregational Church of West Amesbury (now Merrimac),
Massachusetts. In 1847-1850 he was professor of moral philo-
sophy and metaphysics at Amherst; and in 1850-1854 was
Washburn professor of Church history, and in 1854-1874
Roosevelt professor of systematic theology, at Union Theological
SMITH, SIR H. G. W. SMITH, H. J. S.
263
Seminary. His health failed in 1874 and he died in New York
City on the 7th of February 1877. Of the old school of the
" New England Theology," Smith was one of the foremost
leaders of the new school Presbyterians. His theology is most
strikingly contained in the Andover address, " Relations of
Faith and Philosophy," which was delivered before the Porter
Rhetorical Society in 1849. He always made it clear that the
ideal philosophy was Christocentric : he said that Reformed
theology must " 'Christologize ' predestination and decrees,
regeneration and sanctification, the doctrine of the Church, and
the whole of the Eschatology."
His son HENRY GOODWIN SMITH (b. 1860) was pastor of the
Freehold (New Jersey) Presbyterian Church in 1886-1896, and
from 1897 to 1903 was professor of systematic theology in Lane
Theological Seminary.
From notes of his lectures, William S. Karr prepared two volumes
of Dr Smith's theological writings, Introduction to Christian Theology
(1883) and System of Christian Theology (1884). Dr Smith contri-
buted articles on Calvin, Kant, Pantheism, Miracles, Reformed
Churches, Schelling and Hegel to the American Cyclopaedia, and
contributed to McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia; and was
editor of the American Theological Review (1859 sqq.), both in its
original form and after it became the American Presbyterian and
Theological Review and, later, the Presbyterian Quarterly and Prince-
ton Review.
See E. L. (Mrs H. B.) Smith, Henry Boynton Smith, His Life and
Works (New York, 1881), and Lewis F. Stearns, Henry Boynton
Smith (Boston, 1892), in the American Religious Leaders series.
SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN, Bart. (1787-
1860), British general, son of John Smith, surgeon, of Whittlesey,
Cambridgeshire, was born at that place on the 28th of June 1787.
Harry Smith for throughout life he adopted the more familiar
form of his Christian name was educated privately and entered
the army in 1805. His first active service was in South America
in 1806, and he subsequently served through the Peninsular War
from the concentration at Salamanca in November 1808 to the
battle of Toulouse on the loth of April 1814. On the day follow-
ing the storming of Badajos (the 6th of April 1812) a well-born
Spanish lady, whose entire property in the city had been de-
stroyed, presented herself at the British lines seeking protection
from the licence of the soldiery for herself and her sister, a child
of fourteen, by whom she was accompanied. The latter, whose
name was Juana Maria de Los Dolores de Leon, had but
recently emerged from a convent ; but notwithstanding her years
she was married to Harry Smith a few days later. She remained
with him throughout the rest of the war, accompanying the
baggage train, sleeping in the open on the field of battle, riding
freely among the troops, and sharing all the privations of cam-
paigning. Her beauty, courage, sound judgment and amiable
character endeared her to the officers, including the duke of
Wellington, who spoke of her familiarly as Juanita; and she
was idolized by the soldiers. At the close of the war Harry Smith
volunteered for service in the United States, where he was pre-
sent at the battle of Bladensburg (the 24th of August 1814), and
witnessed the burning of the capitol at Washington; which, as he
said, " horrified us coming fresh from the duke's humane warfare
in the south of France." Returning to Europe he was brigade-
major at Waterloo; and in 1828 was ordered to the Cape of
Good Hope, where he commanded a division in the Kaffir War
of 1834-36. In 1835 he accomplished the feat of riding from
Cape Town to Graham's Town, a distance of 600 m., in less than
six days; and having restored confidence among the whites by
his energetic measures, he was appointed governor of the new
Province of Queen Adelaide, where he gained unbounded in-
fluence over the native tribes, whom he vigorously set himself
to civilize and benefit. But though supported by Sir Benjamin
D'Urban, the high commissioner, the ministry in London reversed
his policy and to quote Smith's own words " directed the
Province of Queen Adelaide to be restored to barbarism." Smith
himself was removed from his command, his departure being
deplored alike by the Kaffirs and the Dutch; and numbers of
the latter, largely in consequence of this policy of Lord Glenelg,
began the migration to the interior known as " the great trek."
Harry Smith was now appointed deputy-adjutant-general of
the forces in India, where he took part in the Gwalior campaign
of 1843 (for which he received a K.C.B.) and the Sikh War of
1845-46. He was in command of a division under Sir Hugh
Gough at the battles of Moodkee and Ferozeshah, where he
conspicuously distinguished himself, but was insufficiently sup-
ported by the commander-in-chief. After the second of these
actions Sir Harry Smith was appointed to an independent com-
mand, and on the 28th of January 1846 he inflicted a crushing
defeat on the Sikhs at Aliwal on the Sutlej. At Sobraon on the
loth of February he again commanded a division under Gough.
For the great victory of Aliwal he was awarded the thanks of
parliament; and the speech of the duke of Wellington was
perhaps the warmest encomium ever bestowed by that great
commander on a meritorious officer. Sir Harry was at the same
time created a baronet; and as a special distinction the words
" of Aliwal " were by the patent appended to the title. In 1847
he returned to South Africa as governor of Cape Colony and
high commissioner, to grapple with the difficulties he had fore-
seen eleven years before (see CAPE COLONY: History). He took
command of an expedition to deal with the disaffected Boers in
the Orange River Sovereignty, and fought the action of Boom-
plaats on the 2gth of August 1848. In December 1850 war
broke out with the Kaffirs; Sir Harry Smith was insufficiently
supplied with troops from England; and though his conduct of
the operations was warmly approved by the duke of Wellington
and other military authorities, Lord Grey, in a despatch never
submitted to the queen, recalled him in 1852 before the Kaffirs
had been completely subdued. He protested strongly against
the abandonment of the Orange River Sovereignty to the Boers,
which was carried out two years after his departure, and he
actively furthered the granting of responsible government to
Cape Colony. His Spanish wife was his constant companion in his
second as in his earlier sojourn in South Africa, where her memory
is recalled by the town of Ladysmith in Natal (rendered famous
by the Boer War of 1899-1902), as is that of her husband by
Harrismith in the Orange Free State; while Aliwal North,
founded in 1849 and named after his great Indian victory,
further commemorates Sir Harry Smith. On his return to
England he held a military appointment for some years, and died
in London on the i2th of October 1860. Juana, Lady Smith,
survived till 1872.
See Autobiography of Sir Harry Smith, edited by G. C. Moore
Smith (1901); R. S. Rait, Life of Viscount Gough (1903); Wilmot
and Chase, Annals of the Cape Colony (1869); J. Noble, South
Africa (1877); Theal's History of South Africa, vol. iv. (R. J. M.)
SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883), English
mathematician, was born in Dublin on the 2nd of November
1826, and was the fourth child of his parents. When Henry
Smith was just two years old his father died, whereupon his
mother left Ireland for England. After being privately educated
by his mother and tutors, he entered Rugby school in 1841.
Whilst under the first of these tutors, in nine months he read
all Thucydides, Sophocles and Sallust, twelve books of Tacitus,
the greater part of Horace, Juvenal, Persius, and several plays
of Aeschylus and Euripides. He also studied the first six books
of Euclid and some algebra, besides reading a considerable
quantity of Hebrew and learning the Odes of Horace by heart.
On the death of his elder brother in September 1843 Henry
Smith left Rugby, and at the end of 1844 gained a scholarship
at Balliol College, Oxford. He won the Ireland scholarship in
1848 and obtained a first class in both the classical and the
mathematical schools in 1849. He gained the senior mathe-
matical scholarship in 1851. He was elected fellow of Balliol in
1850 and Savilian professor of geometry in 1861, and in 1874 was
appointed keeper of the university museum. He was elected
F.R.S. in 1861, and was an LL.D. of Cambridge and Dublin.
He served on various royal commissions, and from 1877 was the
chairman of the managing body of the meteorological office. He
died at Oxford on the gth of February 1883.
After taking his degree he wavered between classics and mathe-
matics, but finally chose the latter. After publishing a few short
papers relating to theory of numbers and to geometry, he devoted
himself to a thorough examination of the writings of K. F. Gauss,
264
SMITH, H. P. SMITH, JOHN
P. G. Lejeune-Dirichlet, E. E. Kummer, &c., on the theory of
numbers. The main results of these researches, which occupied him
from 1854 to 1864, are contained in his Report on the Theory of
Numbers, which appeared in the British Association volumes from
1859 to 1865. This report contains not only a complete account of
all that had been done on this vast and intricate subject but also
original contributions of his own. Some of the most important
results of his discoveries were communicated to the Royal Society
in two memoirs upon " Systems of Linear Indeterminate Equations
and Congruences and upon the " Orders and Genera of Ternary
Quadratic Forms " (Phil. Trans., 1861 and 1867). He did not,
however, confine himself to the consideration of forms involving
only three indeterminates, but succeeded in establishing the prin-
ciples on which the extension to the general case of n indeterminates
depends, and obtained the general formulae, thus effecting what is
probably the greatest advance made in the subject since the publica-
tion of Gauss's Disquisitiones arithmeticae. A brief abstract of
Smith's methods and results appeared in the Proc. Roy. Soc. for 1864
and 1868. In the second of these notices he gives the general
formulae without demonstrations. As corollaries to the general
formulae he adds the formulae relating to the representation of a
number as a sum of five squares and also of seven squares. This
class of representation ceases when the number of squares exceeds
eight. The cases of two, four and six squares had been given by
K. G. J. Jacobi and that of three squares by F. G. Eisenstein, who
had also given without demonstration some of the results for five
squares. Fourteen years later the Academic Franchise, in ignorance
of Smith's work, set the demonstration and completion of Eisenstein's
theorems for five squares as the subject of their " Grand Prix des
Sciences Mathematiques." Smith, at the request of a member of
the commission by which the prize was proposed, undertook in 1882
to write out the demonstration of his general theorems so far as was
required to prove the results for the special case of five squares. A
month after his death, in March 1883, the prize of 3000 francs was
awarded to him. The fact that a question of which Smith had
given the solution in 1867, as a corollary from general formulae
governing the whole class of investigations to which it belonged,
should have been set by the Academic as the subject of their great
prize shows how far in advance of his contemporaries his early
researches had carried him. Many of the propositions contained in
his dissertation are general ; but the demonstrations are not supplied
for the case of seven squares. He was also the author of important
papers in which he extended to complex quadratic forms many of
Gauss's investigations relating to real quadratic forms. After 1864
he devoted himself chiefly to elliptic functions, and numerous papers
on this subject were published by him in the Proc. Land. Math. Soc.
and elsewhere. At the time of his death he was engaged upon a
memoir on the Theta and Omega Functions, which he left nearly
complete. In 1868 he was awarded the Steiner prize of the Berlin
Academy for a geometrical memoir, Sur quelques problemes cubiques
et biquadratiques. He also wrote the introduction to the collected
edition of Clifford's Mathematical Papers (1882). The three subjects
to which Smith's writings relate are theory of numbers, elliptic
functions and modern geometry; but in all that he wrote an
" arithmetical " mode of thought is apparent, his methods and
processes being arithmetical as distinguished from algebraic. He
had the most intense admiration of Gauss. He was president of the
mathematical and physical section of the British Association at
Bradford in 1873 and of the London Mathematical Society in 1874-
1876. His Collected Papers were edited by J. W. L. Glaisher and
published in 1894.
An article in the Spectator of the 17th of February 1883, by Lord
Justice Bowen, gives perhaps the best idea of Smith's extraordinary
personal qualities and influence. See also J. W. L. Glaisher's memoir
in the Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc. (vol. xliv., 1884).
SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847- ), American Biblical
scholar, was born in Troy, Ohio, on the 23rd of October 1847.
He graduated at Amherst College in 1869 and studied theology
in Lane Theological Seminary in 1869-1872, in Berlin in 1872-
1874 and in Leipzig in 1876-1877. He was instructor in church
history in 1874-1875, and in Hebrew in 1875-1876, and was
assistant -professor in 1877-1879 and professor in 1879-1893 of
Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis in Lane Theological Semin-
ary. In 1892 he was tried for heresy by the Presbytery of
Cincinnati, was found guilty of teaching (in a pamphlet entitled
Biblical Scholarship and Inspiration, 1891) that there were
"errors of historic fact," suppressions of "historic truths," &c.,
in the books of Chronicles, and that the " inspiration of the Holy
Scriptures is consistent with the unprofitableness of portions of
the sacred writings," in other words, that inspiration does not
imply inerrancy, and he was suspended from the ministry.
Dr Smith retired from the denomination, and in 1893, upon
becoming a professor at Andover Theological Seminary, entered
the ministry of the Congregational Church. From 1897 to 1906
he was a professor in Amherst College, and in 1907 became a
professor in the Meadville (Pennsylvania) Theological School.
He published The Bible and Islam (1897), Commentary on the
Books of Samuel (1899, in the " International Critical Commentary ")
and Old Testament History (1903, in the " International Theological
Library "). In Inspiration and Inerrancy (Cincinnati, 1893), he
reprinted the papers on which the heresy charge was made, and
outlined the case.
SMITH, JAMES (1775-1839), and HORACE (1779-1849),
authors of the Rejected Addresses, sons of a London solicitor,
were born, the former on loth February 1775 and the latter on
3ist December 1779, both in London. The occasion of their
happy jeu d' esprit was the rebuilding of Drury Lane theatre in
1812, after a fire in which it had been burnt down. The managers
had offered a prize of 50 for an address to be recited at the re-
opening in October. Six weeks before that date the happy
thought occurred to the brothers Smith of feigning that the most
popular poets of the time had been among the competitors and
issuing a volume of unsuccessful addresses in parody of their
various styles. They divided the task between them, James
taking Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge and Crabbe, while
Byron, Moore, Scott and Bowles were assigned to Horace. 1
Seven editions were called for within three months. The
Rejected Addresses are the most widely popular parodies ever
published in England, and take classical rank in literature.
The brothers fairly divided the honours: the elder brother's
Wordsworth is evenly balanced by the younger's Scott, and both
had a hand in Byron. A striking feature is the absence of malice;
none of the poets caricatured took offence, while the imitation is
so clever that both Byron and Scott are recorded to have said that
they could hardly believe they had not written the addresses
ascribed to them. The only other undertaking of the two brothers
was Horace in London (1813). James Smith made another hit
in writing Country Cousins, A Trip to Paris, A Trip to America,
and other lively skits for Charles Mathews who said he was
" the only man who can write clever nonsense." His social
reputation as a wit stood high. He was reputed one of the best
of talkers in an age when the art was studied, and it was remarked
that he held his own without falling into the great error of wits
sarcasm. But in his old age the irreverent Fraser's put him in
its gallery of living portraits as a gouty and elderly but pains-
taking joker. He died in London on the 24th of December 1839.
After making a fortune as a stockbroker, Horace Smith followed
in the wake of Scott and wrote about a score of historical novels
Brambletye House (1826), Tor Hill (1826), Reuben Apsley
(1827), Zillah (1828), The New Forest (1829), Walter Colyton
(1830), &c. His sketches of eccentric character are brilliant
and amusing; but he was more of an essayist than a story-teller.
Three volumes of Gaieties and Gravities, published by him in
1826, contain many witty essays both in prose and in verse,
but the only single piece that has taken a permanent place is the
" Address to the Mummy in Belzoni's Exhibition." In private
life Horace Smith was not less popular than his brother, though
less ambitious as a talker. It was of him that Shelley said:
" Is it not odd that the only truly generous person I ever knew
who had money enough to be generous with should be a stock-
broker? He writes poetry and pastoral dramas and yet knows
how to make money, and does make it, and is still generous."
Horace Smith died at Tunbridge Wells on i2th July 1849.
SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631), usually distinguished as Captain
John Smith, sometime president of the English colony in
Virginia, was the elder son of George Smith, a well-to-do tenant-
farmer on the estate of Lord Willoughby d'Eresby at Willoughby,
near Alford in Lincolnshire. The life of this Virginian hero falls
conveniently into five periods. The first of these, up to 1596,
that of his early youth, is thus described by himself in his
Travels: "He was born (1579) in Willoughby in Lincolnshire,
and was a scholar in the two free schools of Alford and Louth.
'The particulars of the authorship are given in the i8th edition
(1820), and in the memoir of his brother by Horace prefixed to a
collection of fugitive pieces (1840). James contributed the first
stanza to the imitation of Byron, but otherwise they worked inde-
pendently.
SMITH, JOHN
265
His parents, dying (April 1596) when he was thirteen (or rather
sixteen) years of age, left him a competent means, which he, not
being capable to manage, little regarded. His mind being even
then set upon brave adventures, he sold his satchel, books and
all he had, intending secretly to get to sea, but that his father's
death stayed him. But now the guardians of his estate more
regarding it than him, he had liberty enough, though no means, to
get beyond the sea. About the age of fifteen years, he was bound
an apprentice to Master Thomas Sendall of [King's] Lynn, the
greatest merchant of all those parts; but, because he would not
presently send him to sea, he never saw his master in eight
years after."
The second period, 1596-1604, is that of his adventures in
Europe, Asia and Africa. He first went to Orleans in attendance
on the second son of Lord Willoughby. Thence he returned to
Paris, and so by Rouen to Havre, where, his money being spent,
he began to learn the life of a soldier under Henry IV. of France.
On the conclusion (1599) of peace with the League, he went with
Captain Joseph Duxbury to Holland and served there some time,
probably with the English troops in Dutch pay. By this time
he had gained a wide experience in the art of war, not merely
as an infantry officer, but also in those more technical studies
which are now followed by the Royal Engineers. At length he
sailed from Enkhuisen to Scotland, and on the voyage had a
narrow escape from shipwreck upon Holy Island near Berwick.
After some stay in Scotland he returned home to Willoughby,
" where, within a short time being glutted with too much
company, wherein he took small delight, he retired himself into
a little woody pasture, a good way from any town, environed with
many hundred acres of other woods. Here by a fair brook he
built a pavilion of boughs, where only in his clothes he lay.
His study was Machiavelli's Art of War and Marcus Aurelius;
his exercise a good horse with his lance and ring; his food was
thought to be more of venison than anything else; what [else]
he wanted his man biought him. The country wondering at such
a hermit, his friends persuaded one Signior Theadora Polaloga,
rider to Henry, earl of Lincoln, an excellent horseman and a
noble Italian gentleman, to insinuate [himself] into his woodish
acquaintances, whose languages and good discourse and exercise
of riding drew Smith to stay with him at Tattersall. . . . Thus
when France and the Netherlands had taught him to ride a horse
and use his arms, with such rudiments of war as his tender years,
in those martial schools, could attain unto, he was desirous to
see more of the world, and try his fortune against the Turks, both
lamenting and repenting to have seen so many Christians slaughter
one another."
Next came his wanderings through France from Picardy
to Marseilles. There he took ship for Italy in a vessel full of
pilgrims going to Rome. These, cursing him for a heretic,
and swearing they would have no fair weather so long as he was
on board, threw him, like another Jonah, into the sea. He was
able to get to a little uninhabited island, from which he was
taken off the next morning by a Breton ship of 200 tons going
to Alexandria, the captain of which, named La Roche, treated
him as a friend. In this ship he visited Egypt and the Levant.
On its way back the Breton ship fought a Venetian argosy of
400 tons and captured it. Reaching Antibes (Var) later on,
Captain La Roche put Smith ashore with 500 sequins, who then
proceeded to see Italy as he had already seen France. Passing
through Tuscany he came to Rome, where he saw Pope Clement
VIII. at mass, and called on Father R. Parsons. Wandering
on to Naples and back to Rome, thence through Tuscany and
Venice, he came to Gratz in Styria. There he received informa-
tion about the Turks who were then swarming through Hungary,
and, passing on to Vienna, entered the emperor's service.
In this Turkish war the years 1601 and 1602 soon passed away;
many desperate adventures does he narrate (unconfirmed by
contemporary records, and doubted by some modern critics),
and one in particular covered him with honour. At Regal, in
the presence of twp armies, as the champion of the Christians, he
killed three Turkish champions in succession. On i8th November
1602, at the battle of Rothenthurm, a pass in Transylvania,
where the Christians fought desperately against an overpowering
force of Crim Tatars, Smith was left wounded on the field of
battle. His rich dress saved him, for it showed that he would
be worth a ransom. As soon as his wounds were cured he was
sold for a slave and then marched to Constantinople, where he
was presented to Charatza Tragabigzanda, who fell in love with
him. Fearing lest her mother should sell him, she sent him to
her brother Timor, pasha of Nalbrits, on the Don, in Tatary.
" To her unkind brother this kind lady wrote so much for his
good usage that he half suspected as much as she intended; for
she told him, he should there but sojourn to learn the language,
and what it was to be a Turk, till time made her master of herself.
But the Timor, her brother, diverted all this to the worst of
cruelty. For, within an hour after his arrival, he caused his
' drubman ' to strip him naked, and shave his head and beard
so bare as his hand. A great ring of iron, with a long stalk 1
bowed like a sickle, was riveted about his neck, and a coat
[put on him] made of ulgry's hair, guarded about with a piece
of an undressed skin. There were many more Christian slaves,
and nearly a hundred forsados of Turks and Moors, and he being
the last was the slave of slaves to them all." While at Nalbrits
the English captain kept his eyes open, and his account of the
Crim Tatars is careful and accurate. " So long he lived in this
miserable estate, as he became a thresher at a grange in a great
field, more than a league from the Timor's house. The pasha,
as he oft used to visit his granges, visited him, and took occasion
so to beat, spurn and revile him, that forgetting all reason Smith
beat out the Timor's brains with his threshing bat, for they have
no flails, and, seeing his estate could be no worse than it was,
clothed himself in the Timor's clothes, hid his body under the
straw, filled his knapsack with corn, shut the doors, mounted
his horse and ran into the desert at all adventure." For eighteen
or nineteen days he rode for very life until he reached a Muscovite
outpost on the river Don; here his irons were taken off him,
and the Lady Callamata largely supplied all his wants. Thence
he passed, attracting all the sympathy of an escaped Christian
slave, through Muscovy, Hungary and Austria until he reached
Leipzig in December 1603. There he met his old master, Prince
Sigismund, who, in memory of his gallant fight at Regal, gave
him a grant of arms and 500 ducats of gold. Thence he wandered
on, sightseeing, through Germany, France and Spain, until he
came to Saffi, from which seaport he made an excursion to the
city of Morocco and back.
While at Saffi he was blown out to sea on board Captain
Merham's ship, and had to go as far as the Canaries. There
Merham fought two Spanish ships at once and beat them off.
Smith came home to England with him, having a thousand
ducats in his purse.
The third period, 1605-1609, is that of Captain Smith's
experiences in Virginia. Throwing himself into the colonizing
projects which were then coming to the front, he first intended
to have gone out to the colony on the Oyapok in South America;
but, Captain Leigh dying, and the reinforcement miscarrying,
" the rest escaped as they could." Hence Smith did not
leave England on this account. But he went heartily into the
Virginian project with Captain Bartholomew Gosnold and others.
He states that what he got in his travels he' spent in colonizing.
" When I went first to these desperate designs, it cost me many
a forgotten pound to hire men to go, and procrastination caused
more to run away than went. I have spared neither pains nor
money according to my ability, first to procure His Majesty's
letters patents, and a company here, to be the means to raise a
company to go with me to Virginia, which beginning here and
there cost me nearly five years' [1604-1609] work,"andmore than
five hundred pounds of my own estate, besides all the dangers,
miseries and incumbrances I endured gratis." Two colonizing
associations were formed the London Company for South
Virginia and the Western Company for North Virginia. Smith
was one of the patentees of the Virginia charter of 1609.
The colony which Sir W. Raleigh had established at Roanoke
island .off the American coast had perished, mainly for want of
supplies from England, so that really nothing at all was known of
266
SMITH, JOHN
the Virginian coast-line when the first expedition left London
on 1 9th December 1606; and therefore the attempt was bound
to fail unless a convenient harbour should be found. The
expedition consisted of three ships (the " Susan Constant,"
100 tons, Captain C. Newport; the " God Speed," 40 tons,
Captain B. Gosnold; and a pinnace of 20 tons, Captain J.
Ratcliffe), with about 140 colonists and 40 sailors. They made
first for the West Indies, reaching Dominica on 24th March 1607.
At Nevis, their next stopping-place, a gallows was erected to
hang Captain Smith on the false charge of conspiracy; but he
escaped, and, though afterwards the lives of all the men who
plotted against him were at his mercy, he spared them. Sailing
northwards from the West Indies, not knowing where they were,
the expedition was most fortunately, in a gale, blown into the
mouth of Chesapeake Bay, discovering land on 26th April 1607.
Anchoring, they found the James river, and, having explored
it, fixed upon a site for their capital in the district of the chief
or weroance of Paspaheh, its chief recommendation being that
there were 6 fathoms of water so near to the shore that the ships
could be tied to the trees. Orders had been sent out for the
government of the colony in a box, which was opened on 26th
April 1607. Captains B. Gosnold, E. M. Wingfield, C. Newport,
J. Smith, J. Ratcliffe, J. Martin and G. Kendall were named
to be the council to elect an annual president, who, with the
council, should govern. Wingfield was, on I3th May, elected
the first president; and the next day they landed at James
Town and commenced the settlement.
All this while Smith was under restraint, for thirteen weeks
in all. His enemies would have sent him home, out of a sham
commiseration for him; but he challenged their charges, and
so established his innocency that Wingfield was adjudged to
give him 200 as damages. After this, on 2oth June 1607,
Smith was admitted to the council.
As in going to America in those days the great difficulty was
want of water, so in those colonizing efforts the paramount
danger was from want of food. " There were never Englishmen
left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in this new
discovered Virginia. We watched every three nights [every
third night], lying on the bare cold ground, what weather soever
came, and warded all the next day, which brought our men to be
most feeble wretches. Our food was but a small can of barley
sodden in water to five men a day. Our drink, cold water taken
out of the river, which was, at a flood, very salt, at a low tide,
full of slime and filth, which was the destruction of many of
our men." So great was the mortality that out of 105 colonists
living on the 22nd June 1607 67 died by the following 8th
January. The country they had settled in was sparsely popu-
lated by many small tribes of Indians, who owned as their
paramount chief, Powhatan, who then lived at Werowocomoco,
a village on the Pamunkey river, about 12 m. by land from
James Town. Various boat expeditions left James Town, to
buy food in exchange for copper. They generally had to fight
the Indians first, to coerce them to trade, but afterwards paid
a fair price for what they bought.
On roth December 1607 Captain Smith, of whom it is said
" the Spaniard never more greedily desired gold than he victail,"
with nine men in the barge, left James Town to get more corn,
and also to explore the upper waters of the Chickahominy. They
got the barge up as far as Apocant. Seven men were left in it,
with orders to keep in. midstream. They disobeyed, went into the
village, and one of them, George Cassen, was caught; the other
six, barely escaping to the barge, brought it back to James Town.
It so happened that Opecanchanough (the brother of Powhatan,
whom he succeeded in 1618, and who carried out the great mass-
acre of the English on Good Friday 1621) was in that neighbour-
hood with two or three hundred Indians on a hunting expedition.
He ascertained from Cassen where Smith was, who, ignorant of all
this, had, with John Robinson and Thomas Emry, gone in a
canoe 20 m. farther up the river. The Indians killed Robinson
and Emry while they were sleeping by the camp fire, and went
after Smith, who was away getting food. They surprised him,
and. though he bravely defended himself, he had at last to
surrender. He then set his wits to confound them with his
superior knowledge, and succeeded. Opecanchanough led him
about the country for a wonder, and finally, about sth January
1608, brought him to Powhatan at Werowocomoco. " Having
feasted him after their best barbarous manner they could, a long
consultation was held; but the conclusion was two great stones
were brought before Powhatan; then as many as could laid
hands on Smith, dragged him to them, and thereon laid his head.
And, being ready with their clubs to beat out his brains, Poca-
hontas, the king's dearest daughter, when no entreaty could
prevail, got his head in her arms and laid her own upon his to save
him from death. Whereat the emperor was contented Smith
should live, to make him hatchets, and her bells, beads and
copper; for they thought him as well of all occupations [handi-
crafts] as themselves."
The truth of this story was never doubted till 1859, when Dr
Charles Deane of Cambridge, Mass., edited Wingfield's Dis-
course; in reprinting Smith's True Relation of 1609, Deane
pointed out that it contains no reference to this hairbreadth
escape. Since then many American historians and scholars have
concluded that it never happened at all; and, in order to be
consistent, they have tried to prove that Smith was a blustering
braggadocio, which is the very last thing that could in truth be
said of him. The rescue of a captive doomed to death by a
woman is not such an unheard-of thing in Indian stories. If the
truth of this deliverance be denied, how then did Smith come
back to James Town loaded with presents, when the other three
men were killed, George Cassen in particular, in a most horrible
manner? And how is it, supposing Smith's account to be false,
that Pocahontas afterwards frequently came to James Town,
and was, next to Smith himself, the salvation of the colony?
The fact is, nobody doubted the story in Smith's lifetime, and
he had enemies enough. 1
Space fails to describe how splendidly Smith worked after his
deliverance for the good of the colony, how he explored Chesa-
peake Bay and its influents, how (when all others had failed)
the presidency was forced on him on zoth September 1608; how
he tried to get corn from Powhatan at Werowocomoco on i2th
January 1609, but he fled to Orapakes, 40 m. farther off; how
with only eighteen men he cowed Opecanchanough in his own
house at Pamunkey, in spite of the hundreds of Indians that were
there, and made him sell corn; how well he administered the
colony, making the lazy work or starve.
Meanwhile the establishment of this forlorn hope in Virginia
had stirred up a general interest in England, so that the London
Company were able in June 1609 to send out 9 ships with 500
colonists. Smith had now got the Indians into splendid order;
but from the arrival on nth August of the new-comers his
authority came to an end. They refused to acknowledge him,
and robbed and injured the Indians, who attacked them in turn.
Smith did his best to smooth matters, while the rioters were
plotting to shoot him in his bed. In the meantime he was away
up the river. On his return, " sleeping in his boat, accidentally
one fired his powder bag, which tore his flesh from his body and
thighs, 9 or 10 in. square, in a most pitiful manner; but to
quench the tormenting fire frying him in his clothes he leaped
overboard into the deep river, where, ere they could recover him,
he was nearly drowned." Thus disabled, he was sent home on
4th October 1609 and never set foot in Virginia again. Nemesis
1 Pocahontas never visited James Town after Smith went to
England in October 1609, until she was brought there a state prisoner
in April 1613 by Captain S. Argall, who had obtained possession of
her by treachery on the Potomac river. The colony, while treating
her well, used her as a means to secure peace with the Indians. In
the meantime, believing Smith to be dead, she fell in love with an
English gentleman, John Rolfe, apparently at that time a widower.
They were married about 1st April 1614. Subsequently she em-
braced Christianity. Sir T. Dale, with Rolfe and his wife, landed at
Plymouth on I2th June 1616. Before she reached London, Smith
petitioned Queen Anne on her behalf; and it is in this petition of
June 1616 that the account of his deliverance by the Indian girl first
appears. After a pleasant sojourn of about seven months, being well
received both by the court and the people, Pocahontas with her
husband embarked for Virginia in the George, Captain S. Argall (her
old captor), but she died off Gravesend about February 1617.
SMITH, J. R. SMITH, R. B.
267
overtook the rioters the winter after he left, which is known in
Virginian story as " the starving time." Out of 490 persons in the
colony in October 1609 all but 60 died by the following March.
The rest of Smith's life can only be briefly touched upon.
The fourth period, 1610-1617, was chiefly spent in exploring
Nusconcus, Canada and Pemaquid or North Virginia, to which,
at his solicitation, Prince Charles gave the name of New England.
His first object was to fish for cod and barter for furs, his next,
to discover the coast-line with the view to settlement. Two
attempts, in 1615 and 1617, to settle at Capawuck failed^ but
through no fault of his. It was in connexion with these projects
that the Western Company for North Virginia gave him the
title of admiral of New England. We cannot better conclude
this sketch of his active operations than in his own words printed
in 1631. " Having been a slave to the Turks; prisoner among
the most barbarous savages; after my deliverance commonly
discovering and ranging those large rivers and unknown nations
with such a handful of ignorant companions that the wiser sort
often gave me up for lost; always in 'mutinies, wants and
miseries; blown up with gunpowder; a long time a prisoner
among the French pirates, from whom escaping in a little boat by
myself, and adrift all such a stormy winter night, when their
ships were split, more than 100,000 lost which they had taken at
sea, and most of them drowned upon the Isle of Rhe not far
from whence I was driven on shore, in my little boat, &c. And
many a score of the worst winter months have [I] lived in the
fields; yet to have lived near thirty-seven years [1593-' 6 3]
in the midst of wars, pestilence and famine, by which many a
hundred thousand have died about me, and scarce five living of
them that went first with me to Virginia, and yet to see the fruits
of my labours thus well begin to prosper (though I have but my
labour for my pains), have I not much reason, both privately
and publicly to acknowledge it, and give God thanks? "
The last period, 1618-1631, of Smith's life was chiefly devoted
to authorship. In 1618 he applied (in vain) to Francis Bacon to
be numbered among-his servants. In 1619 he offered to lead out
the Pilgrim Fathers to North Virginia; but they would not have
him, he being a Protestant and they Puritans. The charter of
the London Virginia Company was annulled in 1624. A list of
his publications will be found at the end of this article. Thus
having done much, endured much and written much, while still
contemplating a History of the Sea, Captain John Smith died on
2ist June 1631 , and was buried in St Sepulchre's Church, London.
Two of the sixty survivors of " the starving time," Richard
Potts and William Phettiplace, thus nobly expressed in print,
so early as 1612, their estimate of Smith: " What shall I say?
but thus we lost him [4th October 1609] that in all his proceedings
made justice his first guide and experience his second; ever
hating baseness, sloth, pride and indignity more than any dangers ;
that never allowed more for himself than his souldiers with him;
that upon no danger would send them where he would not lead
them himself; that would never see us want what he either
had, or could by any means get us; that would rather want than
borrow or starve than not pay; that loved actions more than
words, and hated falsehood and cozenage than death; whose
adventures were our lives, and whose loss our deaths."
A fairly complete bibliography will be found in Professor Edward
Arber's reprint of Smith's Works (Birmingham, 1884), 8vo. The
order of their first appearance is, A True Relation, &c. (1608) (first
attributed to a gentleman of the colony, next to Th. Watson, and
finally to Captain Smith); A Map of Virginia, ed. by W[illiam]
S[immonds] (Oxford, 1612); A Description of New England (1616);
New England's Trials (1620) ; New England's Trials, 2nd ed. (1622) ;
The General History of Virginia, New England and the Summer
Isles (1624); An Accidence for all Young Seamen (1626); the same
work recast and enlarged as A Sea Grammar (1627), both works
continuing on sale for years, side by side; The True Travels, &c.
(1630); Advertisements for the Unexperienced Planters, &c. (1631).
Of some of the smaller texts limited 4to editions have been pub-
lished by Dr C. Deane and J . Carter Brown. See the MacLehose edition
(1907) of the Generall Historic, True Travels and Sea Grammar;
A. G. Bradley's Captain John Smith (1905), Charles Poindexter's Cap-
tain John Smith and his Critics (l 893) John Fiske's Old Virginia (l 897) ,
and for criticism of Smith's credibility L. L. Krppf in Notes and Queries
for 1890, Alexander Brown's Genesis of the United States (1890) and E.
D. Neill's History of the Virginia Company of London (1869). (E.A.)
SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1732-1812), English painter
and mezzotint engraver, a son of Thomas Smith of Derby,
the landscape painter, was born in 1752. He was apprenticed
to a linen-draper in Derby, and afterwards pursued the same
business in London, adding, however, to his income by the
production of miniatures. He then turned to engraving and
executed his plate of the " Public Ledger," which had great
popularity, and was followed by his mezzotints of " Edwin the
Minstrel " (a portrait of Thomas Haden), after Wright of Derby,
and " Mercury Inventing the Lyre," after Barry. He reproduced
some forty of the works of Reynolds, some of these plates
ranking among the masterpieces of the art of mezzotint, and he
was appointed engraver to the prince of Wales. Adding to his
artistic pursuits an extensive connexion as a print-dealer and
publisher, he would soon have acquired wealth had it not been
for his dissipated habits. He was a boon companion of George
Morland, whose figure-pieces he excellently mezzotinted. He
painted subject-pictures such as the " Unsuspecting Maid,"
" Inattention " and the " Moralist," exhibiting in the Royal
Academy from 1779 to 1790. Uponlthe decline of his business as
a printseller he made a tour through the N. and midland counties
of England, producing much hasty and indifferent work, and
settled in Doncaster, where he died on the !2nd! of. March 1812.
As a mezzotint engraver Smith occupies the very highest rank.
His prints are delicate, excellent in drawing and finely expressive of
colour. His small full-lengths in crayons and his portraits of Fox,
Home Tooke, Sir Francis Burdett and the group of the duke of
Devonshire and family support his claims as a successful draughts-
man and painter. He had a very thorough knowledge of the
principles and history of art, and was a brilliant conversationalist.
SMITH, JOSEPH, JR. (1805-1844), the founder, in April 1830,
of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, was born in
Sharon, Vermont, on the 23rd of December 1805. He was killed
by a mob in a jail at Carthage, Illinois, on the 27th of June
1844. (See MORMONS.)
SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822-1874), American general, was
born in Oswego county, New York, on the 8th of March 1822.
In 1843 he settled in Indiana, and later had some military
experience in the United States army. At the outbreak of the
Civil War he raised the 8th Missouri regiment, of which he was
elected colonel in 1861. He commanded a brigade at the
capture of Fort Donelson, and did good service at Shiloh. In
July 1862 he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V., and served
under Sherman in the river expedition against Vicksburg. At
the battle of Chickasaw Bayou he received a severe wound, from
which he recovered only in time to join the Army of the]Tennessee
before Chattanooga. He led his division in the battles of the
Chattanooga campaign, as also, in the following year, in the
Atlanta campaign. At the battle of Atlanta he commanded
Logan's corps. Afterwards he was placed in charge of Vicksburg.
General Sherman said of M. L. Smith, " He was one of the
bravest men in action I ever knew." He died at Jersey City
on the 29th of December 1874.
His brother, GILES ALEXANDER SMITH (1829-1876), also a
distinguished soldier of the Federal army, was born in Jefferson
county, N.Y., on the 2gth of September 1829. At the beginning
of the Civil War he joined the Missouri volunteers, in which he
became a captain. He took part in the capture of Fort Donelson,
the battle of Shiloh and the operations against Corinth, becoming,
later in 1862, colonel of a regiment which he led at Chickasaw
Bayou. After the final campaign against Vicksburg he was
promoted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was wounded
at the battle of Chattanooga. He took part in the Atlanta
campaign,' the " March to the Sea " and the Carolinas campaign,
rising to the rank of major-general of volunteers. After the war
he declined the offer of a colonelcy in the regular army, and was
subsequently engaged in politics, retiring from public life in
1872. He died at Bloomington, Hl-> on the 8th of November 1876.
SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861), British engineer
officer, son of a surgeon in the royal navy, was born on the 3ist
of December 1818. He was educated at Lasswade and Addis-
combe, and joined the Madras Engineers in 1838. Being
transferred to the Bengal Engineers, he served through the second
268
SMITH, R. SMITH, SYDNEY
Sikh war, and was present at the battles of Badiwal, Aliwal
and Sobraon. He was then for some years employed on canal
work, and when the Mutiny broke out was in charge of Roorkee.
He promptly concentrated the Europeans in the workshops,
and though the native sappers deserted, his forethought pre-
vented any loss of life. When Delhi was invested he was ap-
pointed chief engineer in charge of the siege works. He reached
Delhi on the 2nd of July, and immediately advised General
Barnard to assault the city. Barnard died while the advice was
still under consideration, and his successor, General Reed, could
not be induced to follow it; and when Reed in turn was
succeeded by Archdale Wilson, the besiegers were so weakened
by losses that the moment for a successful attack had passed.
Baird Smith, however, prevented Wilson from relaxing his
hold on Delhi until the arrival of John Nicholson with reinforce-
ments from the Punjab, and of the siege train from Phillour.
Nicholson then joined Baird Smith in compelling Wilson to
make the assault, which proved successful, on the i4th of
September. Baird Smith was ably assisted by Captain Alexander
Taylor, but Nicholson was unjust to Baird Smith in assigning
to Taylor the chief credit for the siege operations. After the
capture of Delhi he returned to Roorkee and to civil employment,
and for a time the value of his military services was insufficiently
recognized. After the Mutiny he was made A.D.C. to Queen
Victoria, became secretary to the government of India in the
public works department, and gained well-deserved credit in
the famine of 1861. But the onerous character of this work,
following a wound and illness at Delhi, broke down his constitu-
tion, and he died at sea on the i3th of December 1861. He
married a daughter of De Quincey, who long survived him.
See Colonel H. M. Vibart, Richard Baird Smith (1897).
SMITH, ROBERT (1680-1768), English mathematician, was
born in 1689, probably afLea near Gainsborough. After attend-
ing Leicester grammar school he entered Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, in 1708, and becoming minor fellow in 1714, major
fellow in 1715 and senior fellow in 1739, was chosen master in
1742, in succession to Richard Bentley. From 1716 to 1760
he was Plumian professor of astronomy, and he died in the
master's lodge at Trinity on the 2nd of February 1768. Besides
editing two works by his cousin, Roger Cotes, who was his
predecessor in the Plumian chair, he published A Compleat
System of Opticks in 1738, which gained him the sobriquet of
" Old Focus," and Harmonics, or the Philosophy of Musical
Sounds in 1749. He was the founder of the Smith's prizes at
Cambridge, having by his will left 3500 South Sea stock to the
university, a portion of the interest from which was to be divided
yearly between the two junior B.A.'s who had made the greatest
progress in mathematics and natural philosophy.
SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845), English writer and divine, son
of Robert Smith, was born at Woodford, Essex, on the 3rd of
June 1771. His father, a man of restless ingenuity and activity,
" very clever, odd by nature, but still more odd by design,"
who bought, altered, spoiled and sold about nineteen different
estates in England, had talent and eccentricity enough to be
the father of such a wit as Sydney Smith on the strictest
principles of heredity; but Sydney himself attributed not a
little of his constitutional gaiety to an infusion of French blood,
his maternal grandfather being a French Protestant refugee of
the name of Olier. Sydney was the second of a family of four
brothers and one sister, all remarkable for their talents. While
two of the brothers, Robert Percy, known as " Bobus," after-
wards advocate-general of Bengal, and Cecil, were sent to Eton,
Sydney was sent with the youngest to Winchester, where he
rose to be captain of the school, and with his brother so dis-
tinguished himself that their schoolfellows signed a round-robin
" refusing to try for the college prizes if the Smiths were allowed
to contend for them any more, as they always gained them."
At some time during his Oxford career he spent six months in
France, being duly enrolled for safety's sake in the local Jacobin
club. In 1789 he had become a scholar of New College, Oxford;
he received a fellowship after two years' residence, took his degree
in 1792 and proceeded M.A. in 1796. It was his wish then to read
for the bar, but his father would add nothing to his fellowship,
and he was reluctantly compelled to take holy orders. He was
ordained priest at Oxford in 1 796, and became a curate in the small
village of Nether Avoi^, near Amesbury, in the midst of Salisbury
Plain. The place was uncongenial enough, but Sydney Smith did
much for the inhabitants, providing the means for the rudiments
of education, and thus making better things possible. The squire
of the parish, Michael Hicks-Beach, invited the new curate to
dine, was astonished and charmed to find such a man in such a
place, and engaged him after a time as tutor to his eldest son.
It was arranged that they should proceed to the university of
Weimar, but, before reaching their destination Germany was
disturbed by war, and " in stress of politics " said Smith, " we
put into Edinburgh." This was in 1798. While his pupil attended
lectures, Smith was not idle. He studied moral philosophy under
Dugald Stewart, and devoted much time to medicine and
chemistry. He also preached in the Episcopal chapel, where his
practical brilliant discourses attracted many hearers.
In 1800 he published his first book, Six Sermons, preached in
Charlotte Street Chapel, Edinburgh, and in the same year, married,
against the wishes of her friends, Catharine Amelia Pybus.
They settled at No. 46 George Street, Edinburgh, where, as
everywhere else, Smith made numerous friends, among them
the future Edinburgh Reviewers. It was towards the end of his
five years' residence in Edinburgh, in the eighth or ninth storey
or flat in a house in Buccleuch Place, the elevated residence of
the then Mr Jeffrey, that Sydney Smith proposed the setting up
of a review as an organ for the young malcontents with things
as they were. " I was appointed editor," he says in the preface
to the collection of his contributions, " and remained long
enough in Edinburgh to edit the first number (October 1802) of
the Edinburgh Review. The motto I proposed for the Review
was ' Tenui musam meditamur avena.' ' We cultivate literature
on a little oatmeal.' But this was too near the truth to be
admitted, and so we took our present grave motto 1 from Publius
Syrus, of whom, none of us, I am sure, had ever read a single
line." He continued to write for the Review for the next
quarter of a century, and his brilliant articles were a main
element in its success.
He left Edinburgh for good in 1803, when the education of
his pupils was completed, and settled in London, where he
rapidly became known as a preacher, a lecturer and a social lion.
His success as a preacher, although so marked that there was often
not Standing-room in Berkeley Chapel, Mayfair, where he was
morning preacher, was not gained by any sacrifice of dignity. He
was also " alternate evening preacher " at the Foundling Hospital,
and preached at the Berkeley Chapel and the Fitzroy Chapel,
now St Saviour's Church, Fitzroy Square. He lectured on moral
philosophy at the Royal Institution for three seasons, from 1804
to 1806: and treated his subject with such vigour, freshness
and liveliness of illustration that the London world crowded to
Albemarle Street to hear him. He followed in the main Dugald
Stewart, whose lectures he had attended in Edinburgh; but there
is more originality as well as good sense in his lectures, especially
on such topics as imagination and wit and humour, than in
many more pretentious systems of philosophy. He himself had
no high idea of these entertaining performances, and threw them
in the fire when they had served their purpose^providing the
money for furnishing his house. But his wife rescued the
charred MSS. and published them in 1850 as Elementary Sketches
of Moral Philosophy.
With the brilliant reputation that Sydney Smith had acquired
in the course of a few seasons in London, he would probably
have obtained some good preferment had he been on the powerful
side in politics. Sydney Smith's elder brother " Bobus " had
married Caroline Vernon, aunt of the 3rd Lord Holland, and he
was always a welcome visitor at Holland House. His Whig
friends came into office for a short time in 1806, and presented
him with the living of Foston-le-Clay in Yorkshire. He shrank
from this banishment for a time, and discharged his parish duties
through a curate; but Spencer Perceval's Residence Act was
l Judex damnatur cum nocens absolvitur.
SMITH, SIR THOMAS
269
passed in 1808, and after trying in vain to negotiate an exchange,
he quitted London in 1809, and moved his household to York-
shire. The Ministry of " All the Talents " was driven out of
office in 1807 in favour of a " no popery " party, and in that
year appeared the first instalment of Sydney Smith's most
famous production, Peter Plymley's Letters, on the subject of
Catholic emancipation, ridiculing the opposition of the country
clergy. It was published as A Letter on the Subject of the Catholics
to my brother Abraham who lives in the Country, by Peter Plymley.
Nine other letters followed before the end of 1808, when they
appeared in collected form. Peter Plymley's identity was a
secret, but rumours got abroad of the real authorship. Lord
Holland wrote to him expressing his own opinion and Grenville's,
that there had been nothing like it since the days of Swift {Memoir,
i. 151). He also pointed out that Swift had lost a bishopric for
his wittiest performance. The special and temporary nature of
the topics advanced in these pamphlets has not prevented them
from taking a permanent place in literature, secured for them by
the vigorous, picturesque style, the generous eloquence and
clearness of exposition which Sydney Smith could always
command. In his country parish of Foston, with no educated
neighbour within 7 m., Sydney Smith accommodated himself
cheerfully to his new circumstances, and won the hearts of his
parishioners as quickly as he had conquered a wider world.
There had been no resident clergyman in his parish for 150 years;
he had a farm of 300 acres to keep in order; a rectory had to be
built. All these things were attended to beside his contributions
to the Edinburgh Review. " If the chances of life ever enable me
to emerge," he nevertheless writes to Lady Holland, " I will show
you I have not been wholly occupied by small and sordid pur-
suits." He continued to serve the cause of toleration by ardent
speeches in favour of Catholic emancipation ; his eloquence being
specially directed against those who maintained that a Roman
Catholic could not be believed on his oath. " I defy Dr
Duigenan," 1 he pleaded, addressing a meeting of clergy in 1823,
" in the full vigour of his incapacity, in the strongest access of
that Protestant epilepsy with which he was so often convulsed,
to have added a single security to the security of that oath."
At this time appeared one of his most vigorous and effective
polemics, A Letter to the Electors upon the Catholic Question (1826).
Sydney Smith, after twenty years' service in Yorkshire,
obtained preferment at last from a Tory minister, Lord Lynd-
hurst, who presented him with a prebend in Bristol cathedral
in 1828, and afterwards enabled him to exchange Foston for the
living of Combe Florey, near Taunton, which he held conjointly
with the living of Halberton attached to his prebend. From
this time he discontinued writing for the Edinburgh Review on
the ground that it was more becoming in a dignitary of the church
to put his name to what he wrote. It was expected that when the
Whigs came into power Sydney Smith would be made a bishop.
There was nothing in his writings, as in the case of Swift, to stand
in the way. He had been most sedulous as a parochial clergyman.
Doctoring his parishioners, he said, was his only rural amuse-
ment. His religion was wholly of a practical nature, and his
fellow-clergy had reasons for their suspicion of his very limited
theology, which excluded mysticism of any sort. " The Gospel,"
he said, " has no enthusiasm." His scorn for enthusiasts and
dread of religious emotion found vent in middle life in his
strictures on missionary enterprise, ;and bitter attacks on Method-
ism, and later in many scoffs at the followers of Pusey. Still,
though he was not without warm friends at headquarters, the
opposition was too strong for them. One of the first things that
Lord Grey said on entering Downing Street was, " Now I shall
be able to do something for Sydney Smith "; but he was not
able to do more than appoint him in 1831 to a residentiary
canonry at St Paul's in exchange for the prebendal stall he held
at Bristol. He was as eager a champion of parliamentary reform
as he had been of Catholic emancipation, and one of his best
fighting speeches was delivered at Taunton in October 1831 when
he made his well-known comparison of the House of Lords, who
Patrick Duigenan, M.P. for the city of Armagh, a Protestant
agitator.
had just thrown out the Reform Bill, with Mrs Partington of
Sidmouth, setting out with mop and pattens to stem the Atlantic
in a storm. Some surprise must be felt now that Sydney Smith's
reputation as a humorist and wit should have caused any
hesitation about elevating him to an episcopal dignity, and
perhaps he was right in thinking that the real obstacle lay in his
being known as " a high-spirited, honest, uncompromising man,
whom all the bench of bishops could not turn upon vital ques-
tions." With characteristic philosophy, when he saw that the
promotion was doubtful, he made his position certain by resolv-
ing not to be a bishop and definitely forbidding his friends to
intercede for him.
On the death of his brother Courtenay he inherited 50,000,
which put him out of the reach of poverty. His eldest daughter,
Saba (1802-1866), married Sir Henry Holland. His eldest son,
Douglas, died in 1829 at the outset of what had promised to be
a brilliant career. This grief his father never forgot, but nothing
could quite destroy the cheerfulness of his later life. He retained
his high spirits, his wit, practical energy and powers of argu-
mentative ridicule to the last. His Three Letters to Archdeacon
Singleton on the Ecclesiastical Commission (1837-38-39) and
his Petition and Letters on the repudiation of debts by the- state
of Pennsylvania (1843), are as bright and trenchant as his best
contributions to the Edinburgh Review. He died at his house
in Green Street, London, on the 22nd of February 1845 and was
buried at Kensal Green.
Sydney Smith's other publications include: Sermons (2 vols.,
1809); The Ballot (1839); Works (3 vols., 1839), including the Peter
Plymley and the Singleton Letters and many articles from the Edin-
burgh Review; A Fragment on the Irish Roman Catholic Church (1845) ;
Sermons at St Paul's . . . (1846) and some other pamphlets and
sermons. Lady Holland says (Memoir, i. 190) that her father left an
unpublished MS., compiled from documentary evidence, to exhibit
the history of English misrule in Ireland, but had hesitated to
publish it. This was suppressed by his widow in deference to the
opinion of Lord Macaulay.
See A Memoir of the Reverend Sydney Smith by his daughter. Lady
Holland, with a Selection from his Letters edited by Mrs [Sarah]
Austin (2 vols., 1855); also A Sketch of the Life and Times of . . .
Sydney Smith (1884) by Stuart J. Reid; a chapter on " Sydney
Smith " in Lord Houghton's Monographs Social and Personal (1873) ;
A. Chevrillon, Sydney Smith et la renaissance des idees liberates en
Angleterre au XIX" siecle (1894); and especially the monograph,
with a full description of his writings, by G. W. E. Russell in Sydney
Smith (English Men of Letters series, 1905). There are numerous
references to Smith in contemporary correspondence and journals.
SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577), English scholar and
diplomatist, was born at Saffron Walden in Essex on the 23rd
of December 1513. He became a fellow of Queens' College,
Cambridge, in 1530, and in 1533 was appointed a public reader
or professor. He lectured in the schools on natural philosophy,
and on Greek in his own rooms. In 1 540 Smith went abroad, and,
after studying in France and Italy and taking a degree of law
at Padua, returned to Cambridge in 1542. He now took the lead
in the reform of the pronunciation of Greek, his views after con-
siderable controversy being universally adopted. He and his
friend Sir John Cheke were the great classical scholars of the
time in England. In January 1543/4 he was appointed first
regius professor of civil law. He was vice-chancellor of the
university the same year, and became chancellor to the bishop of
Ely, by whom he was ordained priest in 1546. In 1547 he
became provost of Eton and dean of Carlisle. He early adopted
Protestant views, a fact which brought him into prominence
when Edward VI. came to the throne. During Somerset's
protectorate he entered public life and was made a secretary of
state, being sent on an important diplomatic mission to Brussels.
In 1548 he was knighted. On the accession of Mary he was
deprived of all his offices, but in the succeeding reign was promin-
ently employed in public affairs. He became a member of parlia-
ment, and was sent in 1562 as ambassador to France, where he
remained till 1566; and in 1572 he again went to France in the
same capacity for a short time. He remained one of Elizabeth's
most trusted Protestant counsellors, being appointed in 1572
chancellor of the order of the Garter and a secretary of state.
He died on the i2th of August 1577. In 1661 the grandson of his
2JO
SMITH, T. S. SMITH, SIR W.
brother George was created a baronet, and from him the title has
descended to the Smith family of the present day.
His best-known work, entitled De Republica Anglorum: the
Maner of Government or Policie of the Realme of England, was pub-
lished posthumously in 1583, and passed through many editions.
His epistle to Gardiner, De recta et emendata linguae Graecae pro-
nunciatione, was printed at Paris in 1568; the same volume includes
his dialogue De recta et emendata linguae Anglicanae scriptione. A
number of his letters from France are in the foreign state papers.
See A. F. Pollard's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. A life by Strype
was published in 1698 (Oxford edition, 1820).
SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861), English
physician and sanitary reformer, was born at Martock, Somerset-
shire, on the 2ist of December 1788. While a medical student in
Edinburgh he took charge of a Unitarian congregation. In 1816
l he took his M.D. degree, and began to practice at Yeovil, Somer-
set, also becoming minister at a chapel in that town, but removed
in 1820 to London, devoting himself principally to medicine. In
1824 he was appointed physician to the London Fever Hospital,
and in 1830 published A Treatise on Fever, which was at once
accepted as a standard authority on the subject. In this book
he established the direct connexion between the impoverishment
of the poor and epidemic fever. He was frequently consulted in
fever epidemics and on sanitary matters by public authorities,
and his reports on quarantine (1845), cholera (1850), yellowfever
(1852), and on the results of sanitary improvement (1854) were
of international importance. He died at Florence on the loth of
December 1861.
SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596), English sonneteer. He published
in 1596 a sonnet sequence entitled Chloris, or the Complaint of
the passionate despised Shepheard. He was a disciple of Spenser,
to whom the two first sonnets and the last are addressed. He
signed his name W. Smith, and has sometimes been confused
with the playwright Wentworth Smith, who collaborated with
John Day, William Haughton and others (1601-1603).
SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819), English actor, the son of a
city tea merchant, was educated at Eton and went up to Cam-
bridge, but his wild pranks soon ended his college career and
brought him back to London. His first stage appearance was
in 1753 at Covent Garden, where he remained for twenty years,
playing important parts. In 1774 he was at Drury Lane under
Garrick's management. His forte was gay comedy, and he was
the original, indeed unrivalled, Charles Surface. It was in this
part that he made his farewell appearance in 1788. He died on
the i3th of September 1819. His sporting tastes and social
connexions he married the sister of a peer led to his being
called " Gentleman Smith," a sobriquet his manners seem to
have justified. He is to be distinguished from an older English
actor, William Smith (d. 1696), the friend of Betterton.
SMITH, WILLIAM (1760-1839), English geologist, appropri-
ately termed " the Father of English geology," and known
among his acquaintances as " Strata Smith," was born at
Churchill in Oxfordshire on the 23rd of March 1769. Deprived
of his father, an ingenious mechanic, before he was eight years
old, he depended upon his father's eldest brother, a farmer at
Over Norton, who was but little pleased with his nephew's love
of collecting " pundibs " (Terebratulae) and "pound-stones"
(the large Echinoid Clypeus, then frequently employed as a
pound weight by dairywomen), and with his propensity for
carving sundials on soft brown " oven-stone " of his neighbour-
hood. The uncle was, however, better satisfied when the boy,
after studying the rudiments of geometry and surveying, began
to take interest in the draining of land; and there is no doubt
that William Smith profited in after life by the practical experi-
ence he gained with his relative. At the age of eighteen he
became assistant to Edward Webb, surveyor, of Stow-on-the-
Wold, and traversed the Oolitic lands of Oxfordshire and
Gloucestershire, the Lias clays and red marls of Warwickshire
and other districts, studying their varieties of strata and soils.
In 1791 his observations at Stowey and High Littleton in
Somersetshire first impressed him with the regularity of the
strata. In 1793 he executed the surveys and .levellings for the
line of the Somerset Coal Canal, in the course of which he con-
firmed a previous supposition, that the strata lying above the
coal were not horizontal, but inclined in one direction to the
E. so as to terminate successively at the surface.
On being appointed engineer to the canal in 1794 he was
deputed to make a tour of observation with regard to inland
navigation. During this tour, which occupied nearly two months,
he journeyed to York and Newcastle and returned through
Shropshire and Wales to Bath; he carefully examined the
geological structure of the country, and corroborated his general-
ization of a settled order of succession in the strata. After
residing for two or three years at High Littleton he removed in
1795 to Bath, and three years later purchased a small estate at
Tucking Mill, Midford, about 3 m. distant from the city, where
he engaged in the last duties he performed as resident engineer
to the Coal Canal (1798-1799). His numerous journeys had
satisfied him of the practicability of making a map to show
the ranges of the different strata across England, and in 1794
he coloured his first geological map) that of the vicinity of Bath.
At this time he made acquaintance with the Rev. Benjamin
Richardson (d. 1832), from 1796 rector of Farleigh Hungerford,
who possessed a good collection of local fossils, but knew nothing
of the laws of stratification. He had a sound knowledge of
natural history, and he greatly aided Smith in learning the
names and true nature of the fossils, while Smith arranged his
specimens in the order of the strata. By this new friend Smith
was introduced to the Rev. Joseph Townsend (1738-1816),
rector of Pewsey, and on a notable occasion in 1799 Smith
dictated his first table of British Strata, written by Richardson
and now in the possession of the Geological Society of London.
It was headed Order of the Strata, and their imbedded Organic
Remains, in the neighbourhood of Bath; examined and proved
prior to 1799. In 1813 Townsend published, with due acknow-
ledgment, much information on the English strata communicated
by William Smith, in a work entitled The Character of Moses
established for veracity as an historian, recording events from the
Creation to the Deluge. Meanwhile Smith was completing and
arranging the data for his large Geological Map of England and
Wales, with part of Scotland, which appeared in 1815, in fifteen
sheets, engraved on a scale of 5 m. to i in. The map was reduced
to smaller form in 1819; and from this date to 1822 twenty-one
separate county geological maps and several sheets of sections
were published in successive years, the whole constituting a
Geological Atlas of England and Wales. Smith's collection of
fossils was purchased in 1816-1818 by the British Museum.
In 1817 a portion of the descriptive catalogue was published
under the title of a Stratigraphical System of Organized Fossils.
Prior to this, in 1816, he commenced the publication of Strata
Identified by Organized Fossils, with figures printed on paper to
correspond in some degree with the natural hue of the strata.
In this work (of which only four parts were published, 1816-1819)
is exemplified the great principle he established of the identifica-
tion of strata by their included organic remains. In January
1831 the Geological Society of London conferred on Smith the
first Wollaston medal; on which occasion Sedgwick in an
eloquent address referred to Smith as " the Father of English
Geology "; and the government conferred upon him a life-
pension of 100 per annum. The degree of LL.D. he received
from Dublin, at the meeting of the British Association in that
city in 1835. In 1838 he was appointed one of the commissioners
to select building-stone for the new Houses of Parliament.
The last years of his life were spent at Hackness (of which he
made a good geological map), near Scarborough, and in the
latter town. His usually robust health failed in 1839, and on
28th August of that year he died at Northampton. He was
buried at St Peter's church, and a bust by Chan trey was placed
in the nave. In 1891 the earl of Ducie erected a monument
to his memory at his native place, Churchill.
His Memoirs, edited by his nephew, John Phillips, appeared in 1 844.
SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893), English lexicographer,
was born at Enfield in 1813 of Nonconformist parents. He was
originally destined for a theological career, but instead was
articled to a solicitor. In his spare time he taught himself
SMITH, W. F. SMITH, W. R.
271
classics, and when he entered University College he carried off
both the Greek and Latin prizes. He was entered at Gray's
Inn in 1830, but gave up his legal studies for a post at University
College school, and began to write on classical subjects. He
next turned his attention to lexicography. His first attempt
was the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, which
appeared in 1842. The greater part of this was written by
himself. In 1849 followed the Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography, and the Greek and Roman Geography in 1857. In
this work some of the leading scholars of the day were associated
with him. In 1850 he published the first of the school diction-
aries; and in 1853 he began the Principia series, which marked a
distinct step in the school teaching of Greek and Latin. Then
came the Students' Manuals of History and Literature, in which
the Greek history was the editor's own work. In carrying
out this task Smith was most ably seconded by John Murray,
the publisher, who, when the original publishers of the dictionaries
got into difficulties, volunteered to take a share in the under-
taking. The most important, perhaps, of the books edited by
William Smith were those that dealt with ecclesiastical subjects.
These were the Dictionary of the Bible (1860-1865) ; the Dictionary
#f Christian Antiquities (1875-1880), undertaken in collaboration
with Archdeacon Cheetham; and the Dictionary of Christian
Biography (1877-1887), jointly with Dr Henry Wace. The
Atlas, on which Sir George Grove collaborated, appeared in
1875. From 1853 to 1869 Smith was classical examiner to the
University of London, and on his retirement he became a member
of the Senate. He sat on the Committee to inquire into questions
of copyright, and was for several years registrar of the Royal
Literary Fund. He edited Gibbon, with Guizot's and Milman's
notes, in 1854-1855. In 1867 he became editor of the Quarterly
Review, which he directed with marked success until his death on
the ~th of October 1893, his remarkable memory and accuracy,
as well as his tact and courtesy, specially fitting him for such
a post. He was D.C.L. of Oxford and Dublin, and the honour
of knighthood was conferred on him the year before his death.
SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824-1903), American general,
was born at St Albans, Vermont, on the i7th of February 1824,
and graduated from West Point in 1845, being assigned to the
engineer branch of the army. He was twice assistant professor
of mathematics at West Point (1846-1848 and 1855-1856).
During the first campaign of the Civil War he was employed on
the staff, in August 1861 became brigadier-general of volunteers,
and was breveted lieutenant-colonel U.S.A. for his gallantry at
the action of White Oak Swamp. In July 1862 he received
promotion to the rank of major-general U.S.V. Smith led his
division with conspicuous valour at Antietam, and was again
breveted in the regular army. On the assignment of General
Franklin to a superior command Smith was placed at the head of
the VI. corps of the Army of the Potomac, which he led at the
disastrous battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.). The recriminations
which followed led to the famous general order in which several
of the senior officers of the army were dismissed and suspended
by General Burnside. Smith was one of these, but it is to his
credit that he did not leave the army, and as a brigadier-general
he commanded troops in Pennsylvania during the critical days
of the Gettysburg campaign. Later in 1863 he was assigned to
duty as chief engineer of the Army of the Cumberland. As such
he conducted the engineer operations which reopened the
" cracker-line " from Chattanooga (q.v.) to the base of supplies.
Of this action the House Committee on military affairs reported
in 1865 that " as a subordinate, General W. F. Smith had saved
the Army of the Cumberland from capture, and afterwards
directed it to victory." Smith was now again nominated for
the rank of major-general U.S.V., and Grant, who was much
impressed with Smith's work, insisted strongly that the nomina-
tion should be confirmed, which was accordingly done by the
Senate in March 1864. Grant, according to his own statement,
" was not long in finding out that the objections to Smith's
promotion were well grounded," but he never stated the grounds
of his complaint, and Smith, in the " Battles and Leaders " series,
maintained that they were purely of a personal character. For
the Virginian campaign of 1864 Smith was specially assigned by
Grant to command the XVIII. corps, Army of the James, and
he took part in the battle of Cold Harbor and the first operations
against Petersburg, after which, while absent on leave, he was
suddenly deprived of his command by Grant. He resigned from
the volunteers in 1865, and from the U.S. army in 1867. From
1864 to 1873 he was president of the International Telegraph
Company, and in 1875-1881 served on the board of police
commissioners of New York, becoming president of this in 1877.
After 1 88 1 he was engaged in civil engineering work. He died
at Philadelphia on the 28th of February 1903.
SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808-1872), English author,
was born at Hammersmith, London, in 1808. He was educated
at Radley School, and in 1821 was sent to Glasgow University.
In 1823 he entered a lawyer's office, in which he remained for five
years. He was called to the bar, but had no practice. He
contributed to the Literary Gazette and to the Athenaeum, under
the name of " Wool-gatherer," attracting some attention by
the delicacy and finish of his style. Ernesto, a philosophical
romance, appeared in 1835, two poems, Guidone and Solitude, in
1836, and in 1839 he formed a connexion with Blackwood's
Magazine, for which he acted as philosophical critic for thirty
years. In 1846 a visit to Italy led to the writing of a tale entitled
Mildred, which was too purely reflective to be successful. In 1851
he declined the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh, being
unwilling to abandon his quiet, studious life in the Lake District.
There he completed his philosophic romance Thorndale (1857),
which was considered at the time to be a work of real intellectual
value. A similar production, Gravenhiirsl, appeared in 1862; a
second edition contained a memoir of the author by his wife.
Smith died at Brighton on 28th March 1872. He also wrote two
plays, one of which, Athelwold, was produced by Macready in 1843.
It was published with his other tragedy, Sir William Crichton,
in 1846.
SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825-1891), English man of
business and statesman, was born in London on the 24th of June
1825. His father was the founder of the great distributing firm
of W. H. Smith & Son, in the Strand, and at an early age he
became a partner and devoted himself to the business. He
betrayed no political aspirations until 1865, when he came for-
ward as a Conservative to contest Westminster against John
Stuart Mill and the Hon. Mr Grosvenor. Defeated on that
occasion, he triumphed in 1868, winning a victory when his party
was in general vanquished on all sides. The prestige thus
obtained combined with wealth and his business abilities to
recommend him to Disraeli, who in 1874 made him secretary to
the Treasury. In 1877 he gained cabinet rank as first lord of the
Admiralty; in 1885 he was successively secretary for War and
chief secretary for Ireland; in 1886 he was again at the War
Office; and when late in that year Lord Randolph Churchill's
resignation necessitated a reconstruction of the ministry, Mr
Smith found himself first lord of the Treasury and leader of the
House of Commons. He was no orator, and made no pretence
to genius, but his success in these high offices was complete,
and was admittedly due, not merely to business ability, but to
the universal respect which was gained by his patience, good
temper, zeal for the public service, and thorough kindness of
heart. He died at Walmer Castle (which he occupied as Warden
of the Cinque Ports) on the 6th of October 1891. In recognition
of his services a peerage in her own right was conferred on his
widow, with the title of Viscountess Hambleden. Lady Hamble-
den (b. 1828) had been a Miss Danvers, and before marrying
Mr Smith had been the wife of Mr B. A. Leach, by whom she had
a family. Her eldest son by the second marriage, the Hon. W.
F. D. Smith (b. 1868), rowed in the Oxford boat, and on his
father's death became head of the business; in 1891 he was
elected Conservative M.P. for the Strand (London), and was
re-elected in 1892, 1895, 1900 and 1906. He married in 1894
Lady Esther Gore, daughter of the earl of Arran.
SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-1894), Scottish philo-
logist, physicist, archaeologist, Biblical critic, and editor, from
1881, of the gth edition of this Encyclopaedia, was born on the
SMITH, SIR W. S.
8th of November 1846 at Keig in Aberdeenshire, where his
father was Free Church minister. He was educated at home and
at Aberdeen University, where he attained the highest academic
distinctions, winning among other things the Ferguson mathe-
matical scholarship, which is open to all graduates of Scottish
universities under three years' standing. In 1866 he entered the
Free Church College at Edinburgh as a student of theology.
During two summer sessions he studied philosophy and theology
at Bonn and Gottingen, making friends in all branches of learning.
From 1868 to 1870 he acted as assistant to the professor of
natural philosophy in Edinburgh University. During this
period he was not only most successful as a teacher, but produced
much original work especially in the experimental and mathe-
matical treatment of electricity which is still regarded as
standard. In 1870 he was appointed and ordained to the office
of professor of Oriental languages and Old Testament exegesis
at the Free Church College, Aberdeen, and here he began that
series of theological investigations which, characterized as they
were by learned research and the use of the most scientific
methods, were destined to make his name famous. He was the
pupil and personal friend of many leaders of the higher criticism
in Germany, and from the first he advocated views which, though
now widely accepted, were then regarded with apprehension.
The articles on Biblical subjects which he contributed to the gth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica distressed and alarmed
the authorities of the Free Church. In 1876 a committee of the
General Assembly of that Church reported on them so adversely
that Smith demanded a formal trial, in the course of which he
defended himself with consummate ability and eloquence. The
indictment dropped, but a vote of want of confidence was passed,
and in 1881 Smith was removed from his chair. During this long
struggle he was sustained by the conviction that he was fighting
for freedom, and at the end of the trial he was probably the
most popular, if not the most powerful, man in Scotland. Marks
of sympathy were showered on him from all sides.
In 1875 he was appointed one of the Old Testament revisers;
in 1880-1882 he delivered by invitation, to very large audiences
in Edinburgh and Glasgow, two courses of lectures on the
criticism of the Old Testament, which he afterwards published
( The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, first edition 1881 , second
edition 1892, and The Prophets of Israel, 1882, which also passed
through two editions) ; and soon after his dismissal from his chair
he joined Professor Baynes in the editorship of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, and after Professor Baynes's death remained in
supreme editorial control till the work was completed. His versa-
tility, firmness combined with tact, width of view, and pains-
taking struggle for accuracy were largely responsible for the
maintenance of its high standard. But he did not let his other
duties interfere with his Semitic studies. He visited Arabia,
Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Tunis and southern Spain, and had
an intimate knowledge of, and personal acquaintance with, not
only the literature, but the life of the East. His early friendship
with J. F. McLennan, that most original student of primitive
marriage, had a great influence on Smith's studies, and his
attention was always strongly attracted to the comparative
study of primitive customs and their meaning. His chief con-
tributions to this branch of learning were his article SACRIFICE
in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, his Kinship and Marriage in
Early Arabia (Cambridge, 1885), and above all his Lectures on the
Religion of the Semites (ist edition 1889, 2nd edition 1894). His
originality and grasp of mind enabled him to seize the essential
among masses of details, and he had in a marked degree the power
of carrying a subject farther than his predecessors.
In 1883 Robertson Smith was appointed Lord Almoner's
Professor of Arabic at Cambridge, which henceforth became his
home. He occupied rooms in Trinity College till 1883, when he
was elected to a professorial fellowship at Christ's College. In
1886 he became university librarian, and in 1889 Adams Pro-
fessor of Arabic. In 1888-1891 he delivered, as Burnett lecturer,
three courses of lectures at Aberdeen on the primitive religion of
the Semites. Early in 1890 grave symptoms of constitutional
disease manifested themselves, and the last years of his life were
full of suffering, which he bore with the utmost courage and
patience. He never ceased to work, and when near his end was
actively engaged in planning the Encyclopaedia Biblica, which
he had hoped to edit. He died at Cambridge on the 3ist of
March 1894, and was buried at Keig. Small and slight in person
and never robust in health, Robertson Smith was yet a man of
ceaseless and fiery energy; of an intellect extraordinarily alert
and quick, and as sagacious in practical matters as it was keen
and piercing in speculation; of an erudition astonishing both in its
range and in its readiness; of a temper susceptible of the highest
enthusiasm for worthy ends, and able to inspire others with
its own ardour; endowed with the warmest affections, and
with the kindest and most generous disposition, but impatient
of stupidity and ready to blaze out at whatever savoured of
wrong and injustice. The sweetness and purity of his nature
combined with his brilliant conversational powers to render
him the most delightful of friends and companions.
See also James Bryce, Studies in Contemporary Biography (1903).
(A. E. S.)
SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840), English admiral,
was the second son of Captain John Smith of the Guards, and
was born at Westminster on the 2ist of July 1764. He entered
the navy, according to his own account, " at the beginning of
the American War," being only about eleven years of age. For
his bravery under Rodney in the action near Cape St Vincent
in January 1780, he was on the 2$th of September appointed
lieutenant of the " Alcide," 74. After serving in the actions
against the French fought by Graves off Chesapeake in 1781 and
by Rodney at the Leeward Islands in 1782, he was on the 6th of
May of the latter year promoted to be commander of the " Fury "
sloop, and on the i8th of October advanced to the rank of captain.
His ship having been paid off in the beginning of 1784, he spent
two years in France and afterwards visited Spain. From 1790
to 1792 he advised the king of Sweden in the war with Russia,
receiving for his services the honour of knighthood. After his re-
turn to England he was sent on a mission to Constantinople, and
having joined Lord Hood at Toulon from Smyrna in December
1793, he, though only on half pay, was actively employed in the
attempt to burn the enemy's ships and arsenal. In the following
years he was engaged in the Channel hunting French privateers;
but, having with the boats of his squadron boarded in Havre-de-
Gra.ce harbour a lugger which was driven by the tide above the
French forts, he was on the igth of April 1796 compelled to
surrender and sent a prisoner to Paris. By means of forged orders
for his removal to another prison he made his escape from the
Temple, and, crossing the Channel in a small skiff picked up at
Havre, arrived in London on the 8th of May 1798. In October
he was appointed to the command of the " Tigre," 80, and was sent
to the Mediterranean. By a very curious decision of the govern-
ment he was joined in commission with his brother Spencer Smith,
minister at Constantinople. Learning of Bonaparte's approach to
St Jean d'Acre, he hastened to its relief, and on the i6th of March
1799 captured the enemy's flotilla, after which he successfully
defended the town, compelling Napoleon on the 2oth of May to
raise the siege and retreat in disorder, leaving all his artillery
behind. For this brilliant exploit he received the special thanks of
the Houses of Parliament and was awarded an annuity of 1000.
On the 24th of January 1800 he took upon himself to make the
convention of El Arish, by which the French were to have been
allowed to evacuate Egypt. His action was disallowed by his
superiors, who insisted that the French must surrender. Sub-
sequently he co-operated with Abercromby, under whom he
commanded the naval brigade at the battle of Aboukir, where
he was wounded. On his return to 'England he was in 1802
elected M.P. for the city of Rochester. In March 1803 he was
commissioned to watch the preparations of the French for an
invasion of England. Having on the 9th of November 1805 been
promoted to be rear-admiral of the blue, he was in the following
January despatched on secret service for the protection of Sicily
and Naples. His conduct was as usual brilliant, but, also as
usual, his vanity and self-assertion led him into quarrels with
the military officers. He relieved Gaeta and captured Capri, but
SMITH SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
273
on the 25th of January 1807 received orders to proceed to Malta,
whence he joined Sir John Duckworth, who was sent to act
against the Turks. On the yth of February, with the rear division
of the squadron, he destroyed the Turkish fleet and spiked the
batteries off Abydos. In November following he was sent to
blockade the Tagus, and was mainly instrumental in embarking
the Portuguese prince regent and royal family for Rio de Janeiro,
after which he was sent as commander-in-chief to the coast of
S. America in February 1808. At Rio he was entangled in
another quarrel with the British minister, Lord Strangford,
and was summarily recalled in 1809. On the 3ist of July 1810
he was made vice-admiral of the blue, and on the i8th of July
1812 was despatched as second in command under Sir Edward
Pellew (afterwards Viscount Exmouth) to the Mediterranean,
but the expedition was uneventful. His term of active service
practically closed in 1814. He was made K.C.B. in 1815 and
in 1821 admiral. The later years of his life were spent at Paris,
where he died on the 26th of May 1840. His restless self-
assertion brought him into collision with many of his contempor-
aries, including Nelson and Sir John Moore. Colonel Bunbury's
Narrative of some Passages in the Great War with France contains
a most amusing account of his theatrical vanity. But though by
nature a boaster he was both daring and ingenious.
See Barrow, Life of Admiral Sir W. S. Smith (2 vols., 1848).
SMITH, a worker in metals. The O. Eng. smid, Du. smid,
Ger. Schmied, &c., are from an obsolete Teut. verb smeilhan, to
forge. The root is seen in Gr. o>iiX'?, a graver's tool. It is
apparently not connected with " smooth," where an original
m has been lost. There is no foundation for the old etymological
guess which identifies " smith " with " to smite, " as the one
who smites or beats iron. When used without such qualification
as appears in " goldsmith," " silversmith," &c., the term means
a worker in iron, especially as indicating a " blacksmith," one
who forges iron, as opposed to " whitesmith," the finisher and
polisher of iron, or " tinsmith," a worker in tin. The word has
originated one of the commonest of English surnames, sometimes
taking various archaic forms (Smyth, Smythe, Smigth, &c.;
also German Schmidt).
SMITH COLLEGE, an American institution for the higher
education of women, at Northampton, Massachusetts. It was
founded by the will of Sophia Smith (1796-1870) of Hatfield,
who gave money to Smith Academy in Northampton and to
Andover Theological Seminary, and who left about $365,000
" for the establishment and maintenance of an institution for
the higher education of young women, with the design to furnish
them means and facilities for education equal to those which are
afforded in our colleges for young men "; she chose Northampton
as the site of the college and selected the trustees. The college
was chartered in 1871 and was opened in 1875.
On the college campus in the central part of Northampton are
College Hall, with administrative offices, an assembly hall, and
lecture rooms; Seelye Hall, with department offices and recitation
rooms; a library, completed in 1910 and containing 30,000 volumes
in that year; an auditorium, with a large organ and a seating capacity
of 2500; the Lilly Hall of Science; Chemistry Hall; an astronomica
observatory; Music Hall; the Hillyer Art Gallery, with an en
dowment of $50,000 for the increase of its collections; the Students
Building for the social life of the students; the Lyman Plant House
and the Botanic Garden; the Alumnae Gymnasium; the Allen
Recreation Field; sixteen (in 1910) dwelling-houses for the student
on the plan of private homes, not dormitories; an infirmary; am
Sunnyside, a home for convalescents. Entrance requirements diffc
little from those of the College Entrance Examination Board. Al
undergraduate courses are largely elective and lead to the degrei
of Bachelor of Arts. Graduate courses lead to the degrees o
Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy, the latter degree being
rarely conferred and " only in recognition of high scholarly attain
ment and of ability to carry on original research." In igog-igK
there were 104 teachers and 1635 students (of whom 8 were graduati
students), and the college had an endowment of about $1,300,000
The annual tuition charge was $100 until 1909, when it became $150
There are six fellowships, of $500 each.whichare granted for gradual
research ; and there are many undergraduate scholarships, and loan
are made to needy students by the Smith Students' Aid Societi
(1897). The College contributes to the American Classical Schools a
Athens and Rome, to the Zoological Station at Naples, and to th
Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Th
irst president of the college from 1873 to September 1910 was
..awrenus Clark Seelye (b. 1837), a graduate of Union College and of
Andover Theological Seminary.
SMITH'S FALLS, a town and outport of Lanark county,
Ontario, Canada, on the Rideau river and canal, and the Canadian
'acific railway, 28 m. N.W. of Brockville. Pop. (1901) 5155.
t contains saw, shingle, woollen and planing mills, and large
agricultural implement works, and has regular steamer connexion
with Kingston and Ottawa by the Rideau river and canal.
SMITHSON, HENRIETTA CONSTANCE (1800-1854), Irish
actress, was the daughter of a theatrical manager. She made
icr first stage appearance in 1815 at the Crow Street theatre,
Dublin, as Albina Mandeville in Reynolds's Will. Three years
ater she made her first London appearance at Drury Lane as
etitia Hardy. She had no particular success in England;
but in Paris, in 1828 and 1832, whither she first went with
Vlacready, she aroused immense enthusiasm as Desdemona,
Virginia, Juliet and Jane Shore. She had a host of admirers,
among them Hector Berlioz (q.v.), whom she married in 1833.
They separated in 1840. At the time of her marriage her
popularity was already over and she was deeply in debt. A
jenefit was given her, but she had the mortification of seeing
rival applauded when she herself was coldly received. She
retired from the stage, and died on the 3rd of March 1854.
SMITHSON, JAMES (1765-1829), British chemist and mineral-
ogist and founder of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington,
natural son of Hugh Smithson, ist duke of Northumberland,
by Mrs Elizabeth Keate Macie, a granddaughter of Sir George
Hungerford of Studley, was born in France in 1765. He was
educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, where he graduated
in 1786, and was known in early life as James Lewis (or Louis)
Macie. He took the name of James Smithson about the year
1800. His attention was given to chemistry and mineralogy,
and he published analyses of calamines and other papers in the
Annals of Philosophy and Phil. Trans. The mineral name
' smithsonite " was originally given in his honour by Beudant
to zinc carbonate, but having also been applied to the silicate,
the name is now rarely used. In 1784 he accompanied Faujas
St Fond in his journey to the Western Isles, and in the English
translation of the Travels in England, Scotland and the Hebrides
(1799) Smithson is spoken of as " M. de Mecies of London."
He was elected F.R.S. in 1787. He died at Genoa 'on the 27th
of June 1829. By his will he bequeathed upwards of 100,000
to the United States of America to found the Smithsonian
Institution. The institution (see below) was founded by act
of Congress on the loth of August 1846.
See " James Smithson and his Bequest " (with portraits), by
W. J. Rhees, and " The Scientific Writings of James Smithson,"
edited by W. J. Rhees, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. xxi. (1879-
1880).
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an American institution of
learning in Washington, D.C., founded by the bequest of James
Smithson (q.v.), who seems to have known of Joel Barlow's
plan for a national institution of learning in the city of Washing-
ton in accordance with George Washington's recommendation
in his farewell address of 1796. His estate was left to a nephew,
Henry James Hungerford, with the stipulation that should
Hungerford die without issue the whole estate should go " to
the United States of America to found at Washington, under
the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for
the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Hunger-
ford died without issue in 1835. There was much opposition in
America to the acceptance of Smithson's bequest, especially
by John C. Calhoun and others who held that Congress had no
power under the Constitution to accept such a gift, but the
gift was accepted, largely through the efforts of John Quincy
Adams; and Richard Rush, sent to England as agent for the
United States, quickly obtained a verdict for the American
claim to the estate. In September 1838 104,960 in gold
sovereigns was delivered from the clipper " Mediator " to the
Philadelphia mint, where it was recoined into American money,
$508,318-46; in 1867, after the death of Hungerford's mother,
a residuary legacy of $26,210 was received and the fund then
274
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
amounted to $650,000. An act of the 7th of July 1838 (repealed
in 1841) directed the investment of the money in state bonds,
and $500,000 was invested in Arkansas bonds which proved
worthless, but Congress, considering that it was a trustee of the
fund, made an appropriation to cover the loss. By other gifts,
notably that of $216,000 from Thomas George Hodgkins (d.
1892) of Setauket, Long Island, New York, the fund was increased:
in 1910 it amounted to $944,918, drawing interest at 6%.
There were many different suggestions as to how the fund
should be used. The character of the National Institute (called
National Institution before 1843), which was organized in 1840
" to promote science and the useful arts and to establish a
national museum of history," had a great influence in shaping
the act (approved on the loth of August 1846) establishing the
Smithsonian Institution and providing for an " establishment "
by this name composed of the president, vice-president,
secretaries of state, treasury, war and navy, the postmaster-
general, the attorney-general, 1 the chief-justice of the supreme
court and the commissioner of the patent office of the United
States, the mayor of the city of Washington (amended in 1871
to read: governor of the District of Columbia), and such other
persons as they may elect honorary members. 2 The same act
provided for the government of the Institution by a Board of
Regents composed of the vice-president of the United States,
the mayor of the city of Washington (amended in 1871 as above),
three members of the Senate (appointed by its president),
three members of the House of Representatives 3 (appointed
by its speaker), two members of the National Institute of the
City of Washington (chosen by joint resolution of the Senate
and House of Representatives), and four others, inhabitants
of four different states; the Board chose from its members a
chancellor (in practice the vice-president of the United States
until 1 850 and since then the chief -justice). The act provided for
the delivery to the Board of Regents and the maintenance in the
buildings, which were to be erected according to the act, of
" all objects of art and of foreign and curious research, and all
objects of natural history," &c., belonging to the United States,
including the collections of Smithson; and it enacted that any
applicant for copyright should deliver one copy of the work
to be copyrighted to the librarian of the Smithsonian Institution
and another to the Librarian of Congress. 4 Thanks to the
efforts of J. Q. Adams, provision was made for the use of the
income of the fund only and the principal was permanently
invested.
The Regents met on the 7th of September 1846. Those
appointed were: George Evans, Sidney Breese and Isaac
S. Pennybacker, senators; Robert Dale Owen, William J.
Hough and Henry W. Hilliard, members of the House of Repre-
sentatives; Rufus Choate, Gideon Hawley, Richard Rush
and William C. Preston, by joint resolution, from four different
states; and Alexander Dallas Bache and General Joseph
G. Totten, from the National Institute. They elected (Dec.
1846) as first secretary and director of the Institution, Joseph
Henry, then professor of natural philosophy in the College of
New Jersey tPnnceton University), who presented in his first
annual report (Dec. 1847) a "program of organization." 6 The
first paragraph contained the following: " To Increase Know-
ledge: It is proposed (i) to stimulate men of talent to make
original researches, by offering suitable rewards for memoirs
containing new truths; and (2) to appropriate annually a portion
of the income for particular researches, under the direction of
1 The Secretary of the Interior was added in 1877 and the Secretary
of Agriculture in 1894.
2 No honorary members have been chosen since 1873, and an
amendment of 1894 omits the provision for their election.
3 In January 1847 James D. Westcott objected to the constitution-
ality of the act because by it members of Congress were appointed
(contrary to section 6, part ii. of the Constitution) to civil offices
under the authority of the United States created during their term
of office in Congress.
4 In 1865 the actual granting of copyright was transferred from
the Smithsonian Institution to the Library of Congress.
5 Reprinted in Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections,
vol. xxi. pp. 399-406.
suitable persons. To Diffuse Knowledge: It is proposed (i) to
publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of different
branches of knowledge; and (2) to publish occasionally separate
treatises on subjects of general interest."
Henry was executive head (secretary) of the Institution from 1846
until his death in 1878 and its organization is due largely to him.
He opposed the scheme for the gradual formation of a general library
under the charge of the Institution, and in 1855 committed the Board
of Regents to a repeal of the previous practice of spending one-half
of the annual income on the museum and library, and this action
was approved by an investigating congressional committee. 6 Partly
because of the prominence given to meteorological research when
Henry was at the Albany Academy, and partly through the influence
of James Pollard Espy (1785-1860), in 1846 a plan was presented for
the unification and systematization of weather observation under
the Institution, and in December 1847 an appropriation was made for
such meteorological research; in 1849 telegraphic transmission of
meteorological intelligence collected by the Institution was begun;
in 1850 a standard " Smithsonian barometer " (Arnold Guyot's
improvement of Ernst's improved Fortin " cistern barometer ")
was first distributed; weather maps were successfully made in 1856;
and in 1870 the meteorological work of the Institution was incorpor-
ated as the Weather Bureau, independent of the Institution. After
1854 Henry's annual reports contained a " general appendix " with
reports of lectures, such as were held under the auspices of the
Institution until 1865, summaries of correspondence, special papers,
&c. Before 1870 meteorology bulked largely in these reports; after
that year there was more North American archaeology and ethnology.
Spencer F. Baird, Henry's successor, incorporated in the general
appendix annual reports on the progress of the sciences, and he
perfected Henry's system of " international exchanges," under which
the Institution, through agents in the principal cities of Europe, ex-
changes its own publications, those of other departments of the
United States government, and those of learned societies for foreign
publications. Baird had been at the head of the United States
National Museum, a branch of the Institution, before he became
secretary of the Institution, and it was particularly developed during
his administration. It was built up around the collections of the
United States Patent Office, which were turned over to it in 1858,
and those of the National Institute, transferred to the Smithsonian
Institution in 1861, when the Institute was dissolved. A part of the
collection (including Smithson's collection) was destroyed^ by fire in
1865. The small art collection which remained was exhibited in the
Corcoran Gallery until 1896. A new building for the Museum was
erected in 1881. Mrs Harriet Lane Johnston (1833-1903) left her
art collection to a national gallery of art, when such a gallery should
be established, and in 1906 the Supreme Court of the District of
Columbia decreed that the art collection of the National Museum
was a " National Gallery " and turned this collection over to the
National Museum, whose art collections have been called since that
time the National Gallery of Art and have been enlarged by the gift
from Charles L. Freer of Detroit of more than 2300 pieces (since 1904) ,
including the work of American artists (especially Whistler, Tryon
and T. W. Dewing) and of Japanese and Chinese masters, and by the
gift of about 90 American paintings from W. T. Evans of New York
City. The museum gained much valuable archaeological and ethno-
logical material from the exploring parties sent out under J. W.
Powell, excellent ichthyological specimens through Baird's position
as United States Fish Commissioner, and general collections from the
exhibits made at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 by the United
States government; and it has a good herbarium. The Bureau of
American Ethnology was established as a branch of the Institution
in 1879, when the various organizations doing survey work in the
West united as the United States Geological Survey and anthropo-
logical and ethnological research was transferred to the Smithsonian
Institution. The director of the Bureau of Ethnology in 1879-1902
was J. W. Powell; he was succeeded by William H. Holmes.
Secretary Baird planned an astrophysical observatory and in 1887
appointed as assistant secretary of the Institution, to take charge of
the observatory, Samuel P. Langley (q.v.), who succeeded as secretary 7
upon Baird's death in the same year. In 1890 a small observatory
was built in the Smithsonian Park; in 1891 an appropriation was
made for astrophysical work and $5000 was contributed by the
executors of Dr J. H. Kidder (1842-1889). Langley's principal
research in the observatory was on the nature of the infra-red
portion of the spectrum. His name is also closely connected with his
paper entitled Experiments in Aerodynamics (1891), and with the
experiments and mathematical studies carried on under the Institu-
tion which proved that a machine other than a balloon could be
made which would produce enough mechanical power to support
itself and fly. Under the terms of the Hodgkins bequest prizes were
6 Congress was long jealous of the power of the Board of Regents;
and in Congress there was for many years open opposition notably
on the part of Andrew Johnson, to the very existence of the Institu-
tion.
7 In January 1907, after Langley's death, Charles Doolittle
Walcott (b. 1850), a geologist, director of the U.S. Geological Survey
in 1894-1907, became secretary of the Institution.
SMOHALLA SMOKE
275
offered in 1893 for research and investigation of atmospheric air
in connexion with the welfare of mankind; in 1895 an award of
$10,000 was made to Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay for their
discovery of argon ; and a medal was awarded to Sir James Dewar
in 1899 and one to Sir J. J. Thomson in 1901. During Langley's
administration the American Historical Association was incorporated
in 1889 as a branch of the Institution, to whose secretary it makes
its annual reports ; and the National Society of the Daughters of the
American Revolution was similarly incorporated in 1896. By acts
of Congress of the 2nd of March 1889 and the 3oth of April 1890 the
National Zoological Park was established under the Institution;
and in a park of 266 acres in the valley of Rock Creek a small collec-
tion was installed. In Langley's Annual Reports the summaries of
the advance of science were omitted in 1889 and thereafter special
papers of interest to professional students were published in their
place. The Smithsonian Park occupies a square equivalent to nine
city blocks, almost exactly the same size as the Capitol grounds.
The oldest building, that of the Institution proper, was erected in
1847-1855; it is Seneca brown stone in a mingled Gothic and
Romanesque style, designed by James Renwick, and occupies the S.W.
corner of the grounds. E. of it is the building of the United States
National Museum (330 ft. sq.), erected in 1881 ; and on the N. side of
the park is the new building of the National Museum (1903). On the
grounds is a bronze statue of Joseph Henry by W. W. Story.
The Institution publishes : Annual Reports (1846 seq.), in which the
Reports of the National Museum were included until 1884 since then
they appeared as " part ii." of that Report; The Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge (quarto, 1848 sqq.); The Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections (octavos, 1862 sqq.); Proceedings of the
United States National Museum (1878 sqq.); Bulletin of the United
States National Museum (1875 sqq.), containing larger monographs
than those printed in the Proceedings; and occasional Special
Bulletins; Annual Reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology
(1880 sqq.); Bulletin (1877 sqq.), including The Handbook of
American Indians North of Mexico (1907), part i. being Bulletin 30;
and Contributions to North American Ethnology (1877 sqq.); Annals
of the Astrophysical Observatory (1900 sqq.) ; and Annual Reports
of the American Historical Association (1890 sqq.).
AUTHORITIES. See Wm. J. Rhees, A List of Publications of the
Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1903 (Washington, 1903), being No.
1376 of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections; also The
Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896: The History of its First Half-
Century (Washington, 1897), edited by George Brown Goode,
assistant secretary of the Institution; Wm. J. Rhees, Smithson and
His Bequest (ibid. 1880), and The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-
1899 (ibid. 1901) ; and Richard Rathbun, The National Gallery of Art
(ibid. 1909), being Bulletin 70 of the U.S. National Museum.
SMOHALLA, or SHMOQUALA (i.e. " preacher "), chief of the
Wanapum tribe of North American Indians and founder of the
religious sect called Dreamers, was born about 1820. On one
occasion after a tribal fray he was left for dead, but recovered
and journeyed through California, Mexico, Arizona and Nevada
to his old home on the upper Columbia, Washington, where he
announced that he had been in the spirit world and had returned
with a new revelation. This consisted in a return to primitive
Indian customs, and a priesthood and ritual based on the
Roman Catholic type. Besides Sunday services the Dreamers
hold a service for the commemoration of the dead in early spring,
and thanksgivings for salmon and for berries in April and in
October respectively. Smohalla had frequent trances and his
influence extended over most of the tribes of eastern Washington,
and Oregon and western Idaho. The sect gave some trouble
in 1870 by refusing to come under reservation restrictions. A
church was established at Priest's Rapids on the upper Columbia,
and one at Union Gap on the Yakima reservation.
See James Mooney, " The Ghost-dance religion," in I4th Ann.
Rep. Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1896).
SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch
smook, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. afj.vx.eiv), the
vapour or volatile matter which escapes from a burning substance
during combustion, especially the visible vapour produced by
the burning of coal, wood, peat or vegetable substances generally.
In this article the various legislative and other measures recom-
mended or adopted for the abating of the nuisance caused by the
excessive production of smoke are dealt with. For smoking of
tobacco see TOBACCO and PIPE, and for opium-smoking OPIUM.
Smoke Abatement. The nuisance created by coal .smoke
seems to have been recognized in London since 1306, when a
citizen was tried, condemned and executed for burning " sea
cole " in the city of London; but it is only in more modern
times that the question has been regarded as one of real practical
importance. In 1785 the first smoke-abating invention was
patented by James Watt, and in 1800 a mechanical stoker was
patented by Robertson. In 1815 Cutler patented the first
would-be smokeless grate for domestic purposes; and his
principle of feeding underneath was afterwards adopted by
Dr Neil Arnott. In 1819 a parliamentary select committee
was appointed " to inquire how far persons using steam-engines
and furnaces could erect them in a manner less prejudicial to
public health and comfort." In 1843 another select committee
recommended the introduction of a bill prohibiting the produc-
tion of smoke from furnaces and steam-engines. In 1845 yet
another select committee reported that such an act could not
in the existing state of affairs be made to apply to dwelling-
houses. The Acts of 1845 and 1847 followed as the results of
these inquiries; and since then there has been much legislation
brought to bear on factories and railways.
The Public Health Act 1875 contains the statutory law as to the
emission of smoke and applies throughout the country, except to
London and a few large provincial towns such as Manchester,
Liverpool, Sheffield, Leeds, Bradford and Nottingham, where smoke
nuisances are controlled by special local acts. The law applying
to the Metropolis is identical with that which governs the country at
large, and is contained in the Public Health (London) Act 1891.
Section 91, sub-section 7, of the Public Health Act 1875 enacts:
" Any fireplace or furnace which does not, as far as practicable,
consume the smoke arising from the combustible used therein, and
which is used for working engines by steam, or in any mill, factory,
dyehouse, brewery, bakehouse or gaswork, or in any manufacturing or
trade process whatsoever " ; and sub-sec. 8, " any chimney (not being
the chimney of a private dwelling-house) sending forth black smoke in
such quantity as to be a nuisance, shall be deemed to be a nuisance
liable to be dealt with summarily in manner provided by this act."
A further clause provides that for the purposes of sub-sec. 7 the
offence is not merely the emission of smoke, but the use of a fire-
place or furnace " which does not as far as practicable consume the
smoke," and this enables a technical defence to be raised which in
practice has been found to destroy the efficacy of sub-sec. 7. Under
sub-sec. 8 the mere fact of sending forth black smoke in such quantity
as to be a nuisance is an offence, unless it be emitted from the
chimney of a private dwelling-house. This sub-section is therefore
always resorted to by sanitary authorities who initiate prosecutions
for smoke nuisances. It has been decided that where black smoke
issued from a chimney several times a day for varying periods the
magistrate was justified in finding that the smoke issued in " such
quantity as to be a nuisance," although it was not shown that any
particular person, or property, was injuriously affected thereby
(South London Electric Supply Corporation v. Perrin (1901) 2 K.B.
186). It has also been held that smoke need not be injurious to
health in order to be a nuisance (Gaskell v. Bayley, 30 L.T.N.S. 316).
It therefore follows that the issue of black smoke from ordinary
factory chimneys is per se a nuisance. From a practical point of
view, however, it is often found difficult to identify exactly the
colour of the smoke, the appearance of which varies in accordance
with the position of the observer, and the light behind or in front of
the smoke. To aid inspectors various smoke charts and instruments
have been devised, none of which is wholly satisfactory. The best
chart is the Ringlemann smoke scale, made by ruling black lines at
right angles on a white background. It has six shades, numbered
0-5, obtained by graduating the thickness of the lines.
The difficulty of accurately denning the colour of smoke has
led to a movement, initiated by the London County Council,
for securing the deletion of the word " black " from the Public
Health Act, so as to leave to magistrates the duty of deciding
a question of fact whether the smoke complained of constituted
a nuisance. The Nottingham Improvement Act 1874 (sec. 74)
contains the most efficacious provisions in regard to smoke
nuisances which are to be met with in England. It enables
steps to be taken in cases where the engines or furnaces are not
suitable, and if they are properly constructed, but negligently
used, it enables the fireman or other responsible employee to
be fined.
Although steam-engines and factories consume individually
much more coal than dwelling-houses, they alone are not respon-
sible for the smoke nuisance, for there is little doubt that domestic
fires are mainly responsible for the smoky condition of the
atmosphere of our towns, for they continue to evolve smoke
undeterred by legislation. In 1881, however, a movement was
begun by the National Health Society and the Kyrle Society,
which resulted in a smoke abatement exhibition being held at
276
SMOKE
South Kensington. At the close of the exhibition a national
smoke abatement institution, with offices in London, was formed.
In the United Kingdom the subject takes an important place
in the programme of the Royal Sanitary Institute, whilst the
Coal Smoke Abatement Society is devoted to improving the
prevailing conditions, especially in the Metropolis, and has
organized a number of exhibitions and conferences on the
subject. Several smoke abatement committees exist in the
provinces.
A knowledge of the nature of coal and of its combustion is essential
for an understanding of the smoke problem. For the purposes of this
article coals may be classified as smoke-producing or bituminous,
and smokeless, the former including all those varieties most commonly
used as fuel. The elementary constituents of such coals are carbon
(generally about 80%), hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur,
and they also contain a varying quantity of earthy impurity or ash.
The process which occurs in a coal fire consists of two distinct
operations. The first, which requires a comparatively low tempera-
ture and is independent of the presence of air, is one of destructive
distillation, similar to that which occurs in the retorts of gasworks.
It results in the decomposition of the coal, and the formation of the
following substances: (l) hydrogen, marsh-gas, carbon monoxide,
ethylene, benzene, other hydrocarbons of the paraffin and benzenoid
series, water all of which are either gaseous at the temperature at
which they are formed or capable of being converted into gas at some-
what higher temperatures, and all of which are combustible except
the water; (2) ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds and
certain compounds of sulphur, which are also volatile and com-
bustible; (3) coke, which consists of carbon (and ash) and is non-
volatile but combustible. It is these products of distillation, not the
coal itself, that burn, in the strict sense of the word ; and this second
process requires the presence of air and also a much higher tempera-
ture than the first. If the combustion is perfect, the only products
sulphur, while the nitrogen is liberated as such together with the
very much larger volumes of nitrogen derived from the air which has
supplied the necessary oxygen. These products are discharged
through the chimney.
Two things are necessary for ensuring such complete combustion,
viz. an adequate, but not too large, supply of air, properly ad-
ministered, and the maintenance of the requisite temperature. In
practice, however, these conditions are never perfectly fulfilled, and
consequently the combustion of coal is always more or less imperfect
and gives rise to a complex mixture of vapours. This mixture con-
tains not only the combustion products already mentioned, but also
the following unburnt or partly burnt distillation products: (5)
hydrogen, (6) hydrocarbons, (7) carbon monoxide, (8) unburnt
carbon in a very finely divided state, and also considerable volumes
of unused air.
Usually the name " smoke " is applied to this vaporous
mixture discharged from a chimney only when it contains a
sufficient amount of finely divided carbon to render it dark-
coloured and distinctly visible. The quantity, however, of this
particular ingredient is apt to be overrated. It always bears an
extremely small proportion to the vast volumes of water-vapour,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen with which it is mixed; it probably
never amounts, even in the worst cases, to 3% of the weight
of the coal from which it is formed ; and its importance, reckoned
in terms of so much fuel wasted, is certainly not greater than that
of the unburnt hydrogen and hydrocarbons. It is perhaps
best to use the name " smoke " for all the products of imperfect
combustion (5 to 8) which are avoidable, as contrasted with the
necessary and unavoidable ingredients (i to 4). The problem
of smoke abatement is thus seen to resolve itself into the
problem of the production of perfect combustion.
The solution of this problem would lead to an important saving
in fuel. It has been calculated that at least twice as much
coal is used in boiler fires and six times as much in domestic
fires as is theoretically required for the production of the effects
obtained. A considerable portion of this loss is certainly un-
avoidable; nevertheless, much of this enormous waste could be
prevented by improved methods of combustion. Another
advantage is the gain in cleanliness and public convenience;
not only would there be an end to sooty chimneys, but the
atmosphere of towns would no longer be polluted by unburnt
carbon, whose total quantity is enormous, though the amount
contained in any given puff of smoke is very small. The
" London " or " pea-soup " fog would be avoided, not because
fogs would become any less frequent than now in London and
other large cities, but because they would lose their distinctive
grimy opacity.
An investigation of London fogs was made in 1901-1903 by
the Meteorological Council with the assistance of the London
County Council, from which it appeared that 20% of fogs were
entirely due to smoke, and that in every case the density and
duration of fogs was enormously added to by smoke.
It is often stated that these fogs are caused by the smoke that
blackens them; but this is an error. The combustion of coal is
certainly responsible for-their existence, but it is the sulphur of the
coal (oxidized ultimately to sulphuric acid), and not the carbon,
that is the active agent. So long as coal is burnt at all this manu-
facture of sulphuric acid and of fogs must continue; it is not to be
got rid of by improved methods of combustion, though the character
of the fogs may be materially improved. The evil effects of town
air on plant life and human lungs, also often attributed to preventible
smoke, are in like manner due to this non-preventible sulphuric acid.
Sixteen million tons of coal are annually used in London for heating
purposes, and it has been shown by Dr Rideal that, as the sulphur
content of this coal ranges from I to 2 %, there is diffused in the air
of the metropolis from half a million to a million tons of sulphuric
acid every year. The extent to which smoke and fog affect life and
injure property is, perhaps, a matter of opinion. It has, however,
been proved that the death-rate enormously expands in foggy
weather, and the Hon. Rollo Russell has made a careful calculation
showing the extra cost which the smoke nuisance annually imposes
upon London. The figure at which he has arrived is 5,470,000,
including damage to buildings, fabrics and works of art.
The amount of coal consumed each year in the country was
calculated by the Royal Commission on coal supplies to amount to
160,000,000 tons, of which 36,000,000 or 19-2 % are consumed for
domestic purposes, and 53,000,000 tons are used in ordinary factories.
Thirteen million tons are taken by railways, 15,000,000 by gasworks
and 28,000,000 tons by the iron and steel industries.
The methods that have been suggested for the abolition of smoke
may be divided into two great classes, viz. those that seek to attain
this end by improving the appliances for the burning of bituminous
coal, and those that propose to abolish its use and substitute for it
some other kind of fuel. The proposals of the first class may be
divided into those applicable to domestic purposes and those appli-
cable to boiler fires and other large-scale operations. Those of the
second class may be divided according to the nature of the fuel which
they suggest. The innumerable inventions of the first class depend
for their success (so far as they are successful) on the attention
bestowed on the scientific requisites for complete combustion, viz.
a sufficient but not too great supply of air, the thorough admixture
of this air with the products of the destructive distillation of the
coal, and the maintenance of a high temperature within the fire.
In the old and crude methods the facts which most militate against
the attainment of these desiderata are (l) that large masses of
fresh fuel are thrown on at the top, which cool down the fire where
the highest temperature is required; (2) that the products of the
distillation of this fresh fuel, heated from below, do not get properly
mixed with air till they have been drawn up the chimney ; (3) that
unduly large volumes of cold air are continually being sucked up
through the fire, cooling it and carrying its heat away from where it is
wanted, and yet without remedying the second evil. In the improved
methods regularity of supply of both fuel and air is sought so as
to maintain a steady evolution of distillation products, a steady
temperature, and a steady and complete combustion. In many
cases it is sought to warm fresh air before it enters the room by a
regenerative system, the heat being taken from the escaping gases
which would otherwise carry it up the chimney ; and in some cases
the air which feeds the fire is heated in the same way.
Tests applied at the South Kensington Exhibition of 1882 and in
recent years by the Coal Smoke Abatement Society acting in con-
junction with the Office of Works, for domestic grates and stoves,
have included a chemical examination of the chimney gases, ob-
servations of the " smoke-shade " as indicating the proportion of
unburnt carbon, and a record of the amount of coal burnt, of the
rise of temperature produced, of the radiation, and of the amount of
heat lost by being carried away through the chimney. Domestic
grates and stoves are divided into six classes : (i) open grates having
ordinary bottom grids and upward draught; (2) open grates having
solid floors (adapted for " slow combustion ") and upward draught;
(3) open grates fed from below, supplied with fresh fuel beneath
the incandescent fuel; (4) open grates fed from the back or from
the sides or from hoppers; (5) open grates having downward or
backward or lateral draught; (6) close stoves. Each of these classes
is subdivided according as the apparatus is " air-heating " or
" non-air-heating," i.e. according as an attempt is or is not made
to save heat on the regenerative principle. The following conclusions,
among others, have been arrived at: (a) the air-heating principle
has not been applied with success except in class 5; (6) close stoves
(class 6) are superior to open grates (total average of classes 1-5)
in respect of freedom from smoke and of general heating effect, but
SMOLENSK
277
they are greatly inferior in radiating power; (c) the "slow-com-
bustion " principle gives a high radiation factor, with a lower
consumption of fuel, but is otherwise not successful; (d) the class of
air-heating grates with downward, backward, or lateral draughts
and with a large surface of fire-brick for radiating heat is, on the
whole, most efficient (see HEATING).
In boiler fires, both for locomotives and for fixed appliances, the
desiderata are essentially the same as in the case of domestic fires ;
the principles involved are consequently also the same, though the
appliances are necessarily different. These improvements may be all
classed under one or other of two heads, according as the mode of
supplying the fuel or the mode of supplying the air is the subject of
the improvement. These two kinds of improvement may of course
be combined.
In the old forms of furnace fresh fuel, as it is wanted, is supplied
by hand labour, the furnace doors being opened and large quantities
of coal thrown in. One result of this is the inrush of great volumes of
cold air, which, aided by the equally cold fuel, lowers the general
temperature of the furnace. Mechanical stokers meet this difficulty
by supplying the coal regularly in small quantities at a time. They
may be divided into " coking " stokers, which deliver the coal at the
front and gradually push it backward; " sprinkling " stokers, which
scatter it generally over the surface of the grate; and " underfeed "
stokers, which raise it from below so that the products of its dis-
tillation pass through the already incandescent fuel. The mechanism
by which these results are attained is often of a complex nature.
It is generally recognized that air cannot be efficiently supplied to
the furnace if admitted only in front, and accordingly many plans
have been devised for supplying it also at the back and sides. In
some cases currents of air are induced by steam-jets ; but this plan
has not always proved successful. The inventions on the regenerative
principle are more generally satisfactory. In them the air, before
entering the furnace, is made to circulate through chambers heated
externally by the products of combustion, and, having thus acquired
a high temperature and absorbed heat that would otherwise have
been lost, is admitted through openings at the bridge. Many of these
appliances are almost absolutely smokeless, and they are much in use,
as they have been shown to effect great economy in coal consumption.
It must not be forgotten, however, that with the use of trained
stokers a high degree of boiler efficiency is reached by hand-firing
alone. Indeed, it has been proved by actual tests that, when pitted
against untrained men, skilled stokers have raised the thermal
efficiency of their plant by over 16%, without creating smoke
nuisances. In Germany stokers are trained under careful state super-
vision, and similar work has been started at the Borough Polytechnic
Institute by the London County Council.
The advocates of the total or partial disuse of smoke-producing
coals are variously in favour of anthracite, coke, electric power,
liquid fuel or gas.
In some factories, such as malting works, anthracite and other coals
containing a high percentage of carbon may be and have long been
advantageously used as fuel. They yield a much smaller percentage
of distillation products than ordinary coals, and produce no smoke
or almost none. But they are difficult to ignite, and in small fires
difficult to keep burning without forced draught; they give very
little flame, and are comparatively expensive, so that they are under
considerable disadvantage as compared with the usual kinds of coal.
Many grates and stoves have been devised for burning anthracite for
domestic heating, and some of them are successful and economical ;
but, in view of the national prejudice in favour of a bright and open
fire, it is not likely that anthracite will ever replace bituminous coal
to any great extent in the British Isles, where the great coal-fields
undoubtedly are the natural sources of fuel.
This remark, however, does not apply to the use of coke and of gas,
which are themselves made from coal. Coke is produced in large
quantities, both for its own sake and as a by-product in the manu-
facture of gas for lighting purposes, and is largely used in various
kinds of furnaces It gives no smoke; but it resembles anthracite
also in being but ill adapted for use in open grates on account of the
difficulty of ignition and the absence of flame.
One of the most notable features of the smoke abatement
movement in recent years has been the manufacture of smokeless
fuels capable of being readily and satisfactorily burnt in ordinary
household grates. The use of such fuels is growing and will,
in conjunction with the enormous expansion in the use of gas-
cookers and heating appliances, do much to eliminate smoke
nuisances from private houses. Over 750,000 gas-cookers are
in use in the metropolis alone, and their aggregate effect in
preventing the emission of smoke from kitchen chimneys must
be very great.
Liquid fuel or natural petroleum, which has come into excep-
tional prominence during recent years as a heating agent, owes
its success to its relatively smokeless combustion and high
efficiency. The same applies to gaseous fuel, which includes
in addition to ordinary coal gas other mixtures of gases which
burn with a high heating value and with no deleterious vapours
or smoke (see FUEL : Liquid and Gaseous) . Electricity is now also
being largely utilized in factories for power purposes, and is thus
bearing its share in solving the problem of smoke abatement.
See Official Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee (London
1882); W. C. Popplewell, The Prevention of Smoke (1901); W.
Nicholson, Smoke Abatement (1905); also the publications of the
London Coal Smoke Abatement Society; Booth and Kershaw,
Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy (1904); Reports of the Laws
in certain Foreign Countries in regard to Emission of Smoke from
Chimneys (Foreign Office Return),Cd. 2347 (1905) ; LondonFoglnquiry
(1901-1902) (Reports to and by the Meteorological Council).
(O. M.; L. W. CH.)
SMOLENSK, a government of middle Russia, belonging partly
to Great Russia and partly to White Russia, bounded by the
governments of Moscow and Kaluga on the E., Orel and Cherni-
gov on the S., Mogilev and Vitebsk on the W., and Pskov and
Tver on the N. It covers an area of 2 1 ,63 2 sq. m. in the W. of the
great central plateau, its N. districts extending towards the hilly
region of the Valdai. The rivers being deeply cut in the plateau,
the surface is also hilly in the W. districts (Smolensk, Doro-
gobuzh), whence it slopes away gently towards vast plains on the
E. and S. Carboniferous limestones, containing a few deposits
of coal (in Yukhnov) and quarried for building purposes, occupy
the E. of Smolensk; chalk appears in the S. extremity; while
tertiary sands, marls and ferruginous clays cover all the W.
The whole is overlain with a thick sheet of boulder clay, with
irregular extensions to the N.; post-tertiary sands are spread
over wide surfaces; and peat-bogs fill the marshy depressions.
The soil, mostly clay, is generally unfertile, and stony and sandy
in several districts. The rivers Vazuza and Gzhat, both flowing
into the Volga, and the Moskva and the Ugra, tributaries of the
Oka, are channels for floating timber. The two tributaries of the
Dvina the Kasplya and the Mezha are of much more import-
ance, as they and their affluents carry considerable numbers of
boats to Riga. The Dnieper takes its origin in Smolensk and
drains it for more than 300 m. ; but neither this river nor its
tributaries (Vop, Vyazma, Sozh and Desna), whose upper
courses belong to Smolensk, are navigable; timber only is floated
down some of them. Many small lakes and extensive marshes
occur in the N.W. More than one-third of the area is under
forests. The climate is like that of middle Russia generally,
although the moderating influence of the damp climate of.W.
Europe is felt to some extent. The average yearly temperature
at the city of Smolensk is 45-5 Fahr. (January, 13-5; July,
67-2).
The estimated population in 1906 was 1,762,400. It is chiefly
composed of White Russians (55%) in the W., 'and Great
Russians (43%) in the E. Most of the inhabitants (98%)
belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; the rest are Noncon-
formists. The government is divided into twelve districts, the
chief towns of which are Smolensk, Byelyi, Dorogobuzh, Dukhov-
shina, Elnya, Gzhatsk, Krasnyi, Poryechie, Roslavl, Sychevka,
Vyazma and Yukhnov.
Notwithstanding the unproductive soil and the frequent failures of
crops (especially in the N.W.), the chief occupation is agriculture.
Out of the total area 38J% is held by the village communities, 52%
by private persons and 2|% by the crown; 7% is uncultivable.
Nearly 30% of the surface is arable land, and over 20% is under
meadows. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley, buck-
wheat and potatoes. Grain has to be imported. Improved agri-
cultural implements are beginning to be manufactured within the
government, and to be used by the landlords, and partly also by
the peasants. Flax and hemp are important crops, and some
tobacco is grown. The live stock of the peasantry suffer from a want
of meadow and pasture land, which is chiefly in private ownership.
The peasantry are mostly very poor, in consequence not only of the
French invasion in 1812, the effects of which are still felt, but also of
insufficient allotments and want of meadows. In the way of mining
phosphorite only is extracted. The most important industries are
cotton, oil and paper mills, distilleries and breweries. The timber
trade and boat-building are important sources of income, but more
than one-half of the male population of west Smolensk leave their
homes every year in search of work, principally as navvies throughout
Russia. A lively traffic is carried on on the rivers, principally the
Kasplya, the Obzha and the Ugra, corn, hemp, hempseed, linseed
and especially timber being shipped. A considerable quantity of
corn is imported into the W. districts.
SMOLENSK SMOLLETT
Smolensk is crossed by two important railways, from Moscow to
Warsaw and from Riga to Saratov ; a branch line connects Vyazma
with Kaluga. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
SMOLENSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, on both banks of the Dnieper, at the junction of
the railways from Moscow to Warsaw and from Riga to Orel,
252 m. by rail W.S.W. of Moscow. Pop. (1900) 57,405. The
town, with the ruins of its old kreml, or citadel, is built on high
crags on the left bank of the Dnieper. Its walls, built during the
reign of Boris Godunov (1598-1605), are rapidly falling into
decay. But the city has much improved of late years. It has
monuments in commemoration of the war of 1812 and of the
Russian musical composer, M. I. Glinka (1885). It has three
public libraries, an historical and archaeological museum, a
people's palace, and several scientific societies. The cathedral
was erected in 1676-1772, on the site of a more primitive building
(dating from 1101), which was blown up in 1611 by the defenders
of the city during a siege by the Poles. The picture of the Virgin
brought to Russia in 1046, and attributed to St Luke, which is
kept in this cathedral, is much venerated throughout central
Russia. Two other churches, built in the I3th century, have
been spoiled by recent additions. Smolensk is neither a com-
mercial nor a manufacturing centre.
Smolensk is one of the oldest towns of Russia, and is mentioned
in Nestor's Chronicle as the chief town of the Slav tribe of the
Krivichis, situated, on the great commercial route " from the
Varyaghs to the Greeks." It maintained a lively traffic with
Constantinople down to thenth century, when the principality of
Smolensk included Vitebsk, Moscow, Kaluga and parts of the
present government of Pskov. The princes of Kiev were often
recognized as military chiefs by the iiyeche (council) of Smolensk,
who mostly preferred Mstislav and his descendants and Rostislav,
son of Mstislav, became the ancestor of a series of nearly inde-
pendent princes of Smolensk. From the i4th century these fell
under the influence of the Lithuanian rulers, and in 1408 Smolensk
was annexed to Lithuania. In 1449 the Moscow princes re-
nounced their claims upon Smolensk; nevertheless this im-
portant city, with nearly 100,000 inhabitants, was a constant
source of contention between Moscow and Lithuania. In 1514
it fell under Russian dominion; but during the disturbances
of 161 1 it was taken by Sigismund III. of Poland, and it remained
under Polish rule until 1654, when the Russians retook it. In
1686 it was definitely annexed to Russia. In the i8th century it
played an important part as a basis for the military operations
of Peter the Great during his wars with Sweden. In 1812 it was
well fortified; but the French, after a two days' battle, defeated
the Russians here and took the city, when it suffered much.
SMOLENSKIN, PEREZ [PETER] (1842-1885), Russian Jewish
novelist, was born near Mogilev (Russia) in 1842; he died at
Meran (Austria) in 1885. His story is the Odyssey of an erring
son of the Ghetto. He joined and left the opposite parties of the
rationalists and the mystics, and followed a variety of precarious
occupations. He settled in Odessa, where he familiarized
himself with several European languages, and became an anti-
nomian in religion, though he never left the Jewish fold. He
became the rallying-point for the revolt of young Jewry against
medievalism, the leader, too, in a new movement towards Jewish
nationalism. His Hebrew periodical, the Dawn (Ha-shahar),
exercised a powerful influence in both directions. Shortly before
his death he became deeply interested in schemes for the coloniza-
tion of Palestine, and was associated with Laurence Oliphant.
Smolenskin was the first to dissociate Messianic ideals from
theological concomitants. Smolenskin's literary fame is due to
his Hebrew novels. He may be termed the Jewish Thackeray.
In style and method his work resembles that of the English
novelist. There is little doubt but that Smolenskin, had he
written in any language but Hebrew, would be regarded as one of
the great novelists of the igth century. Of his novels only the
best need be named here. A Wanderer on the Path of Life
(Ha-to'eh be-darkhe ha-flayim) is the story of an orphan, Joseph,
who passes through every phase of Ghetto life; the work
(1868-1870) is an autobiography, the form of which was sug-
gested by David Copperfield, but there is no similarity to the
manner of Dickens. More perfect in execution is the Burial of
the Ass (Qeburath gamor) which appeared in 1874. A third
novel, The Inheritance (Ha-yerushah), issued in 1880-1881,
depicts life in Odessa and Rumania.
See N. Slouschz, The Renascence of Hebrew Literature, chs. ix.,
x., xi. (I. A.)
SMOLLETT, TOBIAS GEORGE (1721-1771), British novelist,
was born in the old grange of Dalquhurn, near Bonhill, in the
vale of Leven, parish of Cardross, Dumbartonshire, and was
christened on the igth of March 1721. His father Archibald
(youngest son of Sir James, the laird of Bonhill, a zealous Whig
judge and promoter of the Union of 1707) had made what was
deemed in the family an improvident marriage. Archibald died
in 1723, and Sir James did what he could for the widow and her
family during his lifetime. The elder son James was sent into
the army. Tobias was sent to Dumbarton school, then in
excellent repute under the grammarian John Love. When the
grandfather died in 1731 there was no further provision, and
after qualifying for a learned profession at Glasgow University,
Tobias was apprenticed in 1736 for five years to a well-known
surgeon in that city. This early " deception " conspired to make
him angry, resentful and suspicious of motive; but he was
neither vindictive nor ungenerous. If his tendency to satire and
caricature made him enemies, his enthusiasm for Scottish history
made him friends, and, in spite of peccadilloes, the " bubbly-nosed
callant with a stane in his pouch," as Dr Gordon called him, seems
as an apprentice to have won his master's regard. The lad's
ambition would not allow him to remain in Glasgow. The
example of Thomson and Mallet was contagious, and at the age
of eighteen Smollett crossed the border in set form to conquer
England with a tragedy, The Regicide, based on Buchanan's
description of the death of James I.
The story of the journey is told with infinite spirit in the
early chapters of Roderick Random. The failure of the play, his
darling composition and certainly the worst thing he ever wrote,
became the stock grievance of Smollett's life. For some months
no one could be induced to read it, and the unrequited author
would have been reduced to starvation had not a friend of the
family procured him the position as surgeon's mate on H.M.S.
" Cumberland. " The fleet was ordered to attack Cartagena,
the great stronghold of Spanish America, and the siege, which
occupied most of the year 1741, proved the Walcheren expedition
of the i8th century. Smollett as an eye-witness has left us a
memorable picture of the miseries endured by soldiers and sailors,
which historians have been content to accept as a first-hand
authority in spite of the fact that it is embedded in the pages
of a licentious novel. When the enterprise was abandoned the
fleet returned to Jamaica. There Smollett fell in love with
the daughter of a planter, Nancy Lascelles, whom he married on
returning to England. Before this, having removed his name
from the navy books (May 1744), he had set up as a surgeon in
Downing Street ; but he attracted attention more as a wit than
as a leech. " Jupiter " Carlyle testifies to his brilliant accom-
plishments, and to the popularity he attained by his indignant
verses " The Tears of Scotland," resenting Culloden. In the
same year (July 1746) his name appeared upon the title-page of
a political satire entitled Advice, followed characteristically in
1747 by Reproof, both of them "imitations from Juvenal"
in the manner of Pope. He revenges himself in his satires on the
should-have-been patrons of his play.
Disappointed alike in the drama, his profession and his wife's
dowry, Smollett devoted his attention in a happy hour to fictitious
adventure. Richardson had published the first part of Pamela
in 1741, and Fielding his Joseph Andrews in 1742. But Smollett
owed less to these models than to his studies in Cervantes, Swift,
Defoe and above all Le Sage. His hero, who gives his first novel
its capital name, Roderick Random, recounts like Gil Bias a life
of varied adventure in the company of a servant, in which he
enters the service of a physician and meets with old schoolfellows,
thieves, notes of the bank of engraving, prison, semi-starvation
and in the end an unexpected fortune. The author draws on
SMOLLETT
279
his adventures on the English highway and in the cockpit of a
king's ship. Virtually he revealed the seaman to the reading
world divined jhis character, sketched his outlines, formulated
his lingo, discovered his possibilities to such purpose that, as
Scott says, every one who has written about the navy since seems
to have copied more from Smollett than from nature. Pungent
observation allied to a vigorous prose, emancipated to a rare
degree from provincialism or archaism, were perhaps the first of
Smollett's qualifications as a novelist. Such coherence as his
novels have owes more to accidental accumulation than to
constructive design. The wealth of amusing incident, the rapidly
moving crowd of amusing and eccentric figures, atones for a
good many defects. Smollett's peculiar coarseness and ferocity
were gradually eliminated from English fiction, but from Tom
Jones right down to Great Expectations his work was regularly
ransacked for humour. There was no author's name on the title
of the two small volumes of Random; Lady Mary Wortley
Montagu thought a work so delightful could only be by Fielding,
in whose name it was actually translated into French. But
Smollett made no secret of the authorship, went to Paris to
ratify his fame, and published his derelict play as " by the author
of Roderick Random," hoping thus, as he said, to intimidate
his discarded patrons. The incident well reveals the novelist's
" sy sterna nervosum maxime irritabile," of which his medical
advisers spoke.
Smollett now became a central figure among the group of able
doctors who hailed from north of the Tweed, such as Clephane,
Macaulay, Hunter, Armstrong, Pitcairne and William Smellie,
in the revision of whose system of Midwifery the novelist bore a
part. He must have still designed to combine medicine with
authorship, for in June 1750 he obtained the degree of M.D.from
Marischal College, Aberdeen. But in the autumn of this year
he already had another novel in prospect, and went over to Paris
with a new acquaintance, Dr Moore (author of Zeluco), who soon
became his intimate and was destined to become his biographer.
The influence of this visit is marked in Smollett's second novel,
The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle (4 vols., 1731). Like its
predecessor, a loosely constructed string of episodes and adven-
tures in which a still greater scope is afforded to the author for
eccentric display, Pickle proved from the first a resounding
success, both in England and France. The chief centres of
attraction are the grotesque misanthrope of Bath, Cadwallader
Crabtree, the burlesque scenes afforded by the physician (a
caricature of Akenside) and Pallet the painter in Paris, and the
so-called " garrison," with its inhabitants, Hatchway and Pipes
and the inimitable Trunnion whose death-scene fully exhibits
Smollett's powers for the first time-the prototype of so many
cha'racter portraits from Uncle Toby to Cap'n Cuttle. Trunnion's
grotesque ride to church reappears in John Gilpin; the misan-
thrope, practising satire under cover of feigned deafness, reappears
in the Mungo Malagrowther of Scott, who frankly admits further
debts to Smollett in the preface to the Legend of Montrose. The
" garrison " unquestionably suggested the " castle " of Tristram
Shandy and the " fortress " of Mr Wemmick. Indeed it is no
exaggeration to say that the tideway of subsequent fiction is
strewn on every hand with the disjecta membra of Smollett's
happy phrases and farcical inventions. Pickle himself is if
possible a bigger ruffian than Random; in this respect at any
rate Smollett clings to the cynical tradition of the old romances
of roguery. The novel is marred to an even greater extent by
interpolations and personal attacks than its predecessor; the
autobiographical element is slighter and the literary quality in
some respects inferior.
Smollett's third novel, Ferdinand Count Fathom, appeared in
J753I by which time the author, after a final trial at Bath, had
definitively abandoned medicine for letters, and had settled
down at Monmouth House, Chelsea, a married man, a father and
a professional writer, not for patronage, but for the trade. In
this capacity he was among the first to achieve a difficult inde-
pendence. In Fathom Smollett endeavours unquestionably to
organize a novel upon a plan elevated somewhat above mere
agglomeration. It looks as if he had deliberately set himself to
show that he too, as well as the author of Tom Jones, could
make a plot. The squalor and irony of the piece repel the reader,
but it is Smollett's greatest feat of invention, and the descriptive
power, especially in the first half, reveals the latent imaginative
power of the author. Few novels have been more systematically
plundered, for Fathom was the studio model of all the mystery
and terror school of fiction commencing with Radcliffe and
Lewis. With Fathom the first jet of Smollett's original invention
was spent. The novel w r as not' particularly remunerative, and
his expenses seem always to have been profuse. He was a great
frequenter of taverns, entertained largely, and every Sunday
threw open his house and garden to unfortunate " brothers of
the quill," whom he regaled with beef, pudding and potatoes,
port, punch and " Calvert's entire butt-beer."
To sustain these expenses Smollett consented to become a
literary impresario upon a hitherto unparalleled scale. His
activity during the next six years was many-sided, chiefly in the
direction of organizing big and saleable " standard " works for
the booksellers and contracting them out to his " myrmidons."
Thus we see him almost simultaneously editing Don Quixote,
making a triumphant visit to Scotland, inaugurating a new
literary periodical the Critical (Feb. 1756) by way of corrective
to Griffith's Monthly Review, organizing a standard library
History of England in quarto and octavo, with continuations,
and a seven-volume compendium of Voyages, for which he wrote
a special narrative of the siege of Cartagena, supplementary to his
account in Roderick Random. In 1758 he projected and partly
wrote a vast Universal History, and in January 1760 he brought
out the first number of a new sixpenny magazine, the British,
to which he contributed a serial work of fiction, the mediocre
Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves. By these Herculean
labours as a compiler Smollett must have amassed a considerable
sum, to which the 200 received from the now forgiven " Mar-
mozet " (Garrick) for the sixth performance of the patriotic
extravaganza, The Reprisal, or the Tars of Old England, must have
come as a welcome addition. The Critical Review was already
responsible for plenty of thorns in the editorial cushion when in
1762 Smollett undertook the additional task of editing the Briton.
He had already been ridiculed, insulted, fined and imprisoned
in the Marshalsea (this last for an attack on Admiral Sir Charles
Knowles). He was now to support the North British favourite
of George III. in the press against all comers, not we may
reasonably suppose without substantial reward. Yet after
incurring all this unpopularity, at a time when the London mob
was more inflamed against Scotsmen than it has ever been before
or since, and having aroused the animosity of such former
allies as Wilkes and his friend Churchill, Smollett was to find
himself unceremoniously thrown over by his chief, Lord Bute,
on the ground that his paper did more to invite attack than to
repel it.
The Briton expired or was killed by the North Briton in
February 1763, and for the moment Smollett allowed himself to
be beckoned back by the booksellers to such tasks as a universal
gazetteer and a translation of Voltaire in 38 volumes, and we hear
of him prescribing work to his minions or receiving their homage
and demanding their copy as of old. In April, however, his only
daughter died at the age of fifteen, and, already over-wrought and
almost broken down from sedentary strain, the tension proved too
much and Smollett was never the same man again. His wife
earnestly begged him to " convey her from a country where
every object seemed only to nourish grief," and he followed her
advice. The result was two years' sojourn abroad, mainly upon
the Riviera, which Smollett, who may be termed the literary
discoverer of Nice, turned to such excellent purpose in his Travels
(2 vols., 1766), remarkable alike for their acidity and for their
insight. On his arrival from Italy, where he had provided
material for Sterne's oortrait of the distressful " Smelfungus,"
Smollett seemed at first decidedly better and appeared to be
getting over some of the symptoms of his pulmonic complaint.
But his health was thoroughly undermined by rheumatism, and
the pain arising from a neglected ulcer which had developed into
a chronic sore helped to sap his strength. As soon, therefore,
28o
SMUGGLING
as the Travels were out of hand Smollett resolved on a summer
journey to Scotland. The society of Edinburgh, then at the
apogee of its brilliance, paid due attention to the famous Dr
Smollett. He was visited by Hume, Home, Robertson, Adam
Smith, Blair, Carlyle, Cullen and the Monros. He went to
Glasgow to see Dr Moore (where he patted the head of the future
hero of Corufia), and stayed with his cousin, James Smollett,
in his newly built mansion of Cameron. His mother, who
hardly knew his toil-worn visage until it relaxed into his old
roguish smile, died in this autumn, and he was still in a pre-
carious state of health when he proceeded to Bath, spending the
Christmas of 1766 in Gay Street, where his complaint at last took
a turn for the better, and where it is possible that he may have
commenced a rough draft of Humphrey Clinker.
In 1768 he was again in London, and with a return of his vital
energy came a recrudescence of the old savagery. The History
and Adventures of an Atom is a very clever, but abominably
coarse, Rabelaisian satire upon the whole conduct of public
affairs in England from the beginning of the Seven Years' War
down to the date of publication. He lashes out on all sides
without fear or favour. The king, Chatham, Bute and North
are bespattered with filth, the acridity of which owes something
to Gulliver, with aid as to local colour from the Jesuit and other
accounts of Japan which had come under his ken as a compiler
of travels. After its publication in 1769, without other serious
consequences, Smollett's health completely relapsed, and in
December (a consulate in the Mediterranean having been refused
him) he left England finally, and settled first at Pisa and then
near Antignano, a few miles out of Leghorn. There, during the
autumn of 1770, he penned his immortal Humphrey Clinker, in
which he reverts to his favourite form of itinerant letters, a rare
example of late maturity of literary power and fecundity of
humour. The sardonic humour, persistent curiosity and keen
faculty of observation shown in the Travels are here combined
with the mellow contentment of the voyager who has forgotten
the small worries of transport and with the enthusiasm of the
veteran who revisits the scenes of his youth. The character
drawing, too, though still caustic, seems riper and more matured.
Smollett's speculative and informing iSth-century mind is here
content for the most part, like Goldsmith's, merely to amuse.
Smollett died at Leghorn aged fifty on the 1 7th of September
1771, and was buried in the old English cemetery there. Three
years later the Smollett obelisk was put up at Renton (it now
stands in the parish school-ground) , half-way between Dumbarton
and Balloch. The best portrait belongs to the Smollett family,
Cameron House, Loch Lomond (engraved by Freeman, 1831).
The genuineness of the others, if we except that in the Hunterian
Museum, Glasgow, is doubtful. The novelist has been confused
with the Dr Smollett, the contemporary of Dr William Hunter,
who figures in Rowlandson's " Dissecting Room " (Royal Coll.
of Surgeons Cat., 1900).
Hume said that Smollett was like a coco-nut, rough outside,
but full of human kindness within. He was easily ruffled by the
rubs of fortune of which he had more than his fair share. Hence
the adjectives corrosive and splenetic so often applied to a nature
essentially both generous and tender. After Fielding, Smollett
counts as the greatest purveyor of comic prose-epic of con-
temporary life to his generation, if not to his century. Scott and
Dickens regarded him as fully Fielding's equal. Hazlitt and
Thackeray thought otherwise. Equally rationalist and pagan
with Fielding, Smollett is more of a pedagogue and less of the
instinctive scholar and wit than his predecessor. His method in
its broad outlines is similar, historic and ambulant rather than
philosophic or poetic, but he has more potential romance or
poetry about his make-up than the mystery-hating Fielding.
In the recognized requirements of prose-epic such as plot,
character, scene, reflection and diction, Smollett could fairly
hold his own. His prose, which carries on the robust tradition
from Swift and Defoe to Johnson and Jeffrey, is more modern in
tone than that of his great rival. In fictions such as Tom Jones,
Roderick Random and the like, England could at length feel
that it possessed compositions which might claim kinship and
comparison with Cervantes and Le Sage. Much that these writers
attempted has been done again in a style better adjusted to the
increasing refinement of a later age. But Smollett's great powers
of observation and description, his caustic and indignant turn
of speech, will long render him an invaluable witness in the
century which he so well represents. Much that he did was mere
hackwork, but at his best he ranks with the immortals.
The estimate formed of Smollett's work during the past generation
has probably been a diminishing one, as we may infer in part from
the fact that there is no standard Life and no definitive edition of
the works. The chief collective editions are as follows: 6 vols
Edinburgh, 1790; 6 vols., London, 1796, with R. Anderson's
Memoir; Works, ed. J. Moore, 1797 (re-edited J. P. Browne, 8 vols.,
1872); Works, ed. Henley and Seccombe, Constable (12 vols., 1899-
1902). To which must be added a one- volume Miscellaneous Works,
ed. Thomas Roscoe (1841); Selected Works (with a careful life by
David Herbert) (Edinburgh, 1870); Ballantyne's edition of the
Novels with Scott s judicious memoir and criticism (2 vols., 1821);
and Professor G. Samtsbury's edition of the Novels (12 vols 1895)
There are short Lives by Robert Chambers (1867), David Hannay
(1887) and O. Smeaton (1897). Additional information of recent
date will be found in the article on Smollett in the Diet. Nat.Biog.,
Masson's British Novelists (and other books on the development of
English Fiction), H. Graham's Scottish Men of Letters in the Eighteenth
Century, Blackwood's Mag. for May 1900; and the present writer's
introduction to Smollett's Travels through France and Italy (World's
Classics, 1907). ( T- SE )
SMUGGLING (O. Eng. smeogan, smugan, to creep, with the idea
of secrecy), a breach of the revenue laws either by the importation
or the exportation of prohibited goods or by the evasion of
customs duties on goods liable to duty. Legislation on the subject
in England has been very active from the i4th century down-
wards. In the reign of Edward III. the illicit [introduction of
base coin from abroad led to the provision of the Statute of
Treasons 1351, making it treason to import counterfeit money
as the money called " Lushburgh." Such importation is still
an offence, though no longer treason. After the Statute of
Treasons a vast number of acts dealing with smuggling were
passed, most of which will be found recited in the repealing act
of 1825. In the i8th and the early years of the ioth century,
smuggling (chiefly of wine, spirits, tobacco and bullion) was so
generally practised in Great Britain as to become a kind of
national failing. The prevalence of the offence may be judged
f rom the report of Sir J. Cope's committee in 1732 upon the frauds
on the revenue. The smuggler of the i8th century finds an
apologist in Adam Smith, who writes of him as " a person who,
though no doubt highly blamable for violating the laws of his
country, is frequently incapable of violating those of natural
justice, and would have been in every respect an excellent citizen
had not the laws of his country made that a crime which nature
never meant to be so." The gradual reduction of duties brought
the offence in the United Kingdom into comparative insignific-
ance, and it is now almost confined to tobacco, though the sugar
duty has led to smuggling of saccharin. Most of the existing
legislation on the subject of smuggling is contained in the Customs
Consolidation Act 1876.
The main provisions are as follows. Vessels engaged in smuggling
are liable to forfeiture and their owners and masters to a penalty
not exceeding 500. Smuggled and prohibited goods are liable to
forfeiture. Officers of customs have a right of search of vessels and
persons. Fraudulent evasion or attempted evasion of customs duties
renders the offender subject to forfeit either treble the value of the
goods or 100 at the election of the commissioners of customs.
Heavy penalties are incurred by resistance to officers of customs,
rescue of persons or goods, assembling to run goods, signalling
smuggling vessels, shooting at vessels, boats, or officers of the naval
or revenue service, cutting adrift customs vessels, offering goods for
sale under pretence of being smuggled, &c. Penalties may be
recovered either by action or information in the superior courts or
by summary proceedings. In criminal proceedings the defendant
is competent and compellable to give evidence. The Merchant
Shipping Act 1894 makes any seaman or apprentice, after conviction
for smuggling whereby loss or damage is caused to the master or
owner of a ship, liable to pay to such master or owner such a sum
as is sufficient to reimburse the master or owner for such loss or
damage, and the whole or a proportional part of his wages may be
retained in satisfaction of this liability. Additional provisions as to
smuggling are also contained in the Customs and Inland Revenue
Act 1879, and the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881. A
smuggling contract is generally illegal. But it may be valid, and the
SMYBERT SMYRNA
281
vendor may recover the price of goods, even though he knew the
buyer intended them to be smuggled, unless he actually aids in
the smuggling so as to become particeps criminis. Contracts to
defraud the revenue of a foreign state are, according to English
decisions, not illegal. There is a German decision, more consonant
with international morality, to the opposite effect.
The penalties for smuggling in the United States will be found
mainly in tit. xxxiv. ch. 10 of the Revised Statutes. The seaman
guilty of smuggling is liable to the same penalty as in England,
and in addition to imprisonment for twelve months, s. 4596.
See Stephen Dowell's History of Taxation (2nd ed., 1888), and
Luke Owen Pike's History of Crime in England (1873-1876) ; and for
general accounts of smuggling see W. D. Chester, Chronicles of the
Customs Department (1885) ; H. N. Shore, Smuggling Days and
Smuggling Ways (1892) ; Alton and Holland, The King's Customs
(1908); C. G. Harper, The Smugglers: Picturesque Chapters in the
Story of an Ancient Craft (1909).
SMYBERT (or SMIBERT), JOHN (1684-1751), Scottish American
artist, was born<at Edinburgh in 1684, and died in Boston,
Massachusetts, in 1751. He studied under Sir James Thornhill,
and in 1728 accompanied Bishop Berkeley to America, with
the intention of becoming professor of fine arts in the college
which Berkeley was planning to found in Bermuda. The college,
however, was never established, and Smybert settled in Boston,
where he married in 1730. In 1731 he painted " Bishop Berkeley
and His Family," now in the dining-hall, Yale University, a
group of eight figures. He painted portraits of Jonathan
Edwards and Judge Edmund Quincy (in the Boston Art Museum) ,
Mrs Smybert, Peter Faneuil and Governor John Endecott (in
the Massachusetts Historical Society), John Lovell (Memorial
Hall, Harvard University), and probably one of Sir William
Pepperrell; and examples of his works are owned by Harvard
and Yale Universities, by Bowdoin College, by the Massachusetts
Historical Society, and by the New England Historical and
Genealogical Society. A son, NATHANIEL SMYBERT (1734-1756),
was born in Boston on the 2oth of January 1734, and died there
on the 8th of November 1756. He was a pupil of his father, and
dying at the age of twenty-two, left several important canvases,
notably a portrait of Dorothy Wendell (in the Collection of Dr
John L. Hale, Boston).
SMYRNA (Ismir), in ancient times one of the most important
and now by far the greatest of the cities of Asia Minor, has
preserved an unbroken continuity of record and identity of name
from the first dawn of history to the present time.
i. The Ancient City. It is said to have been a Lelegian city
before the Greek colonists settled in Asia Minor. The name,
which is said to be derived from an Amazon called Smyrna, is
indubitably Anatolian, having been applied also to a quarter of
Ephesus, and (under the cognate form Myrina) to a city of
Aeolis, and to a tumulus in the Troad. The Aeolic settlers of
Lesbos and Cyme, pushing eastwards by Larissa and Neonteichus
and over the Hermus, seized the valley of Smyrna. It was the
frontier city between Aeolis on the N. and Ionia on the S., and
was more accessible on the S. and E. than on the N. and W.
By virtue of its situation it was necessarily a commercial city,
like the Ionian colonies. It is therefore not surprising that the
Aeolic element grew weaker; strangers or refugees from the
Ionian Colophon settled in the city, and finally Smyrna passed
into the hands of the Colophonians and became the thirteenth of
the Ionian states. The change had taken place before 688, when
the Ionian Onomastus of Smyrna won the boxing prize at
Olympia, but it was probably then a recent event. The Colo-
phonian conquest is mentioned by Mimnermus (before 600 B.C.),
who counts himself equally a Colophonian and a Smyrnaean.
The Aeolic form of the name, Z/nf5pi>a, was retained even in the
Attic dialect, and the epithet " Aeolian Smyrna " remained long
after the conquest. The situation of Smyrna 'on the path of
commerce between Lydia and the west raised it during the 7th
century to the height of power and splendour. It lay at the head
of an arm of the sea, which reached far inland and admitted the
Greek trading ships into the heart of Lydia. One of the great
trade routes which cross Anatolia descends the Hermus valley past
Sardis, and then diverging from the valley passes S. of Mt
Sipylus and crosses a low pass into the little valley, about 7 m.
long and 2 broad, where Smyrna lies between the mountains and
the sea. Miletus, and later Ephesus, situated at the sea end of
the other great trade route across Anatolia, competed for a time
successfully with Smyrna, but both cities long ago lost their
harbours and Smyrna remains without a rival.
When the Mermnad kings raised the Lydian power and
aggressiveness Smyrna was one of the first points of attack.
Gyges (c. 687-652) was, however, defeated on the banks of the
Hermus; the situation of the battlefield shows that the power
of Smyrna extended far to the E., and probably included the
valley of Nymphi (Nif). A strong fortress, the ruins of whose
ancient and massive walls are still imposing, on a hill in the pass
between Smyrna and Nymphi, was probably built by the Smyr-
naean lonians to command the valley of Nymphi. According to
Theognis (about 500 B.C.), " pride destroyed Smyrna." Mimner-
mus laments the degeneracy of the citizens of his day, who could
no longer stem the Lydian advance. Finally, Alyattes III.
(600-560) conquered the city, and Smyrna for 300 years lost its
place in the list of Greek cities. It did not cease to exist, but the
Greek life and political unity were destroyed, and the Smyrnaean
state was organized on the village system (cjkeTro Kw/jiridov) .
It is mentioned in a fragment of Pindar, about 500 B.C., and in an
inscription of 388 B.C. A small fortification of early style,
rudely but massively built, on the lowest slope of a hill N. of
Burnabat, is perhaps a fortified village of this period. Alexander
the Great conceived the idea of restoring the Greek city; the
two Nemeses who were worshipped at Smyrna are said to have
suggested the idea to him in a dream. The scheme was, according
to Strabo, carried out by Antigonus (316-301), and Lysimachus
enlarged and fortified the city (301-281). The acropolis of the
ancient city had been on a steep peak about 1250 ft. high, which
overhangs the N.E. extremity of the gulf; its ruins still exist,
probably in much the same condition as they were left by
Alyattes. The later city was founded on the modern site partly
on the slopes of a rounded hill called Pagus near the S.E. end of
the gulf, partly on the low ground between the hill and the sea.
The beauty of the city, clustering on the low ground and rising
tier over tier on the hillside, is frequently praised by the ancients
and is celebrated on its coins.
The " crown of Smyrna " seems to have been an epithet
applied to the acropolis with its circle of buildings. Smyrna
is shut in on the W. by a hill now called Deirmen Tepe, with the
ruins of a temple on the summit. The walls of Lysimachus
crossed the summit of this hill, and the acropolis occupied
the top of Pagus. Between the two the road from Ephesus
entered the city by the " Ephesian gate," near which was a
gymnasium. Closer to the acropolis the outline of the stadium
is still visible, and the theatre was situated on the N. slopes
of Pagus. The line of the walls on the E. side is unknown;
but they certainly embraced a greater area than is included
by the Byzantine wall, which ascends the castle hill (Pagus)
from the Basmakhane railway station. Smyrna possessed
two harbours the outer, which was simply the open roadstead
of the gulf, and the inner, which was a small basin, with a narrow
entrance closed by a rope in case of need, about the place now
occupied by bazaars. The inner harbour was partially filled
up by Timur in 1402, but it had not entirely disappeared till
the beginning of the igth century. The modern quay has
encroached considerably on the sea, and the coast-line of the
Greek time was about 90 yds. farther S. The streets were broad,
well paved and laid out at right angles; many were named
after temples: the main street, called the Golden, ran across
the city from W. to E., beginning probably from the temple
of Zeus Akraios on the W. side of Pagus, and running round the
lower slopes of Pagus (like a necklace on the statue, to use the
favourite terms of Aristides the orator) towards Tepejik outside
the city on the E., where probably the temple of Cybele, the
Metroon, stood. Cybele, worshipped under the name of Meter
Sipylene, from Mt Sipylus, which bounds the Smyrna valley
on the N., was the tutelar goddess of the city. The plain towards
the sea was too low to be properly drained and hence in rainy
weather the streets were deep with mud and water.
The river Meles,which flowed by Smyrna, is famous in literature
282
SMYTH, C. P. SMYTH, J.
and was worshipped in the valley. The most common and
consistent tradition connects Homer with the valley of Smyrna
and the banks of the Meles; his figure was one of the stock
types on Smyrnaean coins,' one class of which was called
Homerian; the epithet " Melesigenes " was applied to him;
the cave where he was wont to compose his poems was shown
near the source of the river; his temple, the Homereum, stood
on its banks. The steady equable flow of the Meles, alike in
summer and winter, and its short course, beginning and ending
near the city, are celebrated by Aristides and Himerius. The
description applies admirably to the stream which rises from
abundant fountains, now known as Diana's bath, E. of the city,
and flows into the S.E. extremity of the gulf. The belief that
the torrent, almost dry except after rains, which flows by
Caravan bridge, is the ancient Meles, flatly contradicts the
ancient descriptions.
In the Roman period Smyrna was the seat of a conventus
which included S. Aeolis and great part of the Hermus valley.
It vied with Ephesus and Pergamum for the title " First (city)
of Asia." A Christian church existed here from a very early
time, having its origin in the considerable Jewish colony. Poly-
carp was bishop of Smyrna and was martyred there A.D. 155.
The bishops of Smyrna were originally subject to the metropolitan
of Ephesus; afterwards they became independent (a6roKe<#>aXot) ,
and finally were honoured with metropolitan rank, having
under them the bishops of Phocaea, Magnesia ad Sipylum,
Clazomenae, Sosandrus (Nymphi?), Archangelus (Temnos?)
and Petra (Menemen?).
When Constantinople became the seat of government the
trade between Anatolia and the W. lost in importance, and
Smyrna declined apace. A Turkish freebooter named Tsacha
seized Smyrna in 1084, but it was recovered by the generals
of Alexius Comnenus. The city was several times ravaged
by the Turks, and had become quite ruinous when the emperor
John Ducas Vatatzes about 1222 rebuilt it. But Ibn Batuta
found it still in great part a ruin when the famous chieftain
Aidin had conquered it about 1330 and made his son Amur
governor. It became the port of the Aidin amirate. Soon
afterwards the Knights of Saint John established themselves
in the town, but failed to conquer the citadel. In 1402 Timur
stormed the town and massacred almost all the inhabitants.
The Mongol conquest was only temporary, but Smyrna was
resumed by the Seljuks of Aidin and has remained till the present
day in Mahommedan hands. Until the reign of Abdul Mejid
it was included for administrative purposes in the eyalel of
Jezair (the Isles) and not in that of Anadoli. The represen-
tative of the Capitan Pasha, who governed that eyalel, was,
however, less influential in the city than the head of the Kara
Osman Oglu's of Manisa (see MANISA). From the early i7th
century till 1825, Smyrna was the chief provincial factory of the
British Turkey Company, as well as of French, Dutch and
other trading corporations. The passages with gates at each
end within which most Frank shops in modern Smyrna lie,
are a survival of the semi-fortified residences of the European
merchants.
2. The Modern City, capital of the Aidin vilayet, and the
most important town of Asia Minor. Pop. more than 250,000,
of which fully a half is Greek. It is one of the principal ports
of the Ottoman empire, and has a large trade, of which the
greater part is with Great Britain. The chief items of export
are figs, tobacco, valonia, carpets, raisins and silk, to the value
of some three million sterling. The imports are estimated at a
million more. About 7000 steamships visit the port annually.
Until 1894 the two railways from Smyrna to the interior belonged
to British companies; but in 1897 the Smyrna-Alashehr line
passed into the hands of a French syndicate, which completed
an extension to Afium Kara-hissar and virtually (though not
actually) effected a junction with the Anatolian railway system.
This line has branches to Burnabat and Soma. The Smyrna-
Aidin line has been extended to Dineir, and powers have been
obtained to continue to Isbarta and Egerdir. It has branches
to Buja, Seidikeui, Tireh, Odemish, Sokia, Denizli and Ishekli.
Modern Smyrna is in all but government a predominantly
Christian town (hence the Turks know it as giaour Ismir). There
is a large European element (including about 800 British subjects),
a great part of which lives in two suburban villages, Burnabat
and Buja, but has business premises in the city. The European
and Greek quarters rapidly increase, mainly to the N. ; while the
fine quays, made by a French company, are backed by a line of
good buildings. The streets behind, though clean and well
kept, are very narrow and tortuous. A fine new Konak (govern-
ment offices) has been built, and another important new structure
is the pier of the Aidin Railway Co. at Point. The development
of this railway is the most conspicuous sign of progress.
Smyrna is a headquarters of missions of all denominations and
has good schools, of which the International College is the best.
There is a British consul-general, with full consular establishment,
including a hospital.
See general authorities for Asia Minor, especially the travellers,
almost all of whom describe Smyrna. Also B. F. Slaars, Etude sur
Smyrne (1868); and W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches
(1904) and article in Hastings's Diet, of the Bible (1902).
(W. M. RA.;D. G. H.)
SMYTH, CHARLES PIAZZI. (1810-1900), British astronomer,
was born at Naples on the 3rd of January 1819. He was called
Piazzi after his godfather, the Italian astronomer of that name,
whose acquaintance his father, Admiral Smyth, had made at
Palermo when on the Mediterranean station. His father subse-
quently settled at Bedford and equipped there an observatory,
at which Piazzi Smyth received his first lessons in astronomy.
At the age of sixteen he went out as assistant to Sir Thomas
Maclear at the Cape of Good Hope, where he observed Halley's
comet and the great comet of 1843, and took an active part in
the verification and extension of La Caille's arc of the meridian.
In 1845 he was appointed astronomer royal for Scotland and
professor of astronomy in the university of Edinburgh. Here he
completed the reduction, and continued the series, of the observa-
tions made by his predecessor, Thomas Henderson (see Edinburgh
Observations, vols. xi.-xv.). In 1856 he made experimental
observations on the Peak of Teneriffe with a view to testing the
astronomical advantages of a mountain station. The Admiralty
made him a grant of 500 for the purpose, and a yacht the
" Titania " of 140 tons and a fine 75 in. equatorial telescope
were placed at his disposal by friends. The upshot of the
expedition was to verify Newton's surmise, that a " most serene
and quiet air ... may perhaps be found on the tops of the
highest mountains above the grosser clouds." The scientific
results were detailed in a Report addressed to the lords com-
missioners of the admiralty, 1858, in a communication to the
Royal Society (Phil. Trans, cxlviii. 465) and in the Edinburgh
Observations, vol. xii. A popular account of the voyage is
contained in Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment, 1858. In
1871-1872 Piazzi Smyth investigated the spectra of the aurora,
and zodiacal light. He recommended the use of the " rainband "
for weather prediction (Jour. Scottish Meteor. Society, v. 84) , and
discovered, in conjunction with Professor A. S. Herschel, the
harmonic relation between the rays emitted by carbon monoxide.
In 1877-1878 he constructed at 'Lisbon a map of the solar-
spectrum (Edin. Phil. Trans, xxix. 285), for which he received
the Macdougall-Brisbane prize in 1880. Further spectroscopic
researches were carried out by him at Madeira in 1880 (Madeira
Spectroscopic, 1882), and at Winchester in 1884 (Edin. Phil.
Trans, vol. xxxii. pt. ii.). He published besides Three Cities
in Russia (1862), Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid (1864),
Life and Work at the Great Pyramid (1867), and a volume On
the Antiquity of Intellectual Man (1868). In 1888 he resigned his
official position and retired to the neighbourhood of Ripon, where
he died on the 2ist of February 1900.
See Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, Ixi. 189; Observatory,
xxiii. 145, 184; R. Copeland in Astr. Nach. No. 3636, and Pop.
Astronomy (1900), p. 384; Nature, jxii. 161 (A. S. Herschel); Andr6
and Rayet, L'Astronomie pratique, ii. 12. (A. M. C.)
SMYTH (or SMITH), JOHN (c. 1570-1612), English non-
conformist divine, commonly called the Se-baptist, was born
SMYTH, SIR W. W. SNAIL
283
about 1570, and was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge,
where he proceeded M.A. in 1593- He was probably vicar of
Hutton Cranswicke in the E. Riding of Yorkshire from 1593
to 1600, when he was elected lecturer or preacher of the city of
Lincoln, an office of which he was deprived in October 1602
for having " approved himself a factious man by personal
preaching and that truly against divers men of good place."
Two volumes of his Lincoln sermons, The Bright Morning Star
(1603), an exposition of Psalm xxii., and A Pattern of True
Prayer (1605), were dedicated to Lord Sheffield, who had acted
as arbiter between the preacher and the corporation. While
preparing these books he became connected with the Separatist
movement in Scrooby and Gainsborough, joined the Gains-
borough church, and became its pastor. 1 With Thomas Helwys,
John Murton (or Morton) and others, he migrated to Amsterdam
at the end of 1607 to escape religious persecution, and in that city
practised as a physician, and became the leader of " the second
English church " (see CONGREGATIONALISM). About this time
he wrote his Principles and Inferences concerning the Visible
Church in support of Robert Browne's theory of ecclesiastical
polity, which was followed by Parallels, Censures and Observa-
tions, a reply to the Christian Advertisements of Richard Bernard
(1568-1641), vicar of Worksop, a puritan who remained in the
Anglican church. In 1608, too, appeared The Diferences of the
Churches of the Separation, in which he justified his non-com-
munion with Johnson's church on the curious ground that it
was no part of primitive and apostolic order to use a translation
of scripture during worship, or at any rate to have it open
before one while preaching (Christ having " closed the book "
at Nazareth before His sermon). Under Mennonite influence he
went farther, and by March 1609 when he published The Char-
acter of the Beast, he had become a Baptist (see BAPTISTS, sect. II.),
contending against infant baptism because (i) it has neither
precept nor example in the New Testament, (2) Christ com-
manded to make disciples by teaching them and then to baptize
them. He and his company were then faced by the dilemma that
their own infant baptism did not count, and Smyth solved the
problem by first baptizing himself (hence the name Se-Baptist),
probably by affusion, and then administering the rite to Helwys
and the others. Afterwards with 41 others he decided that
instead of baptizing himself he should have been baptized by the
Mennonites, in spite of their heretical view of the Person of Christ,
and applied for admission to their fellowship. They were some-
what suspicious of a man who had never held one position for
long, -and demanded a statement of doctrines, which he gave them
in twenty articles written in Latin, and in The Last Book of John
Smyth, called the Retractation of his Errors, together with a con-
fession of faith in 100 Propositions. A friendly Mennonite al-
lowed Smyth's church to meet in his bakery, but Smyth himself
died of consumption in August 1612, more than two years before
the remaining members of his band, by then reduced to 31, were
admitted (January 1615) into the Mennonite communion.
Helwys and Morton returned to England, and established the
first English Baptist churches.
Smyth was, like the other Cambridge men of his day, especially
the Separatists, the bondservant of logic, and wherever he saw " the
beckoning hand of a properly constructed syllogism " he was ready
to follow. Yet none of those who, in his generation, took the great
step had, according to Bishop Creighton, " a finer mind or a more
beautiful soul. None of them succeeded in expressing with so much
reasonableness and consistency their aspirations after a spiritual
system of religious belief and practice. None of them founded their
opinions on so large and liberal a basis." In his last declaration he
expressed his sorrow for the censures he had passed on Anglicans
and Brownists alike, and wrote " All penitent and faithful Christians
are brethren jn the communion of the outward church, by
what name soever they are known; and we salute them all
with a holy kiss, being heartily grieved that we should be rent
with so many sorts and schisms; and that only for matters of
no moment."
See J. H. Shakespeare, Baptist and Congregational Pioneers (London,
1906); H. M. Dexter, The England and Holland of the Pilgrims
(London and Boston, 1906). (A. J. G.)
1 He was never vicar of Gainsborough, and must not be confused
with the John Smyth who was imprisoned in the Marshalsea in
1592.
SMYTH, SIR WARINGTON WILKINSON (1817-1890), British
geologist, was born at Naples on the 26th of August 1817, his
father, Admiral W. H. Smyth (1788-1865), being at the time
engaged in the Admiralty Survey of the Mediterranean. He
was educated at Westminster and Bedford schoels, and after-
wards at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A.
in 1839. Having gained a travelling scholarship he spent more
than four years in Europe, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, paying
great attention to mineralogy and mining, examining coalfields,
metalliferous mines and salt-works, and making acquaintance
with many distinguished geologists and mineralogists. On his
return to England in 1844 he was appointed mining geologist
on the Geological Survey, and in 1851 lecturer at the School of
Mines, a post which he held until 1881 when he relinquished the
chair of mineralogy but continued as professor of mining. In
later years he became chief mineral inspector to the Office of
Woods and Forests, and also to the Duchy of Cornwall. He
was elected F.R.S. in 1858. He became president of the Geo-
logical Society of London in 1866-1868, and in 1879 he was
chairman of a Royal Commission appointed to inquire into
accidents in mines, the work in connexion with which continued
until 1886. He contributed sundry papers to the Memoirs of the
Geological Survey, the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
and the Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.
He was author also of A Year with the Turks (1854), and of A
Treatise on Coal and Coal-mining (1867). He was knighted in
1887. He died in London on the igth of June 1890, and was
buried at St Erth, not far from his country home at Marazion in
Cornwall.
A portrait and some reminiscences of W. W. Smyth will be found
in the Memoir of Sir A. C. Ramsay (1895), by Sir A. Geikie.
SMYTH (or SMITH), WILLIAM (c. 1460-1514), bishop of
Lincoln, was a Lancashire man by birth, and probably passed
some of his early days at Knowsley under the roof of Margaret,
countess of Richmond and Derby, the mother of Henry VII. He
appears to have been a member of Lincoln College, Oxford, and in
1485, just after the battle of Bosworth, he was made keeper of
the hanaper of the chancery. Two of Edward IV's daughters
were entrusted to his keeping; he was a member of the royal
council and he obtained the livings of Combe Martin, Devon, of
Great Grimsby and of Cheshunt, Hertfordshire. In 1491 he was
made dean of St Stephen's, Westminster, and two years later
bishop of Coventry and Lichfield. The bishop was a member of
Prince Arthur's council in the marches of Wales, and in 1501,
five years after he had been translated to the bishopric of Lincoln,
he became lord president of Wales. About 1507 he and Sir
Richard Sutton (d. 1524) set to work to found a new college in
Oxford. They rebuilt Brasenose Hall, added other existing halls
to it, and having obtained a charter in 1512, called it The King's
haule and college of Brasennose. Smyth, who was one of the
executors of Henry VII. 's will, retired from public life just after
this King's death, owing probably to some differences between
Bishop Richard Fox and himself; he was, however, president
of Wales until his death at Buckden in Huntingdonshire on the
and of January 1514. Although an able and scholarly man,
Smyth had little sympathy with the new learning. He bestowed
rich livings upon his relatives, one of whom, Matthew Smyth,
was the first principal of Brasenose College. In addition to his
liberal gifts to Brasenose College he gave money or land to Lincoln
and to Oriel Colleges; he founded a school at Farnworth,
Lancashire, and he refounded the hospital of St John at Lichfield.
From 1 500 to 1 503 he was chancellor of Oxford University.
SNAIL. In England the word " snail " in popular language
is associated with Gasteropods which inhabit land or fresh water,
and which possess large conspicuous spiral shells; terrestrial
Gasteropods, in which the shell is rudimentary and concealed, are
distinguished as " slugs." In Scotland the word " slug " is
absent from the vernacular vocabulary, both shell-bearing and
shell-less inland molluscs being known as snails. Marine Gastero-
pods are occasionally termed " sea-snails," and the compounds
" pond-snails," " river-snails," " water-snails " are in common
use. The commonest land-snails are those species which
284
SNAKE-BIRD
constitute the family Helicidae, order Pulmonala, sub-order
Stylommatophora. The families Limacidae, Arionidae and
Oncidiidae of the same sub-order, include nearly all the slugs.
The Oncidiidae are entitled to the name " sea-slugs," as they are
shell-less Pulmonates living on the seashore, though not actually
in the sea. The term " water-snails " includes the whole of the
remaining sub-order of the Pulmonala, namely, the Basommato-
phora, in which the eyes are sessile, with the exception of the
Auriculidae. The latter are terrestrial and occur mostly near the
seashore. Thus the whole of the Pulmonata (which breathe air,
are destitute of gill-plumes and operculum and have a complicated
hermaphrodite reproductive system) are either snails or slugs.
But there are a considerable number of snails, both terrestrial and
aquatic, which are not Pulmonates. The land-snails which have
no gill-plume in the mantle-chamber and breathe air, but have
the sexes separated, and possess an operculum, belong to the
orders Aspidobranchia and Peclinibranchia, and constitute the
families Helicinidae, Proserpinidae, Hydrocenidae, Cyclophoridae,
Cyclostomatidae and Aciculidae. The fresh-water snails which
are not Pulmonates are the Paludinidae, Vahatidae and Ampul-
laridae, together with Nerilina, a genus of the Nerilidae. These
all possess a fully developed gill-plume and are typical Pectini-
branchs of the sub-order Taenioglossa, most of the members of
which are marine.
The family Helicidae has a world-wide distribution. In Helix
the spire forms a more or less obtuse-angled cone; there are above
1 200 species, of which 24 are British. Helix nemoralis, L.,of which
H. hortensis is a variety, is one of the commonest forms. Helix
pomatia, L., is the largest species, and is known as the " edible
snail " ; it is commonly eaten in France and Italy, together with
other species. It was formerly believed to have been introduced into
Britain by the Romans, but there is no doubt that it is a native.
In Succinea the cone of the spire is acute-angled; three species are
British. In Vitrina the spire is very flat and the surface glassy. In
Bulimus the spire is elongated with a pointed apex. Pupa is named
from its resemblance to a chrysalis, the apex being rounded. The
shell of Clausilia is sinistral and its aperture is provided with a hinged
plate. The commoner European slugs of small size all belong to
the genus Limax, in which the opening of the mantle-chamber is
posterior. L. flavus is the cellar slug. L. agrestis, L. arborum, L.
maximus occur in gardens and fields. The larger black slugs are
species of Arion, of which two are British, A. ater and A. hortensis.
Teslacella haliotidea is common in Great Britain and throughout
Europe.
The species of Helix are all herbivorous, like the Pulmonata
generally; snails and slugs are well-known enemies to the gardener.
The animals being hermaphrodite copulate reciprocally. The eggs
of Helix are laid separately in the earth, each contained in a calcified
shell; those of Limax are also separate, but the shell is gelatinous.
Helix hibernates in a torpid condition for about four months, and
during this period the aperture of the shell is closed by a calcareous
membrane secreted by the foot.
The Limnaeidae occur in all parts of the world. Limnaeus contains
the largest species. L. pereger, Miiller, is ubiquitous in Great Britain
and common all over Europe. All the species are usually infested
with Cercariae and Rediae, the larval forms of Trematode parasites
of vertebrates. L. truncatulus harbours the Cercaria of Fasciola
hepatica, the liver-fluke, which causes rot in sheep. Ancylus, which
occurs in rivers, has a minute limpet-like shell. Planorbis has the
spire of the shell in one plane. Physa is smaller than Limnaeus and
has the upper part of the spire much shorter. In the Auriculidae
the aperture is denticulated. Auricula is confined to the East
Indies and Peru. Carychium minimum is British.
Of the Cyclostpmidae only one species, Cyclostoma elegans, Miiller,
is British ; it hides under stones and roots. The Helicinidae are
exotic, ranging from the West Indies to the Philippines. Of the
Aciculidae, which are all minute, Acicula lineata is British.
The Ampullaridae are confined to the tropics. Ampullaria has
very long tentacles and a long siphon formed by the mantle. Valvata
is common in fresh waters throughout Britain; the gill when the
animal is expanded is protruded beyond the mantle-chamber. The
Paludinidae are common in the N. hemisphere. Paludina and
Bithynia are both British genera. In Paludina the whorls of the
spiral are very prominent; the genus is viviparous, Bithynia is
smaller and the shell smoother.
Neritina has a very small spire, the terminal portion of the shell
containing nearly the whole animal.
For the morphology and classification of snails, see GASTROPODA.
A history of the British forms is given in Gwyn Jeffreys' s British
Conchology (1862), and by Forbes and Hanley in British Mollusca.
For speciegraphical details, see Woodward's Manual of the Mollusca
(1875), and Bronn's Tierreich (Weichtiere). For Fasciola hepatica,
see Thomas, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1882).
SNAKE-BIRD (the " darter " of many authors, and the Plotus
anhinga 1 of ornithology), the type of a small but very well-
marked genus of birds, Plotus, belonging to the family Phalacro-
coracidae which contains the cormorants and shags. The name
commonly given to it by the English in N. America was derived
from its " long slender head and neck," which, its body being
submerged as it swims, " appears like a snake rising erect out of
the water " (J. Bartram's MS., quoted by G. F. Ord in A. Wilson's
Am. Ornithology, ix. 81). Snake-birds bear a general resemblance
both outwardly and in habits to Cormorants (g.D.),but are much
more slender in form and have both neck and tail much elongated.
The bill also, instead of being tipped with a maxillary hook, has
its edges beset with serratures directed backwards, and is sharply
pointed in this respect, as well as in the attenuated neck,
likening the Snake-birds to the Herons; but the latter do not
generally transfix their prey as do the former.
The male of the American species, which ranges from Illinois to
the S. of Brazil, is in full breeding-plumage a very beautiful bird,
with crimson irides, the bare skin round the eyes apple-green and
that of the chin orange, the head, neck and most part of the body
Indian Snake-Bird (from S. R. Tickell's Drawing in the Library
of the Zoological Society).
clothed in black glossed with green ; but down each side of the neck
runs a row of long hair-like white feathers, tinged with pale lilac.
The much elongated scapulars, and the small upper wing-coverts
bear each a median white mark, which on the former is a stripe
pointed at either end, and on the latter a broad ovate patch. 2 The
larger wing-coverts are dull white, but the quill-feathers of the wings
and tail are black, the last broadly tipped with brownish-red,
passing into greyish-white, and forming a conspicuous band when
the tail is spread in form of a fan, as it often is under water. 3 The
hen differs much in appearance from the cock, having the head,
neck and breast of a more or less deep buff, bounded beneath by a
narrow chestnut band ; but otherwise her plumage is like that of
her mate, only not so bright in colour. The Snake-bird frequents the
larger rivers or back-waters connected with them, wher,e it may be
seen resting motionless on some neighbouring tree, generally choos-
ing a dead branch, or on a " snag " projecting from the bottom,
whence it plunges beneath the surface, in pursuit of its prey, to
emerge, in the manner before related, showing little more than its
slender head and neck. Its speed and skill under water are almost
beyond exaggeration, and it exhibits these qualities even in captivity,
taking apparently without effort fish after fish, however rapidly
they may swim and twist, and only returning to its perch when its
appetite is appeased or its supply of food exhausted. At liberty it
will indulge in long flights, and those of the male at the breedmg-
1 " Anhinga," according to Marcgrav, who first described this bird
(Hist. rer. nat. Brasiliae, p. 218), was the name it bore among the
natives.
2 These feathers are very characteristic of each species of the genus,
and in India, says Jerdon, are among the Khasias a badge of royalty.
3 This peculiarity, first pointed out to the writer by A. D. Bartlett,
who observed it in birds in the Zoological Society's possession,
doubtless suggested the name of " Water-Turkey " by which in some
places Plotus anhinga is said to be known.
SNAKE-FLYSNAKES
285
season are ostentatiously performed in the presence of his mate,
around whom he plays in irregular zigzag courses. The nest is
almost always in trees or bushes overhanging the water's edge, and
is a large structure of sticks, roots and moss, in which are laid four
eggs with the white chalky shell that is so characteristic of most
Steganopodous birds. Not infrequently several or even many
nests are built close together, and the locality that suits the Snake-
bird suits also many of the herons. 1 The African snake-bird, P.
congensis (or levaillanti of some authors), inhabits the greater part
of that continent N. from Natal; but, though met with on the White
Nile, it is not known to have occurred in Egypt, a fact the more
remarkable seeing that Canon Tristram found it breeding in con-
siderable numbers on the Lake of Antioch, to which it is a summer
visitor, and it can hardly reach its home without passing over the
intervening country. The male bird is easily distinguishable from
the American species by its rufous coronal patch, its buff throat
and its chestnut greater wing-coverts. A third species, P. melano-
gaster, ranges from Madagascar to. India, Ceylon, Borneo, Java and
China. This so closely resembles the last-mentioned that the
differences between them cannot be briefly expressed. The Australian
region also has its snake-bird, which is by some regarded as forming
a fourth species, P. novae-hollandiae; but others unite it to that
last mentioned, which is perhaps somewhat variable, and it would
seem (P.Z.S., 1877, p. 349) that examples from New Guinea differ
somewhat from those inhabiting Australia itself.
The anatomy of the genus Plolus has been dealt with more fully
than that of most forms. Beside the excellent description of the
American bird's alimentary canal furnished to Audubon by Mac-
gillivray, other important points in its structure have been well set
forth by A. H. Garrod and W. A. Forbes in the Zoological Proceedings
(1876, pp. 335-345. Pis- xxvi.-xxviii. ; 1878, pp. 679-681; and 1882,
pp. 208-2 1 2), showing among other things that there is an appreciable
anatomical difference between the species of the New World and of
the Old ; while the osteology of P. melanogaster has been admirably
described and illustrated by A. Milne-Edwards in A. Grandidier's
great Oiseaux de Madagascar (pp. 691-695, pis. 284, 285). In all
the species the neck affords a feature which seems to be unique.
The first seven of the cervical vertebrae form a continuous curve
with its concavity forward, but the eighth articulates with the
seventh nearly at a right angle, and, when the bird is at rest, lies
horizontally. The ninth is directed downwards almost as abruptly,
and those which succeed present a gentle forward convexity. The
muscles moving this curious framework are as curiously specialized,
and the result of the whole piece of mechanism is to enable the bird
to spear with facility its fishy prey. (A. N.)
SNAKE-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the
genus Raphidia, closely allied to the alder-flies, remarkable for the
elongation of the head and prothorax to form a neck and for the
presence in the female of a long ovipositor. The larva, which is
active and carnivorous, is terrestrial, and lives in rotten timber.
SNAKE-ROOT. In most countries where snakes abound some
root or herb is used by the natives as an antidote for the bites of
venomous species, and many herbs have consequently received
the name of snake-root. Botanically speaking, the name properly
belongs to Ophiorrhiza Mungos, the Mungoose plant, a plant of
the natural order Rubiaceae, used in the JE. Indies for the purpose
above indicated. In medicine, however, the roots of Aristolochia
Serpentaria, Polygala Senega and Cimicifuga racemosa were
understood by this name, being distinguished as the Virginian,
seneca and black snake-roots. The root of Aristolochia reticulata
is known in the United States as Red river or Texan snake-root.
The roots or rhizome of Liatris spicata, Eryngium aquaticum
and Eupatorium altissimum have all been used in N. America for
snake-bites, the first two being known as button snake-root and
the last as white snake-root. The rhizome of Asarum canadense
passes under the name of Canadian snake-root. All of these con-
tain acrid or aromatic principles which, when a warm decoction
of the drug is taken, exercise a powerfully diaphoretic or, in some
cases, diuretic action, to which any benefit that may be derived
from their use must be attributed.
SNAKES, an order (Ophidia) in the class of Reptiles. They
may be characterized as very elongated reptiles without limbs
(unless with tiny vestiges of posterior limbs), without eyelids
and external ear openings, with the teeth anchylosed to the
supporting bones, a bifid slender tongue which is telescoped
into its basal half, and with a transverse vent. These characters
apply to all snakes, although none are peculiar to them. The
1 The curious but apparently well-attested fact of the occurrence
in England, near Poole, in June 1851, of a male bird of this species
(Zoologist, pp. 3601, 3654) has been overlooked by several writers
who profess to mention all cases of a similar character.
vast majority of snakes are further characterized by having
the right and left halves of the under-jaws connected by an
elastic band; a median, longitudinal furrow in the skin below
and behind the chin; the whole palatal apparatus is but loosely
connected with the skull, nowhere articulating with it. The
quadrate is indirectly articulated with the skull, first by the
horizontal, movable squamosal, secondly by the columella
auris. The quadrato-mandibular joint is placed in a level far
behind the occiput.
More detail concerning skull, scales and teeth will be found in
the diagnostic descriptions of the various families (vide infra) ; for
further anatomical information the reader is referred to the article
REPTILES (Anatomy).
The snakes are the most highly specialized branch of the
Sauria or Squamata, i.e. of scaly reptiles with movable quadrate
bones; with a transverse vent, near the posterior lateral corners
of which open the eversible, paired copulatory organs. In the
article LIZARD attention is drawn to the many characters which
make it difficult, if not impossible, to give diagnoses applicable
to all lizards and all snakes. Both these groups seem to have
reached their climax but recently, while the tortoises, crocodiles
and sphenodon are on the descending scale, mere remnants of
formerly much more numerous and cosmopolitan development.
The number of recent species of snakes is about 1600. The
order is practically cosmopolitan, with the exception of New
Zealand and certain absolutely isolated oceanic islands, like the
Hawaiian islands and the Azores. The N. limit approaches
that of the permanently frozen subsoil, going into the arctic
circle in Scandinavia, elsewhere sinking to about 54 N.; in
the S. hemisphere the 45th parallel may indicate their limit.
The number of species and individuals steadily decreases in the
cooler temperate zones, whilst it reaches its maximum in the
tropics. Every kind of terrain is tenanted, from dense, moist
and hot forests at the level of the sea to arid deserts, high plateaus
and mountains. In accordance with this general distribution
snakes show a great amount of differentiation with regard to
their mode of life and general organization; and from the
appearance alone of a snake a safe conclusion can be drawn
as to its habits.
Dr A. Giinther characterizes the chief categories as follows:
(i) Burrowing snakes, which live under ground and but rarely
appear on the surface. They have a cylindrical rigid body,
covered with generally smooth and polished scales; a short
strong tail; a short rounded or pointed head with narrow
mouth; teeth few in number; small or rudimentary eyes;
no abdominal scutes or only narrow ones. They feed chiefly on
invertebrate animals, and none are poisonous. (2) Ground
snakes rarely ascending bushes or entering water. Their body
is cylindrical, flexible in every part, covered with smooth or
keeled scales, and provided with broad ventral and subcaudal
scutes. The non-poisonous kinds of ground snakes are the
typical and least specialized snakes, and more numerous than
any of the other kinds. They feed chiefly on terrestrial verte-
brates. The majority are non-poisonous; but the majority
of poisonous snakes must be referred to this category. (3) Tree
snakes, which are able to climb bushes or trees with facility
or pass even the greater part of their existence on trees. Their
body is generally compressed and slender; their broad ventral
scutes are often carinate on the sides. Those kinds which have
a less elongate and cylindrical body possess a distinctly prehensile
tail. The eye is generally large. Their coloration consists
often of bright hues, and sometimes resembles that of their
surroundings. They feed on animals which likewise lead an
arboreal life, rarely on eggs. Poisonous as well as innocuous
snakes are represented in this category. (4) Freshwater snakes,
living in or frequenting fresh waters; they are excellent swimmers
and divers. The nostrils are placed on the top of the snout and
can be closed whilst the animal is under water. Their body
is covered with small scales and the ventral scutes are mostly
narrow; the tail tapering; head flat, rather short; and the
eyes of small size. They feed on fish, frogs and other aquatic
animals, and are innocuous and viviparous. (5) Sea snakes are
286
SNAKES
distinguished by the compressed, rudder-shaped tail. They are
unable to move on land, feed on fishes, are viviparous and
poisonous.
The majority of snakes are active during the day, their energy
increasing with the increasing temperature; whilst some delight
in the moist sweltering heat of dense tropical vegetation, others
expose themselves to the fiercest rays of the midday sun. Not
a few, however, lead a nocturnal life, and many of them have,
accordingly, their pupil contracted into a vertical or more rarely
a horizontal slit. Those which inhabit temperate latitudes
hibernate. Snakes are the most stationary of all vertebrates;
as long as a locality affords them food and shelter they have no
inducement to change it. Their dispersal, therefore, must have
been extremely slow and gradual. Although able to move
FIG. i. Diagram of Natural Locomotion of a Snake.
with rapidity, they do not keep in motion for any length of time.
Their orgajjs of locomotion are the ribs, the number of which
is very great, nearly corresponding to that of the vertebrae of
the trunk. They can adapt their motions to every variation
of the ground over which they move, yet all varieties of snake
locomotion are founded on the following simple process. When
a part of the body has found some projection of the ground
which affords it a point of support, the ribs are drawn more
closely together, on alternate sides, thereby producing alternate
bends of the body. The hinder portion of the body being drawn
after, some part of it (c) finds another support on the rough
ground or a projection; and, the anterior bends being stretched
in a straight line, the front part of the body is propelled (from
a to d) in consequence. During this peculiar locomotion the
numerous broad shields of the belly are of great advantage,
as by means of their free edges the snake is enabled to catch
and use as points of support the slightest projections of the ground.
A pair of ribs corresponds to each of these ventral shields.
Snakes are not able to move over a perfectly smooth surface.
The conventional representation of the progress of a snake,
in which its undulating body is figured as resting by a series
of lower bends on the ground whilst the alternate bends are
FIG. 2. Diagram of Conventional Idea of a Snake's Locomotion.
raised above it, is an impossible attitude, nor do snakes ever
climb trees in spiral fashion, the classical artistic mode of repre-
sentation. Also the notion that snakes when attacking are able
to jump off the ground is quite erroneous; when they strike
an object, they dart the fore part of their body, which was
retracted in several bends, forwards in a straight line. And
sometimes very active snakes, like the cobra, advance simultane-
ously with the remainder of the body, which, however, glides
in the ordinary fashion over the ground; but no snake is able
to impart such an impetus to the whole of its body as to lose
its contact with the ground. Some snakes can raise the anterior
part of their body and even move in this attitude, but it is only
about the anterior fourth or third of the total length which can
be thus erected.
With very few exceptions,, the integuments form imbricate scale-
like folds arranged with the greatest regularity; they are small
and pluriserial on the upper parts of the body and tail, large and
uniserial on the abdomen, and generally biserial on the lower side
of the tail. The folds can be stretched out, so that the skin is capable
of a great degree of distension. The scales are sometimes rounded
behind, but generally rhombic in shape and more or less elongate;
they may be quite smooth or provided with a longitudinal ridge or
keel in the middle line. The integuments of the head are divided into
non-imbricate shields or plates, symmetrically arranged, but not
corresponding in size or shape with the underlying cranial bones or
having any relation to them. The form and number of the scales
and scutes, and the shape and arrangement of the head-shields, are
of great value in distinguishing the genera and species, and it will
therefore be useful to explain in the accompanying woodcut (fig. 3)
the terms by which these parts are designated. The skin does not
form eyelids; but the epidermis passes over the eye, forming a
transparent disk, concave like the glass of a watch, behind which
the eye moves. It is the first part which is cast off when the snake
sheds its skin; this is done several times in the year, and the epider-
mis comes off in a single piece, being, from the mouth towards the
tail, turned inside out during the process.
The tongue in snakes is narrow, almost worm-like, generally of a
black colour and forked, that is, it terminates in front in two
extremely fine filaments. It is otten exserted with a rapid motion,
sometimes with the object of feeling some object, sometimes under
the influence of anger or fear.
Snakes possess teeth in the maxillaries, mandibles, palatine and
pterygoid bones, sometimes also in the intermaxillary; they may
be absent in one or the other of the bones mentioned.
In the innocuous snakes the teeth are simple and uniform Deat "' a -
in structure, thin, sharp like needles, and bent backwards; their
function consists merely in seizing and holding the prey. In some
all the teeth are nearly of the same size ; others possess in front of
the jaws (Lycodonts) or behind in the maxillaries (Diacrasterians)
a tooth more or less con-
spicuously larger than
the rest; whilst others
again are distinguished
by this larger posterior
tooth being grooved
along its outer face.
The snakes with this
grooved kind of tooth
have been named Opis-
thoglyphi, and also Sus-
pecti, because their saliva
is more or less poisonous.
In the true poisonous
snakes the maxillary
dentition has undergone
a special modification.
The so-called colubrine
venomous snakes, which
retain in a great measure
an external resemblance
to the innocuous snakes,
have the maxillary bone
not at all, or but little,
shortened, armed in front
with a fixed, erect fang,
which is provided with
a deep groove or canal
FIG. 3. Head-shields of a Snake
for the conveyance of the (Ptyas korros).
Rostral.
Posterior frontal.
Anterior frontal.
Vertical.
Supraciliary or supraocular.
Occipital.
poison, the fluid being r,
secreted by a special /,
poison-gland. One or /',
more small ordinary teeth v,
may be placed at some s,
distance behind this o,
poison-fang. In the other n, n', Nasals.
venomous snakes (viper- /, Loreal.
ines and crotalines) the a, Anterior ocular or orbital, or prae-
maxillary bone is very orbital or anteocular.
short, and is armed with p, Postoculars.
a single very long curved u, u, Upper labials.
fang with a canal and /, t, Temporals.
aperture at each end. m, Mental.
Although firmly anchy- *, *, Lower labials.
losed to the bone, the c,c, Chin-shields.
tooth, which when at rest
is laid backwards, is erectile, the bone itself being mobile and
rotated round its transverse axis. One or more reserve teeth, in
various stages of development, lie between the folds of the gum and
are ready to take the place of the one in function whenever it is
lost by accident, or shed.
The poison is secreted in modified upper labial glands, or in a pair
of large glands which are the homologues of the parotid salivary
glands of other animals. For a detailed account see West, J. Linn.
Soc. xxv. (1895), p. 419; xxvi. (1898), p. 517; and xxviii. (1900).
A duct leads to the furrow or canal of the tooth. The Elapinae have
comparatively short fangs, while those of the vipers, especially the
crotaline snakes, are much longer, sometimes nearly an inch in
length. The Viperidae alone have " erectile " fangs. The mechanism
is explained by the diagrams (fig. 4). The poison-bag lies on the side
of the head between the eye and the mandibular joint and is held in
position by strong ligaments which are attached to this joint and
to the maxilla so that the act of opening the jaws and concomitant
erection of the fangs automatically squeezes the poison out of the
glands.
Snakes are carnivorous, and as a rule take living prey only;
a few feed habitually or occasionally on eggs. Many swallow
SNAKES
287
their victim alive; others first kill it by smothering it between
the coils of fheir body (constriction). The effects of a bite by a
poisonous snake upon a small mammal or bird are almost
instantaneous, preventing its escape; and the snake swallows
its victim at its leisure, sometimes hours after it has been killed.
The prey is always swallowed entire, and, as its girth generally
much exceeds that of the snake, the progress of deglutition is
very laborious and slow. Opening their jaws to their fullest
extent, they seize the animal generally by the head, and pushing
alternately the right and left sides of the jaws forward, they press
the body through their elastic gullet into the stomach, its outlines
being visible for some time through the distended walls of the
abdomen. Digestion is quick and much accelerated by the
quantity of saliva which is secreted during the progress of de-
glutition, and in venomous snakes probably also by the chemical
action of the poison. The primary function of the poison-
apparatus is to serve as the means of procuring their food, but
From Cambridge Natural History, vol. viii., " Amphibia and Reptiles," by permission
of MacmiUan & Co., Ltd.
FIG. 4. Poison Apparatus of Rattlesnake. Upper figures: dia-
grams of skull with fangs at rest. Lower figures : same, with fangs
protruded. G, prefrontal; M, maxilla; J, poison-fang; Tr, trans-
palatine; Ft, pterygoid; p, palatine; Q, quadrate; Sg, squamosal ;
Pm, premaxilla; T.a, articular; Pe and Di, muscles.
it also serves for defence. Only very few poisonous snakes (like
Naja elaps) are known to resent the approach of man so much as
to follow him on his retreat and to attack him. Others are
much less inclined to avoid collision with man than innocuous
kinds. They have thus become one of the greatest scourges
to mankind, and Sir J. Fayrer has demonstrated that in India
alone annually some 20,000 human beings perish from snake-bites.
Therefore it will not be out of place to add here a chapter on
snake poison and on the best means (ineffectual though they be
in numerous cases) of counteracting its deleterious effects. An
excellent account of the nature and of the effect of the venom
of snakes, by Charles J. Martin, is in Allbutt's System of Medicine.
The following condensed account has been abstracted from it.
The poison is a clear, pale-yellow fluid which reacts acid, and
contains about 30 % of solids, but this varies according to the state
-SnaAc f concentration. Most venoms are tasteless, but cobra
poison. poison is said to be disagreeably bitter. Dried venom
keeps indefinitely, and dissolves readily in water. It keeps
also in glycerine. It contains albuminous bodies in solution, and is
in fact a pure solution of two or more poisonous proteids, which are
the active agents, with a small quantity of an organic acid or colour-
ing matter. The venom is destroyed by reagents which precipitate
proteids in an insoluble form, or which destroy them, e.g. silver
nitrate or permanganate of potash. Hypochlorites have the same
effect. But carbolic acid and caustic potash destroy it only after a
day or two, consequently they are not a remedy.
The venom is generally introduced into the subcutaneous tissue,
whence it reaches the general circulation by absorption through the
lymph and blood-vessels. When introduced directly into a vein, the
effects are instantaneous. It is absorbed by the conjunctiva, but,
excepting cobra poison, not by the mouth or alimentary canal,
provided there be no hollow teeth and no abrasions. The venom
of the various kinds of snakes acts differently.
The Symptoms of Cobra Poison. Burning pain, followed by
sleepiness and weakness in the legs after half an hour. Then profuse
salivation, paralysis of the tongue and larynx, and inability to speak.
Vomiting, incapacity of movement. The patient seems to be con-
scious. Breathing becoming difficult. The heart's action is quick-
ened. The pupil remains contracted and reacts to light. At length
breathing ceases, with or without convulsions, and the heart slowly
stops. Should the patient survive, he returns rapidly to complete
health.
Rattlesnake Poison. The painful wound is speedily discoloured
and swollen. Constitutional symptoms appear as a rule in less than
fifteen minutes: prostration, staggering, cold sweats, vomiting,
feeble and quick pulse, dilatation of the pupil, and slight mental
disturbance. In this state the patient may die in about twelve hours.
If he recovers from the depression, the local symptoms begin to play
a much more important part than in cobra-poisoning : great swelling
and discoloration extending up the limb and trunk, rise of temperature
and repeated syncope, and laboured respiration. Death may occur
in this stage. The local haemorrhagic extravasation frequently
suppurates, or becomes gangrenous, and from this the patient may
die even weeks afterwards. Recovery is sudden, and within a few
hours the patient becomes bright and intelligent.
Symptoms of Bite from the European Viper. Local burning pain ;
the bitten limb soon swells and is discoloured. Great prostration,
vomiting and cold, clammy perspiration follow within one to three
hours. Pulse very feeble, with slight difficulty in breathing, and
restlessness. In severe cases the pulse may become imperceptible,
the extremities may become cold, and the patient may pass into
coma. In from twelve to twenty-four hours these severe constitu-
tional symptoms usually pass off, but in the meantime the swelling
and discoloration have spread enormously. Within a few days re-
covery usually occurs somewhat suddenly, but death may occur
from the severe depression, or from the secondary effects of sup-
puration.
The symptoms of the bite from the Daboia or Vipera russeli
resemble the effects of rattlesnake poison, but sanious discharges
from the rectum, &c., are an additional and prominent feature.
The recovering patient suffers from haemorrhagic extravasations in
va'rious organs, besides from the lungs, nose, mouth and bowels.
Kidney haemorrhage and albuminuria is a constant symptom. The
pupil is always dilated and insensitive to light.
Bite of Australian Elapine Snakes. Pain and local swelling. The
first constitutional symptoms appear in fifteen minutes to two hours.
First faintness and irresistible desire to sleep. Then alarming
prostration and vomiting. Pulse extremely feeble and thread-like,
and uncountable. The limbs are cold and the skin is blanched.
Respiration becomes shallow with the increasing coma. Sensation is
blunted. The pupil is widely dilated and insensible to light. There
is sometimes passing of blood. If the patient survives the coma,
recovery is complete and as a rule rapid, without secondary
symptoms.
The Australian venom and that of all viperine snakes, perhaps
also that of the cobra, if introduced rapidly into the circulation,
occasions extensive intravascular clotting. If the venom is slowly
absorbed, the blood loses its coagulability, owing to the breaking
down of the red blood-corpuscles, most so with vipers, less with
Australian snakes, least so with the cobra. The cobra venom is
supposed to extinguish the functions of the various nerve-centres of
the cerebro-spinal system, the paralysation extending from below
upwards, and it has a special affinity for the respiratory centre.
The toxicity or relative strength of the cobra venom has been calcu-
lated to be sixteen times that of the European viper. Snakes can
poison each other, even those of the same kind.
Treatment. Apply a ligature above, not on the top of, the situa-
tion of the bite, twist the string tightly with a stick. Then make a
free incision into the wound. Sucking out is dangerous! Then
bandage the limb downwards, progressing towards the wound ; re-
peat this several times. Do not keep the ligature longer than half
an hour. Then let the circulation return, and apply the ligature
again. In any case do not keep the ligature on for more than an
hour for fear of gangrene. Direct application into the widened
wound of calcium hypochlorite, i.e. bleaching powder, is very good,
or of a i % solution of permanganate of potash, or Condy's fluid.
Vigorous cauterization with nitrate of silver, driving the stick into
the widened wound, is also good, and it is a remedy which one can
carry in the pocket. Quick amputation of the finger is the best
remedy of all'if a large snake has bitten it.
Internal Remedies. The administration of enormous doses of
alcohol is to be condemned strongly. Small, stimulating doses, and
repeated, are good, but stimulation can be more effectively produced
by ammonia or strychnine. Hypodermic injection of strychnine,
in some cases as much as one to two grains (but not into a vein!),
has in some cases had good results; but injection of ammonia,
instead of doing any good, has disastrous sloughing results. There
is only one fairly reliable treatment, that by serum therapeutics, the
injection of considerable quantities of serum of animals which have
SNAKES
Classifi-
cation.
been partially immunized by repeated doses of [that particular]
snake-venom. Unfortunately this treatment will not often be avail-
able. Several mammals and birds are supposed to be immune by
nature against snake-venom. Some more or less immune creatures
are the mongoose, the hedgehog and the pig, the secretary-bird, the
honey buzzard, the stork and probably other snake-eaters.
- Snakes are oviparous; they deposit from ten to eighty eggs
of an ellipsoid shape, covered with a soft leathery shell, in places
where they are exposed to and hatched by moist heat. The
parents pay no further attention to them, except the pythons,
which incubate their eggs by coiling their body over them,
and fiercely defend them. In some families, as many freshwater
snakes, the sea snakes, Viperinae and Crotalinae, the eggs are
retained in the oviduct until the embryo is fully developed.
These snakes bring forth living young.
The classification of snakes has undergone many vicissitudes.
J. Miiller (Zeitsckr.f. Physiol., 1831, p. 265) divided them into
Ophidia macrostomata and O. microstomata. A. M. C.
Dumeril (Catal. methodique, Mus. d'Hist. Nat., Paris,
1851, p. 199) distinguished between Opoterodonta,
Aglyphodonta, Proteroglypha and Solenoglypha. H. Stannius
(Zootomie d. Amphib., 1856) made a further improvement by
combination of the principles used by his predecessors, and he
divided the Angiostomata or narrow-mouthed snakes into Tor-
tricina, Typhlopina and Uropeltacea; the Eurystomata into
lobola or poisonous, and A sinea or innocuous snakes. Meanwhile
J. E. Gray (Cat. Snakes, Brit. Mus., 1849) had distinguished only
between Viperina and Colubrinia. A. Giinther (Cat. Colubrine
Snakes, Brit. Mus., 1858; " Reptiles of British India," Ray
Soc., 1864; article SNAKES, Ency. Brit., gth ed.) recognized
at last four sub-orders: Hopoterodontes, Colubriformes, Colu-
briformes venenosi, Viperiformes; the most serious drawback
being the merging of the Peropoda in the non-poisonous Colu-
briformes. E. D. Cope (Proc. Ac. Philad., 1864, p. 230) resorted
to the modifications of the squamosal, ecto- and endopterygoid
bones, the condition of the vestigial limbs, and the teeth:
Scolecophidia (Typhlopidae), Catodonta (Glauconiidae), Tor-
tricina (Ilysiidae and Uropeltidae), Asinea, Proteroglypha and
Solenoglypha. He adhered to this arrangement in his last
comprehensive work (Crocodilian!, Lizards and Snakes of North
America, 1898, Smithsonian Inst., 1900), but combined the Asinea
and Proteroglypha as Colubroidea, subdividing these into
Peropoda, Aglyphodonta, Glyphodonta, Proteroglypha and
Platycerca (Hydrophinae). In his last work he used, with
doubtful success, the variations of the penes and the lungs as
additional characters, chiefly for the grouping of the great mass
of the Colubroid snakes. G. A. Boulenger (Cat. Snakes, Brit.
Mus., 1893-1896) accepted Cope's principles, and mainly by
combining the Asinea of Stannius and Cope with the Protero-
glypha as Colubridae wherein he was followed by Cope, as
mentioned above and separating therefrom the Peropoda or
Boidae, he has produced a logically-conceived system, by far
the best hitherto proposed. It is followed in the present article.
Boulenger's phylogenetic system stands as follows:
Uropeltidae
Viperidae
C. Opisthoglypha
I
C. Proteroglypha Amblycephalidae
i
Hysiidae
i
Xenopeltidae
1
Colubridae Aglypha
Boidae
Glauconiidae
Typhlopidae
This means that the Boidae retain most primitive characters.
Likewise primitive, but in various respects degraded, mainly
owing to burrowing habits, are the Typhlopidae with the Ily-
siidae, and Uropeltidae as a terminal
branch, and on the other hand
the Glauconiidae. The solitary
Xenopeltis is in several ways
intermediate between Boidae and
Ilysiidae. The rest of the snakes
are supposed to have started from some primitive, non-
degenerate, therefore boa-like group, leading by loss of the
vestiges of the hind-limbs and loss of the coronoid bone of the
mandible to the aglyphous or innocuous Colubridae, whence
further differentiation in three new lines has taken place, (i)
the harmless Amblycephalidae as a side-issue, (2) the very poison-
ous proteroglyphous Elapidae, (3) the moderately or incipiently
poisonous Opisthoglypha, out of some of which seem to have arisen
the venomous Viperidae.
I. No ectopterygoid ; pterygoid not extending to quadrate; no
supratemporal or squamosal ; prefrontal forming a suture with nasal ;
coronoid present ; vestiges of pelvis present.
Maxillary vertical, loosely attached, toothed ; mandible toothless ;
a single pair of pelvis bones : Typhlopidae.
Maxillary bordering the mouth, forming sutures with the pre-
maxillary, prefrontal and frontal, toothless; lower jaw toothed;
pubis and ischium present, the latter forming a symphysis:
Glauconiidae.
II. Ectopterygoid present; upper and lower jaws toothed.
A. Coronoid present , prefrontal in contact with nasal.
1. Vestiges of hind-limbs; supratemporal present.
Squamosal large, suspending the quadrate: Boidae.
Squamosal small, intercalated in the cranial wall:
Ilysiidae.
2. No vestiges of limbs : squamosal absent : Uropeltidae.
B. Coronoid absent; squamosal present.
1. Maxillary horizontal; pterygoid reaching quadrate or
mandible.
Prefrontal in contact with nasal : Xenopeltidae.
Prefrontal not in contact with nasal : Colubridae.
2. Maxillary horizontal; pterygoid not reaching quadrate or
mandible: Amblycephalidae.
3. Maxillary vertically erectile, perpendicularly to ectoptery-
goid, and reaching quadrate or mandible: Viperidae.
For ordinary practical purposes this synopsis is useless, most of the
anatomical characters being visible only in the macerated skull.
The following characterization of the families is based upon more
accessible features.
Eyes vestigial or hidden; lower jaw toothless; without enlarged
ventral scales: Typhlopidae.
Eyes vestigial; teeth restricted to the lower .jaw; without en-
larged ventral scales : Glauconiidae.
Eyes very small; head not distinct; teeth in the upper and lower
jaws; ventral scales scarcely enlarged; tail extremely short, ending
obtusely and covered with peculiar scales: Uropeltidae.
Eyes functional, free, with vestiges of the hind-limbs appearing as
claw-like spurs on each side of the vent.
Ventral scales scarcely enlarged : Ilysiidae.
Ventral scales transversely enlarged : Boidae
Eyes free; with a pair of poison-fangs in the front part of the
mouth, carried by the otherwise toothless, much shortened, and
vertically erectile maxillaries; ventral scales transversely enlarged :
Viperidae.
All the remaining snakes combine the following characters . the
maxillaries are typically horizontal, not separately movable, with a
series of teeth. The mandible is toothed but has no coronoid bone.
There are no vestiges of limbs or of their girdles. The eyes are
free.
Dentary movably attached to the tip of the articular bone
of the mandible. Skin beautifully iridescent: Xeno-
peltidae.
Without a mental groove; the ends of the pterygoids are
free, not reaching the quadrate. Head thick and very-
distinct : A mblycephalidae.
With a median longitudinal groove between the shields of the
skin: Colubridae.
Family i. TYPHLOPIDAE. Burrowing snakes, mostly small, which
have the body covered with smooth, shiny, uniform cycloid scales*
The teeth are restricted to the small maxillary bones. The quadrates
slant obliquely forward and are attached directly to the prootics,
owing to the absence of squamosals. The prefrontals are in lateral
contact with the nasals. The vestiges of the pelvis are reduced to a
single bone on each side, and there are no traces of limbs. The eyes
are hidden by shields of the skin. The mouth is very narrow, and
the halves of the under-jaw are not distensible. About 100 species
of these rather archaic snakes are known; in adaptation to their
burrowing life and worm and insect diet, they have undergone
degradation. The tail is mostly very short and sometimes ends in
FIG. 5. Typhlops bolhriorhynchus, from India, natural size.
a horny spine. They are widely distributed in all tropical and sub-
tropical countries, even in such solitary places as Christmas Island,
but they do not occur in New Zealand. The chief genus is Typhlops,
SNAKES
289
of which, for instance, T. braminus ranges from southern Asia, the
islands of the Indian Ocean and the Malay Islands to southern
Africa.
Family 2. GLAUCONIIDAE. Burrowing like the Typhlopidae, which
they much resemble externally, but the maxillaries retain their
normal position and are. toothless, teeth being restricted to the
lower 'jaw, which is short, stout, and not dis-
tensible. The pelvic girdle and the hind-limbs
show the least reduction found in any recent
snakes, ilia, pubes and ischia being still distin-
guishable, the last even retaining their sym-
physis, and there are small vestiges of the femurs.
About 30 species, mostly of the genus Glauconia,
in south-western Asia, Africa, Madagascar, the
Antilles and both Americas, G. dulcis ranging
northwards into Texas, G. humilis into California.
Family 3. ILYSIIDAE. Mostly burrowing. The
scales of the long, cylindrical body are smooth
and small, scarcely enlarged on the ventral
side. The tail is extremely short and blunt.
The head is very small and not distinct from the
neck, a usual feature in burrowing snakes and
lizards. The gape of the mouth is narrow.
The quadrate bones are short and stand rather
vertically. The squamosals form part of the
cranial wall, being firmly wedged in between the
quadrate, prootic and occipital bones. Vestiges
of the pelvis and hind-limbs are small, but they
terminate in claw-like spurs which protrude
FIG g Three between the scales on either side of the vent,
Views of Head of as m tne Boidae. The small eyes are some-
Typhlops bra- times covered by transparent shields. About
minus (India), half-a-dozen species only are known in South
magnified. ' America, Ceylon, the Malay Islands and Indo-
China. They are viviparous like the Typhlo-
pidae, upon which they feed besides worms and insects, llysia
s. Tortrix scytale, one of the " coral-snakes " of tropical South
America, is beautiful coral-red with black rings, grows to nearly a
yard in length, and is said sometimes to be worn as a necklace by
native ladies.
Family 4. UROPELTIDAE (RHINOPHIDAE). Burrowing snakes of
Ceylon and southern India, with a very short tail, which ends in a
peculiar, often obliquely truncated, shield, hence the name. The
eyes are very small. The scales of the body are smooth and are
but little larger on the belly. The coloration is mostly beautiful,
black and red. The Uropeltidae are in various respects intermediate
between the two last and the next family. The quadrates are
directly attached to the skull, the squamosals being absent. Teeth
are carried in both jaws. There are no vestiges of hind-limbs or of
the pelvis.
These tail-shielded snakes, of which about 40 species are known,
are viviparous and burrow in the ground, preferring damp mountain-
forests. Uropeltis grandis, the only species of the type-genus, is
confined to Ceylon; about 18 in. in length, it is blackish above,
yellow below, often with small spots on the upper and the under
surface. Rhinophis sanguineus lives in southern India; it is black
above with a bluish gloss, the belly is bright red with black spots,
like the convex tail-shield.
Family 5. BOIDAE. Typical, often very large, snakes, which have
vestiges of pelvis and hind-limbs, the latter appearing as claw-like
spurs on each side of the vent. The scales of the upper surface are
usually small and smooth, while those of the belly form one broad
series. The quadrate is carried by the horizontally-elongated squa-
mosal, which rests loosely upon the skull. The prefrontals are in
contact with the nasals. Sharp, recurved teeth are carried by the
mandibles, the pterygoids, palatines, maxillaries, and in the Python-
inae by the premaxillaries also. The Boidae comprise some 60
species, which have been grouped into many fancy genera. The
range of the family extends over all the tropical and subtropical
countries, including islands, except New Zealand.
Sub-family I. Pythoninae. With a pair of supraorbital bones
between the prefrontal, frontal and postfrontal bones. The pre-
maxilla generally carries a few small teeth. The subcaudal scales are
mostly in two rows. The pythons (q.v.) are restricted to the palaeo-
tropical and Australian regions, with the sole exception of Loxocemus
bicolor in southern Mexico.
Sub-family 2. Boinae. Without supraorbital bones. The pre-
maxilla is toothless. The subcaudal scales form mostly a single row.
Widely distributed. Boa (q.v.) in tropical America and with two
species in Madagascar. Eunectes murinus, the Anaconda (q.v.),
Charina, e.g. bottae, a small sand-snake from Oregon to California.
Eryx jaculus, also a sand-snake, from North Africa to Central
Asia, and extending into Greece. Enygrus, ranging from New
Guinea to the Fiji Islands. Casarca dussumieri, differing from Boa
chiefly by the rough and strongly-keeled scales, is confined to
Round Island near Mauritius. This makes the occurrence of a
species of Corallus in Madagascar less remarkable, while all the
others live in Central and South America.
Family 6. XENOPELTIDAE. One species, Xenopeltis unicolor, in
south-eastern Asia and Malay Islands. Boiilenger rightly considers
xxv. 10
this snake in various ways intermediate between the Ilysiidae,
Boidae and Colubridae. The prefrontal bones are still in contact with
the nasals as in the previous families, but the coronoid bones of the
mandibles are absent as in the remaining, families, and this loss also
occurs in the Boine Charina. The most remarkable feature is the
dentary bone, which is movably attached to the much-elongated
articular bone (cf. Polyodontophis of Colubrinae), the movability
being enhanced by the absence of the coronoid. The quadrate is
short and thick, and is carried by the broad and short squamosal,
which lies flat against the skull, reminding in this respect of llysia.
The smooth, black and brown scales of the back are highly iridescent,
hence the generic name of this peculiar snake, which reaches the
length of one yard.
Family 7. COLUBRIDAE. Maxillaries horizontal and forming the
greater portion of the upper jaw, which is toothed like the lower
jaw; coronoid of mandible absent. Pterygoids connected with the
quadrates which are carried by the squamosals, and these are loosely
attached to the skull. Prefrontals not in contact with the basals.
Ectopterygoids present. No vestiges of limbs or pelvis. This family
comprises about nine-tenths of all recent species of snakes and is
cosmopolitan, New Zealand being the most notable exception. The
1300 to 1400 species contain terrestrial, arboreal and aquatic forms,
many of which are highly specialized.
Boulenger, adopting Dumeril's terms, has divided them into three
parallel series:
A. Aglypha. All the teeth are solid, and not grooved. Harmless,
non-poisonous.
B. Opisthoglypha. One or more of the posterior maxillary teeth
are grooved. Most of these snakes, which number about 300 species,
are moderately poisonous.
C. Proteroglypha. The anterior maxillary teeth are grooved or
" perforated." About 200 very poisonous species, e.g. cobras, coral-
snakes and sea-snakes.
The second and third series containing only about 400 species,
the Aglypha still present the appalling number of 1000 species, and
even the grouping of this mass into three sub-families does not
lighten the task of arranging the chaos, since one of these sub-families
contains only one, and the other but a very few species. We have
therefore still 1000 species, all so closely allied that they together
are but of sub-family rank. They possess few reliable characters;
their modifications are not weighty, and it is almost certain that some
of these characters, and even combinations thereof, have been
developed independently and in different countries. Many of the
so-called genera, or groups of genera, are consequently not to be
used either as witnesses of blood-relationship or of geographical
distribution.
Some of the usual characters employed for systematic purposes,
for the making of convenient keys, are the following: The number
of rows of scales across the body and in a longitudinal direction;
shape and structure of scales, whether smooth or with a longitudinal
keel ; arrangement of the shields on the head ; shape of the con-
tracted pupil. Above all, the dentition, which exhibits almost endless
modifications, in most cases is difficult to ascertain and to appreciate
in its subtle distinctions. Internal, skeletal characters, useless for
ordinary practical purposes, are the various apophyses on the
ventral side of the vertebrae and the penial armaments fancied by
Cope.
It is impossible here to mention any but the more obvious genera
and groups of colubrine snakes.
Series A. AGLYPHA. Sub-family I. Acrochordinae. The few
genera and species of these ugly-looking snakes are mostly aquatic,
inhabiting rivers and estuaries of S.E Asia; but one, Nothopsis,
lives on the Isthmus of Darien, and another, Stoliczkaia, is found in
the Khasia Hills of N.E. India. Acrochordus javanicus has no en-
larged ventral shields; the flat, viperish-looking head is covered
with small granules, with the eyes and nostrils well on the upper
surface. Chersydrus ranges from Madras to New Guinea; the body
and tail are laterally compressed and form a ventral fold which is
covered with tiny scales like the rest of the body. The main
anatomical justification of this sub-family is given by the postfrontal
bones, which, besides bordering the orbits posteriorly, are extended
forwards so as to form the upper border of the orbits, separating the
latter from the frontals.
Sub-family 2. Colubrinae. The postfrontal bones are restricted
to the posterior border of the orbits. The maxillary and dentary
bones carry teeth on their whole length. This sub-family contains
about 1000 species; few of them reach a length of more than two
yards, some of the largest belonging to the Indian Zaocys s. Cory-
phodon,vfhich grow to 10 ft. Most of them are oviparous. Some are
more or less aquatic, oth'ers are absolutely arboreal, others again
prefer dry, sandy or rocky localities according to their food. The
sub-family is cosmopolitan, excepting the New Zealand sub-region,
and finds its natural N. limit on the permanently frozen underground,
where hibernation is of course impossible. Only a few out of the
more than 120 genera can be mentioned here.
Coluber in Europe, Asia and North America. C. Ipngissimus^ s.
flavescens s. aesculapii was probably the species held in veneration
by the ancient Romans. It grows to a length of 5 ft., climbs ex-
tremely well, feeds chiefly on mice, and becomes very tame. Its
coloration varies from pale golden brown to black; the scales are
290
SNAKES
smooth and shiny. Its original home is Italy and S.E. Europe,
whence it has spread N. into S. Germany. Its occurrence at widely
distant and isolated localities was formerly supposed to be due to
its introduction by the Romans. C. corais, from the S. states of
N. America far into S. America, reaches 8 ft. in length. C. (Pily-
ophis) sayi, C. catenifer and others in N. America.
Coronella, widely distributed excepting Australia and S. America.
C. austriaca s. laevis, the " smooth snake " of Europe, in England, in
Hampshire and Dorsetshire, eats chiefly lizards; owing to its
coloration, which varies much, it is often mistaken for the viper.
C. getula is one of the many N. American species. Zamenis of Europe,
Asia, N. Africa, N; and Central America, with many species, e.g.
Z. mucosus the Indian " rat-snake, " Z. constrictor in the United
States. Some species of the Central and S. American genus Urotheca
bear an extraordinary resemblance in coloration to the pretty,
black, red and yellow poisonous Elaps. Dendrophis of India and
Australia (e.g. D. pictus of India), and Leptophis s. Ahaetulla (e.g.
L. liocerus, neotropical) may be taken as examples of long and slender
tree-snakes.
Tropidonotus, with near 100 species, -is cosmopolitan with the
exception of New Zealand. Some of the species, like the Indian
T. quincunciatus and T. stolatus and the N. American T. ordinalus,
are perhaps more abundant as regards the number of individuals
than any other snake. T. natrix, the grass or ringed snake, is very
common in Europe, including England but not Scotland or Ireland;
easily recognized even at a distance by two yellow or white spots
which it has behind its head. It grows rarely to a length of 4 ft. ;
it never bites, and feeds chiefly on frogs, toads and fishes, but mice
are never taken. Its eggs, which are of the size and shape of a
dove's egg, are from fifteen to thirty in number, are deposited in
mould or under damp leaves, and are glued together into one mass.
Polyodontophis of Madagascar, S.E. Asia and Central America is
remarkable for having the dentary bones loosely attached to the
apex of the elongated articular bone. Calamaria of Indo-China is
an example of burrowing snakes, with a short tail and small eyes;
in Typhlopophis of the Philippines the eyes are concealed.
Sub-family 3. Rhachiodontidae, represented by Dasypeltis scabra
of tropical and S. Africa. Characterized by possessing only a few
teeth, on the posterior part of the maxillaries, on the palatines and
\\
FIG. 7. Dasypeltis unicolor, in the act of swallowing an egg. Nat. size.
dentaries; some of the vertebrae in the lower region of the neck
have strongly developed hypapophyses (not provided with a cap of
enamel, as has often been asserted), which are directed forwards and
pierce the oesophagus. The principal diet of these peculiar snakes
seems to consist of eggs. In Cape Colony they are known as
" eyervreter, " i.e. egg-eater. A snake, scarcely 20 in. in length, and
with a body not thicker than a man's little finger, is able to swallow
a hen's egg, a feat which seems quite impossible. As the egg passes
at last through the alarmingly distended neck, the snake makes
some slight contortions and the swelling collapses, the shell having
been filed through by the saw-like apparatus. Whilst the contents
are thus retained without loss, the crumpled shell is then vomited
out. This peculiar arrangement occurs also in an Indian snake,
Elachiston, which represents, however, a sub-family of the Opistho-
glypha. In another, probably also egg-eating snake, the Indian
Coronelline Nymphophidium, the same effect is reached by two
prominences at the base of the skull.
Series B. OPISTHOGLYPHA. One, or a few, of the posterior
maxillary teeth have a groove or furrow in front, which conducts the
secretion of the enlarged upper labial glands. They are all more or
less poisonous, paralysing their prey before, or during the act of
swallowing; the poison-fangs standing so far back in the mouth,
these snakes cannot easily inflict wounds with them on man; more-
over, the poison is not very strong and not available in large quan-
tities. It may well be doubted whether Opisthoglypha form one
genuine group instead of a heterogeneous assembly. They comprise
about 300 species of terrestrial, arboreal and aquatic forms, and as
a group they are almost cosmopolitan, including Madagascar, but
excepting new Zealand.
Sub-family I. Dipsadomorphinae. Nostrils lateral; dentition
well developed. Long-tailed, terrestrial and arboreal forms. The
tree-snakes are mostly green above with the under parts white or
yellow.
Coelopeltis, with concave, or grooved scales; C. lacertina s.
monspessulanils, one of the largest European snakes in Mediterranean
countries and south-western Asia.
Dipsadomorphus, Dipsas, Leptognathus, Dryophis, Dendrophis
and other closely allied genera are typical, very long-bodied and long-
tailed tree-snakes, chiefly tropical. The graceful form of their
body, the elegance and rapidity of their movements, and the ex-
quisite beauty of their colours have been the admiration of all who
have had the good fortune to watch them in their native haunts.
The majority lead an exclusively arboreal life; only a few descend
to the ground in search of their food. They prey upon every kind of
arboreal animal birds, tree-frogs, tree-lizards, &c. All seem to be
diurnal, and the larger kinds attain to a length of about 4 ft. The
most beautiful of all snakes are perhaps certain varieties of Chry-
sopelea ornata, a species extremely common in the Indian Archi-
pelago and many parts of the continent of tropical Asia. One of
these varieties is black, with a yellow spot in the centre of each scale;
these spots are larger on the back, forming a series of tetrapetalous
flowers; the head is similarly ornamented. Another variety has a
red back, with pairs of black crossbars, the bands of each pair being
separated by a narrow yellow space; sides brown, dotted with black;
belly dark green, the outer portion
of each ventral shield being yellow,
with a blackish spot.
The features by which the tree-
snakes are distinguished are still
more developed in the whip-snakes
(Dryophis), whose excessively slender
body has been compared to the cord
of a whip. Although arboreal, like
the former, they are nocturnal in
their habits, having a horizontal
instead of a round pupil of the eye.
They are said to be of a fierce dis-
position, feeding chiefly on birds.
In some of the species the elongate
form of the head is still more ex-
aggerated by a pointed flexible
appendage of the snout (Passerita),
which may be nearly half an inch
in length, or leaf-like, as in the
Madagascar Langaha. The Mexican
Trimorphodon much resemble
viperine snakes with the flat, tri-
angular head, narrow neck, slit-like
pupil and pugnacious disposition.
A still. more remarkable resemblance
exists in the shape and striking, red,
black and yellow coloration between
Scolecophis aemulus of Chihuahua
and the poisonous Elaps fulvius, the
American coral-snake, but Cope has
been careful to point out that these
two creatures are not known to
inhabit the same district.
Sub-family 2. Elachistodonidae.
Represented by Elachistodon weslermanni of Bengal, with the same
peculiar dentition and with sharp hypapophyses on the vertebrae of
the lower neck, as described of Dasypeltis (see above).
Sub-family 3. Homalopsinae. The nostrils of these absolutely
aquatic, viviparous snakes are valvular and placed on the upper
surface of the snout. The eyes are small, with vertical pupils.
About two dozen ugly-looking species inhabit rivers and estuaries
from Bengal to Australia. Cerberus rhynchops; Hypsirhina plum-
bea, Homalopsis; Hipistes hydrinus of Siam has a compressed body,
and much resembles the Hydrophinae in general appearance and its
partly marine life. Herpeton of Cambodia has a pair of long tentacles
on the snout and is said to have a partly vegetable diet!
Series C. PROTEROGLYPHA. The anterior maxillary teeth are
deeply grooved, or so folded as to appear hollow or perforated.
Behind these enlarged poison-fangs follows a series of smaller, solid
SNAKES
291
teeth, hence the term " proteroglypha," which is intended to mean
that the anterior teeth are grooved. These snakes are all very
poisonous, mostly viviparous and found in all tropical and sub-
tropical countries, with the exception of Madagascar and New
Zealand.
Sub-family I. Elapinae. Terrestrial, with a cylindrical tail,
comprising about 150 species which have been grouped into numerous
genera, mostly upon very slight differences. The most remarkable
are the following. Naja tripudians and ^V. haje, the cobra (q.v.).
The largest species is the N. bungarus s. elaps, the " hamadryad,"
snake-eating cobra," or king-cobra of Indian countries, reaching
more than 12 ft. in length, and living mainly upon other snakes.
Sepedon haemachates, of S. Africa, is named by the Boers " roode
FIG. 8. Indian Whip-Snake. Passerita mycterizans.
koper kapel" or " ring-hals," i.e. banded neck, the latter name
being, however, often applied also to the cobra. It resembles in colour
some varieties of the latter snake, and, like this, it has the power,
though in a less degree, of expanding its hood. But its scales are
keeled and its form is more robust. It is equally active and courage-
ous, not rarely attacking persons who approach too near to its
resting-place. In confinement it evinces great ferocity, opening its
mouth and erecting its fangs, from which the poison is seen to flow
in drops. During such periods of excitement it is even able, by the
pressure of the muscles on the poison-duct, to eject the fluid to some
distance; hence it shares with the cobra a third Dutch name, that
of " spuw slang " (spitting snake). It grows to a length of 2 or 3 ft.
Another kind is the "schapsticker" (sheep stinger), 5. rhombeatus.
It is extremely common in S. Africa, and extends far N. along the
E. as well as W. coast. It is of smaller size than the preceding, and
causes more injury to animals, such as sheep, dogs, &c. than to man.
It varies in colour, but a black mark on the head like an inverted V
remains nearly always visible.
The species of Bungarus, four in number, are extremely common
in India, Burma, and Ceylon, and are distinguished by having only
one row of undivided sub-caudal shields. Three of the species have
the body ornamented with black rings, but the fourth and most
common (B. coeruleus), the
" krait" of Bengal, possesses a
dull and more uniform colora-
tion. The fangs of the bunga-
rums are shorter than those of
the cobras, and cannot penetrate
so deeply into the wound. Their
bite is therefore less dangerous
and the effect on the general
system slower, so that there is
more prospect of recovery by
treatment. Nevertheless, the
FIG. 9. Head of Hcrpcton
tentaculatum.
krait is probably the most destructive snake to human life in India,
since it is very common and often creeps into the houses.
Doliophis intestinalis of Indo-China has enormously developed
poison glands, which extend down the whole anterior third of the
body, in front of the heart.
No part of the world possesses so many snakes of this sub-family
as Australia, where, in fact, they replace the non-venomous colubrine
snakes; many of them are extremely common and spread over a
considerable area. Fortunately the majority are of small size, and
their bites are not followed by more severe effects than those from
the sting of a hornet. Only the following are dangerous to man and
larger animals: the " death-adder," Acanlhopis antarcticus, easily
recognized by the peculiar end of the tail which is compressed and
terminates in a thin horny spine; common throughout Australia
to the Moluccas, scarcely one yard in length; the " black snake
(Pseudechis porphyriacus) , likewise common throughout the Australian
continent, especially in low marshy places, and upwards of
6 ft. in length ; it is black, with each scale of the outer series red
at the base; when irritated it raises the fore part of its body and
flattens out its neck like a cobra, the females are sometimes known
as "brown adders"; the "tiger-snake," Notechis scutatus (s.
Hoplocephalus curtus), with a similar distribution, and also
common in Tasmania, from 5 to 6 ft. long, and considered the most
dangerous of the tribe. Good descriptions and figures of all these
snakes are given in Krefft's Snakes of Australia (Sydney, 1869,
410).
Several genera of the Elapinae lead a more or less burrowing life;
their body is of a uniform cylindrical shape, terminating in a short
tail, and covered with short polished scales; their head is short,
the mouth rather narrow, and the eye small. They are the tropical
American Elaps, the Indian Cattophis, the African Poecilophis and
the Australian Vermicella. The majority are distinguished by the
beautiful arrangement of their bright and highly ornamental colours;
many species of Elaps have the pattern of the so-called coral-snakes,
their body being encircled by black, red and yellow rings a pattern
FIG. 10. A Poisonous Snake (Elaps fulvius} swallowing a similarly
coloured Opisthoglyphous Snake (Homahcranium semicinctum) .
which is peculiar to snakes, venomous as well as non-venomous, of
the fauna of tropical America. Although the poison of these narrow-
mouthed snakes is probably as virulent as that of the preceding,
man has much less to fear from them, as they bite only under great
provocation. Moreover, their bite must be frequently without serious
effect, owing to their narrow mouth and the small size of their poison-
fangs. They are also comparatively of small size, only a few species
rarely exceeding a length of 3 ft., for instance Elaps fulvius, which
extends into the S. states of N. America.
292
SNAKES
Sub-family 2. Hydrophinae. Tail laterally compressed ; marine.
Of sea-snakes some fifty species are known. All are inhaoitants of
the tropical Indo-Pacific ocean, and most numerous in and about the
Persian Gulf, in the East Indian Archipelago, and in the seas between
S. Japan and N. Australia. One species which is extremely common
(Pelamis bicolor), and which is easily recognized by the black colour
of its upper and the yellowish tints of its lower parts (both colours
being sharply denned), has extended its range W. to the sea round
Madagascar, and E. to the Gulf of Panama. One species, however,
Distira semperi, is confined to the landlocked freshwater Lake Taal
at Luzon in the Philippines. Sea-snakes are viviparous and pass
their whole life in the water; they soon die when brought on shore.
The scales are very small, often very much reduced, and there are
frequently no enlarged ventrals on the compressed belly, but Platurus
has broad ventrals. Their motions in the water are almost as rapid
as they are uncertain and awkward when the animals are removed
out of their proper element. Their nostrils are placed quite at the
top of the snout. These openings are small and provided with a
valve interiorly, which is opened during respiration, and closed when
the animal dives. They have very capacious lungs, extending back-
wards to the anus; by retaining air in these extensive lungs they are
able to float on the surface of the water
and to remain under water for a consider-
able length of time. Sea-snakes shed their
skin frequently; but it peels off in pieces
as in lizards, and not as in the freshwater
snakes, in which the integuments come
off entire. Several species are remarkable
for the extremely slender and prolonged
anterior part of the body, and very small
head. The eye is small, with round pupil,
which is so much contracted by the light
when the snake is taken out of the water
that the animal becomes blinded and is
unable to hit any object it attempts to
strike. The tongue is short, and the sheath
in which it lies concealed opens near to the
front margin of the lower jaw; scarcely
more than the two terminating points are
exserted from the mouth when the animal
is in the water. The mouth shuts in a
somewhat different way from that of other
snakes: the middle of the rostral shield is
produced downwards into a small lobule,
which prevents the water from entering
the mouth; there is generally a small
notch on each side of the lobule for the
passage of the two points of the tongue.
The food of sea-snakes consists entirely
of small fish; among them species with
very strong spines. As all these animals
are killed by the poison of the snake
before they are swallowed, and as their
muscles are perfectly relaxed, their armature
is harmless to the snake, which begins to
swallow its prey from the head, and de-
presses the spines as deglutition proceeds.
Sea-snakes belong to the most poisonous
_ elf* c , species of the whole order. Accidents are
PIG. II.- s KB, rarely caused by them, because they are
FeLamis bicolor. extremely shy and swim away on the
least alarm; but, when surprised in the submarine cavities forming
their natural retreats, they will, like any other poisonous terrestrial
snake, dart at the disturbing object; and, when out of the water,
they attempt to bite every object near them, even turning round to
wound their own bodies. They cannot endure captivity, dying in
the course of two or three days, even when kept in capacious tanks.
The greatest size to which some species attain, according to positive
observation, is about 12 ft., and therefore far short of the statements
as to the length of the so-called sea-serpents (q.v.). Boulenger has
written an interesting account of sea-snakes in Natural Science, i.
(1892), p. 44 seq.
Family 8. A mblycephalidae. The pterygoids are widely separated
from the quadrates, not reaching beyond the level of the occipital
condyle. This condition can be ascertained without dissection,
when the mouth is opened widely. The squamosals are reduced to
pad-like vestiges. Otherwise these snakes agree with the aglyphous
Colubridae. Externally they are easily distinguished by the absence
of a longitudinal groove on the skin. The head is thick, very distinct
from the neck and the pupil is vertical, so that these harmless snakes
look rather viperish. About 30 species, with several genera, are
known from the oriental and neotropical regions. Amblycephalus,
e.g. monticola, with compound body, in S.E. Asia.
Family 9. Viperidae. The maxillaries are very short, movably
pivoting upon the prefrontals and also attached to the ectopterygoids,
so that they can be erected together with the large poison fangs,
which, besides reserve teeth, are the only maxillarv teeth. There are
also teeth on the palatines, anterior portion of the pterygoids, and
on the short dentaries. The short squamosals are very loosely
attached to the skull. The prefrontals are not in contact with the
nasals. The poison-fangs are " solenoglyphous," perforated, having
a wide hole on the anterior side at the base, in connexion with the
duct of the large, paired, poison-glands, the presence of which adds
considerably to the characteristic broadness of the head. The hole
leads into a canal, which opens as a semi-canal towards the end of
the tooth. The supply of reserve teeth is indefinite; frequently one
or two are lying ready and of equal size to the functional fangs.
All the Viperidae are very poisonous and all, except the African
Atractaspis, are viviparous. They include terrestrial, semi-aquatic
and burrowing types; none of them with any signs of degradation;
on the contrary they belong to the most highly organized of snakes.
The family is cosmopolitan, excepting Madagascar and the whole of
the Australian region.
Sub-family I. Viperinae, vipers (q.v.) or adders. Without an ex-
ternal pit between eye and nose, and the maxillary bone is not
hollowed out above. Absolutely restricted to the Old World, with
9 genera comprising about 40 species.
Sub-family 2. Crotalinae. With a deep cavity or pit on either side
between the eye and the nose, lodged in the hollowed-out rraxillary
bone. The lining of these pits is amply supplied with branches from
the trigeminal nerves, but the function is still quite unknow r,. About
60 species of pit-vipers are recognizable. They can easily be divided
into 4 genera: Crotalus and Sistrurus with a rattle at the end of
the tail and restricted to America (see RATTLESNAKE) ; secondly,
pit-vipers without a rattle: Ancistrodon, with large shields covering
the upper surface of the head; with about 10 species, e.g. A. halys in
the Caspian district, others in the Himalayas, Ceylon and Sunda
islands. Notable American species are the following: _A. piscivorus,
the " water-viper " from Carolina and Indiana to Florida and Texas.
This creature is semi-aquatic and lives chiefly on fishes ; it grows to
a length of about 5 ft. ; the general colour is reddish to dark brown,
FIG. 12. Lachesis viridis of India.
even blackish, with darker cross-bands or C-shaped markings; a
dark, light-edged band extends from the eye to the angle of the
mouth. The under parts are yellowish, more or less spotted or quite
black. A. contortrix the " moccasin-snake " or " copper-head," so
called because of its yellow to pink or pale-brown ground colour,
with dark crossbars or triangular marks. The under surface is
yellow to reddish, with dark specks. Full-grown specimens are
about I yd. in length. The moccasin-snake ranges fromMassachusetts
and Kansas to Florida and Texas and into Mexico, preferring swampy
localities or meadows with high grass, where it hunts for small
mammals and birds. It is easily distinguished from other North
SNAPDRAGON SNIPE
293
American pit-vipers by the possession of a loreal shield, i.e. a shield
intercalated between the two preoculars and the posterior nasal;
below the loreal lies the pit.
The moccasin and the water-viper have occasionally been men-
tioned under the name of Trigonocephalus cenchris, one of the many
synonyms.
Lachesis has the upper surface of the head covered With very
small shields, or with scales, and contains about 40 species, in S.
and Central America, the Antilles and also in S.E. Asia. The most
ill-famed is L. s. Bothrops s. Craspedocephalus lanceolatus, which
inhabits the greater part of S. America, extending into Mexico and
the Lower Antilles, notably Martinique, Guadaloupe and Santa
Lucia, where it is known as the " Fer de Lance "; Mexicans call it
" rabo de hueso " or bone-tail, on account of the curiously coloured
and spike-like tip of the tail. It is a very quick and highly irascible
beast and even known to turn on its pursuer. It grows to a length
of 6 ft., lives in swamps, plantations, forests, on the plains and on the
hills, and is very prolific, producing dozens of young, which at birth
are 10 in. long and as vicious as their parents.
L. s. Trimeresurus gramineus s. viridis s. erythurus is one of the
Asiatic species, ranging over the whole of India to Hong-kong, Timor
and even to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is arboreal,
bright green above; the end of the prehensile tail is usually bright
red. (H. F. G.)
SNAPDRAGON, or ANTIRRHINUM (Gr. j5is, piws, snout,
from the shape of the flower), a plant of the natural order
Scrophulariaceae (q.v.), native to central and south Europe,
occurring as an alien on old walls in Britain. It is an old-fashioned
garden perennial of easy cultivation. Antirrhinum majus, sown
in heat, and forwarded until the general time for planting out,
becomes a summer annual, and may be so treated; but under a
slower and more hardy regime it may be sown in boxes in August,
and pricked off into other boxes and wintered in a frame. So
treated, and planted out in well-prepared beds of good friable
garden soil, it will become very showy and effective. The " Tom
Thumb " or dwarf strain, obtainable in self and mixed colours,
is a very valuable plant for bedding. The named sorts are pro-
pagated by cuttings, and wintered in a frame. Some of the
double-flowered sorts are interesting. There are forms with
white, yellow, rose, crimson, magenta, and variously mottled and
striped flowers, some of them of great beauty, but the named
sorts are too fugitive to make it desirable to record a list.
SNEEK, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, to the
west of Sneek lake, 14 m by rail S.S.W. of Leeuwarden, with
which it is also connected by canal. Steam tramways connect
it S.E. with Heerenveen and N.W. with Bolsward and Harlingen.
Pop. (1900) 12,075. Sneek is one of the great butter and cheese
markets of the province. One of the former city gates (1615)
remains, and there are a town hall, communal buildings (1863),
court-house, weigh-house, synagogue and churches of various
denominations, in one of which is the tomb of the naval hero
of the 1 6th century, Lange, or Groote Pier (Long or Great Peter).
The horse-fair of Sneek is widely attended, and there is a consider-
able activity in trade and shipping.
SNEEZING (O. Eng. fneosung, from fneosan, to sneeze, cf.
Dutch fniezen, allied to the obsolete neeze, and ultimately to be
referred to root seen in Gr. irvtiv, to breathe; the initial s
is due to association with numerous words, such as snort, snuff,
snore. &c.), a violent expiration of air from the nose and mouth;
it is an involuntary reflex respiratory act; caused by irritation
of the nerve-endings of the mucous membrane of the nose or
by stimulation of the optic nerve by a bright light. The irrita-
tion may be due to the swelling of the nasal mucous membrane,
which occurs in catching cold, sneezing being often a premonitory
or accompanying symptom, or to foreign bodies in the nose, as
by inhalation of snuff or other " errhines " or " sternutatories."
A venerable and widespread belief survives in the custom of
saying " God bless you " when a person sneezes'. The Hindus
say " live," to which the answer " with you " is given (E.B.
Tylor, Primitive Culture, i. 101). A sneeze was considered a
sign or omen from the gods by the Greeks and Romans; it was
one of the many common everyday occurrences which if coming
at an important moment could be interpreted as presaging the
future. There are many allusions to it in classical literature,
e.g. Homer, Od. xvii. 561, Plutarch, Themist. 13, Xenophon,
Anab. iii. 2 and Catullus, Carm. 45. There are references to it
in Rabbinical literature, and it has been found in Otaheite,
Florida and the Tonga Islands.
SNELL, HANNAH (1723-1792), the "female soldier," was
born at Worcester on the 23rd of April 1723, being the daughter
of a hosier. In order to seek her husband, who had ill-treated
and abandoned her, in 1745 she donned man's attire and enlisted
as a soldier in Guise's regiment of foot, but soon deserted, and
shipped on board the sloop " Swallow " under her brother-in-
law's name of James Gray. The " Swallow " sailed in Boscawen's
fleet to the East Indies, and took part in the siege of Araapong.
Hannah served in the assault on Pondicherry and was wounded,
but she succeeded in extracting the bullet without calling in a
surgeon. When recovered she served before the mast on the
" Tartar " and the " Eltham, " but when paid off she resumed
woman's costume. Her adventures were published as The
Female Soldier, or the Surprising Adventures of Hannah Snell
(1750), and she afterwards gave exhibitions in military uniform
in London. She died insane in Bethlehem Hospital on the 8th
of February 1792.
SNELL, JOHN (1629-1679), founder of the Snell exhibitions
at Oxford, was born in 1629 in Ayrshire, Scotland^ the son of
a blacksmith. He joined the royalists during the civil war, and
fought in several battles, including Worcester. Thereafter he
took refuge in Cheshire, where he met Sir Orlando Bridgeman,
whose clerk he became, being raised to the offices of court -crier
and seal-bearer as his patron was promoted to those of judge
and Lord Keeper. Later he was secretary to the Duke of
Monmouth and had the management of his Scottish estates.
He died at Oxford cm the 6th of August 1679, leaving a bequest
for sending students from Glasgow University to an Oxford
college or hall. The Court of Chancery decided in 1693 that
Balliol should receive the beneficiaries.
SNELL, WILLEBRORD (1591-1626), commonly known as
SNELLIUS, Dutch astronomer and mathematician, was born at
Leiden in 1591. In 1613 he succeeded his father Rudolph Snell
(1546-1613) as professor of mathematics in the university of
Leiden. In 1615 he planned and carried into practice a new
method of finding the dimensions of the earth, by determining
the distance of one point on its surface from the parallel of
another, by means of a triangulation. His work Eratosthenes
Batavus, published in 1617, describes the method and gives,
as the result of his operations between Alkmaar and Bergen-op-
Zoom a degree of the meridian equal to 55,100 toises= 117,449
yds. (A later recalculation gave 57,033 toises =121,569 yds.,
after the application of some corrections to the measures indicated
by himself.) Snell also distinguished himself as a mathematician,
and discovered the law of refraction, in 1621 (see LIGHT). He
died at Leiden on the 3oth of October 1626.
In addition to the Eratosthenes Batavus he published Cydometria
sive de circuit dimen f ione (1621), and Tiphys Batavus s. Histiodrpmice,
de navium cursibus et re navali (1624). He also edited Coeli el sideruni
in eo errantium observations Hassiacae (1618), containing the astro-
nomical observations of Landgrave William IV. of Hesse. A trigo-
nometry (Doctrina triangulorum,) by him was published a year after
his death.
SNIPE (O. Eng. Snite, Icel. Snipa, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe),
one of the commonest Limicoline birds, in high repute no less
for the table than for the sport it affords. It is the Scolopax
gallinago of Linnaeus, but by later writers it has been separated
from that genus, the type of which is the Woodcock (q.v.),
and has been named Gallinago caeleslis. Though considerable
numbers are still bred in the British Islands, notwithstanding the
diminished area suitable for them, most of those that fall to the
gun are undoubtedly of foreign origin, arriving from Scandinavia
towards the- close of summer or later, and many will outstay,
the winter if the weather be not too severe, while the home-bred
birds emigrate in autumn to return the following spring. Of
later years British markets have been chiefly supplied from
abroad, mostly from Holland.
The variegated plumage of the Snipe is subject to no incon-
siderable variation, especially in the extent of dark markings
on the belly, flanks, and axillaries, while examples are occasionally,
seen in which no trace of white, and hardly any of buff or grey,
294
SNIP SNAP SNOREM SNOILSKY
is visible, the place of these tints being taken by several shades
of chocolate-brown. Such examples were long considered to
form a distinct species, the S. sabinii, but its invalidity is now
admitted. Other examples in which buff or rust-colour pre-
dominates have also been deemed distinct, and to those has been
applied the epithet russata. Again, a slight deviation from the
ordinary formation of the tail, whose rectrices normally number
14, and present a rounded termination, has led to the belief
in a species, 5. brehmi, now wholly discredited. But, setting
aside two European species, there are at least a score, belonging
to various parts of the world. Thus N. America produces
G. wilsoni, so like the English Snipe as not to be easily distin-
guished except by the possession of 16 rectrices, and Australia
has G. australis, a larger and somewhat differently coloured
bird with 18 rectrices. India, while affording a winter resort to
the common species, which besides Europe extends its breeding
range over the whole of N. Asia, has also at this season the
Pin-tailed Snipe, E. stenura, in which the number of rectrices
is still greater, varying from 20 to 28, it is said, though 22 seems
to be the usual number. This curious variability, deserving
more attention than it has yet received, only occurs in the outer
feathers of the series, which are narrow in form and extremely
stiff, there being always 10 in the middle of ordinary breadth.
Those who only know the Snipe as it shows itself in the shoot-
ing-season, when without warning it rises from the boggy ground
uttering a sharp note that sounds like scape, scape, and, after a
few rapid twists, darts away, if it be not brought down by the gun,
to disappear in the distance after a desultory flight, have no con-
ception of the bird's behaviour at breeding-time. Then, though
flushed quite as suddenly, it will fly round the intruder, at times
almost hovering over his head. But, if he have patience, he will
see it mount aloft and there execute a series of aerial evolutions of
an astounding kind. After wildly circling about, and reaching a
height at which it appears a mere speck, where it winnows a
random zigzag course, it abruptly shoots downwards and aslant,
and then as abruptly stops to regain its former elevation, and
this process it repeats many times. A few seconds after each of
these headlong descents a mysterious sound strikes his ear
compared by some to drumming, and by others to the bleating
of a sheep or goat, 1 which sound evidently comes from the bird
as it shoots downwards, and then only. It is now generally
accepted that these sounds are produced by the vibration of the
webs of the outer tail-feathers, the webs of which are modified.
A similar sound may be made by affixing those feathers to the
end of a rod and drawing them rapidly downwards in the same
position as they occupy in the bird's tail while it is performing
the feat. 2 The air will also ring with loud notes that have been
syllabled tinker, tinker, tinker, while other notes in a different key,
Something like djepp, djepp, djepp rapidly uttered, may be heard
as if in response. The nest is always on the ground, and is a
rather deep hollow wrought in a tuft of herbage and lined with
dry grass-leaves. The eggs are four in number, of a dark olive
colour, blotched and spotted with rich brown. The young when
freshly hatched are beautifully clothed in down of a dark maroon,
variegated with black, white and buff.
The Double or Solitary Snipe of English sportsmen, S. major, a
larger species, also inhabits N. Europe, and may be readily re-
cognized by the white bars in its wings and by its 16 or occasion-
ally 1 8 rectrices. It has also a very different behaviour. When
flushed it rises without alarm-cry, and flies heavily. In. the
breeding season much of its love-performance is exhibited on the
ground, and the sounds to which it gives rise are of another
character; but the exact way in which its " drumming " is
effected has not been ascertained. Its gesticulations' at this time
have been well described by Professor Collett in a communication
1 Hence in many languages the Snipe is known by names signifying
" Flying Goat," " Heaven's Ram," as in Scotland by " Heather-
bleater."
4 Cf. Meves, Oefvers. K. Vet.-Akad. Fork. (1856), pp. 275-277 (transl.
Naumannia, 1858, pp. 1 16, 1 17), and Proc. Zool. Society (1858), p. 202,
with Wolley's remarks thereon, Zool. Garten (1876), pp. 204-208;
P. H. Bahr (Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, 1907, p. 12) has given a full
account of the subject, with diagrams of the modified feathers.
to H. E. Dresser's Birds of Europe (vii. 635-637). It visits
Great Britain every year at the close of summer, but in
very small numbers, and is almost always seen singly not un-
commonly in places where no one could expect to find a Snipe.
The third species of which any details can here be given is the
Jack- 3 or Half-Snipe, 5. gallinula, the smallest and most beauti-
fully coloured of the group. Without being as numerous as the
common or full Snipe, it is of frequent occurrence in Great Britain
from September to April (and occasionally both earlier and later) ;
but it breeds only, so far as is known, in N. Scandinavia and
Russia; and the first trustworthy information on that subject
was obtained by J. Wolley in June 1853, when he found several of
its nests near Muonioniska in Lapland. 4 Instead of rising wildly
as do most of its allies, it generally lies so close as to let itself be
almost trodden upon, and then takes wing silently, to alight' at
a short distance and to return to the same place on the morrow.
In the breeding-season, however, it is as noisy and conspicuous
as its larger brethren while executing its aerial evolutions.
As a group the Snipes are in several respects highly specialized.
We may mention the sensitiveness of the bill, which, though to some
extent noticeable in many Sandpipers (q.v.), is in Snipes carried to
an extreme by a number of filaments, belonging to the fifth pair of
nerves, which run almost to the tip and open immediately under the
soft cuticle in a series of cells that give this portion of the surface of
the premaxillaries, when exposed, a honeycomb-like appearance.
Thus the bill becomes a most delicate organ of sensation, and by its
means the bird, while probing for food, is at once able to distinguish
the nature of the objects it encounters, though these are wholly out
of sight. So far as is known the sternum of all the Snipes, except
the Jack-Snipe, departs from the normal Limicoline formation, a fact
which tends to justify the removal of that species to a separate genus,
Limnocryptes. 6 (A. N.)
SNIP SNAP SNOREM, an old game at cards, sometimes called
Earl of Coventry. There are several methods of playing, but in
the commonest a full whist pack is used and any number of players
may take part. The pack is dealt, one card at a time, and the
eldest hand places upon the table any card he likes. Each player
in his turn then tries to match the card played just before his,
making use of a prescribed formula if successful. Thus, if a king is
played, the second player lays down another king (if he can)
calling out " Snip! " The next player lays down the third king,
saying " Snap! " and the next the fourth king with the word
" Snorem. " A player not being able to pair the card played may
not discard, and the holder of " Snorem " has the privilege of
beginning the next round. The player who gets rid of all his
cards first wins a counter from his companions for each card still
held by them.
SNOILSKY, CARL JOHAN GUSTAF, COUNT (1841-1903),
Swedish poet, was born at Stockholm on the 8th of September
1841. He was educated at the Clara School, and in 1860 became
a student at Upsala. He was trained for diplomacy, which he
quitted for work at the Swedish Foreign Office. As early as
1861, under the pseudonym of " Sven Trost," he began to print
poems, and he soon became the centre of the brilliant literary
society of the capital. In 1862 he published a collection of lyrics
called Orchideer (" Orchids "). During 1864 and 1865 he was in
Madrid and Paris on diplomatic missions. It was in 1869, when
he first collected his Dikter under his own name, that Snoilsky
took rank among the most eminent contemporary poets. His
3 Though this word is clearly not intended as a nickname, such as
is the prefix which custom has applied to the Daw, Pie, Redbreast,
Titmouse or Wren, one can only guess at its origin or meaning. It
may be, as in Jackass, an indication of sex, for it is a popular belief
that the Jack-Snipe is the male of the common species; or, again, it
may refer to the comparatively small size of the bird, as the " jack "
in the game of bowls is the smallest of the balls used, and as fisher-
men call the smaller Pikes Jacks.
4 His account was published by Hewitson in May 1855 (Eggs Br.
Birds, 3rd ed., ii. pp. 356-358).
6 The so-called Painted Snipes, forming the genus Rhynchaea,
demand a few words. Four species have been described, natives
respectively of S. America, Africa, India with China, and Australia.
In all of these it appears that the female is larger and more brilliantly
coloured than the male, and in the Australian species she is further
distinguished by what in most birds is emphatically a masculine
property, though its use is here unknown namely, a complex
trachea, while the male has that organ simple. He is also believed
to undertake the duty of incubation.
SNORRI STURLASON SNOWDROP
295
Sonneter in 1871 increased his reputation. Then, for some years,
Snoilsky abandoned poetry, and devoted himself to the work
of the Foreign Office and to the study of numismatics. In 1876,
however, he published a translation of the ballads of Goethe.
Snoilsky had in 1876 been appointed keeper of the records, and
had succeeded Bishop Genberg as one of the eighteen of the
Swedish Academy. But in 1879 he resigned all his posts, and
left Sweden abruptly for Florence with the Baroness Ruuth-
Piper, whom he married in 1880. Count Snoilsky sent home in
1 88 1 a volume of Nya Dikter (New Poems). Two other volumes
of Dikter appeared in 1883 and 1887, and 1807; Savonarola, a
poem, in 1883, and Hvitafi-un (" The White Lady ") in 1885. In
1886 he collected his poems dealing with national subjects as
Svenska bilder (2nd ed., 1895), which ranks as a Swedish classic.
In 1891 he returned to Stockholm, and was appointed principal
librarian of the Royal Library. He died at Stockholm on the
19th ot May 1903. His literary influence in Sweden was very
great ; he always sang of joy and liberty and beauty, and in his
lyrics, more than in most modern verse, the ecstasy of youth
finds expression. He is remarkable, also, fcr the extreme
delicacy and melodiousness of his verse-forms.
His Samlade dikter were collected (Stockholm, 5 vols.) in 1903-1904.
SNORRI STURLASON (1179-1241), the celebrated Icelandic
historian, the youngest son of a chief in the VestfirOir (western
fiords), was brought up by a powerful chief, Jon Loptsson, in
Odda, who seems first to have awakened in him an interest for
history and poetry. His career begins with his marriage, which
made him a wealthy man; in 1206 he settled at Reykjaholt,
where he constructed magnificent buildings and a bath of hewn
stones, preserved to the present day, to which water was con-
ducted from a neighbouring hot spring. He early made himself
known as a poet, especially by glorifying the exploits of the
contemporary Norse kings and earls; at the same time he was
a learned lawyer, and from 1215 became the Idgsogiimadr, or
president of the legislative assembly and supreme court of Iceland.
The prominent features of his character seem to have been
cunning, ambition and avarice, combined with want of courage
and aversion from effort. By royal invitation he went in 1218
to Norway, where he remained a long time with the young king
Haakon and his tutor Earl Skuli. When, owing to disputes
between Icelandic and Norwegian merchants, Skuli thought of
a military expedition to Iceland, Snorri promised to make the
inhabitants submit to Haakon of their own free will. Snorri
himself became the lendrmadr, vassal or baron, of the king of
Norway, and held his lands as a fief under him. On his return
home Snorri sent his son to the king as a hostage, and made peace
between Norway and Iceland, but his power and influence were
used more for his own enrichment and aggrandizement he
was logsogumadr again from 1222 to 1232 than for the advan-
tage of the king. Haakon, therefore, stirred up strife between
Snorri's kinsman Sturla and Snorri, who had to fly from Reykja-
holt in 1236; and in 1237 he left the country and went back
to Norway. Here he joined the party of Skuli, who was meditat-
ing a revolt. Learning that his cousin Sturla in Iceland had
fallen in battle against Gissur, Snorri's son-in-law, Snorri,
although expressly forbidden by his liege lord, returned to
Iceland in 1 239 and once' more took possession of his property.
Meanwhile Haakon, who had vanquished Skuli in 1240, sent
orders to Gissur to punish Snorri for his disobedience either by
capturing him and sending him back to Norway or by putting
him to death. Gissur took the latter course, attacked Snorri at
his residence, Reykjaholt, and slew him on the 22nd of September
1241.
Snorri is the author of the great prose Edda (see EDDA), and of the
Heimskringla or Sagas of the Norwegian Kings, a connected series of
biographies of the kings of Norway down to Sverri in 1177. The
later work opens with the Ynglinga Saga, a brief history of the pre-
tended immigration into Sweden of the Aesir, of their successors in
that country, the kings of Upsala, and of the oldest Norwegian kings,
their descendants. Next come the biographies of the succeeding
Norwegian kings, the most detailed being those of the two missionary
kings Olaf Tryggvason and St Olaf. Snorri's sources were partly
succinct histories of the realm, as the chronological sketch of Ari;
Dartly more voluminous early collections of traditions, as the Noregs
Konungatal (Fagrskinna) and the Jarlasaga; partly legendary
Diographics of the two Olafs; and, in addition to these, studies and
collections which he himself made during his journeys in Norway.
His critical principles are explained in the preface, where he dwells
on the necessity of starting as much as possible from trustworthy
contemporary sources, or at least from those nearest to antiquity
the touchstone by which verbal traditions can be tested being con-
temporary poems. He inclines to rationalism, rejecting the marvel-
lous and recasting legends containing it in a more historical spirit;
but he makes an exception in the accounts of the introduction of
Christianity into Norway and of the national saint St Olaf. Snorri
strives everywhere to impart life and vigour to his narrative, and he
ives the dialogues in the individual character of each person.
Especially in this last he shows a tendency to epigram and often uses
humorous and pathetic expressions. Besides his principal work,
he elaborated in a separate form its better and larger part, the
History of St Olaf (the great Olafs Saga). In the preface to this he
gives a brief extract of the earlier history, and, as an appendix, a
short account of St Olafs miracles after his death; here, too, he
employs critical art, as appears from a comparison with his source,
the Latin legend. See further ICELAND, Literature, and EDDA.
SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf.
in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. snecuw; in Slavonic
snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. pl^a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic
forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c. ; Ir. and Gael, sneachd; the
original sense of the root may be to moisten, cf. Skt. sneha,
moisture), that form of precipitation of water- vapour con-
densed from the atmosphere which reaches the ground in a
frozen and crystalline condition. Snow thus occurs when the
processes of condensation and fall take place at a temperature
below 32 F. The crystals, which vary greatly in form, belong
to the hexagonal system. They are formed upon a nucleus,
in the same way as a raindrop, and sometimes reach the ground
singly, but more commonly in small coherent masses or flakes.
If in its passage from the upper atmosphere snow passes through
a temperature above 32 F. it reaches the ground as sleet or rain
(according to the degree of heat encountered), and thus after a
fall of rain over lowlands, the higher parts of mountains in the
vicinity may be seen to have received the fall as snow.
See further CLIMATE and METEOROLOGY; and for the transforma-
tion of snow into ice under pressure, see GLACIER.
SNOWDON (Wyddfa, view-place, Eryri, eagle-place), the
highest elevation in N. Wales. It is formed chiefly of slates,
grits and porphyries of the Cambrian and Silurian systems.
It consists of five " ribs " converging at the summit, 3560 ft.
above sea-level. Between these lie such depressions as Cwm Glas
(blue or green vale) to the N., and Cwm y llan (clearing, town
or church vale) to the S. Snowdon is demarcated from the
surrounding hills by passes famous for their scenery, such as that
of Llanberis (q.v.) to the N.E. and Aberglaslyn to the S. These
two passes are joined by Nant Gwynnant (stream, or valley,
of the white or happy valley, or stream), skirting the S.E. flanks
of the Snowdon massif. Nant Colwyn runs N.W. to Carnarvon.
A rack-and-pinion railway (opened in 1897) ascends from Llan-
beris to the summit of the mountain (4! m.). Snowdonia, as the
locality is sometimes called, contains several lakes, e.g. Peris
and Padarn at Llanberis; Glaslyn and Llydaw between Cribgoch
(red crest) and Lliwedd; Cwcllyn and others W. of the hill itself;
and Gwynnant and Dinas (Y Ddinas) in Nantgwynnant.
SNOWDROP, Galanthus nivalis, the best known representative
of a small genus of the order Amaryllidaceae, all the species of
which have bulbs, linear leaves and erect flower-stalks, destitute
of leaves but bearing at the top a solitary pendulous bell-shaped
flower. The white perianth is six-parted, the outer three
segments being larger and more convex than the inner series.
The six anthers open by pores or short slits. The ovary is three-
celled, ripening into a three-celled capsule. The snowdrop is a
doubtful native of Great Britain, but is largely cultivated for
market in Lincolnshire. There are numerous varieties, differing
in the size of the flower and the period of flowering. Other
distinct species of snowdrop are the Crimean snowdrop, G.
plicatus, with broad leaves folded like a fan, and G. Elwesii, a
native of the Levant, with large flowers, the three inner segments
of which have a much larger and more conspicuous green blotch
than the commoner kinds. All the species thrive in almost
296
SNOW-LEOPARDSOAP
any soil or position, and when once planted should be left to
themselves.
SNOW-LEOPARD, or OUNCE (Fdis uncia,} a large member
of the cat family, from the high mountain regions of Central Asia.
It resembles the leopard in general conformation, but has longer
fur, grey in colour, marked with large dark rosettes. The
dimensions of the head and body are about 4 ft. 4 in., tail 3 ft.,
and the height 2 ft. This animal lives among rocks, and preys
upon wild sheep and goats, and probably large rodents or birds.
It carries off sheep, goats and dogs from villages, and even kills
ponies, but, it is said, has never been known to attack man
(Blanford). Examples shown in the Zoological Gardens of
London have been fairly tame and playful.
SNOW-LINE. In the higher latitudes, and in the most
elevated parts of the surface of the earth, the atmosphere may be
normally so cold that precipitation is chiefly in the form of snow,
which lies in great part unmelted. The snow-line is the imaginary
line, whether in latitude or in altitude, above which these
conditions exist. In the extreme polar regions they exist at sea-
level, but below lat. 78 the snow-line begins to rise, since at the
lower elevations the snow melts in summer. In N. Scandinavia
the line is found at about 3000 ft. above the sea, in the Alps
at about 8500 ft., and on high mountains in the tropics at about
18,000 to 19,000 ft. These figures, however, can only be approxi-
mate, as many considerations render it impossible to employ the
term " snow-line " as more than a convenient generalization.
SNOW-SHOES, a form of footgear devised for travelling over
snow. Nearly every American Indian tribe has its own particular
shape of shoe, the simplest and most primitive being those of the
far north. The Eskimos possess two styles, one being triangular
in shape and about 18 in. in length, and the other almost circular.
Southward the shoe becomes gradually narrower and longer, the
largest being the hunting snow-shoe of the Crees, which is nearly
6 ft. long and turned up at the toe. Of snow-shoes worn by
people of European race that used by lumbermen is about 3! ft.
long and broad in proportion, while the tracker's shoe is over
S ft. long and very narrow. This form has been copied by the
Canadian snow-shoe clubs, who wear a shoe about 35 ft. long
and 15 to 1 8 in. broad, slightly turned up at the toe and terminat-
ing in a kind of tail behind. This is made very light for racing
purposes, but much stouter for touring or hunting.
Snow-shoes are made of a single strip of some tough wood,
usually hickory, curved round and fastened together at the ends
and supported in the middle by a light cross-bar, the space
within the frame thus made being' filled with a dose webbing of
dressed caribou or neat's-hide strips, leaving a small opening
just behind the cross-bar for the toe of the moccasined foot. They
are fastened to the moccasin by leather thongs, sometimes by
tuckles. The method of walking is to lift the shoes slightly and
slide the overlapping inner edges over each other, thus avoiding
the unnatural and fatiguing " straddle-gait " that would other-
wise be necessary. Immoderate snow-shoeing leads to serious
lameness of the feet and ankles which the Canadian voyageurs
call mal de raquette. Snow-shoe racing is very common in the
Canadian snow-shoe clubs, and one of the events is a hurdle-race
over hurdles 3 ft. 6 in. high. Owing to the thick forests of
America the snow-shoe has been found to be more suitable for
use than the Norwegian ski, which is, however, much used in
the less-wooded districts.
SNUFF (from " to snuff, " i.e. to inhale, to draw in through the
nose; cf. Dutch snuf, scent, Ger. Schnupfen, a cold, catarrh, and
Eng. " snuffle, " " sniff, " &c.), the name of a powdered prepara-
tion of tobacco used for inhalation (for the manufacture see
TOBACCO). The practice of inhaling snuff became common in
England in the lyth century, and throughout the i8th century
it was universal. At first each quantity inhaled was fresh grated
(Fr. rdper), whence the coarser kinds were later known as
" rappee. " This entailed the snuff-taker carrying with him
a grater with a small spoon at .one end and a box to hold the
grated snuff at the other. Early iSth-century graters made
of ivory and other material are in existence. Later the box and
the grater were separated. The art and craft of the miniature
painter, the enameller, jeweller and gold- and silver-smith was
bestowed upon the box. The humbler snuff-takers were content
with boxes of silver, brass or other metal, horn, tortoise-shell or
wood. The mull (q.v.), a silver-mounted ram's head, is a large
table snuff-box. Though " snuff-taking " ceased to be fashion-
able at the beginning of the iQth century, the gold and jewelled
snuff-box has continued to be a typical gift of sovereigns to those
whom they delight to honour.
This word " snuff " must be distinguished from that meaning
the charred inch of a candle or lamp, which is a variant of " snip "
or " snop, " to cut off, trim, cf. Dan. snubbe. Constant trimming
or snuffing of candles was a necessity until obviated by the
modern methods of candle manufacture, and the snuffers con-
sisted of a pair of scissors with a closed box forming a receptacle
for the charred wick cut off; the snuffers usually had three small
feet which allowed them to stand on a tray. Made of silver,
silver-gilt or other metal, " snuffers " were formerly a decorative
article of plate in the equipment of a household. There is a
beautiful example of silver snuffers with enamel decorations in
the British Museum. These belonged to Cardinal Bainbridge
and date from the reign of Henry VIII.
SNYDERS, FRANZ (1570-1657), Flemish painter of animals
and still life, was born and died at Antwerp. In 1593 he was
studying under Pieter Breughel the younger, and afterwards
received instruction from Hendrick van Balen, the first master
of Van Dyck. He devoted himself to painting flowers, fruit and
subjects of still life, but afterwards turned to animal-painting,
and executed with the greatest skill and spirit hunting pieces
and combats of wild animals. His composition is rich and varied,
his drawing correct and vigorous, his touch bold and thoroughly
expressive of the different textures of furs and skins. His
excellence in this department excited the admiration of Rubens,
who frequently employed him to paint animals, fruit and still life
in his own pictures, and he assisted Jordaens in a similar manner.
In the lion and boar hunts which bear the name of Snyders the
hand of Rubens sometimes appears. He was appointed principal
painter to the archduke Albert, governor of the Low Countries,
for whom he executed some of his finest works. One of these, a
" Stag-Hunt, " was presented to Philip III., who commissioned
the artist to paint several subjects of the chase, which are still
preserved in Spain.
SOANE, SIR JOHN (1753-1837), English architect and art
collector, was born near Reading of a humble family whose name
of Swan he afterwards altered to Soan or Soane. His talent as
a boy attracted the attention of George Dance, junior, the archi-
tect, who with other friends helped him on. He won the Royal
Academy's silver (1772) and gold (1776) medals, and a travelling
studentship, and went to Italy to study (1777-1780). Returning
to England he got into practice as an architect, and in 1784
married a rich wife. He became architect to the Bank of England,
which he practically rebuilt in its present form, and did other
important public work. He became an A.R.A in 1795, and R.A.
in 1802, and professor of architecture to the Royal Academy in
1806. In 1831 he was knighted. In his house in Lincoln's Inn
Fields he brought together a valuable antiquarian museum (now
the Soane Museum), which in 1835 hepresented to the nation with
an endowment; and there he died in 1837. (See MUSEUMS.)
SOAP, a chemical compound or mixture of chemical compounds
resulting from the interaction of fatty oils and fats with alkalis.
In a scientific definition the compounds of fatty acids with basic
metallic oxides, lime, magnesia, lead oxide, &c., should also be
included under soap; but, as these compounds are insoluble in
water, while the very essence of a soap in its industrial relations
is solubility, it is better to speak of the insoluble compounds
as " plasters, " limiting the name " soap " as the compounds of
fatty acids with soda and potash. Soap both as a medicinal and
as a cleansing agent was known to Pliny (H.N. xxviii. 51),
who speaks of two kinds hard and soft as used by the Germans.
He mentions it as originally a Gallic invention for giving a bright
hue to the hair (" rutilandis capillis "). There is reason to
believe that soap came to the Romans from Germany, and
that the detergents in use in earlier times and mentioned as soap
SOAP
297
in the Old Testament (Jer. ii. 22; Mai. iii. 2, &c.) refer to the
ashes of plants and other such purifying agents (comp. vol. x.
p. 697).
Soap appears to have been first made from goat's tallow and
beech ash; in the i3th century the manufacture was established
at Marseilles from olive oil, and in England during the next
century. The processes and extent of the manufacture were
revolutionized at about the beginning of the igth century by
Chevreul's classical investigations on the fats and oils, and by
Leblanc's process for the manufacture of caustic soda from
common salt.
Previous to Chevreul's researches on the fats (1811-1823) it was
believed that soap consisted simply of a binary compound of fat and
alkali. Claude J. Geoffrey in 1741 pointed put that the fat or oil
recovered from a soap solution by neutralization with a mineral acid
differs from the original fatty substance by dissolving readily in
alcohol, which is not the case with ordinary fats and oils. The
significance of this observation was overlooked ; and equally un-
heeded was a not less important discovery by Scheele in 1783. In
preparing lead plaster by boiling olive oil with oxide of lead and a
little water a process palpably analogous to that of the soap-boiler
he obtained a sweet substance which, called by himself " Olsuss "
(" principium dulce oleorum "), is now known as " glycerin."
These discoveries of Geoffroy and Scheele formed the basis of
Chevreul's researches by which he established the constitution of oils
and the true nature of soap. In the article OILS it is pointed out
that all fatty oils and fats are mixtures of glycerides, that is, of
bodies related to the alcohol glycerin C 3 H 6 (OH) 3 , and some fatty acid
such as palmitic acid (Ci 6 H 3 iO 2 )H. Under suitable conditions
C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 +3(C I6 H 31 2 )H give C 3 H 6 (CH 31 O 2 ) 3 +3H 2 O
Glycerin. Palmitic Acid. Palmitin. Water.
The corresponding decomposition of a glyceride into an acid and
glycerin takes place when the glyceride is distilled in superheated
steam, or by boiling in water mixed with a suitable proportion of
caustic potash or soda. But in this case the fatty acid unites with
the alkali into its potash or soda salt, forming a soap
C 3 H 6 (C, 6 H 31 O2) 3 +3NaOH=3NaC I6 H 3 iO 2 +C 3 H 5 (OH) 3
Palmitin. Caustic Soda. Soap. Glycerin.
Of the natural fats or glycerides contained in oils the most important
in addition to palmitin are stearin and olein, and these it may be
sufficient to regard as the principal fatty bodies concerned in soap-
making.
The general characters of a soap are a certain greasiness to the
touch, ready solubility in water, with formation of viscid solutions
which on agitation yield a tenacious froth or " lather," an indisposi-
tion to crystallize, readiness to amalgamate with small proportions
of hot water into homogeneous slimes, which on cooling set into
jellies or more or less consistent pastes. Soaps give an alkaline
reaction and have a decided acrid taste; in a pure condition a
state never reached in practice they have neither smell nor colour.
Almost without exception potash soaps, even if made from the solid
fatty acids, are " soft," and soda soaps, although made with fluid
olein, are " hard " ; but there are considerable variations according
to the prevailing fatty acid in the compound. Almost all soda soaps
are precipitated from their watery solutions by the addition of a
sufficiency of common salt. Potash soap with the same reagent
undergoes double decomposition a proportion being changed into a
soda soap with the formation of potassium chloride. Ammonia soaps
have also been made, but with little commercial success; in 1906
H. Jackson patented the preparation of ammonium oleate directly
in the washing water, and it is claimed that for cleansing articles it is
only necessary to immerse them in the water containing the pre-
paration and then rinse.
Soap when dissolved in a large amount of water suffers hydrolysis,
with formation of a precipitate of acid salt and a solution con-
taining free alkali. The reaction, however, is very complicated.
Chevreul found that a neutral salt soap hydrplysed to an acid salt,
free alkali, and a small amount of fatty acid. Rotondi in 1885,
however, regarded a neutral soap as hydrolysing to a basic salt,
soluble in both hot and cold water, and an acid salt, insoluble in cold
and sparingly soluble in hot. Chevreul's views were confirmed in
1894 by Krafft and Stern. The extent to which a soap is hydrolysed
depends upon the acid and on the concentration of the solution ; it is
also affected by the presence of metallic salts, e.g. of calcium and
magnesium. As to the detergent action of a soap, Berzelius held that
it was due to the free alkali liberated with water; but it is difficult to
see why a solution which has just thrown off most of its fatty acids
should be disposed to take up even a glyceride, and, moreover, on
this theory, weak cold solutions, in which the hydrolysis is consider-
able, should be the best cleansers, whilst experience points to the
use of hot concentrated solutions. It is more likely that the cleansing
power of soap is due to the inherent property of its solution to
emulsionize fats. This view is supported by Hillycr (Jour. Amer.
Chem. Soc., 1903, p. 524), who concluded that the cleansing power
depended upon several factors, viz. the emulsionizing power, the
xxv. 10 a
property of penetrating oily fabrics, and lubricating impurities so
that they can be readily washed away.
Resin soaps are .-propounds of soda or potash with the complex
acids (chiefly abietic) of which coniferous resins consist. Their
formation is not due to a true process of saponification ; but they
occupy an important place in compound soaps.
Manufacture. Numerous varieties of soaps are made; the
purposes to which they are applied are varied; the materials
employed embrace a considerable range of oils, fats and other
bodies; and the processes adopted undergo many modifications.
As regards processes of manufacture soaps may be made by the
direct combination of fatty acids, separated from oils, with
alkaline solutions. In the manufacture of stearin for candles, &c.,
the fatty matter is decomposed, and the liquid olein, separated
from the solid fatty acids, is employed as an ingredient in soap-
making. A soap so made is not the result of saponification but
of a simple combination, as is the case also with resin soaps.
All other soaps result from the combination of fatty oils and fat
with potash or soda solutions under conditions which favour
saponification. The soap solution which results from the
combination forms soap-size and is a mixture of soap with water,
the excess alkali, and the glycerin liberated from the oil. In
such condition ordinary soft soaps and certain kinds of hard soap
are brought to the market. In curd soaps, however, which
form the basis of most household soap, the uncombined alkali
and the glycerin are separated by " salting out, " and the soap
in this condition contains about 30% of water. Soap may be
framed and finished in this state, but almost invariably it receives
a further treatment called " refining " or " fitting," in which
by remelting with water, with or without the subsequent addition
of other agents to harden the finished product, the soap may be
made to contain from 60 to 70 % of water and kept present a firm
hard texture.
Almost any fatty substance can be employed in soap-making; but
the choice is naturally restricted by the price of the fat and also the
quality of the soap desired. The most important of the animal fats
are those of the ox and hog, and of the vegetable oils cotton-seed and
coco-nut; it is also to be remembered that resin, although not a
fat, is also important in soap-making. Ox and sheep tallow, with
the addition of resin, are the primary materials for making the hard
yellow or primrose soaps; these tallows are often adulterated. The
cheaper mottled and brown soaps have for their basis bone fat, ob-
tained by treating bones with superheated steam or other methods.
Lard yields lard oil, which is mainly applied in making hard toilet
soaps. Curd soap and London grey mottled are prepared from
kitchen or ship fat, whilst fuller's fat is employed in the manufacture
of soft soaps. Of the vegetable oils, in addition to cotton-seed and
coco-nut, olive oil is the basis of soaps for calico printers and silk
dyers; castor oil yields transparent soaps (under suitable treatment),
whilst crude palm oil, with bone fat, is employed for making brown
soap, and after bleaching it yields ordinary pale or mottled. The
alkalis are used almost exclusively in the condition of caustic lyes
solutions of their respective hydrates in water. Caustic soda is now
obtained direct from the soda manufacturer, and one operation,
causticizing the soda, is thus spared the soap-boiler. Potash lyes
also may be bought direct, but in some cases they are sharpened or
causticized by the soap-boiler himself from the carbonate.
The processes of soap manufacture may be classified (a) according
to the temperatures employed into (i) cold processes and (2) boiling
processes, or (b) according to the nature of the starting material
acid or oil and fat and the relative amount of alkali, into (l) direct
saturation of the fatty acid with alkali, (2) treating the fat with a
definite amount of alkali with no removal of unused lye, (3) treating
the fat with an indefinite amount of alkali, also with no separation of
unused lye, (4) treating the fat with an indefinite amount of alkali
with separation of waste lye. In the second classification (2) is
typical of the " cold " process, whilst (l), (3), (4) are effected by the
" boiling " process.
The cold process, which is only applicable to the manufacture of
soaps from readily saponifiable oils, such as those of the coco-nut
oil group and also from castor oil, is but little used. In it the oils at
35 C. are stirred with concentrated alkali in an iron or wooden tub,
whereupon saponification ensues with a development of some heat ;
the mixture being well agitated. After a few hours the mixture
becomes solid, and finally transparent; at this point the perfume is
added, and the product framed and crutched (see under Marine
Soap). By blending the coco-nut oil with other less saponifiable
substances such as tallow, lard, cotton-seed oil, &c., and effecting the
mixing and saponification at a slightly higher temperature, soaps are
obtained which resemble milled toilet soaps. Soaps made by this
process contain the glycerin originally present in the oil, but, in view
298
SOAP
of their liability to contain free alkali and unsaponified oil, the
process has been largely given up.
The process of soap-boiling is carried out in large iron boilers
called " soap pans " or " coppers," some of which have capacity for a
charge of 30 tons or more. The pan proper is surmounted by a
great cone or hopper called a curb, to provide for the foaming up of
the boiling mass and to prevent loss from overflowing. Formerly
the pans were heated by open firing from below; but now the
almost universal practice is to boil by steam injected from per-
forated pipes coiled within the pan, such injection favouring the
uniform heating of the mass and causing an agitation favourable to
the ultimate mixture and saponification of the materials. Direct
firing is used for the second boiling of the soap mixture; but for
this superheated steam may with advantage be substituted, either
applied by a steam-jacket round the pan or by a closed coil of pipe
within it. In large pans a mechanical stirring apparatus is pro-
vided, which in some cases, as in Morfit's steam " twirl," is formed
of the steam-heating tubes geared to rotate. Autoclaves, in which
the materials are boiled under pressure, are also employed for certain
soaps.
The process of manufacturing soaps by boiling fatty acids with
caustic alkalis or sodium carbonate came into practice with the de-
velopment of the manufacture of candles by saponifying fats, for it
provided a means whereby the oleic acid, which is valueless for candle
making, could be worked up. The combination is effected in open
vats heated by a steam coil and provided with a stirring appliance ;
if soda ash be used it is necessary to guard against boiling over.
(See under Curd Soap.) '
Curd Soap. This variety is manufactured by boiling the fat with
alkali and removing the unused lye, which is afterwards worked up
for glycerin. The oil mixture used differs in the several manu-
facturing countries, and the commercial name of the product is
correspondingly varied. In Germany tallow is the principal fat;
in France olive oil occupies the chief place and the product is known
as Marseilles or Castile soap; and in England tallow and palm oil
are largely used. But in all countries a mixture of several oils
enters into the composition of curd soaps and the proportions used
have no fixity. For each ton of soap to be made from 12 to 16 cwt.
of oil is required. The soap pan is charged with the tallow or other
fat, and open steam is turned on. So soon as the tallow is melted a
quantity of weak lye is added, and the agitation of the injected
steam causes the fat and lye to become intimately mixed and pro-
duces a milky emulsion. As the lye becomes absorbed, a condition
indicated by the taste of the goods, additional quantities of lye of
increasing strength are added. After some time the contents of
the pan begin to clear and become in the end very transparent.
Lye still continues to be poured in till a sample tastes distinctly
alkaline a test which indicates that the whole of the fatty acids
have been taken up by and combined with the alkali. Then without
further addition of alkali the boiling is continued for a few minutes,
when the soap is ready for salting out or " graining." Either common
salt or strong brine in measured quantity is added to the charge, and,
the soap being insoluble in such salt solution, a separation of con-
stituents takes place: the soap collects on the surface in an open
granular condition, and the spent lye sinks to the bottom after it
has been left for a short time to settle. Suppose that a pure soap
without resin is to be made a product little seen in the market
the spent lye is run off, steam is again turned on, pure water or very
weak lye run in, and the contents boiled up till the whole is thin, close
and clear. The soap is from this again grained off or salted out, and
the underlye so thrown down carries with it coloured impurities
which may have been in the materials or which arise from contact with
the boiler. Such washing process may have to be repeated several
times when impure materials have been used. The spent lye of the
washing being drained off, the soap is now " boiled for strength."
Steam is turned on, and, the mass being brought to a clear condition
with weak lye or water, strong lye is added and the boiling continued
with close steam till the lye attains such a state of concentration
that the soap is no longer soluble in it, and it will separate from
the caustic lye as from a common salt solution. The contents of
the pan are once more allowed to cool and settle, and the soap as
now formed constitutes a pure curd coap, carrying with it some pro-
portion of uncombined alkali, but containing the minimum amount
of water. It may be skimmed off the underlye and placed direct
in the frames for solidification ; but that is a practice scarcely at all
followed, the addition of resin soap in the pan and the subsequent
" crutching in " of silicate of soda and adulterant mixings being
features common to the manufacture. The lye from the strengthen-
ing boil contains much alkali and is used in connexion with other
boilings.
Mottled Soap. A curd soap prepared from kitchen fat or bone
grease always carries with it into the cooling frame a considerable
amount of coloured impurity, such as iron sulphate, &c. When it is
permitted to cool rapidly the colouring matter remains uniformly
disseminated throughout the mass; but when means are taken to
cause the soap to cool and solidify slowly a segregation takes place :
the stearate and palmitate form a semi-crystalline solid, while the
oleate, solidifying more slowly, comes by itself into translucent veins,
in which the greater part of the coloured matter is drawn. In this
way curd, mottled or marbled soap is formed, and such mottled
appearance was formerly highly valued as an indication of freedom
from excess of water or other adulteration, because in fitted soaps
the impurities are either washed out or fall to the bottom of the
mass in cooling. Now, however, the mottled soaps, blue and grey,
are produced by working colouring matter, ultramarine for blue,
and manganese dioxide for grey, into the soap in the frame, and
mottling is very far from being a certificate of excellence of quality.
Yellow Soap consists of a mixture of any hard fatty soap with a
variable proportion up to 40 % or more of resin soap. That sub-
stance by itself has a tenacious gluey consistence, and its inter-
mixture in excess renders the resulting compound soft and greasy.
The ordinary method of adding resin consists in stirring it in small
fragments into the fatty soap in the stage of clear-boiling; but a
better result is obtained by separately preparing a fatty soap and
the resin soap, and combining the two in the pan after the underlye
has been salted out and removed from the fatty soap. The compound
then receives its strengthening boil, after which it is fitted by boiling
with added wacer or weak lye, continuing the boil till by examination
of a sample the proper consistency has been reached. On settling
the product forms three layers: the uppermost is a thin crust of soap
which is worked up again in the pan; the second is the desired soap;
next there is a dark-coloured weak soap termed nigre, which, because
it contains some soap and alkali is saved for future use; underneath
these is a solution of alkaline salts with a little free alkali.
Treatment of Settled Soap. The upper layer having been removed,
the desired soap is ladled out or ran off to a crutcher, which is an iron
pan provided with hand or mechanical stirring appliances. It is
here stirred till it becomes ropy, and the perfume, colour or any other
substance desired in the soap is added. The soap is now ready for
framing. The frames into which hard soaps are ladled for cooling
and solidification consist of rectangular boxes made of iron plates
and bound and clamped together in a way that allows the sides to
be removed when required; wooden frames are used in the case of
mottled soaps. The solidification is a very gradual process, depend-
ing, of course, for its completion on the size of the block ; but before
cutting into bars it is essential that the whole should be set and
hardened through and through, else the cut bars would not hold
together. Many ingenious devices for forming bars have been pro-
duced; but generally a strong frame is used, across which steel wires
are stretched at distances equal to the size of the bars to be made,
the blocks being first cut into slabs and then into bars.
Marine Soap. These soaps are so named because they are not
insoluble in a strong solution of salt ; hence they form a lather and
can be used for washing with sea-water. Being thus soluble in salt
water it cannot, of course, be salted out like common soaps; but if a
very concentrated salt solution is used precipitation is effected, and a
curd soap is separated so hard and refractory as to be practically
useless. Coco-nut soap (see above) is typical of this class. Its
property of absorbing large proportions of water, up to 80 %, and yet
present the appearance of a hard solid body, makes the material a
basis for the hydrated soaps, smooth and marbled, in which water,
sulphate of soda, and other alkaline solutions, soluble silicates,
fuller's earth, starch, &c. play an important and bulky part. Coco-
nut soap also forms a principal ingredient in compound soaps meant
to imitate curd and yellow soaps. Two principal methods of prepar-
ing such compound soaps are employed. In the first way the ordinary
oil and the coco nut oil are mixed and saponified together as de-
scribed above. According to the second plan, the ordinary oil is
treated as for the preparation of a curd soap, and to this the coco-
nut soap separately saponified is added in the pan and both are boiled
together till they form a homogeneous soap.
Silicate Soaps. A further means of enabling a soap to contain
large proportions of water and yet present a firm consistence is found
in the use of silicate of soda. The silicate in the form of a concen-
trated solution is crutched or stirred into the soap in a mechanical
mixing machine after the completion of the saponification, and it
appears to enter into a distinct chemical combination with the soap.
While silicate soaps bear heavy watering, the soluble silicate itself is a
powerful detergent, and it possesses certain advantages when used
with hard waters.
Soft Soap. Soft soaps are made with potash lyes, although in
practice a small quantity of soda is also used to give the soap some
consistence. There is no separation of underlyes in potash soap,
consequently the product contains the whole constituents of the oils
used, as theoperation of salting out is quite impracticable owing to
the double decomposition which results from the action of salt, pro-
ducing thereby a hard principally soda soap with formation of
potassium chloride. Owing to this circumstance it is impossible to
fit " or in any way purify soft soap, and all impurities which go into
the pan of necessity enter into the finished product. The making of
soft soap, although thus a much less complex process than hard soap
making, is one that demands much skill and experience for its success.
From the conditions of the manufacture care must be taken to regu-
late the amount and strength of the alkali in proportion to the oil
used, and the degree of concentration to which the boiling ought to
be continued has to be determined with close observation.
Toilet Soaps, &c. Soaps used in personal ablution in no way
differ from the soaps previously alluded to, and may consist of any
of the varieties. It is of consequence that they should, as far as
possible, be free from excess of alkali and all other salts and foreign
SOAP-BARK SOBAT
299
ingredients which may have an injurious effect on the skin. The
manufacturer of toilet soap generally takes care to present his wares
in convenient form and of agreeable appearance and smell ; the more
weighty duty of having them free from uncombined alkali is in many
cases entirely overlooked. Transparent soaps are prepared by dis-
solving ordinary soap in strong alcohol and distilling off the greater
portion of the alcohol till the residue comes to the condition of a
thick transparent jelly. This, when cast into forms and allowed to
harden and dry slowly, comes out as transparent soap. A class of
transparent soap may also be made by the cold process, with the use
of coco-nut oil, castor oil and sugar. It generally contains a large
amount of uncombined alkali, and that, with its unpleasant odour of
coco-nut oil, makes it a most undesirable soap for personal use.
Toilet soaps of common quality are perfumed by simple melting and
stirring into the mass some cheap odorous body that is not affected by
alkalis under the influence of heat. The finer soaps are perfumed by
the cold method ; the soap is shaved down to thin slices, and the
essential oil kneaded into and mixed with it by special machinery,
after which it is formed into cakes by pressure in suitable moulds.
The greater quantity of high-class toilet soaps are now made by a
milling process. A high class soap, which after framing contains
about 30 % of water, is brought down to a water content of 1 1-14 %
by drying in chambers through which warm air is circulated. The
soap is now milled in the form of ribbons with the perfume and colour-
ing matter, and the resulting strips are welded into bars by forcing
through a heated nozzle. The bars are then cut or moulded into
tablets, according to the practice of the manufacturer.
Glycerin soap ordinarily consists of about equal parts of pure
hard soap and glycerin (the latter valuable for its emollient pro-
perties). The soap is melted by heat, the glycerin is stirred in, and
the mixture strained and poured into forms, in which it hardens
but slowly into a transparent mass. With excess of glycerin a fluid
soap is formed, soap being soluble in that body, and such fluid soap
has only feeble lathering properties. Soap containing small propor-
tions of glycerin, on the other hand, forms a very tenacious lather,
and when soap bubbles of an enduring character are desired glycerin
is added to the solution. Soaps are also prepared in which large
proportions of fine sharp sand, or of powdered pumice, are incorpor-
ated, and these substances, by their abrading action, powerfully
assist the detergent influence of the soap on hands much begrimed
by manufacturing operations. 1
Medicated soaps, first investigated scientifically by Unna of
Hamburg in 1886, contain certain substances which exercise a specific
influence on the skin. A few medicated soaps are prepared for
internal use, among which are croton soap and jalap soap, both
gentler cathartics than the uncompounded medicinal principles.
Medicated soaps for external use are only employed in cases of skin
ailments, as prophylactic washes and as disinfectant soaps. Among
the principal varieties are those which contain carbolic acid and other
ingredients of coal tar, salicylic acid, petroleum, borax, camphor,
iodine, mercurial salts, sulphur and tannin. Arsenical soap is very
much employed by taxidermists for the preservation of the skins of
birds and mammals.
Miscellaneous Soaps. The so-called " floating soaps " are soaps
made lighter than water either by inserting cork or a metallic plate
so as to form an air space within the tablet. The more usual method
is to take milling soap, neutralize it with sodium bicarbonate or a
mixture of fatty acids, and, after perfuming, it is aerated by mixing
the hot soap with air in a specially designed crutcher. Shaving soaps,
which must obviously be free from alkali or any substance which
irritates the skin, are characterized by readily forming a permanent
lather. This property is usually obtained by mixing soft and hard
soaps, or, more rarely, by adding gum tragacanth to a hard soap.
In the textile trades the wool scourer employs a neutral olive-oil soap,
or, on account of its cheapness, a neutral curd or curd mottled
brand; the cotton cleanser, on the other hand, uses an alkaline soap,
but for cleaning printed cottons a neutral olive-oil curd soap is used,
for, in this case, free alkali and resin are objectionable; olive-oil
soap, free from caustic alkali, but often with sodium carbonate, is
also used in cleansing silk fibres, although hard soaps free from resin
are frequently employed for their cheapness. Soaps of smaller
moment are the pearl ash soaps used for removing tarry stains;
ox-gall soaps for cleaning carpets; magnesia, rouge and chalk soaps
for cleaning plate, &c.
Soap Analysis. The most important points in soap analysis are
(i) determination of the fatty matter, (2) of the total alkali, (3) of the
substances insoluble in water, (4) of the water. The first is carried
out by saponifying the soap with acid in the heat when the fatty
acids come to the surface. If it fails to form a hard cake on cooling,
a known weight of wax may be added and the product re-heated.
The cake on weighing gives the free acid. The total alkali is de-
termined by incinerating a weighed sample in a platinum dish, dis-
solving the residue in water, filtering and titrating the filtrate with
standard acid. The residue on the filter paper gives (3) the sub-
stances insoluble in water. The water in a soap is rarely directly
determined ; when it is, the soap, in the form of shavings, is heated
to 105 C. until the weight is constant, the loss giving the amount of
" Soap powders " and " soap extracts " are powdered mixtures
of soaps, soda ash or ordinary sodium carbonate.
water. With genuine soaps, however, it suffices to calculate the
fatty acids as anhydrides and add to this the amount of alkalis, and
estimate the water by difference. The complete analysis involves an
examination of the fatty matter, of the various forms in which the
alkalis are present free and combined glycerin, &c.
Commerce. Marseilles has long been recognized as the most im-
portant centre of the soap trade, a position that city originally
achieved through its ready command of the supplies of olive oil.
The city is still very favourably situated for obtaining supplies
of oils both local and foreign, including sesame, ground nut, castor
oil, &c. In England, during the reign of Charles I., a monopoly of
soap- making was farmed to a corporation of soap-boilers in London
a proceeding which led to serious complications. From 1712 to 1853
an excise duty ranging from id. to 3d. was levied on soap made in
the United Kingdom, and that heavy impost (equal when 3d. to
more than cost) greatly impeded the development of the industry.
In r 793 when the excise duty was 2jd. on hard and I jd. on soft soap,
the revenue yielded was a little over 400,000; in 1815 it was almost
750,000; in 1835, when the duty was levied at ifd. and id. re_s-
pectively (and when a drawback was allowed for soap used in
manufactures), the revenue was almost 1,000,000; and in 1852, the
last year in which the duty was levied, it amounted to 1,126,046,
with a drawback on exportation amounting to 271,000.
Medicine. Two preparations of hard soap (sodium oleate), made
by acting on olive oil with caustic soda, are used in medicine: (i)
Emplastrum saponis, made with lead plaster; (2) Pilula saponis
composite, which contains one in five parts of opium. Soft or green
soap (potassium oleate), made by acting on olive oil with caustic
potash, is also used ; its preparation (Linamentum saponis) is known as
opodeldoc. Curd soap is also used, and is chiefly a stearate of sodium.
The chief use of hard soap is in enemata, and as a suppository in
children suffering from constipation ; it also forms the basis of many
pills; given in warm water it forms a ready emetic in cases of
poisoning. Soft soap is used by dermatologists in the treatment of
chronic eczema, and opodeldoc is a domestic remedy for stiffness and
sprains. Medicated soaps are made by adding the drug to either
hard soap or curd soap in the desired proportions. Useful com-
binations are: borax 10%, carbolic acid 5%, ichthyol 5%, sublimed
sulphur 10% thymol 2i%, &c.
See L. L. Lamborn, Modern Soaps, Candles and Glycerin (1906);
W. H. Simmons and H. A. Appleton, The Handbook of Soap Manu-
facture (1908) ; also J. Lewkowitsch, Oils, Fats and Waxes.
SOAP-BARK, the inner bark of Quillaja saponaria, a large
tree which grows in Chile. Reduced to powder, it is employed as
a substitute for soap, since it forms a lather with water, owing to
the presence of a glucoside saponin, sometimes distinguished as
Quillai saponin. The same, or a closely similar substance, is
found in soapwort (Saponaria officinalis),'m senega root (Polygala
senega) and in sarsaparilla; it appears to be chemically related
to digitonin, which occurs in digitalis. The saponins (with few
exceptions), have the general formula (C n H2n-gOio, and by the
action of dilute acids they are hydrolysed into sugars and
sapogenins, which are usually inert pharmacologically. An
alternative name for them, and especially for those which are
pharmacologically active, is sapotoxins; on this nomenclature the
hydrolytic products are termed saponins. Applied as a snuff
to the mucous membrane of the nose, saponin (either in soap-
bark or in senega root) promotes a violent sneezing. Solutions
injected under the skin are violent local irritants and general
depressants.
SOBAT, a river of N.E. Africa, the most southerly of the
great eastern affluents of the Nile. It is formed by the
junction of various streams which rise in the S.W. of the Abys-
sinian highlands and N.W. of Lake Rudolf. The length of the
Sobat, reckoning from the source of the Baro, the chief upper
stream, to the confluence with the Nile is about 460 m. The Baro
rises in about 36 10' E., 7 50' N. at an altitude of some 7000 ft.
It has a general W. direction with a slight N. tendency. It is
joined by numerous other streams which also rise on the Abys-
sinian plateau. These mountain torrents descend the escarpment
of the plateau between great walls of rock, the Baro dropping
3000 ft. in 45 m. It then flows through a narrow gorge at an
altitude of about 2000 ft., the mountains on either side towering
3000 to 4000 ft. above the river bed. Just east of 35' E. the
Birbir, descending from the plateau, joins the Baro and brings
with it a large volume of water. Some 40 m. lower down the
hills are left behind, the rocks and rapids in the bed of the Baro
cease, and the river flows W. across a vast plain with many
windings and several divergent channels. From Gambela, a
town on its N. bank 20 m. below the Birbir junction, the river is
300
SOBRAON SOCIAL CONTRACT
navigable by steamers during flood time (June-December) to
the point of confluence with the White Nile. From the N.
the Baro is joined by two considerable rivers which also rise
in the rampart of hills that separates Abyssinia from the
Sudan, but its chief tributaries are from the S. In about 33
20' E., 8 30' N., it is joined by the Pibor. This river issues
from the swamp region east of Bor on the Bahr-el-Jebel stretch
of the Nile and flows N.E. and N. It is joined from the E. and
S. by various streams having their sources on the W. slopes of
the Kaffa plateau. Of these the chief are the Gelo which
breaks through a gap in the mountains in a series of magnificent
cascades and the Akobo. The Akobo rises in about 6 30' N.,
35 30' E., and after leaving the mountains flows N.W. through
flat swampy tracts. The whole region of the lower Pibor and
Baro is one of swamps, caused by the rivers overflowing
their banks in the rainy season. At its junction with the Baro
the Pibor is over 100 yds. wide, with a depth of 8 ft. and a speed
of 2-3 ft. per second.
Below the confluence of the Pibor and Baro the united stream,
now known as the Sobat, takes a decided N.W. trend, passing
for some distance through a region of swamps. Just 'beyond
the swamps and some 40 m. below the confluence, is the fortified
post of Nasser. From this point the ground on either side of
the river gradually rises, though on the S. it is liable to inundation
during flood time. From Nasser to the junction of the Sobat
with the Nile the river has a course of about 180 m. As it
approaches the Nile the Sobat flows in a well-defined channel
cut in the alluvial plains through which it passes. The banks
become steep, the slope rapid and the current strong. Several
khors join it from N. and S., some being simply spill channels.
These channels or " loops " are a characteristic feature of the
river. The Sobat enters the Nile almost at right angles in 9 22'
N., 31 31' E. It is 400 ft. wide at its mouth and has a depth of
18 to 20 ft. at low water and of 30 ft. when in flood. The colour
of the water when in moderate flood is that of milk, and it is from
this circumstance that the Nile gets its name of Bahr-el-Abiad,
i.e. White River. In full flood the colour of the Sobat is a pale
brick red. The amount of alluvium brought down is considerable.
For the part played by the Sobat in the annual rise of the Nile
see NILE.
The Sobat was ascended for some distance in 1841 by the
Egyptian expedition despatched in the previous year to explore
the upper Nile. The post of Nasser (see above) was founded in
1874 by General C. G. Gordon when governor of the equatorial
provinces of Egypt, and it was visited in 1876 by Dr W. Junker,
the German explorer. The exploration of the river system
above Nasser was carried out in the last decade of the igth
century by the Italian explorer V. Bottego, by Colonel (then
Captain) Marchand, of the French army, who, on his way from
Fashoda to France, navigated the Baro up to the foot of the
mountains; and by Captain M. S. Wellby, Majors H. H. Austin
and R. G. T. Bright, of the British army, and others. By the
agreement of the i5th of May 1902 between Great Britain
and Abyssinia the lower courses of the Pibor and Baro rivers
to their point of confluence form the frontier between the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia.
See NILE, SUDAN and ABYSSINIA. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.)
SOBRAON, a decisive battle in the first Sikh War (see SIKH
WARS). It was fought on the i6th of February 1846, between
the British (15,000) under Sir Hugh Gough and the Sikhs (20,000)
under Tej Singh and Lai Singh. The Sikhs had fortified them-
selves in a bend on the left bank of the Sutlej, with the river in
their rear. The battle began with a two hours' artillery duel,
in which the Sikh guns were the more powerful, and the British
heavy guns expended their ammunition. Then the infantry
advanced with the bayonet, and after a fierce struggle took the
Sikh entrenchments. The Sikh losses were estimated at from
5000 to 8000. This battle ended the first Sikh War.
SOBRIQUET, a nickname or a fancy name, usually a familiar
name given by others as distinct from a " pseudonym " assumed
as a disguise. Two early variants are found, sotbriquet and
soubriquet; the latter form is still often used, though it is not
the correct modern French spelling. The first form suggests a
derivation from sot, foolish, and briquet, a French adaptation of
Ital. brichetto, diminutive of bricco, ass, knave, possibly connected
with briccom, rogue, which is supposed to be a derivative of
Ger. brechen, to break; but Skeat considers this spelling to be
due to popular etymology, and the real origin is to be sought
in the form soubriquet. Littre gives an early i4th century
soubsbriquet as meaning a " chuck under the chin," and this would
be derived from soubs, mod. sous (Lat. sub), under, and briquet
or bruchel, the brisket, or lower part of the throat.
SOCAGE, a free tenement held in fee simple by services
of an economic kind, such as the payment of rent or the perform-
ance of some agricultural work, was termed in medieval English
law a socage tenement. In a borough a similar holding was
called a burgage tenement. Medieval law books derived the
term from socus, ploughshare, and took it to denote primarily
agricultural work. This is clearly a misconception. The term
is derived from O. Eng. soc, which means primarily suit, but
can also signify jurisdiction and a franchise district. Historically
two principal periods may be distinguished in the evolution of
the tenure. At the close of the Anglo-Saxon epoch we find a
group of freemen differentiated from the ordinary ceorls because
of their greater independence and better personal standing.
They are classified as sokemen in opposition to the villani in
Domesday Book, and are chiefly to be found in the Danelaw
and in East Anglia. There can hardly be a doubt that previously
most of the Saxon ceorls in other parts of England enjoyed a
similar condition. In consequence of the Norman Conquest
and of the formation of the common law the tenure was developed
into the lowest form of freehold. Legal protection in the public
courts for the tenure and services deemed certain, appear as
its characteristic feature in contrast to villainage. Certainty
and legal protection were so essential that even villain holdings
were treated as villain socage when legal protection was obtainable
for it, as was actually the case with the peasants on Ancient
demesne who could sue their lords by the little writ of right
and the Monstraverunt. The Old English origins of the tenure
are still apparent even at this time in the shape of some of its
incidents, especially in the absence of feudal wardship and
marriage. Minors inheriting socage come under the guardianship
not of the lord but of the nearest male relative not entitled to
succession. An heiress in socage was free to contract marriage
without the interference of the lord. Customs of succession were
also peculiar in many cases of socage tenure, and the feudal rule
of primogeniture was 'not generally enforced. Commutation,
the enfranchisement of copyholds, and the abolition of military
tenures in the reign of Charles II. led to a gradual absorption
of socage in the general class of freehold tenures.
See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i. 271 ff. ;
F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond, 66 ff. ; P. Vinogradoff,
Villainage in England, 113 ff., I96ff.; English Society in the nth
Century, 431 ff. (P. Vl.)
SOCIAL CONTRACT, in political philosophy, a term applied to
the theory of the origin of society associated chiefly with the
names of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, though it can be traced
back to the Greek Sophists. According to Hobbes (Leviathan),
men lived originally in a state of nature in which there were
no recognized criteria of right and wrong, no distinction of
meum and luum. Each person took for himself all that he could ;
man's life was " solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short."
The state of nature was therefore a state of war, which was ended
by men agreeing to give their liberty into the hands of a sovereign,
who thenceforward was absolute. Locke ( Treatise on Government)
differed from Hobbes in so far as he described the pre-social
state as one of freedom, and held that private property must
have been recognized, though there was no security. Rousseau
(Central social) held that in the pre-social state man was unwar-
like and even timid. Laws resulted from the combination of
men who agreed for mutual protection to surrender individual
freedom of action. Government must therefore rest on the
consent of the governed, the volonte generate. Though it is
quite obvious that the theory of a social contract (or compact,
SOCIALISM
301
as it is also called) contains a considerable element of truth-
that loose associations for mutual protection preceded any
elaborate idea or structure of law, and that government cannot
be based exclusively on force yet it is open to the equally
obvious objection that the very idea of contract belongs to a
more advanced stage in human development than the hypothesis
itself demands. Thus the doctrine, yielding as a definite theory
of the origin of society to the evidence of history and anthrop-
ology, becomes interesting primarily as revolt against medieval
and theocratic theories of the state.
SOCIALISM, a term loosely formed from the Latin adjective
socialis (socius, a comrade), and first used of certain doctrines of
Robert Owen (q.v.). " Socialist " occurs in a discussion between
Robert Owen and the Rev. J. H. Roebuck at Manchester (publ.
Heywood, Manchester, 1837), pp. 27, 133. From the context it
seems a nickname. But the title " Owenist " was disliked by
many supporters (see Co-operative Magazine, 1826, p. 28) and
" Co-operator " was acquiring a different sense. The new term
was used in 1838 in France (by Pierre Leroux), and figures in
1840 in Reybaud's Socialistes modernes.
Definition. Socialism is that policy or theory which aims at
securing by the action of the central democratic authority a
better distribution, and in due subordination thereunto a better
production, of wealth than now prevails.
This definition may not entirely cover the ancient and medieval
theories to which the name has been given by modern writers
(see also ANARCHISM, COMMUNISM, CO-OPERATION). It hardly
covers the schemes of Robert Owen himself. But just as
chemistry is not alchemy, or astronomy astrology, modern
socialism is not to be identified with Utopian fancies, and need
not be so defined as to embrace them. For a like reason it need
not be so defined as to include every tenet of leading socialistic
writers. We must disentangle their socialism from what is
superadded to it and not involved in the socialistic idea.
The word began in the days of Owen; but, as there were
utilitarians before Mill made the name current, so there were
socialists before Owen. Socialism, as a policy, begins with the
beginnings of politics. As a theory, it begins whenever the state
is perceived to have a distinct office from other factors in the
order of society, and that office is so magnified that the whole
or main charge of the economic resources of the people is assigned
to the state, whether for production or for distribution. There
was anarchism among the Cyrenaics and Cynics. Phaleas of
Chalcedon was a communist. There is state socialism in the
Republic of Plato, and much remains in the Laws. It is true
that in those days society and state are not clearly distinguished.
When Aristotle tells us that " man is by nature a political
.animal " (Politics, i. i), the adjective is ambiguous. But the
individual and the state are not confused; they are even, by the
Cynics, too far separated.
State and individual were also well apart in Rome, under the
Roman system of legal rights public, private, real, and personal.
There were socialistic measures in Rome, pants el circenses;
and there were agrarian, to say nothing of usury laws. But trade
and industry were not usually regarded as worthy subjects for
the state and the statesman to touch at all. There are instances
of municipal socialism in Italy and the provinces under the
Roman Empire (S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus
Aurelius, 1905, pp. 218, 220, 222). In the middle ages feudalism
was more akin to paternal government than to individualism;
but it was, politically, too undemocratic to approach a true
socialism. On its decadence something like a de facto municipal
socialism made its appearance. The gilds of the great cities,
imperium in im-perio, regulated production and incidentally
distribution. They did not prevent the existence of millionaires
like the Fuggers, but they brought even these rich men under
their rules. The equality was greater than the liberty, though
neither was complete, to modern notions.
With the breaking up of the gilds came what is commonly
called individualism. Thenceforward over against the control-
ling government of the monarch or the commonwealth was to
stand the commercial competition of free individuals. It is one
of our modern problems to determine whether this individualism
is doomed or not. It has never existed pure and unmixed.
Between the time of the gilds and the time of the trade unions
lies the time, say in England in the i6th and I7th centuries,
when there were enterprising trade and busy industry, with
enough of power surviving in the old organizations to prevent
absolute anarchy. As invention followed invention in the i8th
century, industry changed its form and became great instead of
small. That is to say , it tended to become more and more an
affair of large capital and large workshops, and, instead of the
industrial individualism of small masters and independent
" manufacturers," who were still " hand " -workers, there was
appearing the industrial collectivism of the factory system,
where manufacture was nothing without its machinery, its
colossal division of labour and its strict technical discipline and
drill. There was a short period in England when employers were
allowed to draw advantage from the change without any hind-
rance from the state. But in no greater time than one generation
the regulation of factories began, the period of anarchy ended,
and the commercial competition of free individuals began to be
surrounded with safeguards, more or less effective.
Modern socialism, as defined above, is (a) opposed to the
policy of laissez-faire, which aims at the least possible inter-
ference with industrial competition between private persons or
groups of persons, and (b) suspicious of a policy of mere regula-
tion, which aims at close surveillance and control of the pro-
ceedings of industrial competitors, but would avoid direct
initiative in production and direct attempts to level the in-
equalities of wealth. The leading idea of the socialist is to
convert into general benefit what is now the gain of a few. He
shares this idea with the anarchist, the positivist, the co-operator
and other reformers; but, unlike them, to secure his end he
would employ the compulsory powers of the sovereign state,
or the powers of the municipality delegated by the sovereign.
In the former case we have state socialism, in the latter municipal.
Where there is direction or diversion of industry by the public
force mainly for the benefit of a few, this is hardly socialism.
It employs the same machinery, the public force; and it secures
a revenue which may possibly be used for the general benefit,
as in the case of protective duties. But in such cases the general
benefit is only a possible incident. So far (for example) as
protection succeeds in keeping out the foreign competitors, the
main result is the assured gain or prevented loss of a few among
the citizens. Socialism by intention and definition would secure
benefits not for a few, a minority, or even a majority, but for all
citizens. Communism has the same end in view; and socialism
and communism (q.v.) are often confused in popular thought.
But the communist need not be a socialist ; he may be an anarchist,
an opponent of all government; while the socialist need not
be a communist. The socialists of the 2oth century rarely, if
ever, demand that all wealth be held in common, but only that
the land, and the large workshops, and the materials and means of
production on a large scale shall be owned by the state, or its
delegate the municipality. The despotism of gilds would not
now be tolerated. The strictest public regulation of trade and
industry will probably continue to be that of the state, rather
than of the municipality, for local rules can be evaded by migra-
tion, the state's only by emigration. But the smaller bodies are
likely to display more adventurous initiative; and it is significant
that they appear in the imagination nearer to the individual than
the state even of a small people can ever appear to its own
citizens. Yet it is not the smallest unit, the parish, that has
shown most activity in England, but the county, a unit arith-
metically nearer to the state than to the individual.
It might be plausibly argued that the movement of modern
events has been rather towards a kind of anarchism (q.v.) than a
kind of socialism, if it were not for the element of compulsion
(quite contrary to anarchism). Even the English poor law,
universally called socialistic, is administered locally and the
degree of socialism varies with the parishes. When the state's
regulation went further and further in a succession of Irish Land
Acts (1870, 1881, 1903), it assumed a socialistic character; the
302
SOCIALISM
face of agricultural industry was transformed for the benefit of
the majority, if hardly of the whole, by the action of the state.
But the result has been a state-aided individualism. The
attempt to transform all industries by protection has not been
made by the English state in these days. It remains broadly
true that, since the English state became more democratic
(Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, 1884), its socialism has become more
and more of the municipal character. The end in view having
more to do with economics than with politics, it mattered little
theoretically whether the power exercised was that of the central
authority acting directly or the delegated power in the hands of
the smaller public bodies.
This has been the course of events in England with little
conscious theory or principle on the part of the people or even of
its leaders. It is certainly a partial fulfilment of the aspirations
of those whose theory or principle is socialism. The most
important form of modern socialism, which may be called for
convenience " social democratic " socialism, is founded on
economic theory more or less clearly understood; it is therefore
often described as economic or scientific socialism. Many men
have become socialists less from logic than from sympathy with
suffering. But modern socialism without disowning sentiment
knows the need of facts and sound reasoning better than its
predecessors, whom it calls Utopian. While among civilized
peoples the suffering has on the whole grown less, the influence of
socialism has grown greater; and this is largely owing to the
efforts made by the best socialists to reason faithfully and
collect facts honestly. The remarkable extension of socialism
in Germany may be traced in great part to the special circum-
stances which have made social democracy the chief effective
organizer of working men in that country. But modern socialism
is not a purely German product. To scientific socialism England,
France and Germany have all made contribution.
Its theoretical basis came, in two curiously different ways,
from practical England. The idea that the underpaid labour of
the poor is the main source of the wealth of the rich is to be found
not only in Godwin and Owen but in the minor English land-
reformers and revolutionary writers of the i8th and early igth
centuries, such as T. Spence, W. Ogilvie, T. Hodgskin, S. Read,
W. Thompson. The positions of Ricardo that value is due to
labour and that profits vary inversely as wages were taken by
Marx (without Ricardo's modifications) as established doctrines
of orthodox political economy. It was declared to be a scientific
truth that under modern industrial conditions the " exploita-
tion " of the labourer is inevitable. In the theory of rent the
exploitation of the tenant by the landlord was already admitted
by most economists. It was for the socialists to show that the
salvation both of tenant and labourer lay in the hands of the
central authority, acting as the socialists would have it act.
France had been prepared for socialism by St Simon and
Fourier. The revolutions of 1830 and 1848, though on the whole
unsuccessful in directly organizing labour, made socialistic ideas
circulate widely in Europe. Men began to conceive of a political
revolution which should be also a social revolution, or of a social
and industrial revolution which should be also political. We
may say broadly that the socialism of 1910 was either inspired
by the ideas of that time or is coloured by them. Modern
scientific socialism was thus about fifty years old towards the
end of the first decade of the 2Oth century. It would have little
claim to be scientific if it had undergone no change in that time;
but the change was not greater than the change in orthodox
economic doctrine, which indeed it had followed.
Its adherents may be classified (i) according to theory and
(2) according to policy, though, as scientific socialism is really
both theory and policy, being a political claim founded on an
economic argument, the distinction is sometimes a matter of
emphasis.
There are theorists who find the exploitation of the tenant
by the landlord to be the main evil whether it involves the
degradation of the labourer or not. As some theologians confine
their criticism to the Old Testament, so Henry George and
Professor A. Loria, shunning the name of socialist, would not
directly attack the system of modern large capitals but the
appropriation of land. The social-democrat attacks both. He
either takes Marx as guide, or, allowing Marx to be vulnerable,
he stands on received economic doctrines with the addition of a
political theory. He may himself rest content with the national-
izing of the means of production or he may tend towards
communism.
In policy there is a difference between those scientific socialists
who admit of no compromise with the existing order and the
other scientific socialists who are willing to work with the existing
order. The straitest sect would keep quite aloof from ordinary
politics. The first step towards compromise is to allow the
formation of a socialistic party in the legislature, bearing a
protest against all other existing parties. This is the rule on
the continent of Europe. The next step is to allow members
of the party to be also members of other existing political
parties; this is common in England and her colonies. The
political history of scientific socialism is to a large extent the
history of its attempts to avoid, to effect and to utilize the
compromise.
There is, of course, a large body of socialists outside any organ-
ization. Partly from the teachings of socialists and partly from
literary descriptions of the aims and reasons of socialism, there
are multitudes who think socialistically without defining their
own position with the exactness of the scientific socialist. It
is often these amateurs who fall readily into Utopias and who
confound the boundaries between socialism and communism.
This is done for example by such writers as H. G. Wells and
Upton Sinclair. The temptation is evident. The borderland
between large production and small may be sometimes debate-
able; and, as soon as the socialistic nationalizing of large
production is extended to small, the way is open to the Utopias
of communism. Communism is an idea far more Utopian than
socialism. Like the idea of a kingdom of heaven or a millennium,
it springs often from a spiritual enthusiasm that feels sure of
its end and, at first at least, recks little of the means.
The enthusiasm may spring from a real conversion of the
sort described in the Republic of Plato (vii. 516). Even scientific
socialism, depending theoretically on close adherence to economic
principles, depends practically on this conversion. It is as with
Christianity, which depends on its theology but also on its
change of heart; till we have refuted both we have not refuted
Christianity. So a change of heart, which is also a change of
view, is to socialism, as a religion, what economic and political
theory is to it as a creed. All that is best in anarchism shares
this spiritual feature with socialism. It is of a higher type than
the human sympathy which went with Utopian socialism;
it includes that sympathy and more. It requires a mental
somersault of the kind taken by Hegel's metaphysician and
(analogically) by Dante at the earth's centre. The observer
begins to see the world of men all over again, throwing from him
all the prejudice of his class and abstracting from all classes.
This abstraction may be less hard for those who belong to a
class that has little, than for those of a class that has much, as
religious conversion is held to be easier for the poor. But it is
not really easy for any. The observer tries to conceive what
is at bottom the difference between rich and poor. Casuists
can show that the line is a vanishing one, and that there are
large groups of cases where the distinction is unsubstantial.
Such borderlands are still the sporting ground of economists
and philosophers and biologists. We could hardly contend,
however, that no distinctions are true which break down at the
border. It seems unsafe to say there is no war of classes, because
at their nearest extremities the classes pass into each other.
At the utmost we might infer that the best way to bring the war
to an end was to crowd the nearest extremities. At present,
taking the contrast not at its least or greatest but at its mean,
we find it no fancy. The features that make the lower as
distinguished from the higher are of different quality and kind,
not merely of amount. They are described perhaps most fully
by Tolstoy in Que faire ?, but they are brought to the ken of
every one of the rich who can overhear the daily talk of the poor,
SOCIALISM
33
enter into their daily cares and put himself in their place. If
he makes the somersault and is " converted," all the little and
great privileges of the rich seem now to have as many presump-
tipns against them as were before in their favour. Why should
he have so much comfort and they so little? why should he be
secure when they live from hand to mouth? why should art and
science and refinement be thrown in his own way and be hardly
within their reach at all? Such and similar ponderings are not
far from a revolt against inequality, whether the revolt takes
the shape of anarchism or of socialism. It carries us beyond
the paternal socialism of Carlyle and Ruskin or even of the
author of Sybil, relying as Disraeli did on the " proud control "
of the old English state, which was occasionally and spasmodic-
ally constructive as well as controlling, but was always actuated
by a feeling like that of a chief to his clansmen. The exponents
of paternal socialism have no clear consciousness of the change
in the state itself. They think they can still use the old tools.
They see that the people have changed, but they do not see that
if the past cannot be revived for a people neither can it be
revived for a state. The idea of lordship (as distinguished from
leadership) is becoming intolerable; and this restiveness may
contain a safeguard against one of the worst risks of socialism,
bureaucracy. Before the governing bureaucracy had destroyed
all originality and eccentricity, the sovereign people would have
discovered for itself that " tyranny is a poor provider."
Great Britain. In England a certain academic interest in
socialism was created by Mill's discussions on the subject in his
Political Economy (1848) and a more practical interest by the
appearance of the Christian Socialists. " The red fool-fury of
the Seine " caused prejudice even against such harmless en-
thusiasts. The People's Charter (in the 'thirties) had no socialistic
element in it. Socialism first showed signs of becoming a popular
movement in England after the lecturing tour of Henry George
(1881-1882) in advocacy of the nationalizing of the land. About
that very time (1880) the Democratic (afterwards in 1883 the
Social Democratic) Federation was formed by advocates of the
whole socialistic programme. A secession took place in 1884
when William Morris, H. M. Hyndman and Belfort Bax founded
the Socialist League. William Morris parted company with
the league in 1890, and seems to have become more anarchist
than socialist. Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward (1887)
made some impression among intellectual people in England;
but Robert Blatchford's Merrie England (1894) made much
more way amongst the multitude, followed up as it was by his
newspaper the Clarion. There were still few signs of a strong
party. The first members of the Fabian Society (1888) were by
definition opportunists, and though the Fabian Essays (1889)
were socialistic they were the declarations of men willing to use
the ordinary political machinery and accept reforms in the
present that might point to a socialistic solution in the very far
distance. Most of the Fabians became hard-working radicals
of the old type, with general approval. England does not love
even the appearance of a revolution. Nevertheless a change has
come over the spirit of English politics in the direction desired
by socialists, though hardly through any efforts of theirs. The
change was predicted by Herbert Spencer in 1860 (Westm. Rev.
April) some years before household suffrage (1867). In The
Man versus the State (1885) he demonstrates that liberal legisla-
tion which once meant the removal of obstacles now meant the
coercion of the individual. Though a large part of the coercive
measures enumerated by Spencer are rather regulation than
socialism, undoubtedly there is here and there a socialistic
provision. Thomas Hill Green's dictum, " It is the business
of the State to maintain the conditions without which a free
exercise of the human faculties is impossible " (Liberal Legislation
and Freedom of Contract, 1881), did not in appearance go much
further than Herbert Spencer's that " it is a vital requirement
for society and for the individual to recognize and enforce the
conditions to a normal social life " (The Man versus the State,
p. 102); but the former saw clearly that the policy of the future
must go beyond mere regulation. Too much importance has
been attached to a saying of Sir William Harcourt in 1888,
" We are all Socialists now." He meant no more than that we
are all social reformers who will use the aid of the state without
scruple if it seems necessary. He did not mean that the English
people had adopted a general principle of socialism. Except
in the case of free trade, it is hard to discover a general principle
in English politics. The English people judge each case on the
merits, and as if no general principle ever affected the merits.
Regulation and not initiative is the prevailing feature of the
action of government even now. The railways are still in private
hands. The state railways, canals and forests of India, though
John Morley (afterwards Viscount Morley) " made a present
of them to the Socialists " (House of Commons, 2oth July
1906), are the public works of a modern benevolent despotism,
and do not go very far beyond those of its ancient prototype.
They are the works not of the Indian but of an alien demo-
cracy. Contrariwise, in England itself, possessed of a fair
measure of self-government, crown lands, government dock-
yards, army, fleet, post office were in existence when there
was no thought of state socialism; they are not modern innova-
tions but time-honoured institutions.
The same is true of a great part of municipal socialism. It
existed in the middle of the igth century, and no local community
would have been deterred from having its own water-supply
or gas works by any fear of socialism. The fear is still less
deterrent now; and we have seen electric lighting, tramways,
parks, markets, ferries, light railways, baths and wash-houses,
house property, river steamers, libraries, docks, oyster beds,
held by towns like Glasgow, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool,
Leeds, Bradford, Huddersfield, Colchester. Sometimes the
management is economical, sometimes wasteful; but in all
cases the undertakings have been supported by a majority who
care little for general theory and everything for local interests.
The " unity of administration " successfully advocated by
Edwin Chadwick in the later Victorian period, and requiring
" competition for the field but not in the field," is not inconsistent
with municipal socialism. This last has been provided with
new machinery by the establishment of county and district
councils (1888), parish councils (1894) and even the perhaps-
otherwise-intended metropolitan borough councils (1899).
Till 1907, when the progressive party in the London County
Council were heavily defeated, that council was certainly moving
in the path of municipal socialism. But, in its achievements
as distinguished from its claims, it had not overtaken, still
less surpassed, Birmingham or Glasgow. Municipal socialism in
Britain finds many critics; it has the drawbacks of all democratic
self-government. It is sometimes wasteful; but it is seldom
corrupt; and there is no general desire for a .return to a less
adventurous policy. In the country districts democracy is still
imperfectly conscious of its own power. There are acts on the
statute book that would well equip a parochial socialism; but
socialists seem to be able to do little more than accelerate slightly
what seems to be the inevitably slow pace of political reform
in England. Whether the extension of the franchise to women
will quicken the rate of reform is uncertain.
With every allowance, the change in English politics has been
real, and it has been due in a great measure to the growth
of organization among working men. The old trade unionism
passed out of its dark ages by the aid of legislation (in 1871),
which was for thirty years (till the Taff Vale decision in 1901,
the older view being restored by the Trades Disputes Act 1906)
considered to give fo the trade unions the advantages of a
corporation without the drawbacks. At the same time, through
a better law of small partnerships (Industrial and Provident
Societies Acts 1852, 1862, 1876), the co-operative societies were
making rapid progress. Compulsory education (1870) increased
the intelligence of the labouring classes and therewith their
power to use their opportunities. Labour legislation, removing
truck, making inspection and regulation of factories more
stringent (see the consolidating Act of 1878 and the Factory
and Workshop Act 1901) and providing compensation for
accidents (1906), was forwarded by both political parties. This
was not socialism but regulation. The old unionists were
304
SOCIALISM
radicals of the old type. Not so the unionists who came first
into prominence with the Dock Strike in London in 1889. The
way had been prepared by demonstrations of the unemployed
in 1887 and 1888. When unionism embraced unskilled labourers,
and at the same time pressed on the federation of all trades
societies and their joint action, when, too, in the trade union
congresses the intervention of the state was repeatedly claimed
as essential to the success not only of an eight hours' day but
of such socialistic measures as nationalization of the land, it
was manifest that there was a new leaven working. The larger
the numbers included in the trades societies the more their
organization was bound to depart from that of the mass meeting,
and to become indirect instead of direct self-government,
government by representatives, and more and more by specially
trained representatives. This was a tendency towards bureau-
cracy, or government by officials, not the highest type of popular
government. A better preparation for democratic government
has been given by the co-operative societies. If it be true that
under a coming socialism the working class must dominate,
then every phase of organization must be welcomed which
widens their experience of self-government, more especially
in the handling of industrial and commercial affairs. This last
kind of education has been well given by co-operation, though
chiefly through capital and hired labour on the old pattern
of the ordinary employers. Co-partnership societies, best
exemplified in the midland districts of England, are more
democratic; but their numbers are few. The claims of the
workman are somewhat in advance of his education. On the
other hand it seems impossible in England to secure moderate
concessions without extravagant claims.
Germany. In Germany it was long an axiom that socialists
must leave ordinary politics and political machinery severely
alone as an evil thing. The short and futile struggle for constitu-
tional liberty in 1848-1849 had driven most of those who were
" thinking social istically " into abandonment of political reform
and into plans of fundamental change amounting to revolution.
Karl Mario (1810-1865) and K. J. Rodbertus (q.v.) contented
themselves with laborious and profound studies not intended
to bear immediate fruit in practice. Marx and Lassalle were not
so pacific. The former was from the first (see his Manifesto
of 1847) inclined to give socialism an international character,
taking also no pains to distinguish it from communism. Lassalle
desired it for his own nation first. Both of them were in a sense
Hegelians. From Hegel they had learned that the world of men,
like the world of things, was in constant process of development ;
but unlike Hegel they regarded human evolution as purely
materialistic, effected always by a struggle between classes in
society for the outward means of well-being. Feudalism, itself
the result of such a struggle, had given place to the rule of the
middle classes. The struggle to-day is between the middle
classes and the working classes. At present those who do not
possess capital are obliged to work for such wages as will keep them
alive, and the gains from inventions and economics are secured by
the employers and capitalists. The labourer works at his cost
price, which is " the socially necessary wages of subsistence "
(the bare necessaries of a civilized life); but he produces much
more than his cost, and the surplus due to his " unpaid labour "
goes to the employer and capitalist. This is what Lassalle called
the " brazen law of wages," founded on Ricardo's supposed
doctrine that (a) the value of an article that is not a monopoly
is determined by its cost in labour, and (6)' the wages of labour
tend to be simply the necessaries of life. The tendency of the
labouring population to increase beyond the means of steady
employment is a frequent benefit to the capitalists in the periodic
expansions of investment and enterprise, arising in response to
new inventions and discoveries. Large business in modern
economy swallows up small. Not only the independent artisans
and workers in domestic industries, but the small capitalists and
employers who cannot afford to introduce the economies and sell
at the low prices of their large rivals are disappearing. But
the growth of the proletariat, together with the concentration of
business into fewer hands and larger companies, will cause the
downfall of the present system of industry. The proletariat
will realize its own strength; and the means and materials of
production will be concentrated finally into the hands of the
commonwealth for the good of all. This revolution, like that
which overturned feudalism, is simply the next stage of an
evolution happening without human will, fatally and necessarily,
by virtue of the conditions under^which wealth is produced and
snared in our times.
Such was in substance the view of all the German socialists
of the last half of the igth century. Even Rodbertus had
advanced a claim of right on behalf of working men to the full
produce of their labour, but thought the times not ripe for
socialism. The others made no such reservations. Lassalle
planned a centralized organization of workmen led by a dictator,
and called on the government of Prussia to establish from the
public funds co-operative associations such as his opponent
Schulze-Delitzsch had hoped to plant by self help. His socialism
was rather national than universal. Marx looked beyond his
own nation. He founded the International Union of Working
Men in 1864, the year of Lassalle's tragic death. Before the
common danger of police prosecutions and persecution the
followers of Lassalle and Marx were united at the congress of
Gotha in 1875. The name social democrats had crept into use
about 1869 when the followers of Marx founded at a congress in
Eisenach the social democratic working men's party. The party
began to be a power at the congress of Gotha. It is a power now,
but its doctrines and policy have undergone some change.
The last quarter of the i gth century witnessed (i) the repressive
laws of 1878, (2) their repeal in 1890, (3) the three Insurance
Laws and (4) a quickened progress of German industry and
wealth during thirty years of peace and consolidation.
Bismarck's government, alarmed by attempts on the life
of the emperor and by the increased number of votes given to
socialistic candidates for the reichstag, procured the passing of
the Exceptional Powers Act (Ausnahme Geselz) in 1878. The
legislation at this time resembled the Six Acts of 1819 in England.
Combined action and open utterance in Germany became almost
impossible; and for organs of the press the social democrats had
recourse to Zurich. Liebknecht and Bebel could still raise their
voices for them in parliament, for Bismarck failed in his attempt
to deprive members of their immunities (March 1879). But the
agitation as a whole was driven underground; and it speaks
well for the patience and self-control of the people that no wide-
spread excesses followed. The declaration of the Social Demo-
cratic congress at Wyden, Switzerland, in 1880, that their aims
should be furthered " by every means " instead of the old phrase
" by every lawful means," was a natural rejoinder to the law
that deprived them of the lawful means; and it seems to have
had no evil consequences. In 1881 repression was so far relaxed
that trade unions were allowed to recover legal standing. In 1890
the reichstag refused to renew the law of 1878 for a fifth period;
and finally in 1899 it repealed the law forbidding the amalgama-
tion of workmen's unions, and specially aimed at the new social-
istic unions, the natural allies of the social democrats. The
vexatious prosecutions and condemnations for Majestats-
beleidigung (Ibse majeste) following 1890 did the cause more
good than harm. The socialistic voters increased from 437,438 in
1878 to 1,800,000 in 1894 and 2,120,000 in 1898, while the elected
members increased from 12 in 1877 to 46 in 1894 and 56 in 1898.
By 1903 the voters had increased to three millions and in the
elections of February 1907 they were 3,240,000. The socialists,
however, in 1907 found themselves represented by 43 members
as against 79 in 1903. The reduced representation was due to a
combination of the other parties against them, the matters at
issue not being industrial policy, but colonial government and
naval expenditure. The increase in the number of voters remains
a proof that the power of the party in Germany has rather in-
creased than diminished. In 1908 they gained seven seats in the
Prussian Diet, where they had hitherto been unrepresented.
Yet " remedial measures " had been passed which were intended
to make socialism unnecessary. Bismarck, who admired Lassalle
and had no scruples about the intervention of the state, had
SOCIALISM
305
planned a series of measures for the insurance of workmen
against sickness, accidents and old age, measures duly carried out
in 1 883 , 1 884 and 1891, respectively. The socialists not unreason-
ably regarded the government as their convert. They could
point to two other " unwilling witnesses," the Christian Socialists
and the " Socialists of the Chair."
In the Protestant parts of Germany the socialists as a rule
were social democrats, in the Catholic as a rule they were Christian
Socialists. As early as 1863 and 1864 Dr Bellinger and Bishop
Ketteler, followed by Canon Moufang, had represented socialistic
sentiment and doctrine. Ketteler, who had been under the
influence of Lassalle, had hopes that the church would make
productive associations her special care. Moufang would have
depended more on the state than on the church. All were awake
to the evils of the workmen's position as described by the social
democrats, and they were anxious that the Catholic church
should not leave the cure of the evils to be effected without her
assistance. Ketteler died in 1877; and the pope's encyclical
of the 28th of December 1878 bore no trace of his influence,
mixing up as it did socialists, nihilists and communists in one
common condemnation. The encyclical De conditions opificum
of 1891 might show that the views of the Christian Socialists
had penetrated to headquarters; but the encyclical on Christian
Democracy of 1901 (January) betrays no sympathy with them.
The Protestant church in Germany has been hampered by fear of
offending the government; but it contains a vigorous if tiny
body of Christian Socialists. Rudolf Todt, a country pastor,
was their prophet. His book on Radical German Socialism
and Christian Society (1878) led Dr Stocker, the court chaplain,
to found an association for " Social Reform on Christian Prin-
ciples." This was denounced rather unfairly by politicians of all
ranks as an organized hypocrisy. Its influence was shortlived,
and its successor, the "Social Monarchical Union" (1890), shared
the unpopularity of Stocker, its founder. Even the Socialists of
the Chair, middle class Protestants as they were, would have
nothing to say to it, but preferred to go a way of their own.
From the year 1858 there had existed a league of economists and
statesmen called the "economic congress" ( V olkswirtschaft-
licher Kongress), a kind of English Cobden Club, though it aimed
chiefly at free trade among all sections of the German people in
particular. After the Empire its work seemed finished; and a
new society was formed, the " Union for a Policy of Social
Reform " {Verein fiir Socialpolitik). Professors G. Schmoller,
W. Roscher, B. Hildebrand, A. Wagner, L. J. Brentano, the
statistician E. Engel and others met at Halle in June 1872, and
a meeting of their supporters followed at Eisenach in October of
that year. These Katheder-Socialisten or Socialists of the Chair
(academic socialists) agreed with the social democrats in recog-
nizing the existence of a " social question," the problem how to
make the labourers' condition better. To the old-fashioned
economist this was no problem for the legislature; competition
solved its own problems. But, while the social democrats
looked for social revolution, the academic socialists were content
to work for social reform, to be furthered by the state. The state
was, to them, " a great moral institution for the education of
the race." They were a company of moderate state socialists,
relying on the state and the state as it then was. They did much
gratuitous service to the government in the preliminary in-
vestigations preceding the great insurance laws.
The German people were made a little more inclined to state
socialism than before by the efficiency displayed by the bureau-
cracy in the wars of 1866 and 1870. If the Insurance Laws are
found to work well, this inclination may be confirmed, and th.e
idea of a revolution may fall into the background. The attitude
of the social democratic party became less uncompromising than
in earlier days. Since they regained their liberty in 1890, their
leaders have kept them well in hand. Their principal journal
Vorwarls was conducted with great ability. Their agitation
became as peaceful as that of trade unionists or co-operators in
England. They ceased to denounce the churches. They tried
to gain sympathy, quite fairly, by taking up the cause of any
distressed workers, or even ill-used natives in colonies, and urging
redress from the state. The present state had become to them
almost unconsciously their own state, a means of removing evils
and not a mere evil to be removed. The anarchists had been
disowned as early as 1880. The extreme socialists who demanded
return to the old tactics were cast out at Erfurt in 1891, and
became " Independent Socialists."
The controversy between friends and critics of socialism still
rages in learned circles, producing a prodigious quantity of
literature year by year; but the old strictures of Treitschke and
Schaffle seem now to have lost a little of their point. Though
the programme adopted at Gotha in 1875 was not entirely or even
seriously altered, the parts of it due to Lassalle fell into the
background. For many years Marx and not Lassalle was the
great authority of the party. Marx died in 1883, but remained
an oracle till 1894, when (just before his own death in 1895)
Engels published the last volume of his friend's book on capital.
The volume was expected to solve certain logical difficulties
in the system. Instead of this, it caused a feeling of disappoint-
ment, even among true believers. Many, like Bebel and Kautsky,
kept up the old adoration of Marx; but many, like Eduard
Bernstein, rightly felt that to give up Marx is not to give up
socialism, any more than to give up Genesis is to give up theology .
Bernstein openly proposed in congress that the old doctrines and
policy of the party, involving as they do the despair of reform
and insistence on the need of revolution, should be dropped.
He had not carried his point in 1908, but his influence seemed
to be increasing. The death of Liebknecht (August 1900) re-
moved from the ranks of the social democrats one of their most
heroic figures, but also one of the strongest opponents of such a
change of front. Yet Liebknecht himself had made concessions.
It was impossible for a man of his shrewdness to close his eyes
to what the state had done for the German workman. It was
impossible, too, to ignore the progress that Germany had made
in wealth and industry since the creation of the Empire in 1871.
Germany has been fast becoming a manufacturing country;
and, though the growth of large manufacturing towns in the
Rhine valley and elsewhere has multiplied socialists, it has added
to the income of the German workman. He is further from
poverty and distress; and his socialism means an endeavour
after a larger life, not, as formerly, a mere struggle against
starvation. It is likely, therefore, to have less and less of mere
blindness and violence in it.
The German socialists were chiefly interested in securing such
an extension of the franchise in Prussia as would make their
representation in the Prussian parliament correspond as near to
the number of their adherents as in the Reichstag itself. They
had only gained seven seats in the former in June 1908, though
they had perhaps half a million of adherents in Prussia. They
seemed for good or for evil to be taking the place of the old
radical party. The position in Austria was somewhat different.
The first general elections held under a really democratic suffrage
(May 1907) resulted in the return of eighty social democrats and
sixty Christian socialists to the Reichsrath, as compared with
eleven and twenty-six in the unreformed parliament. They
were opposed (as anti-clerical and clerical) on many questions,
but they made it certain that economic and industrial policy
affecting the whole nation would rival and perhaps out-rival
the questions of racial supremacy and haute politique that
absorbed the attention of the old Reichsrath.
France. In France the socialists have found it harder to
work in the parliamentary harness. Marx had said long ago that
for the success of socialism besides English help there must be
" the crowing of the Gallic cock." French enthusiasm for social
revolution is feeble in the country districts but very strongly
pronounced in the large towns. The Communards of 1871 might
be called municipal socialists of a sort, but their light went
out in that annee terrible. Something like a movement towards
organized socialism began in 1880 on the return of some prominent
members of the old commune from exile. A congress was held
at Havre under the leadership of J. Guesde and J. A. Ferroul;
it adopted a " Collectiiiist " programme, Collectivisme meaning
state socialism. A minority under J. F. E. Brousse and J. F. A.
306
SOCIALISM
Joffrin broke away (in 1881) from the main body and stood out
for municipal socialism, decentralization and, later (1887), self-
governing workshops aided by public money. Co-operative
workshops are already subsidized in France from the public
funds, and favoured by preferences in public works and other
privileges, without striking results. The Broussistes are also
called Possibilistes, as content with such socialism as is im-
mediately practicable. They supported, for example, agrarian
reform on the present basis of private property (Marseilles, 1892).
After several unsuccessful negotiations, the amalgamation of
the Collectivists, Possibilists and Blanquistei (extreme revolu-
tionaries)) was accomplished in 1899. But the body had not the
cohesion of the German party. Though the socialists in the
Chamber acted more or less loyally together, they were not
closely controlled by the organization outside. In consequence
(like Mr John Burns in England in 1905-1906) those who accepted
office usually came under a cloud. This happened to M. Millerand
when he became minister of commerce in the Waldeck Rousseau
government of 1899, and in a less degree to M. Jaures when he
became vice-president of the Chamber. M. Millerand was,
indeed, expelled from the party, and at the socialist congress of
Amsterdam (August 1904) a strongly worded resolution con-
demned any participation by socialists in bourgeois (middle-
class) government. The vote was not unanimous, and the
resolution itself was attributed to the German Bebel. An attempt
was made in Paris (April 1905) to bind the various parties of
French socialists more closely together by forming a new "Social-
ist party, the French Section of the Internationa] Labour Union."
It laid down stringent rules for the guidance of socialist deputies.
In comparison with the steady united action of the Germans,
the proceedings of the French socialists, perhaps from their
greater political liberty, seems a wayward guerilla warfare. The
French state is not on principle averse from intervention. It has
been always more ready than in England to interfere with
competitive trade and to take the initiative on itself. It controls
the Bank of France, owns most of the railways, and directs
secondary as well as primary education. After the disputes at
Carmaux (in 1892) it proposed to take over the mines. There
is no general poor law; but old-age pensions have been voted,
and workmen's compensation is as old as 1888. State socialism
might have gone farther if French bureaucracy had not proved
less efficient than German.
Though there are socialistic French professors there can hardly
be said to be a body of academic socialists in France. The
strongest economic writing is still that of the orthodox economists,
P. E. Levasseur, P. P. Leroy-Beaulieu, Yves Guyot. Even
Professor Charles Gide, though reformer, is not socialist. Of
the two party periodicals La Revue socialiste is moderate, Le
Mouvement socialiste hardly so. The latter is in many ways
more akin to anarchism than state socialism. Socialism has
its allies in the sporadic Christian socialism of the Churches, both
Ca'tholic and Protestant, and in the solidarists who would trans-
form the existing system of employment without abolishing
private property. The school of Le Play, though devoted to
social reform, can hardly be called an ally of socialism.
Netherlands. Socialism has found a kindlier soil in Belgium
and Holland, and these countries have been the favourite
meeting-place in recent years of congresses of all denominations
of socialists. In Belgium the Flemish social democratic party
led by de Paepe united in 1879 with the Brabantine or Walloon.
They organized trade unions. They helped the liberals in 1893
to procure the extension of the suffrage. In 1907 they had
thirty representatives in parliament. The flourishing co-operative
societies, Voornit (Forwards) in Ghent and Maison du people
of the Brussels bakers, were the work of their members. Its
success in co-operation is almost the distinctive feature of
Belgian socialism. Socialists helped to procure the adoption by
Belgium of a system of old-age pensions for the poor in 1900,
and of the cheap trains which do so much for the workmen in
town and country. In Holland, which is not a crowded manu-
facturing country but even now largely agricultural and pastoral,
the socialists are less formidable, if that be the right word. They
came into line with the German socialists in 1889. Social reform
proceeds with or without their aid. There has been a factory
act since 1889 and an act for workmen's insurance against
accidents since 1900. Municipal socialism has made progress.
The great railway strike of 1903 aroused public interest in the
condition of the workman, but the legislation that followed was
rather regulative than socialistic.
Switzerland. Switzerland, for generations a refuge to exiles,
shows them hospitality without sharing their views. There is
little legislation of a socialistic nature; socialists are to be found
here and there, especially in the German cantons.
Scandinavia. Scandinavia stands less apart from European
movements than formerly, but industrial legislation is rather
regulative than socialistic. Hjalmar Branting, one of the most
prominent socialists, was in 1908 a member of the Swedish parlia-
ment. The trade unions of Denmark are largely socialistic, but
Denmark is no nearer complete conversion than England.
Italy, Spain. Socialism might be thought to find a better soil
in Italy and Spain. Italy has been described as " all prole-
tariat." But a great depth of poverty fits a people rather for
the anarchism of violence than for socialism. The social demo-
crats have made way, notwithstanding, and in 1895 returned
fifteen members to parliament. Milan is still the capital of the
movement. Laveleye had the idea that revolution was hopeless
in Italy because Rome was uninhabitable every summer. But
social democracy in Germany, its own country, is not bound up
with Berlin. Italy as a whole must make progress in social
and political development before it can receive the new ideas
and still more before it can grow beyond them. The burden of
taxes leads to revolts of sheer despair, followed by repression
which has extended to socialistic clubs (Jasci dei lavoralorf) and
even workmen's unions. State socialism in the form of state
railways has not been very efficient. Factory legislation is
behind that of other civilized countries, and is of very recent
origin (1902). Old-age pensions were introduced in 1898, and
accidents insurance on the German model in the same year.
Municipal socialism, finding some trammels removed, had in
the first decade of the 2oth century begun to show itself in the
large towns. In Spain there is a Socialist Federation; there are
socialist newspapers; and there seems to be no doubt that the
cause has gained ground, even as against anarchism. It may
perhaps yet be a power in the legislature. It is mainly in Russia
that anarchism has the field to itself.
Russia. In spite of the hopes excited by the Duma, reformers
in Russia have been strongly tempted to be anarchists, even of
a violent type. Democracy had special difficulties in reaching
legislative power. Partly for this reason, "social democracy"
has had a subordinate place. The Russian socialists have, some
of them, rebelled against the view once essential to socialistic
orthodoxy: that Russia must pass through the stage of " capital-
ism " before reaching the stage of "collectivism." Marx him-
self (in 1877) conceded that the progress might be direct from
the system of village communities to the ideal of social demo-
cracy. Capitalism is already extending itself, and the con-
sistency of the theory need not have been broken. Even so, in
the absence of democratic government, the prospects of socialism
are doubtful. In Finland there were in 1908 eighty socialist
members in a parliament of two hundred. The party might
console itself by the thought that over the whole Russian empire
many more were socialists than could declare themselves so.
Australia. In contrast to nearly all the countries of " Old
Europe," the self-governing colonies of Greater Britain stand out
a nothing if not democratic. Nowhere is democracy sturdier
than in Australia, the separate states of which have since 1900
been federated as one commonwealth. But while it has a pro-
tective tariff and makes no pretence of a laissez-faire policy, the
central government is less socialistic than the separate con-
federated states. The progress even of these has been, as in
England, rather in municipal than in state socialism. It is
true that crown lands, mines and railways figure more largely.
But to find state socialism in its vigour we must pass to New
Zealand.
SOCIALISM
307
New Zealand. Removed 1 200 m. from Australia, its nearest
civilized neighbour, secured by English naval power and " com-
passed by the inviolate sea," New Zealand is better suited for
the experiment of a closed socialistic state than perhaps any
other country in the known world. It began its new career in
1880-1890, too late for perfect success but not too late to secure
a large measure of public ownership of what elsewhere becomes
private property. It owns not only the railways but two-thirds
of the whole land, letting it on long leases. It sets a limit to
large estates. It levies a progressive income tax and land tax.
It has a labour department, strict factory acts and a law of
compulsory arbitration t in labour disputes (1895;. There are
old-age pensions (1898), government insurance of life (1871)
and against fire (1905). Women have the suffrage, and partly
in consequence the restriction of the liquor traffic is severe.
There is a protective tariff, and oriental labour is excluded. The
success of the experiment is not yet beyond doubt; compulsory
arbitration, for example, did not work with perfect smoothness,
and was amended in 1908. But there has been no disaster.
The decline of the birth-rate has been greater than in Britain.
It is fair to add that the experiment is probably on too small
a scale to show what might happen in larger countries. New
Zealand has only 100,000 sq. m. of territory and about one
million of inhabitants, mainly rural and of picked quality. The
conditions of combined isolation and security are not easily
obtained elsewhere. The action of the state has been in the
great majority of instances rather regulative than construc-
tive.
Canada. This last feature is still more marked on the great
North American continent. The Dominion of Canada, from its
foundation by confederation in 1867, has given its land away too
freely. The Dominion, indeed, has only had the land of new
territories to dispose of; the original states are the owners of
their own unsettled lands. The Dominion government owns the
Intercolonial railway but contents itself with subsidies to the
rest, over which it has a very imperfect control (by its Railway
Commission). It levies royalties on Yukon gold, carries out
public works, especially affecting the means of transport between
province and province; and in theory whatever functions are
not specially reserved to the provinces fall to the Dominion
government. The provincial governments, however, show the
greater activity. Ontario owns mines and railroads, Nova
Scotia coal and iron fields. " The operation of public utilities "
by the municipalities is encouraged. Over Canada with the
rise of large towns there has been an advance of municipal
socialism, not only in the largest, like Toronto, but in the newer
and smaller, such as Port Arthur on Lake Superior, where half
the local expenditure is paid by public works. Municipal
socialism is still in advance of state socialism. Yet the Dominion
has a democratic franchise, paid members, a labour department
and free education. The democratic basis is not lacking; but
the nature of the country is not such as to make it likely that
Canada will lead the way in socialistic experiments. The
protective tariff, by developing groups of manufacturing in-
dustries before their time, introduced into Canada some of the
troublesome features of urban civilization in older countries.
Accordingly trade unions became better organized. Trusts (like
that of the grocers, 1908) began to show themselves. But
socialistic propaganda was mainly confined to the mining
districts, especially in the far west.
United States. The great American republic would seem a
better field for socialistic experiment, having more men, more
states and ample political liberty. But state socialism, in the
strict' sense of the action of the central supreme authority, is
limited by the Federal constitution, and any functions unassigned
to the central authority by the constitution fall to the separate
states. The separate states have rarely gone farther in a social-
istic direction than England itself. In the way of restriction
and regulation they have often done more (see Bryce, Amer.
Commonwealth, part, v., chap. 95). From 1876 the separate
states have had an admitted right to control undertakings having
the nature of monopolies. The railways are in private hands;
and it was not until 1887 by the Interstate and Commerce Act
(followed in 1888 by the Railway and Canals Act) that the
Federal pnwer secured control over the means of transport
running beyond one state into another. In the same way the
Anti-Trust Law of 1890 gave control over the great combinations
for " forestalling and engrossing " the supply of articles of
necessity or wide use. Socialists have regarded trusts as the
stepping-stones to state socialism; but the American people
would seem to prefer to see government controlling the trusts
rather than itself displacing them.
Trade unionism has made better progress under the Federation
of Labor than in the more ambitious Knights of Labor (1878).
Like their English counterparts, the societies in the United
States include numbers of socialists, and perhaps even more
followers of Henry George in advocacy of the nationalization of
the land and the " single tax." The death of Henry George
(1897) has not ended his influence. On the other hand the
socialists without compromise have had a " Socialistic Labor
Party " since 1877. Bellamy's socialistic Utopia, Looking
Backward (i88), caused nearly as great a sensation as Henry
George's Progress and Poverty (1879). It led to the movement
called " Nationalism," the scope of which was the nationalizing
of the means of production generally. Of a less literary sort was
the influence of " Populism " and the People's party (formed in
1889). Mixed up with the politics of W. J. Bryan in 1896, it
lost a little of its uncompromising socialistic flavour.
General Criticisms. If the ideal of state socialism be viewed
in an equally critical spirit, many of the objections brought
by the moderate anarchists are seen to have their weight. A
strong central government to which all power was given over
all the chief industries in the country would, they say, be contrary
to liberty. Our leaders would be too likely to become again our
masters. Supervision would become irksome. Great powers
would be a. temptation to abuse of power. A democracy with
a strong central government would need to leave much to its
chosen guardians, and to retain the same men in the position
of guardians till they fully learned the difficult business of their
office; but this in the end means either what we have now,
a government by elected leaders, who, once elected, consult
our wishes only on rare occasions, or a government by per-
manent officials, which means liberty to go on in the old ways
but great fear and jealousy of new ways, in fact, order without
progress, no liberty of change.
This criticism becomes rather stronger than weaker if we press
the doctrine of the supremacy of the working-classes, a doctrine
that figures largely with some socialists. We are told that having
been nothing, the working-classes will be everything; having so
long been the ruled, they will be the rulers; they have produced
for all the rest, the product will now be theirs instead of another's.
This doctrine is not essential to socialism; it is indeed hardly
consistent therewith. It would not be fair to press it, for no
men know better than the scientific socialists that under modern
conditions it is in most cases quite impossible to say what is
the product of one man's labour. Articles are not made at one
stretch by one individual. The contributions of the various
hands and minds concerned from first to last in the production
of a pocket-knife or a pair of trousers would travel over our stage
like Banquo's ghostly descendants in a line that seemed to have
no ending. What the socialists demand, when they are not
declaiming to uncritical sympathizers, is not that a man should
have what he makes but that what is made by great capitals
or on great estates should be so distributed that it is not engrossed
by individuals, but satisfies the wants of as many as possible.
There is no superior enlightenment in the ordinary unskilled
or even skilled manual labourer to fit him above others for
supreme power. According to socialists and anarchists and
indeed all of us who are not incurable optimists, the hungry
generations have trodden the working man down too much to
make him instantly or even speedily fit to do the work of govern-
ment himself. He is of like passions with ourselves. He will
be perfectly qualified in process of time to share in such respons-
ible work. But at present he needs training.
3 o8
SOCIAL SETTLEMENTS
The anarchists for their part do not desire the concentration
of industry and the rule of it from the centre by anybody, working
man or not and they think the social democrats quite wrong
in believing the concentration inevitable. They point to the
fact that at the present moment there is a partial revival of
domestic industries, assisted by gas and electricity. These are
the small industries of people with small means; they make
a less imposing figure before the public than the great trusts,
such as the Steel Trust, and the Shipping Trust. The sums
involved are so immense that it might seem impossible for
competitors to cope with the trusts; therefore, it is thought,
the trusts will soon rule alone, and, lest they should rule ill, the
state should take their place. A great combination approaches
monopoly, and a far-reaching, wide-stretching monopoly (say
of the carrying trade) might mean a public danger. Should
we listen to our friends the socialists and avert the danger by
making the state the monopolist?
There seems no proof of the necessity of this extreme step.
Where there is political danger the old-fashioned method of
regulation and control by the state seems quite- equal to the
occasion. As yet the trusts are on their trial and their success
is not certain, still less their abuse of the success when it comes.
Their monopoly is not an absolute monopoly; and they have a
wholesome consciousness of the possibility of competitors. A
government trust would have none such. In some instances
there would be the further difficulty that to prevent political
friction it would need to be a trust of several nations an idea
difficult to realize on such a scale and in such matters.
The English mind does not turn readily to state trusts; but
it finds no difficulty in municipal and local trusts. Private
local monopolies, like those of the water companies in London,
were as troublesome to the locality as any universal monopoly
of the article could be; and the remedy which even London
must find for the troubles will be the municipal trust. There
are few instances in England of successful appropriation by the
state of a business formerly competitive; railways are still
only regulated. But there are so many examples of successful
appropriation by the local authorities that the future absorption
by them or the central authority of habitually unruly companies
which have contrived in any way to abuse their monopoly may
be deemed almost certain. The great demand of the scientific
socialists is thus likely in England at least to break up into
smaller separate demands that will obtain their answer separately
by patient political action.
Socialism is making progress, but not to any great extent
state socialism. New Zealand itself, where it has perhaps done
most and best, is not a proof to the contrary, the province of
Ontario in Canada having twice the area and population. Rather
is it true that the state is more decidedly regulative. The
ultimate result, to judge by the old countries, may be that each
nation will include a community of groups more or less socialistic
in organization, but will not itself be a socialistic state. The
socialistic experiment is more likely to be tried by provinces
than by states, by districts than by provinces, by towns than by
districts. They all get their compulsory powers, as delegated
to them, from the central authority; but the central authority
itself has shown little power of originative action, and it lacks
the minute knowledge of the people on the spot. The one or
two great industries and businesses (railways, post office,
telegraphs, forests, census, coinage, in some countries) that
have formed the chief public works that are everybody's business
and nobody's business, will probably remain a state concern;
but the limits to the state's activity except in regulation soon
arrive. On the other hand, there is no visible assignable limit
to municipal or local socialism, as long as the state's parliament
leaves it a free course. If the localities choose to make social
experiments there seems no rule of general policy to prevent them,
if we put aside experiences of financial failure or of the tendency
to corruption. The great fear conjured up by the vision of
socialism has been the fear of a new despotism. The despotisms
of some hundreds of local bodies are likely to checkmate one
another, or at least always likely by their varieties of pattern
to provide a means of escape for individuals unhappy under the
rule of any one of them.
Anarchism, when at all rational, resolves the state into its
component municipalities and small groups. The question which
carries us beyond anarchism is how such groups can last and be
secure without a central state. They could only be so on the
assumption of a change in human nature of which their is no
sign. It seems not improbable that in the far future the strong
central government will be so democratic and at the same time
so wise with the wisdom of a great representative council that
all that is sound in the contentions and aspirations of anarchists
and socialists will be secured by it. Before such a future arrives,
we can best prepare for it by seeing to it whether in a new
country or an old that our representative system represents us
at our best. Our small councils and our great councils will not
of themselves become cleaner for having larger powers. If
they are not clean they are a public danger. If they are clean,
the coming socialism, whatever be its precise complexion, need
have no terrors. It too will represent the people at their best.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the writings of Owen, Marx, &c., see under
their names. For the general history see John Rae's Contemporary
Socialism. For German socialism more particularly W. H. Dawson's
German Socialism and Ferdinand Lassalle. See also Karl Marx and
the Close of his System, by Bohm Bawerk (translated by Mrs J. M.
Macdonald, 1898), Der Verein fur Socialpolitik und seine Wirk-
samkeit auf dem Gebiete der gewerblichen Arbeiterfrage, by Dr E.
Conrad (1906). For English recent developments, J. Ramsay
Macdonald's Socialism and Society, and S. Ball's Progress of Socialism
in England; also articles in The Times (London) during January
1909. For Australia and New Zealand, W. P. Reeves's State Experi-
ments in Australia and New Zealand (1902). For the United States
J. G. Brooks's Social Unrest (1903). For municipal socialism see
Major Darwin's Municipal Trade (1903), and Dr F. C. Howe's
Municipal Ownership in Great Britain (Bulletin of U.S. Bureau of
Labor) ; also Municipal and Private Operation of Public Utilities
(Report of National Civic Federation, New York, 1907) and Munici-
pal Corporations (Reproductive Undertakings) (Return to House of
Commons, 1902), 141 pages of statistics. On the nationalizing of
railways see debate in House of Commons nth February 1908;
also the article RAILWAYS: Economics, For Italy, Bolton King's
"Recent Social Legislation in Italy," Economic Journal (1903) ; and for
France, J. L. Jaurks'Histoire du socialisme, and Ch. Gide's " Economic
Literature in France," Economic Journal (1907). (J. B.)
SOCIAL SETTLEMENTS, associations of men and women of
the educated classes who take up residence in the poorer
quarters of great cities for the purpose of bringing cul-
ture, knowledge, harmless recreation, and especially personal
influence to bear upon the poor in order to better and brighten
their lives. Practically, the watchword of such settlements
is personal service. To Arnold Toynbee (q.v.) may be given
the credit of leading the way in this direction, and the Hall
which Canon Barnett established (in 1885) to his memory
in the east end of London was the first material embodiment
of the movement. Since then many settlements of the same
or similar nature have sprung up in Great Britain and America,
some too on the continent of Europe and some in India and
Japan. The sympathies of young men at the universities have
been enlisted towards the movement, and an Oxford house,
a Cambridge house, and other university missions have been
founded in London. There are also many in connexion with
various religious bodies. The practical spirit is shown in the
formation of gilds, camps and institutes. Lads and girls, and
even children, are gathered together; efforts being made to
organize for them not only educational and religious opportuni-
ties, but harmless recreation, while the dwellers in the settlements
share in the games and identify themselves most sympathetically
with all the recreations. Many of the residents take also a
considerable share in the work of local administration. Women's
settlements probably are more general in the United States
than in Great Britain; but in both countries they carry out
a great variety of useful work, providing medical mission
dispensaries, district nurses, workrooms for needle-women,
hospitals for women and children, &c.
See W. Reason, University and Social Settlements (1898); S. Coit,
Neighbourhood Guilds (1892); G. Montgomery, Bibliography of
College, Social, University and Church Settlements (Boston, 1900).
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
309
SOCIETIES, LEARNED. Under ACADEMIES will be found a
general account of the principal bodies of which that word forms
part of the titles, usually denoting some kind of state support
or patronage. But that account excludes a number of important
scientific, archaeological, and literary societies, chiefly founded
and carried on by private collective effort. Most of the insti-
tutions hereinafter mentioned are still flourishing. Fine art
societies are not included.
In their modern form learned and literary societies have
their origin in the Italian academies of the Renaissance:
private scientific societies arose chiefly during the igth century,
being due to the necessity of increased organization of knowledge
and the desire among scholars for a common ground to meet, com-
pare results, and collect facts for future generalization. These
bodies rapidly tend to increase in number and to become more
and more specialized, and it has been necessary to systematize
and co-ordinate their scattered work. Many efforts have been
made from time to time to tabulate and analyse the literature
published in their proceedings, as, for instance, in the Reperlorium
of Reuss (1801-1821) and the Catalogue of Scientific Papers
of the Royal Society (1867-1902) for physics and natural science,
with its subject indexes and the indexes of Walther (1845)
and Koner (1852-1856) for German historical societies. A more
recent example may be found in G. L. Gomme's Iitdex of Archaeo-
logical Papers (1907). A further development of the work done
by societies was made in 1822, when, chiefly owing to Humboldt,
the Gesellschaft deulscher Naturforscher und Arzte first met at
Leipzig. This inauguration of the system of national congresses
was followed in 1831 by the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, which has served as the model for similar societies
in France, America, Italy, Australia and South Africa. The
merit of introducing the idea of migratory congresses into France
is due to the distinguished archaeologist, M. Arcisse de Caumont
(1802-1873), who established the Association Normande, which
from 1845 held a reunion in one or other of the towns of the
province for the discussion of matters relating to history, archae-
ology, science and agriculture, with local exhibitions. From the
same initiation came the Congres Archeologique.de, France (1834),
which was organized by the Societe Franc,aise pour la Conserva-
tion des Monuments Historiques, the Congres Scientifique, which
held its first meeting at Caen in 1833 (directed by the Institut
des Provinces), and the Congres des Socieles Savantes des Departe-
ments, which for many years after 1850 held its annual sittings
at Paris. The idea received the sanction of the French govern-
ment in 1 86 1, when a Congres des Societes Savantes was first
convoked at the Sorbonne by the minister of public instruction,
who had in 1846 produced an Annuaire des Societes Savantes.
In Italy Charles Bonaparte, prince of Canino, started an associa-
tion with like objects, which held its first meeting at Pisa in 1839.
Russia has had an itinerant gathering of naturalists since 1867.
International meetings are a natural growth from national
congresses. Two remarkable examples of these cosmopolitan
societies are the Congres International d' Archtologie el d'Anthro-
pologie Prehisloriques, founded at Spezzia in 1865, and the
Congres International des Orientalistes (1873).
I. SCIENCE GENERALLY
UNITED KINGDOM. First in antiquity and dignity among English
societies comes the ROYAL SOCIETY (q.v.) of London, which dates
from 1660. In 1683 William Molyneux, the author of The Case of
Ireland Stated, exerted himself to form a society in Dublin after
the pattern of that of London. In consequence of his efforts and
labours the Dublin Philosophical Society was established in January
1684, with Sir William Petty as first president. The members
subsequently acquired a botanic garden, a laboratory and a museum,
and placed themselves in communication with the Royal Society
of London. Their meetings after 1686 were few and irregular, and
came to an end at the commencement of hostilities between James
II. and William III. The society was reorganized in 1693 at Trinity
College, Dublin, where meetings took place during several years.
On 25th June 1731, chiefly owing to the exertions of Dr S. M.
Madden, the Dublin Society for Improving Husbandry, Manufactures,
and other Useful Arts came into existence. In January 1737 they
commenced to publish the Dublin Society's Weekly Observations,
and in 1746 the society was placed on the civil establishment,
with an allowance of 500 a year from the government. A charter
of incorporation was granted in 1750, and seven years later the
Royal Dublin Society for the first time owned a house of its own,
and in the following year began the drawing school, which subse-
quently did so much for Irish art. Between 1761 and 1767 govern-
ment grants to the amount of <p,opo for promoting national
agriculture and manufactures were distributed by the society, which
claims to be the oldest scientific body in the United Kingdom after
the Royal Society of London. It has published Transactions (1799,
&c.); and its Proceedings (1764-1775; 1848, &c.) and Journal
(1856-1876, &c.) are still issued. The Dublin Univ. Phil. Soc. issues
Proceedings. For the Royal Irish Academy, see ACADEMIES.
The Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh was instituted in 1771,
and incorporated in 1788 ; it is exclusively devoted to natural history
and the physical sciences. With it have been merged many other
societies, such as the Chirur go- Medical in 1796, the American
Physical in 1796, the Hibernian Medical in 1799, the Chemical in
1803, the Natural History in 1812 (which brought in Brougham and
Mackintosh) and the Didactic in 1813. It issues Transactions and
Proceedings (1858, &c.). From the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh
(1731) was developed the Royal Society of Edinburgh, whose charter
is dated 29th March 1783. It was to comprise a physical and a
literary class; among the members of the latter were Robertson,
Hume, Burke and Reid, and among those of the former Huttpn,
Black, Playfair, Dugald Stewart and Watt. The literary division
has been much less productive than the other. A second charter was
obtained in 1811. The society has published Transactions (410,
1788, &c.) and Proceedings (8vo, 1832, &c.). The Royal Scottish Soc.
of Arts (1821) publishes Transactions.
The Linnean Society for the promotion of zoology and botany
was founded in 1788 by Dr (afterwards Sir) J. E. Smith, in order
to supplement the work of the Royal Society, and obtained a royal
charter in 1802. The herbarium and collections of Linnaeus, with
the founder's additions, were purchased after his death. It removed
from Sir Joseph Banks's old house in Soho Square to Burlington
House (London) in 1857, and assumed the apartments it now
occupies in 1873. It has published Proceedings (1849, &c.). The
Journal (8vo, 1856, &c.) and the Transactions (4to, 1791, &c.) are
divided into zoological and botanical sections. The Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures took its origin
in 1753 from an academy established in the Strand by the landscape
painter William Shipley. Attention was paid to the application
of science to practical purposes, a subject passed over by the Royal
Society. Exhibitions of pictures by native artists were held, and
the first exhibitions of the Royal Academy took place in its rooms.
A fresh start in a new career was made by the Society of Arts (since
1909 known as the Royal Society of Arts) in 1847, when it obtained a
charter and the presidency of the Prince Consort. The International
Exhibition of 1851 sprang from the smaller exhibitions previously
held in its rooms. The East Indian section dates from 1869, the
foreign and colonial and the chemical sections from 1874. Its
organs have been Transactions (1783-1849) and the Journal (1853,
&c.). Sir Joseph Banks, Count Rumford and other fellows of the
Royal Society started the Royal Institution in 1799, when a site was
purchased in Albemarle Street for " an establishment in London for
diffusing the knowledge of useful mechanical improvements," to
" teach the application of science to the useful purposes of life."
The institution was incorporated in the following year. One of the
most important epochs in the history of chemistry must be dated
from the establishment of the laboratory where Davy and Faraday
pursued their investigations. Belonging to the institution are
foundations for professorships in natural philosophy, chemistry and
physiology. Courses of lectures on special subjects are given as well
as discourses (once a week) of a more general and literary character.
Its Journal has been issued since 1802. The London Institution
was established on a similar basis in 1805 and incorporated in 1807.
The building in Finsbury Circus was erected in 1819. The British
Association for the Advancement of Science was instituted at York
on 27th September 1831, an imitation of the itinerant scientific
parliament held in Germany since 1822 (already referred to), and
arose from a proposal by Sir D. Brewster. A meeting is held annually
at some place in the British empire chosen at a previous meeting.
The object of the association is to promote science, to direct general
attention to scientific matters, and to facilitate intercourse between
scientific workers. Abstracts of the proceedings and reports of
committees are published in the annual Report (1833, &c.). The
Historical Society of Science (1841) printed a couple of volumes;
and the Ray Society (1844), instituted for the printing of original and
scarce old works in zoology and botany, still flourishes. The Royal
Colonial Institute was founded in 1868 and incorporated in 1882.
It provides a place of meeting for gentlemen connected with the
colonies and British India, undertakes investigations into subjects
relating to the British empire, has established a museum and library,
and gives lectures in its new building in Northumberland Avenue
(London). It has published Proceedings since 1870. The Victoria
Institute, or Philosophical Society of Great Britain, was founded in
1865 to form a connecting bond between men of science and others
engaged in investigating important questions of philosophy and
science, more especially those bearing upon the truths revealed in
Holy Scripture. Its organ is the Journal (1867, &c.). The Royal
A siatic Society and the East India Association (1866) publish Journals.
The African Society meets at the Imperial Institute and publishes a
310
Journal. The Selborne Soc. (1885) promotes nature study and
issues a Mag. The foundation in 1 82 1 of the Society for the Encourage-
ment of the Useful Arts in Scotland, now usually known as the Royal
Scottish Society of Arts, for the promotion of the useful arts and such
branches of science as bear upon them, was due to Sir D. Brewster,
Sir J. Mackintosh and others; it was incorporated in 1841, and has
published Transactions since that year.
The leading provincial societies of Great Britain of a general
character are as follows: Aberdeen, Nat. Hist. Soc. (1863), Trans.;
Phil. Soc. (1840). Alloa, Soc. of Nat. Hist, and Arch. (1863), Proc.
(1865, &c.). Banff, Banffshire Field Club and Sc. Soc. (1880), Proc.
Bath, Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Field Club (1866), Proc. (1867, &c.);
Roy. Lit. and Sc. Inst. (1825), Proc. ; Bath Lit. and Phil. Assn.
Bedford, Bedfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc. (1875), Trans. Belfast, Nat.
Hist, and Phil. Soc. (1821), Proc. (1852, &c.), museum; Naturalists'
Field Club (1863), Proc. (1875, &c.). Berwickshire Naturalists' Club
(1831), Proc. (1834, &c.). Birkenhead, Lit. and Sc. Soc. (1857).
Birmingham, Nat. Hist, and Phil. Soc. (1858), Trans.; Birmingham
and Midland Institute Sc. Soc. (1870), Trans, of archaeological section
(1871, &c.); Phil. Soc. (1876) has a fund for promotion of original
research, Proc.; Midland Union of Nat. Hist. Societies (1877),
Midland Naturalist. Bolton, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1871). Bradford,
Phil. Soc. (1865) ; Bradford Scientific Assn. (1875), Journal. Brighton,
Brighton and Hove Nat. Hist, and Phil. Soc. (1855), Proc. Bristol,
Naturalists' Soc. (1862), Proc. (1866, &c.). Burnley, Lit. and Sc. Club
(1873), Trans. Burton-on-Trent, Nat. Hist, and Arch. Soc. (1876),
Trans. Cambridge, Phil. Soc. (1819; incorporated 1832), for the
promotion of philosophy and natural science, owns museum and
library, Proc. (1843, &c.), Trans. (1821, &c.). Cardiff, Naturalists'
Soc. (1867), Trans. Chester, Soc. of Nat. Sc., Lit. and Arts (1871).
Cork, Royal Inst. (1807), library; Cuvierian and Arch. Soc. (1836).
Cornwall 'Royal Inst., at Truro (1818), devoted to natural philosophy,
natural history, and antiquities, Journal (1864, &c.); Royal Cornwall
Polytechnic Soc., at Falmouth (1833; founded by the daughters of
R. W. Fox and others), for the encouragement of science and the
fine and industrial arts, Trans. (1835, &c.). Cumberland Asspc. for
the Advancement of Lit. and Sc. (1876), provided a means of union for
the local societies of Cumberland and Westmoreland, Trans. Derby-
shire Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc. (1878), Journal. Derry Nat. Hist, and
Phil. Soc. (1870). Devonshire Assoc. for the Advancement of Sc.
(1862). Dorset Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Field Club (1875), Proc. Dum-
friesshire and Galloway Sc., Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1876), Trans.
Dundee, Naturalists' Soc. (1873). Eastbourne, Nat. Hist. Soc. (1867),
Proc. (1869, &c.). East of Scotland Union of Naturalists' Societies
(1884), Trans. Ebbw Vale, Lit. and Sc. Inst. (1850). Elgin, Elgin
and Morayshire Lit. and Sc. Assoc. (1836). Essex Field Club (1880),
museums at Stratford and Chingford. Exeter, Naturalists' Club
and Arch. Assoc. (1862). Glasgow, Roy. Phil. Soc. (1802), Proc.
(1844, &c.); Nat. Hist. Soc. (1851), Proc. (1868, &c.); Soc. of Field
Naturalists (1872), Trans. (1872, &c.); Andersonian Naturalists' Soc.
Gloucester, Lit. and Sc. Assoc. (1838). Greenock, Phil. Soc. (1861).
Halifax, Phil, and Lit. Soc. (1830), museum and library. Hereford,
Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club, Hereford Pomona and Trans. (1866,
&c.). Hertfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc. and Field Club, formed in 1879
from the Watford Nat. Hist. Soc. (1875), Trans. High Wycombe,
Nat. Hist. Soc. (1865), Magazine (1866, &c.). Hull, Lit. and Phil.
Soc. (1822), Trans. (1824, &c.). Inverness, Sc. Soc. and Field
Club (1875). Isle of Wight Phil, and Sc. Soc. (1850). Kent (East)
Nat. Hist. Soc. at Canterbury (1858), Trans. Leeds, Phil, and
Lit. Soc. (1820); Naturalists' Club (1870), Trans. Leicester, Lit.
and Phil. Soc. (1835), Trans. Lewes, Lewes and East Sussex Nat.
Hist. Soc. (1864). Liverpool, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1812; united with
Nat. Hist. Soc. in 1844), Proc. (1845, &c.); Philomathic Soc. (1825),
Trans.; Polytechnic Soc. (1838), Journal (1838, &c.); Naturalists'
Field Club (1860). Manchester, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1781), two
sections, one physical and mathematical, the other for microscopy
and natural history the original statements respecting the atomic
theory were given by Dalton in the Memoirs (1789, &c.), also Proc. ;
Field Naturalists' and Arch. Soc. (1860), Proc.; Scientific Students'
Assoc. (1861). Montrose, Nat. Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1836), museum.
Newbury, District Field Club (1870), Trans. (1871, &c.). Newcastle-
on-Tyne, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1793), library; Northumberland,
Durham and Newcastle Nat. Hist. Soc. (1829), a museum (opened in
1884), Trans. Norfolk, Norfolk and Norwich Nattiralists' Soc. (1869),
Trans. (1870, &c.). Nottingham, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1864) ; Natural-
ists' Soc. (1852), Trans. Orkney Antiq. and Nat. Hist. Soc. (1837),
museum. Oxford, Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc. (1828), Proc. Paisley,
Phil. Institution (1808), free library and museum; Mr Coats pre-
sented his observatory in 1882. Penzance, Nat. Hist, and Antiq.
Soc. (1839), museum, Proc. (1845, &c.). Perth, Lit. and Antiq. Soc.
(1784); Perthshire Soc. of Nat. Sc. (1867), Proc. (1869, &c.), the
Scottish Naturalist (1870, &c.). Peterhead, Buchan Field Club (1887),
Trans. Plymouth, Plymouth Inst. and Devon and Cornwall Nat. Hist.
Soc. (1812), museum, art gallery and library. Preston Sc. Soc.,
affiliated with British Assn. Richmond, Richmond and North Riding
Naturalists' Field Club (1863), Trans. Ripon, Naturalists' Club and
Sc. Assoc. (1882). Rochdale Lit. and Sc. Soc., Trans. Scarborough,
Phil, and Arch. Soc. (1831), museum and library. Severn Valley
Naturalists' Field Club, at Bridgenorth (1863). Sheffield, Lit. and
Phil. Soc. (1822) ; Museums Assoc. (1889), Proc. and Journ. Shetland
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
Lit. and Sc. Soc. at Lerwick (1861). Shropshire and North Wales Nat.
Hist, and Antiq. Soc. (1835), at Shrewsbury. Somersetshire Arch, and
Nat. Hist. Soc., at Taunton (1849), Proc. (1851, &c.). Southampton,
Hartley Institution (founded under bequest of H. R. Hartley in 1859,
incorporated 1862), for the promotion of scientific, antiquarian and
Oriental studies and the fine arts, owns a museum and library.
Staffordshire (North) Field Club and Arch. Soc. (founded as a natural
history society in 1865; enlarged 1877), meets at Stone, Trans.
Stirling, Nat. Hist, and Arch. Soc. (1878), Trans. Stockport, Soc. of
Naturalists (1884), Trans. Suffolk Inst. of Arch, and Nat. Hist., at
Bury St Edmunds (1848), Proc. (1848, &c.), The East Anglian (1859,
&c.). Swansea, Royal Institution of South Wales (founded 1835;
incorporated 1883), with a museum and library, promotes natural
history and applied science, literature and fine arts, local history and
antiquities. Tamworth, Nat. Hist., Geolog. and Antiq. Soc. (1871).
Teign Naturalists' Field Club (1858). Torquay, Nat. Hist. Soc. (1844),
museum and library. Tweedside and Kelso Physical and Antiq. Soc.
(1834). Warrington, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (founded in 1870 upon
the Micr. Soc.). Warwickshire Nat. Hist, and Arch. Soc. (1836);
Warwickshire Field Club (1854). Whitby, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1822).
Whitehaven Sc. Assn., Journal. Wiltshire Arch, and Nat. Hist. Soc.,
at Devizes (1853), Wiltshire Magazine (1853, &c.). Windsor,
Windsor -and Eton Sc. Soc., Trans. Witney, Nat. Hist, and Lit. Soc.
(1858). Yorkshire Phil. Soc. (1822), the museum in the grounds of
St Mary's Abbey, York, contains a remarkable collection of Roman
remains; Naturalists' Union of the natural history and scientific
societies of the county (founded in 1861 as the West Riding Consoli-
dated Naturalists' Soc., reorganized in 1876), publishes the Naturalist
(1876, &c.), Trans.
AUSTRALIA and NEW ZEALAND: Adelaide, Phil. Soc., Trans. (1865,
&c.) ; South Australian Inst. (1836), library; Roy. Soc. of S. Australia
(1853), Trans., Proc., Reports. Auckland, Auckland Inst. Brisbane,
Queensland Phil. Soc. (1860), now the Roy. Soc. of Queensland (1884),
Proc. Christchurch, Phil. Inst. Hobart Town, Roy. Soc. of Tas-
mania,^ Papers and Proc. (1843, &c.). Melbourne, Roy. Soc. of
Victoria, Trans, and Proc. (1854, &c.); Nat. Hist. Soc.; Zoo/, and
Acdim. Soc., Proc. (1872, &c.). Sydney, Roy. Soc. of N.S. Wales
(1821), Proc. (1867, &c.); Linnean Soc. of N.S. Wales (1874), Proc.
(1875, &c.); Phil. Soc., Trans. (1862, &c.); Australasian Assoc. for
Advancement of Sc., Reports of Annual Meetings (held at different
place each year) (1888, &c.). Wellington, New Zealand Inst., Trans,
and Proc. (1868, &c.).
CANADA: Halifax, Nova Scotia Inst. of Sc., Proc. and Trans. (1862,
&c.). Montreal, Nat. Hist. Soc. of Montreal (1827), Canadian Rec.ofSc.
Ottawa, Roy. Soc. of Canada, Trans. (3 ser.) (1882, &c.); Lit. and Sc.
Soc. (1870), Trans. (1897, &c.). St John, Nat. Hist. Soc. of N. Bruns.
(1862), Bulletins (26 vols.). Toronto, Canadian Inst. (1849), Trans.
and Proc. (1852, &c.); Roy. Canadian Acad. of Arts (1880). Winni-
peg, Hist, and Sc. Soc.
SOUTH AFRICA: Cape Town, South Afr. Phil. Soc., Trans. (1878,
&c.).
WEST INDIES: Kingston, Roy. Soc. of Arts of Jamaica, Trans.
(1854, &c.); Port of Spain, Sc. Assoc. of Trinidad, Proc. (1866, &c.).
INDIA, &c.: Calcutta, Asiatic Soc. of Bengal (1784), Journal
(1832, &c.; 1865, &c.), Bibl. Indica (1848, &c.), Mem. (1905, &c.).
Singapore, Roy. Asiatic Soc. (Straits Br.), Journal (1880, &c.).
Shanghai, Roy. Asiatic Soc. (N. China Br.), Journal (1857, &c.).
Cairo, Inst. Egyptien (1859). Mauritius, Roy. Soc. of Arts and Sc.,
Proc. (1846, &c.) and Trans. (1848, &c.).
UNITED STATES. The Smithsonian Institution (q.v.), the most
important scientific body in America, is dealt with in a separate
article. The first scientific society in the United States originated
from a Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the British
Plantations, issued by Dr Franklin in 1743. In the following
year the American Philosophical Society was founded at Phila-
delphia, with Thomas Hopkinson as president and Franklin as
secretary. With it was united on 2nd January 1769 another Phila-
delphia society, The Junto (1758), the records of which have been
preserved. The American Philosophical Society is still in vigorous
life, and is an exclusively scientific body and the oldest organized
society in the United States for the pursuit of philosophical investiga-
tion in its broadest sense. It publishes Transactions (410, 1771, &c.)
and Proceedings (8vo, 1838, &c.). Second in point of date comes the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences of Boston, incorporated in
1780 with the object of furthering the study of the antiquities and
natural history of the country. Its Memoirs (410, 1785, &c.) and
Proceedings (8vo, 1846, &c.) are still published. The Connecticut
Academy of Arts and Sciences was incorporated at New Haven in
1799. At first only devoted to matters connected with the state of
Connecticut, it now embraces the whole field of the sciences and useful
arts. It has issued Memoirs (1810-1816), and now publishes Trans-
actions (1866, &c.). One of the leading societies in the United States,,
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, founded in 1812 and
incorporated in 1817, possesses an excellent library; the natural
history museum is especially rich in conchology. It issues a Journal
(1817, &c.) and Proceedings (1843, &c.). The American Entomological
Society is merged with it. The Franklin Institute of the same city,
incorporated in 1825, possesses a library, gives lectures and issues a
Journal (1826, c.). The Boston Society of Natural History was
founded upon the Linnean Society (1814) in 1830 and incorporated
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
in 1831. It possesses a library and a cabinet of specimens. It
has published the Boston Journal of Natural History (8vo, 1837-
1863), Memoirs (410, 1866, &c.) and Proceedings (1841, &c.). The
Lyceum of Natural History, New York, was incorporated in 1818
and has published Annals from 1823 (1824, &c.) and Proceedings
(1870, &c.). In 1875 the name was changed to New York Academy of
Sciences. A number of American naturalists and geologists, having
held meetings in various cities between 1840 and 1847, resolved
themselves at their Boston congress in the latter year into the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, which was
incorporated in 1874. Its object is " by periodical and migratory
meetings to promote intercourse between American scientists." It
has published Proceedings (1849, &c.). The National Academy of
Sciences was incorporated at Washington in 1863 with a view to
making the knowledge of specialists available for the service of
government. There are two classes of members, those in mathe-
matics and physics and those in natural history. It has issued
Annuals (Cambridge, 1865, &c.) and Reports, as well as Memoirs
(1866, &c.). The Academies of Sciences at San Francisco (1853), St
Louis (1856, incorporated 1857), and Chicago (1857, incorporated
1865) deserve special mention.
Among the remaining societies of a general scientific character are
Albany Inst. (1829), Trans. (1830-1893), Proc. (1873-1882). Ann
Arbor, Mich. Ac. of Sc. (1894). Baltimore, Maryland Acad. of Sc.,
Trans. (1901). Boston, Col. Sac. of Mass. (1892), Trans. Brooklyn
Inst. of Arts and Sc. Buffalo, Soc. of Nat. Sc. (1861), Bull.
Cincinnati, Soc. of Nat. Hist. (1870), Journal (1878, &c.); Cin.
Museum Assoc. (1881). Cleveland, Acad. of Nat. Sc. (1852),
Annals and Proc.; The Cleveland Society [Archaeol. Inst. of
America] (1895). Columbus, Ohio State Acad. of Sc. (1891), Publ.
Des Moines, Iowa Inst. of Sc. and Arts, Trans. Hartford, Sc. Soc.
(1896); formerly Hartford Soc. of Nat. Sc. (1885), Bull. (1902,
&c.). Indianapolis, Indiana Acad. of Sc. (1885), Proc. (1891, &c.).
Ithaca, Amer. Phil. Assoc. (1902). Lincoln, Nebraska Acad. of
Sc. (1891), Publ. Los Angeles, South California Acad. of Sc.
(1891), Bull. Madison, Wisconsin Acad. of Sc. Arts and Letters,
Trans. (1870, &c.). Milwaukee, Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc. (1857),
Bull. [Minneapolis, Minnesota Acad. of Sc., Bull. (1873, &c.).
Minneapolis Acad. of Fine Arts (1883), Bull. (1905). New Orleans,
Athenee Louicianais (1876), Comptcs Rendus. New York, Amer.
Inst. of the City of New York (1829), Journal (1834), Trans.
(1841, &c.); Amer. Inst. for Sc. Research (1904), Proc. and
Journal. Portland (Maine), Soc. of Nat. Hist. (1850), Proc.
(1862, &c.). Poughkeepsie, Vassar, Brothers' Inst. (1874), Proc.
(1874, &c., 1876, &c.). Rochester Acad. of Nat. Sc. (1881) Trans.
Salem (Mass.), Essex County Nat. Hist. Soc. (1833; now
merged in the Essex Institute) published the American Naturalist
(1867-1868), afterwards issued by the Peabody Acad. of Science, as
well as Proc. (1856, &c.) and Bulletin (1869, &c.). San Francisco,
Tech. Soc. o'f the Pacific Coast (1884), Trans, in Journal of
the Assoc. of Engineering Societies. Santa Barbara Society of Natural
History (1876), Bull. (1887). Sioux City, Acad. of Sc. and
Letters (1887), Proc. (1903, &c.). Topeka, Kansas Acad. of Science
(1868), Trans. Washington, Phil. Soc. of Washington (1871), Bull.
(1874, &c.). Wilkes-Barrc, Wyoming Hist, and Geol. Soc. (1858),
Proc. and Coll.
FRANCE. The Inslitut de France (see ACADEMIES), which includes
five separate academies, stands at the head of all French societies.
The Societe Philotechnique, founded in 1795 and recognized as of
public usefulness by a decree of nth May 1861, had for its object
the encouragement and study of literature, science and the fine
arts; literary organ was an Annuaire (1840, &c.). The Societe d' En-
couragement pour I'Industrie Nationale was founded in 1801 for the
amelioration of all branches of French industry, and was recog-
nized by the state in 1824; Bidlctin. The Academie Nalionale,
Agricole, Manufacluriere, Commerciale was founded by the due de
Montmorency in 1830, and offers prizes and medals, and brings
out a Bulletin (1830, &c.). The Association Frangaise pour I'Avance-
ment des Sciences^ (1872), founded on the model of the British Asso-
ciation, holds migratory meetings and publishes Comptes rendus.
With it has been amalgamated the Association Scientifique de France,
founded by Le Verrier in 1864.
The departmental societies are very numerous and active. The
chief are the following: Abbeville, Soc. d 'Emulation (1797), Mem.
(1833, &c.). Agen, Soc. d'Agr., Sc.etArts ( 1 784) , Recueil (1800, &c.).
Aix, Acad. des Sc., &c. (1829), based on Soc. des Amis de la Sc.
(1765), Mem. (1819, &c.). Alais, Soc. Sc. el Lilt. (1868), Bull. (1868,
&c.). Amiens, Acad., based on Soc. Lilt. (1750), Mem. (1835, &c.) ;
Soc. Linneenne (1838), Mem. (1866, &c.). Angers, Soc. Acad. de
Maine-el-Loire (1857), Mem. (1857, &c.); Soc. d'Agr., &c. (1799),
Mem. (1831, &c.); Soc. Linn, de M.-et-L. (1852), Annales (1853, &c.).
Angouleme, Soc. d'Agr., &c., de la Charente (1803), Annales (1819,
&c.). Annecy, Soc. Florimontane (1851), Annales (1851, &c.) and
Rev. Savoisienne (1851). Apt, Soc. Lilt., Sc. el Art. (1863), Annales
(1865, &c.). Arras, Acad. (1737), Mem. (1818, &c.) and other publica-
tions. Autun, Soc. Eduenne (1836), Mem. (1872, &c.) and other
publications. Auxerre.Soc. des Sc. (1847), Bull. (1847, &c.). Avignon,
Acad.de Vaucluse (formerly the Lycee d'Agr., &c., l8oi),Mem. (1804),
Documents and Cartulaires. Bar-le-Duc, Soc. des Lettres, &c. (1870),
Mem. (1871, &c.). Bayeux, Soc. des Sc., Arts et B.-Lett. (1841),
Mem. (1842, &c.). Beauvais, Soc. Acad. (1847), Mem. (1847, &c.),
Comptes Rendus (1882, &c.). Belfort, Soc. d'Emulation (1872), Bull.
(1872). Besangon, Acad. des Sc., &c. (1752; suppressed in 1793;
re-established 1805), Proc. -verb. (1754, &c.), Mem. (1838, &c.);
Soc. d'Emulation (1840), Mem. (1841, &c.). Beziers, Soc. Arch., Sc.,
&c. (1834), Bull. (1836, &c.). Blois, Soc. des Sc. et Lettres de Loir-
et-Cher (1832), Mem. (1833, &c.). Bordeaux, Acad. (1712 ; suppressed
1793; re-established 1816), Actes (1839, &c.) ; Soc. Linn. (1818),
Bull. (1826-1829) and Actes (1830, &c.); Soc. des Sc. (1850),
Mem. (1855, &c.). Boulogne, Soc. Acad. (1864), Mem. (1864, &c.).
Bourg, Soc. d'Emulation (1755), Journal (1817-1868) and Annales
(1868, &c.). Bourges, Soc. Hist., &c., du Cher (1849), Mem. (1857,
&c.). Brive la Gaillarde, Soc. Sc., Hist, et Archeol. (1878), Bull.
(1879, &c.). Caen, Acad. (1652), Rec. (1731-1816), Mem. (1825);
Soc. Linn. (1823), Mem. (1824, &c.), and Bull. (1855, &c.) ; Assoc.
Normande (1831), Annuaire (1835, &c.). Cahors, Soc. des Etudes Lilt.,
Sc. et Artistiques (1872), Bull. (1873, &c.). Cambrai, Soc. d'Emulation
(1804), Mem. (1808, &c.). Cannes, Soc. des Sc. (1868), Mem. (1869,
&c.). Carcassonne, Soc. d'Etudes, &c. (1889), Bull. (1890, &c.).
Chambery, Acad. (1819), Mem. (1825, &c.). Chateaudun, Soc.
Dunoise (1864), Bull. (1864, &c.). Cherbourg, Soc. Acad. (1755),
Mem. (1833, &c.); Soc. Nat. (1851), Mem. (1852, &c.). Clermont-
Ferrand, Acad. (1747), Annales (1828, &c.) and Bull. (1881, &c.).
Dijon, Acad. (1725; suppressed 1793; re-established 1800), Mem.
(1769, &c.). Douai, Soc. d'Agr., &c., du Nord (1799), Mem.
(1826, &c.). Draguinan, Soc. d'Etudes Sc. (1855), Bull. (1856, &c.).
Dunkirk, Soc. Dunkerquoise (1851), Mem. (1853, &c.). Epinal, Soc.
d'Emulation (1825), Journal (1825-1827), Seances (1828-1830),
Annales (1828, &c.). Evreux, Soc. Libre d'Agr., &c. (1798), Re-
cueil. Gap, Soc. d'Etudes (1881), Bull. (1882, &c.). Grenoble, Acad.
Delphinale (1789), based on Soc. Lilt. (1772), Bull. (1836, &c.).
Havre, Soc. d'Etudes Diverses (1833), Recueil (1834, &c.). Laon, Soc.
Acad. (1850), Bull. (1852, &c.). La Roche, Soc. d'Emulation (1854),
Annuaire (1855, &c.). La Rochelle, Acad. (1732; suppressed 1791;
reconstituted in 1803 as Lycee Rochelais and in 1 853 under its former
name), Annales (1854, &c.). Le Havre, Soc. des Sc. et Arts (1868),
Bull. (1868, &c.). Le Mans, Soc. d'Agr., &c., de la Sarthe (founded in
1761; reorganized on several occasions, and finally in 1839), Bull.
(1833, &c.). Le Puy, Soc. d'Agr., Sc.;&c. (1819), Annales (1826, &c.)
and Bull. (1836, &c.). Lille, Soc. des Sc., &c. (founded 1802 as Soc.
d' Amateurs), Mem. (1802, &c.) ; Soc. d'Etudes, Bull. (1899). Limoges,
Soc. d'Agr., Sc., &c., dcja Haute-Vienne (1759), Bull. (1822, &c.).
Lons-le-Saunier, Soc. d'Emulation (1817), Mem. (1818, &c.). Lyons,
Acad. (1724), Mem. (1854, &c.); Soc. d'Agr., Hist. Nat., &c. (1761},
Comptes rend. (1806, &c.) and Mem. (1838, &c.) ; Soc. Linn. (1822),
Annales (1836, &c.). Macon, Acad. (1805), Comptes rend. (1806-1847)
and Annales (1851, &c.). Marseilles, Acad. (1726; in 1766 called Sec.
des Sciences; suppressed in 1793; reorganized in 1799, and finally
in 1802), Recueil (1727-1786) and Mem. (1803, &c.). Meaux, Soc.
Libre d'Agr., Sc., &c. (1798; reorganized in 1820), Publ. (1833, &c.).
Mende, Soc. d'Agr., &c., de la Lozere (1819), Mem. (1827, &c.) and
Bull. (1850, &c.). Montauban, Acad. (1730), Recueil (1742-1750 and
1869, &c.). Montbcliard, Soc. d'Em. (1850), Mem. (1852, &c.).
Montpellier, Acad. (iounded in 1706 as Soc. Royale; suppressed in
1793; finally reorganized in 1046), Mem. (1847, &c.) ; Soc. d'Horti-
cult., &c., de I'Herault (1860), Annales (1860, &c.). Moulins, Soc.
d'Em. (1846), Bull. (1846, &c.). Nancy, Acad. de Stanislas (1750),
Mem. (1754, &c.); Soc. des Sc. (1873), founded on Soc. des Sc. Nat.
de Strasbourg (1823 , Mem. (1830, &c.) and Bull. (1866, &c.); Soc.
d'archcol., &c. (1848; Mem. (1849, &c.), Journal (1852, &c.). Nantes,
Soc. Acad. de la Loire-Inf. (1848), founded in 1798 as Institut De-
partmental, Annales (1830, &c.). Nevers, Soc. Nivernaise (1851) , Bull.
(1851, &c.). Nice, Soc. ues Lettres, &c. (1861), Annales (1865, &c.).
Nimes, Acad. (1682,, Mem. (1805); Soc. d' Etude des Sc. Nat. (1871),
Bull, (i 873 , &c . ) . Niort , Soc. de Statist. Sc. , &c. , des Deux-Sevres ( 1 836) ,
Mem. (1836, &c.) and Buh. (1852, &c.). Orleans, Acad. de Sainte-
Croix ,1863), Led. et Mem. (1865, &c.); Soc. d'Agr., Sc., &c. (1809),
Bull. (1810-1813), Ann. (1818-1837), and Mem. (1837, &c.). Pau.Soc.
des Sc., Lettres, &c. (1841), Bull. (1841, &c.). Perigueux, Soc. d'Agr.,
Sc., &c., de la Dordogne (1820), Annales (1840, &c.)_. Perpignan, Soc.
Agr., &c. et Litl. (1833), Bull. (1834, &c.). Poitiers, Soc. d'Agr.,
Belles-Lctlres, &c. ("1789), Bull. (1818, &c.). Privas, Soc. des Sc. Nat.
etHist. (1861), Bull. (1861, &c.). Reims, Acad. Nat. (1841), Seances
(1844, &c.). Rochefort, Soc. de Geog. Lettres, Sc. et Arts (1878), Bull.
(1879, &c.). Rodez, Soc. des Lettres, Sc., &c., de I'Aveyron (1836),
Mem. (1838, &c.) and Prods- Verb. (1864, &c.). Rouen, Acad. (1744),
Precis Analyt. (1744, &c.) ; Soc. Libre d'Emulation, &c. (1790). Bull.
(1797, &c.); Soc. des Amis des Sc. Nat. (1864), Bull. (1865, &c.).
Saint-Brieuc, Soc. d'Em., Bttll. et Mem. (1861, &c.). Saint-Die, Soc.
Philomatique\l875), Bull. (1876, &c.). Saint-Etienne, Soc. d'Agr.,
tjfc., de la Loire (1822), Annales (1857). Saint-Lo, Soc. d'Agr., &c.
(1833), Mem., &c. (1837, &c.). Saint-Quentin, Soc. Acad. (1825),
Mem. (1830, &c.). Semur, Soc. des Sc. Hist, et Nat. (1842), Bull,
(1864, &c.). Soissons, Soc. Arch., Hist, et Sc. (1846), Mem. (1847,
&c.). Tarbes, Soc. Acad. des Hautes- Pyrenees (1853), Bull. (1854, &c.).
Toulon, Soc. Acad. du Var (1811), Mem. (1832, &c.). Toulouse,
Acad. (founded in 1640; known to 1704 as Soc. des Lanternistes and
by other names to 1807, when present title was acquired), Hist, et
Mem. (1782-1790) and Mem. (1827, &c.) ; Soc. d'Hist. Nat. (1866),
Bull. (1867, &c.); Soc. des Sc., (1872), Bull. (1872, &c.). Tours, Soc.
3 I2
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
d'Agr., &c., d' Indre-et-Loire (founded in 1761 as Soc. Roy. d'Agr.),
Recueil (1763 and 1803-1810) and Annales (1821, &c.). Troyes, Soc.
Acad., based on Soc. Acad. de I'Aube (1798), Mem. (1801, &c.).
Valenciennes, Soc. d'Agr., Sc. et Arts (1831), Mem. (1833, &c.;
1865, &c.) and Revue Agricole (1849, &c.). Vannes, Soc. Poly-
mathique du Morbihan (1826), Proc.-verb. (1827, &c.) and Bull. (1857,
&c.). Vend&me, Soc. Arch., Sc. et Litt. (1862), Bull. (1862, &c.).
Verdun, Soc. Philomath. (1822), Mem. (1840). Versailles, Soc. d'Agr.
et des Arts (1798), Mem. (1799-1864) and Bull. (1866, &c.); Soc. des
Sc. Nat. et Med. (1832), Mem. (1835, &c.); Soc. des Sc. morales, &c.
(1798), Mem. (1847-1897), Revue (1899, &c.). Vesoul. Soc. d'Agr.,
&c., de la Haute-Saone (1801 ; reorganized in 1819 and 1832), Recueil
Agronom. (1836, &c.), Mem. (1859, &c.), and Bull. (1869, &c.).
Vitry-le-Francois, Soc. des Sc. et Arts (1861), Bull. (1867, &c.).
Constantine (Algeria), Soc. Archeol. (1852), Annuaire et Recueil
(1853, &c.).
GERMANY AND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Agram, Jugo-slavenska Aka-
demija or South Slav. Acad. (1866), various publications; Croatian
Nat. Hist. Soc. (1885). Altenburg, Naturforsch. Ges. d. Osterlandes
(1817), Mittheti. Augsburg, Naturforsch. Ver. (1846), Ber. (184.8, &c.)-
Bamberg, Naturforsch. Ges. (1834), Ber. (1852, &c.). Berlin, Ges.
naturf. Freunde (1773), Sitzungsber. (l86o,&c.) ;Deutsch-asiatischeGes.
(1902), Zeitschrift. Blankenburg, Naturwiss. Ver. des Harzes (1831),
Ber. (1841, &c.)- Bonn, Naturh.-Verein (1843), Verhandl. (i844,&c.) ;
Carres Ges. (1876), Hist. Jahrbuch. (1879, &c.); Niederrhein. Ges.
(1818, reorganized, 1839). Bremen, Naturwiss. Ver. (1864), Abhandl.
(1868, &c.)- Breslau, Schles. Ges.f. vaterl. Kultur (1803), Jahresber.
(1804, &c.). Bromberg, Deutsche Ges. f. Kunst u. Wiss. (1902) with
7 sections, Jahresber. (1902, &c.). Briinn, K. k. Mdhr. -Schles. Ges.,
Mittheil (1821, &c.). Budapest, K. Magyar Termeszettudomdnyi
TdrsulatorRoy. Hung. Soc. of Nat. Sciences (1841), many publications,
monthly proceedings of zoological, chemical and botanical sections.
Cassel, Ver. f. Naturkunde, Jahresber. (1837, &c.). Colmar, Soc.
d'Hist. Nat. (1859), Bull. (1860, &c.). Cracow, Towarzystwo Naukowe,
afterwards Akademija Umiejetnosci or Acad. of Science (1815), with
several sections each publishing proceedings; the Acad. issues a
Bulletin (1873, &c.). Danzig, Naturforsch. Ges., Versuche (1745-
1757) and Schriften (1820, &c.); Bot.-zoolog. Ver. (1878). Donaue-
schingen, Ver. f. Gesch. u. Naturgesch. (1801), Schriften. Dresden,
Naturwiss. Ges. Isis (1833), Sitzungsber. (1861, &c.); Ges.f. Natur-u.
Heilkunde (1818), Jahresber. (1848, &c.); Ges.f. Botanik u. Zoo-
logie, Nunquam Otiosus (1870, &c.). Diirkheim, Pollichio, Naturwiss.
Ver., Jahresber. (1843, &c.). Elberfeld, Naturwiss. Ver., Jahresber.
(1851, &c.). Emden, Naturforsch. Ges. (1814), Jahresber. (1837, &c.).
Erfurt, Kgl. Pr. Akad. gemeinnutz. Wiss., Ada (1757, &cji Abhandl.
(1860, &c.). Frankfort, Seckenbergische naturforsch. Ges. (1817),
Museum (1834-1845) and Abhandl. (1854, &c.). Freiburg (in Baden),
Naturforsch. Ges. (1821), Ber. (1858, &c.). Fulda, Ver. f. Natur-
kunde (1865), Ber. (1870, &c.). Giessen, Oberhess. Ges. f. Natur-
und Heilkunde (1833), Ber. (1847, &c.). Gorlitz, Oberlausitzer Ges.
d. Wiss. (1779), Magazin (1822); Naturforsch. Ges. (1811), Abhandl.
(1827, &c.). Gorz, Soc. Imp. Reale, Mem. Gottingen, K. Ges. d.
Wissensch. (1751, 1893), Coll. gelehrte Anzeigen, Abhandl. (1845, &c.)
and Nachr. (1845, &c.). Gratz, Naturwiss. Ver. Mittheil. (1863, &c.).
Greifswald, Naturwiss. Ver. von Neu-Vorpommern, Mittheil. (1869,
&c.). Halle, Naturf. Ges. (1779), Abhandl. (1853, &c.); Naturwiss.
Ver. (1848), Zeitschrift (1853, &c.). Hamburg, Naturwiss. Ver. (1837),
Abhandl. (1846, &c.). Hanau, Wetterauische Ges. (1808), Jahresber.
(1852, &c.). Heidelberg, Naturhist.-med. Ver., Verhandl. (1857, &c.) ;
Akad. der Wiss. Stiftung H. Lanz (1909). Hermannstadt, Sieben-
burgisch. med. Ver. f. Naturwiss., Verhandl. (1849, &c.)- Innsbruck,
Ferdinandeum, Beitrdge (1825-1834) and Neue Zeitschrift (1835,
&c.). Jena, K. Leopold.-Carol. Akad. Athenaeum (1875, &c.);
K. Leopold.-Carol. D. Akad. d. Naturf., Leopoldina (1859, &c.) ;
Med.-naturwiss. Ges. Jen., Zeitschr. (1864, &c.). Karlsruhe, Natur-
wiss. Ver. (1863), Verhandl. (1864, &c.). Klausenburg, ^Siebenburg.
Museum, Annalen. Leipzig, Ges. Deut. Naturforscher u. Arzte (1822),
Tageblatt (1836, &c.), Verhandl.; K. Sachs. Ges. d. Wiss. (1846), Ber.
(1846, &c.) and Abhandl. (1850, &c.); Deutsche morgenldnd. Ges.
(1845), Zeitschrift (1847, &c.), Abhandl. (1857, &c.). Lemberg, Ges.
v. Galizien, Ber. Liineburg, Naturwiss. Ver., Jahresber. (1852, &c.).
Magdeburg, Naturwiss. Ver., Abhandl. (1869, &c.). Mainz, Rhein.
naturforsch. Ges. (1834). Mannheim, Ver. f. Naturk., Jahresber.
(1834, &c.). Marburg, Ges. z. Beforderung der gesamtem Naturwiss.,
founded in i8i6as Kurhessische Akademie, Schriften (1823, &c.) and
Sitzungsber. (1866, &c.). Meissen, Ver. f. Erdk., Isis (1845). Metz,
Acad., based on Soc. des Lettres, &c. (1819), Mem. (1828, &c.); Soc.
d'Hist. Nat., Mem. (1843) and Bull. (1844, &c.). Munich, Miinchener
Orient. Ges. (1901), Beitrage. Nuremberg, Naturhist. Ges. (1801),
Abhandl. (1852, &c.), Mittheilungen; Naturhist. Ges. (1801), Mittheil.
and Abhandl. Posen, Deutsche Ges.f. Kunst. u. Wiss. (1901). Prague,
K. Bohm. Ges. (1770, 1784) consists of two classes, receives a state
subsidy, Abhandl. (1785, &c.) and Sitzungsber. (1859, &c.); Natur-
hist. Ver. Lotos, Lotos (1851, &c.) ; Ges. zur Forderung deutscher Wiss.,
Kunst. u. Lit. in Bohmen (1891), state subsidy and many private
bequests, Mittheil. and other publications. Pressburg, Ver.f. Naturk.,
Verhandl. (1856, &c.). Ratisbon, Zoolog.-mineralog. Ver. (1846, since
1883 called Naturwiss. Ver.}, Abhandl. (1849, &c.). Reichenbach
(Voigtland, Saxony), Ver.f. Naturk. (1859), Mittheil. Rostock, Verein
f. Freunde der Naturgeschichte (1847), Archiv. Roveredo, I.R. Accad.
(1750), Atti (1826, &c.). Strassburg, Soc. des Sc. Agr. et Arts
(1802), Mem. (1811, &c.) and Bull. (1843, &c.); Wissenschaftl. Ges.
(1906), Schriften (1906, &c.). Stuttgart, Ver.f. vaterl. Naturk. (1845),
Jahresber. (1850, &c.). Thorn, Copernicus Ver. (1854). Trieste, Soc.
Adriatica, Boll. Ulm, Ver.f. Mathem. u. Naturwiss. (1865), Verhandl.
Vienna, K. k. Zoolog.-bot. Ges., Verhandl. (1851, &c.) ; Verein z. Verb.
Naturwiss. Kentnisse, Schriften (1862, &c.). Wiesbaden, Nassauischer
Ver.f. Naturk. (1829), Jahrbiicher (1844, &c.). Zweibrucken, Natur-
hist. Ver. (1863), Jahresber. (1864, &c.).
SWITZERLAND. Basel, Naturforsch. Ges. (1817), Ber. (1835, &c.)
and Verhandl. (1835, &c.). Bern, Soc. Helvetique des Sciences Nat.
(1815), Actes (1816, &c.), Comptes rendus (1879), Memoires (1829,
&c.). Chur, Naturforsch. Ges., Jahresber. (1856, &c.). Geneva, Soc.
de Phys. et d'Hist. Nat., Mem. (1821 , &c.) ; Societe des Arts (Athenee),
founded by H. B. de Saussure in 1776; Institut National genevois
(1853), Mem. and Bull. Lausanne, Soc. Vaudoise des Sc. Nat., Bull.
(1842, &c.). Neuchatel, Soc. des Sc. Nat., Mem. (1835, &c.) and Bull.
(1844, &c.). St Gall, Naturwiss. Ges., Ber. (1860, &c.). Solothurn,
Naturhist. Kantonal-Ges., Jahresber. (1825, &c.). Zurich, Natur-
forsch. Ges. (1746), Abhandl. (1761-1856), Mittheil. (1846, &c.), and
Vierteljahrsschr. (1856, &c.); Allg. Schweizer Ges. f. d. Naturwiss.,
Verhandl., Anzeiger, and Denkschr. (1829, &c.).
ITALY. Congresso degli Scienziati Italiani, Atti (1844-1845);
Riunione degli Sc. /to/., Atti (1839-1847; 1873, &c.). Bologna,
Accad. delle Sc. dell' Istit. di Bologna (1714), Rendic. (1833, &c.), and
Mem. (1850, &c.). Brescia, Accad., afterwards Ateneo, Comment.
(1808, &c.). Catania, Accad. Gioenia di Sc. Nat., Atti (1825, &c.).
Florence, R. Museo di Fis. e Star. Nat., Annali (1808, &c.) ; Soc.
Asiatica Italiana (1886), Giornale. Lucca, R. Accad. Lucchese (1584),
Atti (1821, &c.). Messina, R. Accad. Peloritana. Milan, Accad. Fis.
Med. Statist., Diario ed Atti (1846, &c.); R. Istit. Lombardo, Mem.
(1819, &c.), Giornale (1840, &c.), Atti (1860, &c.), and Rendic. (1864,
&c.) ; Soc. Ital. delle Sc. Nat., Atti (1860, &c.) and Mem. (1865, &c.).
Modena, R. Accad. di Sc., &c., Mem. (1833, &c.) ; Soc. Ital. delle Sc.,
Mem. (1782, &c.). Naples, R. Istit. d'Incoragg. alle Sc. Nat. (1806),
Atti (1811, &c.); Soc. Reale di Napoli (1808), consists of three
sectional academies. Padua, R. Accad. di Sc., Lett., ed Arti (1779),
Saggi (1786, &c.) and Revista (1851, &c.). Palermo, R. Accad. di
Scienze (1722). Rome, Soc. Ital. per il progresso delle Scienze (1907).
Venice, R. Istit. Veneto di Sc. (1838), Atti (1841, &c.) and Mem.
(1843, &c.); Ateneo Veneto, two sections, literature and science.
Verona, Accad. d'Agricoltura, Scienze, Lettere, Arti e Commercio
(1768), Atti and Memorie.
BELGIUM. Brussels, Soc. Roy. des Sc. Nat. et Med. (1822), Journ.
de Med. (1842-1895) and Annales (1892, &c.) ; Soc. Roy. Linn. (1835),
Bull. (1872, &c.); Soc. scientifique de Bruxelles (1875), Revue (1877,
&c.), Annales (1877, &c.). Ghent, K. Vlaamische Acad. (1886).
Liege, Soc. Roy. des Sc. (1835), Mem. (1843, &c.). Mons, Soc. Prov.
des Sc., &fc., du Hainaul (1833), Mem. (1839, &c.).
HOLLAND. Amsterdam, K. Nederlandsch Instituut, Proc.-verb.
(1808, &c.), Verhandel. (1812, &c.), Tijdschrift (1847); Genootschap
ter Beford. der Natuur-, &c., Kunde, Maanblad (1807, &c.) and Werken
(1870, &c.); Hollandsche Maatschappij, Werken (1810, &c.); Maat-
schappij ter Befordering van net Natuurkundig onderzoek der Nederl.
Kolonien (1890), branches in Batavia and Paramaribo, Notulen,
Bulletins, &c. Arnheim, Natuurkundig Genootschap, Tijdschrift
(1844, &c.). Bois-le-Duc, Provinc. Genootschap, Handelingen (1837,
&cj. Gron\ngen,Natuurk. Genootschap, Versl. (1862, &c.). Haarlem,
Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetensch. (1752), Verhandel. ( 1 754, &c.) .
The Hague, K. Zoolog.-Botanisch Genootschap, Versl. (1864, &c.).
Luxembourg, Soc. des Sc. Nat., Publ. (1853, &c.). Middelburg,
Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetensch., Verhandel. (1769, &c.) and
Archief (1856, &c.). Utrecht, Provinc. Genootschap van Kunsten
en Wetensch. (1773), Verhandel. (1781, &c.) and Aanteekeningen
(1845, &c.) promotes the study of medicine, natural history, law
and literature. Batavia, Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en
Wetensch. (1778), Verhandel. (1781, &c.), Tijdschrift (1853, &c.),
and Notulen (1862, &c.) ; Natuurk. Vereeniging in Nederl. Indie
(1850), Tijdschrift (1851-1865) and Verhandel. (1856, &c.).
DENMARK. Copenhagen, K. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab,
based on Kjobenhavnske Selskab (1743-1813), Skrifter (1781, &c.) and
Afhandlinger (1824, &c.) ; Naturhist. Forening, Meddelelser (1849, &c.).
Reykjavik, Islenzka Ndtturufraedisfelag (1889), annual reports.
SWEDEN. Gottenburg, K. Vetenskaps och Vitterhets Samhalle,
Handlingar (1778, &c.). Stockholm, K. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademi,
Handlingar (1740, &c.) and Arberattelser (1820, &c.). Upsala, K.
Vetenskaps Societeten (1710), Acta (1720, &c.).
NORWAY. Christiania, Physiographiske Forening, Mag. for Natur-
Vidensk. (1832, &c.); Videnskabs-Selskabet (1857), Forhandl. (1859,
&c.), Skrifter (1894, &c.). Throndhjem, K. Norske Vidensk.-Selskab,
Skrifter (1817, &c.).
SPAIN. Barcelona, R. Acad. de Buenas Letras, the oldest Spanish
society, Mem. and Boletin; R. Acad. de Ciencias y Aries (1763).
Madrid, R. Acad. de Cien. Exactas, Fis., y Nat. (1847), Mem. (1850,
&c.) ; Soc. Expan. de Hist. Nat., Anales (1872, &c.). San Fernando,
R. Acad., Mem.
PORTUGAL. Coimbra, Institute de Coimbra (1852). Lisbon, Soc.
Portugueza de Sciencias Naturais (1907), Bulletin (1907, &c.).
RUSSIA. Siezd Russkikh Yestestvoispytately (Meeting of Russ.
Naturalists), first meeting at St Petersburg 1867-1868, Trudy or
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
Trans. (410, 1868, &c.). Dorpat, Naturforsch. Ges. (1853), Sitzungsber.
(1853, &c.) Archiv (1854, &c.) and Trudy (1884, &c.) ; Gelehrte
Estnische Ges., Verhandl. (1840, &c.), Schriften (1863-1869) and Stt-
zungsber. (i 86 1 , &c.) . Ekaterinburg, Soc. of Naturalists ( 1 870) , Zapiski.
Helsingfors, Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica (1821), Acta (1875,
&c.); Finska Vetenskaps-Soc. (1838), three sections. Kammietz,
Naturforsch. Ges. Kazan, Soc. of Naturalists at University, Protokoly
(1870, &c.) and Trudy (i 872, &c.). Kharkoff, Soc. of Scientists at Univ.,
Trudy (1870, &c.) and Protokoly (1870, &c.). Kieff, Soc. of Naturalists,
Zapiski. Lemberg, Polish Soc. for the Advancement of Science (1901).
Moscow, Imp. Soc. of the Friends of Nat. Hist., Anthrop., &c. (1863),
Izviestiya or Bull. (1865, &c.); Soc. Imp. des Naturalises (1805),
Mem. (4to, 1806) and Bull. (8vo, 1829, &c.). Odessa, Soc. of Natural-
ists of New Russia, Zapiski (1872, &c.) and Protokoly (1874, &c.)-
Riga, Naturforsch.-Ver. (1845), Corr.-Blatt (1846, &c.) and Arbeiten
(1865, &c.)- St Petersburg, Imp. Soc. of Naturalists (1868), Trudy
(1870, &c.). Saratov, Soc. of Naturalists (1895), Trudy (1899, &c.).
Warsaw, Soc. of Friends of Sc., Roczniki (1802-1828); Warsaw
Naturalists' Soc. (1889).
RUMANIA. Bucharest, Acad. Rom&na (1866), Annahle (1867,
&c.); Soc. de Stunte (1891); Soc. Politechnicd (1881). Jassy, Soc.
Stuntifica jt Literara (1889).
GREECE. Athens, 4>tXoXo7oc4s<76XXo7osIIapi'a<T<r6s (i 865) , IIap>'o<r<r6s
and other publications; 'H kv 'Afli^ais 'ETTIOTTIJUOI'IKIJ 'Eraipda (1888),
since 1899 styled Sivala 'Aicaiifrttta.
CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. Bogota, Soc. de Naturahstas
Colombianos, Contribuciones (1860, &c.). Buenos Aires, Soc. Cienti-
fica Argentina (1872), Anales (1876, &c.). Caracas, Soc. de Ciencias,
Boletin (1868, &c.). Cordova, Acad. Nacion., Bol. (1874, &c.).
Guatemala, Instil. Nac.; Academia (1888) ; Ateneo (1903), 7 sections.
Havana, Acad. de Cien. (1861), Anales (1864, &c.). La Paz (Bolivia),
Academia Aymara (1901). Mexico, Soc. Mex. de Hist. Nat. (1868),
La Naturaleza (1869, &c.); Academia Mejicana (1875), Memorias
(1876-1896); Acad. Mex. de Sciencias (1894), Anales. Rio de
Janeiro, Palestra dent., Archwos (1858, &c.). Santiago, Soc. de Hist.
Nat.
JAPAN. Tokyo, Asiatic Soc. of Japan (1872), Trans. (1874, &c.);
Deutsche Ges. f. Natur-u. Volkerkunde Ostasiens (1873), Mitteil.
(1873, &c.).
II. MATHEMATICS
Many of the general scientific societies (see class i.) have mathe-
matical and other special sections. Among defunct English societies
may be mentioned the Mathematical Society, which used to meet in
Spitalfields (1717-1845) and possessed a library, and the Cambridge
A nalytical Society, which published Memoirs (4to, 1813). The London
Mathematical Society (1865, incorporated 1894), Proc. (1865, &c.),
the Mathematical Assn. (1871), Gazette, and the Edinburgh Mathe-
matical Society (1883), Proc. (1883, &c.), are still nourishing.
UNITED STATES: American Mathem. Soc. (reorganized 1894),
meets at Columbia University, Bull, and Trans. FRANCE: Paris,
Soc. MatUm. de France (1872), Bull. (1873, &c.). GERMANY and
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Berlin, Mathem. Ver. der Univ. (1861), Ber.
(1876, &c.); Berliner Mathem. Ges. (1901), Sitzungsber. Budapest,
Mathematikai es Phys. Tdrsulat (1891). Cassel, Geometer-Ver. (1878).
Dresden, Ver. praktisch. Geometer (1854), Jahresber. (1861, &c.).
Essen, Feldmesser-Ver. (1869). Gottingen, Mathemat. Ver. (1868).
Hamburg, Mathemat. Ges. (1690), Mittheil. Konigsberg, Geometer-
Ver. (1872). Leipzig, Deutsche Mathem. Vereinigung (i 891), founded at
Halle, Jahresb. Strassburg, Geometer- Ver. (i 88 1 ) . Stuttgart, Deulscher
Geometer-Ver., Zeitschrift (1872, &c.). HOLLAND: Amsterdam,
Genootschap der Mathemat. Welensch. Kunstoeffinengen (1782-1788),
Mengelwerken (1793-1816), and Archie} (1856, &c.). SPAIN: Valla-
dolid, R. Acad. de Matematicas (1803, &c.), now dissolved. RUSSIA:
Kazan, Phys. and Math. Soc. (1880). Moscow, Mathemat. Soc. (1867).
JAPAN: Mathemat. Soc. of Tokyo, Journal (1878, &c.).
III. ASTRONOMY
The first International Astronomical Congress met at Heidelberg
in 1863, and the first international conference for photographing
the heavens at Paris in 1887. The Royal Astronomical Society was
founded in 1820 under the title of Astronomical Society of London
and was incorporated on the 7th of March 1831. It occupies rooms
in Burlington House, and has published Memoirs (1882, &c.) anc
Monthly Notices (1831, &c.). There are also the British Astronom
Soc. in London, and societies at Bristol (1869), Reports; Leeds
(1859), Manchester and Liverpool (1881); Toronto, Roy. Astr. Soc
of Canada (1890), Trans. (1890), Proc. (1902), Journal (1907, &c.)
Madison, Astronomical and A strophysical Soc. of America (1899)
San Francisco, Astr. Soc. of the Pacific (1889), Publ.; Paris, Soc
Astr. (1887), Bull.; Berlin, Kgl. Astr. Recheninstitut (1897); Leipzig
Astronomische Ges. (1863), Publ. (1865, &c.) and Vierteljahrsschrif
(1866, &c.); Turin, Soc. Astr. Ital. (1906), Revista; Brussels, Soc
Beige d'Astr., de Meteorol. et de Physique du Globe (1893), Bull. mens.
Antwerp, Soc. d'Astr. (1905), Gazette; St Petersburg, Russ. Astr. Soc
(1890), Investija (1896, &c.); and Mexico, Soc. Astr. (1902), Boletin
(1902, &c.).
IV. PHYSICS
The first International Electrical Congress was held at Paris in 1 88 1
The Physical Society of London was founded in 1874 and registera
inder the Companies Act; it publishes Proceedings (1874, &c.).
The London Electrical Society (1836) did useful work in its Trans-
actions (1837-1840, vol. i.) and Proceedings (1841-1843). Sir W.
Biemens was one of the originators of the Institution of Electrical
Engineers (founded in 1871 and registered in 1883). It owns the
lonalds library of electricity and magnetism and publishes a Journal.
n London there are also the Faraday Soc. (1903), Trans, and Proc.,
and the Optical Soc.
UNITED STATES: Philadelphia, Amer. Electrochem. Soc., Trans.
1902). New York, Nat. Elec. Light Assn. (1885), Proc. (1885) ;Amer.
y hys. Soc. (1899), Bull. (1899) included since 1903 in the Physical
Review; Am. Inst. of Eleclr. Eng. (1884), Trans, and Proc. FRANCE:
lambrai, Soc. Magnetique, Archives (1845). Paris, Soc. FranQ. de
hys. (recognized as of public utility on the 1 5th of January 1881),
Bull.; Soc. Int. des Electriciens (1883), Bull. GERMANY: Berlin,
'hysikalische Ges. (1843), Forlschritte der Physik (1847, &c.); Elek-
otechnisch. Ver. (1879), Ztschr. (1880, &c.). Breslau, Physikalischer
Ver. Frankfort, Physikalischer Ver. (1824), Jahresber. (1841, &c.),
nd Wetterkarten daily. Konigsberg, Phys.-okon. Ges. (1790), Schr.
(1859, &c.). ITALY: Naples, R. Accad. delle Sc. Fis. e Maiem.,
lendic. (1856, &c.) and Atti (1863). Rome, Soc. degli Spettroscopisti
\tal.; Soc. Ital. di Fisica (1897), // nuovo cimento. HOLLAND:
Rotterdam, Bataafsch. Genootschap van Proefondcniindelijke wijs-
begeerte, Verhandel. (1774, &c.). RUSSIA: St Petersburg, Russ.
Physico-Chemical Soc., Journal (1869, &c.).
V. CHEMISTRY
Pharmaceutical societies are placed in class xiii. (Medicine, &c.).
The Chemical Society of London for the promotion of chemistry and
the sciences immediately connected with it was instituted on the
23rd of February 1841 ; a charter of incorporation was obtained in
1848. It publishes Memoi'S (1843, &c.), and Quarterly Journal
(1849, &c.). Chemistry and its connexion with the arts, and agri-
cultural and technical matters, form the subjects of the Institute of
Chemistry, founded on the 2nd of September 1877 and incorporated
in 1885. It publishes Proc. The Society of Chemical Industry (1881)
was incorporated in 1907, and publishes a Journal. The Society of
Public Analysts publishes the Analyst (1876, &c.)- The oldest oi the
numerous photographic societies is the Royal Photographic Society of
Great Britain (1853), which issues a Journal. The Royal College of
Chemistry was founded in July 1845, and had a brief career; it pub-
lished Reports (1849). The Cavendish Society was instituted in 1846
for the publication and translation of works and papers on chemistry.
It came to an end in 1872 after having issued 30 vols.
UNITED STATES: New York, American Chemical Soc. (1876),
Proc. (1876), Journ. (187^) and Abstracts (1907). Washington, Chem.
Soc. (1884), Bull, now the Journal of the Amer. Chem. Soc. FRANCE:
Paris, Soc. Chimique (1857), Bull. (1861, &c.). GERMANY: Berlin,
Deutsche Chemische Ges. ( 1 867) , Ber. ( 1 868, &c.) ; Deutsche Bunsen-Ges.
(i 894) , Ztschr. fur Elektrochemie ; Verein Chem. Reichsanstalt. Frank-
fort, Chem. Ges. Jena, Chem. Laborat. Leipzig, Ver. Deulscher Chem.
(1888), based on the Ver. Analyt. Chemiker, Ztschr. (1900, &c.).
Wiirzburg, Chemische Ges. (1872). BOHEMIA: Prague, Spolek
Chemiku Ceskych or Soc. of Bohemian Chemists, Zpravy or Trans.
(1872, &c.). BELGIUM: Brussels, Soc. Chim.de Belgique, formerly
Assoc. Beige des Chimistes (1887), Bull.
VI. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY AND PALAEONTOLOGY
The first International Congress of Geology took place at Bologna
in 1878. The Geological Society of London, founded in 1807 and in-
corporated in 1826, is the largest and most important in Great
Britain; it has published Proceedings (1834-1846), Transactions
(1811, &c.), and a Quarterly Journal (1845, &c.). The Geologists'
Association was instituted in 1858, and issues Proceedings (1859, &c.).
The Mineralogical Society (1876) has united with it the Crystallogical .
Society; it issues the Mineralogical Magazine (1876, &c.). The
Palaeontographical Society was founded in 1847 for the delineation
and description of British fossils; it issues Publications (410, 1847,
&c.). The Royal Geological Society of Cornwall (1814) devotes special
attention to the mining interests of the county, and publishes Trans-
actions (1818, &c.). It holds its meetings at Penzance. The Geo-
logical Society of Edinburgh (1834) issues Transactions (1870, &c.).
The Royal Geological Society of Ireland (1832) principally studied
the geology of the country. It published a Journal (1837, &c.).
There are also the Geological Associations of Leeds (1874) and Liver-
pool (1880), Trans., and the Societies of Liverpool (1859), Proc., and
Manchester (1838), Trans.
SOUTH AFRICA: Johannesburg, Geol. Soc. of S. A. (1895), Trans.
(1895, &c.). UNITED STATES: Louisville, Ky., Ohio Falls Geolog.
Soc. San Francisco, California State Geolog. Soc. (1876). New York,
Geol. Soc. of Amer. (1888), Bull. Washington, Geol. Soc. of Washing-
ton (1893). FRANCE: Lille, Soc. Geol. du Nord (1870), Annales
(1874, &c.). Havre, Soc. Geol. de Normandie, Bull. (1873, &c.).
Paris, Soc. Geol. de France (1830, recognized 1832), awards the
Prix Viquesnel (40) every three years, Bull. (1830, &c.) and Mem.
(1833, &'c.); Soc. Frang. de Mineralogie (1878, recognized 1886), for-
merly Soc. Mineral, de France, Butt. (1879. &c.). Saint-Eticnne, Soc.
d'Ind. Minerale (1855), Bull. (1855, &c.). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-
HUNGARY: Berlin, Deutsche Geol. Ges. (1848), Ztschr. (1849, &c.),
Monatsberichte (1903, &c.) ; Budapest, Magyarhoni Foldtam Tarsulat
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
1850) or Hungarian Geolog. Soc. (1850), Foldtani Kozlony. Briinn,
Wernerscher Geol. Ver., Jahresber. Darmstadt, Mittelrheinischer
Geolog. Ver. (1851), Mittheil. (1855, &c.). Dresden, Gebirgs-Ver.
(1855). SWITZERLAND: Schweizerische Geolog. Ges. (1882), section
of Allg. Schw. Ges. ZUrich, Schweiz. Palaontol. Ges. (1874), Abhandl.
(1875, &c.). ITALY: Rome, Soc. Sismol. Ital. (1895), Bell. ; Soc.
Geol. Ital., founded at the second International Geological Congress.
BELGIUM: Antwerp, Soc. Paleontol. (1857), Bull. Brussels, Soc.
Beige de Geol., dePaleont. et d'Hydrol. (1887), Bull., Mem. and Proc.-
verb. Charleroi, Soc. Paleontol. (1863), Documents et Rapports (1866,
&c.)- Li6ge, Soc. Geol. de Belgique, Annales (1874, &c.). SWEDEN:
Stockholm, Geologiska Forening (1871), Forhandlingar (1872, &c.).
RUSSIA: St Petersburg, Imp. Russian Mineralog. Soc. (1816),
Trans., pub. in Russian, German and French (1830, &c.). ARGEN-
TINE REPUBLIC: Buenos Aires, Soc. Paleontol, MEXICO: Mexico,
Soc. Geol. Mexicana (1904), Bol.
VII. METEOROLOGY
The International Meteorological Congress first met at Brussels in
1853. The Royal Meteorological Society (1850) of London was in-
corporated in 1866; its organ is Quarterly Journal (1873, &c.). To
this must be added the British Rainfall Society; the Scottish
Meteorological Society holds its meetings at Edinburgh and
issues a Journal (1866, &c.)- Port Louis (Mauritius), Meteorolog.
Soc., Trans. (1853, &c.). Paris, Soc. Meteoroloe. de France (1852),
Annuaire (1853, &c.) and Nouvelles Meteorolog. (1868, &c.). Berlin,
Deutsche Meteor. Ges. (1883), Ztschr. Hamburg, Deutsche Meteoro-
log. Ges. (1883), Ztschr. Magdeburg, Ver. f. landwirtsch. Weller-
kunde (1881). Meissen, Gesellsch., Isis. Vienna, Osterreich. Ges. f.
Meteorol., Zeitschrift (1866, &c.). Modena, Soc. Meteorolog. ltd.
Gothenburg, Kungl. Vetenskaps- och Vitterhets-samhiillet (1778),
Handligar.
VIII. MICROSCOPY
The Royal Microscopical Society (1839, incorporated 1866), with
Transactions (1842-1868) and Journal (1869, &c.); the Quekett
Microscopical Club (1865), with a Journal (1868, &c.) ; and the Postal
Microscopic Society (1873), also with a Journal, are located in London.
There are suburban societies at Ealing (1877), Hackney (1877),
Highbury (1878), South London (1871), and Sydenham (1871).
In the provinces may be mentioned those at Bath (1859), Birmingham
(1880), Bolton (1877), Bradford (1882), Bristol (1843), Carlisle,
Chichester (Trans.), Croydon (1870, Trans.), Dublin (1840), East
Kent (1858), Edinburgh, Liverpool (1868, Trans.), Manchester(i88o),
and Sheffield (1877). In the United States the State Microscop.
Soc. of Illinois publishes the Lens (1872, &c.); Buffalo, Amer. Soc.
f-f Microscopists; New York, Microscop. Soc.; Urbana, Amcr.
Micros. Soc. (1878), Proc. (1879), Trans. (1895, &c.). Brussels, Soc.
Beige de Microscop. (1875), Proc.-verb. (1875, &c.) and Annales
(1876, &c.). Berlin, Ges. f. Mikroskop. (1877), Ztschr. (1878, &c.).
Hanover, Ges. f. Mikroskop. (1879), Jahresber.
IX. BOTANY AND HORTICULTURE
Linnaean societies, which usually deal with both zoology and
botany, are placed in the general class (No. i.). The Congres
International d' Horticulture first met at Brussels in 1864, and the
Congres International de Botanique at Amsterdam in 1865. The
Royal Botanic Society of London (incorporated 1839) has gardens in
the inner circle of Regent's Park, and issues a Quarterly Record (1880,
&c.). The Royal Horticultural Society (established in 1804, incorpor-
ated in 1809) has gardens at Chiswick, and publishes a Journal
(1846, &c.). The chief provincial societies are Aberdeen, North of
Scotl. Hortic. Assoc. (1879), Trans. Arbroath, Hortic. Assoc. (1880).
Birmingham, Bot. and Hortic. Soc. (1829), gardens. Dublin, Roy.
Hortic. Soc. (1830). Liverpool, Bot. Soc. (1906). Edinburgh,
Bot. Soc. (1836), Proc. (1837, &c.) and Trans. (1844, &c.) ; Royal
Scottish Arboric. Soc. (1854), Trans.; Cryptogamic Soc. of Scotl.
(1875)., CANADA: Kingston, Bot. Soc. of Canada (1860), Annals
(1861, &c.).
UNITED STATES: Baltimore, Bot. Soc. Amer. (1894). Boston,
Hortic. Soc. (1829). New York, Torrey Botanical Club (1858, re-
organized 1867), Butt. (1870, &c.). San Francisco, State Hortic. Soc.
Washington, Bot. Soc. of Wash. (1901). FRANCE: Beauvais, Soc.
d' Hortic. et de Bot. (1864), Bull. (1864, &c.). Bordeaux, Soc. d' Hortic.
Chartres, Soc. d'Hortic. et de Viticulture. Chauny, Soc. de Pomplogie,
Dijon, Soc. d'Hortic. Fontenay-le-Comte, Soc. d'Horlic. Lisieux,
Soc. d'Hortic. et de Bot. (1866), Bull. (1866, &c.). Lyons, Soc. d'Hortic.
Pratique (1844), Bull. (1844, &c.) Soc. Bot. (1872), Annales (1872,
&c.); Soc. Pomologique (1872), Bull. (1872, &c.). Moulins, Soc.
d'Hortic. Nimes, Soc. d'Hortic. Niort, Soc. d'Hortic. Orleans,
Soc. d'Hortic. (1839), Bull. (1841, &c.). Paris, Soc. Nat. d'Hortic.,
(1827; declared of public utility 1852), Journal; Soc. Bot. de France,
Bull. (1854), Mem. (1905, &c.). Rouen, Soc. Centr. d'Hortic.
Saint Germain-en-Laye, Soc. d'Hortic. Senlis, Soc. d'Hortic. Troyes,
Soc. d'Hortic. Versailles, Soc. d'Hortic. GERMANY and AUSTRIA-
HUNGARY: Berlin, Bot. Ver. (1859), Verhandl. (1859, &c.);
Deutsche Bot. Ges. (1882), Berichte (1883, &c.); Horticult. Ges.
Blankenburg, Bol. Ver. Bonn, Bot. Ver. (1818), Jahresber. (1837,
&c.). Danzig, Westpr. Bot.-zool. Ver. (1878), Jahresber. Dresden,
"Flora": Ges. fur Bnt. u. Gartenbau (1826), Sitzungsber.
Erfurt, Gartenbau Ver. Frankfort, Gartenbau Ges. Freiburg, Bot.
Ver. Gorlitz, Gartenbau Ver. Gotha, Thuringer Gartenbau Ver.
Klagenfurt, Karntnerische Gartenbau Ges. Landshtit, Bot. Ver.
(1864). Meiningen, Ver. f. Pomologie u. Gartenbau. Munich,
Bayerische Botanische Ges., Mittheil. (1890). Ratisbon, K. Bayerische
Bot. Ges. (1790), Flora (1818, &c.) and Repertorium (1864, &c.).
Reutlingen, Pomolog. Inst. Sondershausen, Bot. Ver. Stuttgart,
Gartenbau Ges., Flora. Vienna, K. k. Gartenbau Ges.; Botan. Ver.,
Verhandl. (1851, &c.). Weimar, Ver. f. Blumislik. Wiirzburg, Bot.
Inst., Arbeiten (1871, &c.). ITALY: Milan, Soc. Criltog. Hal., Alii
(1878, &c.). BELGIUM: Antwerp, Soc. Roy. d'Hortic. et d'Agr.; Soc.
Phytologique, Annales (1864, &c.). Bruges, Soc. d'Hortic. et dela Bot.
Brussels, Soc. Roy. de Bot. with Slate Botanical Garden (1862), Bull.
(1862, &c.); Soc. Roy. de Flore; Soc. Centr. d' Arboric., Annales.
Liege, Soc. Roy. d'Hortic. HOLLAND: Ghent, Kruidkundig Genoot-
schap Dodonaea (1887), Tijdschr. Leiden, Nederl. Bot. Vereen.
Luxembourg, Soc. de Bot., Recueil (1874, &c.). Nimeguen, Nederl.
Bot. Vereen, Archief (1871, &c.). DENMARK: Copenhagen, Bot.
Forening, Tidsskrift (1866, &c.).
X. ZOOLOGY
Societies dealing with natural history in general, or zoology and
botany together, come under class i. The first International Orni-
thological Congress was held at St Petersburg. The Zoological Society
of London (1826, incorporated 1829) is famous for its collection of
animals at Regent's Park. It publishes Proceedings (8vo, 1830, &c.)
and Transactions (410, 1835, &c.). In London also are the British
Ornithologists' Union (1859) ; Entomological Society of London (1833),
Trans. (1834, &c.) ; National Fish Culture Association (1883);
Malacolog. Soc. (1893). The Concholog. Soc. (1876) meets at
Manchester, which also has an Entomolog. Soc. (1902). The
Marine Biological Association of Great Britain (1884), for the study
of marine food fishes and shell-fish, has a laboratory at Plymouth.
The Royal Zoological Society of Ireland (1831) has gardens in the
Phoenix Park. There is the British Beekeepers' Association (1874).
AUSTRALIA and NEW ZEALAND: Auckland, Acclimatisation Soc.
Brisbane, Acclimat. Soc. Christchurch, Acclimat. Soc. Melbourne,
Zoolog. and Acclimat. Soc. of Victoria, Report (1861, &c.); Australasian
Ornitho. Union (1896), The Emu. Sydney, Acclimat. Soc. of N.S.
Wales, Report (1862, &c.); Enlomolog. Soc. of N.S.W., Trans. (1863,
&c.). Wellington, Westland Nat. and Acclimat. Soc. AFRICA:
Cape Town, Zoolog. Soc. Port Louis (Mauritius), Soc. d' Acclimat.
CANADA: Toronto, Entomolog. Soc.; Beekeepers' Assoc.
UNITED STATES: Cambridge, Nuttall Ormtholog. Club, Bull. (1876)
and Memoirs (1886) ; and Entomolog. Club, Psyche (1874, &c.) ; Amer.
Soc. Zoologists (1890). Cincinnati Soc. of Nat. Hist. (1870), Journs.
(1879). Illinois Central Beekeepers' Association. New York, Enlom.
Soc. (1892), Journal; N. Y. Zoolog. Soc. (1895), Rep. Guide Book.
Pasadena, Cooper Ornith. Club (1893) founded at San Jose, Pacific
Avifauna (1900, &c.), The Condor (1899, &c.). Philadelphia, Zoolog.
Soc. (1859), Report (1874, &c.); and Amer. Entomolog. Soc. (1859),
Proc. (1861-1866), Trans. (1867, &c.). Washington, Amer. Ornith.
Union (1883), The Auk (1884, &c.); Biolog. Soc. (1901); and
Entomolog. Soc. (1884), Proc. FRANCE: Alais, Soc. Sericicole,
Bull. (1876, &c.). Amiens, Soc. d' Apiculture, Bull. (1875, &c.).
Clermont, Soc. Centr. d'Apicult., Butt. (1875, &c.). Lille, Inst.
Zoolog. a Wimereux, Travaux (1877, &c.). Paris, Soc. Nat. d' Ac-
climat. (1854), Bull. Mensuel (1854, &c.) and Chron. Bimens. (1875,
&c.); Soc. Zoolog. de France, Bull. (1876, &c.); Soc. Entomolog. de
France, Annales (1832); and Soc. de Biologic (1848), Comptes
Rendus (1849, &c.). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Wander-
versammlung Deutscher Bicnenziichler, Verhandl. (1856, &c.). Ben-
dorf, Akklimat.-Ver. Berlin, Akklimat.-Vcr. (1856), Zeitschr. (1858,
&c.); Cenlral-Inst. f. Akklimat., Mittheil. (1859, &c.); Deutsche
Zoolog. Ges. ; Deutsche Ornilhol. Ges. (1850), Journal (1853, &c.);
Deutsche Fischerei Ver., Publikat. (1871, &c.); Berliner Entomolog.
Ges. (1856), Entomolog. Zeitschr. (1857, &c.);>. Entomol. Ges. (1881),
Ztschr.; Ver. zum Beford. des Seidenbaues, Jahresber. (1869, &c.);
Physiolog. Ges. (1875), Verhandl. (1877, &c.). Breslau, Physiolog.
Inst., Studien (1861, &c.) ; Ver. f. Schles. Insektenkunde, Zeitschr,
(1847, &c.). Brunswick, Deutsche Ornitholog. Ges. Carls'ruhe,
Badischer Ver. f. Gefltigelzucht, Monatsblatt (1872, &c.). Franken-
berg, Bienemvirthschaftl. Haupt-Ver., Sachs. Bienenfreund (1865,
&c.). Frankfort, Zoolog. Ges., Der Zoolog. Garten (1860, &c.);
Deutsche Malakozoolog. Ges. (1868), Jahrbiicher (1874-1887) and Nach-
richtsblatt (1869, &c.). Halberstadt, Deutsche Ornitholog. Ges. Halle,
Ornitholog. Central-Ver. Hamburg, Zoolog. Ges., Ber. (1862, &c.).
Hanover, Bienenwirthschaftl. Central-Ver., Centralblalt (1865, &c.).
Leipzig, Sachs. Seidenbau Ver., Zeitschr. (1868, &c.). Munich,
Entomolog. Ver. (1876); Fischerei Ver., Mittheil. (1876, &c.). Nord-
lingen, Ver. Deutscher Bienenwirthe, B.-Zeitung (1845, &c.). Ratisbon
Zoolog.-mineralog. Ver. (seeclassi.). Stettin, Ornitholog. Ver. (1873),
Jahresber. (187-5, &c.); Entomolog. Ver. (1837), Enl. Zeitung (1840,
&c.). Trieste, 'Zoolog. Inst. u. Zoolog. Station (1875), Arbeiten (1878,
&c.). Troppau, Schles. Bienenzucht-Ver. (1873). Vienna, Entomolog.
Ver.; Embryolog. Inst., Mittheil. (1871, &c.); Ornitholog. Ver.
Wtirzburg, Zoolog.-zootomisches Inst. (1872), Arbeiten (1874, &C.X
SWITZERLAND: Bern, Schweiz. Entomolog. Ges. (1858), Mitteil. (1862,
&c.). Geneva, Assoc. Zoolog. du Leman; Soc. Ornitholog. Suisse
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
(1865), Bull. (1866, &c.). Zurich, Internal. Entomologenverein (1886),
Societas Entomologica (1886, &c.)- ITALY: Casale, Soc. Bacologica,
Boll. (1866, &c.). Florence, Soc. Allantina /to/., La Sericoltura (1865,
&c.); Soc. Enlomolog. Ital., Boll. (1869, &c.). Naples, Zoolog.
Station, Mittheil. (1878). Palermo, Soc. diAcdimaz., Atti (1861, &c.).
Pisa, Soc. Malacolog. Ital., Boll. (1875, &c.)- Rome, Soc. di Pisicolt.
Ital. (1872). BELGIUM: Antwerp, Soc. Roy. de Zoologie (1843) with
Jardin Zool. and Mus. Brussels, Soc. Roy. de Zoologie et Malacolo-
gique de Beige (1863), Annales (1870, &c.); Soc. Entomolog. de
Belgique (1856), Annales and Bull. (1857, &c.)- HOLLAND:
Amsterdam, K. Zoolog. Genootschap "Natura Artis Magistra " (1838),
Bijdragen (1848), Jaarboekje (1852, &c.) and Tijdschr. (1863,
&c.), zoolog. garden and museum. The Hague, Nederl. Entomolog.
Vereen., Tijdschr. (1857, &c.). Rotterdam, Nederl. Dierkundige
Vereen., Tijdschr. (1874, &c.). NORWAY: Bergen, Selskabet for
Norges Fiskerier. Christiania, Del Biol. Selskab. (1894), Aaresber.
SWEDEN: Stockholm, Entomolog. Forening (1879), Ent. Tidskrift
(1880, &c.). RUSSIA: Moscow, Acclimat. Soc. St Petersburg, Rus-
sian Entomolog. Soc. (1859), Horae societalis entom. ross. ARGEN-
TINE REPUBLIC: Buenos Aires, Soc. Zoolog. Argentina, Period.
Zoolog. (1875, &c.); Soc. Entomolog. Argent.
XI. ANTHROPOLOGY
The Congres International d' Anthropologie et d' Archeologie Pre-
hisloriques held its first meeting at Neuchatel in 1866; it issues
Comptes rendus (1866, &c.). The Royal Anthropological Institute of
Great Britain and Ireland was founded in 1871 upon the Ethno-
logical Society (1843), which published a Journal (1848-1856) and
Transactions (1859-1869), and the Anthropological Society (1863),
which issued Memoirs (1863-1869) and the Anthropological Review
(1864-1870). The Institute brings out a Journal (1871, &c.).
Sydney, Roy. Anthropolog. Soc. (1896). Bombay, The Gatha Soc.
(1903), occasional pamphlets.
UNITED STATES: Cleveland, Amer. Inst. Antkrop. (1890),
Journal. New York, Amer. Ethnolog. Soc. (1842), Trans, (1845-
1853) and Bull. (1860-1861); formerly Anthropolog. Inst., Journ.
(1871). Washington, Anthropolog. Soc. (1879), Trans. (1882, &c.);
Amer. Anthrop. Assoc. (1902), Amer. Anthropologist. Havana
(Cuba), Soc. Antrop. FRANCE: Grenoble, Soc. dauphinoise d'Ethn.
et d' Anthrop. (1894), Bull. (1894, &c.). Lyons, Soc. d' Anthrop.
(1881), Bull. (1881, &c.). Paris, Soc. d' Anthropologie (1859; re-
cognized 1864), Bull, and Mem. (1860, &c.); Soc. d'Ethnogr.,
Annuai-e (1862, &c.), and Revue (1869, &c.); Soc. des Traditions
Populaires (1886) Revue (1886, &c.). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-
HUNGARY: Berlin, Ges. f. Anthropologie, &c. (1869), Ztschr. (1870,
&c.) and Verhandl. (1871, &C.)L Deutsche Ges. fur Anthrop., Ethn. &c.
(1870), Archiv (1866, &c.). Brunswick, Deutsche Ges. f. Anthro-
pologie, Architi (1870, &c.) and Corr-Blatt (1874, &c.). Budapest,
Magyar Neprajzi Tdrsasdg (i 889) , Ethnographia (i 889, &c.). Cologne,
Ver. zur Forderung des Stadt-Rautenstrauch-Joest Museums fiir
Volkerkunde (1904), Jahresber. (1904, &c.). Gorlitz, Ges. fur Anthrop.
&c. (1888), Jahreshefte. Gottingen, Anthropolog. Ver., Mittheil.
(1874, &c.). Kiel, Anthrop. Ver. (1877), Mitteil. (1888, &c.).
Leipzig, Ver. f. Anthropolog., Ber. (1871, &c.), afterwards joined to
the Ver. der Erdk. Munich, Ges. f. Anthropolog. &c. (1870), Beitr.
(1876, &c.). Stuttgart,^ nthropolog. Ges. (1871), Fundber. (1893, &c.).
Vienna, Anthropolog. Ges. (1870), Mittheil. (1870, &c.). ITALY:
Florence, Soc. Ital. di Antropologia (1868), Archivio (1871, &c.).
BELGIUM: Brussels, Soc. d'Anthrop., Bull. (1882, &c.). SWEDEN:
Stockholm, Svenska Sallskapet for Antrop. (1873), Tidskrift (1873,
&c.). SPAIN: Madrid, Soc. Antropolog. Esp., Revista (1875, &c.).
RUSSIA: St Petersburg, Russian Anthrop. Soc. (1888), Protokoly-
zasedanij (1901, &c.).
XII. SOCIOLOGY (Economic Science, Statistics, Law, Education)
The international societies are the Association Internationale pour
le Progres des Sciences Sociales and the Congres International de
Statistique, which first met at Brussels in 1853. Both have issued
Comptes rendus. The Congres International de Bienfaisance may be
traced to a suggestion at the Congres Penitentiaire held at Frankfort
in 1847. The first meeting took place at Brussels in 1856. The
Inst. Internal, de Sociplogie (1893) has its headquarters at Paris.
The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science (1857)
had united with it in 1864 the Society for Promoting the Amendment
of the Law. It held a yearly migratory meeting, and published
Transactions (1858, &c.) and Social Science (1866; &c.). The Socio-
logical Soc., the Eugenics Education Soc, and the Roy. Economic
Soc. are established in London. The Royal Statistical Society (1834),
incorporated 1887, publishes a Journal (1839, &c.); Cobden Club
(1866), for the diffusion of the political and economical principles
with which Cobden's name is associated, has issued a variety of
publications; Institute of Actuaries (incorp. 1884); Institute of
Chartered Accountants (1880); Institute of Bankers (1879); the
Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors (1885), and the
Chartered Institute of Secretaries, also meet in London. There are
also the Manchester Statistical Society (1833), with Transactions; the
Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland and the Scottish Society of
Economists (1897), both meeting at Edinburgh; and the Statistical
and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland (1847), with a Journal,
at Dublin. After the INNS OF COURT (q.v.), the most important of
British legal societies is the Law Society (1827, incorporated 1832,
reincorp. 1845); it began courses of lectures for students in 1833,
and was appointed registrar of solicitors ten years later, and ob-
tained supplementary charters in 1845 and 1878. This society has
a fine building, with library and examination hall in Chancery Lane,
London. There are over 70 provincial societies, most of them being
associated with the parent body. The Verulam Society (1846)
published a few books and came to an end. The Selden Society,
established in 1887 for the promotion of the study of the history of
law, prints ancient records. The headquarters of the Association for
the Reform and Codification of the Law of Nations are in London, but
conferences are held in various continental towns. The Chartered
Institute of Patent Agents (founded 1882, incorporated 1891) issues
Transactions. The Juridical Society of Edinburgh (1773) published
five editions of a Complete System of Conveyancing. The Ascham
Society was founded in 1879 for the improvement of educational
methods; and the Society for the Development of the Science of Educa-
tion (1875) issued Transactions.
UNITED STATES: Baltimore, Amer. Pol. Sc. Assoc. (1903), Proc.
Boston, Amer. Soc. Sc. Assoc.; Amer. Statist. Assoc. (1839), Collec-
tions (1847, &c.). Cambridge, Amer. Econ. Assoc. (1886). New York,
Am. Inst. of Social Service, Social Service (i899,&c.) ; Actuarial Soc. of
Amer. (1899) ; Philadelphia, A mer. A cad. Pol. and Social Sc. (1899), An-
nals ; A merican Bar A ssoc. , Reports ; A ssn. of A mer. Law Schools ( I go I ) .
Washington, Amer. Soc. of Int. Law (1906), Journal; Nat. Educ.
Assoc. (1857), Proc. FRANCE: Grenoble, Soc. de Statist. (1838), Bull.
(1838, &c.). Marseilles, Soc. de Statist. (1827), Repertoire (1837,
&cj; Soc. Sc. industr : (1871), Bull. (1872, &c.). Paris, Soc. Int. des
Etudes Pratiques d'Econ. (1856, recognized 1869); Soc. Fran, de
Statist. Univ. (1829), Journal issued jointly with Acad. Nat. since
1849; Soc. de Statist, de Paris (1860, recognized 1869), Journ. (1860,
&c.); Soc. de Legislation Comparee (1869, recognized 1873), Bull.,
Annuaire de Leg. Franc.., and Ann. de Leg. Elran.; Soc. pour Vlnstr.
Element (1815, recognized 1831), Bull.; Soc. de Linguistique (1864),
Mem. (1868, &c.); Soc. de I ' Enseignement Superieure (1878), Rev.
(1881, &c.); Soc. d'Econ. Sociale (1856), Les Ouvriers des deux
mondes (1857, &c.), La Reforme sociale (1881, &c.); Soc. d'Econ.
Pol. (1842), Annales (1846-1847), Bull. (1888, &c.) ; Soc. del'Ecoledes
Charles (1839), Mem. St Maixent, Soc. de Statist, des Deux-Sevres.
Toulouse, Acad. de Legis. (1851), Rec. (1851, &c.). GERMANY and
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Debreczen, Magyar Kir Gazdasdgi Akad.
(1868). Berlin, Volkswirths. Ges. (1860), Volkswirths. Zeitfragen
(1879, &c.); Ver.f. deutsche Volkswirths. (1876), Ztschr. (1880, &c.);
Ver.f. Forderung d. Handelsfreiheit (1878), Mittheil. (1879, &c.) ; Ver.
f. d. Statist.; Jurist. Ges. (1859), Jahresber. (1863, &c.). Dresden,
Statistischer Ver. (1831), Mittheil. Frankfort, Statistische Ges.;
Juristische Ges. (1866), Rundschau (1867, &c.); Akad. fiir Sozial- u.
Handels'diissenschaflen (1901). Freiburg, Badische Heimat (1893),
Volkeskunde. Halle, Kantgesellschaft (1904), Kantstudien. Lai-
bach, Jurist. Ges. Leipzig, Ver. f. wiss. Padagogik, Jahrbuch and
Mittheil. ITALY : Tortona, Soc. di Storia Economia, Boll. BELGIUM :
Brussels, Ligue de V Enseignement (1864), Bull.; Soc. Centr. des
Instituteurs Beiges (1860), Le Progres; Inst. Solvay de Sociologie
(1901). HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Ver. voor de Statist, in Nederland,
Jaarboekje (1849, &c.) and Jaarcijfers (1882, &c.). SPAIN: Madrid,
Junta Estadist; R. Acad. de Jurisprudencia y Legis. (1763, 1826);
R. Acad. de Ciencias Mor. y Pol. (1857). RUSSIA: Moscow, Juri-
dical Soc. St Petersburg, Pedagogical Soc. EGYPT: Cairo, Bureau
Central de Statist. HAVANA (Cuba), Soc. Econ. de Amigos del Pais
(1792), Memorias. JAPAN: Tokio, Statist. Soc.
XIII. MEDICINE AND SURGERY
The first meeting of the Congres Medical International was held at
Paris in 1867; a Bulletin has been issued annually since 1868, and
the first Surgical Congress was held in Paris in 1885. The first
Congres Periodique Internal. d'Ophthalmologie took place at Brussels in
1857. The Royal Colleges of Physicians and of Surgeons of London,
Edinburgh and Dublin dp not come within our scope. The Medical
Society of London (1773) is the oldest in the metropolis; it has issued
Memoirs (1787-1805), Transactions (i8ip, &c.), and Proceedings
(1872, &c.). The Royal Society of Medicine was formed, by Royal
charter, in 1907 by the amalgamation of the following societies:
Roy. Med. and Chir. Soc. (1805), Pathological Soc. (1846), Epi-
demiological Soc. (1850), Odontol. Soc. of Gt. Britain (1856), Obstetrical
Soc. (1858), Clinical Soc. (1867), Dermatolvgical Soc. of London (1882),
British Gynaecological Soc. (1884), Neurolog. Soc. (1886), British
Laryngol. Rhinol. and Otological Assoc. (1888), Laryngol. Soc. (1893),
Soc. of Anaesthetists (1893), Dermatol. Soc. of Gt. Brit, and Ireland
(1894), Otological Soc. (1899), Soc. for Study of Diseases in Children
(1900), British Electro-therapeutic Soc. (1901) and the Therapeutical
Soc. (1902). Most of these societies have separate Transactions or
Proceedings. Other London societies (past and present) include the
Abernethian Society (1795), which issues Proceedings; British Dental
Association (1880), with a Journal (1880, &c.) ; British Homoeopathic
Association (1859), with Annals (1860, &c.) ; British Medical
Association (1832), which has more than forty home and colonial
branches, and publishes British Medical Journal (1857, &c.); Hahne-
mann Publishing Society (1852), Materia Medica (1852, &c.) ;
Harveian Society (1831); Hunterian Society (1819), Trans.; Lister
Institute (incorp. 1891); Medico-Legal Soc. of London, Trans.;
316
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
Medito-Psycholog. Assn. of Gt. Britain and Ireland (1841, incorp.
1895); New Sydenham Society (1858), which published Biennial
Retrospect (1867, &c.), and translations and reprints of books and
papers of value, succeeded the old Sydenham Society (1844-1858),
which issued 40 vols. ; Ophthalmological Society (1880), Trans.;
Pharmaceutical Society (1841), with museum, Pharmaceutical Journal
(1842, &c.); Physiological Association (1876), Journ. of Physiology
(1878, &c.); Rontgen Soc., Journal; Royal Institute of Public Health
(1886, incorp. 1892), Journ. Royal Sanitary Institute (1876, incorp.
1888), the council of which appoints examiners, directs Parkes
Museum, founded in 1876 in memory of Dr E. A. Parkes; Society of
Medical Officers of Health (1856), Trans, and Public Health; Soc. of
Public Analysts, Analyst. The provincial societies are very numerous
and include: Bradford, Med. Chir. Soc. (1863); Bristol, Med. Chir.
Soc.; Cardiff, Med. Soc. (1870); Liverpool, Sch. of Tropical Med.
(1898, incorp. 1905), Memoirs; Manchester, Med. Soc. (1848);
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, North, and Durham Med. Soc. (1848).
Dublin, Roy. Acad. of Med. in Ireland (1882), Trans. (1883, &c.) ;
Pharmac. Soc. of Ireland (1875). Edinburgh, Roy. Med. Soc.
(1737; charter 1778); Harveian Soc. (1752); Medico- Chirurg. Soc.
(1821), Trans. (1824, &c.); and Obstetrical Soc. (1840). Aberdeen,
Med. Chir. Soc. (1789). Glasgow, Medico-Chirurg. Soc. (1866),
based upon Med. Soc. and Med.-Chirurg. Soc. (both 1814), joined
by Path. Soc. in 1907.
AUSTRALIA: Melbourne, Med. Soc. of Victoria, Austr. Med. Journ.
(1856, &c.). CANADA: Montreal, Union Med. du Canada, Revue
(1872, &c.); Canada Med. Assoc., Trans. (1877, &c.). INDIA: Bom-
bay, Med. and Physical Soc., Trans. (1838, &c.). Calcutta, Med.
Soc., Trans. (1883, &c.).
UNITED STATES: Amer. Pub. Health Assoc., Reports (1873, &c.);
Amer. Dental Assoc., Trans. (1860, &c.) ; and Amer. Inst. of Homoeop.,
Trans. (1878, &c.). The headquarters of the American Medical
Association (1847) are at Chicago; it publishes a Journal. The
American Surgical Association (1880) unites at Washington every
third year with the Congress of American Physicians and Surgeons.
The State medical associations include those of Alabama, Trans.
(1869, &c.) ; Georgia, Trans. (1873, &c.); Maine, Trans. (1853, &c.);
Missouri, Trans. (1851, &c.); and South Carolina, Trans. The
State medical societies include those of Arkansas, Trans. (1877, &c.) ;
California, Trans. (1870, &c.); Illinois, Trans. (1851, &c.); Kansas,
Trans. (1867, &c.); Michigan, Trans. (1869, &c.); Minnesota, Trans.
(1874, &c.); Nebraska, Trans. (1869, &c.); New Jersey, Trans.
(1859, &c.); Pennsylvania, Trans. (1851, &c.); Rhode Island, Trans.
(1877, &c.) ; Texas, Trans. (1874) ; and Wisconsin, Trans. (1880, &c.).
To these have to be added the following town associations. Albany,
Med. Soc., Journal (1807, &c.). Baltimore, Med. and Chirurg.
Faculty of Maryland, Trans. (1856, &c.). Boston, Amer. Gynaecolog.
Soc., Trans. (1876, &c.); Mass. Medico-Legal Soc., Trans. (1878,
&c.). Denver, Acad. of Med. (1903). New York, Acad. of Med.,
Trans. (1847, &c.) and Bull. (1860, &c.); Med. Soc., Trans. (1815,
&c.); Medico-Chirurg. Soc., Trans. (1878, &c.) ; Amer. Surg. Assoc.,
Trans. (1883, &c.); Medico-Legal Soc., Sanitarian (1873, &c.); Amer.
Ophthalmolog. Soc., Trans. (1865, &c.); Path. Soc. (1844), Trans.
(1875-1879), Proc. (1888, &c.). Philadelphia, Med. Soc., Trans.
(1850, &c.); Obstet. Soc., Trans. (1869, &c.); Amer. Pharm. Assoc.,
Proc.; Patholog. Soc. (1857), Trans. (1897, &c.); Coll. of Physicians
(1787); Amer. Soc. of Tropical Med. (1903). Richmond, Med.
Soc., Trans. (1871, &c.).
FRANCE: Besancon, Soc. de Med. (1845), Bull. (1845, &c.).
Bordeaux, Soc. de Med. (1798), Journ. (1829, &c.); Soc. de Pharm.
(1834), Bull. (1860, &c.); Soc. de Med. et de Chirurg.; Soc. a' Anal, et
de Physiol. (1879), Bull. (1880). Caen, Soc. de Med. (1799; known
by its present name since 1875), Journal (1829), Mem. (1869).
Chambery, Soc. de Med. (1848), Comptes rend. (1848, &c.) and Butt.
(1859, &c.). Grenoble, Soc. de Med. Havre, Soc. de Pharm. (1858),
Mem. Lille, Soc. de Med. (1843), Bull. (1845, &c.). Lyons, Soc. Nat.
de Med. (1789), Le Lyon med. (1869, &c.). Marseilles, Soc. de Med.
(1800), Comptes rend. (1826-1853) and Le Mars. med. (1869, &c.) ;
Soc. Med.-Chirurg. (1872). Paris, Soc. de Med. Pratique (1808), Bull. ;
Acad. Nat. de Med. (1820); Soc. Nat. de Chirurg. (1843, reorganized
1859), Mem. (1847, &c.) and Bull. (1851, &c.); Soc. Anal. (1803),
Bull. (1826, &c.); Soc. Clinique, Bull. (1877, &c.); Soc. Med. des
Hopitaux, Bull. (1849, &c.); Soc. Med. Legate; Soc. de Pharm.
(1803), Journ. (1815, &c.); Soc. de Therapeutique; Soc. Fran, de
Hygiene; Soc. Centr. de Med. Veterinaire (1844), Bull.; Assoc. Int.
de Tlnst. Marey (1898) (for examining physiological methods and
apparatus), Bull., Travaux. Rouen, Soc. de Med. (1821), Union Med.
(1861, &c.); Soc. Libre des Pharmaciens (1802), Bull. Toulouse, Soc.
de Med. (1801), Bull, and Revue (1867, &c.). Tours,. Soc. Med.
(1801). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Deutscher Arztevereins-
bund (1872), Verhandl.; Central Ver. a. Zahnarzte (1859), Miltheil.;
D. Veterinarrath (1874) ; D. Apotheker- Ver. (1820), Archiv (1822, &c.).
Berlin, Ver. f. Heilkunde (1832), Magazin (1835, &c.); Ges. f.
Geburtshiilfe u. Gynaekologie (1876), Ztschr. (1877, &c.); Ges. f.
Heilkunde (1855); Berl. Med. Ges. (1860), Verhandl. (1865, &c.);
Physiolog. Ges. (1875), Verhandl. (1877, &c.); D.'Ver. f. Med.
Statistik (1868); Ver. Homoop. Arzte (1871), Ztschr. (1882, &c.).; D.
Ges. f. Chirurgie (1872), Verhandl. Bonn, Verband der Arztl,
Vereine (1865). Breslau. Ver. f. Physiolog. Heilkunde (1848), Ztschr.
(1850, &c.); Verband d. Schles. Arzte-Ver. (1878). Cologne, Rhein.
Med.-Chirurg. Ver. (1848), Organ (1852, &c.). Darmstadt, Arztl.
Kreisver. (1844). Dresden, Ges.f. Natur- u. Heil-Kunde (1818),
Jahresber. (1848, &c.). Erlangen, Physik.-Med. Soc. (1808), Sitzungs-
ber. (1870, &c.). Frankfort, Arztl. Ver. (1845), Jahresber. (1857, &c.).
Hamburg, Arztl. Ver. (1816); Deutsche Ges. fur Gesch. der Medizin
(1901), Mitteil. Hanover, Ver. Analyt. Chemiker (1878). Heidelberg,
Ophthal. Ges. (1857). Jena. Med.-naturunssenschaftliche Ges. (1854),
Zeitschr. (1874, &c.). Konigsberg, Ver. f. wiss. Heilkunde (1851).
Leipzig, Med. Ges. (1829); Ges. f. Geburtshiilfe (1854), Mittheil.;
Homoop. Central-Ver. (1829); Magdeburg, D. Chirurgen-Ver.
(1844), Ztschr. (1847, &c.). Munich, Arztl. Ver. (1833), Int.-
Blatt (1854, &c.). Strasburg, Soc. de Med. (1842), Mem. (1850,
&c.); Soc. Veterin. (1864); Medizinisch.-Naturwissenschaftlicher Ver.
(1873). Stuttgart, Wiirttemb. Arztl. Ver. (1831), Corr.-Blatt (1832,
&c.); Hahnemannia (1868), .Mittheil. (1873, &c.); Apotheker -Ver.
(1822), Pharm. Wochenblatt (1861, &c.). Vienna, K. k. Ges. der Arzte r
Ztschr. (1844, &c.); Ges. fur innere Medizin u. Kinderheilkunde,
Med. Wochenschrift. Weimar, Med.-naturwiss. Ver. (1863). Wiirz-
burg, Physikal.-med. Ges. (1849), Verhandl. (1850, &c.). SWITZER-
LAND: Geneva, Soc. Med. Zurich, Soc. de Med.; Schweiz. Apotheker-
Ver. ITALY: Bologna, Soc. Med.-chirurg. Genoa, Accad. Med.-
chirurg. Milan, Soc. Ital. d' Igiena. Modena, Soc. Med.-chirurg.
Naples, Real Accad. Med.-chirurg. Palermo, R. Accad. delle Sc.
Med. (1649), Atti (1889, &c.). Rome, R. Istit. Fisico-patologico.
Turin, Accad. Real Med.-chirurg. BELGIUM : Antwerp, Soc. de Med.
(1839), Annales. Brussels, Acad. Roy. de Med. (1841), Bull. (1841,
&c.) and Mem. (1843, &c.); Soc. Roy de Pharm. (1845), Bull.; Soc.
d'Anat. Patholog. (1846), Annales; Soc. Beige de Med. Homoeop.; Soc.
Roy. des Sc. Med. et Nat. (1822), Journal (1842, &c.), Annales (1892,
&c.), Bulletin (1843, c.) ; Inst. Solvay de Physiol. (1894), with electro-
physiological, chemical, embryological and other laboratories, and
lecture hall. Ghent, Soc. de Med. (1834), Annales. Li6ge, Soc. Med.-
chirurg. HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Genootschap ter Bevordering der^
Genees- en Heel-Kunde, Verhandel. (1841, &c.); Nederl. Maatschappij
ter Bevord. der Pharmacie. Batavia (Java), Geneeskundige Vereem-
ging. DENMARK: Copenhagen, K. Med. Selskab; Veterinaer Selskab.
NORWAY : Christiania, Med. Selskab, Magazin (1840, &c.)- SWEDEN:
Stockholm, Farmaceutiska Inst.; Svenska Lakaresallskapet (1808),
Handl. (1813, &c.). Upsala, Lakareforenig, Forhandl. (1865, &c.).
SPAIN: Madrid, R. Acad. Med. (1732). PORTUGAL: Lisbon, Soc. de
Sc. Med. (1835), Jornal (1835, &c.); Soc. Pharm. Lusitana. RUSSIA:
Dorpat, Pharm. Soc. Helsingfors, Finska Lakaresallskapet (1835),
Handl. (1841). Moscow, Phys.-med. Soc. Riga, Soc. of Practical
Physicians. St Petersburg, Soc. of Practical Physicians; Imp.
Pharm. Soc. Vilna, Imp. Med. Soc. (1805), Protokoly. Warsaw, Med.-
Chirurg. Soc. Tomsk (Siberia), Soc. of Naturalists and Physicians
(1889), Protocol. RUMANIA : Jassy, Soc. of Naturalists and Physicians
(1830), Buletinul. GREECE : Athens, Soc. Med. TURKEY : Constanti-
nople, Soc. Imp. de Med.; Soc. de Pharm. CENTRAL and SOUTH
AMERICA: Buenos Aires, Asoc. Med. Caracas, Escuela Med. Guada-
lajara (Mexico), Soc. Med. Merida (Mexico), Soc. Med. Mexico, Acad.
de Med. ; Soc. Med. Monte Video, Soc. de Med. Rio de Janeiro,
Institute Oswaldo Cruz, formerly Institute de Manguinhos (for the pro-
motion of experimental pathology) ; Soc. Med. e Cirurgia. Santiago,
Soc. Med. JAPAN: Tokyo, Soc. for Adv. of Med. Sc., Trans. (1885,
&c.).
XIV. ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
The principal English society dealing with mechanical science is
the Institution of Civil Engineers (established in 1818, incorporated in
1828), which publishes Transactions (410, 1836-1842) and Minutes of
Proceedings (8vo, 1837, &c.). George Stephenson was the first
president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which was
founded at Birmingham in 1847, removed to London in 1877, and
registered under the Companies Act in 1878. It holds migratory
meetings and publishes Proceedings. The Society of Engineers (1854),
with Transactions (1861, &c.) ; the Civil and Mechanical Engineers'
Society (1859) ; the Iron and Steel Institute (1869, incorp. 1899), with
Journal and Mem.; the Surveyors' Institution (1868, incorporated in
1881), which publishes Transactions and holds professional examina-
tions; the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain (1866), the Institu-
tion of Electrical Engineers (1871, incorp. 1883), Journal; the
Institution of Mining Engineers has associated with it many branch
institutions in the provinces, Journal; the Institute of Gas Engineers
(1863); the Illuminating Engineers' Soc. (1909); the Institute of
Metals; and the Instn. of Mining and Metallurgy, meet in
London. There are institutions in the provinces at Bradford,
Bristol, Cardiff (1857, incorp. in 1881), Chesterfield (1871), Dublin
(1835, incorp. in 1857), Glasgow (1857, with Transactions), Liverpool
(1875), Middlesbrough (1864), Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1852, incorp.
in 1876, with Transactions), Nottingham (1871), Dudley (1866),
and Belfast (1892).
The leading architectural society is the Royal Institute of British
Architects, founded in 1834, incorporated in 1837, and granted new
charters in 1887 and 1908. It appoints examining professional
boards and publishes Transactions (1836; 1879, &c.) and Proceedings
(1879, &c.). There are also the associations of Birmingham (1873),
Edinburgh (1850), Exeter (1843), Glasgow (1868), Leeds (1876),
Leicestershire (1855), Liverpool (1848), Manchester (1875), Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, and the societies of Manchester (1865) and Oxford (1837).
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
The Architectural Association of London publishes a Sketch Book
(1870, &c.). The Architectural Publishing Society (1848) has published
Essays (1848-1852), and since 1852 has been bringing out a Dictionary
of Architecture. There is also a Society of Architects (1884, incorp.
1893). The Roy. Inst. of Architects of Ireland meets in Dublin and
publishes a Journal.
UNITED STATES: New York, Insl. of Mining, Engineers. Amer.
Soc. of Civ. Eng. Trans.; Amer. Soc. of Mec.h. Eng., Trans.;
Amer. Inst. of Min. Eng.; Amer. Inst. of Architects (1857);
Washington, Society of Naval Eng. FRANCE: Lyons, Soc. Acad.
d'Arch. (1830), Annales (1867, &c.). Paris, Soc. des Ingenieurs Civils,
Annuaire (1848, &c.) ; Soc. Cent, des Architectes, Bull. (1851, &c.) and
Annales (1875, &c.) ; it has held a congress since 1875. Saint-
Etienne, Soc. de I'Jndustrie Min. (1855), Bull. GERMANY and
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Berlin, Ver. Deutscher Ingenieure, Ztschr.
(1857) and Wochenschrift (1877, &c.); Ver.f. Eisenbahnkunde; Akad.
des Bauwesens; Architekten-Ver., Ztschr. Breslau, Ver. f. Ges. der
Bild. K-iinste (1862). Constance, Miinsterbau Ver. (1881). Dresden,
Sachs. Ingen.-u. Architekten-Ver., Protok. Hanover, Arch.-u. Ingen.
Ver., Ztschr. Klagenfurt, Berg-und Hutlen-Mdnnischer Ver. Leoben,
K. k. Berg-Akad. Munich, Bayr. Arch.- u. Ingen.-Ver., Ztschr.
Prague, Arch.- und Ingen.-Ver. Vienna, Osterr. Ingen.- u. Arch.
Ver., Ztschr.; Ges. f. Bild. Kiinste. SWITZERLAND: Lausanne,
Soc. Vaudoise des Ingen. et des Arch. Zurich, Ver. Schweiz. Ingen.
u. Arch. ITALY: Turin, Soc. degli Ingeneri, Atti (1868-1870).
BELGIUM: Brussels, Assoc. des Ingen. Li6ge, Assoc. des Ingen. (1847),
Annuaire (1851, &c.)- HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Maatschappij ter
Bevordering der Bouwkunst, Bouwkundige Bijdragen (1843, &c.).
The Hague, Kon. Inst. van Ingen., Verslag (1848, &c.), Verhandel.
(1848, &c.) and Tijdschr. (1870, &c.). SPAIN and PORTUGAL : Lisbon,
Assoc. dos Engenheiros Civ. Port.; Soc. dos Architectos e Archeologos.
Madrid, Soc. Central de Arquitectos.
XV. NAVAL AND MILITARY SCIENCE
The Royal United Service Institution, first known as the Naval and
Military Library and Museum (1831), took the name of the United
Service Institution in 1839, and was incorporated in 1860; its
professional museum is housed in the banqueting hall at Whitehall ;
it publishes a Journal (1857, &c.). The Institution of Naval
Architects (1860) publishes Transactions (4to, 1860, &c.). The
Royal Artillery Institution (1838), which issues Minutes of Pro-
ceedings (i 858, &c.) , is at Woolwich, and the Royal Engineers' Institute
(1875) , which issues Royal Engineers' Professional Papers, at Chatham.
The Navy Records Soc. (1893) publishes works connected with the
history of the British Navy. CANADA: Toronto, Military Inst.
INDIA : Simla, United Service Institution.
UNITED STATES: New York, Military Service Inst. (1877), Journal
(1879, &c.); Soc. of Naval Architects and Marine Eng., Proc. Anna-
polis, U.S. Naval Institute (1873), Proc. FRANCE: Paris, Reunion
des Officers, now Cercle Militaire, Bull. (1871, &c.)- GERMANY
and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Munich, Militar. Ges. (1868), Jahrbuch.
(1871, &c.). Vienna, K. k. Milit.-Geogr. Inst., Arbeiten (1871, &c.).
HOLLAND: Utrecht, Vereen. tot Verspreiding van Kennis aangaande
s'Lands Verdediging, Jaarsverslag (1872, &c.) and Werken. NORWAY :
Christiania, Militaere Samfund, Nordsk Milit. Tidsskrift (1848, &c.).
DENMARK: Copenhagen, Krigsvidenskabelige Selskab, Milit. Tids-
skrift (1872, &c.).
XVI. AGRICULTURE AND TRADES
The Royal Agricultural Society of England began as the English
Agricultural Society in 1838 and was incorporated in 1840. It holds
annually one migratory meeting in some part of England or Wales
and meetings in London, where are its headquarters; it publishes a
Journal (1840, &c.). Among provincial agricultural societies and
associations may be mentioned Aberdeen, Roy. Northern Agr. Soc.
(1843). Arbroath, Angus Agr. Assoc. Banbury (1834). Basing-
stoke, Roy. Counties Agr. Soc. (1859). Bath, Bath and West of Engl.
Soc. and Southern Counties Assoc. (founded in 1777, enlarged in 1852,
and reorganized in 1866), Letters and Papers (1780-1816) and Journal
(1852, &c.). Belfast, Chemico-Agr. Soc. of Ulster (1845), Proc.;
N.E. Agr. Assoc. of Ireland. Birkenhead, Wirral and Birkenhead Agr.
Soc. (1842). Brecknock (1855). Carluke (1833). Chelmsford, Essex
Agr. Soc. (1858). Chertsey (1833). Doncaster (1872). Dublin, Roy.
Agr. Soc. of Ireland (1841). Edinburgh, Highland and Agr. Soc. of
Scotland (1784, incorporated in 1787), Trans. (1799. &c.). Halifax
(1839, enlarged in 1858). Ipswich, Suffolk Agr. Assoc. (1831).
Otley, Wharfedale Agr. Soc. Paisley, Renfrewshire Agr. Soc. (1802).
'Warwick. Worcester (1838). AFRICA: Cape Town, Agr. Soc.
AUSTRALIA: Sydney, Agr. Soc. of N. S. Wales. BRITISH GUIANA:
Georgetown, Roy. Agr. and Commercial Soc. CANADA: Montreal,
Soc. d'Agr. INDIA: Calcutta, Agr. and Hortic. Soc., Journ. (1842,
&c.).
UNITED STATES: There were agricultural societies formed at
Philadelphia and in South Carolina in 1785. The New York Soc. for
the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures (1791), the
Massachusetts Soc. for Prom. Agriculture (1792), and Columbian Agr.
Soc. (1809), issued publications. Albany, State Agr. Soc. (1832), The
Cultivator and Journal. Atlanta, State Agr. Soc. Boston, Inst. of
Technology. Hoboken, Stevens Inst. of Technol. Madison, State Agr.
Soc., Trans. (1852, &c.). Sacramento, Soc. of Agr. and Ilortic. San
Francisco, Agr. and Hort. Soc. Troy, Rensselaer Polytechnic InsL
(1824). Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1865), Journ. (1897, &c.).
FRANCE: Algiers, Soc. d'Agr. (1840), Bull. Agen, Soc. d'Agr.
(1776), Rec. (1800, &c.). Amiens, Soc. Industrielle (1861), Butt,
Angers, Soc. d'Agr. (1799), formerly Acad. d'Angers, Proc.-verb.
(1846-1854), Mem. (1831, &c.), Documents (1896, &c.). Bordeaux,
Soc. d'Agr. Boulogne, Soc. d'Agr. Caen, Assoc. Normande pour
I' Agr., I' Industrie, &c. (1831), Annuaire (1835, &c.); Soc. d'Agr. et
de Commerce (1762), Mem. (1853-1858) and Bull. (1827, &c.).
Chalons-sur-Marne, Soc. d'Agr., &c. (1750), Comptes rendus (1807-
1855), Mem. (1855, &c.). Uouai, Soc. d'Agr., &c. (1799), Souv.
(1861-1885), Mem. (1826, &c.). Elbeuf, Soc. Industr. (1858), Bull.
Grenoble, Soc. d'Agr. et d'Hortic. (1835), Sud-Est (1855, &c.). Le
Mans, Soc. du Materiel Agr. (1857), Bull. Lyons, Soc. des Sc. Industr.
(1862), Annales. Montpellier, Soc. d'Agr. (1799), Bull. (1808, &c ).
Nancy, Soc. Centr. d'Agr. Paris, Soc. Nat. d'Agr. de France (1761;
reconstructed in 1878 with a view of advising Government on agri-
cultural matters), Mem. and Bull. Perpignan, Soc. Agr. Scientifique
et Litt. (1833), Bull. (1834, &c.). Reims, Soc. Industr. (1833). Bull.
(1858, &c.). Rouen, Soc. Industr. (1872), Bull. ; Soc. Libre a' Emula-
tion, Commerce et Industrie (1790), Bull. (1797). Saint-Jean-
d'Angely, Soc. d'Agr. (1819), Bull. (1833, &c.). St Quentin, Soc.
Industr. (i&6&), Bull. Toulouse, Soc. d'A gr. Vesoul, Soc. d' Encourage-
ment d'Agr. (1883), Bull. GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: The
migratory Congress Deutscher Volkswirthe first met at Gotha in 1858.
Agram, Kroatisch-Slav. Landwirths. Ges., Blatter. Augsburg, Land-
wirths. Ver., Landw. Blatter. Berlin, Vereinigt. Berliner Kaufleute u.
Industr.; Bonn, Landwirthsch. Central-Ver. Bremen, Landwirths
Ver. Breslau, Landwirths. Central- Ver. ; Schles. Central Gewerbe- Ver.
Budapest, Ungar. Ackerbau Ges. Mittheil.; Industrielle Ges. Cassel,
Landwirths. Central-Ver., Mittheil. Cracow, Ackerbau Ges , Annalen.
Danzig, Volkswirths. Ges. (1850). Darmstadt, Landwirths. Ver.,
Ztschr. Dresden, K. Okonomie Ges.; K. Sachs. Polytechnicum.
Fiirth, Gewerbe- Ver* Gratz, K. k. Steiermarkische Landwirths. Ges.
Greifswald, Baltischer Central-Ver. Halle, Landwirths. Central-Ver.
Hanover, Gewerbe-Ver. Innsbruck, K. k. Landwirths. Ges., Wochen-
schr.; Kdrnt. Industrie- u. Gewerbe-Ver. Jena, Landwirths. Inst.
Kassa, Magyar Kir. Gazdasagi Akad. or Academy for Agriculture.
Klausenburg, Magyar Kir. Gazdasagi Akad. (1869). Konigsberg,
Ostpreuss. Landwirths. Central-Ver. Leipzig, Landwirths. Kreis-Ver. ;,
Polytechn. Ges. Linz, K. k. Landwirths. Ges. Liibeck, Landwirths.
Ver., Mittheil. Miihlhausen, Soc. Industr., Bull. Munich, Land-
wirths. Kreis-Ver.; Polytechn. Ver. Nuremberg, Polytechn. Ver.
Prague, Bohmischer Gewerbe-Ver.; Industrie Ges., Mittheil. and
Annalen. Ratisbon, Landwirths. Kreis-Ver., Bauernfreund. Stutt-
gart, X. Wurttemb. Central- Stelle, Wochenblatt. Trieste, A ckerbau Ges.
Tubingen, Landwirths. Ver. Vienna, K. k. Reichs Landwirths. Ges.,
Ztschr. Wiesbaden, Gewerbe-Ver. SWITZERLAND: Bern, Okonom.
Ges. Lausanne, Soc. d'Agr. de la Suisse Romande. Zurich, Ver. f.
Landwirths. u. Gartenbau. ITALY: Bologna, Soc. Agraria, Annali.
Cagliari, Soc. Agr. ed Econom. Florence, Soc. Econom. ed Agr.,
Rendiconti. Milan, Soc. Agr. diLombardia; Soc. Gen. degli Agricolt.
Ital.; Soc. d'Incoragg. di Arti e Mestieri, Discorsi. Perugia, Soc.
Econom. ed Agr., AM. Turin, Accad. Reale di Agricolt.; Assoc. Agr.
Ital., Esercitazioni. Verona, Accad. d' Agricolt. BELGIUM : Soc. Centr.
d'Agricult. (1854), Bull. Ghent, Soc. Roy. d'Agr. et de Bot. Liege^
Soc. d'Agr., Journ. (1850, &c.). Verviers, Soc. Industr. et Commerc.
(1863), Bull. HOLLAND: Amsterdam, Aardrijskundig Genootschap;.
Vereeniging voor Volksvlijt. DENMARK: Copenhagen, K. Landhuus-
holdnings Selskab; Del Statist. Tabelvaerk. NORWAY: Christiania,
Polytekniske Forening. SWEDEN: K. Landtbruks Akademien.
SPAIN and PORTUGAL: Barcelona, Soc. Econom., Actas. Lisbon,
Inst. Real de Agric.; Soc. Promotora de Industr. Madrid, Soc.
Econom. Matritense, Anales. Oporto, Acad. Polytechn. RUSSIA:
Dorpat, K. Livlandische Okonom. Ges., Jahrbuch. Kazan, Imp.
Econom. Soc. Moscow, Imp. Soc. of Agriculturists. Odessa, Imp.
Agronom. Soc. of S. Russia. Riga, Technical Soc. St Petersburg,
Imp. Econom. Soc., Trans.; Technical Soc. RUMANIA: Bucharest,
Soc. Politechnicd (1881), Buletinul. SOUTH AMERICA: Rio de
Janeiro, Soc. de Agr.
XVII. LITERATURE, HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY
The Congres International des Orientalistes first met at Paris in 1873.
The Congres Bibliographique International held its first meeting in
1878, and the Congres des Americanistes its first meeting_ in 1875. The
first Internal. Conference of Librarians took place in London in
1877. Congresses of Archivists, Librarians and Bibliographers were
held at Brussels in 1910. The Royal Society of Literature (1823, in-
corporated in 1825) with Transactions (410, 1829-1839; 8vo, 1843,
&c.), and the Royal Asiatic Society (1823), with Journal (1834,
&c.), have their headquarters in London, as well as the follow-
ing literary societies, all of which issue publications: Aris-
totelian (1879), Ballad (1868), Chaucer (1868), Dante (1881),
Early English Text (1864), East India Association (1866), Hellenic
Studies (1879), Incorp. Soc. of Authors (1884), Institute of Journalists,
Irish Lit., Japan (1892), Library Association (1877), 'Library Assistants
(1895), Malone (1906), Oriental Translation Fund (1828), Pali Text
(1882), Philological (1842), Roxburghe Club (1812), Shorthand, Viking
Club (1892), Wyclif (1882). The Lancashire and Cheshire Historic
Society (1848), at Liverpool, the Manchester Literary Club, with
3*8
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
Transactions and Papers (1874, &c.), and the Manx Society (1858), at
Douglas, may also be mentioned. In Glasgow are the Ballad Club
(1876), and the Scottish Soc. of Lit. and Art (1886), and in Dublin
the Nat. Lit. Soc. of Ireland (1892).
The oldest and most important society in England dealing with
history and archaeology is the Society of A ntiquaries of London, which
enthusiasts trace to an association founded by Archbishop Parker in
1572. The meetings were not publicly recommenced until 1707 ; the
present body was incorporated in 1751 ; it publishes Vetera Monu-
menta (fol., 1747, &c.), Archaeologia (4to, 1770, &c.), and Proceedings
(8vo, 1849, &c.). The Royal Archaeological Institute (1843), issuing
the Archaeological Journal (1845; &c.) ; the British Archaeological
Association (1843), with Journal (1846. &c.) ; the Royal Numismatic
Society (1836), issuing the Numismatic Chronicle (1838, &c.) ; and the
Royal Historical Society (1868), publishing Transactions, and the works
of the Camden Society (1838), belong to London, as well as the follow-
ing societies, all of which issue publications: Bibliographical (1892),
British School at Athens, British School at Rome, British Record (1888,
incorp. 1893, incl. Index Soc. 1878). Canterbury and York Catholic
Record (1904), Egypt Expl. Fund (1883), Genealog. and Biogr.,
Cymmrodorion (1751-1773, revived in 1820), Dilettanti (1734), Folk
Lore (1879), Harleian (1869), Huguenot (1885), London and Middle-
sex Archaeol. (1855), London Topogr. Soc., Middlesex County Records
(1884), Palaeo graphical, Palestine Expl. Fund, Parish Registers, Pipe
Roll (1883), Soc. Bibl. Archaeol. (1870), Soc. for Prot. Anc. Buildings
(1877). Outside London are the Roy. Soc. of Antiquaries of Ireland
founded in 1849 as the Kilkenny Arch. Soc., changed to Roy. Hist, and
Arch. Assn. in 1869 and to present title in 1890; the Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland (1780), at Edinburgh, and the Irish Archaeo-
logical and Celtic Society, at Dublin. Among others are Aberdeen,
New Spalding Club (1886); Bedfordshire Archaeological and Archi-
tect. Soc. (1844); Bristol, Bristol and Gloucester Arch. Soc. (1876);
Cambrian Arch. Assoc. (1846); Cambridge Antiq. Soc. (1840);
Carlisle, Cumb. and Westm. Antiq. and Arch. Soc. (1866); Devizes,
Wiltshire Arch, and Nat. H. Soc. (1853) ; Durham, Surtees Soc. (1834) ;
Colchester, Essex Arch. Soc. (1852); Edinburgh, Bibliogr. Soc. (1890),
Scottish Hist. (1886); Exeter, Diocesan Arch. Soc. (1841); Glasgow
Arch. Soc. (1856) ; Kent Arch. Soc. (1857) ; Lane, and Cheshire Antiq.
Soc. (1883). Leeds Thoresby Soc. (1889) ; Manchester, Chetham Soc.
(1843); Newcastle-on-Tyne Soc. of Antiq. (1813); Norwich, Norfolk
and Norwich Arch. Soc. (1846); Oxford, Architect, and Hist. Soc.
(1839), and Hist. Soc. (1884) ; Purbeck Soc. ; Reading, Berkshire Arch,
and Architectural Soc. (1871); Surrey Arch. Soc.; Sussex Arch. Soc.
(1846); Welshpool, Powys Land Club (1867); and Yorkshire Arch.
Soc. (1863).
CANADA: Halifax, Nova Scotia Hist. Soc. (1878), Coll. Montreal,
Soc. Hist., Mem. (1859, &c.) ; Numism. and Antiq. Soc. (1872), Journ.
(1872, &c.). Quebec, Lit. and Hist. Soc. (1824), Trans. (1837, &c.).
Toronto, Ontario Hist. Soc. (1888, 1898), Rep.; Lit. and Hist. Soc.
CHINA: Hong-Kong, Roy. Asiatic Soc. Shanghai, Roy. Asiatic
Soc., Journ. (1858, &c.). INDIA: Bombay, Roy. Asiatic Soc.
(Branch) (1804), Journal (1844, &c.). Calcutta, Asiatic Society of
Bengal, Journ. (1832, &c.) and Proc. (1865, &c.) ; Indian Research
Soc. (1907), Trans. Colombo, Roy. Asiatic Soc., Journ. (1844, &c.).
Madras, Lit. Soc. (1818), Journal (1827, &c.). Singapore, Roy.
Asiatic Soc.
UNITED STATES: The central antiquarian body in the United
States is established at Washington the Archaeological Institute of
Amer. (1879), which publishes Amer. Journ. Arch. (1897, &c.), and
has affiliated with it 28 societies, including the Boston Society (1879),
Cincinnati Soc. (1905), Iowa Soc. (1902), Wisconsin Soc. (1889), New
York Soc. (1884), San Francisco (1906), North West Soc. (Seattle)
(1906). Albany, Institute and Hist, and Art Soc., Trans. (1792-
1819, 1830-1893), Proc. (1865-1882). Baltimore, Maryland Hist.
Soc. (1844). Boston, Mass. Hist. Soc. (1791), Collections (1792, &c.)
and Proc. (1859, &c.) ; New Engl. Hist.-Gen. Soc. (1845), Genealog.
Register (1847) ; Amer. Oriental Soc. (1843), Journ. (1849, &c.) ; Amer.
Library Assoc. (1876), Liby. Journal; Soc. Bibl. Lit. and Exegesis
(1880), Journal (1882, &c.) ; Bostonian Soc. (1881), Proc. (1882, &c.).
Brookline Hist. Soc. (1891). Buffalo, Hist. Soc. (1862). Cambridge,
Hist. Soc. (1905), Proc. (1906, &c.) ; Dante Soc. (1881). Chicago, Hist.
Soc. (1856). Cincinnati, Hist, and Phil. Soc. of Ohio (1831), Pubins.
(1906). Concord, Hist. Soc., Coll. (1824, &c.). Frankfort, Kentucky
State Hist. Soc. (1836), Reg. Hartford, Amer. Philolog. Soc. (1869);
Hist. Soc. (1825), Coll. (i860, &c.). Lincoln, Nebraska State Hist. Soc.
(1867), Trans. (1885-1893), Proc. (1894, &c.). Madison, Hist. Soc.,
Coll. (1849, &c.). Minneapolis, Hist. Soc., Coll. (1869, &c.). Mont-
pelier, Hist. Soc. of Vermont, Coll. (1869, &c.). New Haven,
Amer. Orient. Soc. (1842), Journal (1849, &c.). New Orleans,
Louisiana Hist. Soc. (1867), Pubins. (1895, &c.). New York, Hist.
Soc. (1804), Pubins. (1868, &c.); Geneal. and Biogr. Soc. (1869),
Record (1870); Bibliogr. Soc. (1904), Proc. (1906, &c.), Bull. (1907,
&c.); Amer. Numis. Soc., Proc. (1882). Philadelphia, Hist. Soc.
(1824), Mem. (1820, &c.); Numism. and Arch. Soc. (1858), Proc.
(1867, &c.); Shakspere Soc. (1852). Portland, Maine Hist. Soc.,
Coll. (1831, &c.). Providence, Hist. Soc. (1822), Coll. (1827, &c.).
Richmond, Virg. Hist, and Phil. (1831), Publ. (1874, &c.). St Louis,
Missouri Hist. Soc. (1866), St Paul, Minnesota Hist. Soc. (1849),
Coll. Savannah, Georgia Hist. Soc. (1839), Proc. Topeka, Hist. Soc.
(1875), Trans. (1881, &c.). Washington, Arch. Soc. (1902) ; Columbia
Hist. Soc. (1894), Rec.; Amer. Hist. Assn. (1884), Amer. Hist. Rev
(1895, &c.). Worcester, Amer. Antiq. Soc. (1812), Proc. and Arch.
Amer. (1820, &c.).
FRANCE: The Congres Archeologique de la France first met in
1834. Algiers, Soc. Hist. (1856), Revue (1856, &c.). Amiens, Soc.
des Antiq. (1836), Mem. (1838, &c.) and Bull. Angouleme, Soc.
Arch, et Hist. (1844), Bull. Bordeaux, Soc. Archeol. (1873) ; Soc. des
Arch. Hist. (1858), Archives Hist. (1858, &c.). Bourges, Soc. Hist, et
Litt. (1849), Bull, et Mem. (.1852, &c.). Caen, Soc. des Antiq. de
Normandie (1823), Mem. (1824, &c.) and Bull. (1860, &c.) ; Soc.
Fran. d'Arch. (1834), Comptes rend. (1834, &c.) and Bull. Mens.
(1835, &c.). Chalon-sur-Saone, Soc. d'Hist. et d'Arch. (1844), Mem.
(1844, &c.). Chambery, Soc. Savoisienne d'Hist. et d'Arch. (1855),
Mem. (1856, &c.). Constantine, Soc. Arch. (1852), Recueil. Dijon,
Comm. des Antiquiles (1831), Mem. (1882, &c.). Lille, Comm. hist,
du Nord (1839), Bull. (1843, &c.). Limoges, Soc. Hist, et Arch.
(1845), Bull.; Soc. des Archives hist. (1886), Archives (1887, &c.).
Lyons, Soc. Hist., Litt. et Arch. (1807), Mem. (1860, &c.). Mont-
pellier, Soc. Arch. (1833), Mem. (1835, &c.). Nancy, Soc. d'Arch. de
Lorraine (1845), Mem. (1850, &c.) and Journ. (1852, &c.). Nantes,
Soc. Arch. (1845), Bull. (1859, &c.). Orleans, Soc. Arch, et Hist.
(1848), Mem. (1851, &c.) and Butt. Paris, Soc. Nat. des Antiq. de Fr.
(1813) (based on the Academic Celtique, 1804), Mem. (1805, &c.) and
Butt. (1817, &c.); Soc. de I' Hist, de France (1833), Annuaire (1837)
and nearly 400 vols. besides; Soc. de VEcole Nat. des Charles (1839),
Documents (1873, &c.) ; Soc. Asiatique (1822), Journal Asiat. (1822,
&c.), &c. ; Soc. d'Arch. et de Numism. (1865) ; Soc. de I'Hist. du Prot.
Fran. (1866) ; Soc. de Linguistique; Soc. Bibliogr. (1868), Polybiblion. ;
Soc. Philol. (1867), Actes (1869, &c.) ; Soc. des Etudes Hist. (1833),
Revue (1834, &c.) ; Soc. d'Hist. Moderne (1901), Bull.; Soc. d'Hist.
Contemp. (1890); Soc. de I'Hist. de la Revolution Fran. (1888); Soc.
d'Hist. Diplomatique (1886); Soc. des Bibliophiles Fran. (1820);
Soc. des Anciens Textes Fran. (1875), Bull. Poitiers, Soc. des
Antiq. (1834), Mem. Rouen, Soc. de I'Hist. de Norm. (1869), Bull.
(1870, &c.) and 75 vols. besides; Comm. des Antiquites (1818), Bull.
(1867, &c.). Saint-Omer, Soc. des Antiq. (1831), Mem. (1833, &c.).
Toulouse, Soc. Arch. (1831), Mem. (1831-1868), Bull. (1869, &c.);
Acad. des Jeux floraux (1323, reorganized 1773), Rec. (1696, &c.).
Tours, Soc. Arch. (1840), Mem. (1842, &c.). GERMANY and AUSTRIA-
HUNGARY: Gesam. Ver. d. D. Gesch. u. Alt. Vereine (1852). Agrair,
Ges. f. Siid-Slav. Alterth. Aix-la-Chapelle, Geschichtsver. (1879),
Ztschr. (1879, &c.). Altenburg, Gesch. u. Alterthums Ges. (1838),
Mittheil. (1841, &c.). Augsburg, Hist. Ver. (1820, reorganized in
1834), Jahresber. (1835, &c.). Baden, Alterthums-Ver . (1844),
Schriften. Bamberg, Hist. Ver. (1830), Ber. (1834, &c.). Berlin,
Ver. f. Gesch. d. Mark Brandenb. (1836), Forschungen (1841, &c.) ;
Ver.f. d. Gesch. Berlins (1865), Schriften; Hist. Ges. (1871), Mittheil.
(1873, &c.); Archaolog. Ges. (1842), Sitzungsber., Archaol. Zeitung;
Numism. Ges. (1843), Jahresber. (1845, &c.), Herald (1869) ; Phil. Ges.
(1843), DerGedanke (i86i,&c.) ; Gtt.f. D. PhUologie (1877), Jahresler.
(1879, &c.); D. Bibliogr. Ges. (1902), Ztschr. (1903, &c.); Ver.
D. Bibliothekare (1900), Jahrbuch (1902); D. Orient-Ges. (1898),
Mitteil. Bonn, Ver.f. Alterth. (1841), Jahresber. ; Soc. Philologa (1854).
Brandenburg, Hist. Ver. (1868), Jahresber. (1870, &c.). Braunsberg,
Hist. Ver. (1856). Breslau, Ver.f. Gesch. u. Alt. Schl. (1846), Ztschr.
(1856, &c.), Scriptores rerum Silesicarum (1847, &c.) ; Breslauer
Dichterschule (1860). Budapest, Hungarian Hist. Soc. (1867),
Szdzadok. Cassel, Ver. f. Hess. Gesch. (1834), Ztschr. (1837, &C.J.
Cologne, Hist. Ver. (1854), Annalen (1855, &c.); Ges. fur rheinische
Geschichtskunde (1881). Cracow, Hist. Soc. Danzig, Westpreuss.
Geschichtsver. (1879), Ztschr., Mitteil., Akten. Darmstadt, Hist. Ver.
(1834), Archiv (1835, &c.). Dresden, K. Sachs. Alt. Ver. (1825),
Jahresber. (1835, &c.) and Mittheil. (1835, &c.). Frankfort, Ges. f.
Deutschlands alt. Geschichtskunde (1819; since 1875 under guidance
of Central-Dir. d. Man. Germ.), Man. Germ. (1826, &c.) ; Ges. f.
Gesch. u. Kunst (1837), Mittheil. (1858, &c.); Freies D. Hochstift in
Goethe's Vaterhaus (1859); Ver. fur Gesch. u. Alt. (1857), Archiv.
Halle, Thur.-Sachs. Ver. (1819), Mittheil. (1822, &c.) ; D. Morgenl.
Ges. (1844), Ztschr. (1847, &c.) and Abhandl. (1859, &c.). Hanover,
Hist. Ver. (1835), Ztschr. Kiel, Ges. f. Gesch. Schl.-Holst. (1833, re-
organized in 1873), Archiv (1833, &c.) and Ztschr. (1870, &c.).
Konigsberg, Altertumsges. Prussia (1844), Sitzungsber. Leipzig,
D. Ges. z. Erforschung vaterl. Spr. u. Alterth. (1697, reorganized in
1824), Jahresber. (1825, &c.) and Mittheil. (1845, &c.) ; Furstlich
Jablonowski' s Ges. (1768), Acta (1772, &c.); Borsenver. d. D. Buch-
hdndler (1825), Borsenblatt (1834, &c.) ; Hist. Theolog. Ges. (1814).
Liibeck, Hansischer Ges. Ver. (1870). Munich, Hist. Ver. (1837), '
Archiv (l&y),&c.);Alterthums-Ver. (1864). Nuremberg, Pegnesischer
Blumenorden (1644), had united with it in 1874 tne Lit. Ver. (1839),
Prague, Ver.f. Gesch. Ratisbon, Hist. Ver. (1830), Verhandl. (1832,
&c.). Rostock, Ver. fur. Alt. (1883), Beitrdge (1890, &c.). Schwerin,
Ver.f. Meckl. Gesch. u. Alterthumsk. (1835), Jahrbuch (1835, &c.) and
other publications. Strassburg, Soc. pour la conservation des Monu-
ments Historiques d' Alsace (1855), Bull. (1855, also since 1889 with
German title Mitteilungen). Stuttgart, Lit. Ver. (1839), Bibliothek
(1843, &c.); Wurttemb. Alterth. Ver. (1843). Jahreshefte (1844) and
many records, handbooks, &c. Tubingen, Lit. Ver. (1839), Bibliothek
(1842, &c.). Vienna, K. k. Orient. Akad.; K. k. Heraldische Ges.
"Adler" (1870), Jahrbiicher (1874, &c.) ; Ver. fur Osterr. Volks-
kunde (1894), Ztschr. Weimar, D. Shakespeare Ges. (1864, Jahrbuch
SOCIETIES, LEARNED
(1865, &c.); Goethe Ges. (1885), Schriften (1885, &c.); Ges. der
BMiophilen (1899). Wiesbaden, Ver. f. Nass. Alterth. (1821),
Annalen (1830, &c.). Wiirzburg, Hist. Ver. (1831), Archiv (1833).
SWITZERLAND : Basle, Hist. u. Antiq. Ges. (1836). Berne, Allgemeine
Geschichtforschende Ges. (1840). Freiberg, Soc. d'Hist. Geneva, Soc.
d'Hist. et d'Arch. (1838). Lausanne, Soc. d'Hist.; Soc. Vaudoise
d'Hist. et d'Arch. (1902), Revue. St Gall, Hist. Ver. (1859), Mitteil.
(1862, &c.). Zurich, Soc. d'Hist. ; Antiq. Ges., Denkmdler. ITALY:
Bologna, Reg. Deputazione di Storia Patria. Catania, Soc. di Storia
Patria (1903). Ferrara, Deput. Ferrarese di Storia Patria (1884).
Florence, Societa Colombaria (1823); Soc. Dantesca Italiana (1888);
R. Deputazione Tosc. di Storia Patria (1862). Genoa, Soc. di Storia
Patria (1857). Milan, Soc. Numis. Ital.; Soc. Storica Lombarda.
Naples, Soc. Nap. di Storia Patria (1875). Palermo, Soc. Sic. di Storia
Patria (1873), Doc. Parma, R. Deputazione di Storia Patria. Rome,
Accad. Rom. di Arch.; Soc. Rom. di Storia Patria (1877), Archivio
(1877, &c.); 1st. di Corr. Arch.; Brit, and Amer. Arch. Soc.; Soc.
Filol. Rom. (1901); Istituto Star. Ital. (1883), Fonti (1887, &c.) ;
K. Deutsch. Archdolog. Inst., Arch. Zing. (1843-1885) and Jahrb.
Turin, Real Deputaz. di Star. Pair. (1833). Venice, R. Dep. Yen. di
Storia Patria. Verona, Soc. Lett. (1808). BELGIUM: Antwerp,
Acad. d'Archeol. (1842), Bull. (1865, &c.). Bruges, Soc. pour I'Hist.
et les Antiq. de la Flandre (1839), Publ. Brussels, Soc. de I'Hist. de
Belgique (1858), Publ.; Soc. Roy. de Numism. (1841), Revue; Soc.
des Bibliophiles (1865); Soc. d'Archeol. (1887), Annuaire, Annales;
Inst. Int. de Bibliogr. (1895), Repertoire. Ghent, Soc. Roy. des Beaux-
Arts et de la Litt. (1808), Annales (1844, &c.); Willems Fond
(1851) ; Maatschappij de Vlaamsche Bibliophilen (1839) ; Soc. d'Hist.
et d'Archeol. (founded 1893 as Cercle Hist, et Archeol.), Bull. Liege,
Inst. Archeol. (1850), Bull. (1852, &c.). Louvain, Soc. Litt. (1839),
Mem. and Publ. Mons, Cercle Archeol. (1856), Annales (1857, &c.).
Namur, Soc. Archeol. et Musee de Namur (1845), Annales. Tournai,
Soc. Hist, et Litt. (1846), Bull. (1849, &c.). Verviers, Soc. Arch.
Ypres, Soc. Hist. (1861). HOLLAND: Leiden, Acad. Lugduno-
Batava; Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde (1766)
Tijdschrift. Luxembourg, Inst. Archeol. (1846, reorganized in 1862),
Annales (1849, &c.). Utrecht, Hist. Genootschap (1845). DEN-
MARK: Copenhagen, Island. Litt. Selskab; K. Danske Selskab
(1745), Magazin; K. Nordisk Oldskrift Selskab, Aarboger (1866, &c.),
Fortidsminder (1890, &c.). Reykjavik (Iceland), Fornleifarfelag;
Hid islenzka Bokmentafelag (1816), Skirnir. NORWAY: Christiania,
Norske Hist. Forening (1869) ; Norske Oldskrift Selskab; Foreningen
til Norske Forlidsminde maerkers Bevaring (1844). SWEDEN: Stock-
holm, K. Witterhets Hist, och Antiq. Akad. ; Svcnska Akad. ; Sv. Forn-
skriftsdllskapet (1843) Proc.; K. Samfundet for utgifvande af hand-
skrifter rorande Skandinaviens hist. (1815-1817), Handl. (1816, &c.).
SPAIN: Barcelona, R. Acad. de Buenas Letras. Madrid, R. Acad. de
Cienc. Mor. y Pol.; R. Acad. Esp. Arq.; R. Acad. de la Hist. (1738).
RUSSIA: Helsingfors, Finska Litt. Sdllskapet (1831), Ztschr. (1841);
Finnish Archaeol. Soc. (1870), Tidskrift (1874, &c.) ; Hist. Soc.
(1875), Arkisto (1876, &c.). Kazan, Soc. of Arch. Hist, and Ethnogr.
(1877), Izvestija (1878). Mitau, Courland Soc. of Lit. and Art.
Moscow, Imp. Russ. Soc. of Hist, and Antiq.; Archaeolog. Soc.
(1864). Narva, Archaeolog. Soc. Odessa, Hist, and Antiq. Soc.
(1839), Zapiski (1844, &c.). Riga, Lett. Lit. Ges.; Hist, and
Antiq. Soc. (1834), Mitteil. (1873, &c.). St Petersburg, Russ. Hist.
Soc. (1866), Sbornik (1867, &c.) ; Imp. Soc. for Study of Ancient
Lit. (1877); Imp. Russ. Archeol. Soc. (1846); Russ. Bibliogr. Soc.
(1899); Soc. for Orient. Studies, with numerous branches; Neo-
Philol. Soc. (1885). GREECE: Athens, Soc. Archeol.; Amer. School
Class. Studies (1882); Ecole Franc,. d'Alhenes (1846); British School
at Athens (1886); 'Apxa'.oXo-yuo) 'Ertuptia (Arch. Soc.) (1837),
'Efaufpls. TURKEY: Constantinople, Soc. for Adv. of Turkish
Lit.; Greek Lit. Soc.; Hellenic Philolog. Soc. BULGARIA: Sofia, Bulg.
Lit. Soc. (1869), now the Bulgarian Acad. (1910), Periqd. (1870, &c.).
SOUTH AMERICA: Rio dc Janeiro, Inst. hist, e geogr. (1838). JAPAN:
Yokohama, Asiatic Soc. of Japan, Trans. (1874, &c.).
XVIII. GEOGRAPHY
The Congres International pour les Progres des Sciences Geogra-
phiques first met in 1871. The Royal Geographical Society of London,
founded in 1830, had joined to it in the following year the African
Association (1788), the successor of the Saturday Club; the Palestine
Association (1805) became merged with it in 1834. It publishes
Journal (1832, &c.) and Proceedings (1857, &c.). The Hakluyt
Society (1846) has printed more than 136 vols. of rare voyages and
travels. The Alpine Club (1858), whose publications are Peaks,
Passes and Glaciers (1859-1862) and Journal (1863, &c.), meets in
London. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society (1884) has its
centre at Edinburgh, and issues the Scottish Geographical Magazine.
Liverpool, Tyneside and Manchester have also Geographical Societies.
AUSTRALIA: Adelaide, R. Geogr. Soc. of Australasia (1885), Proc.
Brisbane, R. Geogr. Soc. of Australasia (1885). Melbourne, Roy.
Geogr. Soc. of Australasia (1883). Sydney, Geogr. Inst. CANADA:
Quebec, Geogr. Soc. INDIA: .Bombay, Geogr. Soc., Trans. (1836,
&c.). EGYPT: Cairo, Soc. Khediviale de Geogr. (1875), Bull.
(1876, &c.).
UNITED STATES: Baltimore, Geogr. Soc. (1902). Chicago, Geogr.
Soc. (1894). Hamilton, Assoc. of Amer. Geogr. (1904). New York,
Amer. Geogr. Soc. (1852), Bull. (1852-1857), Journ., later Bull. (1859,
&c.), and Proc. (1862-1865). Philadelphia, Geogr. Soc. (1891). San
Francisco, Geogr. Soc. (1891), Bull. Washington, Nat. Geogr. Soc.
(1852), Magazine (1888). FRANCE: Algiers, Soc. Geogr. (1896), Bull.
Bordeaux, Soc. de Geogr. Commercials (1874), Bull. Dijon, Soc. Bourg.
de Geogr. et d'Hist. (1881), Mem. (1884, &c.). Lyons, Soc. de Geogr.
(1873), Bull Marseilles, Soc.deGeogr. (1876), Bull. Montpellier, Soc.
Languedocienne de Geogr. (1878), Bull. Nancy, Soc. de Geogr. (1878).
Bull. Paris, Soc.deGeogr. (1821 ; l82f),Bull, Toulouse, Soc.deGeogr.
(1882), Bull. GERMANY and AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: D. Alpen-Ver.
(1869), Ztschr. u. Jahrb. (1869, &c.). Berlin, Ges.f. Erdkunde (1828),
Ztschr. (1853, &c.), and Verhandl. (1873, &c.) ; Ges. zur Erforschung
Aquat. Afrikas (1873), Corr.-Blatt; Afrik. Ges. (1878), Mittheil.;
D. Geographentag (1881), Verhandl. Bremen, Geograph. Ges. (1876),
Geogr. Blatter. Budapest, Hung.-Geogr. Soc. (1872). Carlsruhe,
Badische Geogr. Ges. (1880), Verhandl. Cassel, Ver. f. Erdk. (1882).
Darmstadt, Ver.}. Erdk. (1845), Notizblatt (1854, &)' Dresden, Ver.
f. Erdk. (1863), Jahresber. (1865-1901), Mitteil. (1905, &c.). Frank-
fort, Ver. f. Geogr. u. Statist. (1836), Jahresber. Giessen, Ges. fur
Erd. u. Volkerkunde (1896). Halle, Ver.f. Erdk. (1873). Hamburg,
Geogr. Ges. (1873), Jahresber. Hanover, Geogr. Ges. (1878), Jahresber.
Jena, Geogr. Ges. (1880), Mittheil. Leipzig, Ver. f. Erdk. (1861),
Jahresber. Liibeck, Geogr. Ges. (1882). Munich, Geogr. Ges. (1869),
Jahresber. Vienna, K. k. Geogr. Ges., Milt. (1857, &c.) ; Ver. der Geogr.
Weimar, Geogr. Inst. SWITZERLAND : Berne, Inst. Geogr. ; Geogr. Ges.
(1873), Jahresber. (1879, &c.) ; Schweiz. Alpen-Club. Geneva, Soc. de
Geogr., Mem. (1860, &c.). Zurich, Karten- Ver. ITALY: Rome, Soc.
Geogr. Ital., Bull. (1868, &c.). Turin, Circolo Geogr. Ital. (1868).
BELGIUM: Antwerp, Soc. Beige de Geogr. (1870), Bull. ; Soc. Roy. de
Geogr. (1876), Bull. Brussels, Soc. Beige de Geogr. (1876). HOL-
LAND: Amsterdam, K. Nederl. Aardrijkskundig Genoot. (1873),
Tijdschrift (1874, & c -)'< Landkundige Genootschap. DENMARK:
Copenhagen, Geogr. Selskab. NORWAY: Christiania, Detnorske geogr.
Selskab (1889). SPAIN and PORTUGAL: Lisbon, Soc. de Geogr., Bol.
(1875, &c.). Madrid, Soc. Geogr., Bol. (1876, &c.). RUSSIA: Hel-
singfors, Geogr. Soc. (1888), Tidskrift; Sdllskapet for Finland* geografi
(1888). Irkutsk, Geogr. Soc., Bull. (1871, &c.). St Petersburg, Imp.
Russ. Geogr. Soc., Mem. (1845, &c.), and Bull. (1865, &c.). Tiflis,
Geogr. Soc., Mem. (1852, &c.). RUMANIA: Bucharest, Societatea
Geografica Romdna (1875), Bull. EGYPT: Cairo, Soc. Khediviale de
Geogr., Bull. (1876, &c.). JAPAN: Tokyo, Geogr. Soc. CENTRAL and
SOUTH AMERICA: Buenos Aires, Inst. Geogr. Argent. La Paz, Soc.
Geogr. (1889), Bol. Lima, Soc. Geogr. (1888), Bol. Mexico, Soc. de
Geogr. y Estad., Bol. (1833, &c.). Rio de Janeiro, Soc. de Geogr.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Catal. of Printed Books in the British
Museum (1841), folio, s.v. "Academies," contains a list of all the
publications of societies at that time in the museum. This has been
rearranged and greatly enlarged as Academies (1885-1886), 5 parts
folio, with Suppl. (19001903). Smithsonian Instn. International
Exchange List (1908); B. Quaritch, List of Learned Societies (Odd
Vols.) (1886). S. H. Scudder, Cat. of Scientific Serials (1633-1876);
Camb. (U.S.) (1879), 8vo. For general indexes see J. D. Reuss, Reper-
torium (1801-1821), 16 vols., Roy. Soc. Cat of Sc. Papers (1867-1902) ;
Societatum Lilterae, Verzeichniss (1887-1900, 14 vols.). For list of
indexes to transactions, &c., see A. Stein, Manuel de Bibliographie
ge.nerale (1897), p. 642, &c. Minerva (Strassb. Triibner), from 1891
on, is most useful for all the chief existing societies in the
world. British societies are now well represented in the Year Book
of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Brit, and Ireland (1884,
&c.). See also Hume's Learned Societies and Printing Clubs of the
U.K. (1853, 8vo) ; E. Mailly, Inst. Sc. de la Grande-Bret. (1861-1867,
6 pts.); H. G. Bohn, App. to Bibliographer's Manual (1864), 8vo;
Engl. Catal. of Books (1864-1909); C. S. Terry, Cat. of Publications
of Scottish Historical Societies and Clubs, 1909; " Sc. Societies and
Field Clubs," in Nature, v., viii. For American Societies see R. R.
Bowker, Publns. of Societies (New York, 1899); Handbk. of Learned
Societies, Carnegie Inst. of Washington (1908) ; A. P. C. Griffin,
Bibl. of Amer. Historical Societies (1905); A. Growoll, Am. Book
Clubs (New York, 1897). For France, see U. Robert, Bibl. des. Soc.
sav. de la France, pt. i. (1878) ; F. Bouillier, L'Institut et les acad.
de province (1879, 8vo) ; Lasteyrie, Lefevre-Pontalis et A. Vidier,
Bibliogr. des travaux hist, et arch. publ. par les soc. sav. de la France
(1888-1904, 4 vols. 4to). J. Deniker, Bibliogr. des travaux scienti-
fiques publ. par les soc. savantes de la France (1895, &c.) ; H.
Delauny, Les Soc. savantes de la France (1902); E. Lefevre-
Pontalis, Bibl. des soc. savantes de la France (1887); Annuaire
des Soc. savantes de la France et de I' Stranger (1846); A.
d'Hericourt, Annuaire (1863-1866); continued in Revue de soc.
savantes. For Germany and Austria-Hungary, see H. A. Stohr,
Allg. Deutsches Vereinshandbuch (1873, &c., 8vo) ; J. Miiller, Die
wiss. Vereine u. Ges. Deutschlands im iy' m Jahrh. (1883-1888);
I. Winckler, Die period. Presse Osterreichs (1875, 8vo) ; and P. A. F.
Walther for German historical societies (1845). See also " Les
Congres scientifiques," by Comte de Marsy, in Compte rendu du
Congres Bibliogr. (1879). For Belgium, see Introd. a la Bibl. de la
Belgique (1875). For Italy, see Statistica della stampa periodica,
1880-1895; Elenco bibl. delle accademie ec. corrisp. con. la R. Accad.
dei Lincei Roma, 1908. For Russia, consult C. Woldemar, Gesch. d.
russ. Gelehrten- und Schulanstalten (St Petersburg, 1865, 8vo),
and Kawall, Die neuen russ. Naturforschergesellschaften (Riga,
1872-1874). (H. R. T.)
320
SOCIETY ISLANDS SOCINUS
SOCIETY ISLANDS (French Archipel de la Societe). an archi-
pelago of the Pacific Ocean, in the eastern part of Polynesia,
between 16 and 18 S., 148 and 155 W., with a total land area
of 637 sq. m., belonging to France. (For map, see PACIFIC
OCEAN.) The principal island is Tahiti (g.v.). Part of the
archipelago was discovered by Pedro Fernandez Quiros in 1607.
In 1767 Samuel Wallis re-discovered it, and named it King
George's Island. In 1768 Louis de Bougainville visited Tahiti,
claimed it as French, and named it La Nouvelle Cythere. On
the 1 2th of April 1769 the British expedition to observe the
transit of Venus, under the naval command of James Cook,
arrived at Tahiti. On this first voyage (he subsequently re-
visited the islands twice) he named the Leeward group of
islands Society in honour of the Royal Society, at the instigation
of which the expedition had been sent; Tahiti and the adjacent
islands he called Georgian, but the first name was subsequently
adopted for the whole group. In 1772 and 1774 the islands were
visited by a Spanish government expedition, and some attempt
was made at colonization. In 1788 Lieutenant Bligh of the
" Bounty " spent some time at Tahiti, to which island the his-
torical interest now passes.
The archipelago is divided into two groups the Leeward (lies sous
le Vent) and the Windward Islands (lies du Vent) by a clear channel
of 60 m. in breadth. The Leeward Islands are Tubai or Motuiti,
a small uninhabited- lagoon island, the most northern of the group;
Marua or Maupiti " Double Mountain," the most western; Bola-
Bola or Bora-Bora; Huaheine; Raiatea or Ulietea (Spanish Prin-
cessa), the largest island of this cluster, and Tahaa, which approach
each other very closely, and are encircled by one reef. To the west
lie the small groups of coral islets Mopiha (Lord Howe), Ura (Scilly)
.and Bellingshausen (discovered by Otto von Kotzebue, 1824). To
the Windward Islands belong Tapamanu or Maiaiti (Wallis's Sir
Charles Saunders's Island and Spanish Pelada) ; Moorea or Eimeo
(Wallis's Duke of York Island and Spanish San Domingo) ; Tahiti
Cook's Otaheite (probably Quiros's Sagittaria ; Wallis's King George's
Island, Bougainville's Nouvelle Cythere and Spanish Isla d'Amat) ;
Tetuaroa " The Distant Sea " (? Quiros's Fugitiva; Bougainville's
Umaitia and Spanish Tres Hermanos) ; and Maitea (? Quiros's La
Dezana, Wallis's Osnaburg Island, Bougainville's Boudoir and Pic
de la Boudeuse and Spanish Cristoval), the most eastern and
southern of the archipelago. Tetuaroa and Tubai, besides the three
western Leeward Isles, are coral atolls. The length of the Tetuaroa
reef ring is about six miles; it bears twelve palm-covered islets, of
which several are inhabited, and has one narrow boat-passage
leading into the lagoon. With the exception just named, the
islands, which agree very closely in geological structure, are moun-
tainous, and present, perhaps, the most wonderful example of volcanic
rocks to be found on the globe. They are formed of trachyte,
dolerite and basalt. There are raised coral beds high up the moun-
tains, and lava occurs in a variety of forms, even in solid flows; but
all active volcanic agency has so long ceased that the craters have
been almost entirely obliterated by denudation. Hot springs are
unknown, and earthquakes are slight and rare. Nevertheless,
under some of these flows remains of plants and insects of species
now living in the islands have been found a proof that the forma-
tion as well as the denudation of the country is, geologically speaking,
recent. In profile the islands are rugged and elevated (7349 ft. in
Tahiti, Moorea 4045 ft., Raiatea 3389, Bola-Bola 2165). A moun-
tain, usually with very steep peaks, forms the centre, if not the
whole island; on all sides steep ridges descend to the sea, or, as is
oftener the case, to a considerable belt of flat land. These moun-
tains, excepting some stony crags and cliffs, are clothed with dense
forest, the soil being exceptionally fertile. All voyagers agree that
for varied beauty of form and colour the Society Islands arc unsur-
passed in the Pacific. Innumerable rills gather in lovely streams,
and, after heavy rains, torrents precipitate themselves in grand
cascades from the mountain cliffs a feature so striking as to have
attracted the attention of all voyagers, from Wallis downwards.
Round most of the islands there is a luxuriant coral growth ; but, as
the reefs lie at no great distance, and follow the line of the coast,
the inter-island channels are comparatively safe. Maitea, which
rises from the sea as an exceedingly abrupt cone, and Tapamanu,
appear to be the only islands without almost completely encircling
barrier-reefs. The coasts are fairly indented, and, protected by
these reefs, which often support a chain of green islets, afford many
good harbours and safe anchorages. In this respect the Society
Islands have the advantage of many Polynesian islands.
The populations of the chief islands are: Tahiti 10,300, Moorea
1600, Raiatea and Tahaa 2300, Huaheine 1300, Bola-Bola 800; and
that of the whole archipelago is about 18,500.
SOCINUS, the latinized form of the Italian Sozini, Sozzini
or Soccini, a name born by two Italian theologians.
I. LELIO FRANCESCO MARIA SOZINI (1525-1562) was born at
Siena on the 29th of January 1525. His family descended from
Sozzo, a banker at Percena, whose second son, Mino Sozzi,
settled as a notary at Siena in 1304. Mino Sozzi's grandson,
Sozzino (d. 1403), was ancestor of a line of patrician jurists and
canonists, Mariano Sozzini senior (1397-1467) being the first
and the most famous, and traditionally regarded as the first
freethinker in the family. Lelio (who spells his surname
Sozini, latinizing it Sozinus) was the sixth son of Mariano
Sozzini junior (1482-1556) by his wife Camilla Salvetti, and was
educated as a jurist under his father's eye at Bologna. He told
Melanchthon that his desire to reach the f antes juris led him to
Biblical research, and hence to rejection of " the idolatry of
Rome." He gained some knowledge of Hebrew and Arabic
(to Bibliander he gave a manuscript of the Koran) as well as
Greek, but was never a laborious student. His father supplied
him with means, and on coming of age he repaired to Venice,
the headquarters of the evangelical movement in Italy. A
tradition, first published by Sand in 1678, amplified by subse-
quent writers, makes him a leading spirit in alleged theological
conferences at Vicenza, about 1546; the whole account (abound-
ing in anachronisms, including the story ol Sozini's flight) must
be rejected as fabulous. At this period the standpoint of Sozini
was that of evangelical reform; he exhibits a singular union
of enthusiastic piety with subtle theological speculation. At
Chiavenna in 1547 he came under the influence of Camillo of
Sicily, a gentle mystic, surnamed Renato, whose teaching at
many points resembled that of the early Quakers. Pursuing
his religious travels, his family name and his personal charm
ensured him a welcome in Switzerland, France, England and
Holland. Returning to Switzerland at the close of 1548, with
commendatory letters to the Swiss churches from Nicolas
Meyer, envoy from Wittenberg to Italy, we find him (1549-1550)
at Geneva, Basel (with Sebastian Miinster) and Zurich (lodging
with Pellican). He is next at Wittenberg (July 1550 to June
1551), first as Melanchthon's guest, then with Johann Forster
for improvement of his Hebrew. From Wittenberg he returned
to Zurich (end of 1551), after visiting Prague, Vienna and
Cracow. Political events drew him back to Italy in June 1552;
two visits to Siena (where freedom of speech was for the moment
possible, owing to the shaking off of the Spanish yoke) brought
him into fruitful contact with his young nephew Fausto. He
was at Padua (not Geneva, as is often said) at the date of Ser-
vetus's execution (Oct. 27, 1553). Thence he made his way to
Basel (January 1554), Geneva (April) and Zurich (May), where
he took up his abode.
Calvin, like Melanchthcn, received Sozini with open arms.
Melanchthon (though a phrase in one of his letters has been
strangely misconstrued) never regarded him with theological
suspicion. To Calvin's keen glance Sozini's over-speculative
tendency and the genuineness of his religious nature were equally
apparent. A passage often quoted (apart from the context)
in one of Calvin's letters (January i, 1552) has been viewed as
a rapture of amicable intercourse; but, while more than once
uneasy apprehensions arose in Calvin's mind, there was no breach
of correspondence or of kindliness. Of all the Reformers,
Bullinger was Sozini's closest intimate, his warmest and wisest
friend. Sozini's theological difficulties turned on the resur-
rection of the body, predestination, the ground of salvation (on
these points he corresponded with Calvin), the doctrinal basis
of the original gospel (his queries to Bullinger), the nature of
repentance (to Rudolph Gualther), the sacraments (to Johann
Wolff). It was the fate of Servetus that directed his mind to
the problem of the Trinity. At Geneva (April 1554) he made
incautious remarks on the common doctrine, emphasized in a
subsequent letter to Martinengo, the Italian pastor. Bullinger,
at the instance of correspondents (including Calvin), questioned
Sozini as to his faith, and received from him an explicitly ortho-
dox confession (reduced to writing on the i5th of July 1555)
with a frank reservation of the right of further inquiry. A
month before this Sozini had been sent with Martino Muralto to
Basel, to secure Ochino as pastor of the Italian church at Zurich;
and it is clear that in their subsequent intercourse the minds
SOCINUS
321
of Sozini and Ochino (a thinker of the same type as Camillo,
with finer dialectic skill) acted powerfully on each other in the
radical discussion of theological problems. In 1556 by the
death of his father (who left him nothing by will), Sozini was
involved in pecuniary anxieties. With influential introductions
(one from Calvin) he visited in 1558 the courts of Vienna and
Cracow to obtain support for an appeal to the reigning duke at
Florence for the realization of his own and the family estates.
Curiously enough Melanchthon's letter introducing Sozini to
Maximilian II. invokes as an historic parallel the hospitable
reception rendered by the emperor Constans to Athanasius,
when he fled from Egypt to Treves. Well received out of
Italy, Sozini could do nothing at home, and apparently did not
proceed beyond Venice. The Inquisition had its eye on the
family; his brother Cornelio was imprisoned at Rome; his
brothers Celso and Camillo and his nephew Fausto were " repu-
tati Luterani," and Camillo had fled from Siena. In August
1559 Sozini returned to Zurich, where his brief career was
closed by his death on the I4th of May 1562, at his lodging in
the house of Hans Wyss, silk-weaver. No authentic portrait
of him exists; alleged likenesses on medals, &c., are spurious.
The news of his uncle's death reached Fausto at Lyons through
Antonio Maria Besozzo. Repairing to Zurich Fausto got his
uncle's few papers, comprising very little connected writing
but a good many notes. Fausto has so often been treated as
a plagiarist from Lelio that it may be well to state that his
indebtedness, somewhat over-estimated by himself, was twofold:
(i) He derived from Lelio in conversation (1552-1553) the germ
of his theory of salvation; (2) Lelio's paraphrase (1561) of apxri
in John i. i as " the beginning of the gospel " gave Fausto an
ex-egetical hint for the construction of his Christology. Apart
from these suggestions, Fausto owed nothing to Lelio, save a
curiously far-fetched interpretation of John viii. 58 and the
stimulus of his pure character and shining qualities. The two
men were of contrasted types. Lelio, impulsive and inquisitive,
was in quest of the spiritual ground of religious truths; the drier
mind of Fausto sought in 'external authority a basis for the
ethical teaching of Christianity.
Sozini's extant writings are: (i) De sacramentis dissertatio (1560),
four parts, and (2) De resurreclione (a fragment) ; these were first
printed in F. et L. Socini, item E. Soneri tractatus (Amsterdam,
1654). To these may be added his Confession (1555), printed in
Hottinger, Hist, eccles. N.T. ix. 16, 5 (1667); and about twenty-four
letters, not collected, but may be found dispersed, and more or less
correctly given in Illgen, in Trechsel, in the Corpus reformatorum
edition of Calvin's works, and in E. Burnat, L. Socin (1894); the
handwriting of the originals is exceedingly crabbed. Sand adds a
Rhapsodia in Esaiam prophetam, of which nothing is known. Beza
suspected that Sozini had a hand in the De haereticis, an sint
persequendi (1553); and to him has also been assigned the Contra
libellum Calvini (1554); both are the work of Castellio, and there is
no ground for attributing any part of them to Sozini. Beza also
assigned to him (in 1567) an anonymous Explicatio (1562) of the.
proem of St John's Gospel, which was the work of Fausto; this
error, adopted by Zanchi, has been a chief source of the misconcep-
tion which treats Lelio as a heresiarch. In Franc. Gwmo'sDefensiv
cath. doct. de S. Trin. (1590-1591) is an anonymous enumeralio of
motives for professing the doctrine of the Trinity, by some ascribed
to Lelio; by others, with somewhat more probability, to Fausto.
For the life of L. Sozini the best guide is Trechsel, Die prot.
antitrin. vor F. Socin, vol. ii. (1844) ; but there are valuable materials
in Illgen, Vita L. Socini (1814), and especially Symbolae ad vitam et
doctrinam L. Soc., &c. (1826). R. Wallace, Antitrin. biog. (1850),
gives the ordinary Unitarian view, relying on Bock, Da Porta and
Lubieniecki. See also Theological Review (July 1879), and Bonet-
Maury's Early Sources of Eng. Unit. Christ, (trans. E. P. Hall, 1884).
Use has been made above of unprinted sources.
II. FAUSTO PAOLO SOZZINI (1539-1604) was born at Siena
on the 5th of December 1539, the only son of Alessandro Sozzini,
" princeps subtilitatum," by Agnese, daughter of Borghese
Petrucci, a descendant of Pandolfo Petrucci, the Cromwell of
Siena. Unlike his uncle Lelio, Fausto spells his] surname
Sozzini, latinizing it Socinus. His father died in 1541, in his
thirty-second year. Fausto had no regular education, being
brought up at home with his sister Fillide, and spent his
youth in desultory reading at Scopeto, the family country-seat.
To the able women of his family he owed the strong moral impress
XXV. II
which marked him through life; his early intellectual stimulus
came from his uncle Celso, a nominal Catholic, but an esprit fort,
founder of the short-lived Accademia dei Sizienti (1554), of which
young Fausto was a member. In 1556 his grandfather's will,
leaving him one-fourth of the family estates, made him inde-
pendent. Next year he entered the Accademia degli intronati,
the centre of intellectual life in Siena, taking the academic name
" II Frastagliato," his badge Un mare turbato da venti, his motto
Turbant sed extollunt. About this time Panzirolo (De Claris legg.
interpp., first published 1637) describes him as a young man of
fine talent, with promise of a legal career; but he despised the
law, preferring to write sonnets. In 1558-1559 the suspicion of
Lutheranism fell on him in common with his uncles Celso and
Camillo. Coming of age (1561) he went to Lyons, probably
engaging in mercantile business; he revisited Italy after his
uncle Lelio's death; we find him in 1562 on the roll of the Italian
church at Geneva; there is no trace of any relations with Calvin;
to Lyons he returned next year. The evangelical position was
not radical enough for him. In his Explicatio (1562) of the
proem to St John's Gospel he already attributes to our Lord an
official, not an essential, deity; a letter of 1563 rejects the natural
immortality of man (a position subsequently developed in his
disputation with Pucci). Towards the end of 1563 he returned
to Italy, conforming to the Catholic Church, and for twelve
years, as his unpublished letters show, was in the service of
Isabella de Medici, daughter of the grand-duke Cosimo of
Tuscany (not, as Przypkowski says, in the service of the grand-
duke). This portion of his life he regarded as wasted; till 1567
he gave some attention to legal duties, and at the instance of
"a great personage" wrote (1570) his treatise De auctoritate
s. scripturae. In 1571 he was in Rome, probably with his
patroness. He left Italy at the end of 1575, and after Isabella's
death (strangled by her husband in 1576) he declined the over-
tures of her brother Francesco, now grand-duke, who pressed
him to return. Francesco was doubtless aware of the motive
which led Sozzini to quit Italy; there is every reason to believe
Przypkowski's statement that the grand-duke agreed to secure
to him the income of his property so long as he published nothing
in his own name. Sozzini now fixed himself at Basel, gave
himself to close study of the Bible, began translating the Psalms
into Italian verse, and, in spite of increasing deafness, became
a centre of theological debates. His discussion with Jacques
Couet on the doctrine of salvation issued in a treatise De Jesu
Christo seruatore (finished July 12, 1578), the circulation of
which in manuscript commended him to the notice of Giorgio
Blandrata (q.v.), court physician in Poland and Transylvania,
and ecclesiastical wire puller in the interests of heterodoxy.
Transylvania had for a short time (1559-1571) enjoyed full re-
ligious liberty under an anti-Trinitarian prince, John Sigismund.
The existing ruler, Christopher Bathori, favoured the Jesuits;
it was now Blandrata's object to limit the " Judaic " tendencies
of the eloquent anti-Trinitarian bishop, Francis David (1510-
I 579)> with whom he had previously co-operated. A charge of
the gravest sort against Blandrata's morals had destroyed his
influence with David. Hence he called in Sozzini to reason with
David, who had renounced the worship of Christ. In Sozzini's
scheme of doctrine, terms in themselves orthodox were employed
in a heretical sense. Thus Christ was God, though in nature
purely human, namely as un Dio subalterno, al quale in un data
tempo il Dio supremo cedetle U governo del mondo (Cantu). In
matter of worship Sozzini distinguished between adoratio
Chrisli, the homage of the heart, imperative on all Christians,
and inwcatio Chrisli, the direct address of prayer, which was
simply permissive (Blandrata would have made it imperative);
though in Sozzini's view, prayer, to whomsoever addressed, was
received by Christ as mediator, for transmission to the father.
In November 1578 Sozzini reached Kolozsvar (Klausenburg)
from Poland, and did his best, during a visit of four months
and a half under David's roof, to argue him into this modified
doctrine of invocation. The upshot was that David from the
pulpit exerted all his powers in denouncing all cultus of Christ.
His civil trial followed, on a charge of innovation. Sozzini
322
SOCIOLOGY
hurried back to Poland before it began. He cannot be accused
of complicity with what he calls the rage of Blandrata; he was
no party to David's incarceration at Deva, where the old man
miserably perished in less than three months. He was willing
that David should be prohibited from preaching pending the
decision of a general synod; and his references to the case
show that (as in the later instances of Jacobo Paleology,
Christian Franken and Martin Seidel) theological aversions,
though they never made him uncivil, froze up his native kind-
ness and blinded his perceptions of character. Blandrata
ultimately conformed to the Catholic Church; hence Sozzini's
laudatory dedication to him (1584) of his De Jesu Christi natura,
in reply to the Calvinist Andrew Wolan, though printed in his
works, was not used. The remainder (1570-1604) of Sozzini's
life was spent in Poland. Excluded at first by his views on
baptism (which he regarded as applicable only to Gentile con-
verts) from the Minor or anti-Trinitarian Church (largely ana-
baptist), he acquired by degrees a predominant influence in its
synods. He converted the Arians from their avowal of our
Lord's pre-existence, and from their rejection of the invocatio
Christi; he repressed the semi-Judaizers whom he failed to
convince. Through correspondence with friends he directed
also the policy of the anti-Trinitarian Church of Transylvania.
Forced to leave Cracow in 1583, he found a home with a Polish
noble, Christopher Morsztyn, whose daughter Elizabeth he
married (1586). She died in the following year, a few months
after the birth of a daughter, Agnese (1587-1654), afterwards
the wife of Stanislas Wiszowaty, and the progenitress of numer-
ous descendants. In 1587 the grand-duke Francesco died; to
this event Sozzini's biographers attribute the loss of his Italian
property, but his unpublished letters show that he was on good
terms with the new grand-duke, Ferdinando. Family disputes
had arisen respecting the interpretation of his grandfather's
will; in October 1590 the holy office at Siena disinherited him,
allowing him a pension, apparently never paid. Failure of
supplies from Italy dissolved the compact under which his
writings were to remain anonymous, and he began to publish
in his own name. The consequence was that in 1598 a mob
expelled him from Cracow, wrecking his house, and grossly
ill-using his person. Friends gave him a ready welcome at
Luslawice, 30 miles east from Cracow; and here, having long been
troubled with colic and the stone, he died on the 4th of March
1604. A limestone block with illegible inscriptions marks
his grave. 1 His engraved portrait is prefixed to his works (the
original is not extant) ; an oil-painting, formerly at Siena, cannot
be considered authentic.
Sozzini's works, edited by his grandson Andrew Wiszowaty and
the learned printer F. Kuyper, are contained in two closely printed
folios (Amsterdam, 1668). They rank as the first two volumes of
the Bibliotheca fratrum polonorum, though the works of Crell and
Schlichting were the first of the series to be printed. They include
all Sozzini's extant theological writings, except his essay on pre-
destination (in which he denies that God foresees the actions of
free agents) prefixed to Castellio's Dialogi IV. (1578, reprinted 1613)
and his revision of a school manual Instrumentum doctrinarum
arislotelicum (1586). His pseudonyms, easily interpreted, were
Felix Turpio Urbevetanus, Prosper Dysidaeus, Gratianus Prosper
and Gratianus Turpio Gerapolensis ( = Senensis). Some of his
early verse is in Ferentilli's Scielta di stanze di diversi autori
toscani (1579, 1594); other specimens are given in Cantu and in the
Athenaeum (Aug. II, 1877); more are preserved at Siena. Sozzini
considered that his ablest work was his Contra atheos, which perished
in the riot at Cracow (1598). Later he began, but left incomplete,
more than one work designed to exhibit his system as a whole.
His reputation as a thinker must rest upon (l) his De auctoritate
s. scripturae (1570) and (2) his De Jesu Christo servatore (1578).
The former was first published (Seville, 1588) by Lopez, a Jesuit,
who claimed it as his own, but prefixed a preface maintaining
(contrary to a fundamental position of Sozzini) that man by nature
has a knowledge of God. A French version (1592) was approved
by the ministers of Basel ; the English translation by Edward Coombe
(1731) was undertaken in consequence of the commendation in a
charge (1728) by Bishop Smalbroke, who observes that Grotius
had borrowed from it in his De veritate Christ, rel. In small
1 No trace is discoverable on the stone of the alleged epitaph :
" Tota ruit Babylon ; destruxit tecta Lutherus,
Calvinus muros, sed fundamenta Socinus."
compass it anticipates the historical argument of the "credi-
bility " writers; in trying it by modern tests, it should be remem-
bered that Sozzini, regarding it (1581) as not adequately meeting
the cardinal difficulties attending the proof of the Christian religion,
began to reconstruct its positions in his Lectiones sacrae (unfinished).
His treatise on the Saviour renders a real service to theology]
placing orthodoxy and heresy in new relations of fundamental
antagonism, and narrowing the conflict to the main personal benefit
of religion. _ Of the person of Christ in this treatise he says nothing;
its one topic is the work of Christ, which in his view operates upon
man alone; the theological sagacity of Sozzini may be measured by
the persistency with which this idea tends to recur. Though his
name has been attached to a school of opinion, he disclaimed the
r61e of a heresiarch, and declined to give his unreserved adhesion
to any one sect. His confidence in the conclusions of his own mind
has earned him the repute of a dogmatist ; but it was his constant
aim to reduce and simplify the fundamentals of Christianity. Not
without some ground does the memorial tablet at Siena (inscription
by Brigidi, 1879) characterize him as vindicator of human reason
against the supernatural. Of his non-theological doctrines the most
important is his assertion of the unlawfulness, not only of war, but
of the taking of human life in any circumstances. Hence ciie
comparative mildness of his proposals for dealing with religious and
anti-religious offenders, though it cannot be said that he had grasped
the complete theory of toleration. Hence, too, his contention that
magisterial office is unlawful for a Christian.
AUTHORITIES. For the biography of Sozzini the best materials
are his letters; a collection is in his works; others are given by
Cantu; more are preserved at Siena and Florence ; his correspondence
is open and frank, never sparing his weak points. The earliest life
(prefixed to his works) is by S. Przypkowski (1636) ; in English, by
J. Bidle (1653). This is the foundation of the article by Bayle,
the Memoirs by J. Toulmin (1777), and the article by R. Wallace
(Antitrin. Biog., 1850). Cantu's sketch in Gli Eretici d'ltalia (1866)
gives a genealogy of the Sozzini (needing revision). The best
defence of Sozzini in his relations with David is by James Yates
(Christ. Pioneer, Feb. 1834); a less favourable view is taken by
David's Hungarian biographer, Elek Jakab (Ddvid ' F. Emleke, 1879).
Of his system best known through the Racovian Catechism (1605,
planned by Sozzini and carried out by others, principally Valentine
Schmalz) ; in English, by T. Rees (1818) there is a special study by
O. Fock, Der Socinianismus (1847). See also The Sozzini and their
School, by A. Gordon (Theol. Rev., 1879; cf. Christian Life, Aug. 25,
1883). Use has been made above of unpublished papers in the
archives of Florence, with others in the archives, communal library
and collection of Padre Toti at Siena. (A. Go. *)
SOCIOLOGY, a science which in the most inclusive sense may
be defined as that of human society, in the same manner that
Biology may be taken to imply the science of life. The word
Sociologie was first used by Comte in 1839 as an equivalent of
the expression, social physics, previously in use, and was intro-
duced, he said, to describe by a single term that part of natural
philosophy which relates to the positive study of the fundamental
laws of social phenomena. The word is a hybrid, compounded
from both Latin and Greek terms. It is now generally accepted
in international usage; none of the terms, such as politics,
political science, social economy, social philosophy and social
science which have been suggested instead of it having succeeded
in taking its place.
There has been in the past a certain hesitation, especially in
England, to admit sociology as the title of a particular science
in itself until it was made clear what the subject must be
considered to cover. In certain quarters sociology is still often
incorrectly spoken of as if it implied the practical equivalent
of the science of politics. Henry Sidgwick, for instance, con-
sidered the word as usually employed in this sense, and while he
himself recognized that sociology must have a wider scope than
politics, he thought that in practice " the difference between the
two subjects is not indeed great " (Elements of Politics). This
view of sociology, which at one time widely prevailed, dates
from an earh'er period of knowledge. The difference between
sociology and the science of politics is wide and is due to funda-
mental causes, a true perception of which is essential to the
proper study of the science of society. It is a feature of
organisms that as we rise in the scale of life the meaning of the
present life of the organism is to an increasing degree subordinate
to the larger meaning of its life as a whole. Similarly, as the
advance from primitive society to society of a more organic type
takes place, a marked feature of the change is the development of
the principles through which the increasing subordination of the
SOCIOLOGY
323
present interests of society to the future interests of society is
accomplished. It is, however, characteristic of the last-mentioned
principles that their operation extends beyond the political con-
sciousness of the state or nation, and that this distinction becomes
more and more marked in the higher societies. The scope and
meaning of sociology as a science is, therefore, quite different
from the scope and meaning of the science of politics. In other
quarters, again, the word sociology is often incorrectly used as
no more than a covering term for subjects which are fully treated
in various subdivisions of social science. Thus when the science
of society is distinguished from the special social sciences which
fall within its general purview, it may be considered, says
Lester F. Ward, that " we may range the next most general
departments as so many genera, each with its appropriate species
that is, the classification of the sciences may be made strictly
synoptical. When this is done it will be possible for philosophers,
like good systematists, to avoid making their ordinal characters
include any properly generic ones, or their generic characters
include any that are only specific. Thus understood, sociology
is freed from the unnecessary embarrassment of having hanging
about it in more or less disorder a burden of complicated details,
in a great variety of attitudes which make it next to impossible
to secure due attention to the fundamental principles of so vast
a science. These details are classified and assigned each to its
proper place (genus or species), and the field is cleared for the
calm contemplation of the central problem of determining the
facts, the law and the principles of human association " (Outlines
of Sociology). This definition, good as it is in some respects,
does not make clear to the mind the essential fact of the
science, namely, that the principles of sociology involve more
than the generalized total of the principles of the subordinate
sciences which it is said to include. In Herbert Spencer's
writings we see the subject in a period of transition. Spencer
placed his Principles of Sociology between his Principles of
Psychology and Principles of Ethics. This fact brings out the
unsettled state of the subject in his time, while it also serves to
exhibit the dominance of the ideas of an earlier stage. For
psychology, which Spencer thus places before sociology, cannot
nowadays be fully, or even in any real sense scientifically, dis-
cussed apart from sociological principles, once it is accepted
that in the evolution of the human mind the principles of the
social process are always the ultimate controlling factor.
Sociology, therefore, as a true science in itself, must be regarded
as a science occupied quite independently with the principles
which underlie human society considered as in a con-
.n of development. In this sense the conclusions
of sociology cannot be fully stated in relation to the
phenomena dealt with in any of the divisions of social science,
and they must be taken as implying more than the sum total
of the results obtained in all of them. The sociologist must
always keep clearly before him that the claims of sociology in
the present conditions of knowledge go considerably beyond
those involved in any of the foregoing positions. As it is the
meaning of the social process which in the last resort controls
everything, even the evolution of the human mind and all its
contents, so none of the sciences of human action, such as ethics,
politics, economics or psychology can have any standing as a
real science except it obtains its credentials through sociology
by making its approach through the sociological method. It
is in sociology, in short, that we obtain the ruling principles to
which the laws and principles of all the social sciences stand in
controlled and subordinate relationship.
The fathers of the science of society may be said to be the
Greek philosophers, and in particular Plato and Aristotle. The
Sociology Laws and the Republic of the former and the Ethics
among the and Politics of the latter have, down to modern times,
Greets. an( j notwithstanding the great difference in the stand-
point of the world and the change in social and political
conditions, exercised a considerable influence on the develop-
ment of the theory of society. To the Greeks the science of
society presented itself briefly as the science of the best method
of attaining the most perfect life within the consciousness of
the associated life of the State. " In this ideal of the
State," says Bluntschli, " are combined and mingled all
the efforts of the Greeks in religion and in law, in morals
and social life, in art and science, in the acquisition and
management of wealth, in trade and industry. The individual
requires the State to give him a legal existence: apart from the
State he has neither safety nor freedom. The barbarian is a
natural enemy, and conquered enemies become slaves. . . .
The Hellenic State, like the ancient State in general . . . was all
in all. The citizen was nothing except as a member of the State.
His whole existence depended on and was subject to the State.
. . . The State knew neither moral nor legal limits to its power "
(Theory of the State).
It was within the limits of this conception that most of the
Greek theories of society were constructed. The fundamental
conception of the Roman writers was not essentially
different, although the opportunism of the Rom
State, when it became a universal power embrac-
ing the social and religious systems of many peoples, in
some degree modified it; so that with the growth of jus
gentium outside the jus civile, the later writers of the empire
brought into view an aspect of the State in which law began to
be to some extent distinguished from State morality. With the
spread of Christianity in Western Europe there commenced
a stage in which the social structure, and with it the theory of
society, underwent profound modifications. These changes are
still in progress, and the period over which they extend has pro-
duced a great and increasing number of writers on the science
of society. The conceptions of each period have been intimately
related to the character of the influences controlling development
at the time. The writers up to the i4th century are nearly all
absorbed in the great controversy between the spiritual and
temporal power which was defining itself during this stage in
Western history. In the period of the Renaissance and the
Reformation the modern development of the theory of society
may be said to begin. Machiavelli is the first great name in
this period. Bodin with other writers up to the time of Mon-
tesquieu carry the development forward in France. The Dutch
writer Grotius, although chiefly recognized at the time as an
authority on international law, had much influence in bringing
into view principles which mark more directly the transition
to the modern period, his De jure belli et pads, issued in 1625,
being in many respects an important contribution to the theory
of society. Hobbes and Locke are the principal representatives
of the influential school of writers on the principles of society
which the period of the political and religious upheaval of the
I7th century produced in England. The ideas of Locke, in
particular, exercised a considerable influence on the subsequent
development of the theory of the State in Western thought.
From the lyth century forward it may be said, strictly speaking,
that all the leading contributions to the general body of Western
philosophy have been contributions to the development of the
science of society. At the time of Locke, and to a large extent
in Locke's writings, there may be distinguished three distinct
tendencies in the prevailing theory of society. Each of these has
since become more definite, and has progressed along a particular
line of development. There is first the empirical tendency, which
is to be followed through the philosophy of Hume down to the
present day, in what may be called to borrow an idea from
Huxley the physiological method in the modern study of the
science of society. A second tendency which developed through
the critical philosophy of Kant, the idealism of Hegel, and the
historical methods of Savigny in the field of jurisprudence and
of the school of Schmoller in the domain of economics finds
its current expression in the more characteristically German
conception of the organic nature of the modern State. A third
tendency which is to be followed through the writings of
Rousseau, Diderot, d'Alembert and the literature of the French
Revolution found its most influential form of expression in
the ipth century in the theories of the English Utilitarians, from
Bentham to John Stuart Mill. In this development it is a
theory of the utilitarian State which is principally in view. In
324
SOCIOLOGY
Comte.
its latest phase it has progressed to the expression which it has
reached in the theories of Marxian Socialism, in which the
corresponding conception of the ascendancy of the economic
factor in history may now be said to be the characteristic feature.
All of these developments, the meaning of which has now been
absorbed into the larger evolutionary conception to be described
later, must be considered to have contributed towards the foun-
dation of modern sociology. The definition of the relations to
each other of the positions they have severally brought into
view is the first important v/ork of the new science.
At the period between 1830 and 1842, when Comte published
the Philosophic positive, the conditions were not ready for
a science of society. The Darwinian doctrine of
evolution by natural selection had not yet been
enunciated, and knowledge of social phenomena was limited
and very imperfect. As an instance of the character of the
change that has since been in progress, it may be mentioned
that one of Comte's main positions that, indeed, to which
most of the characteristic conceptions of his system of
philosophy were related was that "the anatomical and
physiological study of individual man " should precede the
theory of the human mind and of human society. Here
the position is the one already referred to which has prevailed
in the study of the social sciences down into recent times.
It was supposed that the governing principles of society were
to be discovered by the introspective study of the individual
mind, rather than that the clue to the governing principles of
the individual mind was only to be discovered by the study of
the social process. It must now be considered that no really
fundamental or far-reaching principle of human development
can be formulated as the result of Comte's position. For with
the application of the doctrine of evolution to society a position
is becoming defined which is almost the reverse of it, namely,
that the development of the individual, and to a large extent
of the human mind itself, must be regarded as|the correlative of
the social process in evolution. The study of the principles of the
process of social evolution would therefore in this sense have
to come before the complete study of the individual, and even
to precede the construction of a system of psychology scientific
in the highest sense. Comte, apart from his want of mastery of
the historical method in dealing with sociological 'development,
possessed, on the whole, little insight into the meaning of the
characteristic problem in which the human mind is involved in
its social evolution, and to the definition of which not only the
processes of Western history, but the positions successively
developed in Western thought, must all be considered as con-
tributing. His great merit was the perception of the importance
of the biological method in the science of society, the comprehen-
sion of the fact that there can be no science of society if its
divisions are studied apart from each other; and finally, and
although it led at the time to the formulation of no important
principle of human development, the intuition that sociology
was not simply a theory of the State, but the science of what he
called the associated life of humanity.
It has to be observed that, preceding the application of the
doctrine of evolution to society, most of the contributions to
The Ruling soc ' a l science have a certain aspect in which they
Principle of resemble each other. While in current theories
Early Sod- society tends to be presented as evolving, consciously
oiogkal of unconsc iously, under stress of natural selection,
/;o"s?/n/7u- towar d s social efficiency, the earlier contributions
enceof were merely theories of the meaning and object
Greek Coo- of society as a medium for the better realization of
'the'state' human desires - In tm s presentation of the sub-
ject the influence of the Greek conception of the State
upon modern sociology may be traced down to the present
day. At the beginning of the modern period it reappears in
Machiavelli (Titus Livius, i., iii., and The Prince). It is
represented in modified form in Hobbes (Leviathan), and in
Locke (Two Treatises of Government), each of whom conceived
man as desiring to leave the state of nature and as consciously
founding civilized society, " in order that he might obtain
the benefits of government " in the associated State. It is
continued in Rousseau and the writers of the French Revolu-
tion, who similarly imagined the individual voluntarily leaving
an earlier state of freedom to put " his person and his power
under the direction of the' general will " (Social Contract).
It is characteristic of Jeremy Bentham (e.g. Principles of
Morals and Legislation, i.) and of J. S. Mill (e.g. Utilitari-
anism and Political Economy, iv., vi.). Finally, it survives in
Herbert Spencer, who in like manner sees man originating
society and submitting to political subordination in the asso-
ciated State " through experience of the increased satisfaction
derived under it " (Data of Ethics). It continues at the present
day to be characteristic of many European and some American
writers on sociology, who have been influenced both by Spencer
and the Latin theory of the State, and who therefore, conceiving
sociology not so much as a science of social evolution as a theory
of association, proceed to consider the progress of human associa-
tion as the development of a process " of catering to human
desire for satisfactions of varying degrees of complexity." All
these ideas of society bear the same stamp. They conceive the
science of society as reached through the science of the individual,
the associated State being regarded only as a medium through
which he obtains increased satisfactions. In none of them is
there a clear conception of an organic science of society with
laws and principles of its own controlling all the meaning of the
individual.
With the application of the doctrine of evolution the older
idea in which society is always conceived as the State and as
existing to give increased " satisfaction " is replaced The Doc-
by a new and much more extended conception. In triaeof
the evolutionary view, the development of human Evolution.
society is regarded as the product of a process of stress, in
which progress results from natural selection along the line not of
least effort in realizing human desire, but of the highest social
efficiency in the struggle for existence of the materials of which
society is composed. In the intensity of this process society,
evolving towards higher efficiency, tends to become increasingly
organic, the distinctive feature being the growing subordination
of the individual to the organic social process. All the tendencies
of development political, economic, ethical and psychological
and the contents of the human mind itself, have therefore to
be regarded as having ultimate relations to the governing prin-
ciples of the process as a whole. The science of social evolution
has, in short, to be considered, according to this view, as the
science of the causes and principles subordinating the individual
to a process developing by inherent necessity towards social
efficiency, and therefsre as ultimately over-ruling all desires and
interests in the individual towards the highest social potentiality
of the materials of which society is composed. The conflict
between the old and the new conceptions may be distinguished
to an increasing degree as the scope of modern sociology has
gradually become defined; and the opposing ideas of each
may be observed to be sometimes represented and blended, in
varying degrees of complexity, in one and the same writer.
It was natural that one of the first ideas to be held by theor-
ists, as soon as sociology began to make progress to the position
of a real science, was that society must be considered Flrst Coa _
to be organic, and that the term "social organism " ceptionsof
should be brought into use. An increasing number Society as
of writers have been concerned with this aspect of aa Orgaa-
the 'subject, but it has to be noted as a fact of
much interest that all the first ideas of society as an organism
move within the narrow circle of the old conception of the
State just described. The " social organism " in this first
stage of theory is almost universally confused with the State.
The interests of the social organism are therefore confused
with the interest of the individuals which men saw around
them in the State. The science of society was accordingly
regarded as no more than the science of realizing most effec-
tively here and now the desires of those comprising the
existing State. Sidgwick, for instance, considered the science
of politics and the science of sociology as practically coincident,
SOCIOLOGY
325
and his Elements of Politics, extraordinary to relate, contains only
a few words in which it is recognized that the welfare of the
community may be interpreted to mean the welfare not only of
living human beings, but of those who are to come hereafter;
while there is no attempt to apply the fact to any law or principle
of human development. Bentham's utilitarian philosophy,
like that of the two Mills, was based almost entirely on the
idea of the State conceived as the social organism. Writers like
Herbert Spencer (Sociology) and Schaffle, who was for a time
minister of commerce for Austria (Ban und Leben des socialen
Korpers), instituted lengthy comparisons between the social
organism considered as the State and the living individual organ-
ism. These efforts reached their most characteristic expression
in the work of the sociologists who have followed G. Simmel
in lengthy and ingenious attempts at classifying associations,
considering them " as organizations for catering to human
desire." In all these efforts the conception of the State as the
social organism is vigorously represented, although it is par-
ticularly characteristic of the work of sociologists in countries
where the influence of Roman law is still strong, and where,
consequently, the Latin conception of the State tends to influence
all theories of society as soon as the attempt is made to place
them on a scientific basis. The sterilizing effect for long pro-
duced on sociology by this first restricted conception of the social
organism has been most marked. It is often exemplified in
ingenious attempts made, dealing with the principles of sociology,
to construct long categories of human associations, based on
quite superficial distinctions. None of the comparisons of this
kind that have been made have contributed in any marked
degree to the elucidation of the principles of modern society.
Paul Leroy-Beaulieu's criticism of Schaffle's efforts at compari-
sons anatomical, physiological, biological and psychological
between the individual organism and the State as a social
organism applies to most of the attempts of this period to insti-
tute biological comparisons between the life of the social organ-
ism and that of organisms in general, " the mind sinks over-
whelmed under the weight of all these analogies, these endless
divisions and subdivisions to which they give rise. . . . The
result is not in proportion to the effort " (L'Etat moderne el ses
fonctions).
In tracing the direction of this conflict between the newer and
older tendencies in modern sociology, it is in Herbert Spencer's
writings that the student will find presented in
Spencer clearest definition the characteristic difficulty with
which the old view has tended to be confronted, as
the attempt has continued to be made to enunciate the principles
of human development from the standpoint that society is to
be considered as a " social organism," but while as yet there is no
clear idea of a social organism with its own laws and its own
consciousness quite distinct from, and extending far beyond
those governing the interests of the individuals at present com-
prising the State.
With the application of the doctrine of evolution to society
considered as an organism, a position has been brought into view
of great interest. It is evident in considering the application
of natural selection to human society that there is a fact, en-
countered at the outset, which is so fundamental that it must
be held to control all the phenomena of social evolution. It is
nowadays a commonplace of knowledge, that the potential
efficiency of an organism must always be taken to be greater
than the sum total of the potential efficiency of all its members
acting as individuals. This arises in the first instance from the
fact, to be observed on all hands in life, of the effects of organiz-
ation, of division of labour, and of specialization of work. But
in an organism of indefinitely extended existence like human
society, it arises in a special sense from the operation of principles
giving society prolonged stability. By these principles indi-
vidual interests are subordinated over long periods of time to
the larger interests of organic society in which the individuals for
the time being cannot participate; and it is from this cause that
civilization of the highest type obtains its characteristic potency
and efficiency in the struggle for existence with lower types.
There follows from this fact, obvious enough once it is mentioned,
an important inference. This is that in the evolution of society
natural selection will, in its characteristic results, reach the
individual not directly, but through society. That is to say,
in social evolution, the interests of the individual, qua individual,
cease to be a matter of first importance. It is by development
in the individual of the qualities which will contribute most to
the efficiency of society, that natural selection will in the long
run produce its distinctive results in the human individual.
It is, in short, about this function of socialization, involving the
increasing subordination of the individual, that the continued
evolution of society by natural selection must be held to centre.
Societies in which the individuals resist the process quickly reach
the limits of their progress, and have to give way in the struggle
for existence before others more organic in which the process
of subordination continues to be developed. In the end it is the
social organizations in which the interests of the individual are
most effectively included in and rendered subservient to the
interests of society considered in its most organic aspect that,
from their higher efficiency, are naturally selected. In other
words, it is the principles subordinating the individual to the
efficiency of society in those higher organic aspects that
project far beyond the life-interests of its existing units which
must ultimately control all principles whatever of human
association.
Spencer, in an elaborate comparison which he made (Essays,
vol. i., and Principles of Sociology) between the social organism
and the individual organism brought into viqw a Spencer ana
position which in its relation to this capital fact of Natural
human evolution exhibits in the clearest manner Se/ec *' '
how completely all the early evolutionists, still under the
influence of old conceptions, failed at first to grasp the signifi-
cance of the characteristic problems of the social organism.
Spencer's comparison originally appeared in an article published
in the Westminster Review for January 1860 entitled " The
Social Organism." This article is in many respects one of the
most noteworthy documents in the literature of the last half
of the igth century. In comparing the social with the indi-
vidual organism Spencer proceeded, after noting the various
aspects in which a close analogy between the two can be estab-
lished, to make, as regards society, an important distinction
by which the nature of the difficulty in which he is involved is
immediately made apparent. While in an individual organism, he
pointed out, it is necessary that the lives of all the parts should be
merged in the life of the whole, because the whole has a corporate
consciousness capable of happiness or misery, it is not so with
society. For in society, he added, the " living units do not and
cannot lose individual consciousness, since the community as
a whole has no corporate consciousness." Spencer proceeded,
therefore, to emphasize the conclusion that " this is an ever-
lasting reason why the welfare of citizens cannot rightly be
sacrificed to some supposed benefit of the State; but why, on
the other hand, the State is to be maintained solely for the benefit
of citizens." The extraordinary conclusion is indeed reached by
Spencer that " the corporate life in society must be subservient
to the lives of the parts, instead of the lives of the parts being
subservient to the corporate life." It will be here clearly in evi-
dence that the " social organism " which Spencer had in view
was the State. But it will be noticed at the same time how alto-
gether remarkable was the position into which he was carried.
Spencer, like most thinking minds of his time, had the clearest
vision, constantly displayed in his writings, of the scientific
importance of that development in history which has gradu-
ally projected the conception of the individual's rights outside
all theories of obligation to the State. He wrote at a time
when the attention of the Western mind in all progressive move-
ments in Western politics had been for generations fixed on that
development in which the liberties of the individual as against
the State had been won. This development had involved
nearly all Western countries in a titanic struggle against the
institutions of an earlier form of society resting on force organ-
ized in the State. Spencer, therefore, like almost every advanced
326
SOCIOLOGY
writer of his period, had constantly before him the character-
istic fact of his age, namely, that the meaning of the individual
had come to be in some way accepted as transcending all theories
of the State and all theories of his obligations to the State. The
position was, therefore, very remarkable. Spencer has been
for long accepted by the general mind as the modern writer
who more than any other has brought into use the term
"social organism," and who has applied the doctrine of evolu-
tion to the theory of its life. Yet here we see him involved in
the apparent self-stultification of describing the social organism
to us as that impossible thing, an organism " whose corporate
life must be subservient to the lives of the parts instead of the
lives of the parts being subservient to the corporate life." It
was obvious that some profound confusion existed. The science
of society was evidently destined to carry us much farther than
this. If natural selection was to be taken as operating on
society, and therefore as tending to produce the highest efficiency
out of the materials that comprise it, it must be effecting the
subordination of the interests of the units to the higher corporate
efficiency of society. But one of only two conclusions could
therefore result from Spencer's position. If we were to regard
the " social organism " as an organism in which the corporate
life must be subservient to the lives of the parts, instead of the
lives of the parts being subservient to the corporate life, it would
be necessary to hold that the individual had succeeded in arrest-
ing the characteristic effects of natural selection on society. But
for the evolutionist, whose great triumph it had been to reveal
to us the principles of natural selection in universal operation
throughout life elsewhere, to have to regard them as suspended
in human society would be an absurd anti-climax. Such being
scarcely conceivable as a final position, it remained only to infer
that natural selection must still be subordinating individual
interests to some larger social meaning in the evolutionary
process. But in this case, society must be subject to principles
which reach farther than those Spencer conceived: it must be
organic in some different and wider sense than he imagined, and
the analogy of the " social organism " as confined within the
consciousness of ascendant interests in the political State must
be considered to be a false one.
We had, in short, reached a capital position in the history of
sociology from which an entirely new horizon was about to
A New become visible. The principles of society organic
Horizon la [ n a wider sense than had hitherto been conceived
Sociology. were a b ou t to be brought into the discussion. All
the phenomena of the creeds and ethical systems of humanity, of
the great systems of religion and philosophy, with the problems
of which the human mind had struggled over immense stretches
of time as the subordinating process had unfolded itself in history,
were about to be brought into sociology. And not now as if
these represented some detached and functionless development
with which the science of society was not directly concerned,
but as themselves the central feature of the evolutionary process
in human society. The stage in the history of sociology charac-
terized by the confusion of the principles governing the social
organism with those governing the State, the stage which had
lasted from the time of the Greeks to Spencer, and which had
witnessed towards its close Sidgwick's statement that the science
of sociology was in effect coincident with the science of politics,
was thus bound to be definitely terminated by the application
to the science of society of the doctrine of evolution. Yet
Spencer, despite his popular association with the doctrine of
evolution, is thus not to be reckoned as the first of the philo-
sophers of this new stage. His place is really with the last great
names of the preceding period. For his conception of society was
that of Bentham, Mill and Sidgwick. His Principles of Sociology
as a contribution to modern evolutionary science is necessarily
rendered to a large extent futile by the sterilizing conception
of a social organism " in which the corporate life must be sub-
servient to the lives of the parts." It is indeed in the reversal
of this conception that the whole significance of the application
of the doctrine of evolution to the science of society consists.
Henceforward we shall have to regard the social process in
evolution as a process with its own interests, its own psychology,
its own consciousness and its own laws, all quite distinct from
the political consciousness of the modern State, though indi-
rectly controlling and governing the consciousness of the State
so thoroughly that there can be no true science of the latter
without a science of the former.
The new situation created in sociology as the doctrine of
evolution began to be applied to the science had features of great
interest. The advance had been made to a central ne Flnt
position along two entirely distinct lines. The Darwinian*
army of workers was, in consequence, divided into in Sociology.
two more or less isolated camps, each largely in ignorance of
the relation of its own work to that in the other section. It
is often said as a reproach to sociology in the period through
which we are passing that it attracts the kind of recruits who
are not best equipped for its work, while it repels the kind
of mind of philosophical training and wide outlook which it
ought to enlist in its service and for which it has most urgent
need, the loss to sociology both in credit and efficiency being
immense. This is the result of a peculiar situation. Those who
are best qualified to understand the nature and scope of the
problems with which sociology has to deal cannot fail to have
the conviction strongly developed in them that the Darwinian
principles of evolution which reveal to us what may be described
as the dynamics of the universal life process have very important
relations to the dynamics of the social process. The situa-
tion which has arisen in sociology, however, is a very curious
one, although it is one easy to understand when the causes are
explained. When the endeavour is made to follow Darwin and
the early Darwinians through the facts and researches which led
to the formulation of the law of natural selection it may be
observed how their preoccupation was almost exclusively with
the details of the struggle for existence not in societies, but as
it was waged between individuals. This was so as a matter
of course, from the character of the facts which wild nature
supplied, reinforced as they were, by observations on domestic
animals and the practices of breeders.
Darwin made no systematic study of society; and outside
human society the struggle through which natural selection has
operated has been mainly between individuals. It is, of course,
sometimes remarked that the social life exists among animals
and that the laws of the social life and of the herd are to be
observed there, but as a matter of fact there is nothing whatever
elsewhere in life to compare with what we see taking place in
human society, namely, the gradual integration still under all
the stress of natural selection expressing its effects in the person
of the individual of an organic social process resting ultimately
on mind. The laws of this process are necessarily quite different
from the laws of the other and simpler process in operation lower
down in life. If we regard the classes from which sociology as
a science should be able to draw its most efficient recruits we see
that at the present day they fall mainly into two camps. There
are in the one camp the exponents of biological principles, often
trained in one or more of the departments of biological science,
who are attempting the application to human society of the
principles with which they have become familiar elsewhere in
life. There are in the second camp the exponents of various
aspects of social philosophy. When the exponent of Darwinian
principles advances to the study of society he is naturally
strong in the conviction that he has in his hands a most potent
instrument of knowledge which ought to carry him far in the
organization of the social sciences and towards the unification of
the leading principles underlying the facts with which they deal.
But what we soon begin to see is that his training has been, and
that his preoccupation still continues to be, with the facts and
principles of the struggle for existence between individuals as
displayed elsewhere in life. He does not easily realize, if he has
not been trained in social philosophy, how infinitely more com-
plex all the problems of natural selection have become in the
social integration resting on mind which is taking place in human
affairs; or how the social efficiency with which he has become
now concerned is something quite distinct from the individual
SOCIOLOGY
327
efficiency with which he has been concerned elsewhere. He does
not readily comprehend how the institutions which he sees
being evolved in history have, in their effects on the individual,
laws quite different from those which he applies in the breeding
of animals; or how the dualism which has been opened in the
human mind, as natural selection acts first of all on the individual
in his own struggle with his fellows, and then, and to a ruling
degree, acts on his as a member of organic society in the evolution
of social efficiency, has in the religious and ethical systems of
the race a phenomenology of its own, stupendous in extent and
absolutely characteristic of the social process, which remains a
closed book to him and the study of which he is often apt
to consider for his purposes as entirely meaningless. All
this became rapidly visible in the first approach of the early
Darwinians to the science of society.
Darwin, as stated, had attempted no comprehensive or
systematic study of society. But in a few chapters of the Descent
Darwin f ^ an ^ e ^ a d discussed the qualities of the human
mind, including the social and moral feelings, from
the point of view of the doctrine 'of natural selection enunci-
ated in the Origin of Species. The standpoint he took up
was, as might be expected, practically that of Mill and
Spencer and other writers of the period on social subjects, from
whom he quoted freely. But the note of bewilderment
was remarkable. The conclusion remarked upon as implied in
Spencer's theory of the social organism, but which Spencer
himself hesitated to draw, namely, that natural selection was
to be regarded as suspended in human society, Darwin
practically formulated. Thus at times Darwin appeared to
think that natural selection could effect but comparatively
little in advanced society. " With highly civilized nations,"
he says, " continued progress depends to a subordinate degree
on natural selection." While Darwin noted the obvious useful-
ness of the social and moral qualities in many cases, he felt
constrained at the same time to remark upon their influence
in arresting, as appeared to him, the action of natural selection
in civilization. " We civilized men," he continues, " do
our utmost to check the process of elimination (of the weak
in body and mind) ; we build asylums for the imbeciles, the
maimed and the sick; we institute poor laws; and our medical
men exert their utmost skill to save the life of every one
to the last moment." There is here in evidence no attempt to
connect the phenomena thus brought into view with some wider
principle of the evolutionary process which evidently must
control them. There is no perception visible in Darwin's mind
of these facts as constituting the phenomenology of a larger
principle of natural selection; or of the higher organic efficiency
in the struggle for existence of societies in which the sense of
responsibility to life thus displayed has made most progress;
or of the immense significance in social evolution as distinct
from individual evolution of that deepening of the social con-
sciousness of which this developing spiritual sense of responsi-
bility to our fellow creatures is one of the outward marks
characteristic of advanced societies.
In the year 1889 Alfred Russel Wallace in a statement of his
conception of the doctrine of evolution in his book, Darwinism,
Wallace brought more clearly into view the fundamental
difficulty of the early Darwinians in applying the
doctrine of natural selection to society. In the last chapter of
the book Mr Wallace maintained that there were in " man's
intellectual and moral nature . . . certain definite portions . . .
which could not have been developed by variation and natural
selection alone." Certain faculties, amongst which he classed the
mathematical, artistic and metaphysical, the latter covering
qualities with which he considered priests and philosophers to
be concerned, were, he asserted, " altogether removed from
utility in the struggle for life," and were, therefore, he thought,
" wholly unexplained by the theory of natural selection." In this
elementary conception which still survives in popular literature,
the same confusion between individual efficiency and social
efficiency has to be remarked upon. And there is in evidence
the same failure to perceive that it is just these intellectual and
moral qualities which are the absolutely characteristic products
of natural selection in advanced society, in that they contribute
to the highest organic social efficiency. Wallace in the result
proposed to consider man, in respect of these higher portions
of his mind, as under the influence of some cause or causes
wholly distinct from those which had shaped the development of
life in its other characteristics. The weakness of this position
was immediately apparent. To remove man as regards qualities
so directly associated with his social evolution from the influence
of the law of natural selection was felt to be a step backwards.
The effect produced on the minds of the younger school of
evolutionists was deep. It operated, indeed, not to convince
them that Wallace was right, but to make them feel that his
conception of natural selection operating in human society was
still in some respect profoundly and radically incomplete.
A few years later, Huxley, though approaching the matter
from a different direction, displayed a like bewilderment in
attempting to apply the doctrine of evolution to the xle
phenomena of organic society. With his mind fixed on
the details of the individual struggle for existence among animals,
Huxley reached in the Romanes lecture, delivered at Oxford in
1893, a position little different from that in which Wallace found
himself. In this lecture Huxley actually proceeded to place
the ethical process in human society in opposition to the cosmic
process, to which latter alone he considered the struggle for
existence and the principle of natural selection belonged.
" Social progress," he went on to say, " means a checking
of the cosmic process at every step and the substitution for it
of another which may be called the ethical process; the end
of which is not the survival of those who may happen to be
the fittest, in respect of the whole of the conditions which
obtain, but of those who are ethically the best." Thus the
remarkable spectacle already witnessed in Spencer, Darwin
and Wallace of the evolutionist attempting to apply his doctrines
to human society, but having to regard his own central principle
of natural selection as having been suspended therein is repeated
in Huxley. The futility of contemplating the ethical process as
something distinct from the cosmic process was at once apparent.
For the first lesson of evolution as applied to society must
be that they are one and the same. So far indeed from ethical
process checking the cosmic process, it must be regarded as
the last and highest form of the cosmic process. The sense of
subordination and sacrifice which forms the central principle
of all the creeds of humanity, so far from being, as Wallace
imagined, "altogether removed from utility" is, indeed, the
highest form of social efficiency through which natural selection
is producing its most far-reaching effects in the evolution of the
most advanced and organic types of civilization.
A similar tendency continued to be in evidence in other
directions. In an effort made a few years later to found a
society for the study of sociology in Great Britain _ n
a very characteristic feature of the first papers
contributed was the attempt to apply elementary biological
generalizations regarding natural selection to a highly complex
organism like human society, the writers having in most cases
made no previous extensive or special study of the social process
in history. The confusion between what constitutes individual
efficiency in the individual and that higher social efficiency in
the individual which everywhere controls and overrules individual
efficiency was very marked. An early paper contributed in
1904 was by Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis Gallon, one of the
last and greatest of the early Darwinians. Gallon had made
many original contributions to the doctrine of evolution, and
had been occupied previously with researches into individual
efficiency as displayed among families, his Hereditary Genius
being a notable book of this type. The object of his paper was
to explain the scope and aim of a new science, " eugenics,"
which he defined as the science which deals with all the influences
that improve the inborn qualities of the race and develop them
to the utmost advantage. Gallon found no difficulty whatever
in selling up his sociological slandards for the best specimens
of the race. Even the animals in the Zoological Gardens, he
3 28
SOCIOLOGY
said, might be supposed to know the best specimens of their
class. In society the list of best qualities would include
health, energy, ability, manliness and the special aptitudes
required by various professions and occupations. Everything in
" the scientific breeding of the human race " was to be much
as in the breeding of animals; for Gallon proposed to leave
morals out of the question as involving too many hopeless
difficulties. This was the basis of the scheme of qualities from
which he proposed to proceed to the improved breeding of society.
The proposal furnishes one of the most striking and characteristic
examples which have appeared of the deep-seated confusion
prevailing in the minds of the early Darwinians between social
efficiency and individual efficiency. Even from the few minor
examples of society among the lower animals the true sociological
criticism of such standards in eugenics might easily be supplied.
For at the point at which the social insects, for instance, began
their social integration all their standards were in the qualities
which gave success in the struggle for existence between indi-
viduals. Had they, therefore, understood eugenics only in
this light and in Gallon's sense, they would have condemned
at the first the beginnings of the peculiar social efficiency
of the queen bee which now makes her devote her life entirely
to egg-laying; still more would they have condemned the habils
of the drones, through long persistence in which they have
become degenerate as individuals; and in particular they would
have condemned the habits of the workers which have led to
their present undeveloped bodies and abortive individualistic
instincts. But all these things have contributed in the highest
degree to the social efficiency of the social insects and have made
the type a winning one in evolution. The social integration
of the social insects has been comparatively simple and did not,
like that of human society, rest ultimately on mind, yet even
in this elementary example it was evident what ruin and disaster
would result from miscalled scientific breeding of the race if
undertaken within the limits of such restricted conceptions of
social efficiency. Gallon's preoccupation, as in the case of most
biological and medical schemes of improvement in the past,
was with those individualistic qualities which contribute to the
individual's success in the struggle for existence with his fellows.
But it has been continuously obvious in history that individuals
of the very highest social efficiency, the great organic minds of
the race who, often quite unsuccessful in their lives as judged
by individualistic standards, and who, often quite unperceived
and unappreciated by their contemporaries, have been the
authors of ideas, or moral conceptions or works of such organic
importance that they have carried the race from one social
horizon into another, have been just those individuals who
would have entirely failed to pass the kind of prize-animal
standards which Gallon proposed to set up.
Gallon's essay may be said lo close that firsl epoch in
the applicalion of biological conceptions to sociology which
The ci s P ene( i with Spencer's essay in 1860. With the
of the First extending conception of the organic interesls of
Stage of sociely during the intervening period the idea of
Darwinian soc j a i efficiency had altered profoundly. For instance,
a supposed standard of efficiency, which like Malthu-
sianism represenled to Mill at the opening of the period Ihe last
conclusion of science, had become towards the close scarcely
more than a slandard of " race suicide." Il was nol surprising
that in these circumslances Ihe represenlalives of Ihose sciences
which resled on a knowledge of Ihe social process in hislory and
philosophy conlinued lo look coldly on Ihe altempt of the first
Darwinians lo apply Darwinian principles lo sociology. True,
Ihe developmenl in Iheir own sciences had been almosl equally
slerile, for Ihey had Ihemselves as yel no reasoned conception
of the enormous importance of the Darwinian principle of
evolution to these sciences in its capacity lo reveal lo Ihem
the dynamics of Ihe social process. Bui Ihey had walched Ihe
developmenl of inslilulions in hislory; Ihey had sludied Ihe
growlh of social lypes and Ihe inlegralion of great systems of
belief; and Ihey had slruggled with the capital problems of Ihe
human mind in psychology and philosophy as Ihe process had
conlinued. The Iwo armies of workers conlinued to be
organized into isolated camps, each with the mosl reslricted
conception of the nalure and imporlance of Ihe work done
by Ihe olher and of ils bearing upon Iheir own conclusions.
One of Ihe mosl remarkable resulls of such a silualion a resull
plainly visible in Ihe valuable colleclion of essays edited by Pro-
fessor Seward which was issued from Ihe Cambridge University
Press in commemoration of the centenary of Darwin's birth is
the extremely limited number of minds in our time of sufficienl
scope of view lo be able lo cover Ihe relation of the work of both
sets of these workers to sociology.
It remains now to consider the relation to the position in
modern sociology of the extended conception lhat sociely must
be considered to be organic in some wider sense
than the first Darwinians thus imagined it and also e"2ns/on
in some wider sense lhan lhal in which Sidgwick to Sociology
imagined il when he said lhal sociology was in effecl otthe Bv -
coincidenl wilh Ihe science of polilics. The present coated/on
writer has laid il down elsewhere ( The Two Principal
Laws of Sociology: Bologna) lhal Ihere is a fundamental principle
of sociology which has to be grasped and applied before there
can be any real science of sociology. This principle may be
briefly staled as follows:
The social process is primarily evolving in the individual not
the qualities which contribule lo his own efficiency in conflict
with his fellows, but the qualities which contribule lo society's
efficiency in Ihe conflicl Ihrough which il is gradually rising
lowards a more organic lype.
This is Ihe firsl law of evolulionary sociology. Il is Ihis
principle which conlrols Ihe inlegration which is taking place
under all forms in human society in ethical systems, in all
polilical and economic inslilulions, and in Ihe creeds and
beliefs of humanity in the long, slow, almosl invisible slruggle
in which under a mullilude of phases nalural seleclion is
discriminating between the standards of nalions and lypes of
civilizalion.
Dealing first with political and economic instilutions; the
position reached in Spencer's sociology may be said to represent
the science of sociely in a slale of Iransilion. It represents it,
that is to say, in a stage al which Ihe Greek Iheory of sociely
has become influenced by Ihe doclrine of evolulion applied lo
modern conceplions, bul while as yel no synlhesis has been
achieved between the conflicting and even mutually exclusive
ideas which are involved. The Greek theory of society is repre-
sented in Spencer in his practical idenlification of " the social
organism " with Ihe Slale. The modern idea, however, which
carries Spencer far beyond Ihe principles of Greek sociely
as these principles were summarized, for instance, in the passage
already quoled from Blunlschli is clearly in evidence. It
may be observed to be expressed in the recognition of a principle
resident in modern society which in some manner projects the
individual's righls oulside and beyond Ihe whole Iheory and
meaning of Ihe Slale. In olher words, in sociely as Spencer
conceives il, " Ihe welfare of cilizens cannol righlly be sacrificed
10 some supposed benefil of Ihe Slale "; whereas, according to
the Greek Iheory and the theory of Roman law, the citizen's
whole existence depended on and was subject to the Stale. " The
Slale knew neilher moral nor legal limils to its power." If,
iowever, it be considered thai modern sociely has made progress
Deyond Ihe Greek, and if il be accepled lhal Ihe Iheory of
evolulion involves Ihe conclusion lhat sociely progresses
;owards increased efficiency in a more organic lype, Ihere follows
:rom Ihe foregoing an imporlant inference. This is thai il now
jecomes Ihe lask of modern sociology, as a Irue science, to
show thai Ihe principle in modern civilizalion which dislinguishes
11 from sociely of Ihe Greek period namely, that principle which
Spencer rightly recognized, despite the contradiclions in which
le became involved, as rendering Ihe life of the individual no
onger subservient to the corporate life of the State is ilself a
arinciple idenlified not with individualism but with the increasing
subordination of Ihe individual lo a more organic lype of sociely.
Il musl, in shorl, remain for the evolutionisl, working by Ihe
SOCIOLOGY
329
historical method scientifically applied, to present the interven-
ing process in history including the whole modern movement
towards liberty and enfranchisement, and towards equality
of conditions, of rights and of economic opportunities not
as a process of the increasing emancipation of the individual
from the claims of society, but as a process of progress towards
a more organic stage ot social subordination than has prevailed
in the world before.
When society is considered as an organism developing under
the influence of natural selection along the line of the causes
which contribute to its highest potential efficiency, and there-
fore tending to have the mean centre of its organic processes
projected farther and farther into the future, it is evident that it
must be the principles and ideas which most effectively subordi-
nate oyer long periods of time the interests and the capacities
of the individuals of which it is composed to the efficiency of
the whole which will play the leading part in social evolution.
In primitive society, the first rudiments of social organization
undoubtedly arose, not so much from conscious regard to
The Basis expediency or "increased satisfactions" as from
ot Modern fitness in the struggle for existence. " The first
Sociology. or g an i z ed societies must have been developed, like
any other advantage, under the sternest conditions of natural
selection. In the flux and change of life the members of those
groups of men which in favourable conditions first showed any
tendency to social organization became possessed of a great
advantage over their fellows, and these societies grew up simply
because they possessed elements of -strength which led to the
disappearance before them of other groups of men with which
they came into competition. Such societies continued to flourish,
until they in their turn had to give way before other associations
of men of higher social efficiency " (Social Evolution, ii.). In
the social process at this stage all the customs, habits, institu-
tions, and beliefs contributing to produce a higher organic
efficiency of society would be naturally selected, developed and
perpetuated. It is in connexion with this fact that the clue
must be sought to the evolution of those institutions and beliefs
of early society which have been treated of at length in researches
like those of M'Lennan, Tylor, Lubbock, Waitz. Letourneau,
Quatrefages, Frazer, and others of equal importance. For a
long period in the first stages the highest potentiality of the
social organization would be closely associated with military
efficiency. For hi the evolution of the social organism, as has
been said, while the mean centre of the processes involving its
organic identity would tend to be projected into the future, it
would at the same time always be necessary to maintain efficiency
in current environment in competition with rival types of lower
future potentiality. Amongst primitive peoples, where a great
chief, law-giver and military leader appeared, the efficiency of
organized society resting on military efficiency would, as a matter
of course, make itself felt in the struggle for existence. Yet as
such societies would often be resolved into their component
elements on the death of the leader, the overruling importance
on the next stage of the advance towards a more organic type
of ideas which would permanently subordinate the materials
of society to the efficiency of the whole would make itself felt.
Social systems of the type in which authority was perpetuated
by ancestor-worship in which all the members were therefore
held to be joined in an exclusive religious citizenship founded on
blood relationship to the deities who were worshipped, and in
which all outsiders were accordingly treated as natural enemies,
whom it would be a kind of sacrilege to admit to the rights of
the State would contain the elements of the highest military
potentiality. The universal mark which ancestor-worship has
left on human institutions in a certain stage of social develop-
ment is doubtless closely associated with this fact. The new
and th<> older tendencies in sociology are here also in contrast;
for whereas Herbert Spencer has been content to explain
ancestor-worship as arising from an introspective and compara-
tively trivial process of thought assumed to have taken place
in the mind of early man in relation to a supposed beh'ef in ghosts
(Principles of Sociology, 68-207), the newer tendency is to
consider science as concerned with it in its relation to the character-
istic principles through which the efficiency of the social organ-
ization expressed itself in its surroundings. The social, political
and religious institutions disclosed in the study of the earliest
civilizations within the purview of history must be considered
to be all intimately related to the ruling principles of this military
stage. The wide reach and significance of the causes governing
the process of social evolution throughout the whole of this
period may be gathered from treatises like Seebohm's Structure
of Greek Tribal Society, Maine's Ancient Law, History of Institu-
tions, and Early Law and Custom, Fowler's City-State of the Greeks
and Romans, and in a special sense from the comparative study
of Roman law, first of all as it is presented in the period of the
Twelve Tables, then as the jus civile begins to be influenced by
the jus gentium, and lastly as its principles are contrasted with
those of English common law in the modern period. In most
of the philosophical writings of the Greeks, and in particular
in the Ethics and Politics of Aristotle, and in many of the
Dialogues of Plato, the spirit of the principles upon which society
was constructed in this stage may be perceived as soon as
progress has been made with comparative studies in other
directions.
A very pregnant saying of T. H. Green was that during the
whole development of man the command, " Thou shall love
thy neighbour as thyself " has never varied. What ^tension of
has varied is only the answer to the question Who the Sense of
is my neighbour ? If in the light of this profoundly Human Re-
true reflection we watch the progress of society from spoasl lty -
primitive conditions to the higher stages, it may be observed
to possess marked features. Where all human institutions,
as in the ancient civilizations, rested ultimately on force; where
outsiders were regarded as natural enemies, and conquered
enemies became slaves; where, as throughout all this phase of
social evolution, a rule of religion was a rule of law identified with
the principles of the State (Maine, Ancient Law); where the
State itself was absolute as against the individual, knowing
"neither moral nor legal limits to its power"; and where all
the moral, intellectual and industrial life of the community
rested on a basis of slavery the full limits of the organic
principle of social efficiency would in time be reached. The
conditions would be inherent in which all social institutions
would tend to become closed absolutisms organized round the
conception of men's desires in the present. And the highest
outward expression in which the tendencies in ethics, in politics,
and in religion must necessarily culminate would be the military
State, bounded in its energies only by the resistance of others,
necessarily acknowledging no complete end short of absolute
dominion, and therefore staying its course before no ideal short
of universal conquest. This was the condition in the ancient
State. It happened thus that the outward policy of the ancient
State to other peoples became, by a fundamental principle of
its life, a policy of military conquest and subjugation, the
only limiting principle being the successful resistance of the
others. The epoch of history moved by inherent forces towards
the final emergence of one supreme military State, in an era of
general conquest, and culminated in the example of universal
dominion which we had in the Roman world before the rise of the
civilization of our era.
The influence upon the development of civilization of the wider
conception of duty and responsibility to one's fellow men which
was introduced into the world with the spread of KS intlu-
Christianity can hardly be over-estimated. The em* on
extended conception of the answer to the question s ^ al Bta-
Who is my neighbour? which has resulted from the ceacy '
characteristic doctrines of the Christian religion a con-
ception transcending all the claims of the family, group, state,
nation, people or race, and even all the interests comprised in
any existing order of society has been the most powerful evolu-
tionary force which has ever acted on society. It has tended
gradually to break up the absolutisms inherited from an older
civilization and to bring into being, an entirely new type of
social efficiency.
330
SOCIOLOGY
As society under this influence continued to be impelled to
develop towards a still more organic type, the greatly higher
la History potentiality of a state of social order which, while
p*fcte* e< * preserving the ideal of the highly organized state
(lathe"* an< ^ l ^ e cu r fen t efficiency of society in competition
Future) has with lower types, was influenced by conceptions
always that dissolved all those closed absolutisms, and re-
restedoa leased human energies into a free conflict of forces
Military , , ,1 i p * .1.1.
Efficiency by projecting the principles of human responsibility
(lathe outside the State, became apparent. In many of
Present), the religions of the East such conceptions have been
inherent, Christianity itself being a characteristically Eastern
religion. But no Eastern people has been able to provide for
them the permanent defensive military milieu in history in
which alone their potentiality could be realized. The significance
of modern Japan in evolution consists largely in the answer she
is able to give to the question as to whether she will be able to
provide in the future such a milieu for such a conception among
an Eastern people.
The significance of the culmination of the military epoch in
the ancient classic civilizations of the Western world, which
preceded the opening of the era in which we are living, and of the
fact that the peoples of the same descent who were destined to
carry on the civilization of the existing era represent the supreme
military stock by natural selection, not only of the entire world,
but of the evolutionary process itself in human history, will
therefore be evident.
With the spread, accordingly, amongst peoples of this origin,
and in such a defensive military milieu in history, of a new
Tae conviction of responsibility to principles extending
Principle of beyond the consciousness of the political State,
efficiency la there began a further and more organic stage of
2?.*"*,. the evolutionary process in society. The gradual
Civilization ,. . . . ./ ... * .. . e ,
Is the dissolution in the era in which we are living of all
Enfranchise- the closed absolutisms within the State, in which
meat of the human action and ideas had hitherto been confined,
Puture - is apparently the characteristic phenomenon of this
stage. Progress is towards such a free and tolerant, but
intense and efficient, conflict of forces as was not possible
in the world before. It is, it would appear, in this light
that we must regard the slow dissolution of the basis of
ideas upon which slavery rested; the disintegration of the con-
ceptions which supported the absolute position of the occupying
classes in the State; the undermining of the ideas by which
opinion was supported by the civil power of the State in the
religious struggles of the middle ages; the growth of the concep-
tion that no power or opinion in the State can be considered
as the representative of absolute truth; the consequent develop-
ment of party government amongst the advanced peoples, with
the acknowledgment of the right of every department of inquiry
to carry results up to that utmost limit at which they are con-
trolled only by the results obtained in other departments of
activity with equal freedom; the growth of the conception,
otherwise absurd, of the native equality of men; the resulting
claim, otherwise similarly indefensible, of men to equal voting
power irrespective of status or possessions in the State which
has been behind the movement towards political enfranchise-
ment; and, finally, the development of that conviction which
is behind the existing challenge to all absolute tendencies in
economic conditions in the modern world namely, that the
distribution of wealth in a well-ordered State should aim at
realizing political justice. There are all the features of an
integrating process in modern history. They must be considered
as all related to a controlling principle inherent in the Christian
religion which has rendered the evolutionary process in society
more organic than in any past stage namely, the projection of
the sense of human responsibility outside the limits of all the
creeds and interests which had in previous stages embodied it in
the State (Kidd, Prin. West. Civil.). The meaning, in short,
which differentiates our civilization from that of the ancient
civilizations of Greece and Rome is that modern Western
civilization represents in an ever-increasing degree the
enfranchisement of the future in the evolutionary process. So
great has become the prestige of our civilization through the oper-
ation of this principle in it that its methods and results are being
eagerly borrowed by other peoples. It is thereby so materially
influencing the standards of conduct and culture thoughout
the world that the developments which other nations are under-
going have in a real sense tended to become scarcely more than
incidents in the expansion of Western civilization.
We live in the presence of colossal national armaments, and
in a world, therefore, in which we are continually met with the
taunt that force is still everywhere omnipotent. It Modem
j may be perceived, however, that beneath all outward Militarism
I appearances a vast change has been taking place. lstherefor f
In the ancient civilizations the tendency to con- otfensfre,"
quest was an inherent principle in life of the military not an
State. It is no longer an inherent principle in the Offensive
modern State. The right of conquest is indeed still Priaclale -
acknowledged in the international law of civilized States; but
it may be observed to be a right becoming more and more im-
practicable among the more advanced peoples. Reflection, more-
over, reveals the fact that the right of conquest is tending to
become impracticable and impossible, not, as is often supposed,
because of the huge armaments of resistance with which it might
be opposed, but because the sense of social responsibility has
been so deepened in our civilization that it is almost impossible
that one nation should attempt to conquer and subdue another
after the manner of the ancient world. It would be regarded
as so great an outrage that it would undoubtedly prove to be one
of the maddest and one of the most unprofitable adventures
in which a civilized State could engage. Militarism, it may be
distinguished, is becoming mainly defensive amongst the more
advanced nations. Like the civil power within the State, it is
tending to represent rather the organized means of resistance
to the methods of force should these methods be invoked by
others temporarily or permanently under the influence of less
evolved standards of conduct.
In thus regarding the social process in Western history, the
projected efficiency of which now, after many centuries of
development, begins to realize itself to an increasing InaMa
degree in determining competition with other types i sm ls "*jy a
of society throughout the world, it may be observed Process ot
that the result by which a synthesis of the older moreOrganlc
and later views may be attained is already m o^toaoo"
sight. It was pointed out that if the principle which
Spencer rightly recognized in modern society as rendering the
life of the individual no longer subservient to the corporate
life of the State was to be accepted as a principle of progress
distinguishing modern civilization from that of the Greek period,
it would be necessary for the sociologist to exhibit it not as
indicating the larger independence of the individual, but as a
principle identified with the increasing subordination of the indi-
vidual to a more organic type of society. Here, therefore, this
result is in process of accomplishment . The intervening process in
history including the whole modern movement towards liberty
and enfranchisement, towards equality of conditions, towards
equality of political rights and towards equality of economic
opportunities -is presented as a process of development towards
a more advanced and organic stage of social subordination
than has ever prevailed in the world before (Princ. West.
Civil, xi.). In this light, also, it may be observed how the
claim of sociology to be the most advanced of all the theo-
retical sciences is justified. For if the historical process in the
civilization of the era in which we are living is thus to be
regarded as a process implying the increasing subordination of
the individual to a more organic type of society, then the study
of sociology as embracing the principles of the process must
evidently involve the perception and comparison of the meaning
of the fundamental positions disclosed in the history of political
progress, of the problems with which the human mind has
successively struggled in the phases of religious development,
and, lastly, of the positions with which the intellect has been
confronted as the stages of the subordinating process have
SOCRATES
gradually come to define themselves in history. The positions
outlined in the developments already referred to which have
come down through Humeund Huxley, through Kant and Hegel,
through Grotius and Savigny, through Roscher and Schmoller,
through the expression which English utilitarianism has reached
in Herbert Spencer as influenced by the English theory of the
rights of the individual on the one hand, and in Marxian Socialism
as influenced by the Latin conception of the omnipotence of
the State on the other, have thus all their place, meaning and
scientific relations in the modern study of sociology. It must
be considered that the theory of organic evolution by natural
selection and the historical method will continue in an increasing
degree to influence the science of society.
The sociological law that " the social process is primarily
evolving in the individual not the qualities which contribute
The Claim of t n ^ s own efficiency in conflict with his fellows,
Sociology as but those qualities which contribute to society's
the Master efficiency in the conflict through which it is gradually
rising towards a more organic type," carries us
into the innermost recesses of the human mind and controls
the science of psychology. For it is thus not the human mind
which is consciously constructing the social process in evolution ;
it is the social process which is constructing the human mind
in evolution. This is the ultimate fact which raises sociology
to its true position as the master science. Nor is there any
materialism in such a conception. It is in keeping with the
highest spiritual ideal of man that the only conception of Truth
or the Absolute which the human mind can hold at present
is that which is being evolved in it in relation to its own
environment which is in the social process.
AUTHORITIES. It has been one of the results of the conditions
affecting sociology in the past, that many of the principal contribu-
tions to the science of society are not usually included in lists of
sociological references. The following are mentioned only as indi-
cating or suggesting others in the same classes of equal or perhaps
greater importance. The dates given are usually those of the first
edition of a work.
INTRODUCTORY. Darwin, Origin of Species (1859); Descent of
Man, 1871 (chapters dealing with society); Wallace, Darwinism
(1889); Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin (1892); Osborn, From
the Greeks to Darwin (1894). Economics, Historical. Ashley,
Introduction to English Economic History and Theory, part i. (1888),
part ii. (1893); Schmoller, The Mercantile System (1884); Roscher,
Geschichte der Nationals konomik in Deutschland (1874) ; Nys, History
of Economics (Trans. Dryhurst, 1899). Ethics, Historical. Sidgwick,
History of Ethics (1886); Mackenzie, Manual of Ethics (1893);
Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (1906). Primitive Society.
Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (1870); Tylor, Anthropology (1881);
Quatrefages, Human Species (Eng. trans. 1879); Lang, Custom and
Myth (1884); Maine, Ancient Law (1861); Early History of Institu-
tions (1875); Early Law and Custom (1883); Frazer, Golden Bough
(1890) ; Early History of the Kingship (1905).
GENERAL. Spencer, Synthetic Philosophy (Principles of Biology,
Principles of Sociology and Principles of Ethics) ; Kidd, Social
Evolution (1894); Principles of Western Civilization (1902); Individu-
alism and After ; Two Principal Laws of Sociology: Bologna (1908) ;
Barth, Die Philosophie der Geschichte als Sociologie (1897); Ward,
Dynamic Sociology; Outlines of Sociology (1898); Flint, Philosophy
of History in Europe (1874) ; Historical Philosophy in France (1894) ;
Bagehot, Physics and Politics; Ratzenhofer, Die soziologische
Erkennlnis (1898); Giddings, Principles of Sociology (1896); Tarde,
Elude de psychologie sociale (1898); Stuckenberg, Introduction to the
Study of Sociology (1898); Stephen, The English Utilitarians (1900);
J. S. Mill, System of Logic (1843); On Liberty (1859); Utilitarianism
(1861); Comte, Philosophie positive^ (6 vols., 1830-1842, Eng.
trans., condensed by Martineau, in 2 vols. ; Baldwin, Social
Psychology; Ritchie, Natural Rights (1895); Bluntschli, The Theory
of the State (Eng. trans. 1892) ; Wright, Outline of Practical Sociology
(1899); Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics (1874); Elements of Politics
(1901) ; Philosophy, Us Scope (1902) ; Taylor, The Problem of Conduct
(1901); Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (particularly 2nd Division),
and Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysic; McDougall, An Intro-
duction to Social Psychology (1908); Schiller, Studies in Humanism
(1907); James, Pragmatism (1907); Fairbanks, Introduction to
Sociology (1896); Pollock, History of the Science of Politics (1890);
Maine, Popular Government (1885); Morley, Rousseau (1873);
Diderot and the Encyclopaedists (1878) ; Burke (1879) ; Austin, Theory
of Jurisprudence (1861-1863); Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence
(parts i., iit. and iy., 1880); Studies in International Law (1898);
Westlake, International Law (1894); Bentham, Principles of Morals
and Legislation (1789), Oxf. ed., 1879; Sohm, Institutes of Roman
Law; Sandars, Institutes of Justinian; Le Roy Beaulieu, L'Etat
moderne et ses fonctions; Huxley, Evolution and Ethics (1894);
Nietzsche, The Twilight of the Idols; Zarathustra; Loria, Les Bases
economiques de la constitution sociale (French trans.); Pearson,
National Life and Character (1893); Vincent, The Social Mind in
Education (1897); Marx, Kapital (1867, Eng. trans. 1887); Engels,
Socialism, Utopian and Scientific (Eng. trans., Aveling, 1892);
Kirkup, An Inquiry into Socialism (1907); George, Progress and
Poverty; Mazel, La Synergie sociale (1896); Mallock, Aristocracy and
Evolution (1898); Ross, Social Control (1901); Mackenzie, Social
Philosophy (1895); Hpbson, The Social Problem (1901); Fabian
Essays; Rousseau, Social Contract; Hobbes, Leviathan; Locke, Two
Treatises of Government; Webbs, Industrial Democracy (1897);
History of Trades Unionism (1894); Booth, Life and Labour of the
People (1891-1897) ; Patten, The Theory of Prosperity (1902) ; Wallas,
Human Nature in Politics (1908) ; Urwick, Luxury and Waste (1908) ;
Small, The Scope of Sociology (1902). (B. K.*)
SOCRATES, son of the statuary Sophroniscus and of the
midwife Phaenarete, was born at Athens, not earlier than 47 1
nor later than May or June 469 B.C. As a youth he received
the customary instruction in gymnastics and music; and in after
years he made himself acquainted with geometry and astronomy
and studied the methods and the doctrines of the leaders of
Greek thought and culture. He began life as a sculptor; and
in the 2nd century A.D. a group of the Graces, supposed to be
his work, was still to be seen on the road to the Acropolis. But
he soon abandoned art and gave himself to what may best be
called education, conceiving that he had a divine commission,
witnessed by oracles, dreams and signs, not indeed to teach any
positive doctrine, but to convict men of ignorance mistaking
itself for knowledge, and by so doing to promote their intellectual
and moral improvement. He was. on terms of intimacy with
some of the most distinguished of his Athenian contemporaries,
and, at any rate in later life, was personally known to very many
of his fellow citizens. His domestic relations were, it is said,
unhappy. The shrewishness of his wife Xanthippe became
proverbial with the ancients, as it still is with ourselves. Ari-
stotle, in his remarks upon genius and its degeneracy (Rhet. ii.
15), speaks of Socrates's sons as dull and fatuous; and in Xeno-
phon's Memorabilia, one of them, Lamprocles, receives a formal
rebuke for undutiful behaviour towards his mother.
Socrates served as a hoplite at Potidaea (432-429), where
on one occasion he saved the life of Alcibiades, at Delium (424),
and at Amphipolis (422). In these campaigns his bravery and
endurance were conspicuous. But, while he thus performed the
ordinary duties of a Greek citizen with credit, he neither attained
nor sought political position. His " divine voice," he said,
had warned him to refrain from politics, presumably because
office would have entailed the sacrifice of his principles and the
abandonment of his proper vocation. Yet in 406 he was a
member of the senate; and on the first day of the trial of the
victors of Arginusae, being president of the prytanis, he resisted
first, in conjunction with his colleagues, afterwards, when they
yielded, alone the illegal and unconstitutional proposal of
Callixenus, that the fate of the eight generals should be decided
by a single vote of the assembly. Not less courageous than this
opposition to the " civium ardor prava jubentium " was his
disregard of the " vultus instantis tyranni " two years later.
During the reign of terror of 404 the Thirty, anxious to implicate
in their crimes men of repute who might otherwise have opposed
their plans, ordered five citizens, one of whom was Socrates, to
go to Salamis and bring thence their destined victim Leon.
Socrates alone disobeyed. But, though he was exceptionally
obnoxious to the Thirty as appears, not only in this incident,
but also in their threat of punishment under a special ordinance
forbidding " the teaching of the art of argument" it was
reserved for the reconstituted democracy to bring him to trial
and to put him to death. In 399, four years after the restoration
and the amnesty, he was indicted as an offender against public
morality. His accusers were Meletus the poet, Anytus the tanner
and Lycon the orator, all of them members of the democratic
or patriot party who had returned from Phyle with Thrasybulus.
The accusation ran thus: " Socrates is guilty, firstly, of denying
the gods recognized by the state and introducing new divinities,
and, secondly, of corrupting the young." In his unpremeditated
defence, so far from seeking to conciliate his judges, Socrates
332
SOCRATES
defied them. He was found guilty by 280 votes, it is supposed,
against 220. Meletus having called for capital punishment, it
now rested with the accused to make a counter-proposition;
and there can be little doubt that, had Socrates without further
remark suggested some smaller but yet substantial penalty,
the proposal would have been accepted. But, to the amazement
of the judges and the distress of his friends, Socrates proudly
declared that for the services which he had rendered to the city
he deserved, not punishment, but the reward of a public bene-
factor maintenance in the Prytaneum at the cost of the state;
and, although at the close of his speech he professed himself
willing to pay a fine of one mina, and upon the urgent entreaties
of his friends raised the amount of his offer to thirty minas, he
made no attempt to disguise his indifference to the result. His
attitude exasperated the judges, and the penalty of death was
decreed by an increased majority. Then in a short address
Socrates declared his contentment with his own conduct and
with the sentence. Whether death was a dreamless sleep, or a
new life in Hades, where he would have opportunities of testing
the wisdom of the heroes and the sages of antiquity, in either
case he esteemed it a gain to die. In the same spirit he refused
to take advantage of a scheme arranged by his friend Crito for
an escape from prison. Under ordinary circumstances the
condemned criminal drank the cup of hemlock on the day after
the trial; but in the case of Socrates the rule that during the
absence of the sacred ship sent annually to Delos no one should
be put to death caused an exceptional delay. For thirty days
he remained in imprisonment, receiving his intimates and
conversing with them in his accustomed manner. How in his
last conversation he argued that the wise man will regard
approaching death with a cheerful confidence Plato relates in the
Phaedo; and, while the central argument which rests the
doctrine of the soul's immortality upon the theory of ideas
must be accounted Platonic, in all other respects the narrative,
though not that of an eye-witness, has the air of accuracy and
truth.
Happily, though Socrates left no writings behind him, and indeed,
as will hereafter appear, was by his principles precluded from
dogmatic exposition, we have in the 'Aironvrifu>tinaTa. or Memoirs
and other works of Xenophon records of Socrates's conversation,
and in the dialogues of Plato refined applications of his method.
Xenophon, having no philosophical views of his own to develop,
and no imagination to lead him astray being, in fact, to Socrates
what Boswell was to Johnson is an excellent witness. The
'^oiin]iJ.ovtiiiJ.a.Ta or Memorabilia are indeed confessedly apolo-
getic, and it is easy to see that nothing is introduced which might
embitter those who, hating Socrates, were ready to persecute the
Socratics; but the plain, straightforward narrative of Socrates's
talk, on many occasions, with many dissimilar interlocutors, carries
with it in its simplicity and congruity the evidence of substantial
justice and truth. Plato, though he understood his master better,
is a less trustworthy authority, as he makes Socrates the mouthpiece
of his own more advanced and even antagonistic doctrine. Yet
to all appearance the Apology is a careful and exact account of
Socrates's habits and principles of action; the earlier dialogues,
those which are commonly called " Socratic," represent, with such
changes only as are necessitated by their form, Socrates's method ;
and, if in the later and more important dialogues the doctrine is
the doctrine of Plato, echoes of the master's teaching are still
discoverable, approving themselves as such by their accord with the
Xenophontean testimony. In the face of these two principal
witnesses other evidence is of small importance.
Personal Characteristics. What, then, were the personal
characteristics of the man? Outwardly his presence was
mean and his countenance grotesque. Short of stature, thick-
necked and somewhat corpulent, with prominent eyes, with
nose upturned and nostrils outspread, with large mouth and coarse
lips, he seemed the embodiment of sensuality and even stupidity.
Inwardly he was, as his friends knew, " so pious that he did
nothing without taking counsel of the gods, so just that he never
did an injury to any man, whilst he was the benefactor of his
associates, so temperate that he never preferred pleasure to
right, so wise that in judging of good and evil he was never at
fault in a word, the best and the happiest of men." " His
self-control was absolute ; his powers of endurance were unfailing;
he had so schooled himself to moderation that his scanty means
satisfied all his wants." " To want nothing," he said himself,
" is divine; to want as little as possible is the nearest possible
approach to the divine life "; and accordingly he practised
temperance and self-denial to a degree which some thought
ostentatious and affected. Yet the hearty enjoyment of social
pleasures was another of his marked characteristics; for to
abstain from innocent gratification from fear of falling into
excess would have seemed to him to imply a pedantic formalism
or a lack of self-control. In short, his strength of will, if by
its very perfection it led to his theoretical identification of virtue
and knowledge, secured him in practice against the ascetic
extravagances of his associate Antisthenes.
The intellectual gifts of Socrates were hardly less remarkable
than his moral virtues. Naturally observant, acute, and
thoughtful, he developed these qualities by constant and
systematic use. The exercise of the mental powers was, he
conceived, no mere occupation of leisure hours, but rather a
sacred and ever-present duty; because, moral error being intel-
lectual error translated into act, he who would live virtuously
must first rid himself of ignorance and folly. He had, it may
be conjectured, but little turn for philosophical speculation;
yet by the careful study of the ethical problems which met him
in himself and in others he acquired a remarkable tact in dealing
with questions of practical morality; and in the course of the
lifelong war which he waged against vagueness of thought and
laxity of speech he made himself a singularly apt and ready
reasoner.
While he regarded the improvement, not only of himself but
also of others, as a task divinely appointed to him, there was
in his demeanour nothing exclusive or pharisaical. On the
contrary, deeply conscious of his own limitations and infirmities,
he felt and cherished a profound sympathy with erring humanity,
and loved with a love passing the love of women fellow men
who had not learnt, as he had done, to overcome human frailties
and weaknesses. Nevertheless great wrongs roused in him a
righteous indignation which sometimes found expression in
fierce and angry rebuke. Indeed it would seem that Plato in
his idealized portrait gives his hero credit not only for a deeper
philosophical insight but also for a greater urbanity than facts
warranted. Hence, whilst those who knew him best met his
affection with a regard equal to his own, there were, as will be
seen hereafter, some who never forgave his stern reproofs, and
many who regarded him as an impertinent busybody.
He was a true patriot. Deeply sensible of his debt to the city
in which he had been born and bred, he thought that in giving
his life to the teaching of sounder views in regard to ethical
and political subjects he made no more than an imperfect return;
and, when in the exercise of constitutional authority that city
brought him to trial and threatened him with death, it was not
so much his local attachment, strong though that sentiment
was, as rather his sense of duty, which forbade him to retire
into exile before the trial began, to acquiesce in a sentence of
banishment when the verdict had been given against him, and
to accept the opportunity of escape which was offered him during
his imprisonment. Yet his patriotism had none of the narrow-
ness which was characteristic of the patriotism of his Greek con-
temporaries. His generous benevolence and unaffected philan-
thropy taught him to overstep the limits of the Athenian demus
and the Hellenic race, and to regard himself as a " citizen of
the world."
He was blest with an all-pervading humour, a subtle but
kindly appreciation of the incongruities of human nature and
conduct. In a less robust character this quality might have
degenerated into sentimentality or cynicism; in Socrates, who
had not a trace of either, it showed itself principally in what his
contemporaries knew as his " accustomed irony." Profoundly
sensible of the inconsistencies of his own thoughts and words
and actions, and shrewdly suspecting that the like inconsistencies
were to be found in other men, he was careful always to place
himself upon the standpoint of ignorance and to invite others
to join him there, in order that, proving all things, he and they
might hold fast that which is good. " Intellectually the
acutest man of his age," says W. H. Thompson in a brilliant
SOCRATES
333
and instructive appendix to his edition of Plato's Phaedrus,
" he represents himself in all companies as the dullest person
present. Morally the purest, he affects to be the slave of passion,
and borrows the language of gallantry to describe a benevolence
too exalted for the comprehension of his contemporaries. He
is by turns an tpacrnfa, a wpoayiaybs, a ^oorpoTros, a juoteimmfc,
disguising the sanctity of his true vocation by names suggestive
of vile or ridiculous images. The same spirit of whimsical
paradox leads him, in Xenophon's Banquet, to argue that his
own satyr-like visage was superior in beauty to that of the hand-
somest man present. That this irony was to some extent
calculated is more than probable; it disarmed ridicule by antici-
pating it; it allayed jealousy and propitiated envy; and it
possibly procured him admission into gay circles from which
a more solemn teacher would have been excluded. But it had
for its basis a real greatness of soul, a hearty and unaffected
disregard of public opinion, a perfect disinterestedness, an entire
abnegation of self. He made himself a fool that others by his
folly might be made wise; he humbled himself to the level of
those among whom his work lay that he might raise some few
among them to his own level; he was 'all things to all men, if
by any means he might win- some.' " It would seem that this
humorous depreciation of his own great qualities, this pretence
of being no better than his neighbours, led to grave misappre-
hension amongst his contemporaries. That it was the founda-
tion of the slanders of the Peripatetic Aristoxenus can hardly
be doubted.
Socrates was further a man of sincere and fervent piety.
" No one," says Xenophon, " ever knew of his doing or saying
anything profane or unholy." There was indeed in the popular
mythology much which he could not accept. It was incredible,
he argued, that the gods should have committed acts which
would be disgraceful in the worst of men. Such stories, then,
must be regarded as the inventions of lying poets. But, when
he had thus purified the contemporary polytheism, he was able
to reconcile it with his own steadfast belief in a Supreme Being,
the intelligent and beneficent Creator of the universe, and to
find in the national ritual the means of satisfying his religious
aspirations. For proof of the existence of " the divine," he
appealed to the providential arrangement of nature, to the uni-
versality of the belief, and to the revelations and warnings which
are given to men through signs and oracles. Thinking that
the soul of man partook of the divine, he maintained the doctrine
of its immortality as an article of faith, but not of knowledge.
While he held that, the gods alone knowing what is for man's
benefit, man should pray, not for particular goods, but only
for that which is good, he was regular in prayer and punctual
in sacrifice. He looked to oracles and signs for guidance in
those matters, and in those matters only, which could not be
resolved by experience and judgment, and he further supposed
himself to receive special warnings of a mantic character through
what he called his "divine sign" (5a.LiJ.6viov, Saifioviov
Socrates's frequent references to his " divine sign " were, says
Xenophon, the origin of the charge of " introducing new divinities "
brought against him by his accusers, and in early Christian times,
amongst Neoplatonic philosophers and fathers of the church, gave
rise to the notion that he supposed himself to be attended by a
" genius " or " daemon." Similarly in our own day spiritualists
have attributed to him the belief which they justify in " an
intelligent spiritual being who accompanied him through life in
other words, a guardian spirit " (A. R. Wallace). But the very pre-
cise testimony of Xenophon and Plato shows plainly that Socrates
did not regard his " customary sign " either as a divinity or as a
genius. According to Xenophon, the sign was a warning, either to
do or not to do, which it would be folly to neglect, not superseding
ordinary prudence, but dealing with those uncertainties in respect
of which other men found guidance in oracles and tokens; Socrates
believed in it profoundly, and never disobeyed it. According to
Plato, the sign was a " voice " which warned Socrates to refrain from
some act which he contemplated; he heard it frequently and on
the most trifling occasions; the phenomenon dated from his early
years, and was, so far as he knew, peculiar to himself. These
statements have been variously interpreted. Thus it has been
maintained that, in laying claim to supernatural revelations,
Socrates (i) committed a pious fraud, (2) indulged his " accustomed
irony," (3) recognized the voice of conscience, (4) indicated a general
belief in a divine mission, (5) described " the inward voice of his
individual tact, which in consequence partly of his experience and
penetration, partly of his knowledge of himself and exact apprecia-
tion of what was in harmony with his individuality, had attained
to an unusual accuracy," (6) was mad (" (Staitfou "), being subject
not only to hallucinations of sense but also to aberrations of reason.
Xenophon's testimony that Socrates was plainly sincere in his
belief excludes the first and second of these theories; the character
of the warnings given, which are always concerned, not with the
moral worth of actions, but with their uncertain results, warrants
the rejection of the third and the fourth; the fifth, while it suffi-
ciently accounts for the matter of the warning, leaves unexplained
its manner, the vocal utterance ; the sixth, while it plausibly explains
the manner of the warning, goes beyond the facts when it attributes
to it irrationality of matter. It remains for us, then, modifying
the fifth hypothesis, that of Diderot, Zeller and others, and the
sixth, that of Lelut and Littre 1 , and combining the two, to suppose
that Socrates was subject, not indeed to delusions of mind, but to
hallucinations of the sense of hearing, so that the rational sug-
gestions of his own brain, exceptionally valuable in consequence of
the accuracy and delicacy of his highly cultivated tact, seemed to
him to be projected without him, and to be returned to him through
the outward ear. It appears that, though in some of the best
known instances for example, those of Cowper and Sidney Walker
hallucinations of the sense of hearing, otherwise closely resembling
Socrates's " divine sign," have been accompanied by partial derange-
ment of reason, cases are not wanting in which " the thoughts
transformed into external sensorial impressions " are perfectly
rational.
The eccentricity of Socrates's life was not less remarkable
than the oddity of his appearance and the irony of his conver-
sation. His whole time was spent in public in the .. . ....
market-place, the streets, the gymnasia. Thinking
with Dr Johnson that " a great city is the school for studying
life," he had no liking for the country, and seldom passed the
gates. " Fields and trees," Plato makes him say, " will not teach
me anything; the life of the streets will." He talked to all
comers to the craftsman and the artist as willingly as to the
poet or the politician questioning them about their affairs,
about the processes of their several occupations, about their
notions of morality, in a word, about familiar matters in which
they might be expected to take an interest. The ostensible
purpose of these interrogatories was to test, and thus either
refute or explain, the famous oracle which had pronounced him
the wisest of men. Conscious of his own ignorance, he had
at first imagined that the god was mistaken. When, however,
experience showed that those who esteemed themselves wise were
unable to give an account of their knowledge, he had to admit
that, as the oracle had said, he was wiser than others, in so far
as, whilst they, being ignorant, supposed themselves to know,
he, being ignorant, was aware of his ignorance. Such, according
to the Apology, was Socrates's account of his procedure and its
results. But it is easy to see that the statement is coloured by
the accustomed irony. When in the same speech Socrates tells
his judges that he would never from fear of death or from any
other motive disobey the command of the god, and that, if they
put him to death, the loss would be, not his, but theirs, since they
would not readily find any one to take his place, it becomes
plain that he conceived himself to hold a commission to educate,
and was consciously seeking the intellectual and moral improve-
ment of his countrymen. His end could not be achieved without
the sacrifice of self. His meat and drink were of the poorest;
summer and winter his coat was the same; he was shoeless and
shirtless. " A slave whose master made him live as you live,"
says a sophist in the Memorabilia, " would run away." But
by the surrender of the luxuries and the comforts of life Socrates
secured for himself the independence which was necessary that
he might go about his appointed business, and therewith he was
content.
His message was to all, but it was variously received. Those
who heard him perforce and Occasionally were apt to regard
his teaching either with indifference or with irritation, Contempo-
with indifference, if, as might be, they failed to raryjudg-
see in the elenchus anything more than elaborate ments -
trifling; with irritation, if, as was probable, they perceived that,
in spite of his assumed ignorance, Socrates was well aware of
the result to which their enforced answers tended. Amongst
334
SOCRATES
those who deliberately sought and sedulously cultivated his
acquaintance there were some who attached themselves to him
as they might have attached themselves to any ordinary sophist,
conceiving that by temporary contact with so acute a reasoner
they would best prepare themselves for the logomachies of the
law courts, the assembly and the senate. Again, there were
others who saw in Socrates at once master, counsellor and friend,
and hoped by associating with him " to become good men and
true, capable of doing their duty by house and household, by
relations and friends, by city and fellow-citizens " (Xenophon).
Finally, there was a little knot of intimates who, having some-
thing of Socrates's enthusiasm, entered more deeply than the rest
into his principles, and, when he died, transmitted them to the
next generation. Yet even those who belonged to this inner
circle were united, not by any common doctrine, but by a common
admiration for their master's intellect and character.
For, the paradoxes of Socrates's personality and the eccentricity
of his behaviour, if they offended the many, fascinated the few.
p, . , " It is not easy for a man in my condition," says the
Panegyric, intoxicated Alcibiades in Plato's Symposium, " to
describe the singularity of Socrates's character.
But I will try to tell his praises in similitudes. He is like the
piping Silenes in the statuaries' shops, which, when you open
them, are found to contain images of gods. Or, again, he is
like the satyr Marsyas, not only in outward appearance that,
Socrates, you will yourself allow but in other ways also. Like
him, you are given to frolic I can produce evidence to that;
and above all, like him, you are a wonderful musician. Only
there is this difference what he does with the help of his instru-
ment you do with mere words; for whatsoever man, woman or
child hears you, or even a feeble report of what you have said,
is struck with awe and possessed with admiration. As for myself,
were I not afraid that you would think me more drunk than I
am, I would tell you on oath how his words have moved me
ay, and how they move me still. When I listen to him my heart
beats with a more than Corybantic excitement; he has only to
speak and my tears flow. Orators, such as Pericles, never
moved me in this way never roused my soul to the thought
of my servile condition; but this Marsyas makes me think that
life is not worth living so long as I am what I am. Even now,
if I were to listen, I could not resist. So there is nothing for
me but to stop my ears against this siren's song and fly for my
life, that I may not grow old sitting at his feet. No one would
think that I had any shame in me; but I am ashamed in the
presence of Socrates."
The Accusation and its Causes. The life led by Socrates was
not h'kely to win for him either the affection or the esteem of the
vulgar. Those who did not know him personally,
See i n 8 him w ith the eyes of the comic poets, con-
ceived him as a " visionary " (/ierecopoXoyos) and a
"bore" (dSoXecrx 1 ?*)- Those who had faced him in argument,
even if they had not smarted under his rebukes, had at any rate
winced under his interrogatory, and regarded him in consequence
with feelings of dislike and fear. But the eccentricity of his
genius and the ill will borne towards him by individuals are not
of themselves sufficient to account for the tragedy of 399. It
thus becomes necessary to study the circumstances of the trial,
and to investigate the motives which led the accusers to seek
his death and the people of Athens to acquiesce in it.
Socrates was accused (i) of denying the gods recognized by
the state and introducing instead of them strange divinities
(5ai^6fia), and (2) of corrupting the young. The
Accusation. & TSi f these charges rested upon the notorious fact
that he supposed himself to be guided by a divine
visitant or sign (Saiijoviov) . The second, Xenophon tells us, was
supported by a series of particular allegations : (a) that he taught
his associates to despise the institutions of the state, and especially
election by lot ; (b) that he had numbered amongst his associates
Critias and Alcibiades, the most dangerous of the representatives
of the oligarchical and democratical parties respectively; (c) that
he taught the young to disobey parents and guardians and to
prefer his own authority to theirs; (d) that he was in the habit of
Its Weak-
ness.
quoting mischievous passages of Homer and Hesiod to the
prejudice of morality and democracy.
It is plain that the defence was not calculated to conciliate a
hostile jury. Nevertheless, it is at first sight difficult to under-
stand how an adverse verdict became possible. If strength
Socrates rejected portions of the conventional of the
mythology, he accepted the established faith and Defence.
performed its offices with exemplary regularity. If he talked
of a doifioviov, the dainovtov was no new divinity, but a mantic
sign divinely accorded to him, presumably by the gods of the
state. If he questioned the propriety of certain of the institutions
of Athens, he was prepared to yield an unhesitating obedience
to all. He had never countenanced the misdeeds of Critias and
Alcibiades, and indeed, by a sharp censure, had earned the
undying hatred of one .of them. Duty to parents he inculcated
as he inculcated other virtues; and,, if he made the son wiser than
the father, surely that was not a fault. The citation of a few
lines from the poets ought not to weigh against the clear evidence
of his large-hearted patriotism; and it might be suspected that
the accuser had strangely misrepresented his application of the
familiar words.
To the modern reader Xenophon's reply, of which the fore-
going is in effect a summary, will probably seem sufficient, and
more than sufficient. But it must not be forgotten
that Athenians of the old school approached the sub-
ject from an entirely different point of view. Socrates
was in all things an innovator in religion, inasmuch as he sought
to eliminate from the theology of his contemporaries " those
lies which poets tell "; in politics, inasmuch as he distrusted
several institutions dear to Athenian democracy; in education,
inasmuch as he waged war against authority, and in a certain
sense made each man the measure of his own actions. It is
because Socrates was an innovator that we, who see in him the
founder of philosophical inquiry, regard him as a great man;
it was because Socrates was an innovator that old-fashioned
Athenians, who saw in the new-fangled culture the origin of all
their recent distresses and disasters, regarded him as a great
criminal. It is, then, after all hi no wise strange that a majority
was found first to pronounce him guilty, and afterwards, when
he refused to make any submission and professed himself in-
different to any mitigation of the penalty, to pass upon him the
sentence of death. That the verdict and the sentence were not
in any way illegal is generally acknowledged.
But, though the popular distrust of eccentricity, the irritation
of individuals and groups of individuals, the attitude of Socrates
himself, and the prevalent dislike of the intellectual occasion
movement which he represented, go far to account of the
for the result of the trial, they do not explain the Attack.
occasion of the attack. Socrates's oddity and brusquerie were
no new things; yet in the past, though they had made him
unpopular, they had not brought him into the courts. His
sturdy resistance to the demos in 406 and to the Thirty in 404
had passed, if not unnoticed, at all events unpunished. His
political heresies and general unorthodoxy had not caused him
to be excluded from the amnesty of 403. Why was it, then,
that in 399, when Socrates's idiosyncrasies were more than ever
familiar, and when the constitution had been restored, the
toleration hitherto extended to him was withdrawn? What
were the special circumstances which induced three members
of the patriot party, two of them leading politicians, to unite
their efforts against one who apparently was so little
formidable?
For an answer to this question it is necessary to look to the
history of Athenian politics. Besides the oligarchical party,
properly so called, which in 411 was represented by Political
the Four Hundred and in 404 by the Thirty, and the Reasons
democratical party, which returned to power in forlt '
410 and in 403, there was at Athens during the last years of the
Peloponnesian War a party of " moderate oligarchs," antagon-
istic to both. It was to secure the co-operation of the moderate
party that the Four Hundred in 411 promised to constitute the
Five Thousand, and that the Thirty in 404 actually constituted
SOCRATES
335
the Three Thousand. It was in the hope of realizing the
aspirations of the moderate party that Theramenes, its most
prominent representative, allied himself, first with the Four
Hundred, afterwards with the Thirty. In 411 the policy of
Theramenes (<?..) was temporarily successful, the Five Thousand
superseding the Four Hundred. In 404 the Thirty outwitted
him; for, though they acted upon his advice so far as to consti-
tute the Three Thousand, they were careful to keep all real
power in their own hands. But on both occasions the " polity "
for such, in the Aristotelian sense of the term, the constitution
of 411-410 was, and the constitution of 404-403 professed to
be was insecurely based, so that it was not long before the
" unmixed democracy " was restored. The programme of the
" moderates " which included (i) the limitation of the fran-
chise, by the exclusion of those who were unable to provide
themselves with the panoply of a hoplite and thus to render to
the city substantial service, (2) the abolition of payment for the
performance of political functions, and, as it would seem, (3) the
disuse of the lot in the election of magistrates found especial
favour with the intellectual class. Thus Alcibiades was amongst
its promoters, and Thucydides commends the constitution
established after the fall of the Four Hundred as the best which
in his time Athens had enjoyed. Now it is expressly stated that
Socrates disliked election by lot; it is certain that, regarding
paid educational service as a species of prostitution, he would
account paid political service not a whit less odious; and the
stress laid by the accuser upon the Homeric quotation (Iliad ii.
188-202) which ends with the lines 6cuju<W, drpe/tas 17170, KO.L
a\\uiv nv8ov aKove ol ako tpfprepoi elffi o~v 5' a.irTO\e[ios Kal
avaXm, ovre TTOT' ev iroXe/iCO evapWfiios OUT' kvl jSouXjj
becomes intelligible if we may suppose that Socrates, like
Theramenes, wished to restrict the franchise to those who were
rich enough to serve as hoplites at their own expense. Thus, as
might have been anticipated, Socrates was a " moderate," and
the treatment which he received from both the extreme parties
suggests even if with Grote we reject the story told by Diodorus
(xiv. 5), how, when Theramenes was dragged from the altar,
Socrates attempted a rescue that his sympathy with the
moderate party was pronounced and notorious. Even in the
moment of democratic triumph the " moderates " made themselves
heard, Phormisius proposing that those alone should exercise
the franchise who possessed land in Attica; and it is reasonable
to suppose that their position was stronger in 399 than in 403.
These considerations seem to indicate an easy explanation of
the indictment of Socrates by the democratic politicians. It
was a blow struck at the " moderates," Socrates being singled
out for attack because, though not a professional politician, he
was the very type of the malcontent party, and had done much,
probably more than any man living, to make and to foster views
which, if not in the strict sense of the term oligarchical, were
confessedly hostile to the " unmixed democracy." His eccentri-
city and heterodoxy, as well as the personal animosities which he
had provoked, doubtless contributed, as his accusers had fore-
seen, to bring about the conviction; but, in the judgment of the
present writer, it was the fear of what may be called " philo-
sophical radicalism " which prompted the action of Meletus,
Anytus and Lycon. The result did not disappoint their expecta-
tions. The friends of Socrates abandoned the struggle and
retired into exile; and, when they returned to Athens, the most
prominent of them, Plato, was careful to confine himself to
theory, and to announce in emphatic terms his withdrawal from
the practical politics of his native city.
Method and Doctrine. Socrates was not a " philosopher," nor
yet a " teacher," but rather an " educator," having for his function
[' to rouse, persuade and rebuke " (Plato, Apology, 30 E). Hence,
in examining his life's work it is proper to ask, not What was his
philosophy? but What was his theory, and what was his practice,
of education? It is true that he was brought to his theory of
education by the study of previous philosophies, and that his
practice led to the Platonic revival; but to attribute to him philo-
sophy, except in that loose sense in which philosophy is ascribed to
one who, denying the existence of such a thing, can give an account
of his disbelief, is misleading and even erroneous.
Dialectical
Method
Socrates's theory of education had for its basis a profound and
consistent scepticism; that is to say, he not only rejected the con-
flicting theories of the physicists of whom " some sceotklsm
conceived existence as a unity, others as a plurality;
some affirmed perpetual motion, others perpetual rest; some
declared becoming and perishing to be universal, others altogether
denied such things " but also condemned, as a futile attempt
to transcend the limitations of human intelligence, their 4>i\oa<xj>ia,
their " pursuit of knowledge for its own sake." Unconsciously,
or more probably consciously, Socrates rested his scepticism upon
the Protagorean doctrine that man is the measure of his own sensa-
tions and feelings; whence he inferred, not only that knowledge
such as the philosophers had sought, certain knowledge of
nature and its laws, was unattainable, but also that neither he nor
any other person had authority to overbear the opinions of another,
or power to convey instruction to one who had it not. Accordingly,
whereas Protagoras and others, abandoning physical speculation
and coming forward as teachers of culture, claimed for themselves
in this new field power to instruct and authority to dogmatize,
Socrates, unable to reconcile himself to this inconsistency, proceeded
with the investigation of principles until he found a resting-place, a
TTOV <rrS>, in the distinction between good and evil. While all
opinions were equally true, of those opinions which were capable of
being translated into act some, he conceived, were as working
hypotheses more serviceable than others. It was here that the
function of such a one as himself began. Though he had neither
the right nor the power to force his opinions upon another, he might
by a systematic interrogatory lead another to substitute a better
opinion for a worse, just as a physician by appropriate remedies
may enable his patient to substitute a healthy sense of taste for a
morbid one. To administer such an interrogatory and thus to be
the physician of souls was, Socrates thought, his divinely appointed
duty; and, when he described himself as a " talker " or " converser,"
he not only negatively distinguished himself from those who,
whether philosophers or sophists, called themselves " teachers "
(5idaaKa\oi), but also positively indicated the method of question and
answer (SiaXotTuc^) which he consistently preferred and habitually
practised.
That it was in this way that Socrates was brought to regard
" dialectic," " question and answer," as the only admissible method
of education is, in the opinion of the present writer, no
matter of mere conjecture. In the review of theories
of knowledge which has come down to us in Plato's
Theaetetus mention is made (172 B) of certain " incomplete
Protagoreans," who held that, while all opinions are equally
true, one opinion is better than another, and that the " wise
man " is one who by his arguments causes good opinions to take
the place of bad ones, thus reforming the soul of the individual or
the laws of a state by a process similar to that of the physician or
the farmer (166 D seq.) ; and these " incomplete Protagoreans " are
identified with Socrates and the Socratics by their insistence (167 D)
upon the characteristically Socratic distinction between disputation
and dialectic, as well as by other familiar traits of Socratic converse.
In fact, this passage becomes intelligible and significant if it is
supposed to refer to the historical Socrates; and by teaching us to
regard him as an " incomplete Protagorean " it supplies the link
which connects his philosophical scepticism with his dialectical
theory of education. It is no doubt possible that Socrates was
unaware of the closeness of his relationship to Protagoras; but the
fact, once stated, hardly admits of question.
In the application of the " dialectical " or " maieutic " method
two processes are distinguishable the destructive process, by which
the worse opinion was eradicated, and the constructive
process, by which the better opinion was induced. In
general it was not mere " ignorance " with which
Socrates had to contend, but " ignorance mistaking itself for
knowledge " or " false conceit of wisdom " a more stubborn
and a more formidable foe, who, safe so long as he remained
in his intrenchments, must be drawn from them, circumvented,
and surprised. Accordingly, taking his departure from some appar-
ently remote principle or proposition to which the respondent
yielded a ready assent, Socrates would draw from it an unexpected
but undeniable consequence which was plainly inconsistent with the
opinion impugned. In this way he brought his interlocutor to pass
judgment upon himself, and reduced him to a state of " doubt ' or
" perplexity" (&Tropia). " Before I ever met you," says Meno in
the dialogue which Plato called by his name (79 E), 'I was told
that you spent your time in doubting and leading others to doubt ;
and it is a fact that your witcheries and spells have brought me to
that condition; you are like the torpedo: as it benumbs any one
who approaches and touches it, so do you. For myself, my soul
and my tongue are benumbed, so that I have no answer to give you."
Even if, as often happened, the respondent, baffled and disgusted
by the 8X7xs or destructive process, at this point withdrew from
the inquiry, he had, in Socrates's judgment, gained something; for,
whereas formerly, being ignorant, he had supposed himself to have
knowledge, now, being ignorant, he was in some sort conscious of his
ignorance, and accordingly would be for the future more circumspect
in action. If, however, having been thus convinced of ignorance,
SOCRATES
the respondent did not shrink from a new effort, Socrates was
ready to aid him by further questions of a suggestive sort. Consis-
tent thinking with a view to consistent action being the end of the
inquiry, Socrates would direct the respondent's attention to instances
analogous to that in hand, and so lead him to frame for himself a
generalization from which the passions and the prejudices of the
moment were, as far as might be, excluded. In this constructive
process, though the element of surprise was no longer necessary, the
interrogative form was studiously preserved, because it secured at
each step thft conscious and responsible assent of the learner.
Of the two processes of the dialectical method, the JXeTxos or
destructive process attracted the more attention, both in conse-
quence of its novelty and because many of those who
Maleutlcln w ;ningly or unwillingly submitted to it stopped short
Plato and ^ t |j e stage o f " perplexity." But to Socrates and his
xenophon. j n tj ma t es the constructive process was the proper and
necessary sequel. It is true that in the dialogues of Plato
the destructive process is not always, or even often, followed by
construction, and that in the Memorabilia of Xenophon construction
is not always, or even often, preceded by the destructive process.
There is, however, in this nothing surprising. On the one hand,
Xenophon, having for his principal purpose the defence of his master
against vulgar calumny, seeks to show by effective examples the
excellence of his positive teaching, and accordingly is not careful to
distinguish, still less to emphasize, the negative procedure. On the
other hand, Plato, his aim being not so much to preserve Socrates's
positive teaching as rather by written words to stimulate the reader
to self-scsutiny, just as the spoken words of the master had stimu-
lated the hearer, is compelled by the very nature of his task to
keep the constructive element in the background, and, where
Socrates would have drawn an unmistakable conclusion, to confine
himself to enigmatical hints. For example, when we compare
Xenophon's Memorabilia, iv. 6, 2-4, with Plato's Euthyphro, we
note that, while in the former the interlocutor is led by a few sugges-
tive questions to define " piety " as " the knowledge of those laws
which are concerned with the gods," in the latter, though on a
further scrutiny it appears that " piety " is " that part of justice
which is concerned with the service of the gods," the conversation
is ostensibly inconclusive. In short, Xenophon, a mere reporter
of Socrates's conversations, gives the results, but troubles himself
little about the steps which led to them; Plato, who in early manhood
was an educator of the Socratic type, withholds the results that he
may secure the advantages of the elenctic stimulus.
What, then, were the positive conclusions to which Socrates
carried his hearers? and how were those positive conclusions
obtained? Turning to Xenophon for an answer to
nduction these questions, we note (i) that the recorded conversa-
n HI ti ns are concerned with practical action, political,
moral, or artistic; (2) that in general there is a process
from the known to the unknown through a generalization, expressed
or implied; (3) that the generalizations are sometimes rules of con-
duct, justified by examination of known instances, sometimes
definitions similarly established. Thus, in Memorabilia, iv. I, 3,
Socrates argues from the known instances of horses and dogs that,
the best natures stand most in need of training, and then applies
the generalization to the instance under discussion, that of men ; and
in iv. 6, 13-14, he leads his interlocutor to a definition of " the good
citizen," and then uses it to decide between two citizens for whom
respectively superiority is claimed. Now in the former of these
cases the process which Aristotle would describe as " example "
(jrapa5-y/m), and a modern might regard as " induction " of an
uncritical sort sufficiently explains itself. The conclusion is a
provisional assurance that in the particular matter in hand a certain
course of action is, or is not, to be adopted. But it is necessary to
say a word of explanation about the latter case, in which, the general-
ization being a definition, that is to say, a declaration that to a
given term the interlocutor attaches in general a specified meaning,
the conclusion is a provisional assurance that the interlocutor may,
or may not, without falling into inconsistency, apply the term in
question to a certain person or act. Moral error, Socrates conceived,
is largely due to the misapplication of general terms, which, once
affixed to a person or to an act, possibly in a moment of passion
or prejudice, too often stand in the way of sober and careful reflection.
It was in order to exclude error of this sort that Socrates insisted
upon TO opiia8ai ttaB6\ov with ttraxTiKoi X^TOI for its basis. By
requiring a definition and the reference to it of the act or person in
question, he sought to secure in the individual at any rate consistency
of thought, and, in so far, consistency of action. Accordingly he
spent his life in seeking and helping others to seek " the what "
(T& rl), or the definition, of the various words by which the moral
quality of actions is described, valuing the results thus obtained
not as contributions to knowledge, but as means to right action in
the multifarious relations of life.
While, however, Socrates sought neither knowledge, which in
the strict sense of the word he held to be unattainable, nor yet,
except as a means to right action, true opinion, the
virtue!* results of observation accumulated until they formed,
ieage. not p er haps a system of ethics, but at any rate
a body of ethical doctrine. Himself blessed with a will so powerful
that it moved almost without friction, he fell into the error of
ignoring its operations, and was thus led to regard knowledge as the
sole condition of well-doing. Where there is knowledge that is to
say, practical wisdom (<t>pt>vria ) , the only knowledge which he
recognized right action, he conceived, follows of itself; for no one
knowingly prefers what is evil ; and, if there are cases in which men
seem to act against knowledge, the inference to be drawn is, not that
knowledge and wrongdoing are compatible, but that in the cases
in question the supposed knowledge was after all ignorance. Virtue,
then, is knowledge, knowledge at once of end and of means, irre-
sistibly realizing itself in act. Whence it follows that the several
virtues which are commonly distinguished are essentially one.
" Piety," " justice," " courage " and " temperance " are the names
which " wisdom " bears in different spheres of action: to be pious is
to know what is due to the gods; to be just is to know what is due to
men ; to be courageous is to know what is to be feared and what is
not ; to be temperate is to know how to use what is good and avoid
what is evil. Further, inasmuch as virtue is knowledge, it can
be acquired by education and training, though it is certain that
one soul has by nature a greater aptitude than another for such
acquisition.
But, if virtue is knowledge, what has this knowledge for its object?
To this question Socrates replies, Its object is the Good. What,
then, is the Good? It is the useful, the advantageous.
Utility, the immediate utility of the individual, thus Theory of
becomes the measure of conduct and the foundation e 0< "'-
of all moral rule and legal enactment. Accordingly, each pre-
cept of which Socrates delivers himself is recommended on the
ground that obedience to it will promote the pleasure, the
comfort, the advancement, the well-being of the individual; and
Prodicus's apologue of the Choice of Heracles, with its commonplace
offers of worldly reward, is accepted as an adequate statement of
the motives of virtuous action. Of the graver difficulties of ethical
theory Socrates has no conception, having, as it would seem, so
perfectly absorbed, the lessons of what Plato calls " political virtue "
that morality has become with him a second nature, and the
scrutiny of its credentials from an external standpoint has ceased
to be possible. His theory is indeed so little systematic that,
whereas, as has been seen, virtue or wisdom has the Good for its
object, he sometimes identifies the Good, with virtue or wisdom,
thus falling into the error which Plato (Republic vi. 505 C), perhaps
with distinct reference to Socrates, ascribes to certain " cultivated
thinkers." In short, the ethical theory of Socrates, like the rest of
his teaching, is by confession unscientific ; it is the statement of the
convictions of a remarkable nature, which statement emerges in
the course of an appeal to the individual to study consistency in the
interpretation of traditional rules of conduct. For a critical exami-
nation of the ethical teaching which is here described in outline, see
ETHICS.
The Socratics.
It has been seen that, so far from having any system, physical
or metaphysical, to enunciate, Socrates rejected " the pursuit of
knowledge for its own sake " as a delusion and a snare,
a delusion, inasmuch as knowledge, properly so called, Socratic
is unattainable, and a snare, in so far as the pursuit of Schools.
it draws us away from the study of conduct. He has therefore no
claim to be regarded as the founder of a philosophical school. But
he had made some tentative contributions to a theory of morality ;
he had shown both in his life and in his death that his principles
stood the test of practical application ; he had invented a method
having for its end the rectification of opinion; and, above all, he
had asserted " the autonomy of the individual intellect." Accor-
dingly, not one school but several schools sprang up amongst his
associates, those of them who had a turn for speculation taking
severally from his teaching so much as their pre-existing tendencies
and convictions allowed them to assimilate. Thus Aristippus of
Cyrene interpreted hedonistically the theoretical morality; Antis-
thenes the Cynic copied and caricatured the austere example;
Euclides of Megara practised and perverted the eienctic method;
Plato the Academic, accepting the whole of the Socratic teaching,
first developed it harmoniously in the sceptical spirit of its author,
and afterwards, conceiving that he had found in Socrates's agnosti-
cism the germ of a philosophy, proceeded to construct a system
which should embrace at once ontology, physics, and ethics. From
the four schools thus established sprang subsequently four other
schools, the Epicureans being the natural successors of the Cyre-
naics, the Stoics of the Cynics, the Sceptics of the Megarians, and the
Peripatetics of the Academy. In this way the teaching of Socrates
made itself felt throughout the whole of the post-Socratic philosophy.
Of the influence which he exercised upon Aristippus, Antisthenes
and Euclides, the " incomplete Sociatics," as they are commonly
called, as well as upon the " complete Socratic," Plato, something
must now be said.
The "incomplete Socratics" were, like Socrates, sceptics; but,
whereas Aristippus, who seems to have been in contact with Pro-
tagoreanism before he made acquaintance with Socrates,
came to scepticism, as Protagoras had done, from the ''
standpoint of the pluralists, Antisthenes, like his *
former master Gorgias, and Euclides, in whom the ancients
SOCRATES
337
rightly saw a successor of Zeno, came to scepticism from the stand-
point of Eleatic henism. In other words, Aristippus was sceptical
because, taking into account the subjective element in sensation,
he found himself compelled to regard what are called " things " as
successions of feelings, which feelings are themselves absolutely
distinct from one another; while Antisthenes and Euclides were
sceptical because, like Zeno, they did not understand how the same
thing could at the same moment bear various and inconsistent
epithets, and consequently conceived all predication which was not
identical to be illegitimate. Thus Aristippus recognized only
feelings, denying things; Antisthenes recognized things, denying
attributions; and it is probable that in this matter Euclides was at
one with him. For, though since Schleiermacher many historians,
unnecessarily identifying the ti&av <t>l\oi of Plato's Sophist with
the Megarians, have ascribed to Euclides a theory of " ideas," and on
the strength of this single passage thus conjecturally interpreted
have added a new chapter to the history of Megarianism, it is difficult,
if not impossible, to see how, if the founder of the school had broken
loose from the trammels of the Zenonian paradox, his successors,
and amongst them Stilpo, should have reconciled themselves, as
they certainly did, to the Cynic denial of predication.
While the " incomplete Socratics " made no attempt to overpass
the limits which Socrates had imposed upon himself, within those
limits they occupied each his department. Aristippus, a citizen
of the world, drawn to Athens by the fame of Socrates, and retained
there by the sincere affection which he conceived for him, inter-
preted the ethical doctrine of Socrates in accordance with his own
theory of pleasure, which in its turn came under the refining influence
of Socrates's theory of </>pic7)<ns. Contrariwise, Antisthenes, a
rugged but not ungenerous nature, a hater of pleasure, troubled
himself little about ethical theory and gave his life to the imitation
of his master's asceticism. Virtue, he held, depended upon " works,"
not upon arguments or lessons; all that was necessary to it was the
strength of a Socrates (Diog. Laert. vi. ll). Yet here too the
Socratic theory of Qpiwriim had a qualifying effect; so that Cyrenaic
hedonism and Cynic asceticism sometimes exhibit unexpected
approximations. The teaching of Euclides, though the Good is
still supposed to be the highest object of knowledge, can hardly be
said to have an ethical element; and in consequence of this deficiency
the dialectic of Socrates degenerated in Megarian hands, first into a
series of exercises in fallacies, secondly into a vulgar and futile eristic.
In fact, the partial Socraticisms of the incomplete Socratics neces-
sarily suffered, even within their own narrow limits, by the dismem-
berment which the system had undergone. Apparently the maieutic
theory of education was not valued by any of the three; and, however
this may be, they deviated from Socratic tradition so far as to
establish schools, and, as it would seem, to take fees like the profes-
sional educators called Sophists.
Of the relations in which the metaphysic of Plato stood to the
Socratic search for definitions there are of necessity almost as many
w , theories as there are interpretations of the Platonic
system. Hence in this place the writer must content
. e a " k . himself with a summary statement of his own views.
T/ieories Initiated into philosophical speculation by the Hera-
clitean Cratylus, Plato began his intellectual life as an
absolute sceptic, the followers of Heraclitus having towards the
end of the 5th century pushed to its conclusion the unconscious
scepticism of their master. There would have been then nothing
to provoke surprise, if, leaving speculation, Plato had given himself
to politics. In 407, however, he became acquainted with Socrates,
who gave to his thoughts a new direction. Plato now found an
occupation for his intellectual energies, as Socrates had done, in the
scrutiny of his beliefs and the systematization of his principles of
action. But it was not until the catastrophe of 399 that Plato gave
himself to his life's work. An exile, cut off from political ambitions,
he came forward as the author of dialogues which aimed at producing
upon readers the same effect which the voice of the master had pro-
duced upon hearers. For a time he was content thus to follow in
the steps of Socrates, and of this period we have records in those
dialogues which are commonly designated Socratic. But Plato had
too decided a bent for metaphysics to linger long over propaedeutic
studies. Craving knowledge not merely provisional and subjective
knowledge of ethical concepts, such as that which had satisfied
Socrates, but knowledge of the causes and laws of the universe, such
as that which the physicists had sought he asked himself what
was necessary that the " right opinion " which Socrates had obtained
by abstraction from particular instances might be converted into
" knowledge " properly so called. In this way Plato was led to
assume for every Socratic universal a corresponding unity, eternal,
immutable, suprasensual, to be the cause of those particulars which
are called by the common name. On this assumption the Socratic
definition or statement of the " what " of the universal, being ob-
tained by the inspection of particulars, in some sort represented the
unity, form, or " idea " from which they derived their characteristics,
and in so far was valuable; but, inasmuch as the inspection of the
particulars was partial and imperfect, the Socratic definition was
only a partial and imperfect representation of the eternal, immutable,
suprasensual, idea. How, then, was the imperfect representation
of the idea to be converted into a perfect representation? To this
question Plato's answer was vague and tentative. By constant
revision of the provisional definitions which imperfectly represented
the ideas he hoped to bring them into such shapes that they should
culminate in the definition of the supreme principle, the Good,
from which the ideas themselves derive their being. If in this way
we could pass from uncertified general notions, reflections of ideas,
to the Good, so as to be able to say, not only that the Good causes
the ideas to be what they are, but also that the Good causes the ideas
to be what we conceive them, we might infer, he thought, that our
definitions, hitherto provisional, are adequate representations of
real existences. But the Platonism of this period had another
ingredient. It has been seen that the Eleatic Zeno had rested his
denial of plurality upon certain supposed difficulties of predication,
and that they continued to perplex Antisthenes as well as perhaps
Euclides and others of Plato's contemporaries. These difficulties
must be disposed of, if the new philosophy was to hold its ground ;
and accordingly, to the fundamental assertion of the existence of
eternal immutable ideas, the objects of knowledge. Plato added two
subordinate propositions, namely, (l) " the idea is immanent in the
particular," and (2) " there is an idea wherever a plurality of particu-
lars is called by the same name." Of these propositions the one was
intended to explain the attribution of various and even inconsistent
epithets to the same particular at the same time, whilst the other
was necessary to make this explanation available in the case of
common terms other than the Socratic universals. Such was the
Platonism of the Republic and the Phoedo, a provisional ontology,
with a scheme of scientific research, which, as Plato honestly con-
fessed, was no more than an unrealized aspiration. It was the non-
Socratic element which made the weakness of this, the earlier, theory
of ideas. Plato soon saw that the hypothesis of the idea's immanence
in particulars entailed the sacrifice of its unity, whilst as a theory
of predication that hypothesis was insufficient, because applicable
to particulars only, not to the ideas themselves. But with clearer
views about relations and negations the paradox of Zeno ceased
to perplex; and with the consequent withdrawal of the two supple-
mentary articles the development of the fundamental assumption
of ideas, eternal, immutable, suprasensual, might be attempted
afresh. In the more definite theory which Plato now propounded
the idea was no longer a Socratic universal perfected and hyposta-
tized, but rather the perfect type of a natural kind, to which type
its imperfect members were related by imitation, whilst this relation
was metaphysically explained by means of a " thoroughgoing
idealism" (R. D. Archer-Hind). Thus, whereas in the earlier theory
of ideas the ethical universals of Socrates had been held to have a
first claim to hypostatization in the world of ideas, they are now
peremptorily excluded, whilst the idealism which reconciles plurality
and unity gives an entirely new significance to so much of the Socratic
element as is still retained.
The growth of the metaphysical system necessarily influenced
Plato's ethical doctrines; but here his final position is less remote
from that of Socrates. Content in the purely Socratic
period to elaborate and to record ethical definitions
such as Socrates himself might have propounded, Plato,
as soon as the theory of ideas offered itself to his
imagination, looked to it for the foundation of ethics as of all other
sciences. Though in the earlier ages both of the individual and of
the state a sound utilitarian morality of the Socratic sort was useful,
nay valuable, the morality of the future should, he thought, rest
upon the knowledge of the Good. Such is the teaching of the
Republic, But with the revision of the metaphysical system came
a complete change in the view which Plato toojk of ethics and its
prospects. Whilst in the previous period it had ranked as the first
of sciences, it was now no longer a science; because, though Good
absolute still occupied the first place, Good relative and all its various
forms justice, temperance, courage, wisdom not being ideas,
were incapable of being " known." Hence it is that the ethical
teaching of the later dialogues bears an intelligible, though perhaps
unexpected, resemblance to the simple practical teaching of the
unphilosophical Socrates.
Yet throughout these revolutions of doctrine Plato was ever true
to the Socratic theory of education. His manner indeed changed;
for, whereas in the earlier dialogues the characteristics of the master
are studiously and skilfully preserved, in the later dialogues Socrates
first becomes metaphysical, then ceases to be protagonist, and at
last disappears from the scene. But in the later dialogues, as in the
earlier, Plato's aim is the aim which Socrates in his conversation
never lost sight of, namely, the dialectical improvement of the
learner.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of the histories of Greek philosophy the most
convenient for the study of Socrates's life and work is Zeller's Philo-
sophie d. Griechen. The part in question has been translated into
English under the title of Socrates and the Socratic Schools (London,
1877). For a list of special treatises, see Ueberweg in his Grundriss d.
Geschichte d. Philosophie. The following sources of information
may be specially mentioned: F. Schleiermacher, " Ueber d. Werth
d. Sokrates als Philosophen," in Abh. d. berliner Akad. d. Wissensch.
(1815) and Werke, iii. 2, 287-308, translated into English by C.
Thirlwall in the Philological Museum (Cambridge, 1833), ii.
538-555; L- F. Llut, Du Demon de Socrate (Paris, 1836, 1856),
reviewed by E. Littr6 in Medecine et mtdecins (Paris, 1872); G.
Grote, History of Greece, ch. Ixviii., and Plato and the Other Companions
Plato's
Ethical
Theories.
SOCRATES
of Sokrates (London, 1865); C. F. Hermann, De Socratis accusa-
toribus (Gottingen, 1854); W. H. Thompson, The Phaedrus of Plato
(London, 1868), Appendix I.; Joel, Der echte und der Xenophontische
Sokrates (1901). For the view taken in the present article with
regard to the S<uiiAu>v, see the writer's paper " On the Saiubviov of
Socrates," in the Journal of Philology, v. ; and cf. Chr. Meiners,
Vermischte philosophische Schriften (Leipzig, 1776) " in moments
of ' Schwarmerei ' Socrates took for the voice of an attendant genius
what was in reality an instantaneous presentiment in regard to the
issue of a contemplated act." For a fuller statement of the writer's
view of Plato's relations to Socrates, see a paper on Plato's Republic,
vi. 509 D seq., in the Journal of Philology, vol. x., and a series of papers
on " Plato's Later Theory of Ideas," in vols. x., xi., xiii., xiv., xv.,
xxv. of the same periodical.
See also SOPHISTS and ETHICS. (H. JA.)
SOCRATES, the name of a famous sth-century church historian.
In the course of the last twenty-five years (425-450) of the reign
of Theodosius II. (the first thoroughly Byzantine emperor) at
least six church histories were written in Greek within the
limits of the Eastern Empire those, namely, of Philostorgius
the Arian, of Philip of Side, of Socrates, of Sozomen, of Theodoret
and of Hesychius. Of these the first, no longer extant except
in fragments, seems to have been the most important. Those
of Philip and of Hesychius (the former an untrustworthy and
dreary performance mentioned by Socrates [vii. 26, 27]) have
also perished. The remaining three are now our main sources
for church history from Constantine to Theodosius II. None of
them has ventured upon a fresh treatment of the period dealt
with by Eusebius; all three begin their narratives about the
point where his closes. In the West the Church History of that
author had already been continued by Rufinus and his Chronicle
by Jerome, and the work of Rufinus was certainly known to the
Byzantines. Nor did these write independently of each other,
for Sozomen (<?..) certainly had before him the work of Socrates,
and Theodoret (q.v.) knew both of them. The three histories
together became known in the West from the 6th century through
the selection which Cassiodorus caused to be made from them,
and it is to this selection (if we leave Rufinus and Jerome out of
account) that the middle ages were mainly indebted for all they
knew of the Arian controversies, and of the period generally
between the Councils of Nice and Ephesus.
The 'E/c/cXjjo-taoTuo} IffTopia of Socrates, still extant in
seven books, embracing the period from 306 to 439, was written
in 439, or within a few years thereafter. He was born and
brought up at Constantinople. The date of his birth is uncertain,
but it cannot have been far from 380. Of the facts of his life we
know practically nothing, except that he was not a cleric but a
" scholasticus " or advocate. Of the occasion, plan and object
of his work he has himself informed us in the prologues to his
first, second, fifth and sixth books. It is dedicated to one
Theodorus, who had urged him to write such a history. He
had no thorough preparation for the task, and for the period
down to the death of Constantius (361) was practically dependent
on Rufinus. After his work was finished he became a student
of Athanasius' writings and came to see how untrustworthy his
guide had been. He accordingly rewrote his first two books (see
H. E. ii. i) certainly before 450 and probably before 444 (see
Geppert p. 8), and it is only this revision that has reached us.
The chief sources from which he drew were: (i) the Church
History, the Life of Constantine and certain theological works of
Eusebius; (2) the Church History of Rufinus; (3) certain works of
Athanasius; (4) the no longer extant Supcryuryij rSov crvvoSiKuv
of the Macedonian and semi- Arian Sabinus a collection of acts
of councils with commentaries, brought down to the reign of
Theodosius I. (this was a main source) ; (5) the Constantinopolitan
Chronicle; (6) possibly a collection of imperial biographies;
(7) lists of bishops; (8) collections of letters by members of the
Arian and orthodox parties. He also used writings of Gregory
Thaumaturgus, Archelaus, Acacius,Didymus, George of Laodicea,
Gregory Nazianzen, Timothy of Berytus (see Lietzmann,
A pollinaris von Laodicea, p. 44) , Nestorius, Eusebius Scholasticus,
Philip of Side, Evagrius, Palladius, Eutropius, the emperor
Julian and orations of Libanius and Themistius; and he was
apparently acquainted with some of the works of Origen and with
Pamphilus' Apologia pro Origene. (On his sources see Jeep,
and especially Geppert.) Jeep alleges (pp. 149 sqq.), but without
adequate proof, that he made use of Philostorgius. As regards
profane history his materials were exceedingly defective. Thus,
for example, he confesses that his reason for not giving an account
of the wars of Constantine is his inability to ascertain anything
certain about them (v. praef.). His reckonings by Olympiads
are generally wrong, the error arising chiefly from carelessness.
He is greatly indebted to oral tradition and to the testimony of
eye-witnesses, especially of members of the Novatian community
in Constantinople; some things also he has set down from per-
sonal knowledge. The contents of the closing books are for
the most part derived from oral tradition, from the narratives
of friends and countrymen, from what was still generally known
and current in the capital about past events, and from the
ephemeral literature of the day.
The theological position of Socrates, so far as he can be said to
have had one, is at once disclosed in his unlimited admiration for
Origen. All the enemies of the great Alexandrian he regards
merely as empty and vain obscurantists; for the orthodoxy of his
hero he appeals to Athanasius. Closely connected with his high
regard for Origen are his appreciation of science generally and the
moderation of his judgment on all dogmatic questions. According
to him, 'EXXijvodi 7r(uiea is quite indispensable within the Church;
many Greek philosophers were not far from the knowledge of God,
as is proved by their triumphant arguments against atheists and
gainsayers of divine providence. The apostles did not set them-
selves against the study of Greek literature and science; Paul had
even made a thorough study of them himself. The Scriptures, it
is true, contain all that appertains to faith and life, but give no
clue to the art of confuting gainsayers. Greek science, therefore,
must not be banished from the Church, and the tendency within the
Church so to deal with it is wrong. This point of view was the
common one of the majority of educated Christians at that period,
and is not to be regarded as exceptionally liberal. The same holds
true of the position of Socrates in regard to dogmatic questions.
On the one hand, indeed, orthodoxy and heresy are symbolized to
his mind by the wheat and the tares respectively; he clings to the
naive opinion of Catholicism, that contemporary orthodoxy has
prevailed within the Church from the first; he recognizes the true
faith only in the mystery of the Trinity; he judges heretics who have
been already condemned as interlopers, as impudent innovators,
actuated by bad and self -seeking motives; he apologizes for having
so much as treated of Arianism at all in his history of the Church;
he believes in the inspiration of the ecclesiastical councils as much as
in that of the Scriptures themselves. But, on the other hand, he
takes absolutely no interest in dogmatic subtleties and clerical
disputes; he regards them as the source of great evils, and expresses
his craving for peace: " one ought to adore the ineffable mystery
in silence." This attitude, which was that of most educated
Byzantine laymen, has in particular cases made it possible for him
to arrive at very free judgments. Even granting that some feeble
remains of antique reserve may have contributed to this, and even
although some of it is certainly to be set down to his disposition and
temperament, still it was his religious passivity that here deter-
mined the character of Socrates and made him a typical example
of the later Byzantine Christianity. If Socrates had lived about the
year 325, he certainly would not have ranked himself on the side of
Athanasius, but would have joined the party of mediation. But
the biJLooiiauK has been laid down, and must be recognized as
correctly expressing the mystery; only one ought to rest satisfied
with that word and with the repudiation of Arianism. Anything
more, every new distinction, is mischievous. The controversy in
its details is a vvKTOfiaxia to him, full of misunderstandings. Some-
times he gives prominence, and correctly, to the fact that the
disputants partially failed to understand one another, because they
had separate interests at heart those on the one side desiring above
everything to guard against polytheism, those on the other being
most afraid of Sabellianism. He did not fail, however, to recognize
also that the controversies frequently had their root in mere emula-
tion, slander and sophistry. Not unfrequently he passes very sharp
judgments on whole groups of bishops. In the preface to his fifth
book he excuses his trenching on the region of political history on
the ground of his desire to spare his readers the disgust which perusal
of the endless disputes of the bishops could not fail to excite, and in
that to his sixth book he prides himself on never having flattered
even the orthodox bishops. This attitude of his has given him a
certain measure of impartiality. Constantius, and even Julian
not Valens, it is true-j-are estimated very fairly. The Arian Goths
who died for their religion are recognized as genuine martyrs. His
characterizations of Cyril and Nestorius, and his narrative and criti-
cism of the beginnings of the Christological controversy, are models
of candour and historical conscientiousness. In frequent instances,
moreover, he acknowledges his own incompetency to give an opinion
SODALITE SODEN, H.
339
and hands the question over to the clergy. For the clergy as a
whole, in spite of his criticism of individuals, he has the very highest
respect, as also for the monks, without himself making any inordinate
religious professions. In a special excursus of considerable length
he has paid a tribute of the highest order to monachism, and in his
characterization of Theodosius II. also (where he has made use
of the brightest colours) he does not fail to point out that in piety
the emperor could almost compete with the monks. But, apart
from these two chapters (iv. 23, vii. 22), it is but seldom that one
could learn from the pages of Socrates that there was such a thing
as monasticism in those days. To his mind the convent is not far
removed from the church, and as a layman he is not at all inclined
to accept the principles of monachism as applying to himself or to
square his views of history in accordance with them. He has even
gone so far as formally to express his sympathy with Paphnutius,
the champion of the right of bishops to marry.
As a source' for the period within which he wrote, the work of
Socrates is of the greatest value, but as " history " it disappoints
even the most modest expectations. Eusebius, after all, had some
conception of what is meant by " church history," but Socrates has
none. " As long as there is peace there is no material for a history
of the church " ; but, on the other hand, neither do heresies by rights
come into the story. What, then, is left for it? A collection of
anecdotes and a series of episodes. In point of fact this is the view
actually taken by Socrates. His utter want of care and consistency
appears most clearly in his vacillation as to the relations between
ecclesiastical and political history. At one time he brings in politics,
at another he excuses himself from doing so. He has not failed to
observe that Church and State act and react upon each other; but he
has no notion how the relation ought to be conceived. Nevertheless,
his whole narrative follows the thread of political that is to say,
of imperial history. This indeed is characteristic of his Byzantine
Christian point of view; church history becomes metamorphosed
into a history of the emperors and of the state, because a special
church history is at bottom impossible. But even so one hardly
hears anything about state or court except great enterprises and
anecdotes. Political insight is wholly wanting to Socrates; all
the orthodox emperors blaze forth in a uniform light of dazzling
splendour; even the miserable Arcadius is praised, and Theodosius
II. figures as a saint whose exemplary piety turned the capital into a
church. If in addition to all this we bear in mind that in his later
books the historian's horizon is confined to the city and patriarchate
of Constantinople, that he was exceedingly ill informed on all that
related to Rome and the West, that in order to fill out his pages he
has introduced narratives of the most unimportant description, that
in not a few instances he has evinced his credulity (although when
compared with the majority of his contemporaries he is still entitled
to be called critical), it becomes sufficiently clear that his History,
viewed as a whole and as a literary production, can at best take only
a secondary place. One great excellence, however, cannot be denied
him, his honest and sincere desire to be impartial. He tried also,
as far as he could, to distinguish between the certain, the probable,
the doubtful and the untrue. He made no pretence to be a searcher
of hearts and frequently declines to analyse motives. He has
made frank confession of his nescience, and in certain passages
his critical judgment and sober sense and circumspection are quite
striking. He writes a plain and unadorned style and shuns super-
fluous words. Occasionally even there are touches of humour
and of trenchant satire always the sign of an honest writer. In
short, his learning and knowledge can be trusted little, but his
goodwill and straightforwardness a great deal. Considering the
circumstances under which he wrote, it can only be matter for con-
gratulation that such a man should have become our informant and
that his work has been preserved to us.
Finally, it looks as if Socrates was either himself originally a
Novatianist who had afterwards joined the Catholic Church, or stood,
through his ancestors or by education, in most intimate relations with
the Novatianist Church. In his History he betrays great sympathy
with that body, has gone with exactness into its history in Constanti-
nople and Phrygia, and is indebted for much of the material of his
work to Novatianist tradition and to his intercourse with prominent
members of the sect. Both directly and indirectly he has declared
that Novatianists and Catholics are brothers, that as such they
ought to seek the closest relations with one another, and that the
former ought to enjoy all the privileges of the latter. His efforts,
however, had only this result, that he himself afterwards fell under
suspicion of Novatianism.
EDITIONS AND LITERATURE. Socrates' History has been edited by
Stephanus (Paris, 1544; Geneva, 1612), Valesius (Paris, 1659 sqq.),
Reading (Cambridge, 1720), Hussey (Oxford, 1853, reissued by
Bright, 1878). It is also to be found in volume Ixvii. of Migne's
Patrologia, and there is an Oxford school edition (1844) after Reading.
The latest English translation, revised by Zenos.js published in the
Nicene and post Nicene Fathers, 2nd series, vol. ii. There are Testi-
tnonia veterum in Valesius and more fully in Hussey; and Nolte's
paper in Tubing. Quartalschr. (1859, p. 518 seq.), contains emendations
in Hussey 's text, and notes towards the history of the text and
editions; see also Overbeck, in Tkeol. lit. Ztung. (1879), no. 20.
Special studies have been made by Baronius, Miraeus, Labb<5,
Valesius, Halloix, Scaliger, Ceillier, Cave, Dupin, Pagi, Ittig, Tille-
mont, Walch, Gibbon, Schroeckh, Lardner. See also Voss, De
histor. graecis; Fabricius-Harless, Biblioth. gr., vol. vii.; Rossler,
Bittiothek d. Kirc henvattr ; Holzhausen, De fontibus guibus Socr.,
Soz., ac Theod. in scribenda historia sacra, usi sunt (Gottingen, 1825);
Staudlin, Gesch. u. Lit. d. K.-G. (Hanover, 1827); Baur, Epochen
(1852); Harnack, " Socrates u. Sozomen" in Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encykl., 2nd ed.; Loeschke, " Sokrates," ibid., 3rd. ed. Detached
details are given also in works upon Constantine (Manso), Julian
(Mttcke, Rode, Neumann, Rendall), Damasus (Rade), Arianism
(Gwatkin's Studies of Arianism, which gives a severe but trust-
worthy criticism of Rufinus and discusses the manner in which
Socrates was related to him), the emperors after Julian (De Broglie,
Richter, Clinton, the Weltgeschichte of Ranke, the Gesch. d. ost-
romischen Reiches unter den Kaisern Arcadius u. Theod. II. (1885) of
Gtildenpenning, and the Kaiser Theodosius d. Gr., Halle (1878) of
Giildenpenning and Iffland, the last-named work discussing the
relation of Socrates to Sozomen), the barbarian migrations (Wieters-
heim, Dahn), the Goths (Waitz, Bessel, Kauffmann and Scott's
Ulfilas, 1885). Lastly, reference may be made to Sarrazin, De
Theodora Lectore, Theophanis fonte praecipuo (1881, treats of the
relation between Socrates and Sozomen, and of the completeness
of the former's work) ; Jeep, Quellenuntersuch. z. d. griech. Kirchen-
historikern (1884); Geppert, Die Quellen des Kirchenhistorikers
Socrates Scholasticus (1898). (A. HA.; A. C. McG.)
SODALITE, a group of rock-forming minerals comprising the
following isomorphous species:
Sodalite Nai(AlCl)Al 2 (SiO J ) 3
Hatty nite . . (Na 2 , Ca) a (NaSOi-Al)Al 2 (SiO 4 )3
Noselite . . Na < (NaSO4-Al)Al 2 (SiO 1 ) 3
Lazurite . . Na4(NaS 3 -Al)Al 2 (SiO 4 )3
They are thus sodium (or calcium) aluminium silicates, with
chloride, sulphate or sulphide. In their orthosilicate formulae, as
above written, and in their cubic crystalline form they present a
certain resemblance to the members of the garnet group. Crystals
usually have the form of the rhombic dodecahedron, and are
often twinned with interpenetration on an octahedral plane.
They are white, or often blue in colour, and have a vitreous
lustre. The hardness is 55, and the specific gravity 2-2-2-4.
These minerals are characteristic constituents of igneous rocks
rich in soda, and they also occur in metamorphic limestones.
The species sodalite (so named because it contains soda) occurs
as well-formed, colourless crystals in the ejected limestone blocks
of Monte Somma, Vesuvius, and in the sodalite-syenite of Juliane-
haab in south Greenland. Massive blue material is common in the
elaeplite-syenites of southern Norway, Gyergyo-Ditro in Transyl-
vania, Miyask in the Urals, Litchfield in Maine, Dungannon in
Ontario, Ice river in Kootenay county, British Columbia, &c. ; at
the three last-named localities it is found as large masses of a bright
sky-blue colour and suitable for cutting as an ornamental stone.
Recently, large masses with a pink colour, which quickly fades on
exposure to light, have been met with in elaeolite-pegmatite at
Kishangarh in Rajputana. Haiiynite, or haiiyne (named after
R. J. Haiiy), occurs as bright blue crystals and grains in the lavas
(phonolite, tephrite, &c.) of Vesuvius, Rome, the Eifel, &c. Nose-
lite, or nosean, is found as greyish crystals in the sanidine bombs of
the Eifel. Lazurite is an important constituent, together with some
haiiynite and sodalite, of lapis-lazuli (q.v.). (L. J. S.)
SODEN, a town and spa of Germany, in the Prussian pro-
vince of Hesse-Nassau, pleasantly situated in the valley of the
Sulzbach under the southern slope of the Taunus range, 10 m.
from Frankfort-on-Main and 4 m. N. from Hochst by rail.
Pop. (1905), 1917. The chief interest of the place centres in its
brine springs which are largely impregnated with carbonic acid
gas and oxide of iron, and are efficacious in chronic catarrh of
the respiratory organs, in liver and stomach disorders and
women's diseases. The waters are used both internally and
externally, and are largely exported. Soden lozenges (Sodener
Paslitten), condensed from the waters, are also in great repute.
Soden has a large and well-appointed Kurhaus, an Erangelical
and a Roman Catholic church, and a hospital for indigent
patients.
See Haupt, Soden am Taunus (Wiirzburg, 1902); and Kohler,
Der Kurort Soden am Taunus und seine Umgebungen (Frankfort, 1873).
SODEN, HERMANN, FREIHERR VON (1852- ), German
biblical scholar, was born in Cincinnati on the i6th of August
1852, and was educated at the university of Tubingen. He was
minister of Dresden-Striesen in 1881 and in 1887 became minister
of the Jerusalem Church in Berlin. In 1889 he became privai-
dozent in the university of Berlin, and four years later was
340
SODERHAMN SODIUM
appointed extraordinary professor of divinity. His earlier
works include Philipperbrief (1890); " Untersuchungen iiber
neutest. Schriften " in the Protest. Jahrb. theolog. Studien
und Schriftkommentar (1895-1897); Und was tut d. evangel.
Kirche? (3rd. ed. 1890) ; Reisebriefe aus Palastina (and ed. 1901) ;
Palastina und seine Gesch. (2nd ed. 1904); Die wichtigsten Fragen
im Leben Jesu (1904); Urchristliche Literaturgesch. (1904). His
most important book is Die Schriften des neuen Testaments, in
Hirer altesten erreichbaren Textgestalt hergestettt auf Grund ihrer
Textgeschichte (Berlin, Bd. I., 1902-1910); certainly the most
important work on the text of the New Testament which had
been published since Westcott and Hort's New Testament in
the Original Greek (see BIBLE: New Testament),
Von Soden introduces, besides a new notation of MSS. (see Bible,
N.T. MSS. and versions), a new theory of textual history. He
thinks that in the 4th century there were in existence three recen-
sions of the text, which he distinguishes as K, H and I, with the
following characteristics and attestations.
K corresponds roughly to Westcott and Hort's Syrian Antiochian
text; it was probably made by Lucian in the 4th century. This
was in the end the most popular form of text, and is found in a more
or less degenerate state in all late MSS. The purest representatives
are 6l(fJ), e 75 (V), 92, (461), 94, 1027 (S), 1126 (476 = scrivener's k)
(661). Later recensions of K are called K 1 and
and K', and there
are also others of less importance which represent the combination
of K with other texts.
H represents Westcott and Hort's Neutral and Alexandrian texts
between which von Soden does not distinguish.
It is found in eleven MSS. in varying degrees of purity : Si (B), 8 2
00,83 (C), 86 (*), & 48 (33), f 26 (Z), 56 (L), 676 (A) f 1026 (892),
i 371 (1241) and t 376 (579). Between these MSS. there is no very
intimate connexion except between 8 I and 8 2 (B and K) which
represent a common original (8 1 " 2 ). S 1 " 2 is the best representative
of H, but it has been contaminated by the Egyptian versions, and
sometimes by the K and / texts and by Origen, though not to any
great extent.
The other H MSS. are none of them equal in value to the two great
uncials. They have all been influenced by K, I, and by the text
of parallel passages, to a greater extent than 8 1 " 2 , or than either of
the two witnesses to S 1 " 2 , but some of them have less Egyptian
corruption.
The origin of the H text must be regarded as unquestionably
Egyptian, in view of the fact that it was used by all the Egyptian
Church writers after the end of the 3rd century, and von Soden
adopts the well-known hypothesis, first made popular by Bousset,
that it represents the recension of Hesychius.
/ does not quite correspond to anything in Westcott and Hort's
system, but has points of contact with their " Western " text. It
is found in a series of subgroups of MSS. known as H', J, /", and others
of less importance (about eleven subgroups are suggested). Of
these H' is a family containing Cod. / and its allies (8 254, ^346, 8 457,
8467, &c.), 288 (22) and some allied MSS. e2O3 (872), el83 and
t 1131 ; J is the well-known Ferrar group; and 7 a contains 8 5 (D),
93 (565),eI33 (7Oo),el68 (28), e 050 and some others. It is necessary
to note that von Soden is able to place D in this group because he
regards it as owing many of its most remarkable readings to contami-
nation with the Latin version. / is, according to von Soden, a
Palestinian recension connected with Eusebius, Pamphilus and
Origen.
After establishing the text of I, H and K, von Soden reconstructs
an hypothetical text, I-H-K, which he believes to have been their
ancestor. He then tries to show that this text was known to all the
writers of the 3rd and 2nd centuries, but has naturally to account
for the fact that the quotations of these writers and the text of the
early versions often diverge from it. The explanation that he
offers is that the Diatessaron of Tatian was widely used and
corrupted all extant texts, so tha^ the Old Syriac, the Old Latin,
the quotations of Irenaeus, Clement, Tertullian and others may be
regarded as various combinations of the Tatianic text and I-H-K.
Finally, he tries to show that the Tatianic text is itself in the main
merely a corrupt form of I-H-K altered in order to suit the necessities
of Tatian's plan.
For criticism of this important theory up to 1909 see Nestle's
Einfuhrung in das griechische neue Testament, pp. 274-278 (3rd ed.,
Gottingen, 1909), and K. Lake's Professor H. von Soden s Treatment
ef the Text of the Gospels, Edinburgh, 1908). (K. L.)
SODERHAMN, a seaport of Sweden, in the district (liiri) of
Gefleborg, on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia, near the mouth of
the Ljasne River, 183 m. N. by W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop.
(1900), 11,258. This is one of the principal centres of the timber
export trade, having saw-mills, planing-mills and wood-pulp
works. There are also ironworks and breweries. Vessels
drawing 15 ft. have access to Branthall, where they generally
load. The harbour is at the suburb of Stugsund. It is usually
ice-bound for some four months in winter. The town was given
municipal privileges by Gustavus Adolphus in 1620, but is
modern in appearance, having been rebuilt after fires in 1860 and
1865.
SODERINI, PIERO (1450-1513), Florentine statesman, was
elected gonfalonier for life in 1502 by the Florentines, who
wished to give greater stability to their republican institutions,
which had been restored after the expulsion of Piero de' Medici
and the martyrdom of Savonarola. His rule proved moderate
and wise, although he had not the qualities of a great states-
man. He introduced a system of national militia in the place
of foreign mercenaries, and during his government the long
war with Pisa was brought to a close with the capture of that
city by the Florentines in 1509. Grateful to France, who had
assisted him, he always took the French side in Italian politics.
But in 1512 the Medici with the help of a Spanish army returned
to Florence, deposed Soderini and drove him into exile. He
took refuge at Ragusa in Dalmatia, where he remained until the
election of Pope Leo X., who summoned him to Rome and con-
ferred many favours on him. Soderini lived in Rome, working
for the good of Florence, to which he was never allowed to return,
until his death.
See Razzi, Vita di Pier Soderini (Padua, 1737), also the articles
FLORENCE and MEDICI.
SODERTELGE, a town of Sweden, in the district (Ian ) of
Stockholm, 23 m. W.S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900),
8,207. It is beautifully situated on a bay of Lake Malar, which
is here connected with the Baltic by the Sodertelge canal, i| m.
in length, with a minimum depth of 10 ft. This is on the route
followed by the Gota Canal steamers between Stockholm and
Gothenburg: it was opened in 1819, though a canal was begun
here in the first half of the isth century at the instigation of
the patriot Engelbrecht. The town contains an ancient church,
believed to date from c.iioo. Here and in the neighbourhood
are the residences of many of the business class of Stockholm;
and the town is in favour as a summer resort, having mineral
springs and baths. There are engineering shops producing
railway stock and motors, jute spinning and weaving mills, and
match and joinery works.
SODIUM [symbol Na, from Lat. natrium; atomic weight
23-00 (O=i6)], a chemical element belonging to the group
of alkali metals. It is abundantly and widely diffused in nature,
but always in combination. Sodium chloride, or common
salt (q.v.), is exceedingly common, being the chief salt present
in sea-water, besides occurring in extensive stratified deposits.
Sodium carbonates are also widely dispersed in nature, forming
constituents of many mineral waters, and occurring as prin-
cipal saline components in natron or trona lakes, as efflores-
cences in Lower Egypt, Persia and China, and as urao in
Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela. The solid crusts found at
the bottom of the salt lakes of the Araxes plain in Armenia
contain about 16% of carbonate and 80 of sulphate. In
Colombia there occurs a double salt, Na2CCVCaCCy5H2O, known
as gay-lussite. In Wyoming, California and Nevada enormous
deposits of carbonates, mixed in some cases with sulphate and
with chloride, occur. About Szegedin in Hungary and all over
the vast pusztas (steppes) between the Theiss and the Danube,
and from the Theiss up to and beyond Debreczin, the soil con-
tains sodium carbonate, which frequently assumes the form of
crude alkaline crusts, called " szekso," and of small saline
ponds. A purified specimen of such Debreczin soda was found
to contain as much as 90 % of real carbonate, NaCO 3 , and 4 of
common salt. Natural sulphate occurs in an anhydrous con-
dition as thenardite, Na2SO4, at Tarapaca, Chile, and in the
rock-salt deposits at Espartinas near Aranjuez, Spain. Hy-
drated sulphates occur at several localities in the province of
Madrid and in other provinces of Spain, and at Miihlingen in
Aargau, and copious deposits of glauberite, the double sulphate
of sodium and calcium, are met with in the salt-mines of Vil-
larrubia in Spain, at Stassfurt, and in the province of Tarapaca,
Chile, &c. A native nitrate of soda is obtained in great abund-
ance in the district of Atacama and the province of Tarapaca,
SODIUM
and is imported into Europe in enormous quantities as cubic
nitre for the preparation of saltpetre. Cryolite, a fluoride of
aluminium and sodium, is extensively mined in Greenland and
elsewhere for industrial purposes. These form the principal
natural sources of sodium compounds the chloride as rock
salt and in sea-water being of such predominating importance
as quite to outweigh all the others. But it is questionable whether,
taken altogether, the mass of sodium they represent is as much
as that disseminated throughout the rocky crust in the form of
soda felspar (i.e. as silicate of soda) and in other soda-contain-
ing rocks. From this source all soils contain small proportions
of sodium in soluble forms, "hence the ashes of plants, although
they preferably imbibe potassium salts, contain traces and
sometimes notable quantities of sodium salts. Sodium salts
also form essential ingredients in all animal juices.
Although many sodium compounds have been known from very
remote times, the element was not isolated until 1807, when Sir
H. Davy obtained it by electrolysing caustic soda. This method
was followed by that proposed by Gay-Lussac and Thenard,
who decomposed molten caustic soda with red-hot iron; and this
in turn was succeeded by Brunner's process of igniting sodium
carbonate with charcoal. Deville made many improvements,
but the method remained wasteful and uneconomical, and in
1872 the metal cost 43. a pound. In 1886, however, Castner
replaced the carbonate by caustic soda, and materially cheapened
the cost of production; but this method was discarded for an
electrolytic one, patented by Castner in 1890. Electrolytic
processes had, in fact, been considered since 1851, when Charles
Watt patented his method for the production of sodium and
potassium from fused chlorides. Among the difficulties here to
be contended with are the destructive action of fused chlorides
and of the reduced alkali metals upon most non-metallic sub-
stances available for the containing vessel and its partition, and also
of the anode chlorine upon metals; also the low fusing-point
(95 C. for sodium, and 62 C. for potassium) and the low specific
gravity of the metals, so that the separated metal floats as a
fused layer upon the top of the melted salt. Again, pure
sodium chloride melts at about 775 C., while sodium boils
at 877 C., so that the margin of safety is but small if loss by
vaporization is to be prevented. Borchers endeavoured to con-
tend against the first difficulty by employing an iron cathode
vessel and a chamotte (fire-clay) anode chamber united by a
specially constructed water-cooled joint. The other difficulty
is to some extent met by using mixed chlorides (e.g. sodium,
potassium and strontium chlorides for sodium extraction), as
these melt at a lower temperature than the pure chloride. In
Castner's process (as employed at Oldbury and Niagara Falls and
in Germany) fused caustic soda is electrolysed. The apparatus
described in the patent specification is an iron cylinder heated
by gas rings below, with a narrower cylinder beneath, through
which passes upwards a stout iron cathode rod cemented in
place by caustic soda solidified in the narrower vessel. Iron
anodes are suspended around the cathode, and between the
two is a cylinder of iron gauze at the bottom with a sheet-iron
continuation above, the latter being provided with a movable
cover. During electrolysis, oxygen is evolved at the anode and
escapes from the outer vessel, while the sodium deposited in
globules on the cathode floats upwards into the iron cylinder,
within which it accumulates, and from which it may be re-
moved at intervals by means of a perforated iron ladle, the fused
salt, but not the metal, being able to pass freely through the
perforations. The sodium is then cast into moulds. Sodium
hydroxide has certain advantages compared with chloride,
although it is more costly; its fusing-point is only 320 C., and
no anode chlorine is produced, so that both containing vessel and
anode may be of iron, and no porous partition is necessary.
Metallic sodium possesses a silvery lustre, but on exposure
to moist air the surface is rapidly dulled by a layer of the
hydroxide. It may be obtained crystallized in the quadratic
system by melting in a sealed tube containing hydrogen, allowed
to cool partially, and then pouring off the still liquid portion
by inverting the tube. The specific gravity is 0-9735 a t 13-5
(Baumhauer). At ordinary temperatures the metal has the
consistency of wax and can be readily cut; on cooling it hardens.
On heating it melts at 95-6" (Bunsen) to a liquid resembling
mercury, and boils at 877-5 (Ruff and Johannsen, Ber., 1905,
38, p. 3601), yielding a vapour, colourless in thin layers but a
peculiar purple, with a greenish fluorescence, when viewed through
thick layers. (For the optics of sodium vapour see R. W. Wood,
Physical Optics.) According to A. Matthiessen, sodium ranks
fourth to silver, copper and gold as a conductor of electricity
and heat, and according to Bunsen it is the most electropositive
metal with the exception of caesium, rubidium and potassium.
The metal is very reactive chemically. Exposed to moist air
it rapidly oxidizes to the hydroxide; and it burns on heating in
air with a yellow flame, yielding the monoxide and dioxide.
A fragment thrown on the surface of water rapidly disengages
hydrogen, which gas, however, does not inflame, as happens with
potassium; but inflammation occurs if hot water be used, or if
the metal be dropped on moist filter paper. Sodium also
combines directly, sometimes very energetically, with most
non-metallic elements. It also combines with dry ammonia
at 300-400 to form sodamide, NaNHj, a white waxy mass when
pure, which melts at 155. Heated in a current of carbon dioxide
sodamide yields caustic soda and cyanamide, and with nitrous
oxide it gives sodium azoimide; it deflagrates with lead or silver
nitrate and explodes with potassium chlorate. Sodamide was
introduced by Claisen (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 693) as a condensing
agent in organic chemistry, and has since been applied in many
directions. Sodium is largely employed in the manufacture
of cyanides and in reduction processes leading to the isolation
of such elements as magnesium, silicon, boron, aluminium
(formerly), &c.; it also finds application in organic chemistry.
With potassium it forms a liquid alloy resembling mercury,
which has been employed in high temperature thermometers
(see THERMOMETRY).
Compounds.
In its chemical combinations sodium is usually monovalent; its
salts are generally soluble in water, the least soluble being the
metantimonate.
Sodium hydride, NaH, is a crystalline substance obtained directly
from sodium and hydrogen at about 400". It burns when heated
in dry air, and ignites in moist air; it is decomposed by water, giving
caustic soda and hydrogen. Dry carbon dioxide is decomposed by
it, free carbon being produced; moist carbon dioxide, on the other
hand, gives sodium formate.
Several oxides are known. A suboxide, NasO, appears to be
formed as a grey mass when a clean surface of the metal is exposed
to air, or when pure air is passed through the metal just above its
melting point (De Forcrand, Compt. rend., 1898, 127, pp. 364, 514).
The monoxide, Na 2 O, is obtained by heating the metal above 180
in a limited amount of slightly moist oxygen (Holt and Sims, Journ.
Chem. Soc., 1894, i. 442) ; it may also be prepared by heating
the nitrate or nitrite with metallic sodium, free nitrogen being
eliminated (German patent, 142467, 1902). It forms a grey mass,
which melts at a red heat and violently combines with water to
give the hydroxide. The hydroxide or caustic soda, NaOH, is
usually manufactured from the carbonate or by electrolysis of salt
solution (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE). When anhydrous it is a
colourless opaque solid which melts at 310, and decomposes at
about 1100. It is very soluble in water, yielding a strongly alkaline
solution; it also dissolves in alcohol. It absorbs moisture and
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Several hydrates are known :
2NaOH'7H 2 O is obtained as large monoclinic crystals by cooling
a solution of specific gravity 1^365 to 8; Pickering (Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1893, 65, p. 890) obtained NaOH-H 2 O from hot concentrated
solutions and NaOH-2H 2 O from a solution of the hydroxide in
968% alcohol. (See also De Forcrand, Compt. rend., 1901, 133,
p. 223.)
Sodium dioxide, Na 2 O 2 , is formed when the metal is heated in
an excess of air or oxygen. In practice the metal is placed on
aluminium trays traversing an iron tube heated to 300, through
which a current of air, freed from moisture and carbon dioxide, is
passed; the process is made continuous, and the product contains
about 93 % NazC>2. When pure, sodium dioxide has a faint yellowish
tinge, but on exposure it whitens (W. R. Bousfield and T. M. Lowry,
Phil. Trans., 1905, A. 204, p. 253). When dissolved in water it yields
some NaOH and H 2 O 2 ; on crystallizing a cold solution Na 2 O 2 -8H 2 O
separates as large tabular hexagonal crystals, which on drying over
sulphuric acid give Na 2 O2'2H 2 O; the former is also obtained by
precipitating a mixture of caustic soda and hydrogen peroxide
solutions with alcohol. Acids yield a sodium salt and free oxygen
or hydrogen peroxide ; with carbon dioxide it gives sodium carbonate
342
SODOM AND GOMORRAH
and free oxygen; carbon monoxide gives the carbonate; whilst
nitrous and nitric oxides give the nitrate. A solution in hydro-
chloric acid, consisting of the chloride and hydrogen peroxide, is
used for bleaching straw under the name of soda-bleach; with
calcium or magnesium chlorides this solution gives a solid product
which, when dissolved in water, is used for the same purpose (Castner,
Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1893, p. 603). Sodium dioxide is chiefly
employed as an oxidizing agent, being used in mineral analysis and
in various organic preparations; it readily burns paper, wood, &c.,
but does not evolve oxygen unless heated to a high temperature.
Sodyl hydroxide, NaHC>2, exists in two forms: one, Na-O-OH,
obtained from hydrogen peroxide and sodium ethylate; the other,
O:Na-OH, from absolute alcohol and sodium peroxide at o. They
are strong oxidizing agents and yield alkaline solutions which
readily evolve oxygen on heating. Sodium trioxide, NajOa, is said
to be formed from an excess of oxygen and a solution of sodam-
monium in liquid ammonia. Water decomposes it, giving oxygen
and the dioxide.
Generally speaking, sodium salts closely resemble the correspond-
ing potassium salts, and their methods of preparation are usually
the same. For sodium salts not mentioned below reference should
be made to articles wherein the acid is treated, unless otherwise
indicated.
Sodium combines directly with the halogens to form salts which
are soluble in water and crystallize in the cubic system. The
fluoride, NaF, is sparingly soluble in water (l part in 25). For the
chloride see SALT. The bromide and iodide crystallize from hot
solutions in anhydrous cubes; from solutions at ordinary tempera-
tures in monoclinic prisms with 2H 2 O; and at low temperatures
with sH 2 O. According to M. Loeb (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1905,
27, p. 1019) the iodide differs from the other haloid salts in separating
from solution in alcohols with " alcohol of crystallization." Sodium
sulphide, Na 2 S, obtained by saturating a caustic soda solution with
sulphuretted hydrogen and adding an equivalent of alkali, is em-
ployed in the manufacture of soluble soda glass. Sodium sulphite,
Na2SO 3 , which is employed as an antichlor, is prepared (with 7H 2 O)
by saturating a solution of sodium carbonate with sulphur dioxide,
adding another equivalent of carbonate and crystallizing. The
anhydrous salt may be prepared by heating a saturated solution
of the hydrated salt. H. Hartley and W. H. Barrett (Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1909, 95, p. 1184) failed to obtain a decahydrate which had
been previously described. The acid sulphite, NaHSOs, obtained
by saturating a cold solution of the carbonate with sulphur dioxide
and precipitating by alcohol, is employed for sterilizing beer casks.
Sodium sulphate, Na 2 SO, known in the hydrated condition (with
ioH 2 O) as Glauber's salt, is manufactured in large quantities
for conversion into the carbonate or soda (see ALKALI MANUFAC-
TURE). It has long been doubted whether sodium yielded an alum;
this was settled by N. I. Surgunoff in 1909 (Abst. Journ. Chem. Soc.
ii. 1001), who obtained cubic crystals from a supersaturated solution
of sodium and aluminium sulphates below 20, higher temperatures
giving monoclinic crystals. The acid sulphate, NaHSOj, also known
as bisulphate of soda, is obtained as large asymmetric prisms by__
crystallizing a solution of equivalent quantities of the normal
sulphate and sulphuric acid above 50". The acid salts Na 3 H(SO) 2
and Na 3 H(SO4) 2 -H 2 O are obtained from the normal sulphate and
sulphuric acid (J. D'Ans, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1534).
The manufacture of sodium carbonate, commonly called soda,
is treated under ALKALI MANUFACTURE. The anhydrous salt is a
colourless powder or porous mass, having an alkaline taste and
reaction. It melts at 1008. On solution in water, heat is evolved
and hydrates formed. Common washing soda or soda-crystals is
the decahydrate, Na 2 COa-ioH 2 O, which appears as large clear
monoclinic crystals. On exposure, it loses water and gives the
monohydrate, Na 2 CO 3 -HiO, a white powder sold as " crystal
carbonate "; this substance, which is also formed on heating the
decahydrate to 34, crystallizes in the rhombic system. Both these
hydrates occur in the mineral kingdom, the former as natron and
the latter as thermpnatrite. The heptahydrate, Na 2 COs-7H 2 O, is
obtained by crystallizing a warm saturated solution in a vacuum; it
appears to be dimorphous. The acid carbonate or bicarbonate of
soda, NaHCOs, is produced in the ammonia-soda process for alkali
manufacture. Another acid carbonate, Na2COj-2NaHCO 3 -3H 2 O,
is the mineral trona or urao. We may here notice the " percar-
bonates " obtained by Wolffenstein and Peltner (Ber., 1908, 41,
pp. 275, 280) on acting with gaseous or solid carbon dioxide on
Na 2 O 2 , Na 2 Oj and NaHOz at low temperatures; the same authors
obtained a perborate by adding sodium metaborate solution to a 50 %
solution of sodium peroxide previously saturated with carbon dioxide.
For sodium nitrite see NITROGEN ; for sodium nitrate see SALTPETRE ;
for the cyanide see PRUSSIC ACID; and for the borate see BORAX.
Of the sodium silicates the most important is the mixture known
as soluble soda glass formed by calcining a mixture of white sand,
soda-ash and charcoal, or by dissolving silica in hot caustic soda
under pressure. It is a colourless transparent glass mass, which
dissolves in boiling water to form a thick liquid. It is employed in
certain printing processes, as a cement for artificial stone and for
mending glass, porcelain, &c., and also for making the so-called
silicated soaps (see SOAP).
Sodium is most distinctly recognized by the yellow coloration
which volatile salts impart to a Bunsen flame, or, better, by its
emission spectrum which has a line (double), the Fraunhofer D, line,
in the yellow (the wave-lengths are 5896 and 5890). The atomic
weight was determined by Stas to be 22-87 (H = i) ; T. W. Richards
and R. C. Wells (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1905, 27, p. 459) obtained
the value 23-006 (O = 16).
Medicine.
Pharmacology. The metal sodium is not used in medicine, but
many of its salts are employed. Besides liquor sodii ethylatis the
following salts and preparations are used in the British Pharma-
copoeia, (i) Sodii carbonis, known as washing soda; this carbonate
on heating yields sodii carbonis exsiccaius and sodii bicarbonas; from
the latter is made trochiscus sodii bicarbonatis. (2) Sodii phosphas.
From sodium phosphate are made sodii phosphas effervescens and
sodii hypophosphis (see PHOSPHORUS). (3) Sodii sulphas (Glauber's
salt), with its sub-preparation sodii sulphas effervescens. (4) Soda
tartarata (Rochelle salt), a tartrate of sodium and potassium, from
which is made pulvis spdae tartaratae effervescens, known as Seidlitz
powder. (5) Sodii citro-tartras effervescens, a mixture of sugar,
sodium bicarbonate, citric and tartaric acids. (6) Sodii chloridum,
common salt. (7) Sodii sulphis.
For sodii bromidum, iodidum and salicylatum see BROMINE,
IODINE and SALICYLIC ACID respectively. For sodii arsenas and
cacodylate see ARSENIC. Sapo durus (hard soap) is a compound of
sodium with olive oil, and sapo animalis (curd soap) is chiefly sodium
stearate.
Toxicology. Poisoning by caustic soda is rare, but occasionally
it takes place by swallowing soap lees (sodium carbonate), which
may contain some impurities of caustic soda. The symptoms and
treatment are the same as described under POTASSIUM. The salts
of sodium resemble potassium in their action on the alimentary
tract, but they are much more slowly absorbed, and much less
diffusible; therefore considerable amounts may reach the small
intestine and there act as saline purgatives. They are slowly
absorbed into the blood, and are a natural constituent of the blood
plasma, which derives them from the food. Sodium is excreted
by all the mucous surfaces and by the liver and kidneys. On the
latter they act as diuretics, but less powerfully than potassium,
increasing the flow of water and the output of urea and rendering the
urine less acid. They are said to diminish the secretion of the
bronchial mucous membrane.
Therapeutics: External Use. The liquor sodii ethylatis is a
powerful caustic and is used to destroy small naevi and warts. A
lotion of sodium bicarbonate is useful to allay itching. Solutions
of sodium sulphite are used as mild antiparasitics. Internal use.
Sodium chloride is occasionally used in warm water as an emetic,
and injections of it into the rectum as a treatment for thread worms.
A 0-9 % solution forms what is termed normal saline solution,
which is frequently injected into the tissues in cases of collapse,
haemorrhage and diarrhoea. It forms a valuable treatment in
.diabetic coma and^eclampsia, acting by diluting the toxins in the
blood. From this has developed the intramuscular injection of
diluted sea-water in the treatment of gastro-enteritis, anaemia and
various skin affections. Sodium chloride is an important constituent
of the waters of Homburg, Wiesbaden, Nauheim and Kissingen.
Sodium bicarbonate is one of our most useful gastric sedatives and
antacids, relieving pain in hyperchloridia. It is the constituent of
most stomachic mixtures. Effervescent soda water is a mild gastric
sedative. Sodium phosphate and sulphate are cholagogue purga-
tives and are used in the treatment of gallstones. The sulphate is
the chief constituent of Marienbad and Carlsbad waters. Large
doses of these salts are used to remove fluid in dropsy. Soda tar-
tarate is purgative and diuretic, as is the citro-tartarate. These
purgative sodium salts are most useful in the treatment of chronic
constipation, and of the constipation associated with gout and
hepatic dyspepsia. They should be dissolved in warm water and
taken in the morning, fasting. In visceral gout and chronic catarrhal
conditions of the stomach a course of alkaline waters is distinctly
beneficial. Sodium salts hare not the depressant effect so marked
in those of potassium.
SODOM AND GOMORRAH, in biblical geography, two of five
cities (the others named Admah, Zeboiim and Bela or Zoar)
which were together known as the " cities of the Kikkar "
(circle), somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea.
They occupied a fertile region, chosen by Lot for his dwelling
(Gen. xiii. 10-12). They were attacked by the four great East-
ern kings and spoiled, but restored by the intervention of Abram
and his men coming to the aid of Lot (Gen. xiv.). They were
proverbial for wickedness, for which they were destroyed by a
rain of " fire and brimstone " (Gen. xix.). The site of the
cities, the historicity of the events narrated of them and the
nature of the catastrophe that destroyed them, are matters of
hot dispute. Modern names, more or less similar to the ancient
appellations, have been noted in different parts of the Dead
SODOMA, IL SOEST
343
Sea area; but no certain identification can be based on these
similarities. The most striking coincidence is Jebel Usdum,
by some equated with confidence to Sodom. The names are
radically identical; but the hill is merely a salt-ridge 600 ft.
high and 7 m. long, and cannot possibly represent an ancient
city. The most that can be said is that the names have lingered
in the Jordan valley in a vague tradition very likely helped by,
if not entirely due to, literary accounts of the catastrophe
just as has the name of Lot himself in the Arab name of the
Dead Sea. The catastrophe has been explained as a volcanic
eruption, or an explosive outburst of gas and oil stored and
accumulating at high pressure. The latter, to which parallels
in geologically similar regions in America are not unknown,
is the most probable natural explanation that can be offered.
(R. A. S. M.)
SODOMA, IL (1477-1549), the name given to the Italian
painter Giovanni Antonio Bazzi (who until recent years was
erroneously named Razzi). He is said to have borne also the
name of " Sodona " as a family name, and likewise the name
Tizzioni; Sodona is signed upon some of his pictures. While
" Bazzi " was corrupted into " Razzi," " Sodona " may have
been corrupted into "Sodoma"; Vasari, however, accounted
for the name differently, as a nickname from his personal char-
acter. This version appears to have been inspired by Bazzi's
pupil and subsequent rival Beccafumi. In R. H. Gust's recent
work on the painter another suggestion is made. Vasari tells
a story that, Bazzi's horse having won a race at Florence,
a cry of "Who is the owner?" went up, and Bazzi contemptu-
ously answered " Sodoma," in order to insult the Florentines
(according to Milanesi) ; and Mr Gust offers the suggestion of the
Italian friend, that the racing name was really a clipped form of
So doma, " I am the trainer." Whatever the real origin, the
name was long supposed to indicate an immoral character.
Bazzi was of the family de Bazis, and was born at Vercelli
in Lombardy in 1477. His first master was Martino Spanzotto,
by whom one signed picture is known; and he appears to have
been in his native place a scholar of the painter Giovenone.
Acquiring thus the strong colouring and other distinctive marks
of the Lombard school, he was brought to Siena towards the
close of the isth century by some agents of the Spannocchi
family; and, as the bulk of his professional life was passed in
this Tuscan city, he counts as a member of the Sienese school,
although not strictly affined to it in point of style. He does not
seem to have been a steady of .laborious student in Siena, apart
from some attention which he bestowed upon the sculptures
of Jacopo della Quercia. Along with Pinturicchio, he was
one of the first to establish there the matured style of the
Cinquecento. His earliest works of repute are seventeen frescoes
in the Benedictine monastery of Monte Oliveto, on the road
from Siena to Rome, illustrating the life of St Benedict, in con-
tinuation of the series which Luca Signorelli had begun in 1498;
Bazzi completed the set in 1502. Hence he was invited to Rome
by the celebrated Sienese merchant Agostino Chigi, and was
employed by Pope Julius II. in the Camera della Segnatura in the
Vatican. He executed two great compositions and various
ornaments and grotesques. The latter are still extant; but the
larger works did not satisfy the pope, who engaged Raphael to
substitute his " Justice," " Poetry," and " Theology." In
the Chigi Palace (now Farnesina) Bazzi painted some subjects
from the life of Alexander the Great; "Alexander in the Tent of
Darius " and the " Nuptials of the Conqueror with Roxana " (by
some considered his masterpiece) are more particularly noticed.
When Leo X. was made pope (1513) Bazzi presented him with
a picture of the " Death of Lucretia " (or of Cleopatra, according
to some accounts) ; Leo gave him a large sum of money in recom-
pense and created him a cavaliere. Bazzi afterwards returned to
Siena and at a later date went in quest of work to Pisa, Vol-
terra, and Lucca. From Lucca he returned to Siena, not long
before his death, which took place on the I4th of February 1549
(the older narratives say 1554). He had squandered his pro-
perty and is said (rather dubiously) to have died in penury in
the great hospital of Siena. Bazzi had married in youth a lady
of good position, but the spouses disagreed and separated pretty
soon afterwards. A daughter of theirs married Bartolommeo
Neroni, named also Riccio Sanese or Maestro Riccio, one of
Bazzi's principal pupils.
It is said that Bazz! jeered at the History of the Painters written
by Vasari, and that Vasari consequently traduced him ; certainly
he gives a bad account of Bazzi's morals and demeanour, and is
niggardly towards the merits of his art. According to Vasari, the
ordinary name by which Bazzi was known was " II Mattaccio "
(the Madcap, the Maniac) this epithet being first bestowed upon
him by the monks of Monte Oliveto. He dressed gaudily, like a
mountebank; his house was a perfect Noah's ark, owing to the
strange miscellany of animals which he kept there. He was a
cracker of jokes and fond of music, and sang some poems composed
by himself on indecorous subjects. In his art Vasari alleges that
Bazzi was always negligent his early success in Siena, where he
painted many portraits, being partly due to want of competition.
As he advanced in age he became too lazy to make any cartoons
for his frescoes, but daubed them straight off upon the wall. Vasari
admits, nevertheless, that Bazzi produced at intervals some works
of very fine quality, and during his lifetime his reputation stood high.
The general verdict is that Bazzi was an able master in expression,
motion and colour. His taste was something like that of Da Vinci,
especially in the figures of women, which have grace, sweetness and
uncommon earnestness. He is not eminent for drawing, grouping
or general elegance of form. His easel pictures are rare ; there are
two in the National Gallery in London.
It is uncertain whether Bazzi was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci,
though Morelli (in his Italian Pictures in German Galleries) speaks
.of his having " only ripened into an artist during the two years
(1498-1500) he spent at Milan with Leonardo"; and some critics
see in Bazzi's " Madonna " in the Brera (if it is really by Bazzi) the
direct influence of this master. Modern criticism follows Morelli
in supposing that Raphael painted Bazzi's portrait in " The School
of Athens"; and a drawing at Christ Church is supposed to be a
portrait of Raphael by Bazzi.
His most celebrated works are in Siena. In S. Domenico, in the
chapel of St Catherine of Siena, are two frescoes painted in 1526,
showing Catherine in ecstasy, and fainting as she is about to receive
the Eucharist from an angel a beautiful and pathetic treatment.
In the oratory of S. Bernardino, scenes from the history of the
Madonna, painted by Bazzi in conjunction with Pacchia and Becca-
fumi (1536-1538) the " Visitation " and the " Assumption "
are noticeable. In S. Francesco are the " Deposition from the
Cross " (1513) and " Christ Scourged " ; by many critics one or other
of these paintings is regarded as Bazzi's masterpiece. In the choir
of the cathedral at Pisa is the " Sacrifice of Abraham," and in the
Uffizi Gallery of Florence as " St Sebastien."
See for further details, Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, by Robert H.
Hobart Cust (1906), which contains a full bibliography. (W. M. R.)
SODOR AND MAN, the name of the bishopric of the Church
of England which includes the Isle of Man and adjacent islets.
In 1154 the diocese of Sodor was formed to include the Heb-
rides and other islands west of Scotland (Norse Sudr-eyjar,
Sudreys, or southern isles, in distinction from Nordr-eyjar, the
northern isles of Orkney and Shetland) and the Isle of Man.
It was in the archdiocese of Trondhjem in Norway. (The con-
nexion of the Isle of Man with Norway is considered 5.11. MAN,
ISLE OF.) A Norwegian diocese of Sodor had been in existence
previously, but its history is obscure, and the first union of Man
with it in 1098 by Magnus Barefoot is only traditional. The
Norwegian connexion was broken in 1266, and in 1334 Man was
detached from the Scottish islands. The cathedral of Sodor
was on St Patrick's Isle at Peel (?..), and it is possible that the
name Sodor being lost, its meaning was applied to the isle as
the seat of the bishop. The termination " and Man " seems to
have been added in the i7th century by a legal draughtsman
ignorant of the proper application of the name of Sodor to the
bishopric of Man. By the latter part of the i6th century the
terms Sodor and Man had become interchangeable, the bishopric
being spoken of as that of Sodor or Man. Till 1604 the bishops
invariably signed themselves Sodorensis; after that date and
till 1684, sometimes Soderensis and sometimes " Sodor and
Man," and after 1684 always " Sodor and Man." The see,
while for some purposes in the archdiocese of York, has its own
convocation. The bishop sits in the House of Lords, but has
no vote.
See A. W. Moore, History of the Isle of Man (London, 1900).
SOEST, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, situated in a fertile plain (Soester Borde), 33 m. E.
344
SOFA SOFIA
of Dortmund, on the main railway Cologne-Elberfeld-Berlin.
Pop. (1905), 17,394. Its early importance is attested by its seven
fine churches (six Protestant), of which the most striking are
St Peter's, the Wiesenkirche, a gem of Gothic architecture,
Maria zur Hohe St Mary-on-the-height with beautiful mural
frescoes, founded in 1314 and restored in 1850-1852, and the
Roman Catholic cathedral, founded in the loth century by
Bruno, brother of Otto the Great (the present building was
erected in the rath century). This last, with its very original
facade, is one of the noblest ecclesiastical monuments of Germany.
Remains of the broad wall, now partly enclosing gardens and
fields, and one of the gates remain; but the thirty-six strong
towers which once defended the town have disappeared and the
moats have been converted into promenades. The town-hall
(1701) contains valuable archives, and among the numerous
educational establishments must be mentioned the gymnasium,
founded in 1534, through the instrumentality of Melanchthon,
an evangelical teachers' seminary, an agricultural school,
and a blind asylum. Iron-working, the manufacture of soap,
hats, sugar, cigars, bricks and tiles, linen-weaving, tanning
and brewing, together with market-gardening and farming
in the neighbourhood, and trade in cattle and grain are the
leading industries.
Mentioned in documents as early as the gth century, Soest
was one of the largest and most important Hanseatic towns in
the middle ages, with a population estimated at from 30,000'
to 60,000. It was one of the chief emporiums on the early
trading route between Westphalia and Lower Saxony. Its
code of municipal laws (Schran; jus susatense), dating from
1144 to 1165, was one of the earliest and best, and served as
a model even to Liibeck. On the fall of Henry the Lion,
duke of Saxony, Soest passed with the rest of Angria to'
Cologne. In the isth century the strife between the towns-
men and the archbishops broke out in open war, and in
1444 the strong fortifications of the town withstood a long
siege by an army of 60,000 men. The women of Soest are said
to have distinguished themselves in this contest (Soester Fehde).
Papal intervention ended the strife, and Soest was permitted to
remain under the protection of the dukes of Cleves. The
prosperity of the town waned in more modern times: in 1763 its
population was only 3800; in 1816 it was 6687.
See Vogeler, Soest, seine Altertiimer und Sehenswiirdigkeiten
(Soest, 1890); Hausberg, Die soester Fehde (Trier, 1882); Summer-
mann, Die Wandmalereien in der Kirche Maria zur Hohe in Soest
(Soest, 1890) ; Aldenkirchen, Die'mittelalterliche Kunst in Soest (Bonn,
1875) ; Ludorff und Vogeler, Kunstdenkmdler des Kreises Soest (Soest,
1905)-
SOFA, a long couch with stuffed back, arms and seat, to hold
two or more persons. The word is of Arabic origin, and is an
adaptation of suffah, couch, from root saffa to draw up in line.
According to Richardson, Diet, of Eng. Lang, quoted by Skeat,
the Arabic suffah was particularly a reclining place of wood or
stone placed before the doors of Oriental houses. In the history
of furniture the sofa was a development of the straight backed
settee. It was not so much therefore a long chair or combination
of chairs, as a seat or couch for reclining. The early igth-
century type had a back with a single arm at one end, the other
being left open. The most favoured modern form is that known
as the Chesterfield, with double arms and back, heavily padded.
(See also SETTEE.)
SOFALA, a Portuguese seaport on the east coast of Africa,
at the mouth of a river of the same name, in 20 12' S. Pop,
(1900), about 1000. The town possesses scarcely a trace of its
former importance, and what trade it had was nearly all taken
away by the establishment of Beira (q.v.) a little to the north in
1890. Sofala Harbour, once capable of holding a hundred large
vessels, is silting up and is obstructed by a bar. Ruins exist
of the strong fort built by the Portuguese in the i6th century.
Previous to its conquest by the Portuguese in 1505 Sofala
was the chief town of a wealthy Mahommedan state, Arabs
having established themselves there in the I2th century or
earlier. At one time it formed part of the sultanate of
Kilwa (q.v.). Sofala was visited by the Portuguese Jew, Pero
de Covilhao, in 1489, who was attracted thither by the reports of
gold-mines of which Sofala was the port. The conquest of the
town followed, the first governors of the Portuguese East African
possessions being entitled Captains-General of Sofala. (See
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA.) Thome Lopes, who accompanied
Vasco da Gama to India in 1 502 and left a narrative of the voyage
(first printed in Ramusio, Viaggi e Navegationi), identifies Sofala
with Solomon's Ophir and states that it was the home of the
Queen of Sheba. This identification of Sofala with Ophir, to
which Milton alludes (Par. Lost, xi. 399-401) is untenable.
The small island of Chiloane, with a good harbour, 40 m. S.
of Sofala, has been colonized from Sofala (the township being
named Chingune) as has also the island Santa Carolina, in the
Bazaruto archipelago.
See Bull. Geogr. Soc. Mozambique (1882) for an account of the
Sofala mines; and, generally, Idrisi, Climate, i. 8, O. Dapper,
Description de I'Afrique (Amsterdam, 1686) ; T. Baines, The Gold
Regions of South Africa (1877); G. McC. Theal's Records of South
Eastern Africa (1898-1903); Sir R. Burton's notes to his edition of
Camoens.
SOFFIONI (sometimes spelt suffioni), a name applied in
Italy to certain volcanic vents which emit jets of steam,
generally associated with hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide,
sometimes also with a little ammonia and marsh-gas. The
soffioni are usually arranged in groups, and are best represented
in the Maremma of Tuscany, where they contain a small pro-
portion of boric acid, for which they are utilized industrially.
For such natural steam-holes, the French geologists often use
the term soufflards in place of the Italian soffioni.
SOFFIT (from Fr. soffite, Ital. sqffitta, a ceiling, formed as
if from suffictus for suffixus, Lat. suffigere, to fix underneath),
a term in architecture given to the underside of any construc-
tional feature; as for instance that of an arch or an architrave
whether supported by piers or columns; also to the underside
of a flight of stairs, and in the classic entablature to the under-
side of the projecting cornice.
SOFIA (Bulgarian Sredetz, the middle town, a name now
little used), the capital of Bulgaria, situated almost in the
centre of an upland plain, about 1700 ft. above sea-level, between
the Western Balkans on the N. and Mt Vitosh on the S.
Pop. (1907) 82,187. Two small tributaries of the river Isker,
the Perlovetz and the Eleshnitza or Boyana, flow respectively
on the east and west sides of the town. Since 1880 the city
has been almost entirely renovated in the " European " style;
the narrow tortuous lanes and mean houses of the Turkish
epoch have almost disappeared, and a new town with straight
parallel streets has been constructed in the eastern suburb.
The oldest building in Sofia is the little round chapel of St
George in the Jewish quarter originally, it is said, a Roman
temple; then a church, then a mosque, and now a church once
more. Of the principal mosques the large Buyuk Djamia, with
nine metal cupolas, has become the National Museum; the
Tcherna Djamia or Black Mosque, latterly used as a prison,
has been transformed into a handsome church; the Banya-
bashi Djamia, with its picturesque minaret, is still used by
Moslem worshippers. Close to the last-named in the centre
of the town, are the public baths with hot springs (temperature
117 F). In the cathedral or church of Sveti Krai (the Saint
King), a modern building, are preserved the remains of the
Servian king Stefan Urosh II. A large new cathedral dedicated
to St Alexander Nevski was in course of construction in 1907;
the foundation stone was taken from the church of St Sophia.
The palace of the prince, occupying the site of the Turkish konak
was built by Prince Alexander in 1880-1882; it has been greatly
enlarged by King Ferdinand. In front of the palace is the
public garden or Alexander Park. The theatre, the largest in
south-eastern Europe, was completed in 1906. Other important
buildings are the Sobranye, or parliament house, the palace
of the synod, the ministries of war and commerce, the univer-
sity with the national printing press, the national library, the
officers' club and several large military structures. A small
SOGDIANA SOIL
345
mausoleum contains the remains of Prince Alexander; there are
monuments to the tsar Alexander II., to Russia, to the medical
officers who fell in the war of 1877 and to the patriot Levsky.
A public park has been laid out in the eastern suburbs. The
city is well drained and possesses a good water supply; it is
lighted by electricity and has an electric car system. It con-
tains breweries, tanneries, sugar, tobacco, cloth, and silk fac-
tories, and exports skins, cloth, cocoons, cereals, attar of roses,
dried fruit, &c. Sofia forms the centre of a railway system
radiating to Constantinople (300 m.), Belgrade (206 m.)
and central Europe, Varna, Rustchuk and the Danube, and
Kiustendil near the Macedonian frontier. The climate is
healthy; owing to the elevated situation it is somewhat cold,
and is liable to sudden diurnal and seasonal changes; the tem-
perature in January sometimes falls to 4 F. below zero and in
August rises to 100. The population, of which more than two-
thirds are Bulgarians,, and about one-sixth Spanish Jews, was
20,501 in 1881, 30,428 in 1888, 46,593 in 1893 and 82,187 in 1907.
History. The colony of Serdica, founded here by the emperor
Trajan, became a Roman provincial town of considerable
importance in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D., and was a favourite
residence of Constantine the Great. Serdica was burnt by the
Huns in A.D. 447; few traces remain of the Roman city, but
more than one hundred types of its coins attest its importance.
The town was taken by the Bulgarians under Krum in A.D. 809;
the name Serdica was converted into Sredetz by the Slavs,
who associated it with sreda (middle), and the Slavonic
form subsequently became the Byzantine Triaditza. The
name Sofia, which came into use towards the end of the i4th
century is derived from the early medieval church of St Sophia,
the massive ruins of which stand on an eminence to the east
of the town. The church, which was converted into a mosque
by the Turks, was partly destroyed by earthquakes in 1818
and 1858. The town successfully resisted the attacks of the
emperor Basil II. in 987; between 1018 and 1186, under Byzan-
tine rule, it served as a frontier fortress. During this period
a number of prisoners of the Petcheneg tribe were settled in
the neighbourhood, in all probability the ancestors of the Shop
tribe which now inhabits the surrounding districts. In 1382
Sofia was captured by the Turks; in 1443 it was for a brief time
occupied by the Hungarians under John Hunyady. Under
Turkish rule the city was for nearly four centuries the residence
of the beylerbey or governor-general of the whole Balkan
Peninsula except Bosnia and the Morea. During this period
the population increased and became mainly Turkish; in 1553
the town possessed eleven large and one hundred small mosques.
In the latter half of the isth century Sofia, owing to its situation
at the junction of several trade routes, became an important
centre of Ragusan commerce. During the Turco-Russian
campaign of 1829 it was the headquarters of Mustafa Pasha
of Skodra, and was occupied by the Russians for a few days.
On the 4th of January 1878 a Russian army again entered Sofia
after the passage of the Balkans by Gourko; the bulk of the
Turkish population had previously taken flight. Though less
central than Philippopolis and less renowned in Bulgarian
history than Trnovo, Sofia as selected as the capital of the
newly-created Bulgarian state in view of its strategical position,
which commands the routes to Constantinople, Belgrade,
Macedonia and the Danube. (J. D. B.)
SOGDIANA (Sugdiane, O. Pers. Sughuda), a province of the
Achaemenian Empire, the eighteenth in the list in the Behistun
inscription of Darius (i. 16), corresponding to the modern
districts of Samarkand and Bokhara; it lay north of Bactriana
between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, and embraced the fertile
valley of the Zerafshan (anc. Poly timetus) . Under the Greeks
Sogdiana was united in one satrapy with Bactria, and subse-
quently it formed part of the Bactrian Greek kingdom till the
Scythians (see SCYTHIA) occupied it in the middle of the 2nd
century B.C. The valley of the Zerafshan about Samarkand
retained even in the middle ages the name of the Soghd of
Samarkand. Arabic geographers reckon it as one of the four
fairest districts in the world.
SOGNE FJORD, a great inlet of the west coast of Norway,
penetrating the mainland to a distance of 136 m. It is the
longest fjord in Norway, and the deepest, approaching 700
fathoms in some parts. Sognefest at its entrance is 50 m.
by water from Bergen, in 61 5' N. The general direction
from the sea is easterly. For the first 50 m. the sombre
flanking mountains are unbroken by any considerable branch,
but from this point several deep, narrow inlets ramify, penetrat-
ing the Jostedalsbrae and Jotunfjeld to the north and the north-
ward extension of the Hardangerfjeld to the south, walled in
at their heads by snow-clad mountains and frequented by
travellers on account of the magnificent scenery. The principal
are Fjaerlands, Sogndals and Lyster fjords to the north, Aardals
fjord to the east, Laerdals and Aurlands fjords to the south.
From the last branches the Naero fjord, with a [precipitous
valley of great beauty (Naerb'dalen) at its head, traversed by a
road, from Gudvangen on the fjord, across the Stalheim Pass to
Vossevangen. The other principal villages are Vadheim on the
outer fjord, the terminus of the road from Nordfjord; BaLholm
and Fjaerland (centres for visiting the fine glaciers of Jostedal) ;
Lekanger, Sogndal, and Laerdalsoren, whence a road strikes
south-east for the Valders and Hallingdal districts.
SOHAM, a town in the Newmarket parliamentary division
of Cambridgeshire, England, 5 m. S.E. of Ely by a branch
of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 4230. It lies in
the midst of the flat fen country. To the west a rich tract,
still known as Soham Mere, marks the place of one of the many
wide and shallow sheets of water in the district now drained.
The church of St Andrew is cruciform and had formerly a central
tower; the existing western tower is of fine and ornate Perpendi-
cular work. The body of the church, however, is mainly transi-
tional Norman with additions principally Decorated, including
a beautiful east window, much ancient woodwork, and other
details of interest. The grammar school dates from 1687. The
road from Soham to Ely was constructed as a causeway across
the fens by Hervey le Breton, first bishop of Ely (1109-1131).
The trade of the town is agricultural, fruit-growing and market-
gardening being largely carried on in the vicinity.
SOIGNIES (or SOIGNES, the Walloon form), a busy and flourish-
ing town of the province of Hainaut, owing its prosperity to
the important blue granite quarries in the neighbourhood.
It contains a fine abbey church of the i2th century and in the
cemetery connected with it are many tombstones of the I3th
and i4th centuries. Pop. (1904), 10,480.
The forest of Soignies extended in the middle ages over the
southern part of Brabant up to the walls of Brussels, and is
immortalized in Byron's Childe Harold. Originally it was part
of the Ardenne forest, and even at the time of the French Revolu-
tion it was very extensive. The first blow towards its gradual
contraction was struck when Napoleon ordered 22,000 oaks
to be cut down in it to build the celebrated Boulogne flotilla
for the invasion of England. King William I. of the Netherlands
continued the process in the belief that he was thus adding
to the prosperity of the country, and from 29,000 acres in 1820
the forest was reduced to 11,200 in 1830. A considerable
portion of the forest in the neighbourhood of Waterloo was
assigned in 1815 to the duke of Wellington, and to the holder
of the title as long as it endured. This portion of the forest
was only converted into farms in the time of the second duke.
The Bois de la Cambre (456 acres) on the outskirts of Brussels
was formed out of the forest, and beyond it stretches the Foret
de Soignies, still so called, to Tervueren, Groenendael, and
Argenteuil close to Mont Saint Jean and Waterloo.
SOIL, 1 the term generally applied to that part of the earth's
1 This word comes through O. Fr. soil from a Late Latin usage of
solea for soil or ground, which in classic Lat. meant the sole of the
foot, also a sandal. This was due to a confusion with solum, ground,
whence Fr. sol. Both solea and solum are, of course, from the same
root. To be distinguished from this word is " soil," to make dirty,
to stain, defile. The origin is the O. Fr. soil or souil, the miry
wallowing ground of a wild boar, whence the hunting phrase " to
take soil," of a beast of the chase taking to water or marshy
ground. The derivation is therefore from Lat. soillus, pertaining to
34-6
SOIL
substance which is stirred or tilled by implements such as ploughs
and spades. Below this is the subsoil. The soil through being
acted upon by the air, heat, frost and other agencies usually
consists of finer particles than those comprising the bulk of the
subsoil. It contains more roots, and as a rule, is darker in
colour than the subsoil on account of the larger proportion
of decaying vegetable matter present in it: it is also looser in
texture than the subsoil. The subsoil not unfrequently contains
materials which are deleterious to the growth of crops, and roots
descending into it may absorb and convey these poisonous
substances to other parts of the plant or be themselves damaged
by contact with them. On this account deeper tillage than
usual, which allows of easier penetration of roots, or the carrying
out of operations which bring the subsoil to the surface, must
always be carefully considered.
At first sight few natural materials appear to be of less interest
than the soil; yet its importance is manifest on the slightest
reflection. From it, directly or indirectly, are obtained all food
materials needed by man and beast. The inorganic materials
within it supply some of the chief substances utilized by plants
for their development and growth, and from plants animals
obtain much of their sustenance.
Origin of the Soil. It is a matter of common observation
that stones of monuments, walls or buildings which are exposed
to the air sooner or later become eaten away or broken up into
small fragments under the influence of the weather. This
disintegration is brought about chiefly by changes in tempera-
ture, and by the action of the rain, the oxygen, and the carbon
dioxide of the air. During the daytime the surface of the stone
may become very warm, while at night it is speedily cooled.
Such alterations in temperature produce strains which frequently
result in the chipping off of small fragments of the material
composing the stone. Moreover the rain penetrates into the
small interstices between its particles and dissolves out some
of the materials which bind the whole into a solid stone, the
surface then becoming a loose powdery mass which falls to the
ground below or is carried away by the wind. The action of
frost is also very destructive to many stones, since the water
within their cracks and crannies expands on freezing and splits
off small pieces from their surfaces. In the case of lime-
stones the carbon dioxide of the air in association with rain
and dew eats into them and leads to their disintegration. The
oxygen of the air may also bring about chemical changes which
result in the production of soluble substances removable by
rain, the insoluble parts being left in a loosened state.
These " weathering " agents not only act upon stones of
buildings, but upon rocks of all kinds, reducing them sooner or
later into a more or less fine powder. The work has been going
on for ages, and the finely comminuted particles of rocks form
the main bulk of the soil which covers much of the earth's
surface, the rest of the soil being composed chiefly of the remains
of roots and other parts of plants.
If the whole of the soil in the British Islands were swept into
the sea and the rocks beneath it laid bare the surface of the
country would ultimately become covered again with soil
produced from the rocks by the weathering processes just
described. Moreover where there was no transport or solution
of the soil thus produced it would necessarily show some simil-
arity in composition to the rock on which it rested. The soils
overlying red sandstone rocks would be reddish and of a sandy
nature, while those overlying chalk would be whitish and contain
considerable amounts of lime. In many parts of the country
soils exhibiting such relationships, and known as sedentary
soils, are prevalent, the transition from the soil to the rock
beneath being plainly visible in sections exposed to view in
railway cuttings, quarries and other excavations. The upper
layer or soil proper consists of material which has been subjected
swine, sus. " To sully," to besmirch, to cover with " mire " (O. Eng.
sol. cf. Ger. suhlen) is a quite distinct word. Lastly there is a
form " soil," used by agriculturists, of the feeding and fattening of
cattle with green food such as vetches. This is from O. Fr. saoler,
saouler, mod. souler, Lat. 'satullus, full-fed (satur, satiated, satis,
enough).
to ages of weathering; the bulk of it is composed of finely
comminuted particles of sand, clay and other minerals, among
which are imbedded larger or smaller stones of more refractory
nature. On descending into the substratum the finer material
decreases and more stones are met with; farther down are seen
larger fragments of unaltered rock closely packed, and this
brash or rubble grades insensibly into the unbroken rock
below.
In many districts the soil is manifestly unconnected in origin
with the rock on which it rests, and differs from it in colour,
composition and other characters. There are transported or
drift soils, the particles of which have been brought from other
areas and deposited over the rocks below. Some of the stiff
boulder clays or " till " so prevalent over parts of the north of
England appear to have been deposited from ice sheets during
the glacial period. Perhaps the majority of drift soils, however,
have been moved to their present position by the action of .the
water of rivers or the sea.
As fast as the rock of a cliff is weathered its fragments are
washed to the ground by the rain, and carried down the slopes
by small streams, ultimately finding their way into a river along
which they are carried until the force of the water is insufficient
to keep them in suspension, when they become deposited in the
river bed or along its banks. Such river-transported material
or alluvium is common in all river valleys. It is often of very
mixed origin, being derived from the detritus of many kinds
of rocks, and usually forms soil of a fertile character.
Quality of Soil. The good or bad qualities of a soil have
reference to the needs of the crops which are to be grown upon it,
and it is only after a consideration of the requirements of plants
that a clear conception can be formed of what characters the
soil must possess for it to be a suitable medium on which healthy
crops can be raised.
In the first place, soil, to be of any use, must be sufficiently
loose and porous to allow the roots of plants to grow and extend
freely. It may be so compact that root development is checked
or stopped altogether, in which case the plant suffers. On the
other hand it should not be too open in texture or the roots
do not get a proper hold of the ground and are easily disturbed
by wind: moreover such soils are liable to blow away, leaving
the underground parts exposed to the air and drought.
The roots like all other parts of plants contain protoplasm
or living material, which cannot carry on its functions unless
it is supplied with an adequate amount of oxygen: hence the
necessity for the continuous circulation of fresh air through the
soil. If the latter is too compact or has its interstices filled with
carbon dioxide gas or with water as is the case when the ground
is water-logged the roots rapidly die of suffocation just as
would an animal under the same conditions. There is another
point which requires attention. Plants need very considerable
amounts of water for their nutrition and growth; the water-
holding capacity is, therefore, important. If the soil holds too
much it becomes water-logged and its temperature falls below
the point for healthy growth, at any rate of the kinds of plants
usually cultivated on farms and in gardens. If it 'allows of too
free drainage drought sets in and the plants, not getting
enough water for their needs, become stunted in size. Too
much water is bad, and too little is equally injurious.
In addition, the temperature of the soil largely controls the
yield of crops which can be obtained from the land. Soil whose
temperature remains low, whether from its northerly aspect or
from its high water content or other cause, is unsatisfactory,
because the germination of seeds and the general life processes
of plants cannot go on satisfactorily except at certain tempera-
tures well above freezing-point.
A good soil should be deep to allow of extensive root develop-
ment and, in the case of arable soils, easy to work with imple-
ments. Even when all the conditions above mentioned in regard
to texture, water-holding capacity, aeration and temperature
are suitably fulfilled the soil may still be barren: plant food-
material is needed. This is usually present in abundance
although it may not be available to the plant under certain
SOIL
347
circumstances, or may need to be replenished or increased
by additions to the soil of manures or fertilizers (see MANURE).
Chief Constituents of the Soil. An examination of the soil shows
it to be composed of a vast number of small particles of sand, clay,
chalk and humus, in which are generally imbedded larger or smaller
stones. It will be useful to consider the nature of the four chief
constituents just mentioned and their bearing upon the texture,
water-holding capacity and other characters which were referred
to in the previous section.
Sand consists of grains of quartz or flint, the individual particles
of which are large enough to be seen with the unaided eye or readily
felt as gritty grains when rubbed between the finger and thumb.
When a little soil is shaken up with water in a tumbler the sand
particles rapidly fall to the bottom and form a layer which resembles
ordinary sand of the seashore or river banks. Chemically pure sand
is silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) or quartz, a clear transparent glass-like
mineral, but as ordinarily met with, it is more or less impure and
generally coloured reddish or yellowish by oxide of iron. A soil
consisting of sand entirely would be very loose, would have little
capacity to retain water, would be liable to become very hot in the
daytime and cool at night and would be quite unsuitable for growth
of plants.
The term clay is often used by chemists to denote hydrated silicate
of alumina (AliO3-2SiO2-2H 2 O), of which kaolin or china clay is a
fairly pure form. This substance is present in practically all soils
but in comparatively small amounts. Even in the soils which
farmers speak of as stiff clays it is rarely present to the extent of
more than I or 2%. The word "clay" used in the agricultural
sense denotes a sticky intractable material which is found to consist
of exceedingly fine particles (generally less than -005 mm. in dia-
meter) of sand and other minerals derived from the decomposition
of rocks, with a small amount of silicate of alumina. The peculiar
character which clay possesses is probably due not to its chemical
composition but to its physical state. When wet it becomes sticky
and almost impossible to move or work with farm implements;
neither air nor water can penetrate freely. In a dry state it becomes
hard and bakes to a brick. It holds water well and is consequently
cold, needing the application of much heat to raise its temperature.
It is obvious, therefore, that soil composed entirely of clay is as
useless as pure sand so far as the growth of crops upon it is concerned.
Chalk consists, when quite pure, of calcium carbonate (CaCOs),
a white solid substance useful in small amounts as a plant food-
material, though in excess detrimental to growth. Alone, even
when broken up into small pieces, it is unsuitable for the growth of
plants.
Humus, the remaining constituent of soil, is the term used for the
decaying vegetable and animal matter in the soil. A good illustra-
tion of it is peat. Its water-holding capacity is great, but it is
often acid, and when dry it is light and incapable ofsupporting the
roots of plants properly. Few of the commonly cultivated crops
can live in a soil consisting mainly of humus.
From the above account it will be understood that not one of
the four chief soil constituents is in itself of value for the growth of
crops, yet when they are mixed, as they usually are in the soils
met with in nature, one corrects the deficiencies of the other. A
perfect soil would be such a blend of sand, clay, chalk and humus
as would contain sufficient clay and humus to prevent drought,
enough sand to render it pervious to fresh air and prevent water-
logging, chalk enough to correct the tendency to acidity of the humus
present, and would have within it various substances which would
serve as food-materials to the crops.
Generally speaking, soils containing from 30 to 50% of clay and
50 to 60% of sand with an adequate amount of vegetable residues
prove the most useful for ordinary farm and garden crops; such
blends are known as " loams," those in which clay predominates
being termed clay loams, and those in which the sand predominates
sandy loams. ''Stiff clays" contain over 50% of clay; "light
sands " have less than 10%. In the mechanical analysis of the soil,
after separation of the stones and fine gravel by means of sieves,
the remainder of the finer earth is subjected to various processes
of sifting and deposition from water with a view of determining
the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay present in it. Most
of the material termed " sand " in such analyses consists of particles
ranging in diameter from -5 to -05 mm., and the " silt " from -05
to -005 mm., the " clay " being composed of particles less than
005 mm. in diameter. The proportional amount of these materials
in a sandy soil on the Bagshot beds and a stiff Oxford clay is given
below :
Crop.
Nitro-
gen.
Phos-
phoric
Acid.
Potash.
Lime.
Mag-
nesia.
Wheat ....
Meadow hay .
Turnips
Mangels
ft
50
49
no
149
ft
21
12
33
53
ft
29
Si
149
300
ft
9
32
74
43
ft
7
H
9
42
Soil on
Bagshot Beds.
Soil on
Oxford Clay.
Coarse sand 12 mm.
Fine sand -204 mm.
Silt -0401 mm.
Fine silt -01004 mm.
Clay below -004 mm.
32 %
40
12 ,,
8
8
ii %
n'
19 ..
19 ..
4 -.
The pore-space within the soil, i.e. the space between the parti-
cles composing the soil, varies with the size of these particles and
with the way they are arranged or packed. It is important, since
upon it largely depends the movement of air and water in the land.
It is generally from 30 to 50 % of the total volume occupied by the
soil.
Where the soil grains are quite free from each other the smaller
grains tend to fill up the spaces between the larger ones; hence it
might be concluded that in clays the amount of pore-space would
be less than in coarser sands. This is the case in ' puddled " clays,
but in ordinary clay soils the excessively minute particles of which
they largely consist tend to form groups of comparatively large
composite grains and it is in such natural soils that the pore-space
is largest.
Chemical Composition of the Soil. It has been found by experiment
that plants need for their nutritive process and their growth, certain
chemical elements, namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium and iron.
With the exception of the carbon and a small proportion of the
oxygen and nitrogen, which may be partially derived from the air,
these elements are taken from the soil by crops. The following
table shows the amounts of the chief constituents removed by certain
crops in Ib per acre :
Plants also remove from the soil silicon, sodium, chlorine, and
other elements which are, nevertheless, found to be unessential for the
growth and may therefore be neglected here.
Leguminous crops take some of the nitrogen which they require
from the air, but most plants obtain it from the nitrates present
in the soil. The sulphur exists in the soil chiefly in the form of
sulphates of magnesium, calcium and other metals; the phosphorus
mainly as phosphates of calcium, magnesium and iron; the potash,
soda and other bases as silicates and nitrates; calcium and magne-
sium carbonates are also common constituents of many soils.
In the ordinary chemical analyses of the soil determinations
are made of the nitrogen and various carbonates present as well
as of the amount of phosphoric acid, potash, soda, magnesia and
other components soluble in strong hydrochloric acid.
Below are given examples of the analyses of a poor sandy soil
and an ordinary loam :
Poor sandy Soil
on Bagshot Beds.
Loam or
Lias.
Nitrogen
Phosphoric acid
Potash
Carbonate of Lime
19 %
18'
19 ..
23 .-
17 %
32
57 .,
1-22
Since the dry weight of the first foot of soil over an acre is about
4,000,000 ft the poor sandy soil contains within it :
Nitrogen 7,600 ft
Phosphoric acid 7,200 ,,
Potash 7,600 ,,
Lime 9,200
From the figures given previously of the amount of nitrogen,
potash and phosphoric acid removed by a wheat or mangel crop it
would appear that this soil has enough of these ingredients in it to
yield many such crops; yet experience has shown that these crops
cannot be grown on such a poor sandy soil unless manures contain-
ing phosphates, potash and nitrogen are added.
Many attempts have been made to correlate the results of the
analyses of a soil with its known cropping power, but there is yet
much to be learnt in regard to these matters. A great proportion
of the food constituents which can be extracted by strong hydro-
chloric acid are not in a condition to be taken up by the roots of
plants; they are present, but in a " dormant "state, although by
tillage and weathering processes they may in time become "avail-
able " to plants. Analyses of this character would appear to
indicate the permanent productive capacity of the soil rather than
its immediate power of growing a crop.
Soils containing less than -25 % of potash are likely to need special
application of potash fertilizers to give good results, while those
containing as much as -4 or -5 % do not usually respond to those
manures. Where the amount of phosphoric acid (P 2 O 6 ) is less
than -05% phosphatic manures are generally found to be beneficial;
with mors than -I % present these fertilizers are not usually called
for except perhaps in soils containing a high percentage of iron
348
SOIL
compounds. Similarly soils with less than !% of nitrogen are
likely to be benefited by applications of nitrogenous manures.
Too much stress, however, cannot be laid upon these figures, since
the fertility of a soil is very greatly influenced by texture and physi-
cal constitution, perhaps more so by these factors than by chemical
composition.
At present it is not possible to determine with accuracy the
amount of immediately available plant food-constituents in a soil:
no doubt the various species of plants differ somewhat in their
power of absorbing these even from the same soil. The method
introduced by Dyer of dissolving out the mineral constituents
of the soil with a I % solution of citric acid, which represents about
the average acidity of the roots of most common plants, yields
better results. In the case of arable soils, where the amount of
phosphoric acid determined by this method falls below -01 %, phos-
phatic manuring is essential for good crops. The writer has found
that many pasture soils containing less than -025 or -03 %, respond
freely to applications of phosphates; probably in such cases even
the weak acid is capable of dissolving out phosphates from the humus
or other compounds which yield little or none to the roots of grasses
and clovers. In soils where the potash available to citric acid is
less than -005 %, kainit and other potash fertilizers are needed.
Water in the Soil. The importance of an adequate supply of water
to growing crops cannot well be over-estimated. During the life
of a plant there is a continuous stream of water passing through
it which enters by the root-hairs in the soil and after passing along
the stem is given off from the stomata of the leaves into the open
air above ground. It has been estimated that an acre of cabbage
will absorb from the land and transpire from its leaves more than
ten tons of water per day when the weather is fine.
In addition to its usefulness in maintaining a turgid state of the
young cells without which growth cannot proceed, water is itself a
plant food-material and as absorbed from the soil contains dissolved
in it all the mineral food constituents needed by plants for healthy
nutrition. Without a sufficient supply plants remain stunted and
the crop yield is seriously reduced, as we see in dry seasons when
the rainfall is much below the average. If one condition is more
necessary than another for good crops it is a suitable supply of water,
for no amount of manuring or other treatment of the soil will make
up for a deficient rainfall. The amount needed for the most
satisfactory nutrition varies with different plants. In the case of
fair average farm crops it has been shown that for the production
of one ton of dry matter contained in them from 300 to 500 tons
of water has been absorbed and utilized by the plants. This may
be more than the rainfall, in which case irrigation or special control
of the water supply may be necessary.
The water-holding capacity of a soil depends upon the amount
of free space between the particles of which it is composed into which
water can enter. In most cases this amounts to from 30 to 50 %
of the volume of the soil.
When the pore-space of the soil is filled with water it becomes
water-logged and few plants can effect absorption by their roots
under such conditions. The root-hairs die from want of air, and the
whole plant soon suffers. Fields of wheat and other cereals rarely
recover after a week's submergence, but orchards and many trees
when at rest in winter withstand a flooded or water-logged condition
of the soil for two or three weeks without damage. The most
satisfactory growth is maintained when the amount of water present
is not more than 40 to 60% of what would saturate it. Under
such conditions each particle of soil is surrounded by a thin film
of water and in the pore-space air can freely circulate. It is from
such films that the root-hairs absorb all that plants require for their
growth. The movement of water into the root-hairs is brought
about by the osmotic action of certain salts in their cell-sap. Crops
are, however, unable to absorb all the water present in the soil,
for when the films become very thin they are held more firmly or
cling with more force to the soil particles and resist the osmotic
action of the root-hairs. Plants have been found to wither and die
in sandy soils containing l% of water, and in clay soils in which
there was still present 8 % of water.
When a long glass tube open at both ends is filled with soil and
one end is dipped in a shallow basin of water, the water is found
to move upwards through the soil column just as oil will rise in an
ordinary lamp wick. By this capillary action water may be trans-
ferred to the upper layers of the soil from a depth of several feet
below the surface. In this manner plants whose roots descend
but a little way in the ground are enabled to draw on deep supplies.
Not only does water move upwards, but it is transferred by capil-
larity in all directions through the soil. The amount and speed of
movement of water by this means, and the distance to which it
may be carried, depend largely upon the fineness of the particles
composing the soil and the spaces left between each. The ascent
of water is most rapid through coarse sands, but the height to which
it will rise is comparatively small. In clays whose particles are
exceedingly minute the water travels very slowly but may ultimately
reach a height of many feet above the level of the " water-table "
below. While this capillary movement of water is of great impor-
tance in supplying the needs of plants it has its disadvantages, since
water may be transferred to the surface of the soil, where it evapo-
rates into the air and is lost to the land or the crop growing upon it.
The loss in this manner was found to be in one instance over a pound
of water per day per square foot of surface, the " water-table "
being about 4 or 5 ft. below.
One of the most effective means of conserving soil moisture is by
" mulching," i.e. by covering the surface of the soil with some
loosely compacted material such as straw, leaf-refuse or stable-
manure. The space between the parts of such substances is too
large to admit of capillary action ; hence the water conveyed to the
surface of the soil is prevented from passing upwards any further
except by slow evaporation through the mulching layer. A loose
layer of earth spread over the surface of the soil acts in the same way,
and a similarly effective mulch may be prepared by hoeing the soil,
or stirring it to a depth of one or two inches with harrows or other
implements. The hoe and harrow are therefore excellent tools
for use in dry weather. Rolling the land is beneficial to young crops
in dry weather, since it promotes capillary action by reducing the
soil spaces. It should, however, be followed by a light hoeing or
harrowing.
In the semi-arid regions of the United States, Argentina and
other countries where the average annual rainfall lies between 10
to 20 in., irrigation is necessary to obtain full crops every year.
Good crops, however, can often be grown in such areas without
irrigation if attention is paid to the proper circulation of water in
the soil and means for retaining it or preventing excessive loss by
evaporation. Of course care must be exercised in the selection of
plants such as sorghum, maize, wheat, and alfalfa or lucerne
which are adapted to dry conditions and a warm climate.
So far as the water-supply is concerned and this is what ulti-
mately determines the yield of crops the rain which falls upon
the soil should be made to enter it and percolate rapidly through
its interstices. A .deep porous bed in the upper layers is essential,
and this should consist of fine particles which lie close to each other
without any tendency to stick together and " puddle " after heavy
showers. Every effort should be made to prepare a good mealy
tilth by suitable ploughing, harrowing and consolidation.
In the operation of ploughing the furrow slice is separated from
the soil below, and although in humid soils this layer may be left
to settle by degrees, in semi-arid regions this loosened layer becomes
dry if left alone even for a few hours and valuable water evaporates
into the air. To prevent this various implements, such as disk
harrows and specially constructed rollers, may be used to consolidate
the upper stirred portion of the soil and place it in close capillary
relationship with the lower unmoved layer. If the soil is allowed
to become dry and pulverized, rain is likely to run off or " puddle "
the surface without penetrating it more than a very short distance.
Constant hoeing or harrowing to maintain a natural soil mulch
layer of 2 or 3 in. deep greatly conserves the soil water below. In
certain districts where the rainfall is low a crop can only be obtained
once every alternate year, the intervening season being devoted to
tillage with a view of getting the rain into the soil and retaining it
there for the crop in the following year.
Bacteria in the Soil. Recent science has made much progress
in the investigation of the micro-organisms of the soil. Whereas
the soil used to be looked upon solely as a dead, inert material con-
taining certain chemical substances which serve as food constituents
of the crops grown upon it, it is now known to be a place of habitation
for myriads of minute living organisms upon whose activity much
of its fertility depends. They are responsible for many important
chemical processes which make the soil constituents more available
and better adapted to the nutrition of crops. One cubic centimetre
of soil taken within a foot or so from the surface contains from I J
to 2 millions of bacteria of many different kinds, as well as large
numbers of fungi. In the lower depths of the soil the numbers
decrease, few being met with at a depth of 5 or 6 ft.
The efficiency of many substances, such as farm-yard manure,
guanos, bone-meal and all other organic materials, which are spread
over or dug or ploughed into the land for the benefit of farm and
garden crops, is bound up with the action of these minute living
beings. Without their aid most manures would be useless for
plant growth. Farm-yard manure, guanos and other fertilizers
undergo decomposition in the soil and become broken down into
compounds of simple chemical composition better suited for absorp-
tion by the roots of crops, the changes involved being directly due
to the activity of bacteria and fungi. Much of the work carried on
by these organisms is not clearly understood; there are, however,
certain processes which have been extensively investigated and to
these it is necessary to refer.
It has been found by experiment that the nitrogen needed by
practically all farm crops except leguminous ones is best supplied
in the form of a nitrate ; the rapid effect of nitrate of soda when used
as a top dressing to wheat or other plants is well known to farmers.
It has long been known that when organic materials such as the
dung and urine 1 of animals, or even the bodies of animals and plants,
are applied to the soil, the nitrogen within them becomes oxidized,
and ultimately appears in the form of nitrate of lime, potash or some
other base. The nitrogen in decaying roots, in the dead stems
and leaves of plants, and in humus generally is sooner or later
changed into a nitrate, the change being effected by bacteria. That
SOIL
349
the action of living organisms is the cause of the production of
nitrates is supported by the fact that the change does not occur
when the soil is heated nor when it is treated with disinfectants
which destroy or check the growth and life of bacteria. The process
resulting in the formation of nitrates in the soil is spoken of as
nitrification.
The steps in the breaking down of the highly complex nitrogenous
proteid compounds contained in the humus of the soil, or applied
to the latter by the farmer in the form of dung and organic refuse
generally, are many and varied; most frequently the insoluble
proteids are changed by various kinds of putrefactive bacteria into
soluble proteids (peptones, &c.), these into simpler amido-bodies,
and these again sooner or later into compounds of ammonia. The
urea in urine is also rapidly converted by the uro-bacteria into
ammonium carbonate. The compounds of ammonia thus formed
from the complex substances by many varied kinds of micro-organ-
isms are ultimately oxidized into nitrates. The change takes
place in two stages and is effected by two special groups of nitrifying
bacteria, which are present in all soils. In the first stage the
ammonium compounds are oxidized to nitrites by the agency of
very minute motile bacteria belonging to the genus Nitrosomonas.
The further oxidation of the nitrite to a nitrate is effected by
bacteria belonging to the genus Nitrobacter.
Several conditions must be fulfilled before nitrification can occur.
In the first place an adequate temperature is essential ; at 5 or 6 C.
(4l-43 F.) the process is stopped, so that it does not go on in
winter. In summer, when the temperature is about 24 C. (75 F.),
nitrification proceeds at a rapid rate. The organisms do not carry
on their work in soils deficient in air; hence the process is checked
in water-logged soils. The presence of a base such as lime or mag-
nesia (or their carbonates) is also essential, as well as an adequate
degree of moisture: in dry soils nitrification ceases.
It is the business of the farmer and gardener to promote the
activity of these organisms by good tillage, careful drainage and
occasional application of lime to soils which are deficient in this
substance. It is only when these conditions are attended to that
decay and nitrification of dung, guano, fish-meal, sulphate of am-
monia and other manures take place, and the constituents which
they contain become available to the crops for whose benefit they
have been applied to the land.
Nitrates are very soluble in water and are therefore liable to be
washed out of the soil by heavy rain. They are, however, very
readily absorbed by growing plants, so that in summer, when nitrifica-
tion is most active, the nitrates produced are usually made use of by
crops before loss by drainage takes place. In winter, however, and
in fallows loss takes place in the subsoil water.
There is also another possible source of loss of nitrates through
the activity of denitrifying bacteria. These organisms reduce
nitrates to nitrites and finally to ammonia and gaseous free nitrogen
which escapes into the atmosphere. Many bacteria are known
which are capable of denitrification, some of them being abundant
in fresh dung and upon old straw. They can, however, only carry
on their work extensively under anaerobic conditions, as in water-
logged soils or in those which are badly tilled, so that there is but
little loss of nitrates through their agency.
An important group of soil organisms are now known which have
the power of using the free nitrogen of the atmosphere for the forma-
tion of the complex nitrogenous compounds of which their bodies
are largely composed. By their continued action the soil becomes
enriched with nitrogenous material which eventually through the
nitrification process becomes available to ordinary green crops.
This power of " fixing nitrogen," as it is termed, is apparently not
possessed by higher green plants. The bacterium, Clostridium
pasteurianum, common in most soils, is able to utilize free nitrogen
under anaerobic conditions, and an organism known as Azotobacter
chroococcum and some others closely allied to it, have similar powers
which they can exercise under aerobic conditions. For the carrying
on of their functions they all need to be supplied with carbohydrates
or other carbon compounds which they obtain ordinarily from
humus and plant residues in the soil, or possibly in some instances
from carbohydrates manufactured by minute green algae with
which they live in close union. Certain bacteria of the nitrogen-
fixing class enter into association with the roots of green plants,
the best-known examples being those which are met with in the
nodules upon the roots of clover, peas, beans, sainfoin and other
plants belonging to the leguminous order.
That the fertility of land used for the growth of wheat is improved
by growing upon it a crop of beans or clover has been long recognized
by farmers. The knowledge of the cause, however, is due to modern
investigations. When wheat, barley, turnips and similar plants
are grown, the soil upon which they are cultivated becomes depleted
of its nitrogen; yet after a crop of clover or other leguminous plants
the soil is found to be richer in nitrogen than it was before the crop
was grown. This is due to the nitrogenous root residues left in the
land. Upon the roots of leguminous plants characteristic swollen
nodules or tubercles are present. These are found to contain large
numbers of a bacterium termed Bacillus radicicola or Pseudomonas
radicicola. The bacteria, which are present in almost all soils, enter
the root-hairs of their host plants and ultimately stimulate the
production of an excrescent nodule, in which they live. For a time
after entry they multiply, obtaining the nitrogen necessary for
their nutrition and growth from the free nitrogen of the air, the
carbohydrate required being supplied by the pea or clover plant
in whose tissues they make a home. The nodules increase in size,
and analysis shows that they are exceedingly rich in nitrogen up to
the time of flowering of the host plant. During this period the
bacteria multiply and most of them assume a peculiar thickened
or branched form, in which state they are spoken of as bacteroids.
Later the nitrogen-content of the nodule decreases, most of the
organisms, which are largely composed of proteid material, becoming
digested and transformed into soluble nitrogenous compounds
which are conducted to the developing roots and seeds. After the
decay of the roots some of the unchanged bacteria are left in the
soil, where they remain ready to infect a new leguminous crop.
The nitrogen-fixing nodule bacteria can be cultivated on artificial
media, and many attempts have been made to utilize them for
practical purposes. Pure cultures may be made and after dilution
in water or other liquid can be mixed with soil to be ultimately
spread over the land which is to be infected. The method of using
them most frequently adopted consists in applying them to the
seeds of leguminous plants before sowing, the seed being dipped for
a time in a liquid containing the bacteria. In this manner organisms
obtained from red clover can be grown and applied to the seed of
red clover ; and similar inoculation can be arranged for other species,
so that an application of the bacteria most suited to the particular
crop to be cultivated can be assured. In many cases it has been
found that inoculation, whether of the soil or of the seed, has not
made any appreciable difference to the growth of the crop, a result
no doubt due to the fact that the soil had already contained within
it an abundant supply of suitable organisms. But in other instances
greatly increased yields have been obtained where inoculation has
been practised. More or less pure cultures of the nitrogen-fixing
bacteria belonging to the Azotobacter group have been tried and
recommended for applicationto poor land in order to provide a cheap
supply of nitrogen. The application of pure cultures of bacteria
for improving the fertility of the land is still in an experimental
stage. There is little doubt, however, that in the near future means
will be devised to obtain the most efficient work from these minute
organisms, either by special artificial cultivation and subsequent
application to the soil, or by improved methods of encouraging their
healthy growth and activity in the land where they already exist.
Improvement of Soils. The fertility of a soil is dependent
upon a number of factors, some of which, such as the addition
of fertilizers or manures, increase the stock of available food
materials in the soil (see MANURE), while others, such as
application of clay or humus, chiefly influence the fertility of
the land by improving its physical texture.
The chief processes for the improvement of soils which may
be discussed here are: liming, claying and marling, warping,
paring and burning, and green manuring. Most of these more
or less directly improve the land by adding to it certain plant
food constituents which are lacking, but the effect of each
process is in reality very complex. In the majority of cases
the good results obtained are more particularly due to the
setting free of " dormant " or" latent " food constituents and to
the amelioration of the texture of the soil, so that its aeration,
drainage, temperature and water-holding capacity are altered
for the better.
The material which chemists call calcium carbonate is met with
in a comparatively pure state in chalk. It is present in variable
amounts in limestones of all kinds, although its white-
ness may there be masked by the presence of iron oxide Liming.
and other coloured substances. Carbonate of lime is also a consti-
tuent to a greater or lesser extent in almost all soils. In certain
sandy soils and in a few stiff clays it may amount to less than i %,
while in others in limestone and chalk districts there may be 50 to
80% present. Pure carbonate of lime when heated loses 44% of
its weight, the decrease being due to the loss of carbon dioxide gas.
The resulting white product is termed calcium oxide lime, burnt
lime, quicklime, cob lime, or caustic lime. This substance absorbs
and combines with water very greedily, at the same time becoming
very hot, and falling into a fine dry powder, calcium hydroxide or
slaked lime, which when left in the open slowly combines with
the carbon dioxide of the air and becomes calcium carbonate, from
which we began.
When recommendations are made about liming land it is necessary
to indicate more precisely than is usually done which of the three
classes of material named above chalk, quicklime or slaked lime
is intended. Generally speaking the oxide or quicklime has a more
rapid and greater effect in modifying the soil than slaked lime, and
this again greater than the carbonate or chalk.
Lime in whatever form it is applied has a many-sided influence
in the fertility of the land. It tends to improve the tilth and the
350
SOIL
capillarity of the soil by binding sands together somewhat and by
opening up clays. If applied in too great an amount to light soils
and peat land it may do much damage by rendering them too loose
and open. The addition of small quantities of lime, especially
in a caustic form, to stiff greasy clays makes them much more porous
and pliable. A lump of clay, which if dried would become hard
and intractable, crumbles into pieces when dried after adding to it
J % of lime. The lime causes the minute separate particles of clay to
flocculate or group themselves together into larger compound grains
between which air and water can percolate more freely. It is this
power of creating a more crumbly tilth on stiff clays that makes lime
so valuable to the farmer. Lime also assists in the decomposition
of the organic matter or humus in the soil and promotes nitrification ;
hence it is of great value after green manuring or where the land
contains much humus from the addition of bulky manures such as
farm-yard dung. This tendency to destroy organic matter makes
the repeated application of lime a pernicious practice, especially
on land which contains little humus to begin with. The more or
less dormant nitrogen and other constituents of the humus are made
immediately available to the succeeding crop, but the capital of
the soil is rapidly reduced, and unless the loss is replaced by the
addition of more manures the land may become sterile. Although
good crops may follow the application of lime, the latter is not a
direct fertilizer or manure and is no substitute for such. Its best
use is obtained on land in good condition, but not where the soil is
poor. When used on light dry land it tends to make the land drier,
since it destroys the humus which so largely assists in keeping water
in the soil. Lime is a base and neutralizes the acid materials present
in badly drained meadows and boggy pastures. Weeds, therefore,
which need sour conditions for development are checked by liming
and the better grasses and clovers are encouraged. It also sets
free potash and possibly other useful plant food-constituents of the
soil. Liming tends to produce earlier crops and destroys the
fungus which causes finger-and-toe or club-root among turnips and
cabbages. .
Land which contains less than about \ % of lime usually needs
the addition of this material. The particular form in which lime
should be applied for the best results depends upon the nature
of the soil. In practice the proximity to chalk pits or lime kilns,
the cost of the lime and cartage, will determine which is most
economical. Generally speaking light poor lands deficient in
organic matter will need the less caustic form or chalk, while quick-
lime will be most satisfactory on the stiff clays and richer soils.
On the stiff soils overlying the chalk it was formerly the custom to
dig pits through the soil to the rock below. Shafts 20 or 30 ft. deep
were then sunk, and the chalk taken from horizontal tunnels was
brought to the surface and spread on the land at the rate of about
60 loads per acre. Chalk should be applied in autumn, so that it
may be split by the action of frost during the winter. Quicklime
is best applied, perhaps, in spring at the rate of one ton per acre every
six or eight years, or in larger doses 4 to 8 tons every 15 to 20
years. Small dressings applied at short intervals give the most
satisfactory results. The quicklime should be placed in small
heaps and covered with soil if possible until it is slacked and the
lumps have fallen into powder, after which it may be spread and
harrowed in. Experiments have shown that excellent effects can be
obtained by applying 5 or 6 cwt. of ground quicklime.
Gas-lime is a product obtained from gasworks where quicklime
is used to purify the gas from sulphur compounds and other objec-
tionable materials. It contains a certain amount of unaltered
caustic lime and slacked lime, along with sulphates and sulphides
of lime, some of which have an evil odour. As some of these sulphur
compounds have a poisonous effect on plants, gas-lime cannot be
applied to land directly without great risk or rendering it incapable
of growing crops of any sort even weeds for some time. It
should therefore be kept a year or more in heaps in some waste
corner and turned over once or twice so that the air can gain access
to it and oxidize the poisonous ingredients in it.
Many soils of a light sandy or gravelly or peaty nature and liable
to drought and looseness of texture can be improved by the addition
. of large amounts of clay of an ordinary character.
Similarly soils can be improved by applying to them
marl, a substance consisting of a mixture of clay with
variable proportions of lime. Some of the chalk marls, which are
usually of a yellowish or dirty grey colour, contain clay and 50 to 80 %
of carbonate of lime with a certain proportion of phosphate of lime.
Such a material would not only have an influence on the texture
of the land but the lime would reduce the sourness of the land and
the phosphate of lime supply one of the most valuable of plant food-
constituents. The beneficial effects of marls may also be partially
due to the presence in them of available potash.
Typical clay-marls are tenacious, soapy clays of yellowish-red or
brownish colour and generally contain jess than 50 % of lime. When
dry they crumble into small pieces which can be readily mixed with
the soil by ploughing. Many other kinds of marls are described;
some are of a sandy nature, others stony or full of the remains of
small shells. The amount and nature of the clay or marl to be added
to the soil will depend largely upon the original composition of the
latter, the lighter sands and gravel requiring more clay than those
of firmer texture. Even stiff soils deficient in lime are greatly
improved in fertility by the addition of marls. In some cases as
little as 40 loads per acre have been used with benefit, in others 1 80
loads have not been too much. The material is dug from neighbour-
ing pits or sometimes from the fields which are to be improved, and
applied in autumn and winter. When dry and in a crumbly state
it is harrowed and spread and finally ploughed in and mixed with
the soil.
On some of the strongest land it was formerly the practice to add
to and plough into it burnt clay, with the object of making the land
work more easily. The burnt clay moreover carried _.
with it potash and other materials in a state readily jj .
available to the crops. The clay is dug from the land Burala Z-
or from ditches or pits and placed in heaps of 60 to loo loads each,
with laggot wood, refuse coals or other fuel. Great care is necessary
to prevent the heaps from becoming too hot, in which case the clay
becomes baked into hard lumps of brick-like material which cannot
be broken up. With careful management, however, the clay dries
and bakes, becoming slowly converted into lumps which readily
crumble into a fine powder, in which state it is spread over and
worked into the land at the rate of 40 loads per acre.
The paring and burning of land, although formerly practised
as an ordinary means of improving the texture and fertility of
arable fields, can now only be looked upon as a practice .
to be adopted for the purpose of bringing rapidly into ^"7 *
cultivation very foul leys or land covered with a coarse
turf. The practice is confined to poorer types of land, such as
heaths covered with -furze and bracken or fens and clay areas
smothered with rank grasses and sedges. To reduce such land to
a fit state for the growth of arable crops is very difficult and slow
without resort to paring and burning. The operation consists of
paring off the tough sward to a depth of I to 2 in. just sufficient to
effectually damage the roots of the plants forming the sward and
then, after drying the sods and burning them, spreading the charred
material and ashes over the land. The turf is taken off either with
the breast plough a paring tool pushed forward from the breast
or thighs by the workman or with specially constructed paring
ploughs or shims. The depth of the sod removed should not be too
thick or burning is difficult and top much humus is destroyed
unnecessarily, nor should it be too thin or the roots of the herbage
are not effectually destroyed.
The operation is best carried out in spring and summer. After
being pared off the turf is allowed to dry for a fortnight or so and is
then placed in small heaps a yard or two wide at the base, a little
straw or wood being put in the middle of each heap, which is then
lighted. As burning proceeds more turf is added to the outside
of the heaps in such a manner as to allow little access of air. Every
care should be taken to burn and char the sod thoroughly without
permitting the heap to blaze. The ashes should be spread as soon
as possible and covered by a shallow ploughing. The land is then
usually sown with some rapidly growing green crop, such as rape,
or with turnips.
Paring and burning improves the texture of clay lands, particularly
if draining is carried out at the same time. It tends to destroy
insects and weeds, and gets rid of acidity of the soil. No operation
brings old turf into cultivation so rapidly. Moreover the beneficial
effects are seen in the first crop and last for many years. Many of
the mineral plant food-constituents locked up in the coarse herbage
and in the upper layers of the soil are made immediately available
to crops. The chief disadvantage is the loss of nitrogen which it
entails, this element being given off into the air in a free gaseous
state. It is best adapted for application to clays and fen lands
and should not be practised on shallow light sands or gravelly soils,
since the humus so necessary for the fertility of such areas is reduced
too much and the soil rendered too porous and liable to suffer from
drought.
Many thousands of acres of low-lying peaty and sandy land adjoin-
ing the tidal rivers which flow into the number have been improved
by a process termed " warping." The warp consists yfarolax
of fine muddy sediment which is suspended in the tidal-
river .water and appears to be derived from material scoured from
the bed of the Humber by the action of the tide and acertain amount
of sediment brought down by the tributary ' streams which join
the Humber some distance from its mouth. The field or area to
be warped must lie below the level of the water in the river at high
tide. It is first surrounded by an embankment, after which the
water from the river is allowed to flow through a properly constructed
sluice in its bank, along a drain or ditch to the land which is prepared
for warping. By a system of carefully laid channels the water
flows gently over the land, and deposits its warp with an even level
surface. At the ebb of the tide the more or less clear water flows
back again from the land into the main river with sufficient force
to clean out any deposit which may have accumulated in the drain
leading to the warped area, thus allowing free access of more warp-
laden water at the next tide. In this manner poor peats and sands
may be covered with a large layer of rock soil capable of growing
excellent crops.
The amount of deposit laid over the land reaches a thickness of
two or three feet in one season of warping, which is usually practised
SOIL
between March and October, advantage being taken of the spring
tides during these months. The new warp is allowed to lie fallow
during the winter after being laid out in four-yard " lands " and
becomes dry enough to be sown with oats and grass and clover seeds
in the following spring. The clover-grass ley is then grazed for a year
or two with sheep, after which wheat and potatoes are the chief
crops grown on the land.
Green manures are crops which are grown especially for the purpose
of ploughing into the land in a green or actively growing state. The
crop during its growth obtains a considerable amount of
' ree carbon from the carbon dioxide of the air, and builds it up
manuring. j ntQ com p Ounc i s w hich when ploughed into the land
become humus. The carbon compounds of the latter are of no direct
nutritive value to the succeeding crop, but the decaying vegetable
tissues very greatly assist in retaining moisture in light sandy soils,
and in clay soils also have a beneficial effect in rendering them more
open and allowing of better drainage of superfluous water and
good circulation of fresh air within them. The ploughing-in of green
crops is in many respects like the addition of farm-yard manure.
Their growth makes no new addition of mineral food-constituents
to the land, but they bring useful substances from the subsoil
nearer to the surface, and after the decay of the buried vegetation
these become available to succeeding crops of wheat or other plants.
Moreover, where deep-rooting plants are grown the subsoil is aerated
and rendered more open and suitable for the development of future
crops.
The plants most frequently used are white mustard, rape, buck-
wheat, spurry, rye, and several kinds of leguminous plants, especially
vetches, lupins and serradella. By far the most satisfactory crops
as green manures are those of the leguminous class, since they add
to the land considerable amounts of the valuable fertilizing con-
stituent, nitrogen, which is obtained from the atmosphere. By
nitrification this substance rapidly becomes available to succeeding
crops. On the light, poor sands of Saxony Herr Schultz, of Lupitz,
made use of serradella, yellow lupins and vetches as green manures
for enriching the land in humus and nitrogen, and found the addition
of potash salts and phosphates very profitable for the subsequent
growth of potatoes and wheat. He estimated that by using
leguminous crops in this manner for the purpose of obtaining cheap
nitrogen he reduced the cost of production of wheat more than 50 %.
The growing crops should be ploughed in before flowering occurs ;
they should not be buried deeply, since decay and nitrification take
place most rapidly and satisfactorily when there is free access of
air to the decaying material. When the crop is luxuriant it is
necessary to put a roller over it first, to facilitate proper burial by
the plough. The best time for the operation appears to be late
summer and autumn. (J. PE.)
Soil and Disease. The influence of different kinds of soil as
a factor in the production of disease requires to be considered,
in regard not only to the nature and number of the micro-
organisms they contain, but also to the amount of moisture
and air in them and their capacity for heat. The moisture in
soil is derived from two sources the rain and the ground-water.
Above the level of the ground-water the soil is kept moist by
capillary attraction and by evaporation of the water below, by
rainfall, and by movements of the ground- water; on the other
hand, the upper layers are constantly losing moisture by evapo-
ration from the surface and through vegetation. When the
ground-water rises it forces air out of the soil; when it falls again
it leaves the soil moist and full of air. The nature of the soil
will largely influence the amount of moisture which it will take
up or retain. In regard to water, all soils have two actions
namely, permeability and absorbability. Permeability is
practically identical with the speed at which percolation takes
place; through clay it is slow, but increases in rapidity through
marls, loams, limestones, chalks, coarse gravels and fine sands,
reaching a maximum in soil saturated with moisture. The
amount of moisture retained depends mainly upon the absorb-
ability of the soil, and as it depends largely on capillary action
it varies with the coarseness or fineness of the pores of the soil,
being greater for soils which consist of fine particles. The
results of many analyses show that the capacity of soils for
moisture increases with the amount of organic substances
present; decomposition appears to be most active when the
moisture is about 4%, but can continue when it is as low as
2%, while it appears to be retarded by any excess over 4%.
Above the level of the ground-water all soils contain air, varying
in amount with the degree of looseness of the soil. Some sands
contain as much as 50% of air of nearly the same composition
as atmospheric air. The oxygen, however, decreases with the
depth, while the carbon dioxide increases.
Among the most noteworthy workers at the problems involved in
the question of the influence of soil in the production of disease
we find von Foder, Pettenkofer, Levy, Fleck, von Naegeli, Schleesing,
Muntz and Warrington. The study of epidemic and endemic
diseases generally has brought to light an array of facts which
very strongly suggest that an intimate association exists between
the soil and the appearance and propagation of certain diseases;
but although experiments and observations allow this view to be
looked upon as well established, still the precise r61e played by the
soil in an aetiological respect is by no means so well understood
as to make it possible to separate the factors and dogmatize on their
effects. The earliest writers upon cholera emphasized its remark-
able preference for particular places ; and the history of each succes-
sive epidemic implies, besides an importation of the contagion,
certain local conditions which may be either general sanitary defects
or peculiarities of climate and soil. The general evidence indicates
that the specific bacteria of cholera discharges are capable of a
much longer existence in the superficial soil layers than was formerly
supposed; consequently it is specially necessary to guard against
pollution of the soil, and through it against the probable contamina-
tion of both water and air. The evidence, however, is not suffi-
ciently strong to warrant a universal conclusion, the diffusion of
cholera appearing to be largely dependent upon other factors than
soil states. Again, all accounts of diphtheria show a tendency on
the part of the disease to recur in the same districts year after year.
The questions naturally suggest themselves Are the reappearances
due to a revival of the contagion derived from previous outbreaks
in the same place, or to some favouring condition which the place
offers for the development of infection derived from some other
quarter; and have favouring conditions any dependence upon the
character and state of the soil? Greenhow in 1858 stated that
diphtheria was especially prevalent on cold, wet soils, and Airy
in 1 88 1 described the localities affected as " for the most part cold,
wet, clay lands." An analysis of the innumerable outbreaks in
various parts of Europe indicates that the geological features of the
affected districts play a less important part in the incidence of the
disease than soil dampness. In this connexion it is interesting to
note the behaviour of the diphtheritic contagion in soil. Experi-
ments show that pure cultures, when mixed with garden soil con-
stantly moistened short of saturation and kept in the dark at a
temperature of 14 C., will retain their vitality for more than ten
months; from moist soil kept at 26 C. they die out in about two
months; from moist soil at 30 C. in seventeen days; and in dry soil
at the same temperature within a week. In the laboratory absolute
soil dryness is as distinctly antagonistic to the vitality of the
diphtheria bacillus as soil dampness is favourable. Both statisti-
cally and experimentally we find that a damp soil favours its life
and development, while prolonged submersion and drought kill it.
We may consider that, in country districts, constant soil moisture
is one of the chief factors ; while in the case of urban outbreaks mere
soil moisture is subsidiary to other more potent causes.
Again, many facts in the occurrence and diffusion of enteric fever
point to an intimate connexion between its origin and certain con-
ditions of locality. Epidemics rarely spread over any considerable
tract of country, but are nearly always confined within local limits.
Observations made at the most diverse parts of the globe, and the
general distribution area ot the disease, show that mere questions
of elevation, or even configuration of the ground, have little or no
influence. On the other hand, the same observations go to show
that the disease is met with oftener on the more recent formations
than the older, and this fact, so far as concerns the physical characters
of the soil, is identical with the questions of permeability to air and
water. Robertson has shown that the typhoid bacillus can grow
very easily in certain soils, can persist in soils through the winter
months, and when the soil is artificially fed, as may be done by a
leaky drain or by access of filthy water.from the surface, the micro-
organism will take on a fresh growth in the warm season. The
destructive power of sunlight is only exercised on those organisms
actually at the surface. Cultures of the typhoid organism planted
at a depth of 1 8 in. were found to have grown to the surface. In
the winter months the deeper layers of the soil act as a shelter to
the organism, which again grows towards the surface during the
summer. The typhoid organism was not found to be taken off from
the decomposing masses of semi-liquid filth largely contaminated
with a culture of bacillus typhosus; but, on the other hand, it was
abundantly proved that it could grow over moist surfaces of stones,
&c. Certain disease-producing organisms, such as the bacillus of
tetanus and malignant oedema, appear to be universally distributed
in soil, while others, as the bacillus typhosus and spirillum cholerae,
appear to have only a local distribution. The conditions which
favour the vitality, growth and multiplication of the typhoid
bacillus are the following: the soil should be pervious; it should
be permeated with a sufficiency of decaying preferably animal
organic matters; it should possess a certain amount of moisture,
and be subject to a certain temperature. Depriving the organism
of any of these essential conditions for its existence in the soil will
secure our best weapon for defence. The optimum temperature
adapted to its growth and extension is 37 C. =98 -4 F. Sir Charles
Cameron attributes the prevalence of typhoid in certain areas in
352
SOISSONS
Dublin to the soil becoming saturated with faecal matter and specifi-
cally infected. The ratio of cases to population living in Dublin on
loose porous gravel soil tor the ten years 1881-1891 was I in 94, while
that of those living on stiff clay soil was but I in 145. " This is
as we should expect, since the movements of ground air are much
greater in loose porous soils than in stiff clay soils." A foul gravel
soil is a most dangerous one on which to build. For warmth, for
dryness, for absence of fog, and for facility of walking after rain,
just when the air is at its purest and its best, there is nothing
equal to gravel; but when gravel has been rendered foul by infil-
tration with organic matters it may easily become a very hotbed
of disease. , (J. L. N.)
SOISSONS, a city of northern France, in the department of
Aisne, 65 m. N.E. of Paris by the railway to Laon. Pop. (1906),
11,586. Soissons, pleasantly situated amongst wooded hills,
stands on the left bank of the Aisne, the suburbs of St Vaast
and St Medard lying on the right bank. The cathedral of
Notre-Dame was begun in the second half of the i2th century
and finished about the end of the i3th. It is 328 ft. long and
87 wide, and the vaulting of the nave is 100 ft. above the pave-
ment. The single tower dates from the middle of the i3th
century and is an imitation of those of Notre-Dame of Paris,
which it equals in height (216 ft.). The south transept, the
oldest and most graceful portion of the whole edifice, terminates
in an apse. The facade of the north transept dates from the
end of the i3th century. The apse and choir retain some fine
13th-century glass. Considerable remains exist of the magnifi-
cent abbey of St Jean-des-Vignes, where Thomas Becket resided
for a short time. These include the ruins of two cloisters (the
larger dating from the i3th century), the refectory, and above
all the imposing fagade of the church (restored). Above the
three portals (i3th century) runs a gallery, over which again
is a large window; the two unequal towers (230 and 246 ft.) of
the 1 5th and early i6th centuries are surmounted by beautiful
stone spires, which command the town. The church of St
Leger, which belongs to the i3th century, was formerly attached
to an abbey of the Genovefains. Beneath are two Romanesque
crypts. The royal abbey of Notre-Dame, now a barrack, was
founded in 660 for monks and nuns by Leutrade, wife of Ebro'in,
the celebrated mayor of the palace. The number of the nuns
(216 in 858), the wealth of the library in manuscripts, the
valuable relics, the high birth of the abbesses, the popularity of
the pilgrimages, all contributed to the importance of this abbey,
of which there exist only inconsiderable remains. The wealthiest
of all the abbeys in Soissons, and one of the most important of
all France during the first two dynasties, was that of St Medard,
on the right bank of the Aisne, founded about 560 by Clotaire I.,
beside the villa of Syagrius, which had become the palace of the
Prankish kings. St Medard, apostle of Vermandois, and kings
Clotaire and Sigebert, were buried in the monastery, which be-
came the residence of 400 monks and the meeting-place of several
councils. It was there that Childeric III., the last Merovingian,
was deposed and Pippin the Short was crowned by the papal
legate, and there Louis the Pious was kept in captivity in 833.
The abbots of St Medard coined money, and in Abelard's time
(i2th century) were lords of 220 villages, farms and manors.
At the battle of Bouvines (1214) the abbot commanded 150
vassals. In 1530 St Medard was visited by a procession of
300,000 pilgrims. But the religious wars ruined the abbey,
and, although it was restored by the Benedictines in 1637, it
never recovered its former splendour. Of the churches and the
conventual buildings of the ancient foundation there hardly
remains a trace. The site is occupied by a deaf and dumb
institution, the chapel of which stands over the crypt of the
great abbey church, which dates from about 840. In the crypt
is a stone coffin, said to have been that of Childebert II., and close
at hand is an underground chamber, reputed to have been the
place of captivity of Louis the Pious.
The civil buildings of the town are not of much interest.
The h6tel-de-ville contains a library and a museum with collec-
tions of paintings and antiquities. The foundation of the hotel-
dieu dates back to the I3th century. The town has a large
botanical garden. Soissons is the seat of a bishop and a sub-
prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a communal college and higher ecclesiastical seminary. Among
the industrial establishments are iron and copper foundries,
and factories for the production of boilers, agricultural imple-
ments and other iron goods, straw hats, glass and sugar. Grain,
haricot beans of exceptional quality, and -timber are the principal
articles of trade.
Soissons is generally identified with the oppidum of Gallia
Belgica, called Noiiiodunum by Caesar. Noviodunum was the
capital of the Suessiones, who occupied twelve towns, and whose
king, Divitiacus, one of the most powerful in Gaul, had extended
his authority even beyond the sea among the Britons. In 58 B.C.
Galba, king of the Suessiones, separated from the confederation
of the Belgians and submitted to the Romans. At the beginning
of the empire Noviodunum took the name of Augusta Suessionum,
and afterwards that of Suessiona, and became the second capital
of Gallia Belgica, of which Reims was the metropolis. The
town was before long surrounded with a regular wall and de-
fended by a citadel, and it became the starting-point of several
military roads (to Reims, Chateau-Thierry, Meaux, Paris,
Amiens and St Quentin). Christianity was introduced by St
Crispin and St Crispinian, men of noble birth, who, however,
earned their livelihood by shoemaking, and thus became patrons
of that craft. After their martyrdom in 297 their work was
continued by St Sinitius, the first bishop of Soissons. After
the barbarians had crossed the Rhine and the Meuse Soissons
became the metropolis of the Roman possessions in the north
of Gaul, and on the defeat of Syagrius by Clovis the Franks
seized the town. It was at Soissons that Clovis married Clotilde,
and, though he afterwards settled at Paris, Soissons was the
capital of his son Clotaire, and afterwards of Chilperic I., king of
Neustria. It was not till the time of Chilperic's son, Clotaire II.,
that the kingdom of Soissons was incorporated with that
of Paris. Pippin the Short was at Soissons proclaimed king
by an assembly of leudes and bishops, and he was there crowned
by the papal legate, St Boniface, before being crowned at Saint
Denis by the pope himself. Louis the Pious did penance there
after being deposed by the assembly at Compiegne. Under
Charles the Fat (886) the Normans failed in an attempt against
the town, but laid waste St Medard and the neighbourhood.
In 923 Charles the Simple was defeated outside the walls by
the supporters of Rudolph of Burgundy, and Hugh the Great
besieged and partly burned the town in 948. Under the first
Capets Soissons was held by hereditary counts (see below),
frequently at war with the king or the citizens. The communal
charter of the town dates from 1131. At a synod held at Soissons
in 1 121 the teachings of Abelard were condemned, and he was
forced to retract them. In 1155, at an assembly of prelates
and barons held at Soissons, Louis VII. issued a famous decree
forbidding all private wars for a space of ten years; and in 1325
Charles the Fair replaced the mayor of Soissons by a royal
provost dependent on the bailiwick of Vermandois, the inhabi-
tants retaining only the right of electing four ichevins. The
town had to suffer severely during the war of the Hundred
Years; in 1414, when it was held by the Burgundians, it was
captured and sacked by the Armagnacs under the dauphin ;
and this same fate again befell it several times within twenty
years. The Treaty of Arras (1435) brought it again under the
royal authority. It was sacked by Charles V. in 1544 and in
1565 by the Huguenots, who laid the churches in ruins, and,
supported by the prince of Conde, count of Soissons, kept
possession of the town for six months. During the League
Soissons eagerly joined the Catholic party. Charles, duke of
Mayenne, made the town his principal residence, and died there
in 1611. A European congress was held there in 1728. In
1814 Soissons was captured and recaptured by the allies and the
French. In 1815, after Waterloo, it was a rallying point for
the vanquished, and it was not occupied by the Russians till the
i4th of August. In 1870 it capitulated to the Germans after a
bombardment of three days.
COUNTS or SOISSONS. In the middle ages Soissons was
the chief town of a countship belonging in the loth and nth
centuries to a family which apparently sprang from the
SOKE SOKOTO
353
counts of Vermandois. Renaud, count of Soissons, gave
his property in 1141 to his nephew Yves de Nesle. By
successive marriages the countship of Soissons passed to the
houses of Hainaut, Chatillon-Blois, Coucy, Bar and Luxem-
burg. Marie de Luxemburg brought it, together with the
counties of Marie and St Pol, to Francis of Bourbon, count
of Vend6me, whom she married in 1487. His descendants, the
princes of Conde, held Soissons and gave it to their cadets.
Charles of Bourbon, count of Soissons (1566-1612), son of Louis,
prince of Conde, whose political vacillations were due to his
intrigues with Henry IV.'s sister Catherine, became grand
master of France and governor of Dauphine and Normandy.
His son, Louis of Bourbon (1604-1641), took part in the plots
against Marie de Medici and Richelieu, and attempted to assas-
sinate Richelieu. He had only one child, a natural son, known as
the Chevalier de Soissons. The countship passed to the house
of Savoy-Carignan by the marriage in 1625 of Marie de Bourbon-
Soissons with Thomas Francis of Savoy. Eugene Maurice
of Savoy, count of Soissons (1635-1673), married the beautiful
and witty Olympia Mancini, a niece of Cardinal Mazarin, and
obtained high military posts through his wife's influence. He
defeated the Spaniards at the battle of the Dunes in 1658;
took part in the campaigns at Flanders (1667). Franche-Comte
(1668) and Holland (1672); and was present as ambassador
extraordinary of France at the coronation of Charles II. of
England. His wife led a scandalous life, and was accused of
poisoning her husband and others. She was the mother of
Louis Thomas Amadeus, count of Soissons, and of the famous
Prince Eugene of Savoy. In 1734 the male line of the family
of Savoy-Soissons became extinct, and the heiress, the princess
of Saxe-Hildburghausen, ceded the countship of Soissons to
the house of Orleans, in whose possession it remained until
1789.
SOKE (O. Eng. soc, connected ultimately with secan, to seek) ,
a word which at the time of the Norman Conquest generally
denoted jurisdiction, but was often used vaguely and is probably
incapable of precise definition. In some cases it denoted the
right to hold a court, and in others only the right to receive the
fines and forfeitures of the men over whom it was granted
when they had been condemned in a court of competent jurisdic-
tion. Its primary meaning seems to have been " seeking ";
thus " soka faldae '' was the duty of seeking the lords court,
just as " secta ad molendinum " was the duty of seeking the
lords mill. The " Leges Henrici " also speaks of pleas " in socna,
id est, in quaestione sua " picas which are in his investigation.
It is evident, however, that not long after the Norman Conquest
considerable doubt prevailed about the correct meaning of the
word. In some versions of the much used tract Interpretationes
uocabulorum soke is defined " aver fraunc court," and in others
as " interpellacio maioris audientiae," which is glossed some-
what ambiguously as " claim a justis et requeste." Soke is also
frequently associated to " sak " or " sake " in the alliterative
jingle " sake and soke," but the two words are not etymologi-
cally related. " Sake " is the Anglo-Saxon " sacu," originally
meaning a matter or cause (from sacan, to contend), and later
the right to have a court. Soke, however, is the commoner
word, and appears to have had a wider range of meaning. The
term " soke," unlike " sake," was sometimes used of the district
over which the right of jurisdiction extended.
Mr Adolphus Ballard has recently argued that the interpreta-
tion of the word " soke " as jurisdiction should only be accepted
where it stands for the fuller phrase, " sake and soke," and that
soke standing by itself denoted services only. There are
certainly many passages in Domesday Book which support his
contention, but there are also other passages in which soke
seems to be merely a short expression for " sake and soke." The
difficulties about the correct interpretation of these words
will probably not be solved until the normal functions and
jurisdiction of the various local courts have been more fully
elucidated.
" The sokemen " were a class of tenants, found chiefly in
the eastern counties, occupying an intermediate position between
xxv. 12
the free tenants and the bond tenants or villains. As a general
rule they were personally free, but performed many of the
agricultural services of the villains. It is generally supposed
they were called sokemen because they were within the lord's
soke or jurisdiction. Mr Ballard, however, holds that a sokeman
was merely a man who rendered services, and that a sokeland
was land from which services were rendered, and was not neces-
sarily under the jurisdiction of a manor. The law term, socage,
used of this tenure, is a barbarism, and is formed by adding the
French age to soc.
See F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond; J. H. Round,
Feudal England; F. H. Baring, Domesday Tables; A. Ballard, The
Domesday Inquest; J. Tail, review of the last-mentioned book in
English Historical Review for January 1908; Red Book of the Ex-
chequer (Rolls Series), iii. 1035. (G. J. T.)
SOKOTO, an important Fula state of west central Sudan,
now a province of the British protectorate of Nigeria. The
sultan of Sokoto throughout the igth century exercised an over-
lordship over the Hausa states extending east from the Niger
to Bornu and southward to the Benue and Adamawa. These
states and Sokoto itself, known variously as the Sokoto or Fula
empire and Hausaland, came (c. 1900-1903) under direct British
control, but the native governments are maintained. The pro-
vince of Sokoto occupies the north-west corner of the British
protectorate, and is bounded west and north by French territory.
South and east it adjoins other parts of the British protectorate.
Bordering north on the Sahara, it contains much arid land, but
south-west the land is very fertile. Running through it in a
south-westerly direction is the Gublin Kebbi or Sokoto river,
which joins the Niger in iij N. 4 E. On a tributary of this
river is the town of Sokoto.
The Sokoto or Fula empire was founded at the beginning
of the i gth century. The country over which the Fula ruled
has, however, a history going back to the middle ages. Between
the Niger and the kingdom of Bornu (q.ii.) the country was
inhabited by various black tribes, of whom the Hausa occupied
the plains. Under the influence of Berber and Arab tribes,
who embraced Mahommedanism, the Hausa advanced in civiliza-
tion, founded large cities, and developed a considerable trade,
not only with the neighbouring countries, but, via .the Sahara,
with the Barbary states. The various kingdoms which 'grew
up round each large town had their own rulers, but in the first
half of the i6th century they all appear to have owned the sway
of the Songhoi kings (see TIMBUKTU). On the break up of the
Songhoi empire the north-eastern part of Hausaland became
more or less subject to Bornu, whose sultans in the I7th century
claimed to rule over Katsena and Kano. In this century arose
a dynasty of the Habe, a name now believed to be identical
with Hausa, who obtained power over a large area of the northern
portion of the present British protectorate. The Hausa, whose
conversion to Mahommedanism began in the izth century,
were still in the i8th century partly pagans, though their rulers
were followers of the Prophet. These rulers built up an elaborate
system of government which left a considerable share in the
management of affairs to the body of the people. Dwelling
among the Hausa were a number of Fula, mostly herdsmen,
and these were devout Mahommedans. One of the more culti-
vated teachers of this race, named Othman Dan Fodio, had
been tutor to the king of Gobir (a district north of Establish-
Sokoto). He incurred the wrath of that king, who, meat of
angered at some act of defiance, ordered the massacre pultt *"'"
of every Fula in his dominions. The Fula flocked to Fodio's
aid, and in the battle of Koto or Rugga Fakko (1804) the king
of Gobir was utterly defeated. Thereupon Fodio unfurled the
green banner of Mahomet and preached a, jihad or religious war.
In a few years the Fula had subdued most of the Hausa states,
some, like Kano, yielding easily in order to preserve their trade,
others, like Katsena, offering a stubborn resistance. Gobir
and Kebbi remained unconquered, as did the pagan hill tribes.
The Fula were also defeated in their attack on Bornu. In most
places they continued the system of government which had
grown up under the Habe, the chiefs or emirs of the various
:54
SOKOTRA
states being, however, tributary to Dan Fodio. This sheik
established himself at Sokoto, and with other titles assumed
that of Sarikin Muslimin (king of the Mahommedans). As such
he became the recognized spiritual head of all the Mahommedans
of west central Sudan, a headship which his successors retained
unimpaired, even after the loss of their temporal position to the
British in 1903. On the death of Fodio (c. 1819) the empire was
divided between a son and a brother, the son, famous under the
name of Sultan Bello, ruling at Sokoto, the brother at Gando.
All the other Fula emirs were dependent on these two sultanates.
The Fula power proved, before many years had gone by, in
many respects harmful to the country. This was especially
the case in those districts where there was a large pagan
population. Slave-raiding was practised on a scale which
devastated and almost depopulated vast regions and greatly
hampered the commercial activity of the large cities, of which
Zaria and Kano were the most important. The purity of the
ancient administration was abandoned. The courts of justice
became corrupt, administrative power was abused and degener-
ated into a despotism controlled only by personal considerations,
oppressive taxes destroyed industry and gradually desolated
the country. Soon after the Fula had established themselves
Europeans began to visit the country. Hugh Clapperton,
an Englishman, was at Sokoto in 1823 and again in 1827,
dying there on the i3th of April of that year. Heinrich Earth
made a prolonged stay in various Hausa cities at dates between
1851 and 1855. To Barth is due a great deal of our knowledge
of the country. In Earth's time American merchants were
established on the Niger, bartering goods in exchange for slaves.
This traffic was carried on through Nupe " to the great damage,"
says Barth, " of the commerce and the most unqualified scandal
of the Arabs, who think that the English, if they would, could
easily prevent it." The over-seas traffic in slaves did not
continue long after the date (1851) to which Barth referred,
but slave-raiding by the Fula went on unchecked up to the
moment of the British occupation of the country. At
Sokoto the sultanship continued in the hands of Fodio's
descendants, and the reigning sultan concluded in 1885 a
treaty with the Royal Niger Company (then called the
National African Company) which gave to the company certain
rights of sovereignty throughout his dominions.
In 1900 the rights of the company were transferred to the
Crown. In the course of the years 1900, 1901, 1902, British
Submission authority was established in the states bordering
to British on the Niger and the Benue and in Bornu. The
*"'* northern states declined to fulfil the conditions of
the treaties negotiated with the Niger Company or to submit
to the abolition of the slave trade, and in 1902 Sokoto and
Kano openly defied the British power. A campaign was
undertaken against them in the opening months of 1903 in
which the British troops were entirely successful. Kano was
taken in February 1903, and Sokoto after some resistance made
formal submission on the 22nd of March following. From that
day British authority was substituted for Fula authority through-
out the protectorate. The emir of Sokoto took an oath of
allegiance to the British Crown and Sokoto became a British
province, to which at a later period Gando was added as a sub-
province thus making of Sokoto one of the double provinces
of the protectorate.
The double province thus constituted has an area of about
35,000 sq. m., with an estimated population of something over
500,000. It includes the ancient kingdoms of Zamfara on the
east and Argunga or Kebbi on the west. The dominions of the
emir of Sokoto have suffered some diminutions by reason of
British agreements with France relating to the common frontier
of the two European powers in the western Sudan. The emir
felt deeply the loss of territory ceded to France in 1904 but
accepted the settlement with much loyalty. Like the emir of
Kano the new emir of Sokoto worked most loyally with the
British administration. The province has been organized on
the same principle as the other provinces of Northern Nigeria.
A British resident of the first class has been placed at Sokoto and
assistant residents at other centres. British courts of justice
have been established and British governors are quartered in
the province. Detachments of civil police are also placed at
the principal stations. The country has been assessed under
the new system for taxes and is being opened as rapidly as
possible for trade. After the establishment of British rule
farmers and herdsmen reoccupied districts and the inhabitants
of cities flocked back to the land, rebuilding villages which had
been deserted for fifty years. Horse breeding and cattle raising
form the chief source of wealth in the province. There is some
ostrich farming. Except in the sandy areas there is extensive
agriculture, including rice and cotton. Special crops are grown
in the valleys by irrigation. Weaving, dyeing and tanning
are the principal native industries. Fair roads are in process
of construction through the province. Trade is increasing and
a cash currency has been introduced.
The emir of Gando, treated on the same terms as the emirs
of Kano and Sokoto, proved less loyal to his oath of allegiance
and had to be deposed. Another emir was installed in his place
and in the whole double province of Sokoto-Gando prosperity
has been general. In 1906 a rising attributed to religious
fanaticism occurred near Sokoto in which unfortunately three
white officers lost their lives. The emir heartily repudiated
the leader of the rising, who claimed to be a Mahdi inspired to
drive the white man out of the country. A British force marched
against the rebels, who were overthrown with great loss in March
1906. The leader was condemned to death in the emir's
court and executed in the market place of Sokoto, and the
incident was chiefly interesting for the display of loyalty to the
British administration which it evoked on all sides from the
native rulers. (See also NIGERIA; FULA; and HAUSA.)
See the Travels of Dr Barth (London 1857); Lady Lugard, A
Tropical Dependency (London, 1905) ; P. L. Monteil, De Saint Louis
a Tripoli par le lac Tchad (Paris, 1895); C. H. Robinson, Hausaland
(London, 1896) ; The Annual Reports on Northern Nigeria, issued since
1900 by the Colonial Office, London; Sir F. D. Lugard, " Northern
Nigeria," in Geo. Journ. vol. xxiii., and Major J. A. Burdon, " The
Fulani Emirates," ibid, vol xxiv. (both London, 1904). Except
the last-named paper most of these authorities deal with many
other subjects besides the Fula. (F. L. L.)
SOKOTRA (also spelt Socotra and formerly Socotora), an
island in the Indian Ocean belonging to Great Britain. It
is cut by 12 30' N., 54 E., lies about 130 m. E.N.E. of Cape
Guardafui and about 190 m. S.E. of the nearest part of the coast
of Arabia and is on the direct route to India by the Suez Canal.
It is 72 m. long by 22 m. broad and has an area estimated at
from 2000 to 3000 sq. m. It is the largest and most easterly
member of a group of islands rising from adjacent coral banks,
the others being Abd el Kuri, The Brothers (Semha and Darzi) ,
and Kal Farun.
Physical Features. From the sea Sokotra has an imposing
appearance. The centre culminates in a series of rugged pinnacles
the Haghier mountains, which rise to nearly 5000 ft. above a high
(1500 ft.) abutting and undulating limestone plateau, deeply _
channelled by valleys. At many parts of the north coast the edges '
of this plateau reach the shore in precipitous cliffs, but in others
low plains, dotted with bushes and date-palms, front the heights
behind. The southern shore is bordered nearly its entire length
by a belt of drifted sand, forming the Nuget plain. On this side
of the island there are but one or two possible anchoring grounds,
and these only during the north-east monsoon. On the north coast
there are no harbours; but fairly safe anchorages, even in the
north-east winds, are available off Hadibu or under Haulaf, a
few miles distant, and at Kallansayia, at the north-west end of the
island.
Geology. The fundamental rocks of the island are gneisses,
through which cut the feldspathic granites which form the Haghier
massif. Through these, again, pierce other granites in dikes or
lava flows, and overlying the whole are limestones of Cretaceous
and Tertiary age, themselves cut through by later volcanic eruptions.
" In the Haghier hills," to quote Professor Bonney, " we have
probably a fragment of a continental area of great antiquity, and
of a land surface which may have been an ' ark of refuge ' to a terres-
trial fauna and flora from one of the very earliest periods of this
world's history."
Climate. From October to May the weather is almost rainless
except in the mountains, where there are nightly showers and heavy
mists. During this season the rivers, which are roaring torrents
throughout the monsoon, are almost all lost in the dry, absorbent
SOKOTRA
355
plains. The temperature of the coast area varies from 65 F. in the
night to 85 F. in the day in the hot season it may reach 95 F. ;
and on the mountains (3500 ft.), from 52 F. to 72 F. In the low
grounds fever of an acute and hematuric form is very prevalent.
Flora and Fauna. The fauna contains no indigenous mammals,
a wild ass which roams the eastern plains, perhaps its oldest denizen,
is probably of Nubian origin; while the domestic cattle, a peculiar,
unhumped, small, shapely, Alderney-like breed, may be a race
gradually developed from cattle imported at a distant period from
Sind or Farther India. There are 67 species of birds known from
Sokotra, of which 15 are endemic; of 22 reptiles, 3 genera and 14
species are peculiar; and of the land and fresh-water shells, to whose
distribution great importance attaches, 44 species out of 47 are
confined to the island. Among the other invertebrate groups there
is also a large proportion of endemic species.
The flora is even more peculiar than the fauna- Aloes, dragon's-
blood (Dracaena), myrrh, frankincense, pomegranate, and cucumber
(Dendrpcycios) trees are its most famous species. The phanerogams
number 570, apportioned to 314 genera, and of these over 220
species and 98 genera are unknown elsewhere. The flora and also
(though to a less degree) the fauna present not only Asian and Central
African affinities, but, what is more interesting, Mascarene, South
African and Antipodean-American relationships, indicating a
very different distribution of land and water and necessitating
other bridges of communication than now exist. The natural
history of Sokotra, unravelled by the study of its geology and biology,
has been summarized by Professor Balfour as follows :
" During the Carboniferous epoch there was in the region of
Sokotra a shallow sea, in which was deposited, on the top of the
fundamental gneisses of this spot, . . . the sandstone of which we
have such a large development in Nubia. . . . During the Permian
epoch Sokotra may have been a land surface, forming part of the
great mass of land which probably existed in this region at that epoch,
and gave the wide area for the western migration of life which
presently took place, and by which the eastern affinities in Sokotra
may be explained. In early and middle Tertiary times, when the
Indian peninsula was an island, and the sea which stretched into
Europe washed the base of the Himalayan hills, Sokotra was in
great part submerged and the great mass of limestone was de-
posited; but its higher peaks were still above water, and formed
an island, peopled mainly by African species the plants being
the fragmentary remains of the old African flora but with an
admixture of eastern and other Asian forms. Thereafter it gradu-
ally rose, undergoing violent volcanic disturbance."
By this elevation " Madagascar would join the Seychelles, which
m turn . . . would run into the larger Mascarene Islands. In
this way, then, Africa would have an irregular coast-line, prolonged
greatly south of the equator into the Indian Ocean, and running
up with an advance upon the present line until it reached its north-
west limit outside and south of Sokotra. Thence an advanced land
surface of Asia would extend across the Arabian Sea into the Indian
peninsula." Sokotra thus " again became part of the mainland,
though it is likely for only a short period, and during this union the
life of the adjacent continent covered its plains and filled its valleys.
Subsequently it reverted to its insular condition, in which state it
has remained." The Antipodean-American element in the Sokotran
flora probably arrived via the Mascarene Islands or South Africa
from a former Antarctic continent.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants, believed to number from 10,000
to 12,000, are composed of two, if not more, elements. On the coast
the people are modern Arabs mixed with negro, Indian and European
blood; in the mountains live the true Sokotri, supposed to be origin-
ally immigrants from Arabia, who have been isolated here from time
immemorial. Some of them are as light-skinned as Europeans,
tall, robust, thin-lipped, straight-nosed, with straight black hair;
others are shorter and darker in complexion, with round heads,
long noses, thick lips, and scraggy limbs, indicating perhaps the
commingling of more than one Semitic people. Their manner of
life is simple in the extreme. Their dwellings are circular, rubble-
built, flat, clay-topped houses, or caves in the limestone rocks.
They speak a language allied to the Mahra of the opposite coast of
Arabia. Both Mahra and Sokotri are, according to Dr H. Miiller,
daughter-tongues of the old Sabaean and Minaean, standing in the
same relation to the speech of the old inscriptions as Coptic does to
that of the hieroglyphics. The Sokotran tongue has been, he
believes, derived from the Mahra countries, but it has become so
differentiated from the Mahra that the two peoples understand
each other only with difficulty. Sokotri is the older of the two
languages, and retains the ancient form, which in the Mahran has
been modified by Arabic and other influences. Hadibu, Kallansayia
and Khadup are the only places of importance in the island. Hadibu,
or Tamarida (pop. about 400) the capital, is picturesquely situated
on the north coast at the head of the open bay of Tamarida on a
semicircular plain enclosed by spurs of the Haghier mountains. A
dense grove of date palms surrounds the village.
Trade and Products. The chief export is ghi or clarified butter,
which is sent to Arabia, Bombay and Zanzibar. Millet, cotton and
tobacco are grown in small quantities. The most valuable vegetable
products are aloes and the dragon's-blood tree. The Sokotran aloe
is highly esteemed ; in the middle ages the trade was mostly in these
products and in ambergris. The people live mainly on dates and
milk. They own large numbers of cattle, sheep and goats. Dates
are both home-grown and imported.
History. Sokotra has claims to be reckoned one of the most
ancient incense-supplying countries. Among the " harbours
of incense " exploited by various Pharaohs during some twenty-
five centuries it is impossible to believe that the island could be
missed by the Egyptian galleys on their way to the " Land of
Punt," identified by several writers with Somaliland; nor that,
though the roadsteads of the African coast were perhaps oftener
frequented, and for other freights besides myrrh and frankin-
cense, the shores of Sokotra were neglected by such ardent
explorers as those, for instance, of Queen Hatshepsut of the
1 8th dynasty. They would have found on the island, which
is probably referred to under the name " Terraces of Incense "
(from its step-like contours), the precious " auta trees " whose
divine dew, for use in the service of their gods, was their special
quest in greater abundance and in a larger number of species
than any other country.
To the Greeks and Romans Sokotra was known as the isle
of Dioscorides; this name, and that by which the island is now
known, are usually traced back to a Sanskrit form, Dvlpa-Sak-
ha.dha.ra, " the island abode of bliss," which again suggests
an identification with the vrjaoi tvdainovts of Agatharchides
( 103). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea speaks of the
island as peopled only in one part by a mixed race of Arab,
Indian and Greek traders. It was subject to the king of the
Incense Country, and was a meeting-place of Arabian and Indian
ships. Cosmas in the 6th century says that the people spoke
Greek and were largely Christian, with a bishop sent from Persia.
The Arab geographers also had a tradition of an early Greek
settlement (which they ascribe to Alexander), but also of later
Persian influence, followed by a settlement of Mahra tribes,
who partly adopted Christianity. The Sokotri appear to have
remained Nestorian Christians, with a bishop under the metro-
politan of Persia, through the middle ages, though there are indi-
cations pointing to a connexion with the Jacobite church. As
early as the loth century Sokotra was a haunt of pirates; in the
i3th century Abulfeda describes the inhabitants as " Nestorian
Christians and pirates " but the island was rather a station of
the Indian corsairs who harassed the Arab trade with the Far
East. The population seems in the middle ages to have been
much larger than it is now; Arabian writers estimate the fighting
men at 10,000.
The Portuguese under Tristao da Cunha and Albuquerque
seized Sokotra in 1507 in pursuance of the design to control all
the trade routes between Europe and the East, Sokotra being
supposed to command the entrance to the Red Sea. But on the
capture of Goa and the building of a fortress there Albuquerque
caused the fort which da Cunha had had built at Coco (Tamarida
to be dismantled (1511), and though Portuguese ships subse-
quently raided the island they made no other settlement on it.
The Portuguese found that Sokotra was held by Arabs from
Fartak, but the " natives " (a different race) were Christians,
though in sad need of conversion. This pious work Portuguese
priests attempted, but with scant success. However, as late
as the middle of the I7th century the Carmelite P. Vincenzo
found that the people still called themselves Christians,
and had a strange mixture of Jewish, Christian and Pagan
rites. The women were all called Maria. No trace of Christi-
anity is now found in the island, all the inhabitants professing
Islam.
A certain dependence (at least of places on the coast) on some
soveieign of the Arabian coast had endured before the occupa-
tion of Tamarida by da Cunha, and on the withdrawal of
the Portuguese this dependence on Arabia was resumed. In
the igth century Sokotra formed part of the dominions of the
sultan of Kishin. The opening of the Suez Canal route to India
led to the island being secured for Great Britain. From 1876
onward a small subsidy has been paid to the sultan of Kishin
by the authorities at Aden; and in 1886 the sultan concluded
SOLANACEAE
a treaty formally placing Sokotra and its dependencies under the
protection of Great Britain. Sokotra is regarded as a depen-
dency of Aden, but native rule is maintained, the local governor
or viceroy of the sultan of Kishin being a member of that chief's
family, and also styled sultan. Since it came under British
control the island has been visited by various scientific expedi-
tions. Professor Bayley Balfour made an investigation in 1880,
expeditions were headed by Drs Riebeck and Schweinfurth in
1881, by Theodore Bent in 1897, and by Dr H. O. Forbes and
Mr Ogilvie-Grant (who also visited Abd-el-Kuri) in 1898-1899.
Simultaneously with the last named a further expedition,
conducted by Professor D. H. Miiller, under the auspices of
the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, visited Sokotra,
Abd-el-Kuri and some other islets of the group to investigate
their geology and languages. With the Indian government
the relations of the Sokotri have occasionally been strained,
owing to their liratical tendencies.
ABD-EL-KURI island lies 6p m. W.S.W. of Sokotra, and 53 m.
E.N.E. from Cape Guardafui, is 20 m. long by 3$ m. in width. At either
end the island is hilly, the central part being a low plateau. On
the north side is a sandy beach; on the south cliffs rise abruptly
from the ocean. The highest part of the island is towards its eastern
end, where the hills rise to 1670 ft. It is largely arid and there are
no permanent streams. Its zoology resembles that of Sokotra,
but the fauna includes land shells and scorpions peculiar to Abd-el-
Kuri. The inhabitants, who number one to two hundred, speak
Sokotri and Arabic and are chiefly engaged in diving for pearl shell
on the Bacchus Bank N.E. of the island. They live chiefly on
turtle (which abounds in the island), fish and molluscs. The land
is nowhere cultivated.
Kal Farun is the name of two rocky islets rising nearly 300 ft.
above the sea 13 m. N.N.E. of the western end of Abd-el-Kuri.
Birds flock to them in great numbers; in consequence they are
completely covered with guano, which gives them a snow-white
appearance. The Brothers (often called by the older navigators
The Sisters) lie between Abd-el-Kuri and Sokotra. Semha is 6j m.
long and 3 m. broad. It has rocky shores and rises in a table-shaped
mountain to 2440 ft. As in Abd-el-Kuri ambergris is found on its
snores and turtles abound. There is running water all the year.
It is a fishing ground of the Sokotri. Darzi lies 9 m. E. by S. of
Semha, is 35 m. long by I m. broad and rises almost perpendicularly
from the sea to 1500 ft. The top is flat. The coral banks which
surround Sokotra and The Brothers are united and are not more
than 30 fathoms below sea-level; a valley some 100 fathoms deep
divides them from the bank around Abd-el-Kuri, while between
Abd-el-Kuri and Cape Guardafui are depths of over 500 fathoms.
See, for the history of Sokotra, Yule, Marco Polo (1903 ed.) ii.
'406-410, and, besides the authorities there cited, Yakut, s.v. ;
Hamda.ni p. 52; Kazwini ii. 54. Consult also the Commentaries of
Afonso Dalboquerque, W. de G. Birch's translation (London 1875-
1884). For the state of the island at the beginning of the l8th century
see the account of the French expedition to Yemen in 1708 (Viaggio
nell' Arabia Felice: Venice, 1721); and, for the igth century, J. R.
Wellsted, City of the Caliphs, vol. ii. (London, 1840), and Mrs J. T.
Bent, Southern Arabia, Soudan and Sokotra (London, 1900). For
the topography, &c., see Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Pilot (sth ed.
London, 1900). For special studies see I. B. Balfour, Botany of
Socotra (Edinburgh, 1888); G. Schweinfurth, Das Volk von Socotra
(Leipzig, 1883); H. O. Forbes (edited by), The Natural History of
Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri (Liverpool, 1903); F. Kossmat, Geologie der
Inseln Sokotra, Semha und Abd el Kuri (Vienna, 1902) ; R. V. Wett-
stein in Vegetationsbilder (3rd series, Jth pt., Jena, 1906). See also
J. Jackson, Socotra, Notes bibliographiques (Paris, 1892), a complete
bibliography to the year of publication. (H. O. F. ; X.)
SOLANACEAE, in botany, an order of Dicotyledons belonging
to the sub-class Sympetalae (or Gamopetalae) and to the
series Tubiflorae, containing 75 genera with about 1500 species,
widely distributed through the tropics, but passing into the
temperate zones. The chief centre of the order lies in Central
and South America; 32 of the genera are endemic in this region.
It is represented in Britain by three genera including 4 species:
Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), Solatium Dulcamara (Bittersweet)
and 5. nigrum and Alropa Belladonna (Deadly Nightshade).
The plants are herbs, shrubs or small trees. Solanum nigrum,
a common weed in waste places, is a low-growing annual herb;
5. Dulcamara is an irregularly climbing herb perennial by means
of a widely creeping rhizome; Atropa Belladonna is a large perennial
herb. The genus Solanum, to which belong more than half the
number of species in the order, contains plants of very various
habits including besides herbs, shrubs and trees. The leaves are
generally alternate, but in the flower-bearing parts of the stem are
often in pairs, an arrangement which, like the extra-axillary position
of the flowers or cymes, results from a congenital union of axes.
Thus in Datura (thorn apple) (fig. I A), where the branching is
dichasial, the leaf which originates at any given node becomes
ffl
FIG. I. Diagrams illustrating branch development in Solanaceae,
in A. Datura Stramonium, B. Atropa Belladonna.
I, II, III, Flowers on inflorescences of successive orders; b, bract
of I; a, ft, bracts of II; a', ft', bracts of III, and so on. In A the
branching is dichasial and the bracts are adnate to their axillary
shoots up to the points at which the next branches arise; thus a
and ft appear to arise from axis II, though in reality originating
on axis I. In B the branching is cincinnal, one of the two branches
at each node is undeveloped and its bract a, a', a" is smaller than
the other member of the pair, ft, ft', which is adnate to and
apparently carried up on its axillary branch.
raised upon its axillary shoot as far as the next higher node, from
which it appears to spring. In Atropa Belladonna (fig. I B) one of
the branches at each node is undeveloped and there is a pair of
unequal leaves; the smaller subtends the branch which has not
developed, the larger has been carried up from the node below.
An interesting anatomical feature is the presence in the stem
of bicollateral bundles that is, the vascular bundles have phloem
on the inside as well as on the outside of the xylem.
The hermaphrodite, generally regular, flowers have the parts in
fives, 5 sepals, 5 petals, 5 stamens in alternating whorls, and two
carpels, which are generally placed obliquely (see fig. 2, floral diagram).
The sepals persist and often become enlarged in the fruit. The
FIG. 2. Floral diagram of FIG. 3. Floral diagram of
Solanum the arrow indicates Schizanthus the arrow indicates
the oblique symmetry of the the oblique symmetry. Two
flower. stamens only are functional.
corolla is regular and rotate as in Solanum (fig. 2), or bell-shaped
as in Atropa, or somewhat irregular as in Hyoscyamus; in the tribe
Salpiglossideae, which forms a link with the closely allied order
Scrophulariaceae, it is zygomorphic, form-
ing, e.g. as in Schizanthus (fig. 3), a two-
lipped flower. The stamens are inserted on
the corolla tube and alternate with its lobes ;
in zygomorphic flowers only two or four
fertile stamens are present ; the bilocular
anthers open by slits or pores (fig. 4). The
flowers are generally conspicuous and
adapted to insect pollination; honey is
secreted on the disk at the .base of the
ovary or at the bottom of the corolla tube
between the stamens. The ovary is usually a species of Solanum,
bilocular, but in Capsicum becomes uni- showing the divergence
jocular above, while in some cases an O f t h e anther-lobes at
in-growth of a secondary septum makes it t h e b ase< a nd the dehis-
4-celled as in Datura, or irregularly 3- to cence by pores at the
5-celled as in Nicandra. The anatropous a p ex a .
ovules are generally numerous on swollen
axile placentas, sometimes few as in Cestrum, a large American genus
with tubular flowers, species of which are grown in Britain as green-
house plants; the simple style bears a bilobed or sometimes capitate
stigma (fig. 5). The fruit is a many-seeded berry, as in Solanum, or
FIG. 4. Stamen of
SOLAR SOLAR SYSTEM
357
capsule, as in Datura, where it splits lengthwise, and Hyoscyamus (fig.
6), where it opens by a transverse lid forming a pyxidium. The embryo
is bent or straight and embedded in endo-
sperm. The persistent ca.lyx may serve to
protect the fruit or aid in its distribution,
as in the bladdery structure enveloping
the fruit of Physalis or the prickly calyx
of species of Solatium.
The order is divided into 5 tribes; the
division is based on the greater or less
curvature of the embryo, the number of
ovary cells and the regular or zygomorphic
character of the flower. The great majority
of the genera belong to the tribe Solaneae,
which is characterized by a 2-celled ovary.
Lycium is a genus of trees or shrubs, often
thorny, with a cylindrical or narrowly bell-
shaped corolla and a juicy berry; L. europ-
aeum is a straggling climber often cultivated
under the name of tea-plant. For Atropa
see NIGHTSHADE; A. Belladonna yields the
drug atropin. For Hyoscyamus see HEN-
BANE. Physalis, with 45 species mostly in
FIG. 5. The pistil of
Tobacco (Nicotiana Ta-
bacum), consisting of
the ovary o, containing
ovules, the style 5, and
the capitate stigma g.
The pistil is placed on
the receptacle r, at the
extremity of the pe-
duncle.
FIG. 6. Seed-vessel (pyxidium)
of Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)
opening by circumscissile dehis-
the warmer parts of North and South America, includes P. alkekengi,
" winter cherry," and P. peruviana, " Cape gooseberry." Capsicum
(q.v.) is widely cultivated for its fruit, which are the so-called chillies.
Solanum contains 900 species, among which are 5. tuberosum (potato ;
q.v.), S. Lycopersicum (tomato; q.v.), and the two British species
already mentioned. For Mandragora see MANDRAKE. To the
tribe Datureae, characterized by a 4-celled ovary, belongs Datura;
D. Stramonium (thorn apple), sometimes found as aa escape
in Britain, is officinal. Nicotiana, to which belong the tobacco
plant (N. tabacum) and other cultivated species, and Petunia,
are American genera belonging to the tribe Cestreae, in which
the embryo is straight or only slightly bent, as it is also in the
tribe Salpiglossideae, which is characterized by the zygomprphy of
the flowers ; Salpiglossis and Schizanthus are known in cultivation.
SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr. galetas, Ital. solaio), in
architecture, a room in some high situation, a loft or garret,
also an elevated chamber in a church from which to watch the
lamps burning before the altars. The Latin solarium was
used principally of a sundial, but also of a sunny part of a
house.
SOLARIO, ANTONIO (c. 1382-1455), Italian painter of the
Neapolitan school, commonly called Lo Zingaro, or The Gipsy.
His father is said to have been a travelling smith. To all
appearance Antonio was born at Civita in the Abruzzi, although
it is true that one of his pictures is signed " Antonio de Solario
Venetus," which may possibly be accounted for on the ground
that the signature is not genuine. Solario is said to have gone
through a love-adventure similar to that of the Flemish painter,
Quintin Massys. He was at first a smith, and did a job of work
in the house of the prime Neapolitan painter Colantonio del
Fiore; he fell in love with Colantonio's daughter, and she with
him; and the father, to stave him off, said if he would come back
in ten years an accomplished painter the young lady should
be his. Solario studied the art, returned in nine years, and
claimed and obtained his bride. The fact is that Colantonio
del Fiore is one of those painters who never existed; consequently
his daughter never existed, and the whole story, as relating to
these particular personages, must be untrue. Whether it has
any truth, in relation to some unidentified painter and his
daughter, is a separate question which we cannot decide. Solario
made an extensive round of study first with Lippo Dalmasio
in Bologna, and afterwards in Venice, Ferrara, Florence and
Rome. On returning to Naples he rapidly took the first place
in his art. His principal performance is in the court of the
monastery of S. Severino twenty large frescoes illustrating .
the life of St Benedict, now greatly decayed; they present a
vast variety of figures and details, with dexterous modelling
and colouring. Sometimes, however, Lo Zingaro's colour is
crude, and he generally shows weakness of draughtmanship in
hands and feet. His tendency is that of a naturalist the heads
lifelike and individual, and the landscape backgrounds better
invented and cared for than in any contemporary. In the Studj
gallery of Naples are three pictures attributed to this master,
the. most remarkable one being a "Madonna and Child Enthroned
with Saints." The heads here are reputed to be mostly portraits.
Solario initiated a mode of art new in Naples; and the works
painted between his time and that of Tesauro (c. 1470) are locally
termed " Zingareschi." He had many scholars, but not of
pre-eminent standing Nicola Vito, Simone Papa, Angiolillo
Roccadirame, Pietro and Ippolito dal Donzello. It has often
been said that Solario painted in oil, but of this there is no
evidence.
SOLAR SYSTEM, in astronomy, the group of heavenly bodies,
comprising the sun and the bodies which move around the sun
as a centre of attraction, of which the Earth is one. These
bodies may be classified as follows: first the Sun, 0,
distinguished as containing much the greater part of all the
matter composing the system, being more than 600 times as
massive as all the other bodies combined. It is this great mass
which makes it the central one of the system. It is also, so far
as is known, the only incandescent body of the system, and
therefore the only one that shines by its own light. Secondly,
planets. The bodies of this class consist of eight major planets
moving round the sun at various distances, and of an unknown
number of minor planets, much smaller than the major planets,
forming a separate group. Thirdly, satellites, or secondary
planets revolving around the major planets, and therefore
accompanying them in their revolutions around the sun. A
fourth class of bodies, the constitution of which is still in some
doubt, comprises comets and meteors. These differ in that
comets are visible either in a telescope or to the naked eye,
and seem to be either wholly or partially of a nebulous
or gaseous character, while meteors are, individually at least,
invisible to us except as they become incandescent by striking
the atmosphere of the earth. It is, however, an open question
whether a comet is other than an accumulation of meteoric
bodies (see COMET).
The major planets are separated into two groups of four each,
between which the minor planets, for the most part, revolve.
The arrangement of the major planets, with the numbers of
their respective satellites thus far known, in the order of distance
from the sun, is as follows:
The first group in order the smaller major planets
comprises :
Mercury, , with no known satellite;
Venus, 9, with no known satellite;
The Earth, , with one satellite, the moon;
Mars, (f, with two satellites.
Outside of this group lies the zone of minor planets or
asteroids.
The outer group of major planets comprises:
Jupiter, QJ., with eight satellites;
Saturn, T?, with ten satellites;
Uranus, or Jji, with four satellites;
Neptune, ^, with one satellite.
The distances separating the individual orbits in each group
seem to approximate to a certain order of progression, expressed
in Bode'slaw (see BODE). But there is an obvious gap between
the two groups of major planets which is filled by the group
of minor planets. Taking the mean distance of this group as
that of a planet, the distance of the major planets closely
approximates to Bode's law, except in the case of Neptune.
A remarkable feature of the solar system, which distinguishes
it from all other known systems in the universe, is the symmetry
of arrangement and motion of its greater bodies. All the major
planets and many of the minor planets revolve in elliptic
358
SOLDER SOLEU RE
orbits so nearly circular in form that the unaided eye woulc
not notice the deviation from that form. But as the orbit
are not centred on the sun, which is in a focus of each, the
displacement of the seeming circle would be readily seen
in the case of Mercury and of Mars. The same statement
are true of the orbits of the satellites around their primaries.
The major planets -all move around the sun in the same
direction, from west to east, in orbits but little inclined to
each other. All the known minor planets have the same
common direction, but their orbits generally have a greater
eccentricity and mutual inclination. The general rule is that
the satellites also move round in the same direction, and in
orbits of moderate inclination. Exceptions occur in the case
of the satellites of Uranus, which are nearly perpendicular to the
plane of the orbit. The satellite of Neptune, and one satellite,
Phoebe, of Saturn, are also quite exceptional, the direction of
motion being retrograde.
For the elements of the orbits, and the general character of
the several planets see PLANET. Details as to each are found under
the respective names of the several planets. (S. N.)
SOLDER (derived through the French from Lat. soldare,
to make solidus, firm) , an alloy easily melted and used for uniting
as by a metallic cement two'metal surfaces, joints, edges, &c.
(See BRAZING AND SOLDERING.)
SOLE (Solea), the most valuable of European flat-fishes. 1
For most people who look at fish merely from the culinary point
of view, soles are of two kinds: true soles, with such varieties
as Dover soles and Brixham soles (slips being the name applied
to young specimens), and lemon soles, an inferior fish, which is
no sole at all, but a sort of dab (Glyptocephalus microcephalus).
Leaving out the latter, there are five species on the British coasts;
the common sole (Solea vulgaris) the French sole, or sand sole
lemon sole of Yarrell (S. lascaris), the thick-back (S. variegata),
and the solenette or little sole (S. lutea). All these agree in
the right side being coloured and bearing the eyes, in the elongate
form, in the small eyes (separated by a space covered with scaly
skin, in the small, twisted mouth, with minute teeth on the
colourless side only), and with the snout projecting beyond the
mouth and more or less hooked. All true soles are excellent,
but the common species is the only one which, from its larger
size, growing to a length of 26 in. and attaining maturity at a
length of about 10 in., regularly appears on all the markets. It
occurs from the south-west coast of Scandinavia, Mecklenburg
and Great Britain to the Mediterranean. Most of the best
fishing grounds for soles lie comparatively near land, though
the spawning takes place some miles away.
Much information on the life history of the sole will be found in
the monograph by J. T. Cunningham (Plymouth, 1890).
SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollennis, less correctly solennis,
yearly, annual; from sollus=totus, whole, entire, Gr. oXos, and
annus, year), properly that which occurs annually, hence at
stated intervals, regular, established; the term being particularly
used of religious rites or ceremonies which recur at stated inter-
vals, hence festive, sacred, marked by religious ceremony or
ritual, and so grave, impressive, serious, the most general
current usage. Another branch of meaning stresses the formal,
customary aspect; and hence in such phrases as " solemn act,"
probate in " solemn form," it means that which is done with all
due forms and ceremonies.
SOLENT, THE, a strait of the English Channel, between the
mainland (the coast of Hampshire, England), and the north-
western coast of the Isle of Wight, forming the western entrance
to Southampton Water, Spithead being the eastern. Its
length, from the eastern shore of Southampton Water to the
Needles rocks off the western extremity of Wight, is 15 m.
The general breadth is from i\ to 3 m., but between Stone
Point on the mainland and Egypt Point on the north coast of
Wight it narrows to ij m.; and 35 m. north of the Needles there
springs from the mainland a great shingle bank, mostly only a
few yards in breadth above water, but nearly 2 m. in length.
1 The American sole (Achirus fasciatus) is a small flat-fish of
inferior quality.
It reduces the breadth of the Solent to a little over m., and
broadens at the end, on which stands Hurst Castle, an important
fortification dating from the time of Henry VIII. Here Charles I.
was imprisoned in 1648. The coast of the mainland is low
but picturesque, and is broken by the shallow estuaries of the
Beaulieu River and the Lym, with the small port of Lymington
upon it. The coast of Wight rises more steeply. On this side
the Medina estuary opens northward, and those of the Newtown
and the Yar north-westward into the strait. At the mouth of
Southampton Water is a projecting bar resembling but smaller
than that of Hurst Castle, and like it bearing a Tudor fortress,
Calshot Castle. The Solent is frequently the scene of yacht
races. The configuration of the coast causes a double tide in
the strait.
SOLESMES, a village of western France on the left bank
of the Sarthe in the department of Sarthe, 29 m. W.S.W. of
Le Mans by road. In 1010 a priory was founded at Solesmes
and placed under the authority of the abbey of La Couture of
Le Mans. Suppressed at the revolution, it was established as a
Benedictine monastery in 1830. In 1837 it was raised to the
rank of abbey and became a centre of learning,- the music here
was also famous. A nunnery was afterwards founded beside it,
but both institutions were abandoned after the passing of the
associations law in 1901. The monastery, rebuilt at the end
of the ipth century, forms a lofty mass of buildings on the river
bank. Its church (i3th and i6th centuries) is interesting only
for the possession of two masterpieces of sculpture of uncertain
authorship, executed approximately between 1490 and 1550.
The most sl,riking represents the burial of Christ and is sheltered
by a stone structure, the front of which is beautifully carved.
An arched opening in this front reveals the central group of
eight figures surrounding the tomb, that of Mary Magdalen in
the foreground being remarkably lifelike and expressive. The
other work similarly enclosed represents the burial of the
Virgin and is the later of the two in date and in the pure Renais-
sance style. Sculptures representing Jesus among the Doctors
and other scenes are also in the church.
SOLETO, a village of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce,
from which it is n m. S. by rail, situated 299 ft. above sea-
level. Pop. (i 901) , 3349. The Romanesque church of S. Stefano
contains Byzantine frescoes of the I4th century similar to those
in the subterranean chapel of the Santi Stefani at Vaste, south
of Otranto, and others showing the formation of an independent
style. The fine, richly decorated campanile adjoining the former
cathedral was erected in 1397.
SOLEURE (Ger. Solothurn), one of the cantons of north-
western Switzerland. Its total area is 305-5 sq. m., of which
294 sq. m. are reckoned as "productive," 111-3 sq. m. being
covered by forests and -29 sq. m. by vineyards. Save two small
districts in its southern portion the whole canton is situated
in the Jura range, while it is said to be the most irregular in
shape of all the Swiss cantons, this being accounted for by the
Fact that it consists simply of the territories won at differetit dates
by the town from which it takes its name. It includes most of
the Aar valley between the towns of Bienne and Aarau, neither
of which is in the canton, while in its northern portion the waters
join the Birs River, and in its southern portion is the last bit
of the Emme before its junction with the Aar. It comprises
three isolated districts, of which one (Steinhof) on the south is
an " enclave " in the canton of Bern, while the others, Hofstet-
ten, that includes the famous pilgrimage resort of Mariastein,
and Klein Liitzel, are on the Alsatian frontier, and bounded by
the cantons of Bern and of Basel. The highest point in the
canton is the Hasenmatt (4748 ft.) which forms the culminating
summit of the Weissenstein ridge, that rises just north-west
of the town of Soleure, and boasts of an hotel well-known as a
;reat centre for the air and whey cure. The canton is well
supplied in its southern portion with railways, the main line
'rom Bienne to Aarau running through it past the great junction
of Olten, where the direct lines from Lucerne by the St Gotthard,
rom Bern, from Zurich, and from Basel all unite. Formerly the
districts composing the canton were in the dioceses cf Lausanne,
SOLEURE
359
Basel and Constance, but since the complete reorganization
of 1814 they are all in the diocese of Basel, the bishop of which
has his chair in Soleure. In 1900 the population was 100,762,
of whom 97,930 were German-speaking, 1912 French-speaking,
and 829 Italian-speaking, while 69,461 were " Catholics " (the
census dqes not distinguish between Romanists and Christian
Catholics, who are still fairly strong here), 31,012 Protestants,
and 159 Jews. The capital is Soleure, while the only other
important town is Olten (6969 inhabitants). Between Soleure
and Granges or Grenchen (5202 inhabitants) is the village of
Selzach, where since 1893 a passion-play has been performed
every summer by the inhabitants.
Till about 1850 the canton was mainly agricultural and
pastoral, its pastures numbering 209, capable of supporting
4179 cows and of an estimated capital value of 2,395,215 francs.
Nowadays it is distinguished for the variety of its industries,
especially in and around Soleure and Olten, among them being
watch-making, shoe-factories, cotton-spinning and cement
factories.
The canton is divided into ten administrative districts, that
comprise 132 communes. The present cantonal constitution
dates from 1887, but was revised as to some Important points
in 1895. The Kanlonsrat, or legislative assembly, is elected
(since 1895 according to the principles of proportional repre-
sentation) by all citizens over twenty years of age, in the pro-
portion of one member to 800 inhabitants. Since 1895 the
people have elected the Regierungsrat or executive, consisting
of five members. In both cases the period of office is four
years, though on the demand of 4000 citizens a popular vote
must be taken as to whether the existing members shall
continue to sit or not. In the canton the " obligatory refer-
endum " and the " initiative " have obtained since 1875. By
the former all laws passed by the legislative assembly, and all
financial resolutions involving the expenditure of 100,000 francs,
or of an annual sum of 15,000 francs, must be approved by a
popular vote. By the latter 2000 citizens can compel the
legislative assembly to consider any proposal for making a new
law or for amending an old one. Further, the demand of the
majority of the assembly or of 3000 citizens is sufficient to
necessitate a popular vote as to the advisability of revising
the constitution, the revised draft itself requiring a further
popular vote. The two members of the federal Standerat and
the five members of the federal Nationalrat are also chosen by
a popular vote.
AUTHORITIES. J. Amiet, Das St Ursus Pfarr-Stift d. Stadt Soleure,
6 pts. (Soleure, 1878-1890), and Die Grundungs-Sage der Schwester-
stadte, Solothurn, Zurich, und Trier (Soleure, 1890); G. Bloch,
Bilder aus d. Ambassadorenherrschaft in Soleure, 1554-7791, (Biel,
1898); W. Flury, Die industrielle Entwickelung d. Kant. S. (Soleure,
1908); K. Meisterhans, Alteste Geschichte d. Kant. Soleure bis 687
(Soleure, 1900); J. R. Rahn, Die MiMalt. Kunstdenkmaler d. Cant.
Soleure (Zurich, 1893); K. E. Schuppli, Geschichte der Stadtverfassung
von Soleure (Basel, 1897); P. Strohmeier, Der Kant. Soleure (St
Gall and Bern, 1836); A. Striiby, Die Weidewirthschaft im Kant.
Soleure (Soleure, 1896); and E. Tatarinoff, Die Betheiligung
Solothurns am Schwabenkrieg, 1400 (Soleure, 1899).
(W. A. B. C.)
SOLEURE, the capital of the Swiss canton of that name,
is an ancient little town, almost entirely situated on the left
bank of the Aar. It was a Roman castrum, remains of which
still exist, on the highway from Avenches to Basel, while its
position at the foot of the Jura and close to the navigable portion
of the Aar has always made it a meeting-point of various routes.
Five railway lines now branch thence, while a sixth has been
recently added, the tunnel beneath the Weissenstein to Moutier
Grandval having been completed. It was strongly fortified
in 1667-1727, but since 1830 these defences have been removed
for reasons of practical convenience. Its chief building is the
minster of SS Ursus and Victor, which dates from the i8th
century, though it stands on the site of a far older edifice.
Since 1828 it has been the cathedral church of the bishop of
Basel, but in 1874 its chapter was suppressed. The ancient
clock tower has a quaint 16th-century clock, while the older
portions of the town-hall date still further back. The early
17th-century arsenal contains the finest collection of armour and
old weapons in Switzerland, while the modern museum houses
a splendid collection of fossils from the Jura, the specimens
of Alpine rocks collected by F. J. Hugi (1796-1855), a native
of Soleure, and a Madonna by the younger Holbein. The
building now used as the cantonal school was formerly the
residence of the French ambassadors to the Swiss confederation
from 1530 to 1797. There are some fine 16th-century fountains
in the little town, which in its older portions still keeps much
of its medieval aspect, though in the modern suburbs and in the
neighbouring villages there is a certain amount of industrial
activity. The Polish patriot Kosciusko died here in 1817;
his heart is preserved at Rapperswil, but his body is buried
at Cracow. In 1900 the town had 10,025 inhabitants, almost
all German-speaking, while there were 6098 " Catholics "
(either Romanists or Christian Catholics), 3814 Protestants
and 8 1 Jews. In 1904 there were twenty churches or chapels
in the town itself. One mile north of the town is the Hermitage
of St Verena, in a striking rock gorge, above which rises the
Weissenstein ridge, the hotel on which (4223 ft.) is much
frequented in summer for the air and whey cure as well as for
the glorious Alpine panorama that it cdmmands.
A 16th-century rhyme claims for the town of Soleure the fame
of being the oldest place in " Celtis " save Trier. Certainly its
name, " Salodurum," is found in Roman inscriptions, and its
position as commanding the approach to the Rhine from the
south-west has led to its being more than once strongly fortified.
Situated just on the borders of Alamannia and Burgundy, it
seems to have inclined to the allegiance of the latter, and it was
at Soleure that in 1038 the Burgundian nobles made their final
submission to the German king, Conrad II. The medieval
town grew up round the house of secular canons founded in the
loth century in honour of St Ursus and St Victor (two of the
Theban legion who are said to have been martyred here in 302)
by Queen Bertha, the wife of Rudolph II., king of Burgundy,
and was in the diocese of Lausanne. The prior and canons
had many rights over the town, but criminal jurisdiction
remained with the kings of Burgundy, then passed to the
Zahringen dynasty, and on its extinction in 1218 reverted to the
emperor. The city thus became a free imperial city, and in
1252 shook off the jurisdiction of the canons and took them
under its protection. In 1295 we find it allied with Bern, and
this connexion is the key to its later history. It helped Bern
in 1298 in the great fight against the nobles at Dornbiihl, and
again at Laupen in 1339 against the jealous Burgundian nobles.
It was besieged in 1318 by Duke Leopold of Austria, but he was
compelled to withdraw. In the I4th century the government
of the town fell into the hands of the gilds, whose members
practically filled all the public offices. Through Bern, Soleure
was drawn into association with the Swiss Confederation. An
attempt to surprise it in 1382, made by the Habsburgs, was
foiled, and resulted in the admittance of Soleure in 1385 into
the Swabian League and in its sharing in the Sempach War.
Though Soleure took no part in that battle, it was included in
the Sempach ordinance of 1393 and in the great treaty of 1394
by which the Habsburgs renounced their claims to all territories
within the Confederation. In 1411 Soleure sought in vain to
be admitted into the Confederation, a privilege only granted
to her in 1481 at the diet of Stans, after she had taken part in
the Aargau, Italian, Toggenburg, and Burgundian Wars. It
was also in the isth century that by purchase or conquest the
town acquired the main part of the territories forming the
present canton. In 1529 the majority of the " communes "
went over to the reformed faith, and men were sent to fight on
Zwingli's side at Kappel (1531), but in 1533 the old faith regained
its sway, and in 1586 Soleure was a member of the Golden, or
Borromean, League. Though the city ruled the surrounding
districts, the peasants were fairly treated, and hence their revolt
in 1653 was not so desperate as in other places. Soleure
was the usual residence of the French ambassador from 1530 to
1797, and no doubt this helped on the formation of a " patri-
ciate," for after 1681 no fresh citizens were admitted, and later
3 6
SOLFATARA SOLICITOR
we find only twenty-five ruling families distributed over the
eleven gilds. Serfage was abolished by Soleure in 1785. The
old system of the city ruling over eleven bailiwicks came to an
end in March 1798, when Soleure opened its gates to the French
army, and it was one of the six " directorial " cantons under the
1803 constitution. In 1814 the old aristocratic government
was set up again, but this was finally broken down in 1831,
Soleure in 1832 joining the league to guarantee the maintenance
of the new cantonal constitutions. Though distinctly a Roman
Catholic canton, it did not join the " Sonderbund," and voted
in favour of the federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874.
(W. A. B. C.)
SOLFATARA, a volcanic vent emitting vapours chiefly of
sulphurous character, whence the name, from the Italian solfo
(sulphur). The typical example is the famous Solfatara, near
Puzzuoli, in the Phlegraean Fields, west of Naples. This is an
old crater which has not been in active eruption since A.D. 1198,
but which is continuously exhaling heated vapours, chiefly
hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and steam. These issue
from orifices in the crust, on the walls of which are yellow
incrustations of sublimed sulphur, sometimes orange-red by
association with arsenic sulphide, whilst the trachytic rocks of
the volcano are bleached and corroded by the effluent vapours,
with formation of such products as gypsum and alum. Sal
ammoniac occurs among the sublimates. The term solfatara
has been extended to all dormant volcanoes of this type; and a
volcano which has ceased to emit lava or ashes but still evolves
heated vapours, is said to have passed into the " solfataric
stage." Examples are to be found in many volcanic districts.
By French geologists the term soufrttre is used instead of the
Italian solfatara. (See VOLCANOES.)
SOLFERINO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
of Mantua, 5 m. S.W. of San Martino della Battaglia (a railway
station 72 m. E. of Milan on the line to Verona), situated
410 ft. above sea-level, on the south-west edge of the hills
bordering the Lake of Garda on the south. Pop. (1901), 1350.
It was the scene of a battle fought on the 24th of June 1859
between the allied Franco-Sardinian army under Napoleon III.
and Victor Emanuel, and the Austrian army commanded
by Francis Joseph II., in which, after a severe contest, the
latter retired over the Mincio (see ITALIAN WARS). The battle
fought by the Sardinians on the left wing of the allied army is
often called by the separate title of San Martino, from a hamlet
near the Brescia-Verona railway, about which it was fought.
From this battle, a certain shade of blue was designated by the
name of Solferino, and was very popular for some years, though
now, unlike its companion " magenta," it is forgotten.
SOLI (mod. Mezetlu), an ancient town of Asia Minor, on the
coast bf Cilicia, between the rivers Lamus and Pyramus, from
each of which it is about 62 m. Colonists from Argos in Greece
and Lindus in Rhodes are described as the founders of the town,
which is first mentioned at the time of the expedition of the
younger Cyrus. In the 4th century B.C. it was so wealthy that
Alexander exacted a fine of 200 talents. In the Mithradatic
War, Soli was destroyed by Tigranes, but it was subsequently
rebuilt by Pompey, who settled there many of the pirates
whom he had captured, and called the town Pompeiopolis.
Soli was the birthplace of Chrysippus the Stoic and of the poets
Philemon and Aratus. The bad Greek spoken there gave rise
to the term (roXot/ctir/ios, solecism, which has found its way
into all the modern languages of Europe. The ruins, which lie
on the right bank of the Mezetlu Su have been lately plundered
to supply building material for Mersina, and little remains
except part of the colonnade which flanked the main street
leading to the harbour. The place is easily reached from
Mersina by carriage in about i| hours. (D. G. H.)
SOLI, a Greek city on the north coast of Cyprus, lying at
Soliais in the metalliferous country round Karavortasi near
Lefka, on the south side of Morphou Bay. Its kingdom was
bounded by the territories of Marion, Paphos, Tamassus and
Lapathus. It was believed to have been founded after the
Trojan War (c. 1180) by the Attic hero Acamas; but no remains
have been found in this district earlier than the Early Iron Age
(c. 1000-800). The town of " Sillu," whose king Irisu was an
ally of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 B.C., is commonly sup-
posed to represent Soli. 1 In Hellenic times Soli had little
political importance, though it stood a five months' siege from
the Persians soon after 500 B.C.; its copper mines, however,
were famous, and have left copious slag heaps and traces of
small scattered settlements. A neighbouring monastery is
dedicated to " Our Lady of the Slagheaps " (Panagia Skour-
gidtissa). But the copper seems to have been exhausted in
Roman times, and thereupon Soli became desert.
See W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841; classical authorities);
J. L. Myres and M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Cyprus Museum Catalogue,
(Oxford, 1899; antiquities): G. F. Hill, Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of
Cyprus (London, 1904; coins). (J. L. M.)
SOLICITOR, in England, an officer of the Supreme Court of
Judicature qualified to conduct legal proceedings for his clients:
see also ATTORNEY. Previous to the reign of Henry III. the
common law considered it indispensable that the parties to a
suit should be actually present, but the privilege of appearing
by attorney was conceded in certain cases by special dispensa-
tion. The passing of the statute of Merton and subsequent
enactments made it competent for both parties in all judicial
proceedings to appear by attorney. Previous to the passing
of the Judicature Act of 1873 there was a distinction between
the terms " solicitor " and " attorney." Solicitors appear to
have been at first distinguished from attorneys, as not having
the attorney's power to bind their principals, but latterly the
distinction was between attorneys as the agents formally
appointed in actions at law, and solicitors who took care of pro-
ceedings in parliament, chancery, privy council, &c. In
practice, however, and in ordinary language, the terms were
synonymous. Down to the I7th century the solicitor of the
chancery courts was considered inferior to the attorney of the
common law courts, but the rapid growth of equity jurisdic-
tion gave the solicitor an importance in no degree inferior to his
fellow practitioner at the common law. Until 1873 it was usual
for attorneys to be admitted as solicitors as well, but the Judica-
ture Act of that year enacted that all persons admitted as
solicitors, attorneys or proctors of an English court shall hence-
forth be called solicitors of the Supreme Court. Regulations
regarding the qualification of attorneys are found as far back
as the 20 Edward I. (1292), and the profession has been strin r
gently regulated by a series of statutes passed during the igth
century, notably the Solicitors Act 1843 and the Solicitors Acts
1877 and 1888.
Every person, before he can become a duly qualified solicitor,
must serve an apprenticeship or clerkship to a practising solicitor
for a term of years varying from three to five, he must pass all the
necessary examinations, he must be duly admitted and entered
on the roll of solicitors kept by the Incorporated Law Society and
must take out an annual certificate to practise. The organization
of the profession is in the hands of the Incorporated Law Society.
Established originally in 1827, in succession to an earlier society
dating back to 1739, it was incorporated in 1831. It began courses
of lectures for students in 1833 and ten years later was constituted
registrar of attorneys and solicitors. In 1860 it obtained the power
of suing unqualified solicitors and in 1888 it was given the custody
of the roll of solicitors, on the abolition of the office of the clerk
of the Petty Bag. The Solicitors Act of 1888 vested in the In-
corporated Law Society the power of investigating complaints as
to the professional conduct of solicitors, as well as power to refuse
to renew the annual certificate of a solicitor, subject to the solicitor's
right of appeal. The statutory committee of the Incorporated
Law Society may make application to the court to strike a solicitor
off the rolls without preliminary inquiry by the committee where
he has been convicted of a criminal offence, but where he is alleged
to have been guilty of unprofessional conduct or a statutory offence
the committee first hold a preliminary inquiry. Apart from its
judicial administrative authority it has exercised powerful influ-
ence in the attitude which it has frequently taken towards proposed
legislation. Membership of the society, which is not compulsory,
is open to any duly qualified practising solicitor, on approval by
the council. No person, however duly qualified, can be admitted
as a solicitor till he has attained .'the age of twenty-one years.
Though admitted as a solicitor and his name entered on the roll
he is not at liberty to practise until he has taken out his annual
certificate, the fees for which vary according as the applicant
1 E. Schrader, Abh. K. Preuss. Ak. Wiss. (1879), pp. S'-S 6 -
SOLICITOR-GENERAL SOLfS
361
intends to practise in London or the provinces. Solicitors now
have a right to practise in any court, i.e. in every division of the
High Court, in every inferior court, in the ecclesiastical courts
(as proctors), in the court of appeal, in the privy council and in
thejHouse of Lords. Their right of audience, however, is re-
stricted. They may appear as advocates in most of the inferior
courts, as before justices, magistrates, coroners, revising barristers
and county courts. They have no right of audience, however,
in the Mayor's court, London, nor in the High Court of Justice,
privy council or House of Lords, where, from time immemorial,
the right has pertained to the bar, but they have right of audience
in chambers and certain bankruptcy matters. Since the Con-
veyancing Act 1 88 1 solicitors may do all kinds of conveyancing,
which formerly was considered the exclusive business of the bar.
The Conveyancing Act 1881 having made great changes in the
practice of conveyancing, it became necessary to place the re-
muneration of solicitors upon a new basis. This was done by the
Solicitors Remuneration Act, passed on the same day as the
Conveyancing Act. It provides for the framing of general orders,
fixing the principles of remuneration with reference inter alia to
the skill and responsibility involved, not, as was generally the case
before, with reference simply to the length of the documents per-
used or prepared. A solicitor is not responsible for statements
made by him in his professional capacity as an advocate, and all
communications which pass between a solicitor and his client are
privileged, so also is any information or document which he has
obtained in his professional capacity on behalf of his client. The
relation of solicitor and client disqualifies the former from dealing
with his client on his own behalf, while it gives him a lien, on pro-
fessional services, over the deeds, &c., of the client in his possession.
A solicitor's remuneration is minutely arranged by statute and he
has no power of recovering more from his client than his statutory
charges, and he is liable to be sued for damages for negligence in
his client's behalf. Certain personal privileges belong to a solicitor.
He is free from serving on juries, nor need he, against his will,
serve as a mayor, alderman, sheriff, overseer or churchwarden.
In Scotland solicitors in the Supreme Court are not, as in England,
the only persons entitled to act as law agents. They share the
privilege with writers to the signet in the Supreme Court, with agents
at law and procurators in the inferior courts. They were formed
into a society in 1784 and incorporated in 1796, and are usually
recognized as members of the College of Justice. This difference
is, however, now of little importance, as by the Law Agents Act
1873 any person duly admitted a law agent is entitled to practise
before any court in Scotland. In the United States the term
solicitor is used in some states in the sense of a law agent practising
before a court of equity.
Many of the great public offices in England and the United
States have their solicitors. In England the treasury solicitor fills
an especially important position. He is responsible for the en-
forcement of payments due to the treasury, and conducts generally
its legal business. The office of king's proctor is also combined
-with that of treasury solicitor. Under his powers as king's proctor
the treasury solicitor acts as administrator of the personal estate
of an intestate which has lapsed to the crown, and intervenes in
cases of divorce where collusion is alleged (see under PROCTOR).
Under the Prosecution of Offences Act 1884 he also acted as director
of public prosecutions, and was sometimes called Crown Solicitor.
By the Prosecution of Offences Act 1908 the office of director of
public prosecutions was separated from that of treasury solicitor
and made a separate appointment. In Ireland, solicitors called
crown solicitors are attached to each circuit, their duty being to
prepare the case for the crown in all criminal prosecutions. In
the United States the office of solicitor to the treasury was created
by Act of Congress in 1830. His principal duties are to take measures
for protecting the revenue and to deal with lands acquired by the
United States by judicial process or vested in them by security
for payment of debts.
See E. B. V. Christian, A Short History of Solicitors; Cordery
on Solicitors ; and A. P. Poley, Law Affecting Solicitors.
SOLICITOR-GENERAL, in England, one of the law officers
of the crown, appointed by letters patent. He is always a
member of the House of Commons and of the political party
in power, changing with it. His duties are practically the same
as those of the attorney-general (q.v.), to whom he is subordi-
nate, and whose business and authority would devolve upon
him in case of a vacancy in the office. He receives a salary of
6000 a year, in addition to fees for any litigious business he
may conduct on behalf of the crown. The position of the
solicitor-general for Scotland in the main corresponds with that
of the English solicitor-general. He is next in rank to the
lord-advocate. In the United States the office of solicitor-
general was created by Act of Congress in 1870.
SOLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, on a height above the Wupper, 13 m. S.E. of
Dusseldorf, and 20 m. N.E. of Cologne by rail. Pop. (1905),
49,018. Solingen is one of the chief seats of the German iron
and steel industry, its speciality consisting in all kinds of cutlery,
Solingen sword-blades have been celebrated for centuries, and
are widely used outside Germany, while bayonets, knives,
scissors, surgical instruments, files, steel frames and the like are
also produced in enormous quantities. These articles are largely
made by the workmen at their own homes and supplied to the
depots of the large dealers; there are about 20,000 workers
in steel in Solingen and the vicinity. Solingen received its
municipal charter in 1374. Sword-blades have been made
here since the early middle ages, and tradition affirms that the
art was introduced during the Crusades by smiths from
Damascus.
SOLINUS, GAIUS JULIUS, Latin grammarian and compiler,
probably flourished during the first half of the 3rd century A.D.
He was the author of Collectanea rerum memorabilium, a
description of curiosities in a chorographical framework.
Adventus, to whom it is dedicated, is identified with Oclatinius
Adventus, consul A.D. 218. It contains a short description of
the ancient world, with remarks on historical, social, religious
and natural history questions. The greater part is taken from
Pliny's Natural History and the geography of Pomponius Mela.
According to Mommsen, Solinus also used a chronicle (possibly
by Cornelius Bocchus) and a Chorographia pliniana, an epitome
of Pliny's work with additions made about the time of Hadrian.
Schanz, however, suggests the Roma and Pratum of Suetonius.
The Collectanea was revised in the 6th century under the title
of Polyhistor (subsequently taken for the author's name). It
was popular in the middle ages, hexameter abridgments being
current under the names of Theodericus and Petrus Diaconus.
The commentary by Saumaise in his Plinianae exercitationes
(1689) is indispensable; best edition by Mommsen (1895), with
valuable introduction on the MSS., the authorities used by Solinus,
and subsequent compilers. See also Teuffel, Hist, of Roman
Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 389; and Schanz, Geschichte der rom-
ischen Litteratur (1904), iv. I. There is an old English translation
by A. Golding (1587).
SOLIPSISM (Lat. solus, alone, ipse, self), a philosophical term,
applied to an extreme form of subjective idealism which denies
that the human mind has any valid ground for believing in the
existence of anything but itsejf. " It may best be defined, per-
haps, as the doctrine that all existence is experience, and that
there is only one experient. The Solipsist thinks that he is the
onel" (Schiller). It is presented as a solution of the problem of
explaining the nature of our knowledge of the external world.
We cannot know things-in-themselves: they 'exist for us only
in our cognition of them, through the medium of sense-given
data. In F. H. Bradley's words (Appearance and Reality):
" I cannot transcend experience, and experience is my experi-
ence. From this it follows that nothing beyond myself exists;
for what is experience is its (the self's) states."
See IDEALISM ; also F. C. S. Schiller, Mind, New Series (April 1909).
SOLfS, ANTONIO DE (1610-1686), Spanish dramatist and
historian, was born in 1610 at Alcala de Henares (less .probably,
Plasencia), and studied law at Salamanca, where he pro-
duced a comedy entitled Amor y obligacidn, which was acted
in 1627. He became secretary to the count of Oropesa, and in
1654 he was appointed secretary of state as well as private
secretary to Philip IV. Later he obtained the lucrative post
of chronicler of the Indies, and, on taking orders in 1667, severed
his connexion with the stage. He died at Madrid on the igth of
April 1686. Of his ten extant plays, two have some place in
the history of the drama. El Amor al uso was adapted by
Scarron and again by Thomas Corneille as L' Amour a la mode,
while La Gilanilla de Madrid, itself founded on the novela of
Cervantes, has been utilized directly or indirectly by P. A.
Wolff, Victor Hugo and Longfellow. The titles of the remain-
ing seven are Triunfos de amor y fortuna, Euridice y Orfeo,
El Alcazar del secreto, Las Amazonas, El Doctor Carlino, Un
Bobo hace ciento, and Amparar el enemigo. Amor y obligaciin
survives in a manuscript at the Biblioteca Nacional. The
362
SOLITAIRE SOLOMON
Historia de la conquista de Mejico, covering the three years between
the appointment of Cortes to command the invading force and
the fall of the city, deservedly ranks as a Spanish prose classic.
It was published in 1684; an English translation by Townshend
appeared in 1724.
SOLITAIRE (Fr. for " solitary "), a game played on a board
indented with 33 or 37 hemispherical hollows, with the same
number of balls or marbles. An unoccupied hollow is left by
removing one ball, and the balls, or pieces, are then captured as in
draughts. No moves are allowed in diagonal directions or over
more than one space at a time.
SOLO, OR SOLO WHIST, a card game which is a modification
of whist, the chief distinctive feature being that a single player
generally has to oppose the other three. The game came into
vogue in England towards the end of the ipth century. The
following " declarations " can be made, the order being impor-
tant: (i) proposition; (2) acceptance; (3) solo; (4) misere;
(5) abondance (or abundance); (6) misere ouverte; (7) abandonee
diclaree (declared abundance). Proposition and acceptance
go together, as will be seen; of the rest " solo " can be declared
over " proposition," misere over solo, and so on. The stakes
regarding sixpence as the unit are: for proposition, sixpence;
for solo, sixpence (sometimes a shilling); for misere, a shilling;
for abundance, eighteenpence; for open misere, two shillings;
for declared abundance, three shillings. A further stake may
be arranged for " overtricks," to be paid to the player for every
trick made above the number proposed, and for " undertricks,"
to be paid by the player for every trick below that number.
A full pack is used; players cut as at whist for deal and seats;
the cards may be dealt singly, but are more commonly dealt
by threes, with a single card for the last round. The last card
is turned up and left exposed for a round, whether it is used for
trumps or not. One deal constitutes a game. The laws of
whist obtain, where applicable, in such matters as following
suit, revoking, the passing of the deal, &c. The player on the
dealer's left is first to declare or pass: if he proposes, any
player may accept, the right going first to the player on
his left, but any player when his turn comes may make
a higher declaration than any that has gone before him,
though a player whose call has been superseded may amend
his call afterwards. If all the players pass, either there is a
new deal, or by arrangement there is a general misere, when
the player who takes the most tricks sometimes, the last trick
pays a single stake all round.
The Dedaratiens. (i) Proposal: This is an invitation to another
player to " accept," i.e. to join the proposer in an attempt to make
eight tricks. (2) Solo : . Here a player undertakes to win five
tricks, playing against the other three in combination. (3) Misere :
This is a declaration by a player that he will not win a single
trick. There are no trumps, but the turn-up card is left exposed
for the first round. If the caller wins a trick the game is at an
end (there are no overtricks or undertricks), but he has a right
to see the opponents' hands, to be sure that no revoke has been
made. A trick that has been turned may not be seen -afterwards.
(4) Abundance is a declaration that a player will make nine tricks
single-handed. The caller makes any suit trumps, but abundance
in the turn-up suit takes precedence over abundance in other
suits. The trump suit must be declared after the other players
have passed, before the first round is played. (5) Misere ouverte:
This call is a declaration to lose all thirteen tricks, but after
the first trick the caller's cards are placed on the table, though
he may play them as he pleases. (6) Declared Abundance: This
is a declaration of the caller to make all thirteen tricks by his own
hand. He makes his own trumps and always leads, but a declara-
tion in the suit of the turn-up card takes precedence over others.
The game ends when the caller loses a trick. There are no under-
tricks.
SOLOGNE (Secalaunia from Lat. secale, rye), a region of
north-central France extending over portions of the department
of Loiret, Loir-et-Cher and Cher. Its area is about 1800 sq. m.,
and its boundaries are, on the N. the river Loire, on the S. the
Cher, on the E. the districts of Sancerre and Berry. The Sologne
is watered by the Cosson and the Beuvron, tributaries of the
Loire, and the Sauldre, an affluent of the Cher, all three having
a west-south-westerly direction. The pools and marshes which
are characteristic of the region are due to the impermeability
of its soil, which is a mixture of sand and clay. The conse-
quent unhealthiness of the climate has been greatly mitigated
since the middle of the igth century, when Napoleon III. led
the way in the reclamation of swamps, the planting of pines
and other trees and other improvements. Arable farming and
stock-raising are fairly flourishing in the Sologne, but there
is little manufacturing activity, the cloth manufacture of
Romorantin being the chief industry. Game is abundant, and
the region owes much of its revived prosperity to the creation
of large sporting estates.
SOLOLA, the capital of the department of Solola, in Guate-
mala; on the northern shore of lake Atitlan, 46 m. W.N.W.
of Guatemala city. Pop. (1905), about 17,000. Solola is the
ancient capital of the Cakchiquel Indians, who form the bulk
of the population. In the city coarse cloth, pottery, cigars
and soap are manufactured, and there is a large prison and
reformatory. Among the surrounding mountains are large
and successful coffee plantations, owned by German settlers.
Op the 1 8th of April 1902 Solola was wrecked by an earthquake,
but as most of the houses were constructed of wood it was
speedily rebuilt.
SOLOMON 1 (loth century B.C.), the son of David by Bath -
sheba, and his successor in the kingdom of Israel. The many
floating and fragmentary notes of various dates that have
found a place in the account of his reign in the book of Kings
(q.v.) show how much Hebrew tradition was occupied with the
monarch under whom the throne of Israel reached its highest
glory; and that time only magnified in popular imagination
the proportions of so striking a figure appears from the opinions
entertained of him in subsequent writings. The magnificence
and wisdom of Solomon (cf. Matt. vi. 29; Luke xi. 31) and the
splendour of his reign present a vivid contrast to the troublous
ages which precede and follow him, although the Biblical records
prove, on closer inspection, to contain so many incongruous
elements that it is very difficult to form a just estimate of his life
and character. A full account is given of the circumstances of
the king's accession (contrast the summary notices, i Kings xxii.
41 seq., 2 Kings xv. i, xxi. 24, xxiv. 18, &c.). He was not the
true heir to the throne, but was the son of David by Bathsheba,
wife of Uriah the Hittite, whom David sent to his death " in
the forefront of the battle." The child of the illegitmate union
died; the second was called Jedidiah (" beloved of Yah [weh]")
or Shelomoh (the idea of requital or recompense may be im-
plied); according to i Chron. iii. 5, on the other hand, Solomon
was the fourth, or rather the fifth, child of Bathsheba and David.
The episode forms the prelude to family rivalries. David's
first-born, Amnon, perished at the hands of the third son,
Absalom, who lost his life in his revolt (2 Sam. xiii.-xx.). The
second, Chileab, is not mentioned in the history, and the fate of
the fourth, who regarded himself as the future king, is described
in i Kings i., ii. Bathsheba, relying upon David's promise
that Solomon should succeed him, vigorously advanced her
son's claims with the support of Zadok the priest, the military
officer Benaiah, and David's bodyguard; Adonijah, for his part,
had David's old priest Abiathar, the commander Joab, and the
men of Judah. A more serious breach could scarcely be imagined.
The adherents of Solomon gained the day, and with his accession
a new regime was inaugurated, not, however, without bloodshed.
Solomon's age at his accession is not recorded. The tradition
that he was only twelve (i Kings ii. 12 Septuagint; or fourteen,
Jos. Ant. viii. 7, 8) may rest upon iii. 7 (" I am but a little child ";
if this is not hyperbole), or upon the chronological scheme embodied
in 2 Sam. xiii. 23, 38, xiv. 28, xv. 7. It agrees with his subordinate
position in portions of 'Ch. i., but his independent actions in
ch. ii. suggest a more mature age, and according to xi. 42, xiv. 21,
his son Rehoboam was already born (but contrast again xii. 24
Septuagint, 2 Chron. xiii. 7). See further, Ency. Bib. col. 4681,
n. 5-
1 Heb. Shelomoh, as though " his peace "; but the true meaning
is uncertain; evidence for its connexion with the name of a god is
given by H. Winckler and Zimmern, Keilinschr. u. das Alte Test.,
3rd ed., pp. 224, 474 seq. The English form follows the SoXA/wi-
of N.T. and Josephus ; the Lat. Salomo agrees with SaXi/ao? (one
of several variant forms shown in MSS. of the LXX.).
SOLOMON
3 6 3
The acute observation that 2 Sam. ix.-xx. ; 2 Kings i. ii. 1-9,
13 sqq., were evidently incorporated after the Deuteronomic re-
daction of the books of Samuel (K. Budde, Samuel, p. xi.) is con-
firmed by the framework of Kings with its annalistic material
similar to that preserved in 2 Sam. v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv. ; I Kings
ii. 10-^12. With this may belong iii. 3 (the compiler's judgment) ; and
especially v. 3 sqq., where reference is made to David's incessant
wars (2 Sam. viii.). That 2 Sam. ix.-xx., &c., had previously been
omitted by the Deuteronomic redactor himself (Budde) cannot
be proved. These post-Deuteronomic narratives preserve older
material, but with several traces of revision, so that I Kings i. ii. now
narrate both the end of David's reign and the rise of Solomon
(see I. Benzinger's commentary on Kings, p. xi. ; C. Holzhey, Buck
d. Konige, p. 17). The latter, however, is their present aim, and
some attempt appears to have been made in them to exculpate
one whose accession finds a Judaean parallel in Jehoram (2 Chron.
xxi. 1-4). Thus it has been held that David's charges (ii. 1-9)
were written to absolve Solomon, and there is little probability in
the story that Adonijah after his pardon really requested the hand
of Abishag (ii. 13-25), since in Oriental ideas this would be at once
viewed as a distinct encroachment upon Solomon's rights as heir
(cf. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, 2nd ed., p. no).
Every emphasis is laid on the wisdom of Solomon and his
wealth. Yahweh appeared to Solomon in a dream and offered
to grant whatever he might ask. Confessing his inexperience,
the king prayed for a discerning heart, and was rewarded
with the gift of wisdom together with riches and military glory.
There follows an example of his sagacity: the famous story of
the steps he took to determine which of two claimants was
the mother of a child (iii. I6-28). 1 His wisdom excelled that
of Egypt and of the children of the East; by the latter may be
meant Babylonia, or more probably the Arabs, renowned
through all ages for their shrewdness. Additional point is
made by emphasizing his superiority over four renowned
sages, sons of Mahol; but the allusion to these worthies (who
are incorporated in a Judaean genealogy, i Chron. ii. 6) is no
longer intelligible. He is also credited with an interest in
botany and natural history (iv. 33), and later Jewish legend
improved this by ascribing to him lordship over all beasts and
birds and the power of understanding their speech. To this
it added the sovereignty over demons, from a wrong inter-
pretation of Eccles. ii. 8 (see Lane, Arabian Nights, introd.,
n. 21, and ch. i, n. 25). As his fame spread abroad, people
came to hear his wisdom, and costly presents were showered
upon him. The sequel was the visit of the Queen of Sheba
(i Kings iv. 29-34; x.). The interesting narrative appears in
another light when we consider Solomon's commercial activity
and the trading intercourse between Palestine and south
Arabia. 2 His wealth was in proportion to his wisdom. Trad-
ing journeys were conducted with Phoenician help to Ophir and
Tarshish. With the horse-breeding districts of the north he
traded in horses and chariots (x. 28 seq.; see MIZRAIM), and gold
accumulated in such enormous quantities that the income for
one year may be reckoned at about 4,100,000 in weight (x. ii
seq., 14 sqq.). Silver was regarded as stones; the precious cedars
of Lebanon as sycamores. His realm extended from Tiphsah
(Thapsacus) on the Euphrates to the borders of Egypt (iv. 21, 24),
and it agrees with this that he gains important conquests in "the
north (2 Chron. viii. 3 seq.; but see i Kings ix. 18). He main-
tained a very large harem (xi.), and among his wives was the
daughter of an Egyptian Pharaoh. For his distinguished con-
sort, who brought Gezer as a dowry, a special palace was built
(iii. i, ix. 16, 24), and this was only one of many building enter-
prises.
The description of the magnificent temple of Jerusalem,
1 For parallels, see R. Flint in Hastings's Diet. Bib. iv. 562, n. i.
For the Pompeian wall-painting representing Solomon's judgment
(the figures are pygmies!), see A. Jeremias, Alles Test, im Lichte d.
alt. Orients 2nd ed., p. 492 seq. (with illustration and references).
1 For Mahommedan stories of Solomon, the hoopoe and the
queen of Sheba, see the Koran, Sur. xxvii., which closely follows
the second Targum to Esther i. 2, where the Jewish fables may be
read in full. On this story, see also J. Halevy, Ecole pratique des
hautes ttudes (1905), pp. 5-24, and the Chinese parallel in the
Mittheilungen of the Berlin Seminar for Oriental Languages (1904),
vii. i. pp. 117-172. For the late legends of Solomon see M. Griin-
baum, Neue Beitrdge zur semit. Sage, pp. 198-237 (Leiden, 1893);
G. Salzberger, Die Salomo-Sage in der semitischen Literatur (Berlin,
1907).
which occupies considerable space in Solomon's history (v.-
viii.), appears in more elaborate form in the chronicler's later
work. The detailed record stands in contrast to the brief
account of his other buildings, e.g. the palace, which, from an
Oriental point of view, was of the first importance (vii. 1-12).
But the Temple and palace were adjoining buildings, separated
only by a wall (cf. Ezek. xlii. 20, xliii. 7 seq.), and it cannot be
said that the former had originally the prominence now ascribed
to it. Nor can the accounts given by Deuteronomic writers
of its significance for the religious worship of Israel be used
for an estimate of contemporary religion (v. 1-6, viii.).
Whatever David had instituted at Jerusalem, it is at Gibeon
that Solomon observed the opening sacrificial ceremonies, and
there he received the divine revelation, " for that was the great
high-place " (iii. 4 sqq.). Though this is justified by a late
writer (iii. 2), subsequent history shows that the high-places,
like the altars to heathen deities in Jerusalem itself, long re-
mained undisturbed; it was the Deuteronomic reformation,
ascribed to Josiah, which marked the great advance in the
religion of Yahweh, and under its influence the history of the
monarchy has been compiled. Moreover, with the emphasis
which is laid upon the Jerusalem Temple is to be associated the
new superiority of Zadok, the traditional ancestor of the Zadok-
ites, the Jerusalem priests, whose supremacy over the other
Levitical families only enters into the history of a much later
age (see LEVITES).
In fact, Solomon, the pious saint, is not the Solomon of the
earlier writings. Political, commercial and matrimonial alli-
ances inevitably left their mark upon national religion, and the
introduction of foreign cults which ensued is characteristically
viewed as an apostasy from Yahweh of which he was guilty in
his old age? The Deuteronomic writer finds in it the cause
of the subsequent separation of the two kingdoms (xi. 1-13),
and he connects it with certain external troubles which prove
to have affected the whole course of his reign. The general
impression of Solomon's position in history is in fact seriously
disturbed when the composite writings are closely viewed.
On the one side we see genial internal conditions prevailing in
the land (iv. 20, 25), or the exalted position of the Israelites as
officials and overseers, while the remnant of the pre-Israelite
inhabitants serve in labour gangs (ix. 20 sqq.). On the other
hand is the mass of toiling Israelites, whose oppressed condition
is a prelude to the later dissensions (i Kings v. 13 sqq.; cf. i
Kings xii.; see the divergent tradition in 2 Chron. ii.). The
description of Solomon's administration not only ignores the
tribal divisions which play an important part in the separation
of Israel from Judah (xii. 16; cf. 2 Sam. xix. 43-xx. 2), but
represents a kingdom of modest dimensions in which Judah
apparently is not included. Some north Judaean cities might
be named (iv. 9 seq.), but south Judah and Hebron the seat of
David's early power find no place, and it would seem as though
the district which had shared in the revolt of Adonijah was
freed from the duty of furnishing supplies. But the document
has intricate textual peculiarities and may be the Judaean
adaptation of a list originally written from the standpoint of
the north-Israelite monarchy. Further speculation is caused
when it is found that Solomon fortifies such cities as Megiddo,
Beth-horon and Tamar, and that the Egyptian Pharaoh had
slain the Canaanites of Gezer (ix. 15 sqq.). We learn, also, that
Hadad, a young Edomite prince, had escaped the sanguinary
campaign in the reign of David (2 Sam. viii. 13 seq.), and had
taken refuge in Egypt. He was kindly received by Pharaoh, who
gave him the sister of his queen Tahpenes to wife. On David's
death he returned and ruled over Edom, thus not merely
controlling the port of Elath and the trade-routes, but even
(according to the Septuagint) oppressing Israel (xi. 14-22, 25,
see Septuagint on v. 22).* Moreover, an Aramaean dependant
3 On the relation between trade and religion in old Oriental life,
see the valuable remarks by G. A. Smith, Ency. Bib. col. 5157 seq.
4 The narrative contains composite features (see the literature
cited in article KINGS). There is a curious resemblance between
one form of the story and the Septuagint account of the rise of
Jeroboam (q.v.).
364
SOLOMON ISLANDS
of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, to the north of Palestine (see
David's war, 2 Sam. viii. 3 sqq., x. 6 sqq.), deserted his lord,
raised a band of followers and eventually captured Damascus,
where he established a new dynasty. Like Hadad, " he was an
adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon " (xi. 23-25). To
these notices must also be added the cession of territory in north
Palestine to Hiram, king of Phoenicia (ix. n). It is parentheti-
cally explained as payment for building materials, which, how-
ever, are otherwise accounted for (v. 6, n); or it was sold
for 120 talents of gold (nearly 750,000 sterling), presumably
to assist Solomon in continuing his varied enterprises but the
true nature of the transaction has been obscured, although the
consequences involved in the loss of the territory are unmis-
takable. If these situations can with difficulty find a place in
our picture of Solomon's might, it is clear that some of them
form the natural introduction to the subsequent history, when
his death brought internal discontent to a head, when the north
under Jeroboam refused allegiance to the south, and when the
divided monarchy enters upon its eventful career by the side
of the independent states of Edom, Damascus and Phoenicia.
It is now generally recognized in histories of the Old Testament
that a proper estimate of Solomon's reign cannot start from
narratives which represent the views of Deuteronomic writers,
although,'_in so far as late narratives may rest upon older material
more in accordance with the circumstances of their age, attempts
are made to present reconstructions from a combination of
various elements. Among the recent critical attempts to recover
the underlying traditions may be mentioned those of T. K.
Cheyne (Ency. Bib., art. " Solomon ") and H. Winckler (Keil-
inschr. u. d. Alte Test., 3rd. ed., pp. 233 sqq.). But, in general,
where the traditions are manifestly in a later form they are in
agreement with later backgrounds, and it is questionable whether
earlier forms can be safely recovered when it is held that they
have been rewritten or when the historical kernel has been buried
in legend or myth. It is impossible not to be struck with the
growing development of the Israelite tribes after the invasion
of Palestine, their strong position under David, the sudden ex-
pansion of the Hebrew monarchy under Solomon, and the subse-
quent slow decay, and this, indeed, is the picture as it presented
itself to the last writers who found in the glories of the past
both consolation for the present and grounds for future hopes.
But this is not the original picture, and, since very contradictory
representations of Solomon's reign can be clearly discerned, it is
necessary in the first instance to view them in the light of an
independent examination of the history of the preceding and
following periods where, again, serious fluctuation of standpoint
is found. Much therefore depends upon the estimate which is
formed of the position of David (q.v.). See also JEWS: History,
7 seq ; PALESTINE: Old Testament History.
On Solomon's relation to philosophical and proverbial literature,
see PROVERBS. Another aspect of his character appears in the
remarkable " Song of Solomon," on which see CANTICLES. Still
another phase is represented in the monologue of Ecclesiastes
(q.v.). In the Book of Wisdom, again, the composition of an
Egyptian Hellenist, who from internal evidence is judged to have
lived somewhat earlier than Philo, Solomon is introduced uttering
words of admonition, imbued with the spirit of Greek philosophers,
to heathen sovereigns. The so-called Psalter of Solomon, on the
other hand, a collection of Pharisee psalms written in Hebrew soon
after the taking of Jerusalem by Pompey, and preserved to us
only in a Greek version, has nothing to do with Solomon or the
traditional conception of his person, and seems to owe its name
to a transcriber who thus distinguished these newer pieces from the
older " Psalms of David " (see SOLOMON, PSALMS OF). (S. A. C.) 1
SOLOMON ISLANDS (Ger., Salomoinselri), an archipelago
of the Western Pacific Ocean, included in Melanesia, and forming
a chain (in continuation of that of the Admiralty Islands and
New Mecklenburg in the Bismarck Archipelago) from N.W. to
S.E. between 154 40' and 162 30' E., 5 and 11 S., with a
total land area of 17,000 sq. m. (For map, see PACIFIC OCEAN.)
A comparatively shallow sea surrounds the islands and in-
dicates physical connexion with the Bismarck Archipelago
and New Guinea, whereas directly east of the Solomons there
1 Some sentences from W. R. Smith's article in Ency. Brit.,
gth ed., have been retained and in places modified.
are greater depths. The principal island at the north-west end
of the chain is Bougainville (3900 sq. m.), and that at the
south-east San Cristoval or Bauro. Between these the chain is
double, consisting (from the north-west) of Choiseul (2260 sq. m.),
Isabel (Ysabel, of about the same area as Choiseul) and Malaita
(2400 sq. m.) to the north, and Vella Lavella, Ronongo, Kul-
ambangra, Kausagi, Marovo (New Georgia or Rubiana) and
the Hammond Islands, and Guadalcanal or Guanbata (2500
sq. m.). Between and around these main islands there are
many smaller islands. Ongtong Java, a coral reef of many
islets, lies considerably north of the main group to which,
geographically, it can hardly be said to belong. 3 Bougainville,
the largest of the group, contains Mt Balbi (10,170 ft.), and
two active volcanoes. In Guadalcanar is Mt Lammas (8000 ft.),
while the extreme heights of the other islands range- between
2500 and 5000 ft. The islands (by convention of 1899) are
divided unequally between Great Britain and Germany, the
boundary running through Bougainville Strait, so that that
island and Buka belong to Germany (being officially administered
from Kaiser Wilhelm's Land), but the rest (South Solomons)
are British.
The islands are well watered, though the streams seem to be
small; the coasts afford some good harbours. All the large and
some of the small islands appear to be composed of ancient volcanic
rock, with an incrustation of coral limestone showing here and there
along the coast. The mountains generally fall steeply to the sea.
There is some level land in Bougainville, but little elsewhere.
Deep valleys separate the gently rounded ridges of forest-clad
mountains, lofty spurs descend from the interior, and, running
down to the sea, terminate frequently in bold rocky headlands
800 to looo ft. in height, as in San Cristoval (north coast). On the
small high island of Florida there is much undulating grass-land
interspersed with fine clumps of trees; patches of cultivated land
surround its numerous villages, and plantations on the hill-sides
testify to the richness of its soil. The whole chain of islands appears
to be rising steadily. Some of the smaller islands are of recent
calcareous formation. Barrier and fringing reefs, as well as atolls,
occur in the group, but the channels between the islands are dan-
gerous chiefly from the strong currents which set through them.
The climate is very damp and debilitating. The rainfall is
unusually heavy. Fever and ague prevail on the coast. The
healthiest portions are the highlands, where most exposed to the
south-east trades. The dry season, with north-west winds, lasts
from December to May. Vegetation is luxuriant; magnificent
forests clothe the mountains, and sandalwood, ebony and lignum
vitae, besides a variety of palms, are found in them. Mangrove
swamps are common on the coasts. The probable geological
connexion with New Guinea would account for the Papuan character
of the fauna of the Solomons, which form the eastern limit of certain
Papuan types. The existence of peculiar types in the Solomons,
however, points to an early severance. _ Mammals are not numerous ;
they include the cuscus, several species of bat, and some rats of
great size. There are various peculiar species of frogs, lizards
and snakes, including the great frog Rana Guppyi, from 2 to 3 ft
in weight. Of birds, several parrots and other genera are character-
istically Papuan and are unknown east of the Solomons.
Population. The Solomon islanders are of Melanesian (Pa-
puan) stock, though in different parts of the group they vary
considerably in their physical characteristics, in some islands
approaching the pure Papuan, in some showing Polynesian
crossings and in others resembling the Malays. As a race they
are small and sturdy, taller in the north than in the south.
Projecting brows, deeply sunk dark eyes, short noses, either
straight or arched, but always depressed at the root, and
moderately thick lips, with a somewhat receding chin, are
general characteristics. The mesocephalic appears to be the
preponderant form of skull; though this is unusual among
Melanesian races. In colour the skin varies from a black-brown
to a copperish hue, but the darker are the most common shades.
The hair is naturally dark, but is often dyed red or fawn, and
crisp, inclining to woolly. The islanders of the Bougainville
Straits have lank, almost straight, black hair and very dark
skins.
To strangers the natives have long had the reputation of being
treacherous. They are cannibals, infanticide is common, and head
2 Guadalcanal of the Spanish discoverers.
3 This group, so named by Abel Tasman in 1643, ' s a '? called
Leuenewa or Lord Howe, and is densely inhabited by natives said
to be of Polynesian origin.
SOLOMON, ODES OF SOLOMON, PSALMS OF
hunting was formerly prevalent. The average lot of the women is
that of slaves. In some cases there is belief in a good spirit in-
habiting a pleasant land, and an evil spirit associated with a
volcano ; also in a future life. The language is of pure Melanesian
type, though a number of dialects are spoken. The natives are
good agriculturists. The Solomon Islands are, in the Pacific, the
eastern limit of the use of the shield. The canoes are skilfully built
of planks sewn together and caulked. The high carved prow and
stern give the craft almost a crescent shape. These and the gun-
wale are tastefully inlaid with mother-of-pearl and wreathed with
shells and feathers.
The British islands are under a resident commissioner, and
have some trade in copra, ivory, nuts, pearl shell and other
produce. Coco-nuts, pine-apples and bananas, with some
cocoa and coffee, are cultivated on small areas. The German
islands have a small trade in sandalwood, tortoise-shell, &c.
The total population may be roughly estimated at 180,000.
History. The Spanish navigator Alvaro Mendana must be
credited with the discovery of these islands in 1567, though it
is somewhat doubtful whether he was actually the first Euro-
pean who set eyes on them. In anticipation of their natural
riches he named them Islas de Salomon. The expedition sur-
veyed the southern portion of the group, and named the three
large islands San Cristoval, Guadalcanal and Ysabel. On his
return to Peru, Mendana endeavoured to organize another ex-
pedition to colonize the islands, but it was not before June 1595
that he, with Pedro Quiros as second in command, was able
to set sail for this purpose. The Marquesas and Santa Cruz
islands were now discovered; but on one of the latter, after
various delays, Mendana died, and the expedition collapsed.
Even the position of the Solomon Islands was now in uncer-
tainty, for the Spaniards, fearing lest they should lose the bene-
fits expected to accrue from these discoveries, kept secret the
narratives of Mendana and Quiros. The Solomon Islands were
thus lost sight of until, in 1767, Philip Carteret lighted on their
eastern shores at Gower Island, and passed to the north of the
group, without, however, recognizing that it formed part of the
Spanish discoveries. In 1768 Louis de Bougainville found his
way thither. He discovered the three northern islands (Buka,
Bougainville and Choiseul), and sailed through the channel
which divides the two last and bears his name. In 1769 a French
navigator, M. de Surville, was the first, in spite of the hostility
of the natives, to make any lengthened stay in the group. He
gave some of the islands the French names they still bear, 1
and brought home some detailed information concerning them
which he called Terre des Arsacides (Land of the Assassins);
but their identity with Mendana's Islas de Salomon was soon
established by French geographers. In 1788 the English lieu-
tenant Shortland coasted along the south side of the chain, and,
supposing it to be a continuous land, named it New Georgia;
and in 1792 Captain Edward Manning sailed through the strait
which separates Ysabel from Choiseul and now bears his name.
In the same year, and in 1793, d'Entrecasteaux surveyed
portions of the coast-line of the large islands. Dumont d'Urville
in 1838 continued the survey.
Traders now endeavoured to settle in the islands, and mis-
sionaries began to think of this fresh field for labour, but neither
met with much success, and little was heard of the islanders
save accounts of murder and plunder. In 1845 the French
Marist Fathers went to Isabel, where Mgr Epaulle, first vicar-
apostolic of Melanesia, was killed by the natives soon after
landing. Three years later this mission had to be abandoned;
but in 1881 work was again resumed. In 1856 John Coleridge
Patteson, afterwards bishop of Melanesia, had paid his first
visit to the islands, and native teachers trained at the Melanesian
mission college subsequently established themselves there.
About this date the yacht " Wanderer " cruised in these seas,
but her owner, Mr Benjamin Boyd, was kidnapped by the
natives and never afterwards heard of. In 1873 the " foreign-
labour " traffic in plantation hands for Queensland and Fiji
extended its baneful influence from the New Hebrides to these
islands. In 1893 the islands Malaita, Marovo, Guadalcanar
1 He called Gower, Inattendue; Ulava, Contrarietfi; and named
Port Praslin, the harbour at the north-west of Ysabel.
and San Cristoval with their surrounding islets were annexed
by Great Britain, and the final delimitation of German and
British influence in the archipelago was made by the conven-
tion of the i4th of November 1899.
See H. B. Guppy, The Solomon Islands (London, 1887), where
full references to earlier works are given; C. Ribbe, Zwei Jahre unter
den Kannibalen der Salomon-Inseln (Dresden, 1903).
SOLOMON, ODES OF, a collection of 42 hymns, probably
dating from the end of the ist century, known to the early
Christian Church (as is proved by the quotations and comments
in the 3rd century gnostic book, Pistis Sophia, and a short
extract in the Institutes of Lactantius). They were recovered
by Dr Rendel Harris in 1908 from a 16th-century Syriac manu-
script (containing also the Psalms of Solomon, see below) in his
possession. The first, second, and part of the third odes are
missing, but the first has been restored from the Pistis Sophia.
Of their authorship nothing is known, " Solomon " being a
recognized pseudonym. While there are thoughts and expres-
sions which lend themselves to gnostic use, there is nothing in
the odes which is of distinctively gnostic origin. Many of them,
indeed, are unmistakably Christian, and the writer of the Pistis
Sophia seems to have regarded them as almost if not quite
canonical, a fact which secures at latest a 2nd-century origin.
Dr Harris indeed would date several of them between A.D. 75
and too. They contain few traces of the New Testament, and
the words " gospel " and " church " are not found. Here and
there a Johannine atmosphere is detected, though not sufficiently
to justify the assumption that the author knew the writer
of the Fourth Gospel. References to the life and teaching
of Christ are rare, though the Virgin Birth is alluded to in
Ode 19 in a passage marked by legendary embellishment, and the
descent into Hades is spoken of in quite the apocryphal style in
Ode 42. These odes are probably among the latest in the book.
There are no clear allusions to baptism and none at all to the
eucharistic celebration. One passage speaks of ministers (per-
haps = deacons) who are entrusted with the water of life to hand
to others; the word " priest " occurs once, at the beginning
of Ode 20, " I am a priest of the Lord, and to Him I do priestly
service, and to Him I offer the sacrifices of His thought." The
odes, which are perhaps the product of a school of writers,
and were originally written in Greek, vary in execution and
spiritual tone, but are generally characterized by a buoyant
feeling of Christian joy. Harnack considers that they form a
Jewish Grundschrift, with a number of Christian interpolations;
only two are " purely Christian," while several " colourless "
ones are more likely Jewish. He finds in them a link between
the piety and theology of the Testaments of the Twelve Patri-
archs and that of the Johannine gospel and epistles.
See J. Rendel Harris, The Odes and Psalms of Solomon (1909);
An Early Christian Psalter (1909); Joh. Flemming and A. Harnack,
Ein judisch-christliches Psalmbuch aus dem ersten Jahrhundert
(Leipzig, 1910); The Times (April 7, 1910); W. E. Barnes, in Journ.
of Theol. Studies, xi. 615, and The Expositor (July I9 lo )l F. Spitta,
in Zeitschrift fur N.T. Wissenschaft, xi. 193.
SOLOMON, PSALMS OF. These psalms, eighteen in all,
enjoyed but small consideration in the early Christian Church;
for only six direct references to them are found in early Chris-
tian literature, though in the Jewish Church they must have
played an important role; for they were used in the worship
of the synagogue.
They were of course not written by Solomon, but were sub-
sequently ascribed to him. The fact that they do not con-
tain a single reference to Solomon is in favour of their having
been first published anonymously. On the other hand, their
author (or authors) may have placed over them the superscrip-
tion " Psalms of Solomon " in order to gain currency for this
new collection under the shelter of a great name of the past.
MSS. AND TEXTS. Before the publication of Swete's second
edition and the edition of von Gebhardt, only five MSS., A, H, V, M,
P (of which H represents the Copenhagen MS.) were known, and
these were utilized to the full in the splendid edition of Ryle and
James (*aXjuoi SoXo/aficros, Psalms of the Pharisees commonly called
the Psalms of Solomon, the Text newly revised from all the MSS.,
1891). In Swete's edition (The Old Testament in Greek? 1894)
there was given in addition to the above a collation of the Vatican
3 66
SOLON
MS. R. Finally in 1895, von Gebhardt published from five MSS.
his edition entitled *n\Moi SoXe>M<2>'Tos, Die Psalmen Salomos zum
erstenmale mil Benutzung der Athoshandschriften und des Cod.
Casanatensis herausgegeben. The five MSS. used by this last
editor are C, H, J, L, R, of which C, J, L are exploited for the first
time and represent respectively the MSS. Casanatensis, Iberiticus
and Laura-Kloster. He represents the affinities of the MSS. in
the following table, where Z stands for the archetype:
Z
I
Thus H is the only MS. common to this edition and that of Ryle
and James; for Gebhardt regards the secondary MSS. V, M, P as
not deserving consideration. Notwithstanding there is a much
finer critical training for the student in the textual discussions
and retroversions in the latter edition than in the former.
TRANSLATIONS. Wellhausen, Die Pharisaer und die Sadducaer
(1874), 131 sqq. This translation is unfortunately based on the
editio princeps of De la Cerda published in 1626. Pick's translation
which appeared in the Presbyterian Review for October 1883,
pp. 775813, is based on the same text and is imperfect owing to
a faulty knowledge of English. Ryle and James (op. cit.). Kittel's
translation (Kautzsch, Apokr. u. Pseudep. i. 1900, ii. 127 sqq.)
was made from von Gebhardt's text.
The Original Language. All modern scholars are practically
agreed that the Psalms were written in Hebrew. It is unnecessary
to enter into this question here, but a point or two might be
mentioned which call for such a presupposition, (i.) First
we find that, after the manner of the canonical Psalms, the
musical symbol 6idi/<aXjua. (^79) is inserted in xvii. 31 and
xviii. 10, a fact which points to their use in the divine worship
in the synagogue, (ii ) Next we find that a great number
of passages cannot be understood unless by retroversion into
Hebrew, when the source of the error becomes transparent.
One such instance occurs in ii. 29, roO tiiretv TTJV VTrepT)<j>aviav
TOV SpaKovros kv aTL^iq,. Here tliriiv, which is utterly meaningless,
= ipt l 7 a corruption of vp^ or Tpn 1 ? "to change," "turn"
(Wellhausen). Thus we arrive at the sense required, " To
turn the pride of the dragon into dishonour, (iii.) Finally,
there are several passages where the text exhibits the future
tense, when it ought to give the past imperfect. This pheno-
menon can easily be explained as a false rendering of the
Hebrew imperfect. 1
Date. The date can be determined from references to con-
temporary events. Thus the book opens with the alarms of
war (i. 2, viii. i), in the midst of a period of great prosperity
(i. 3, 4, viii. 7), but the prosperity is merely material, for from
the king to the vilest of his subjects they are altogether sinful
(xvii. 21, 22). The king, moreover, is no descendant of David,
but has usurped his throne (xvii. 6-8). But judgment is at
hand. " A mighty striker " has come from the ends of the earth
(viii. 1 6), who when the princes of the land greeted him with
words of welcome (viii. 18), seized the city (viii. 21), cast down its
walls (ii. i), polluted its altar (ii. 2), put its princes and counsellors
to the sword (viii. 23), and carried away its sons and daughters
captive to the west (viii. 24, xvii. 14). But the dragon who con-
quered Jerusalem (ii. 29), and thought himself to be more
than man (ii. 32, 33), at last meets with shameful death on the
shores of Egypt (ii. 30, 31).
The above allusions are easy to interpret. The usurping
kings who are not descended from David are the Maccabeans.
The " mighty striker " is Pompey. The princes who welcomed
his approach are Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus II. Pompey
carried off princes and people to the west, and finally perished
on the coast of Egypt in 48 B.C. Thus Ps. ii. was written
soon after 48 B.C., while Ps. i., viii., xvii. fall between 63 and
48 B.C., for they presuppose Pompey's capture of Jerusalem,
but show no knowledge of his death. Ps. v., vii., 5x., xiii., xv.
1 In addition to Ryle and Tames, Introd. pp. Ixxvii.-lxxxvii.,
see Perles, " Die Erklarung der Psalm. Sal." (Oriental. Litteralurzeit.,
1902, v. 7-10).
belong apparently to the same period, but iv. and xii. to an
earlier one. On the whole Ryle and James are right in assigning
70-40 B.C. as the limits within which the psalms were written.
Authorship. The authors were Pharisees. They divide
their countrymen into two classes " the righteous " (ii. 38-39,
iii. 3-5, 7, 8), and " the sinners " (ii. 38, iii. 13, iv. 9) ; " the saints "
(iii. 10) and " the transgressors " (iv. ii). The former are the
Pharisees; the latter the Sadducees. The authors protest
against the Asmonaean (i.e. the Maccabees) for usurping the
throne of David and laying violent hands on the high priest-
hood (xvii. 5, 6, 8), and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the
true son of David (xvii. 23-25), who is to set all things right and
establish the supremacy of Israel. The Messiah is to be pure
from sin (xvii. 41), purge Jerusalem from the defilement of
sinners and of the Gentiles (xvii. 29, 30, 36), destroy the hostile
nations and extend his righteous rule over all the remaining
peoples of the earth (xvii. 27, 31, 32, 34, 38)."
Ps. xvii., xviii. and i.-xvi. can hardly be assigned to the same
authors. The hopes of the Messiah are confined to the former,
and a somewhat different eschatology underlies the two works (see
Charles, Eschatology: Hebrew, Jewish and Christian, 220-225).
In addition to the literature mentioned above, also in Ryle and
James's edition and Schurer, Gesch. dei jud. Volkes, 3rd ed., iii.
150 sqq, see Ency. Bib. i. 241-245. (R. H. C.)
SOLON (;th and 6th century B.C.), Athenian statesman, the son
of Execestides of the family of Codrus, was born about 638 B.C.
The prodigality of his father made it necessary for Solon to
maintain himself by trade, especially abroad. In his youth
he became well known as the author of amatory poems and
later of patriotic and didactic verse. Hence his inclusion among
the Seven Sages. Solon's first public service was the recovery of
Salamis from the Megarians. A law had been passed forbidding
any reference to the loss of the island; Solon solved the difficulty
by feigning madness, and reciting an inflammatory poem in
the agora. It appears that Solon was appointed to recover the
" fair island " and that he succeeded in expelling the Megarians.
Sparta finally arbitrated in favour of the Athenians (c. 596),
who ascribed their success to Solon. About a year later he
seems to have moved a decree before the Amphictyons declaring
war on Cirrha. At this period the distress in Attica and the
accumulating discontent of the poorer classes, for whom Draco's
code had proved inadequate, reached its height. Solon was
summoned by all classes unanimously to discover a remedy;
under the legal title of Archon, he received unlimited powers
which he exercised in economic and constitutional reforms
(see below). From various sources we learn that these reforms
met with considerable opposition, to escape from which Solon
left Athens for ten years. After visiting Egypt, he went to
Cyprus, where Philocyprus, king of Aepea, received him with
honour. Herodotus (v. 113) says that Philocyprus, on the ad-
vice of Solon, built himself a new town called, after his guest,
Soli. The story that Solon visited Croesus in Lydia, and made
to him the famous remark " Call no man happy till he is dead "
is unfortunately discredited by the fact that Croesus seems
to have become king nearly thirty years after Solon's legis-
lation, whereas the story must be dated within ten years of it.
Subsequently Solon returned to Athens, to find civil strife re-
newed, and shortly afterwards his friend (perhaps his relative)
Peisistratus made himself tyrant. About 558 B.C. Solon died,
and, according to the story in Diogenes Laertius i. 62 (but see
Plutarch's Solon, 32), his ashes were scattered round the island
of Salamis. If the story is true, it shows that he was regarded
as the oecist of Salamis.
Reforms. The date of Solon's archonship has been usually
fixed at 594 B.C. (Ol. 46. 3), a date given by Diog. Laert. (i. 62)
on the evidence of the Rhodian Sosicrates (fl. 200-128 B.C.;
see Clinton, Fast. Hell. ii. 298, and Busolt, 2nd ed., ii. 259).
The date 594 is confirmed by "Statements in the Aristotelian Con-
stitution of Athens (ch. 14). For various reasons, the dates 592,
8 The conception of the Messiah is vigorous, but the influence
of such a conception was hurtful ; for by connecting the Messianic
with the popular aspirations of the nation, the former were secular-
ized and the way prepared for the ultimate destruction of the
nation.
SOLON
591 and even 590 have been suggested by various historians (for
the importance of this question see the concluding paragraph
of this article). The historical evidence for the Solonian
reforms has always been unsatisfactory. There is strong reason
to conclude that in the 5th and 4th centuries there was no
general tradition as to details. In settling differences there is no
appeal to tradition, and this though there occur radical and
insoluble contradictions. Thus the Constitution of Athens
(ch. vi.) says that the Seisachtheia (" shaking off of burdens ")
consisted in a cancelling of all debts public and private, whereas
Androtion, an elder contemporary, denies this specifically, and
says that it consisted in the reduction of the rate of interest
and the debasement of the coinage. The Constitution (ch. x.)
denies the existence of any connexion between the coinage reform
and the relief of debtors. The absence of tradition is further
confirmed by the fact that the Constitution always appeals for
corroboration to Solon's Poems. Of the Laws it is probable
that in the 4th century, though some dealing with agrarian
distress were in existence, those embodying the Seisachtheia
were not* and few if any of the purely constitutional laws re-
mained. The main source of the account in the Constitution
is, therefore, the Poems of Solon, from which numerous quota-
tions are made (see chs. 5-12).
The reforms of Solon may be divided under three heads
economic, constitutional and miscellaneous. They were
necessary owing mainly to the tyrannical attitude of the rich
to the poorer classes. Of these many had become slaves in
lieu of payment of rent and loans, and thus the land had fallen
gradually into the hands of the capitalists. It was necessary
to readjust the economic balance and to provide against the
evil of aristocratic and capitalist predominance.
A. Economic Reforms. Solon's economic reforms consisted of
the Seisachtheia and certain commercial laws (e.g. prevention of
export trade except in olive oil, Plut. Sol. 24). Among all the
problems connected with the Seisachtheia, it is clear (l) that Solon
abolished the old Attic law of debt which permitted loans on the
security of the debtor's person; (2) that he restored to freedom
those who had been enslaved for debt ; (3) that he refused the de-
mand for the division of the land (TTJS A.va5aaii.k). As to the can-
celling of all debts (\peSiv iironoirii) there is some controversy ;
Gilbert and Busolt maintain that all debts were cancelled ; strong
reasons, may however, be advanced against it. It is possible that
the statement in the Constitution is a hypothesis to explain the
restoration of the slaves to freedom. Further, Solon seems to
have regulated the accumulation of land (cf. in Rome the legislation
of Tiberius Gracchus) and the rate of interest ; and to have simplified
commerce by replacing the Pheidonian standard by the Euboic,
which was in use among the Ionian traders, in commerce with whom
he foresaw that prosperity lay. It is impossible here to enter into
the details of the controversy in connexion with Solon's land reforms ;
it must suffice to give the bare outlines of the dispute. There is
no question that (i) the distressed class whom Solon sought to re-
lieve were the Hektemors, and that (2) the achievement on which
he prided himself was the removal of the Spot or stones which were
seen everywhere in Attica, and were symbolic of the slavery of the
soil. Almost all writers say that these opot were mortgage-pillars:
that they were originally boundary stones and that when land was
mortgaged the terms of the agreement were carved on the stones,
as evidence. Now firstly, though such mortgage-pillars existed in
the time of Demosthenes, none are found earlier than the year
400 B.C., nor is there any reference before that year to this special
sense of the word. If then these stones which Solon removed
were mortgage-pillars, it is strange that none should have been found
till two hundred years later. Secondly, it is highly improbable
that the terms on which land was then cultivated admitted of
mortgaging at all. The Hektemors, who, according to the Constitu-
tion, paid the sixth part of their produce as rent, 1 were not free-
holders but tenants, and therefore, could not mortgage their land
at all. From this it follows that when Solon said he had " re-
moved the stones " he referred to the fatal accumulation of land by
landowners. The tenants failed to pay rent, were enslaved, and the
" boundary stone " of the landowner was moved forward to include
their land. Thus the removal of the Spot was a measure against
the accumulation of land in the form of enclosures (TfjutxrjXand
fits in with the statement at the end of chapter iv. of the Constitution,
'Others say they were: (i) labourers who received one-sixth of
the produce as wages; (2) tenants who paid five-sixths as rent and
kept one sixth, or (3) tenants who paid one-sixth as rent and kept
five-sixths. As to (3) it is said such tenants could not have been
in real distress, and as to (i) and (2) it is said that such a position
would have meant starvation from the first.
" the land was in the hands of a few." It should be noted (i) that
from this releasing of the land it follows that Solon's law against
lending on the security of the person must have been retrospective
(i.e. in order to provide a sufficient number of freeholders for the
land released) ; and (2) that it is one of the most remarkable facts
in Athenian economic history that when at the end of the Pelopon-
nesian War a proposal was brought forward to limit the franchise
to freeholders, it was found that only five thousand failed to satisfy
this requirement.
B. Constitutional Reforms. It is on this part of his work that
Solon's claim to be considered a great statesman is founded. By
his new constitution he laid the foundations of the Athenian
democracy and paved the way for its later developments. It
should be noted in the first place that the following account is
written on the assumption that the Draconian constitution de-
scribed in chapter iv. of the Constitution of Athens had never existed
(see DRACO). In some respects that alleged constitution is more
democratic than Solon's. This, coupled with the fact that Solon is
always spoken of as the founder of democracy, is one of the strongest
reasons for rejecting the Draconian constitution. It will be seen
that Solon's state was by no means a perfected democracy, but
was in some respects rather a moderate oligarchy in which political
privilege was graduated by possession of land. To Solon are gener-
ally ascribed the four classes Pentacosiomedimni, Hippeis, Zeugitae
and Thetes. Of these the first consisted of those whose land pro-
duced as many measures (medimni) of corn and as many measures
(metretae) of oil and wine as together amounted to 500 measures.
The Hippeis (the horsemen, i.e. those who could provide a war-
horse for the service of the state) were rated at over 300 and under
500 medimni; the third class (those who tilled their land with a
yoke of oxen) at 200 medimni and the Thetes below 200 medimni.
The Zeugites probably served as heavy-armed soldiers, and the
Thetes were the sailors of the state. It is likely that the Zeugites
were mainly Hektemors (see above) whom Solon converted into
freeholders. Whether Solon invented these classes is uncertain,
but it seems clear that he first put them into definite relation
with the political organism. The Thetes (who included probably
the servants of the Eupatridae, now secured as freemen), the fisher-
men of the Paralia (or sea-coast), and the artisans (cerameis) of
Athens) for the first time received political existence by their admis-
sion to the sovereign assembly of the Ecclesia (q.v,). Of these classes
the first alone retained the right of holding the offices of archon
and treasurer; other offices were, however, opened to the second
and third classes (sc. the Poletae, the Eleven and the Colacretae;
see CLEISTHENES [I.] footnote). It is of the utmost importance
to observe that the office of Strategus (q.v.) is not mentioned in
connexion with Solon's reform. It is often said that Solon used
his classification as the basis of a sliding scale of taxation. Against
this, it is known that Peisistratus, whose faction was essentially
the poorer classes, established a uniform 5% tax, and it is highly
unlikely that he would have reversed an existing arrangement
which was particularly favourable to his friends. The admission
of the Thetes to the Ecclesia was an important step in the direction
of democracy (for the powers which Solon gave to the Ecclesia,
see ECCLESIA). But the greatest reform of Solon was undoubtedly
the institution of the Heliaea (or courts of justice). The jury
were appointed by lot from all the citizens (including the Thetes),
and thus the same people elected the magistrates in the Ecclesia
and subsequently tried them in the Heliaea. Hence Solon trans-
ferred the sovereign power from the areopagus and the magistrates
to the citizens as a whole. Further, as the archons, at the expiry
of their year of office, passed into the areopagus, the people exer-
cised control over the personnel of that body also (see AREOPAGUS).
In spite of the alleged Draconian constitution, alluded to above, it
is still very generally held that Solon invented the Boule or Council
of Four Hundred, one hundred from each of the old tribes. The
importance of this body as an advisory committee of the Ecclesia,
and the functions of the Prytaneis are explained under BOULE.
It is sufficient here to point out that, according to Plutarch's Solon
(ch. 19) the state henceforth rested on two councils " as on anchors,"
and that the large powers exercised by the Cleisthenean Bpule
were not exercised by the Solonian. From this, and the articles
AREOPAGUS, BOULE, ECCLESIA and GREEK LAW, it will be seen that
Solon contrived an absolutely organic constitution of a " mixed "
type, which had in it the seeds of the great democratic growth
which reached its maturity under Pericles. It should be ^dded
here, in reference to the election of magistrates under Solon's con-
stitution, that there is discrepancy between the Politics and the
Constitution; the latter says that Solon gave to the Thetes nothing
but a share in the Ecclesia and the courts of justice, and that the
magistrates were elected by a combination of selection and lot
(icXTipaiTot IK TrpoKptruv) , whereas the Politics says that Solon gave
them only the power to elect the magistrates and try them at the
end of their year. It seems likely for other reasons that the former
scheme should be assigned to the years after Marathon, and, there-
fore, that the account in the Politics is correct (but see ARCHON).
C. Miscellaneous. The miscellaneous laws of Solon are inter-
esting primarily as throwing light upon the social condition of
Athens at the time (see Evelyn Abbot, History of Greece, I. xiii. 18).
3 68
SOLSTICE SOLUTION
In the matter of trade it has been said that he favoured one
export only, that of olive oil, in which Athens was peculiarly
rich; further he encouraged the settlement of aliens (metoeci)
engaged in commerce, and compelled fathers to teach their sons
a useful trade under penalty of losing all right to support in old
age. The influence of women Solon regarded as most pernicious.
Wealthy wives he forbade; no bride might bring more than three
changes of raiment and a little light furniture to the house; all
brothels and gymnasia were put under stringent state-control
(see PROSTITUTION). Solon also regulated intestate succession,
the marriage of heiresses, adoption, the use and sinking of wells,
bee-farming, the planting of olives and figs, the cutting down of
olive trees, the calendar. Further, he ordained that each citizen
must show how he obtained his living (Herod, ii. 177) and must,
under penalty of losing the franchise, adhere to one or other party
in a sedition (for these laws see Plutarch's Solon, chs. 20-24).
The laws were inscribed on Kyrbeis or tablets framed in wood
which could be swung round (hence also called axones). The boule
as a body swore to observe the laws, and each archon undertook
to set up a life-size golden statue at Delphi if he should be convicted
of transgressing them.
Solon appears to have supplemented his enactments by a law
that they should remain in force for one hundred years, and accord-
ing to another account that his laws, though not the best, should
stand unchanged for ten years (Plut. Solon, 25; Herod, i. 29).
Yet according to the Constitution of Athens (chs. 11-13) (without
which the period from Solon to Peisistratus was a blank), when Solon
went abroad in 593(?) the city was disturbed, and in the fifth year
dissension became so acute that no archon was elected (for the
chronological problem, see J. E. Sandys, Constitution of Athens,
ch. 13, note) ; again four years later the same anarchia (i.e. no archon
elected) occurred. Then four years later the archon Damasias
(582 ?) continued in office illegally for two years and two months.
The office of the archon was then put into commission of ten : five
from the Eupatrids, three from the Agroeci and two from the Demi-
urgi, and for twenty years the state was in a condition of strife.
Thus we see that twelve years of strife (owing to Solon's financial
reforms) ended in the reversal of Solon's classification by assess-
ment. We are, therefore, driven to conclude that the practical
value of his laws was due to the strong and enlightened govern-
ment of Peisistratus, whose tyranny put an end to the quarrels
between the Shore, the Upland and the Plain, and the stasis of rich
and poor.
See editions with notes of Constitution of Athens (q.v.); histories
of Greece later than 1891 (e.g. Busolt, &c.). See also Gilliard,
Quelques r&formes de Solon (1907); Cavaignac, in Revue de Philol.,
1908. All works anterior to the publication of the Constitution
are so far out of date, but reference should be made to the work
ofGrote. (J.M. ty.)
SOLSTICE (Lat. solstitium, from sol, sun, and sistere, to stand
still), in astronomy either of the two points at which the sun
reaches its greatest declination north or south. Each solstice
is upon the ecliptic midway between the equinoxes, and there-
fore 90 from each. The term is also applied to the moment
at which the sun reaches the point thus denned.
SOLUNTUM (Gr. SoXoets or 2oAoCs), an ancient town of
Sicily, one of the three chief Phoenician settlements in the island,
situated on the north coast, 10 m. E. of Panormus (Palermo),
600 ft. above sea-level, on the S.E. side of Monte Catalfano
(1225 ft.), in a naturally strong situation, and commanding a
fine view. The date of its first occupation is, like that of Panor-
mus, unknown. It continued to be a Carthaginian possession
almost uninterruptedly until the First Punic War, when, after
the fall of Panormus, it opened its gates to the Romans. In the
Roman period it seems to have been of no great importance;
an inscription, erected by the citizens in honour of Fulvia Plau-
tilla, the wife of Caracalla, was found there in 1857. It was
perhaps destroyed by the Saracens and is now entirely deserted.
Excavations have brought to light considerable remains of the
ancient town, belonging entirely to the Roman period, and a
good deal still remains unexplored. An archaic oriental Artemis
sitting between a lion and a panther, found here, is in the museum
at Palermo, with other antiquities from this site. With the
exception of the winding road by which the town was approached
on the south, the streets, despite the unevenness of the ground,
which in places is so steep that steps have to be introduced, are
laid out regularly, running from east to west and from north
to south, and intersecting at right angles. They are as a rule
paved with slabs of stone. The houses were constructed of
rough walling, which was afterwards plastered over; the natural
rock is often used for the lower part of the walls. One of
the largest of them, with a peristyle, is currently, though
wrongly, called the Gymnasium. Near the top of the town are
some cisterns cut in the rock, and at the summit is a larger
house than usual, with mosaic pavements and paintings on
its walls. (T. As.)
SOLUTION (from Lat. sohere, to loosen, dissolve). When a
solid such as salt or sugar dissolves in contact with water to
form a uniform substance from which the components may be
regained by evaporation the substance is called a solution.
Gases too dissolve in liquids, while mixtures of various liquids
show similar properties. Certain solids also consist of two or
more components which are united so as to show similar effects.
All these cases of solution are to be distinguished from chemical
compounds on the one hand, and from simple mixtures on the
other. When a substance contains its components in definite
proportions which can only change, if at all, by sudden steps, it
may be classed as a chemical compound. When the relative
quantities of the components can vary continuously within
certain limits, the substance is either a solution or a mixture.
The distinction between these two classes is not sharp; though
when the properties of the resultant are sensibly thfe sum of
those of the pure components, as is nearly the case for a complex
gas such as air, it is usual to class it as a mixture. When the
properties of the resultant substance are different from those
of the components and it is not a chemical compound we define
it as a solution.
Historical. Solutions were not distinguished from definite
chemical compounds till John Dalton discovered the laws of
definite and multiple proportions, but many earlier observations
on the solubility of solids in water and the density of the resulting
solutions had been made. As early as 1788 Sir Charles Blagden
(1748-1820) made measurements of the freezing points of salt
solutions, and showed that the depression of freezing point was
roughly proportional to the amount of salt dissolved. About
1850 Thomas Graham published his famous experiments on
diffusion, both with and without a separating membrane. In
1867 botanical investigations by M. Traube, and in 1877 others
by W. Pfeffer, made known the phenomena of the osmotic
pressure which is set up by the passage of solvent through a
membrane impermeable to the dissolved substance or solute.
The importance of these experiments from the physical point
of view was recognized by J. H. van't Hoff in 1885, who showed
that Pfeffer's results indicated that osmotic pressure of a dilute
solution conformed to the well-known laws of gas pressure,
and had the same absolute value as the same number of mole-
cules would exert as a gas filling a space equal to the value of
the solvent. The conception of a semi-permeable membrane,
permeable to the solvent only, was used by van't Hoff as a
means of applying the principles of thermodynamics to the
theory of solution.
Another method of applying the same principles is due to
J. Willard Gibbs, who considered the whole problem of physical
and chemical equilibrium in papers published in 1877, though
the application of his principles only began to make extensive
progress about twenty years after the publication of his purely
theoretical investigations. The phenomena of solution and of
vapour pressure constitute cases of equilibrium, and conform
to the laws deduced by Gibbs, which thus yield a valuable
method of investigating and classifying the equilibria of
solutions.
Solubility. Some pairs of liquids are soluble in each other
in all proportions, but, in general, when dealing with solutions
of solids or gases in liquids, a definite limit is reached to the
amount which will go into solution when the liquid is in contact
with excess of the solid or gas. This limit depends on the nature
of the two components, on the temperature and on the pressure.
When the limit is reached the solution is said to be saturated,
and the system is in equilibrium. If the solution of a solid
more soluble when hot be cooled below the saturation point,
the whole of the solid sometimes remains in solution. The
liquid is then said to be supersaturated. But here the conditions
are different owing to the absence of solid. If a crystal of the
solid be added, the condition of supersaturation is destroyed,
SOLUTION
369
and the ordinary equilibrium of saturation is reached by precipi-
tation of solid from solution.
The quantity of substance, or solute, which a given quantity of
liquid or solvent will dissolve in presence of excess of the solute
measures the solubility of the solute in the given solvent in the
conditions of temperature and pressure. The solubilities of solids
may be expressed in terms of the mass of solute which will dissolve
in 100 grammes of water.
The following may be taken as examples:
Chemical
Solubility
Gnlnta
of the Solid.
at C.
at 20 C.
at 100 C.
Sodium chloride
NaCl
35-7
36-0
39-8
Potassium nitrate .
KNO 3
13-3
31-2
247-0
Barium chloride
BaClj
3'9
35-7
58-8
Copper sulphate .
Calcium carbonate
CuSOi
CaCO 3
15-5
0-0018
22 -O
73-5
0-0018
Silver nitrate
AgN0 3
121-9
227-3
(at i 9 -5
IIII-O
(at 110)
When dealing with gases it is usually more convenient to express
the solubility as the ratio of the volume of the gas absorbed to the
volume of the absorbing liquid. For gases such as oxygen and
nitrogen dissolved in water the solubility as thus defined is inde-
pendent of the pressure, or the mass of gas dissolved is propor-
tional to the pressure. This relation does not hold for very soluble
gases, such as ammonia, at low temperatures. As a general rule
gases are less soluble at high than at low temperatures unlike the
majority of solids. Thus oxygen, 4-89 volumes of which dissolve
at atmospheric pressure in I volume of water at o C., only dissolves
to the extent of 3- 10 volumes at 20 and 1-70 volumes at 100.
Cause of Solubility. At the outset of the subject we are met
by a fundamental problem, to which no complete answer can
be given: Why do certain substances dissolve in certain other
substances and not in different substances? Why are some
pairs of liquids miscible in each other in all proportions, while
other pairs do not mix at all, or only to a limited extent? No
satisfactory correlation of solubility with chemical or other
properties has been made. It is possible to state the conditions
of solubility in terms of the theory of available energy, but the
result comes to little more than a re-statement of the problem
in other terms. Nevertheless, such a re-statement is in itself
sometimes an advance in knowledge. It is certain then that
when dissolution occurs the available energy of the whole
system is decreased by the process, while when equilibrium is
reached and the solution is saturated the available energy is a
minimum. When a variable quantity is at a minimum a slight
change in the system does not affect its value, and therefore,
when a solution is saturated, the increase in the available energy
of the liquid phase produced by dissolving in it some of the solid
must be equal to the decrease in the available energy of the solid
phase, caused by the abstraction from the bulk of that part
dissolved. The general theory of such equilibria will be studied
later under the head of the phase rule.
It is possible that a correlation may be made between solubility
and the energy of surface tension. If a solid is immersed in a
liquid a certain part of the energy of the system depends on,
and is proportional to, the area of contact between solid and
liquid. Similarly with two liquids like oil and water, which do
not mix, we have surface energy proportional to the area of
contact. Equilibrium requires that the available energy and
therefore the area of contact should be a minimum, as is demon-
strated in Plateau's beautiful experiment, where a large drop of
oil is placed in a liquid of equal density and a perfect sphere is
formed. If, however, the energy of surface tension between
the two substances were negative the surface would tend to a
maximum, and complete mixture would follow. From this
point of view the natural solubility of two substances involves a
negative energy of surface tension between them.
Gibbs's Phase Rule. A saturated solution is a system in equili-
brium, and exhibits the thermodynamic relations which hold
for all such systems. Just as two electrified bodies are in
equilibrium when their electric potentials are equal, so two
parts of a chemical and physical system are in equilibrium when
there is equality between the chemical potentials of each com-
ponent present in the two parts. Thus water and steam are in
equilibrium with each other when the chemical potential of water
substance is the same in the liquid as in the vapour. The
chemical potentials are clearly functions of the composition of
the system, and of its temperature and pressure. It is usual
to call each part of the system of uniform composition through-
out a phase; in the example given, water substance, the only
component is present in two phases a liquid phase and a vapour
phase, and when the potentials of the component are the same
in each phase equilibrium exists.
If in unit mass of any phase we have n components instead of one
we must know the amount of n I components present in that
unit mass before we know the exact composition of it. Thus if
in one gramme of a mixture of water, alcohol and salt we are told
the amount of water and salt, we can tell the amount of alcohol.
If, instead of one phase, we have r phases, we must find out the
values of r(n i) quantities before we know the composition
of the whole system. Thus, to investigate the composition of the
system we must be able to calculate the value of r (n i) unknown
quantities. To these must be added the external variables of
temperature and pressure, and then as the total number of variables,
we have r (n-j-i) + 2.
To determine these variables we may form equations between
the chemical potentials of the different components quantities
which are functions of the variables to be determined. If p\ and
m denote the potentials of any one component in two phases in
contact, when there is equilibrium, we know that w=M2- If
a third phase is in equilibrium with the other two we have also
Hi=H3- These two equations involve the third relation / = jU3.
which therefore is not an independent equation. Hence with three
phases we can form two independent equations for each component.
With r phases we can form r l equations for each component, and
with n components and r phases we obtain n(r l) equations.
Now by elementary algebra we know that if the number of inde-
pendent equations be equal to the number of unknown quantities
all the unknown quantities can be determined, and can possess each
one value only. Thus we shall be able to specify the system com-
pletely when the number of variables, viz. r (n i) +2, is equal
to the number of equations, viz. n(r i); that is when r=n + 2.
Thus, when a system possesses two more phases than the number
of its components, all the phases will be in equilibrium with each
other at one definite composition, one definite temperature and one
definite pressure, and in no other conditions. To take the simplest
case of a one component system water substance has its three
phases of solid ice, liquid water and gaseous vapour in equilibrium
with each other at the freezing point of water under the pressure
of its own vapour. If we attempt to change either the temperature
or the pressure ice will melt, water will evaporate or vapour con-
dense until one or other of the phases has vanished. We then have
in equilibrium two phases only, and the temperature and pressure
may change. Thus, if we supply heat to the mixture of ice, water
and steam ice will melt and eventually vanish. We then have
water and vapour in equilibrium, and, as more heat enters, the tem-
perature rises and the vapour-pressure rises with it. But, if we
fix arbitrarily the temperature the pressure of equilibrium can
have one value only. Thus by fixing one variable we fix the state
of the whole system. This condition is represented in the alge-
braic theory when we have one more unknown quantity than the
number of equations; i.e. when r(n i) + 2=n(r i) + I or
r = + l, and the number of phases is one more than the number
of components. Similarly if we have F more unknowns than we
have equations to determine them, we must fix arbitrarily F co-
ordinates before we fix the state of the whole system. The number
F is called the number of degrees of freedom of the system, and is
measured by the excess of the number of unknowns over the number
of variables. Thus F = r(n i) + 2 n(r i) = n r + 2, a
result which was deduced by J. Willard Gibbs (1839-1903) and
is known as Gibbs's Phase-Rule (see ENERGETICS).
The phenomena of equilibrium can be represented on diagrams.
Thus, if we take our co-ordinates to represent pressure and tem-
perature, the state of the systems p
with ice, water and vapour in
equilibrium is represented by the
point O where the pressure is
that of the vapour of water at
the freezing point and the tem-
perature is the freezing point
under that pressure. If all the
ice be melted, we pass along the
vapour' pressure curve of water
OA. If all the water be frozen,
we have the vapour pressure
curve of ice OB; while, if the
pressure be raised, so that all
the vapour vanishes, we get the
curve OC of equilibrium between
the pressure and the freezing point of water. The slope of these
curves is determined by the so-called " latent heat equation "
FIG. i.
SOLUTION
(see THERMODYNAMICS), dpl<Lt = \lt(vi t>i), where p and t denote
the pressure and temperature, X the heat required to change unit
mass of the systems from one phase to the other, and 2 DI
the resulting change in volume. The phase rule combined with the
latent heat equation contains the whole theory of chemical and
physical equilibrium.
Application to Solutions. In a system containing a solution
we have to deal with two components at least. The simplest
case is that of water and a salt, such as sodium chloride, which
crystallizes without water. Tp obtain a non-variant system, we
must assemble four phases two more than the number of
components. The four phases are (i) crystals of salt, (2)
crystals of ice, (3) a saturated solution of the salt in water, and
(4) the vapour, which is that practically of water alone, since the
salt is non-volatile at the temperature in question. Equili-
brium between these phases is obtained at the freezing point of
the saturated solution under the pressure of the vapour. At that
pressure and temperature the four phases can co-exist, and, as
long as all of them are present, the pressure and temperature will
remain steady. Thus a mixture of ice, salt and the saturated
solution has a constant freezing point, and the composition of
the solution is constant and the same as that of the mixed
solids which freeze out on the abstraction of heat. This con-
stancy both in freezing point and composition formerly was
considered as a characteristic of a pure chemical compound, and
hence these mixtures were described as components and given
the name of " cryohydrates."
In representing on a diagram the phenomena of equilibrium
in a two-component system we require a third axis along which
p to plot the composition of a
variable phase. It is usual
to take three axes at right
- angles to each other to repre-
sent pressure, temperature
and the' composition of the
variable phase. On a plane
figure this solid diagram
must be drawn in perspec-
tive, the third axis C being
imagined to lie out of the
plane of the paper. The
* phase-rule diagram that we
FIG. 2. construct is then a sketch
of a solid model, the lines of which do not really lie in the plane
of the paper.
Let us return to the case of the system of salt and water. At the
cryohydric point O we have four phases in equilibrium at a definite
pressure, temperature and composition of the liquid phase. The
condition of the system is represented by a single point on the
diagram. If heat be added to the mixture ice will melt and salt
dissolve in the water so formed. If the supply of ice fails first
the temperature will rise, and, since solid salt remains, we pass
along a curve OA giving the relation between temperature and the
vapour pressure of the saturated solution. If, on the other hand,
the salt of the cryohydrate fails before the ice the water given by
the continued fusion dilutes the solution, and we pass along the
curve OB which shows the freezing points of a series of solutions of
constantly increasing dilution. If the process be continued till
a very large quantity of ice be melted the resulting solution is so
dilute that its freezing point B is identical with that of the pure
solvent. Again, starting from O, by the abstraction of heat we can
remove all the liquid and travel along the curve OD of equilibrium
between the two solids (salt and ice) and the vapour. Or, by in-
creasing the pressure, we eliminate the vapour and obtain the
curve OF giving the relation between pressure, freezing point and
composition when a saturated solution is in contact with ice and
salt.
If the salt crystallizes with a certain amount of water as well
as with none, we get a second point of equilibrium between four
phases. Sodium sulphate, for instance, crystallizes below 32-6
as Na 2 SO 4 -ioH 2 O, and above that temperature as the anhydrous
solid Na 2 SO. Taking the point O to denote the state of equilibrium
between ice, hydrate, saturated solution and vapour, we pass along
OA till a new solid phase, that of Na 2 SO 4 , appears at 32-6; from
this point arise four curves, analogous to those diverging from the
point O.
For the quantitative study of such systems in detail it
is convenient to draw plane diagrams which are theoretically
projections of the curves of the solid phase rule diagram on one
or other of these planes. Experiments on the relation between
temperature and concentration are illustrated by projecting the
curve OA of fig. 2 on the /c-plane. The pressure at each point
should be that of the vapour, but since the solubility of a solid
does not change much with pressure, measurements under the
constant atmospheric pressure give a curve practically identical
with the theoretical one.
Fig. 3 gives the equilibrium between sodium sulphate and
water in this way. B is the freezing point of pure water, O that
3
FIG. 3.
of a saturated solution of Na 2 SO4-ioH 2 O. The curve OP repre-
sents the varying solubility of the hydrate as the temperature rises
from the cryohydric point to 32-6. At that temperature crystals
of the anhydrous Na 2 SO< appear, and a new fixed equilibrium
exists between the four phases hydrate, anhydrous salt, solution
and vapour. As heat is supplied, the hydrate is transformed
gradually into the anhydrous salt and water. When this process
is complete the temperature rises, and we pass along a new curve
giving the equilibrium between anhydrous crystals, solution and
vapour. In this particular case the solubility decreases with rise
of temperature. This behaviour is exceptional.
Two Liquid Components. The more complete phenomena of
mutual solubility are illustrated by the case of phenol and water.
In fig. 4 A represents the
freezing point of pure water,
and AB the freezing point
curve showing the depression
of the freezing point as phenol
is added. At B is a non-
variant system made up of
ice, solid phenol, saturated
solution and vapour. BCD
is the solubility curve of
phenol in water. At C a new ,0.
liquid phase appears the
solution of water in liquid
phenol, the solubility of which
is represented by the curve
Water
so
FIG. 4.
Phenol
DE. At D the composition of the two liquids becomes identical,
and at temperatures above D, 68 C the liquids are soluble in each
other in all proportions, and only one liquid phase can exist. If
the two substances are soluble in each other in all proportions
at all temperatures above their melting points we get a diagram
reduced to the two fusion curves cutting each other at a non-
variant point. This behaviour is illustrated by the case of
silver and copper (fig. 5). o go w so so ioo7.
At the non-variant point
the two metals freeze out
together and the composi- 100
tion of the liquid is the
same as that of the mixed 900
solid which crystallizes from
it. The solid is then known soo
as a eutectic alloy. '
A liquid in which the com-
position is nearly that of the
eutectic shows the changes
in the rate of fall of tempera-
ture as it is allowed to cool.
Silver
FIG. 5.
Copper
First a small quantity of one of the
pure components begins to crystallize out, and the rate of cooling is
thereby diminished owing to the latent heat liberated by the change
of state. This process continues till the composition of the liquid
phase reaches that of the eutectic, when the whole mass solidifies
on the further loss of heat without change of temperature, giving
a very definite freezing point. The process of cooling is thus repre-
sented by a path which runs vertically downwards till it cuts the
SOLUTION
37 1
SO
FIG. 6.
100
freezing point curve, and then travels along it till the non-variant
point is reached. In this way two temperature points are obtained
in the investigation the higher giving a point on the equilibrium
curve, the lower showing the non-variaju: point.
Other pairs of alloys, showing more complicated relations, are
described in ALLOY. Experiments on alloys are, in some ways,
easier to make than on pairs of non-metallic substances, partly
owing to the possibility of polishing sections for microscopic examina-
tion, and the investigation of alloys has done much to elucidate the
general phenomena of solution, of which metallic solution constitutes
a special case.
When 'the two components form chemical compounds with each
other, the phenomena of mutual solubility become more complex.
a For a simple case to serve
as an introduction, let
us again turn to alloys.
Copper and antimony form
a single compound SbCu 2 .
If either copper or anti-
mony be added to this
compound, the freezing
point is lowered just as
it would be if a new sub-
stance were added, to a
solvent. Thus on each
side of the point B repre-
senting this compound, the
curve falls. Proceeding
along . the curve in either
direction, we come to a non-variant or eutectic point. In one case
(represented by the point A in the figure) the solid which freezes out is
a conglomerate of crystals of the compound with those of antimony,
in the other case C with those of copper. Thus in interpreting
complicated freezing point curves, we must look for chemical
compounds where the curve shows a maximum, and for a eutectic
or cryohydrate where two curves meet at a minimum point.
We are now ready to study a case where several compounds are
formed between the two components. A good example is the
equilibrium of ferric chloride
and water, studied by B.
Roozeboom. The experi-
mental curve of solubility is
shown in fig. 7. At A we
have the freezing point of
pure water, which is lowered
by the gradual addition of
ferric chloride in the manner
shown by the curve AB. At
B we have the non-variant
cryohydric point at which ice,
the hydrate Fe 2 Cl 6 -i2H 2 O,
the saturated solution and
the vapour are in equilibrium
at 55 C. _ As the proportion
of salt is increased, the
melting point of the con-
glomerate rises, till, at the
maximum point C, we have
the pure compound the hy-
drate with twelve molecules
30 of water. Beyond C, the
FIG. 7. addition of salt lowers the
melting point again, till at D we obtain another non-variant
point. This indicates the appearance of a new compound, which
should exist pure at E, the next maximum, and, led by these
considerations, Roozeboom discovered and isolated a previously
unknown hydrate, Fe 2 Cl 6 7-H 2 O. In a similar way the curve FGH,
between 30 and 55, shows the effect of the hydrate Fe 2 Cl 6 -5H 2 O,
and the curve HJK that of the hydrate Fe 2 Cl 6 -4H 2 O, which, when
pure, melts at 73-5 the point J on the diagram. At the point
K, 66, begins the solubility curve of the anhydrous salt, Fe 2 Cl 6 ,
the fusion point of which when pure is beyond the limits of the
diagram. Let us now trace the behaviour of a solution of ferric
chloride which is evaporated to dryness at a constant temperature
of 31. The phenomena may be investigated by following a hori-
zontal line across the diagram. When the curve BC is reached,
Fe 2 Cl 8 -l2H 2 O separates out, and the solution solidifies. Further
renewal of water will cause first liquefaction, as the curve CD is
passed, and then resolidification to Fe 2 Cl 6 '7H 2 O when DE is cut.
Again the solid will liquefy and once more become solid as
Fe 2 Cl 6 '5H 2 O. Still further evaporation causes these crystals to
effloresce and pass into the anhydrous salt. As we have seen,
the maxima of the various curve-branches at C, E, G, and J corre-
spond with the melting points of the various hydrates at 37 , 32-5,
56 and 73-5 respectively; and at these points melting or solidifica-
tion of the whole mass can occur at constant temperature. But
we have also found this behaviour to be characteristic of the non-
variant or transition points, which, in this case, are represented
by the points B,D,F, Hand K (-55, 27-4, 30, 55 and 66 6 ). Thus
in two ways at least a constant melting point can be obtained in a
two-component system.
Solid Solutions. In all the cases hitherto considered, the
liquid phase alone has been capable of continuous variation in
composition. The solid phases each have been of one definite
substance. Crystals of ice may lie side by side with crystals
of common salt, but each crystalline individual is either ice or
salt; no one crystal contains both components in proportions
which can be varied continuously. But, in other cases, crystals
are known in which both components may enter. Such pheno-
mena are well known in the alums double sulphates of alu-
minium with another metal. Here the other metal may be one,
such as potassium, or two, such as potassium and sodium, and,
in the latter case, the proportion between the two may vary
continuously throughout wide limits. Such structures are known
as mixed crystals or solid solutions.
The theoretical form of the freezing point diagrams when solid
solutions are present depends on the relation between the available
energy and the composition in the two phases. This relation is
known when the amount of either component present in the other
is very small, for it is then the relation for a dilute system and can
FIG. 8.
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
FIG. n.
be calculated. But at intermediate compositions we can only
guess at the form of the energy-composition curve, and the freezing
point composition curve, deduced from it, will vary according to
the supposition which we make. With the most likely forms for
the energy curves we get the accompanying diagrams for the relation
between freezing point and concentration.
It will be noticed that in all these theoretical curves the points
of initial fusion and solidification do not in general coincide; we
reach a different curve first according as we approach the diagram
from below, where all is solid, or from above, where all is liquid.
Again, it will be seen that the addition of a small quantity of one
component, say B, to the other, A, does not necessarily lower the
melting point, as it does with systems with no solid solutions; it
is quite as likely to cause it to rise. The second and third figures,
too, show that the presence of solid solutions may simulate the
phenomena of chemical combination, where the curve reaches a
maximum, and of non-variant systems where we get a minimum.
The fourth figure shows that, in some cases, it should be possible
for solid solutions to be present in a limited part of the field only,
being absent between the two nearly vertical lines in fig. II.
Experiment has revealed the existence of systems in which these
phenomena are displayed. As an example we may take the case
of mixtures of naphthalene and /9-naphthol, substances which form
solid solutions in each other. The freezing and melting point
curves are exactly similar to theoretical curves of fig. 8, the
point A representing pure naphthalene and B pure /S-naphthol.
When the equilibria become more complex difficulties of interpre-
tation of the experimental results often arise. It is often very
difficult to distinguish between a chemical compound, for example,
and the case of solid solution represented by fig. 9. All available
evidence, from the freezing point curve and from other sources must
be scrutinized before an opinion is pronounced. But the elucida-
tion of the complicated phenomena of solid solutions would have
been impossible without the theoretical knowledge deduced from
the principle of available energy.
Supersaturation. When a crystal of the solid phase is present
the equilibrium of a solution is given by the solubility curves
we have studied. If, however, a solution be cooled slowly past
its saturation point with no solid present, crystallization does
not occur till some lower temperature is reached. Between the
saturation point and this lower temperature, the liquid holds in
solution more of the solute than corresponds with equilibrium,
and is said to be supersaturated. A familiar example is to be
found in solutions of sodium sulphate, which may be cooled much
below their saturation point and kept in the liquid state till a
crystal of the hydrate NazSCvioHjO is dropped in, when solidifi-
cation occurs with a large evolution of latent heat. These
phenomena are explicable if we consider the energy relations,
372
SOLUTION
for the intrinsic energy of a system will contain terms depending
on the area of contact between different phases, and, for a given
mass of material, the area will be greater if the substance is
finely divided. Hence the conditions necessary to secure
equilibrium when the solid phase is present are not the same as
those necessary to cause crystallization to start in a number of
crystals at first excessively minute in size. The corresponding
phenomenon in the case of vapours is well known. Dust-free air
will remain supersaturated with water-vapour in conditions
where a dense cloud would be formed in presence of solid dust-
nuclei or electric ions which serve the same purpose.
If a solution of a salt be stirred as it cools in an open vessel, a thin
shower of crystals appears at or about the saturation temperature.
These crystals grow steadily, but do not increase in number. When
the temperature has fallen about 10 C. below this point of saturation,
a dense shower of new crystals appear suddenly. This shower
may be dense enough to make the liquid quite opaque. These
phenomena have been studied by H. A. Miers and Miss F. Isaac.
If the solution be confined in a sealed glass tube, the first thin shower
is not formed, and the system remains liquid till the secondary
dense shower comes down. From this and other evidence it has
been shown that the first thin shower in open vessels is produced
by the accidental presence of tiny crystals obtained from the dust
of the air, while the second dense shower marks the point of spon-
taneous crystallization, where the decrease in total available energy
caused by solidification becomes greater than the increase due to
the large surface of contact between the liquid and the potentially
existing multitudinous small crystals of the shower.
If the _ temperature at which this dense spontaneous shower of
crystals is found be determined for different concentrations of
solution, we can plot a " supersolubility curve," which is found
generally to run roughly parallel to the " solubility curve " of
steady equilibrium between liquid and already existing solid.
When two substances are soluble in each other in all proportions,
we get solubility curves like those of copper and silver shown in
fig. 5- We should expect to find supersolubility curves lying below
the solubility curves, and this result has been realized experimentally
for the supersolubility curves of mixtures of salol (phenyl salicylate)
and betol (|8-naphthol salicylate) represented by the dotted lines
of fig. 12.
In practical cases of crystallization in nature, it is probable that
these phenomena of supersaturation often occur. If a liquid mixture
mfl of A and B (fig. 12) were inocu-
lated with crystals of A when its
composition was that represented
by x, cooled very slowly and
stirred, the conditions would be
those of equilibrium throughout.
When the temperature sank to
a, on the freezing point curve,
crystals of pure A would appear.
The residual liquid would thus
become richer in B, and the tem-
perature and composition would
pass along the curve till E, the
eutectic point, was reached. The
liquid then becomes saturated
with B also, and, if inoculated
with B crystals, will deposit B
20
20 40 BO so too
A Percentage of Satal In Mixture B
FIG. 12.
alongside of A, till the whole mass
is solid. But, if no solid be present initially, or if the cooling be rapid,
the liquid of composition x becomes supersaturated and may cool till
the supersaturation curve is reached at 6, and a cloud of A crystals
comes down. The temperature may then rise and the concentration
of B increase in the liquid in a manner represented by some such
line as 6 /. The conditions may then remain those of equilibrium
along the curve / E, but before reaching / the solution may become
supersaturated with B and deposit B crystals spontaneously. The
eutectic point may never be reached. The possibility of these
phenomena should be borne in mind when attempts are made to
interpret the structure of crystalline bodies in terms of the theory
of equilibrium.
Osmotic Pressure. The phase rule combined with the latent
heat equation enables us to trace the general phenomena of
equilibrium in solutions, and to elucidate and classify cases even
of great complexity. But other relations between the different
properties of solutions have been investigated by another series
of conceptions which we shall proceed to develop. Some
botanical experiments made about 1870 suggested the idea of
semi-permeable membranes, i.e. membranes which allow a
solvent to pass freely but are impervious to a solute when dis-
solved in that solvent. It was found, for instance, that a
film of insoluble copper ferrocyanide, deposited in the walls of a
porous vessel by the inward diffusion and meeting of solutions
of copper sulphate and potassium ferrocyanide, would allow
water to pass, but retained sugar dissolved in that liquid. It
was found, too, when water was placed on one side of such a
membrane, and a sugar solution in a confined space on the other,
that water entered the solution till a certain pressure was set
up when equilibrium resulted.
The importance of these experiments from the point of view of
the theory of solution, lay in the fact that they suggested the con-
ception of a perfect or ideal semi-permeable partition, arid that of
an equilibrium pressure representing the excess of hydrostatic
pressure required to keep a solution in equilibrium with its pure
solvent through such a partition. Artificial membranes are seldom
or never perfectly semi-permeable some leakage of solute nearly
always occurs, but the imperfections of actual membranes need no
more prevent pur use of the ideal conception than the faults of real
engines invalidate the theory of ideal thermodynamics founded
on the conception of a perfect, reversible, frictionless, heat engine.
Further, in the free surface the solutions of an involatile solute in a
volatile solvent, through which surface the vapour of the solvent
alone can pass, and in the boundary of a crystal of pure ice in a
solution, we have actual surfaces which are in effect perfectly semi-
permeable. Thus the results of our investigations based on ideal
conceptions are applicable to the real phenomena of evaporation
and freezing.
Dilute Solutions. Before considering the more complicated
case of a concentrated solution, we will deal with one which is
very dilute, when the theoretical relations are much
simplified. The vapour pressure of a solution may be
measured experimentally by two methods. It may be
compared directly with that of the pure solvent, as the vapour-
pressure of a pure liquid is determined, by placing solvent and
solution respectively above the mercury in two barometer tubes,
and comparing the depressions of the mercury with the height
of a dry barometer at the same temperature. This method was
used by Raoult. On the other hand, a current of dry air may
be passed through the series of weighed bulbs containing solution
and solvent respectively, and the loss in weight of each determined.
The loss in the solution bulbs gives the mass of solvent absorbed
from the solution, and the, loss in the solvent bulbs the additional
mass required to raise the vapour pressure in the air-current to
equilibrium with the pure solvent. The relative lowering of
vapour pressure of the solution compared with that of the solvent
is measured by the ratio of the extra mass absorbed from the
solvent bulbs to the total mass absorbed from both series of bulbs.
Experiments by this method have been made by W. Ostwald and
J. Walker, and by Lord Berkeley and E. G. J. Hartley.
The vapour pressure of the solution of a non-volatile solute is
less than the vapour pressure of the pure solvent. Hence if
two vessels, one filled with solvent and one with solution, be
placed side by side in an exhausted chamber, vapour will evapo-
rate from the solvent and condense on the solution. The solution
will thus gain solvent, and will grow more and more dilute.
Its volume will also increase, and thus its upper surface will rise
in the vessel. But as we ascend in an atmosphere the pressure
diminishes; hence the pressure of the vapour in the chamber is
less the higher we go, and thus eventually we reach a state of
equilibrium where the column of vapour is in equilibrium at the
appropriate level both with solvent and solution. Neglecting
the very small buoyancy of the vapour, the hydrostatic pressure
P at the foot of the column of solution is h g p where h is the height
of the column and p the mean density of the solution. If the
height be not too great, we may assume the density of the vapour
to be uniform, and write the difference in vapour pressure at the
surfaces of the solvent and of the solution as pp'=hg<r.
Hence we find that p p' =Pcr/p for a very dilute solution, where
the difference p p' is small and the height of the balancing
column of solution small.
In practice the time required to reach these various conditions
of equilibrium would be too great for experimental demonstration,
but the theoretical consideration of vapour pressures is of funda-
mental importance. Let us suppose that we possess a partition
such as that described above, which is permeable to the solvent but
not to the solute when dissolved in it, and let us connect the solution
and solvent of fig. 13 with each other through such a partition. If sol-
vent were to flow one way or the other through the partition, the
SOLUTION
373
height of the column of solution would rise or fall and the equili-
brium with the vapour be disturbed. A continual circulation might
thus be set up in an isothermal enclosure and maintained with the
performance of an unlimited supply of work. This result would be
contrary to all experience of the impossibility of " perpetual motion,"
and hence we may conclude that through such a semi-permeable
wall, the solvent and the solution at the foot of the column would
FIG. 13.
be in equilibrium under the excess of hydrostatic pressure repre-
sented when the solution is very dilute by P = (pp l )p/<r. But
such a pressure represents the equilibrium osmotic pressure discussed
above. Therefore the equilibrium osmotic pressure of a solution is
connected with the vapour pressure, and, in a very dilute solution,
is expressed by the simple relation just given.
Another relation becomes evident if we use as a semi-permeable
partition a " vapour sieve " as suggested by G. F. Fitzgerald. If a
number of small enough holes be drilled through a solid substance
which is not wetted by the liquid, our knowledge of the phenomena
pt capillarity shows us that it needs pressure to force the liquid
into the holes. A piston made of such a perforated substance,
therefore, may be used to exert pressure on the liquid, while all
the time the vapour is able to pass. By evaporation and condensa-
tion, then, the solvent can pass through this perforated partition,
which thus acts as a perfect semi-permeable membrane. When the
solution and solvent are in equilibrium across the partition, the
vapour pressure of the solution has been increased by the application
of pressure till it is equal to that of the solvent. In any solution,
then, the osmotic pressure represents the excess of hydrostatic
pressure which it is necessary to apply to the solution in order to
increase its vapour pressure to an equality with that of the solvent
in the given conditions.
Similar considerations show that, since at its freezing point the
vapour pressure of a solution must be in equilibrium with that of
ice, the depression of freezing point produced by dissolving a sub-
stance in water can be calculated from a knowledge of the vapour
pressure of ice and water below the freezing point of pure water.
But another method of investigation will illustrate new ways of
treating our subject.
By imagining that a dilute solution is put through a thermo-
dynamic cycle we may deduce directly relations between its
osmotic pressure and its freezing point. Let us
Poiat" g freeze out unit mass of solvent from a solution at its
freezing point T dT and remove the ice, which is
assumed to be the ice of the pure solvent. Then let us heat
both ice and solution through the infinitesimal temperature
range dT to the freezing point T of the solvent, melt the ice
by the application of an amount of heat L, which measures its
latent heat of fusion, and allow the solvent so formed to enter
the solution reversibly through a semi-permeable wall into an
engine cylinder, doing an amount of work ~Pdv. By cooling
the resultant solution through the range dT we recover the
original state of the system. The well-known expression for
the efficiency of the cycle of reversible operation gives us
Pdv/L = dT/T or dT = TPdv/L
as a value for the depression of the freezing point of the
solution compared with that of the pure solvent.
The freezing point of a solution may be determined experimentally.
The solution is contained in an inner tube, surrounding which is an
air space. Then comes an outer vessel, in which a freezing mixture
can be placed. This solution is stirred continuously and the tem-
perature falls slowly below the freezing point, till the supersaturation
point is reached, or until a crystal of ice is introduced. The solution
then freezes, until the heat liberated is enough to raise the tem
perature to the point of equilibrium given by the tendency of the
solution taken in contact with ice to approach the true freezing point
on one side and the temperature of the enclosure on the other.
To get the true freezing point then, it is well to arrange that the
temperature of the enclosure should finally be nearly that of the
freezing point to be observed. One way in which this has been
secured is by obtaining the under cooling by temporary cooling of
the air space by a spiral tube in which ether may be evaporated,
the outer vessel being filled with ice in contact with a solution of
equivalent concentration to that within. Modifications of this
method have been used by many observers, among others by Raoult,
Loomis, H. C. Jones, and by E. H. Griffiths and T. G. Bedford, who
compared directly the freezing points of dilute solutions with those
of the pure solvent in similar conditions by the accurate methods of
platinum thermometry.
Another application of the theory of energy enables us to co-
ordinate the osmotic pressure of a dilute solution with the
pressure of a gas occupying the same space. On Absolute
the fundamental hypotheses of the molecular theory, Value ot
we must regard a solution as composed of a number Osmotic
of separate particles of solute, scattered through-
out the solvent. Each particle may react in some way on
the solvent in its neighbourhood, but if the solution be so
dilute that each of these spheres of influence is unaffected
by the rest, no further addition of solvent will change the
connexion between one particle of solute and its associated
solvent. The only effect of adding solvent will be to
separate further from each other the systems composed of
solute particle as nucleus and solvent as atmosphere; it will
not affect the action of each nucleus on its atmosphere. Thus
the result will be the same whatever the nature of the inter-
action may be. If solvent be allowed to enter through a semi-
permeable wall into an engine cylinder, the work done when the
solution within is already dilute will be the same whatever the
nature of the interaction between solute and solvent, that is,
whatever be the nature of the solvent itself. It will even be
the same in those cases where, with a volatile solute, the presence
of a solvent may be dispensed with, and the solute exist in the
same volume as a gas. Now the work done by allowing a
small quantity of solvent to enter reversibly into an osmotic
cylinder is measured by the product of the osmotic pressure into
the change in volume. Hence the osmotic pressure is measured
by the work done per unit change of volume of the solution.
The result of our consideration, therefore, is that the osmotic
pressure of a dilute solution of a volatile solute must have the
same value as the gaseous pressure the same number of solute
particles would exert if they occupied as gas a volume equal to
that of the solution.
The reasoning given above is independent of the temperature,
so that the variation with temperature of the osmotic pressure
of a dilute solution must be the same as that of a gas, while
Boyle's law must equally apply to both systems. Experimental
evidence confirms these results, and extends them to the cases
of non-volatile solutes as is, indeed, to be expected, since
volatility is merely a matter of degree. When the solution ceases
to be dilute in the thermodynamic sense of the word, that is, when
the spheres of influence of the solute particles intersect each
other, this reasoning ceases to apply, and the resulting modifica-
tion of the gas laws as applied to solutions becomes a matter for
further investigation, theoretical or experimental. In the limit
then, when the concentration of the solution becomes vanishingly
small, theory shows that the osmotic pressure is equal to the
pressure of a gas filling the same space. Experiments with
membranes of copper ferrocyanide have verified this result for
solutions of cane-sugar of moderate dilutions. But the most
accurate test of the theory depends on measurements of freezing
points.
A quantity of gas measured by its molecular weight in grammes
when confined in a volume of one litre exerts a pressure of 22-2
atmospheres, and thus the osmotic pressure of a dilute solution
divided by its concentration in gramme-molecules per litre has a
corresponding value. But we have seen that the depression of dT
of the freezing point of a dilute solution is measured by TPdv/L.
Putting the absolute temperature of the freezing point of water as
273, the osmotic pressure P as 22-2 atmospheres or 22-4X10',
C.G.S. units per unit concentration, L the latent heat as 79-4 X
4-i84Xio 7 in the corresponding units, and dv the volume change
374
SOLUTION
in the solution for unit mass of solvent added we get for the quantity
dT/c, where c is the concentration of the solution, the value I -857 C.
per unit concentration. Experimental measurements of freezing
points of various non-electrolytic solutions have been made by
Raoult, Loomis, Griffiths, Bedford and others and numbers
ranging round 1-85 found for this concentration. Equally good
comparisons have been obtained for solutions in other solvents
such as acetic acid 3-88, formic acid 2-84, benzene 5-30, and nitro-
benzene 6-95. Such a concordance between theory and experi-
ment not only verifies the accuracy of thermodynamic reasoning as
applied to dilute solutions, but gives perhaps one of the most con-
vincing experimental verifications of the general validity of thermo-
dynamic theory which we possess.
Another verification may be obtained from the phenomena of
vapour pressure. Since, in dilute solutions, the osmotic pressure
has the gas value, we may apply the gas equation PV=wRT=wi>i
to osmotic relations. Here n is the number of gramme-molecules
of solute, T the absolute temperature, R the gas constant with its
usual " gas " value, p the vapour pressure of the solvent and DI
the volume in which one gramme-molecule of the vapour is confined.
In the vapour pressure equation f p' = P<r/p, we have the vapour
density a equal to MM, where M is the molecular weight of the
solvent. The density of the liquid is MN/V, where N is the number
of solvent molecules, and V the total volume of the liquid. Sub-
stituting these values, we find that the relative lowering of vapour
pressure in a very dilute solution is equal to the ratio of the numbers
of solute and solvent molecules, or (p p_')/p = n/N.
The experiments of Raoult on solutions of organic bodies in
water and on solutions of many substances in some dozen organic
solvents have confirmed this result, and therefore the theoretical
value of the osmotic pressure from which it was deduced.
Although even good membranes of copper ferrocyanide are rarely
perfectly semi-permeable, and in other membranes such as india-
rubber, &c., which have been used, the defects from the_ theoretical
values of the equilibrium pressure are very great, yet, in the light
of the exact verification of theory given by the experiments described
above, it is evident that such failures to reach the limiting value
in no wise invalidate the theory of osmotic equilibrium. They
merely show that, in the conditions of the particular experiments,
the thermodynamic equilibrium value of the osmotic pressure
cannot be reached the thermodynamic or theoretical osmotic
pressure (which must be independent of the nature of the membrane
provided it is truly semi-permeable) is a different thing from the
equilibrium pressure actually reached in a given experiment, which
measures the balance of ingress and egress of solvent through an
imperfect semi-permeable membrane.
Dilute solutions of substances such as cane-sugar, as we have
seen, give experimental values for the connected osmotic
properties pressure, freezing point and vapour
pressure in conformity with the theoretical values.
All these solutions are non-conductors of electricity.
On the other hand, solution of mineral acids and salts conduct
the current with chemical decomposition they are called
electrolytes. In order to explain the electrical properties of
a solution, for instance of potassium chloride, we are driven to
believe that each molecule of the salt is dissociated into two
parts, potassium and chlorine, each associated with an electric
charge equal in amount but opposite in sign. The movement
in opposite directions of these charged ions constitutes the
electric current in the solution. To explain the electrical
properties of sulphuric acid in aqueous solution, the supposition
of three ions, two of hydrogen and one of the chemical group SO4,
is necessary. Now measurements of osmotic properties of these
solutions show that their osmotic pressures are abnormally
great and that, at extreme dilution, the ratio of their osmotic
pressures to that of equivalent solutions of non-electrolytes
is equal to the number of ions indicated by the electrolytic
properties. From the osmotic side also, then, electrolytic
dissociation is indicated, and indeed, it was from this side that
the idea was first suggested by S. Arrhenius in 1887. The subject
is dealt with in ELECTROLYSIS and CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC:
IK Liquids.
Concentrated Solutions. Having dealt with the relations
between the properties of an ideally dilute solution, we now
turn to the consideration of the general case where the simplifying
assumption of great dilution is not made.
The height of the column of solution in fig. 13 required for
osmotic equilibrium through a semi-permeable wall below is
now very great, since the osmotic pressure of strong solutions
may reach many hundred atmospheres. Hence we must not
assume that the density of the vapour in the surrounding
atmosphere is constant, or that the solution, when equilibrium
is reached, is of uniform concentration throughout. The osmotic
pressure (defined as the difference in the hydro-
static pressures of the solution and solvent when
their vapour pressures are equal and they are
consequently in equilibrium through a perfect semi-permeable
membrane) may also depend on the absolute values of the
hydrostatic pressures, as may the vapour pressure of the
liquids.
To investigate the osmotic pressure of a strong solution we may
consider the hydrostatic pressure required to increase its vapour
pressure to an equality with that of the solvent. The relation
between hydrostatic pressure and the vapour pressure of a pure
liquid may be obtained at once by considering the rise of liquid
in a capillary tube. The difference in vapour pressure at the top
and at the bottom of the column is p p' = P<r/6, as shown above
for a column of solution. Writing v for l/tr, the specific volume,
of the vapour at the pressure p, and V for i/p, the specific volume
of the liquid at the pressure P, and restricting the result to small
changes, we get vdp = VdP.
In considering the corresponding relation for a solution instead
of a pure liquid, possible differences in concentration make the
column method difficult of application, and it is better to attach
the problem by means of an imaginary cycle of isothermal operation.
The simplest way to do this is to imagine a vapour-sieve piston
through which the vapour but not the liquid can pass. As we
have explained above, such a vapour sieve may be constructed by
boring a number of small enough holes through a solid not wetted
by the liquid.
Let us imagine unit mass of solution of volume V confined in a
cylinder ABC between a fixed vapour sieve B and a solid piston A
=J Solution
|
Vapour
=
FIG. 14.
by which a pressure P is applied. The vapour at pressure p in
equilibrium with the liquid is bounded by a solid piston C, which we
can also move to change the pressure or volume.
With such an imaginary apparatus, H. L. Callendar has shown
that the variation of vapour pressure of a solution with pressure is
given by the expression V'dP=vdp, where V is the change in
volume of the solution when unit mass of solvent is mixed with it.
The corresponding relation for a pure liquid can be regained by
considering that at infinite dilution the liquid becomes pure solvent,
and the change of volume becomes equal to the volume V of solvent
added.
The osmotic pressure Po is the difference of the hydrostatic
pressures P' and P of the solution and the solvent when their vapour
pressures are equal. Hence dP a = dP'-dP and dP /dP = (V-V')/V'
or dP /<ZP' = (V-V')/y. If V = V there is no change in osmotic
pressure with hydrostatic pressure, and osmotic pressure depends
on concentration and temperature only.
The relation between the equilibrium pressures P and P' for
solution and solvent corresponding to the same value po of the
vapour pressure is obtained by integrating the equation V'dP' =
vdp between corresponding limits for solution and solvent. We
get
fP'V'dP' = CPovdp and fPVdP = (Pe vdp,
J P' J P, J P J P
whence
where p and p' are the vapour pressures of solvent and solution
each under its own vapour pressure only.
If we measure the osmotic pressure Po when the solvent is under
its own vapour pressure only, that is, when P = p = po, the term
involving V vanishes, and the limit of integration P' becomes Po+p.
If we assume that V, the volume change on dilution, varies regularly
or not appreciably with pressure, we may write the first integral
as V (Po+p p) where V' now denotes its mean value between
the limits.
To evaluate the second integrals vdp we may subtract a constant
b to represent the defect of the volume of the vapour from the
ideal volume Rt/p. This gives
V'(Po+/>-') = R* log (plP')-b(p-p').
For most experimental purposes the small terms involving the
factor (pp') may be neglected, and we have, approximately,
P V' = Rnog (pip').
From this equation the osmotic pressure Po required to keep
a solution in equilibrium as regards its vapour and through a
SOLUTION
375
semi-permeable membrane with its solvent, when that solvent is
under its own vapour pressure, may be calculated from the results of
observations on vapour pressure of solvent and solution at ordinary
low hydrostatic pressures. The chief difficulty lies in the deter-
mination of the quantity V, the change in volume of the solution
under the pressure Po when unit mass of solvent is mixed .with it.
This determination involves a knowledge of the density and of
the compressibility of the solution; the latter property is difficult
to measure accurately.
In some solutions such as those of sugar the change in volume
on dilution is nearly equal to the volume of solvent added ; V then
becomes equal to V, the specific volume of the solvent. The osmotic
pressures of strong sugar solutions were measured successfully by
a direct method with semi-permeable membranes of copper ferro-
cyanide by Lord Berkeley and E. G. J. Hartley, who also determined
the vapour pressures by passing a current of air successively through
weighed vessels containing solution and water respectively.
Their table of comparison published in 1906 shows the following
agreement :
Concentration in
grammes per litre of
solution.
Osmotic pressure at o C.
in atmospheres.
From vapour
pressures.
From direct
measurement.
420
54
660
750
44-3 (at 12-6)
69-4
101-9
136-0
43-97
67-5I
100-78
133-74
It seems likely that measurements of vapour pressure and com-
pressibility may eventually enable us to determine accurately osmotic
pressures in cases where direct measurement is impossible.
The slope of the temperature vapour pressure curves in the
neighbourhood of the freezing point of the solvent is given by
Freezing the latest heat equation. The difference in the two
Po/nt slopes for water and ice is dp/dT dp' ' jd T=L/T,
Solutions. w here L, the latent heat of fusion, is the difference
between the heats of evaporation for ice and water, and v is
the specific volume of the vapour.
The difference in the lowering of vapour pressures dp dp'
may be put equal to VdP/v, where P is the osmotic pressure, and V
the specific volume of the solvent. We then get VdP = LdT/T.
In order to integrate this expression we need to know L and v
as functions of the temperature and pressure. The latent heat L
at any temperature is given by L = L L (s-s')dT, where L
is value at To and s s' is the difference in the specific heats of
water and ice. The probable error in neglecting any variation
of specific heat is small, and we may calculate L from the values
of Lo-(s-s') (To-T), where s s' is about 0-5 calories. The
variation of L with pressure is probably small.
The volume of a gramme of water also depends on temperature
and pressure. Approximately one degree lowering of freezing
point corresponds with a change of 12 atmospheres in the osmotic
pressure. From the known coefficients of compressibility and
thermal expansion we find that V may be represented by the linear
equation V= i-ooo+o-oooS A, where A is the lowering of the
freezing point below o.
Putting in these values and integrating we have, neglecting terms
involving A 3 , P= 12-06 A 0-021 A* where P is the osmotic
pressure in atmospheres.
H. W. Morse and J. C. W. Frazer, who have made direct measure-
ments of osmotic pressure of solution of cane-sugar, have also
measured the freezing points of corresponding solutions. From these
results the equation just given has been examined by G. N. Lewis.
Concentration in
gramme- molecules
per litre of water.
Depression of
the freezing
point = A.
Osmotic pressure.
Calculated
from A.
Observed.
O-I
o-5
I-O
0-195
0-985
2-07
2-35
n-8
24-9
2-44
n-8
24-8
Thus the theory of the connexion of osmotic pressure with freezing
point (like that with vapour pressure) seems to give results which
accord with experiments.
At the limit of dilution, when the concentration of a solution
approaches zero, we have seen that thermodynamical theory,
verified by experiment, shows that the osmotic
Prepare. P ressure has the same value as the S as P ressure of
the same number of molecules in the same space.
Gases at high pressures fail to conform to Boyle's law, and solu-
tions at moderate concentrations give osmotic pressures which
increase faster than the concentration. The variation of gases
from Boyle's law is represented in the equation of Van der
Waals by subtracting a constant b from the total volume to
represent the effect of the volume of the molecules themselves.
The corresponding correction in solutions consists in counting
only the volume of the solvent in which the solute is dissolved,
instead of the whole volume of the solution.
140
120
too
Molecules pe^ 100 mpl? of water
20
FIG. 15.
In fig. 15 the curve I represents Boyle's law if the volume is
taken to be that of the solution, and the curve II if the volume
is that of the solvent. Even this correction is not sufficient in
solution of sugar, where the theoretical curve II lies below the
experimental observations. A further correction may be made by
adding more empirical terms to the' equation, but a more promising
idea, due to J. H. Poynting and H. L. Callendar is to trace the
effect of possible combination of molecules of solute with
molecules of the solvent. These combined solvent molecules are
thus removed from existence as solvent, the effective volume of
which is reduced to that of the remaining free molecules of solvent.
The greater the number of water molecules attached to one sugar
molecule, the less the residual volume, and the greater the theor-
etical pressure. Callendar finds that five molecules of water in
the case of cane-sugar or two molecules in the case of dextrose are
required to bring the curves into conformity with the observations
of Berkeley and Hartley, which in fig. 15 are indicated by crosses.
Solubility and Heat of Solution. The conceptions of osmotic
pressure and ideal semi-permeable membranes enable us to
deduce other thermodynamic relations between the different
properties of solutions. As an example, let us take the following
investigation:
An engine cylinder may be imagined to possess a semi-permeable
bottom and to work without friction. If it be filled with a solution
and the bottom immersed in
the pure solvent, pressure equal
to the osmotic pressure must
be exerted on the piston to
maintain equilibrium. Such
a system is in the thermo-
dynamic equilibrium. The
slightest change in the load
will cause motion in one direc-
tion or the other the system
is thermodynamically reversi-
ble. Such an arrangement
may be put through a cycle
of operations as in Carnot's
engine (see THERMODYNAMICS)
and all the laws of reversible
engines applied to it. If the
solution in the cylinder be
kept saturated by the presence
of crystals of the solute,
enters, and the solution remains
an imaginary cycle of
FIG. 16.
crystals will dissolve as solvent
saturated throughout. By
operations we may then justify the
application to solutions of the latent heat equation which we
have already assumed as applicable. In the equation dP/dT =
X/T(n *i), P is the osmotic pressure, T the absolute tempera-
ture and X the heat of solution of unit mass of the solute
when dissolving to form a volume lit vi of saturated solution
in an osmotic cylinder. This process involves the performance of
SOLUTION
an amount of osmotic work P(zi2 vi). If the heat of solution be
measured in a calorimeter, no work is done, so that, if we call this
calorimetric heat of solution L, the two quantities are connected
by the relation L = X+P(t>2 i>i). If L is zero or negligible,
X=-P(f 2 -fi) and we have dP/dT=-P/T or dP/P=-dT/T,
which on integration gives log P = log T+C, or P = kT, i.e. the
osmotic pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature. This
result must hold good for any solution, but if the solution be dilute
when saturated, that is, if the solubility be small, the equation
shows that if there be no heat effect when solid dissolves to form a
saturated solution, the solubility is independent of temperature,
for, in accordance with the gas laws, the osmotic pressure of a dilute
solution of constant concentration is proportional to the absolute
temperature. It follows that if the thermodynamic heat of solution
be positive, that is, if heat be absorbed to keep the system at constant
temperature, the solubility will increase with rising temperature,
while if heat be evolved on dissolution, the solubility falls when the
system is heated.
_ In all this investigation it should be noted that the heat of solu-
tion with which we are concerned is the heat effect when solid
dissolves to form a saturated solution. It is not the heat effect
when solid is dissolved in a large excess of solvent, and may differ
so much from that effect as to have an opposite sign. Thus cupric
chloride dissolves in much water with an evolution of heat, but
when the solution is nearly saturated, it is cooled by taking up more
of the solid.
In a very dilute solution no appreciable heat is evolved or
absorbed when solvent is added, but such heat effects are
Osmotic generally found with more concentrated solutions.
Pressure The result is to change the relation between tempera-
and Tern- t ure anc j (- ne osmotic pressure of a solution of constant
"*' concentration, a relation which, in very dilute
solutions, is a direct proportionality.
The equation of available energy (see ENERGETICS) A = U+
TdA/dT may be applied to this problem. The available energy A
is the work which may be gained from the system by a small rever-
sible isothermal operation with an osmotic cylinder, that is Pdv.
If I is the heat of dilution per unit change of volume in a calorimeter
where all the energy goes to heat, the change in internal energy U
is measured by Idv. We then have
Neglecting the volume change with temperature this gives
P=/+T(iP/<zT for the relation required. In the case where I
is negligible we have P/<2P = T/dT, which on integration shows that
the osmotic pressure, as in the special case of a dilute solution, is
proportional to the absolute temperature.
Theories of Solution. The older observers, noticing the heat
effects which often accompany dissolution, regarded solutions
as chemical compounds of varying composition. The physical
investigation of osmotic pressure, and its correlation by
Van't Hoff with the pressure of a gas, brought forward a new
aspect of the phenomena, and suggested an identity of physical
modus operandi as well as of numerical value. On this view, the
function of the solvent is to give space for the solute to diffuse,
and the pressure on a semi-permeable membrane is due to the
excess of solvent molecules entering over those leaving in conse-
quence of the smaller number which impinge on the membrane
from the side of the solution; the defect in the number must
be proportional, roughly at any rate, to the number of solute
molecules, present, that is, to the strength of the solution.
Whatever view, if any, be adopted as to the nature of a solu-
tion, the thermodynamic relations we have investigated equally
hold good. It is the'strength and weakness of thermodynamic
methods that they are independent of theories of constitution.
The results are true whatever theory be in vogue, but the results
throw no light on the problem of which theory to choose. All
the thermodynamic relations we have deduced hold on any theory
of solution and favour no one theory rather than another.
Whether osmotic pressure be due to physical impact or to
chemical affinity it must necessarily have the gas value in a dilute
solution, and be related to vapour pressure and freezing point
in the way we have traced. But for any theory of solution to
be tenable, it must at least be consistent with the known thermo-
dynamic relations, verified as those relations are by experiment.
On certain assumptions required for the extension of the
methods of the kinetic theory of gases to liquids, L. Boltzmann
offered a demonstration of the law of osmotic pressure in dilute
solutions, based on the idea that the mean energy of translation
of a molecule should be the same in the liquid as in the gaseous
state. But, whether or not the assumption underlying this
demonstration be accepted, the similarity between solution and
chemical action remains, and the osmotic law has been examined
from this side by J. H. Poynting and by H. L. Callendar. The
fundamental phenomenon they take to be the identity of vapour
pressure, and consider the combination necessary to reduce the
vapour pressure of a solution to the right value. If each mole-
cule of the solute combines with a certain number of molecules of
the solvent in such a way as to render them inactive for evapora-
tion, we get a lowering of vapour pressure. Let us assume
that the ratio p/p r of the vapour pressures of the solvent and
solution is equal to the ratio of the number of free molecules of
solvent to the whole number of molecules in the solution. Each
molecular complex, formed by solution and solvent, is treated
as a single molecule. If there are n molecules of solute to N of
solvent originally, and each molecule of solute combines with a
molecule of solvent, we get for the ratio of vapour pressures
p/p' = (Nan)l(Nan+n), while the relative lowering of
vapour pressure is (pp')/p = nj(Nan).
In the limit of dilution when n is very small compared with N
this gives Raoult's experimental law that the relative lowering
is w/N, which we deduced from the osmotic law, and conversely
from which the osmotic law follows, while for more concentrated
solutions agreement is obtained by assigning arbitrary values to
a, which, as we have seen, is 5 in the case of cane-sugar.
Certain solvents, such as water, liquid ammonia or liquid
hydrocyanic acid, possess the power of making some solutes,
such as mineral salts and acids, when dissolved in them, con-
ductors of electricity. The special properties of these solutions
are dealt with under ELECTROLYSIS and CONDUCTION, ELEC-
TRIC, In Liquids. Attempts have been made to co-ordinate
this ionizing power of solvents with their dielectric constants,
or with their chemical properties. On the lines of Poynting's
theory of solution, each ion in electrolytes must combine with
one or more molecules of solvent.
Diffusion in Solutions. The passage of dissolved substances
through animal and vegetable membranes was the subject of
many early experiments. It was found that substances like
mineral salts, which crystallize well from solution, passed such
membranes with comparative ease, while the jelly-like substances
such as albumen passed with extreme slowness if at all. The
first to make systematic experiments on the free diffusion of
dissolved substances with no separating membrane was Thomas
Graham (1804-1869), who immersed in a large volume of water
a wide-mouthed bottle containing a solution, and after some
time measured the quantity of substance which had diffused
into the water. Again the two classes of substances mentioned
above were found to be distinguished, and Graham called the
slowly diffusible non-crystalline bodies colloids, in contrast to
the quickly diffusible crystalloids. Graham snowed that the
diffusion was approximately proportional to the difference in con-
centration, and on these lines a theory of diffusion was founded
on the lines of Fourier's treatment of the conduction of heat.
The quantity of substance which diffuses through unit area in
one second may be taken as proportional to the difference in con-
centration between the fluids at that area and at another parallel
area indefinitely near it. This difference in concentration is
proportional to the rate of variation dc/dx of the concentration
c with the distance x, so that the number of gramme-molecules
of solute which, in a time dt, cross an area A of a long cylinder of
constant cross section is dN = 'D\(dcldx)dt,_ where D is a constant
known as the diffusion constant or the diffusivity.
The osmotic pressure of a solution depends on the concentration,
and, if we regard the difference in that pressure as the effective
force driving the dissolved substance through the solution, we
are able to obtain the equation of diffusion in another form. When
the solution is dilute enough for the osmotic pressure to possess
" the gas " value the equation becomes
RT.ifc ,,
<* N = -T%*'
where R is the usual gas constant, T the absolute temperature,
and'F the force required to drive one gramme-molecule of the solute
through the solution with unit velocity.
SOLUTRIAN EPOCH SOLWAY FIRTH
377
By comparison with the first equation we see that RT/F is equal
to D, the diffusion constant. This constant can be measured
experimentally, and for such a substance as sugar or water comes
out about 0-3 at 20 C., the unit of time being the day. Hence
the force required to drive one gramme-molecule of sugar through
water with a velocity of one centimetre per second may be calculated
as some thousands of millions of kilogrammes weight.
In the case of electrolytes we can go further, and calculate the
diffusion constant itself from the theory of electrolytic dissociation
(see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC, In Liquids). On that theory the ions
of a dilute solution migrate independently of each other. Since some
ions are more mobile than others, a separation will ensue when
water is placed in contact with a solution, the faster moving ion
penetrating quicker into the water under the driving force of the
osmotic pressure gradient. This separation causes a difference
of potential, which can be calculated and is found to agree with the
values obtained experimentally. The separation also sets up electro-
static forces, which increase until they are strong enough to drag the
slower moving ions along faster, and to retard the naturally faster
ions till they travel at the same rate. The resistance offered by the
liquid, and therefore the force F, required to drive one gramme-
molecule through the liquid with unit velocity is the sum of the
corresponding quantities for the individual ions. Now the veloci-
ties u and v of the opposite ions under unit potential gradient, and
therefore U and V under unit force, are known from electrical
data. Thus F, which is equal to I/U + I/V, is known. The osmotic
pressure of an electrolyte consisting of two ions is double that
of a non-electrolyte. Hence for a binary electrolyte the diffusion
constant is measured by 2RT/F or 2UVRT/(U+V). This result
gives a value of D for dilute hydrochloric acid equal to 2-49 to
compare with the observed value of 2-30. Other substances give
equally good agreements; thus sodium chloride has a calculated
constant of I -12 and an observed one of i-n. Such concordance
gives strong support to the theory of diffusion outlined above.
Colloidal Solutions. Besides a large number of animal and
vegetable substances, many precipitates formed in the course
of inorganic chemical reactions are non-crystalline and appear
in the colloidal state, instances are the sulphides of antimony
and arsenic and the hydroxides of iron and alumina. Some
of these colloids dissolve in water or other liquids to form
solutions called by Graham hydrosols; Graham named the solids
formed by the setting or coagulation of these liquids hydrogels.
Solutions of colloids in solvents such as water and alcohol seem
to be divisible into two classes. Both mix with warm water
in all proportions, and will solidify in certain conditions. One
class, represented by gelatin, will redissolve on warming or
diluting, while the other class, containing such substances as
silica, albumen, and metallic, hydrosulphides, will solidify on
heating or on the addition of electrolytes to form a solid " gel "
which cannot be redissolved. Solidification of the first kind
may be termed " setting," that of the second " coagulation."
The power of coagulation of colloids shown by electrolytes
depends in a curious manner on the chemical valency of the
effective ion. The average of the coagulative powers of salts of
univalent, divalent and trivalent metals have been found by
experiment to be proportional to the numbers 1:35: 1023. If we
assume that a certain minimum electric charge must be brought
into contact with a group of colloid particles to produce coagu-
lation, twice as many univalent ions must collect to produce the
same effect as a number of divalent ions, and three times as many
as an effective number of trivalent -ions. We can calculate, by
the help of the kinetic theory and the theory of chances, the fre-
quency with which the necessary conjunctions of ions will occur,
and show that the general law will be that the coagulative
powers should be in the ratios of i : x : x*. Putting # = 32, we
get 1:32: 1024 to compare with the experimental numbers. The
ordinary surface energy of a two-phase system tends to diminish
the area of contact, and thus to help the growth of the larger
aggregates required for coagulation. A natural electric charge
on the particles would oppose this tendency, and tend to increase
the free surface and thus promote disintegration and solution.
The function of the electrolyte may be to annul such a natural
charge and thus allow the non-electric surface energy to produce
coagulation. This explanation is supported by some experiments
by W. B. Hardy, who found that certain colloids did possess
electric charges, the sign of which depended on whether the sur-
rounding liquid was slightly acid or slightly alkaline. At the
neutral point, when the particles possessed no charge, their
stability was destroyed, and they were precipitated. But recent
experiments have shown that the simple theory of coagulation
here outlined needs amplification in certain directions. The
phenomena seem to be dependent on variables such as time, and
are more complicated than seemed likely at first.
The size of the suspended particles in colloidal solutions varies
greatly. In some solutions they are visible under a good
microscope. In other cases, while too small to be directly
visible, they are large enough to scatter and polarize a beam of
light. In yet other solutions, the particles are smaller again,
and seem to approach in size the larger molecules of crystalloid
substances. It is not yet agreed whether colloid solution is
the same in kind though different in degree from crystalloid
solution or is a phenomenon of an entirely different order.
REFERENCES. The properties and theory of solutions are treated
in all works on general physical chemistry; Ostwald's discussion in
his Lehrbuch was translated into English in 1891 by M. M. P. Muir
entitled Solution. Special works are W. C. D. Whetham, Theory of
Solution (1902) ; W. Rothmund, Loslichkeit (1907). Solubility tables
are given in Landolt, Bernstein and Meyerhoffers, Tabellen (1905) ;
A. M. Comey, Dictionary of Solubilities (Inorganic) (1896); A.
Seidell, Dictionary of the Solubilities of Inorganic and Organic
Substances (1907). (W. C. D. W.)
SOLUTRIAN EPOCH, in archaeology, the name given by
G. deMortillet to the second stage of his system of cave-chronology,
and that synchronous with the third division of the Quaternary
period. It is so called from the Solutre Cave, Macon district,
Saone-et-Loire. The period is characterized by two series of
chipped flints, one modelled on the laurel-leaf, the other on that
of the willow. Those of the first series are artistically chipped
upon the two faces and the end, and are readily distinguishable
from the flints of the preceding Mousterian epoch. Large thin
spear-heads; scrapers with edge not on the side but on the
end; flint knives and saws, but all still chipped, not ground
or polished; long spear-points, with tang and shoulder on one
side only, are also characteristic implements of this epoch.
Bone or horn, too, was used. The Solutrian work exhibits a
transitory stage of art between the flint implements of the
Mousterian and the bone implements of the Madelenian epochs.
The fauna includes the horse, reindeer, mammoth, cave lion,
rhinoceros, bear and urus. Solutrian " finds " have been also
made in the caves of Les Eyzies and Laugerie Haute, and in the
Lower Beds of Cresswell Cave (Derbyshire).
SOLWAY FIRTH, an estuarine inlet of the Irish Sea, between
England and Scotland. If its mouth be taken as between St
Bee's Head on the English and Burrow Head on the Scottish
coast, its length is 50 m. The breadth at the mouth is 32 m.;
near the head, where the Solway viaduct of the Caledonian rail-
way crosses the firth, it is nearly ij m. The general direction
is north-easterly from the mouth. The Scottish counties
bordering the firth are Wigtownshire, Kirkcudbright and
Dumfriesshire; the English coast belongs to Cumberland. On
the English side the low Solway Plain borders the firth, except
for a short distance above St Bees Head. The Scottish shore,
however, is not continuously flat, and such elevations as Criffell
(1866 ft.), Bengairn (1250) and Cairnharrow (1497), above
Wigtown Bay, rise close to it. The shore line is broken on both
sides by the estuaries of several rivers. Thus in Scotland the
Cree and other streams enter Wigtown Bay; the Dee, Kirk-
cudbright Bay; Auchencairn Bay and Rough Firth receive
numerous small streams, and the Nith discharges through a long
estuary. The Annan has its mouth near the town of that name;
and the Esk and Eden at the head of the firth, in Cumberland.
On this shore Morecambe Bay receives the Wampool and Waver
from the plain, the Ellen has its mouth at Maryport, and the
Derwent from the Lake District at Workington. The waters
of the firth are shallow, and a tidal bore occurs periodically.
The fisheries are extensive, and though there are no ports of the
first magnitude on the firth, a considerable shipping trade is
carried on at Whitehaven, Harrington, Workington, Maryport
and Silloth in Cumberland, and at Annan, Kirkcudbright,
Creetown and Wigtown on the Scottish side.
378
SOMA SOMALILAND
SOMA (Sanskrit for " pressed juice," from the root su, to
press), in Hindu mythology the god who is a personification
of the soma plant (Asdepias acida), from which an intoxicating
milky juice is squeezed. Soma is the Indian Bacchus, and one
of the most important of the Vedic gods. All the 114 hymns
of the ninth book of the Rig Veda are in his praise. He is
celebrated as a dual divinity with Indra, Agni, Pushan or Rudra,
in other books. The preparation of the soma juice was a very
sacred ceremony, and the worship of the god is very old, soma
being identifiable with the Avestan homa, prepared and cele-
brated in the Indo-Iranian period. The plant's true home is
heaven, and soma is drunk by gods as well as men, and it is under
its influence that Indra is related to have created the universe and
fixed the earth and sky in their place. In post- Vedic literature
soma is a regular name for the moon, which is regarded as being
drunk up by the gods and so waning, till it is filled up again by
the sun. In both the Rig Veda and Zend Avesta soma is the
king of plants; in both it is a medicine which gives health, long
life and removes death. In both the celestial is distinguished
from the terrestial soma, and the liquor from the god. The
first soma is supposed to have been stolen from its guardian
demon by an eagle, this soma-bringing eagle of Indra being
comparable with the nectar-bringing eagle of Zeus, and with the
eagle which, as a metamorphosis of Odin, carried off the mead.
See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
SOMALILAND, a country of East Africa, so named from
its Somali inhabitants. It is also known as the " Eastern Horn
of Africa," because it projects somewhat sharply eastwards
into the Indian Ocean, and is the only section of the continent
which can be spoken of as a peninsula. In general outline it
is an irregular triangle, with apex at Cape Guardafui. From the
apex the north side extends over 600 m. along the south shore
of the Gulf of Aden westwards to Tajura Bay, and the east side
skirts the Indian Ocean south-west for over 1000 m. to the
mouth of the Juba. Somali also inhabit the coast region and
considerable areas inland, as far south as the Tana river. The
country between the Tana and Juba rivers now forms part
of British East Africa (q.v.), and in this article is not included
in Somaliland. Inland the limits of Somaliland correspond
roughly with the Shoan and Harrar Hills, and the Galla dis-
trict south of Shoa and east of Lake Rudolf. The 40 east may
be taken as the western limit of Somali settlements. The
triangular space thus roughly outlined has a total area of about
356,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at about 1,100,000,
but no trustworthy data are available. It is partitioned
between Great Britain, Italy, France, and Abyssinia as under:
Area in sq. m.
Population.
British Somaliland .
French Somaliland .
Italian Somaliland .
Abyssinian Somaliland 1 .
Total
68,000
12,000
146,000
130,000
300,000
50,000
400,000
350,000
356,000
1,100,000
Somaliland was not generally adopted as the name of the
country until the early years of the ipth century. The northern
and central districts were previously known as Adel, the north-
east coast as Ajan. By the ancients the country was called
regio romataica, from the abundance of aromatic plants which
it produced.
Physical Features. The whole region is characterized by a re-
markable degree of physical uniformity, and may be broadly
described as a vast plateau of an average elevation of 3000 ft.,
bounded westwards by the Ethiopian and Galla highlands and
northwards by an inner and an outer coast range, skirting the south
side of the Gulf of Aden in its entire length from the Harrar uplands
to Cape Guardafui. The plateau, known as the Ogaden plateau,
everywhere presents the same monotonous aspect of a boundless
steppe clothed with a scanty vegetation of scrubby plants and
herbaceous growths.
The incline is uniformly to the south-east, and apart from the
few coast streams that reach the Gulf of Aden during the rains,
all the running waters are collected in three rivers the Nogal
in the north, the Webi Shebeli in the centre, and the Juba (q.v.)
1 See also ABYSSINIA.
in the south which have a parallel south-easterly direction towards
the Indian Ocean. But so slight is the precipitation that the Juba
alone has a permanent discharge seawards. The Nogal sends
down a turbulent stream during the freshets, while the Shebeli,
notwithstanding the far greater extent of its basin, does not reach
the sea. At a distance of about 12 m. from the coast it is inter-
cepted by a lone line of dunes, which it fails to pierce and is thus
deflected southwards, flowing in this direction for nearly 170 m.
parallel with the coast, and then disappearing in a swampy de-
pression (the Bali marshes) before reaching the Juba estuary. 2
Geology. The Somaliland plateau is chiefly composed of gneiss
and schist. In the north the plateau is overlain by red and purple
unfossiliferous sandstones, capped near its edge by a cherty lime-
stone also unfossiliferous but possibly of Lower Cretaceous age.
The plains inland from Berbera, and the maritime margins between
the coast and foot of the plateau, consist of limestones of Lower
Oolitic age with Belemnites subhastatus. At Duba some limestones
may belong to the Lower Cretaceous.
Climate. In general the climate is dry and bracing all over the
plateau. Temperature is as a rule high but with considerable
variation, from 60 F. or less in the early morning to 100 or over
in the early afternoon. On an average the coast-belt temperatures
are some 10 higher than those of the plateau. Four seasons are
recognized January-April, very dry and great heat; May-June,
cooler and the " heavy " rains; July-September, the season of
extreme heat and the south-west monsoon; October-December,
the " light " rains. The " heavy " rains are little experienced in
the coast districts. The rainfall is from 4 to 8 in. a year. In con-
sequence of the elevation of the plateau and the dryness of the
air, the heat is less oppressive than is indicated by the tempera-
tures recorded. Malaria prevails in the valley of the Webi Shebeli.
Flora. The highlands, which in an almost continuous line traverse
East Africa, have to a great extent isolated the flora of Somaliland
in spite of the general resemblance of its climate and soil to the
country on the western side of the band of high ground. In the
northern mountainous regions of Somaliland the flora resembles,
however, to some extent, that of the Galla country and Abyssinia.
On the plateau many forms common elsewhere in East Africa,
such as the Borassus palm and the baobab tree, are missing. The
greater part of the country is covered either with tall coarse grasses
(these open plains being called ban), or more commonly with thick
thorn-bush or jungle, among which rise occasional isolated trees.
The prevalent bush plants are khansa (umbrella mimosa), acacias,
aloes, and, especially, Boswellia and Commiphora, which yield
highly fragrant resins and balsams, such as myrrh, frankincense
(olibanum) and " balm of Gilead." The billeil is a thorn-bush
growing about IO ft. high and covered with small curved hooks
of great strength. The bush contains also numerous creepers, one
of the most common being known as the armo. It is a vivid green
and has large, fleshy, heart-shaped leaves. Of the thorns, the
guda and the wadi often grow from 30 to 50 ft. high and have large
flat-topped branches. In places there are forests of these trees.
On the summit of the Golis range the cedars form forests. Among
the larger trees are the mountain cedar, reaching to 100 ft. ; the
gob, which bears edible berries in appearance something like the
cherry with the taste of an apple, grows to some 80 ft., and is found
fringing the river beds; the hassddan, a kind of euphorbia, attaining
a height of about 70 ft. ; and the darei, a fig tree. There are patches
of dense reeds, reaching 10 ft. high, and thickets of tamarisk along
the river beds, and on either side the jungle is high and more luxuri-
ant than on the open plateau. Of herbaceous plants the kissenia,
the sole representative of the order Loasaceae, which is common in
America but very rare elsewhere, is found in Somaliland, which
also possesses forms belonging to the eastern Mediterranean flora.
Fauna. Somaliland is rich in the larger wild animals. Among
them are the lion (Somali name libah) and elephant, though these
have been to a large extent driven from the northern coast districts;
the black or double-horned rhinoceros, common in central Ogaden ;
leopards, abundant in many districts, and daring they have given
their name to the Webi Shebeli ("River of the Leopards");
panthers ; spotted and striped hyenas (the latter rare) ; foxes,
jackals, badgers and wild dogs; giraffes and a great variety of
antelopes. The antelopes include the beisa oryx, fairly common and
widely distributed; the greater and lesser kudu (the greater kudu
is not found on the Ogaden plateau) ; the Somali hartebeest (Bubalis
Swaynei), found only in the Haud and Ogo districts; waterbuck,
rare except along the Webi Shebeli and the Nogal; the dol or
Somali bushbuck; the dibatag or Clarke's gazelle; the giraffe-like
gerenuk or Waller's gazelle, very common ; the aoul or Soemmering's
gazelle, widely distributed ; the dero (Gazella Speki) ; and the small
dikdik or sakaro antelope, found in almost every thicket. The
zebra (Equus grevyi) is found in Ogaden and places to the south,
the wild ass in the northern regions. There are wart hogs,
baboons (maned and maneless varieties), a tree monkey,
jumping shrews, two kinds of squirrel, a small hare, rock rabbits
2 It is probable that a divergent branch leaves the Shebeli some
distance above the swamps and that at high water an overflow
into the Juba occurs (see Geog. Journ., Nov. 1909).
SOMALILAND
379
and a weasel-like animal which hunts in packs. Ostriches are found
in the open plains; the rivers swarm with crocodiles, but hippopotami
are rare. Birds of prey are numerous and include eagles, vultures,
kites, ravens and the carrion stork. Among game birds are three
varieties of bustard, guinea fowl, partridges, sand grouse and wild
geese. Snakes are common, an adder, a variegated rock snake and a
Hadramut with forty followers about the I3th century. Other
traditions trace their origin to the Himyaritic chiefs Sanhaj
and Samamah, said to have been coeval with a King Afrikus,
who is supposed to have conquered Africa about A.D. 400.
These legends should perhaps be interpreted as pointing to a
SOMALILAND
Scale, 1:8,000,000
English Miles
o 20 40 60 80 100
ismavu C 44 D Longitude East 46 of Greenwich R 48
black snake called muss being those most dreaded. Mosquitoes are
rarely troublesome; gadflies, and a large spider (hangeyu), which
spins a web resembling golden silk, are common, as are scorpions
and centipedes. Termites rear sharp pointed " hills," often over
20 ft. high. A species of lizard grows nearly 4 ft. long.
Inhabitants. The Somali belong to the Eastern (Ethiopic)
Hamitic family of tribes, of which the other chief members are
the neighbouring Galla and Afar, the Abyssinian Agau and the
Beja tribes between the Nubian Nile and the Red Sea. They
have been identified with the people of Punt, who were known
to the Egyptians of the early dynasties. The Somali, however,
declare themselves to be of Arab origin, alleging their progenitor
to have been a certain Sherif Ishak b. Ahmad, who crossed from
series of Arab immigrations, the last two of which are referred
to the i3th and isth centuries. But these intruders seem to have
been successively absorbed in the Somali stock; and the Arabs
never succeeded in establishing permanent communities in this
region. Their influence has been very slight even on the
Somali language, whose structure and vocabulary are essentially
Hamitic, with marked affinities to the Galla on the one hand
and to the Dankali (Afar) on the other.
The present Somali peoples are possessed of no general type.
They are not pure Hamites, and their physical characteristics
vary considerably, showing signs of interbreeding with Galla,
Afar, Arabs, Abyssinians, Bantus and Negroes. They are a
3 8o
SOMALILAND
race of magnificent physique, tall, active and robust, with fairly
regular features, but showing Negro blood in their frequently
black complexion and still more in their kinky and even woolly
hair. Their colour varies from the Arab hue to black, and
curiously enough the most regular features are to be found
among the darkest groups.
There are four classes in Somaliland: (i) nomads who breed
ponies, sheep, cattle and camels, live entirely on milk and meat,
and follow the rains in search of grass; (2) settled Somali, com-
paratively few, living in or near the coasts; (3) outcast races,
not organized in tribes but living scattered all over Somaliland;
they are hunters, workers in iron and leather, and the chief
collectors of gum and resin; (4) traders. The national dress
is the " tobe," a simple cotton sheet of two breadths sewn
together, about 1 5 ft. long. Generally it is thrown over one or
both shoulders, a turn given round the waist, and allowed
to fall to the [ankles. The " tobes " are of all colours from brown
to white. A ceremonial " tobe " of red, white and blue, each
colour in two shades, with a narrow fringe of light yellow, is
sometimes worn. Old men shave the head and sometimes
grow a beard. Middle-aged men wear the hair about an inch
and a half long; young men and boys in a huge mop; while
married women wear it in a chignon, and girls in mop-form but
plaited.
The Somali are a fighting race and all go armed with spear,
shield and short sword (and guns when they can get them).
During the rains incessant intertribal lootings of cattle take
place. Among certain tribes those who have killed a man have
the right to wear an ostrich-feather in their hair. They are great
talkers, keenly sensitive to ridicule, and quick-tempered.
Women hold a degraded position among the Somali (wives
being often looted with sheep), doing most of the hard work.
The Somali love display; they are inordinately vain and avari-
cious; but they make loyal and trustworthy soldiers and are
generally bright and intelligent.
The Somali have very little political or social cohesion, and
are divided into a multiplicity of rers or fakidas (tribes, clans).
Three main divisions, however, have been clearly determined,
and these are important both on political and ethnical grounds.
I. The HASHIYA (Abud's Asha), with two great subdivisions:
Daroda, with the powerful Mijertins, War-Sangeli, Dolbohanti and
others; and Ishak, including the Gadibursi, Issa (Aissa), Habr-
Wal, Habr-Tol, Habr-Yuni, Babibli, Bertiri. All these claim
descent from a member of the Hashim branch of the Koreish
(Mahomet's tribe), who founded a powerful state in the Zaila
district. All are Sunnites, and, although still speaking their Somali
national tongue, betray a large infusion of Arab blood in their oval
face, somewhat light skin, and remarkably regular features. Their
domain comprises the whole of British Somaliland, and probably
most of Italian Somaliland.
II. The HAWIYA, with numerous sub-groups, such as the Habr-
Jalet, Habr-Gader, Rer-Dollol, Daji, Karanle, Badbadan, Kunli,
Bajimal and Ugass-Elmi; mostly fanatical Mahommedans forming
the powerful Tarika sect, whose influence is felt throughout all the
central and eastern parts of Somaliland. The Hawiya domain
comprises the Ogaden plateau and the region generally between
the Nogal and Webi-Shebeli rivers. Here contact has been chiefly
with the eastern Galla tribes.
III. The RAHANWIN, with numerous but little-known sub-groups,
including, however, the powerful and warlike Abgals, Barawas,
Gobrons, Tuni, Jidus and Kalallas, occupy in part the region
between the Webi-Shebeli and Juba, but chiefly the territory
extending from the Juba to the Tana, where they have long been
in contact, mostly hostile, with the Wa-Pokomo and other Bantu
peoples of the British East Africa Protectorate. Of all the Somali
the Rahanwm betray the largest infusion of negroid blood.
Of the outcast races the best known are the Midgan, Yebir, and
Tomal. The Midgan, who are of slightly shorter stature than the
average Somali, are the most numerous of these peoples. They
are great hunters and use small poisoned arrows to bring down
their game. The Yebir are noted for their leather work, and the
Tomal are the blacksmiths of the Somali.
Prehistoric Remains. The discovery of flint implements of
the same types as those found in Egypt, Mauritania, and Europe
show Somaliland to have been inhabited by man in the Stone
age. That the country was subsequently occupied by a more
highly civilized people than the Somali of to-day is evidenced
by the ruins which are found in various districts. Many of
these ruins are attributable to the Arabs, but older remains
are traditionally ascribed to a people who were " before the
Galla." Blocks of dressed stone overgrown by grass lie in
regular formation; a series of parallel revetment walls on hills
commanding passes exist, as do relics of ancient water-tanks.
This ancient civilization is supposed to have been swept away
by Mahommedan conquerors; before that event the people,
in the opinion of several travellers, professed a degraded form of
Christianity, which they had acquired from their Abyssinian
neighbours. Of more recent origin are the ruins known as
Galla graves (Taalla Galla). These are cairns of piled stones,
each stone about the size of a man's head. The cairns are from
12 to 15 ft. high and about 8 yds. in diameter. Each is cir-
cular with a central depression.
Exploration. Somaliland was one of the last parts of Africa
to be explored by Europeans. The occupation of Aden by the
British in 1839 proved the starting-point in the opening up of
the country, Aden being the chief port with which the Somali
of the opposite coast traded. The task of mapping the coast
was largely undertaken by officers of the Indian navy, while
the first explorers of the interior were officers of the Indian
army quartered at Aden Lieut. Cruttenden (1848), Lieut,
(afterwards Captain Sir Richard) Burton, and Lieut. J. H.
Speke (the discoverer of the Nile source). In 1854 Burton,
unaccompanied, penetrated inland as far as Harrar. Later on
the expedition was attacked by Somali near Berbera, both Bur-
ton and Speke being wounded, and another officer, Lieut.
Stroyan, R.N., killed. For twenty years afterwards no attempt
was made to open up the country. The occupation of Ber-
bera by the Egyptians in 1875 was, however, followed by several
journeys into the interior. Of those who essayed to cross the
waterless Haud more than one lost his life. In 1883 a party of
Englishmen F. L. and W. D. James (brothers), G. P. V. Ayl-
mer, and E. Lort-Phillips penetrated from Berbera as far
as the Webi-Shebeli, and returned in safety. At the instance
of the Indian government surveys of the country between the
coast and the Webi-Shebeli and also east towards the Wadi
Nogal were executed by Major H. G. C. Swayne and his brother
Captain E. J. E. Swayne between 1886 and 1892. Meanwhile a
French traveller, G. Revoil, had (1878-1881) made three jour-
neys in the north-east corner of the protectorate, especially in
the Darror valley. The first person who reached the Indian
Ocean, going south from the Gulf of Aden, was an American,
Dr A. Donaldson Smith (b. 1864). He explored (1894-1895) the
headstreams of the Shebeli, reached Lake Rudolf, and even-
tually descended the Tana river to the sea, his journey thus
taking him through southern Somaliland. Meantime the greater
part of the eastern seaboard having fallen under Italian influence,
the exploration of the hinterland had been undertaken by
travellers of that nationality. In 1890 Brichetti-Robecchi
made a journey along the eastern coast from Obbia to beyond
Cape Guardafui. In the following year he went from Mukdishu
to Obbia, and thence crossed through Ogaden to Berbera on
the Gulf of Aden. In the same year Prince Eugenio Ruspoli
made a journey southwards from Berbera, while two other
Italians penetrated to Imi on the upper Shebeli, which place was
also reached in 1903 by H. G. C. Swayne. In 1892 Captain
Vittorio Bottego and a companion left Berbera and made their
way past Imi to the upper Juba, which Bottego explored to
its source, both travellers finally making their way via Lugh to
the east coast. Prince Ruspoli in 1893 reached Lugh from the
north, thence turning north-west. He was killed in the Galla
country by an elephant. In 1895 Bottego, with three European
companions, left Brava to investigate the river system north
of Lake Rudolf, and succeeded in tracing the Omo to that lake.
Subsequently in the Abyssinian highlands the expedition was
attacked by Galla and Captain Bottego was killed. Dr Sacchi,
who was returning to Lugh with some of the scientific results of
the mission, was also killed by natives. An English expedition
under H. S. H. Cavendish (1896-1897) followed somewhat in
Donaldson Smith's steps, and the last named traveller again
crossed Somaliland in his journey from Berbera via Lake Rudolf
SOMALILAND
381
to the Upper Nile (1899-1900). In 1902-1903 a survey of the
Galla- Somali borderlands between Lake Rudolf and the upper
Juba was executed by Captain P. Maud of the British army.
Military operations during 1901-4 led to a more accurate
knowledge of the south-eastern parts of the British protector-
ate and of the adjacent districts of Italian Somaliland.
BRITISH SOMALILAND
The British Somaliland protectorate extends along the Gulf
of Aden for about 400 m. from the Lahadu Wells, near Jibuti,
in the west, to Bandar Ziyada in 49 E., 180 m. W. of Cape
Guardafui, and stretches from the coast inland for a breadth
varying from 80 to 220 m. The protectorate is bounded W. by
French Somaliland, S.W. by Abyssinian territory, and S.E. and
E. by Italian Somaliland. About 50,000 persons are settled in
the coast towns; the rest are nomads.
Topography, &c. -Physically the protectorate may be described
as almost mountainous in contrast with the somewhat monotonous
plains of the interior. Between the Harrar plateau and Cape
Guardafui the coast ranges maintain a mean altitude of from 4000
to 5000 ft., and fall generally in steep escarpments down to the
narrow strip of sandy lowlands skirting the Gulf of Aden. At
some points the rugged cliffs, furrowed by deep ravines, approach
close to the sea; elsewhere the hills leave a considerable maritime
plain between their base and the shore line. South of Berbera
are two ranges nearly parallel with the coast. They increase in eleva-
tion landwards, culminating in the inner and loftier Golis range, about
0500 ft. high, its crest covered with mountain cedar. The country
between the two ranges is known as Guban. South of the Golis
the ground falls gradually to the central plateau known as the
Haud, a waterless but not unfertile district. The Haud (only the
northern part of which is British territory the rest is Abyssinian)
consists partly of thorn jungle, the hand of the Somali, partly of
rolling grass plains, called ban, and partly of semi-desert country
called aror. Westward of Berbera the ascent to the high country
is not so abrupt as in the east but is made by several steps, the moun-
tains forming a chaotic mass. Eastwards the mountain system,
the Jebel Sangeli, maintains the same general character as far as
Bandar Gori (Las Korai), where the precipitous northern cliffs
approach within 200 or 300 yards of the gulf, their bare brown
rocks and clays presenting the same uninviting appearance as the
light brown hills skirting the Red Sea. Immediately south of the
Jebel Sangeli are the comparatively fertile Jidali and Gebi districts
or river valleys the Gebi flowing east in the direction of Ras
Hafun, while the Jidali has a southerly course towards the Wadi
Nogal. Its waters are lost in the arid stony plateau of the Sorl.
To this succeeds the Nogal district, separated both from the Sorl
and the Haud by ranges of low hills. The Nogal and the neigh-
bouring regions of the Haud are also known, from the tribes inhabit-
ing them, as the Dolbahanta country. The prevailing formations
appear to be granites which are veined with white quartz, and under-
lie old sedimentary brown sandstone and limestone formations.
The average annual rainfall at Berbera is about 8 in., and more
than half of this amount has fallen in one day. The mean annual
rainfall is greater on the slopes of the ranges by which the moisture-
bearing clouds are intercepted. These slopes are the home of
aromatic flora which yields myrrh and frankincense.
The chief domestic animals are the camel and the ass, both 'of
prime stock. The camels make excellent mounts, swift and hardy;
and the extensive caravan trade is everywhere carried on exclu-
sively by means of these pack-animals. The Somali have also large
herds of cattle oxen, sheep and goats. They possess a hardy breed
of ponies, for which the Dolbahanta country is famed.
Chief Towns. Berbera (q.v.) is the capital and chief seaport of
the protectorate. About 45 m. west of Berbera is the exposed port
of Bulhar. Close to the French frontier stands the seaport of Zaila
(q.v.). East of Berbera are Las Korai, Karam, Hais and other
small seaports. Inland the most important settlement is Hargeisa
(i.e. little Harrar), 60 m. S.S.W. of Bulhar, a centre for caravans
from Shoa and Ogaden. Sheikh, Burao and Bohotle are all on the
caravan route from Ogaden to Berbera.
Industries and Trade. Fibre is obtained from the aloe plants,
this industry being in the hands of women; ostriches are reared
for the sake of their feathers, and large quantities of gum and resin
are collected. But the wealth of the people consists chiefly in their
livestock. Trade is largely with Harrar and the Ogaden country
both Abyssinian possessions. The important exports are gums
and resin, fibre, hides, ivory, ostrich feathers, coffee, ghee, live-
stock, gold ingots from Abyssinia and mothe"r-of-pearl ; the shells
being found along the coast from Zaila to beyond Berbera. There
is also a profitable shark fishery in the hands of Arabs. The imports
are mainly white longcloth, grey shirting, rice, jowaree, dates and
sugar. Jowaree is displacing rice as the staple food of the Somali.
The trade with Abyssinia suffers owing to the absence of railway
communication, which the neighbouring French colony possesses.
Thus in 1899-1900 the total value of trade was 751,900, the French
railway being then but just begun; in 1902-1903, the railway being
completed during the year, the value of trade was but 487,900. The
average annual value of trade for 1904-1909 was about 500,000.
History. An Arab sultanate, with its capital at Zaila (Zeyla),
was founded by Koreishite immigrants from the Yemen in,
it is said, the 7th century A.D. In the i3th century it had
become a comparatively powerful state, known as the empire
of Adel. In the i6th century the capital of the state (in which
Arab influence was a decreasing factor) was transferred to
Harrar (q.v.). The state was greatly harassed by Galla invaders
in the I7th century, and broke up into a number of petty in-
dependent emirates and sultanates under Somali chiefs. Zaila
became a dependency of Yemen and thus nominally part of
the Turkish empire. The British connexion with the Somali
coast dates from the early years of the igth century; the first
treaty between the British and Somali having been signed in
1827 after the plundering of an English ship by the Habr- Wai. In
1840 various treaties were concluded by Captain Robert Moresby
of the Indian Navy " on the part of the English Government
in India " with the sultan of Tajura and the governor of Zaila,
who engaged not to enter into treaties with any other foreign
power. At the same time Musha Island, at the entrance to
the Gulf of Tajura, was bought by the British " for ten bags of
rice," Bab Island, in the same gulf, and Aubad Island, off Zaila,
were also purchased, the object of the East India Company
being to obtain a suitable place " for the harbour of their ships
without any prohibition whatever." From this time onward
the Indian government exercised considerable influence on the
Somali coast, but British authority was not definitely established,
and in 1854 Richard Burton's expedition was attacked at Ber-
bera. In 1874-1875 the ambition of Ismail Pasha, khedive of
Egypt, who claimed jurisdiction over the whole coast as far as
Cape Guardafui, led him to occupy the ports of Tajura, Berbera
and Bulhar as well as Harrar in the hinterland. Ismail also
obtained (July 1875) a firman from the sultan of Turkey making
over Zaila to Egypt in return for an increase of 15,000 yearly
to the tribute paid to the Porte. In 1884, in consequence of
the revolt of the mahdi in the Egyptian Sudan, the khedival
garrisons were withdrawn. Thereupon Great Britain, partly
to secure the route to the East via the Suez Canal, which the
occupation of the country by another power might menace,
occupied Zaila, Berbera and Bulhar, officials being sent from Aden
to govern the ports. With respect to Zaila Turkey Establish-
was given the option of resuming possession, but meat of a
advantage was not taken of the offer (see Lord
Cromer's Modern Egypt, 1908, vol. ii.). During
1884, 1885, 1886 treaties guaranteeing British protection were
concluded with various Somali tribes and in 1888 the limits of
the British and French spheres were defined, all claims to
British jurisdiction in the Gulf of Tajura and the islands of Musha
and Bab being abandoned. The other inland boundaries of
the protectorate were denned by agreements with Italy (1894)
and Abyssinia (1897).
In 1899 troubles arose between the administration and a
mullah of the Habr Suleiman Ogaden tribe, who had acquired
great influence in the Dolbahanta country and had married into
the Dolbahanta Ali Gheri. This mullah, Mahommed bin
Abdullah by name, had made several pilgrimages to Mecca,
where he had attached himself to a sect which enjoined strict
observance of the tenets of Islam and placed an interdiction
on the use of the leaves of the kat plant much sought after
by the coast Arabs and Somali for their stimulating and in-
toxicating properties. At first the mullah's influence was
exerted for good, and he kept the tribes over whom he had con-
trol at peace. Accredited with the possession of supernatural
powers he gathered around him a strong following. In 1899
the mullah began raiding tribes friendly to the British; in August
of that year he occupied Burao, 80 m. south and east of Ber-
bera, and declared himself the mahdi. In the autumn of
1900 the mullah was again harassing the tribes on the southern
border of the British protectorate and the neighbouring Abys-
sinian districts. The tribes hostile to the mullah sought British
protection, and Colonel (afterwards Sir) E. J. E. Swayne raised
a Somali levy of 1500 men, and in May 1901 occupied Burao.
SOMALILAND
On the and of June a small force, zeribaed under Captain Mal-
colm McNeill, was attacked by the mullah's followers but re-
pulsed after desperate fighting. Colonel Swayne thrice defeated
the enemy, who lost 1 200 men and 600 taken prisoners, and the
mullah fled across the Haud, taking refuge with the Mijertin
in Italian territory. In December 1901 the mullah was, however,
once more raiding in the neighbourhood of Burao, and in May
Wars with I 9 2 Colonel Swayne led another expedition against
the Mullah him, the Somali levies being strengthened by the 2nd
MahommedKing's African Rifles, consisting of Yaos from Nyasa-
Abduiiah. j anc j Overcoming in a remarkable manner the
difficulties of operating in the dry season, Colonel Swayne
harried the mullah incessantly, and followed him across the
Haud into the more fertile region of Mudug in Italian territory,
permission so to do being granted by Italy. On the 6th of
October, while marching through dense bush at Erigo, the
British force was ambuscaded. The British lost 101 killed and
85 wounded, but put the enemy to flight. The mullah lost some
700 men and retreated to Galadi, west of Mudug, a place with
ample water supplies. Colonel Swayne was not able to continue
the pursuit, and returned to Berbera. It was then determined
that in the further operations against the mullah the main
advance should be from a base on the east coast of Italian
Somaliland the open roadstead of Obbia being chosen. The
command was given to Brigadier-General W. H. Manning,
and small numbers of British and Boer mounted infantry,
Indian and African troops were employed, while an Abyssinian
force held the line of the Webi Shebeli. Manning advanced
from Obbia in February 1903, and in March got in touch with
the northern column, the line of communication stretching
over 500 m. The mullah was west of this line in the neigh-
bourhood of Galadi. The wells at Galadi were occupied by the
British early in April without opposition. A reconnoitring
force of 500 men under Lieut.-Colonel A. S. Cobbe (who
had gained the V.C. at Erigo) was pushed west to Gumburu,
and came into contact with the enemy. A detachment of this
force, consisting of 200 Yaos and Sikhs under Lieut.-Colonel
Plunket, was attacked on the I7th of April and overwhelmed.
Of the whole party only 40 Yaos, of whom 36 were wounded,
escaped; 10 British officers being among the slain. Meantime
from Bohotle a force had advanced under Major Gough to
Daratole, a spot not far from Gumburu. It had a stiff fight
on the 23rd of April and was obliged to fall back. After these
events the Obbia line of communication was closed up, and
Manning's force concentrated at Bohotle. The mullah now
broke away to the north, and, crossing the line of the British
communication, established himself in the Nogal district.
Another campaign being deemed necessary, reinforcements
bringing the fighting force up to 7000 men were sent out, and
Major-General Sir C. C. Egerton assumed supreme command,
Manning retaining command of the first column. In October
1903 a new forward movement was begun, the mullah being
still in the eastern Nogal, while he had also seized the Italian
seaport of Illig, north of Obbia. In a pitched battle
fought on the loth of January 1904 at Jidballi in the Nogal
country the enemy were routed, losing over 1000 men in killed
alone, while the British loss in killed and wounded was 58.
The mullah and his chief adviser, a Haji Sudi, formerly an
interpreter on a British warship, were not at the battle, and
with his Ali Gheri followers he now fled north across the Sorl,
apparently intending, if further pressed to retreat to Illig.
This port was accordingly for a short time (April 1904) occupied
by a British naval force. By May the mullah had been driven
out of the British protectorate and became a refugee among the
Mijertin. It was decided therefore to abandon offensive opera-
tions. In 1905 the Italians effected an arrangement apparently
satisfactory to all parties (see Italian Somaliland).
For some three years the mullah remained quiescent, but in
Evacuation 1908 he quarrelled with the Mijertins and in 1909 he
of the was again raiding tribes in the British protector-
latertor. ate Tne British government (the Asquith cabinet)
came to the conclusion that another expedition against
the mullah would be useless; that they must either build
a railway, make roads and effectively occupy the whole
of the protectorate, or else abandon the interior completely.
The latter course was decided upon, and during the first months
of 1910 the advanced posts were withdrawn and the British
administration confined to the coast towns. In support of
this decision it was urged that it was no good pursuing people
whom it was impossible to catch, that the isolated posts in the
interior had not been able to protect the friendly tribes; and
that the semi-desert nature of the country did not justify any
attempt at economic development. (The proposal to build
a railway from Zaila or Berbera to Harrar, which would have
competed with the French line from Jibuti for the trade of
southern Abyssinia, had been vetoed on grounds of general
policy.) Before the withdrawal arrangements more or less
ineffective were made for arming and organizing the tribes
in the protectorate in their own defence.
From 1884 to 1898 the protectorate was attached for administra-
tive purposes to Bombay, and was immediately dependent on Aden ;
in the last-named year it was transferred to the Foreign Office, and
in 1905 passed under the control of the Colonial Office. From 1902
to 1906 Colonel Swayne was commissioner; he was succeeded by
Captain H. E. S. Cordeaux, who had served in Somaliland since
1898. Legislative power is in the hands of the commissioner, and
revenue is obtained largely from customs. The revenue, 22,000 in
1900-1901, was 30,000 in 1908-1909, while the expenditure, 51,000
in the first-named year, was 134,000 in 1908-1909. Deficits are
made good by grants from the imperial treasury.
FRENCH SOMALILAND
French Somaliland (Cole frangaise des Somalis) lies at the
entrance to the Red Sea. The sea frontier extends from Ras
Dumeira on the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, a little north of Perim
Island, to Ras Gurmarle, a few miles south of the Gulf of Tajura.
The protectorate is bounded N. by the Danakil country; S. by
British Somaliland; W. by the Harrar province of Abyssinia.
It extends inland at its greatest depth about 130 m.
The country consists chiefly of slightly elevated arid plains,
largely waterless save along the southern frontier. The only good
harbour along the coast is at Jibuti. The Gulf of Tajura is 28 m.
across at its entrance and penetrates inland 36 m. At its western
end an opening 870 yds. wide leads into the circular bay of Gubbet-
Kharab (Hell's Mouth), behind which rise a chaotic mass of volcanic
rocks, destitute of vegetation and presenting a scene of weird desola-
tion. A pass through the hills gives access to Bahr-Assal; the last
of a chain of salt lakes beginning 60 m. inland in the depression in
which the waters of the Hawash (see ABYSSINIA) lose themselves.
It is conjectured that at some remote period the Hawash flowed into
Tajura Bay and that the present condition of the country is the
result of volcanic upheaval. Assal Lake, according to this theory,
formed part of the sea bed. It is now 5 m. inland from Gubbet-
Kharab, is 5 m. long by 4 broad, and lies 490 ft. below sea level.
About 1 60 ft. above the present level of the lake a white band marks
distinctly a former level. The waters of Bahr-Assal are deeply
impregnated with salt, which, in thick crusts, forms crescent-shaped
round the banks dazzling white when reflected by the sun. Two
streams, one saline and at a temperature of 194 F., flow into the
lake. The climate of the protectorate is very hot, but not unhealthy
for Europeans if reasonable precautions be taken.
Inhabitants and Towns. The inhabitants are, on the north side
of the Gulf of Tajura, chiefly Danakils (Afars, q.v.); on the southern
shore Galla and Somali. There are a number of Arabs, Abyssinians,
Indians, and about 2000 Europeans and Levantines. The chief
town and seat of administration is Jibuti (q.v.), pop. about 15,000,
which has taken the place of Obok (q.v.), on the opposite (northern)
side of the Gulf of Tajura. Also situated on the gulf are the small
towns of Tajura, Sagallo, Gobad and Ambabp.
Trade and Communications. The collection of salt from Bahr-
Assal is an industry of some importance. In 1903 a beginning was
made in the cultivation of cotton in the dry river beds, where water
can always be obtained at a depth of 10 ft. On the coast turtle
and mother-of-pearl fishing are carried on. But the value of the
protectorate depends upon the carrying trade with Harrar and the
supplying of victuals and coals to French warships. In 1897 the
building of a railway from Jibuti towards Harrar was begun. By
Christmas 1902 the railway, called the Imperial Ethiopian railway,
was completed to Dire Dawa(or Adis Harrar) , 30 m. short of Harrar,
and 1 88 by rail from Jibuti, of which but 64 m. are in French terri-
tory. By a law passed by the French chambers in 1902 a subvention
of 20,000 a year for fifty years was granted to the company owning
the railway (see further ABYSSINIA).
The exports are chiefly coffee, hides, ivory (all from Abyssinia),
gum, mother-of-pearl and a little gold ; the imports cotton and other
SOMALILAND
383
European stuffs, cereals, beverages, tobacco and arms and ammuni-
tion for the Abyssinians. The total volume of trade in 1902, the
year of the completion of the railway, was 725,000, in 1905 it had
risen to 1,208,000 imports 480.000, exports 728,000.
History. French interest in the Somali and Danakil coasts
dates from the days of the Second Empire. Count Stanislas
Russell, a naval officer, was sent on a mission to the Red Sea in
1857, and he reported strongly on the necessity of a French estab-
lishment in that region in view of the approaching completion
of the Suez Canal. The only result of his enterprise was the
abortive treaty for the cession to France of Zula (q.v.), now in
the Italian colony of Eritrea. In 1856, however, M. Mpnge,
vice-consul of France at Zaila, had bought Ambabo, and shortly
afterwards Henri Lambert, French consul at Aden, bought the
town and territory of Obok. Lambert (who was assassinated
,by Arabs, June 1859) had the support of his government, which
viewed with alarm the establishment (1857) of the British on
Perim Island, at the entrance to the Red Sea. The cession of
Obok was ratified by a treaty (signed on the nth of March 1862)
between the French government and various Danakil chiefs.
It was not, however, until 1883 that, in consequence of
events in Egypt and the Sudan (see EGYPT: History), formal
possession was taken of Obok by the French government. In
1884 Leonce Lagarde, subsequently French minister to Abyssinia,
was sent to administer the infant colony. Between 1883 and
1887 treaties with Somali sultans gave France possession of the
whole of the Gulf of Tajura. An agreement with Great Britain
(February 1888) fixed the southern limits of the protectorate;
protocols with Italy (January 1900 and July 1901) the northern
limits. The frontier towards Abyssinia was fixed by a conven-
tion of March 1897 with the Negus Menelik. In this direction
the protectorate extends inland some 56 m. In 1889 a
Cossack chief, Captain Atchinoff, who had occupied Sagallo,
was forcibly removed by the French authorities (see SAGALLO).
The transference of the seat of government to Jibuti in May
1896 and the building of the railway to Harrar gave the protec-
torate a stability which it had previously lacked. Its import-
ance to France is, nevertheless, chiefly strategic and political.
It serves as a coaling station for men-of-war and as a highroad
to Abyssinia.
ITALIAN SOHALILAND
Italian Somaliland extends on the coast from Bandar Ziyada,
a point on the Gulf of Aden intersected by 49 E., eastward to
Cape Guardafui, and thence southward to the mouth of the river
Juba in o 15' S. Bounded N. and E. by the Indian Ocean
it is separated S. from British East Africa by the Juba.
Westward it is bounded by Abyssinian and British Somaliland.
From the east coast the protectorate extends inland from
100 to 300 m.
The coast-line is largely rock-bound and little indented, and
throughout the 1200 m. of its extent there is not one good harbour.
The northern shore, along the Gulf of Aden, is backed by table-
lands separated by the beds of mountain torrents generally dry.
From the table-land rise hills, such as Jebel Kurma, which have
an altitude of 4000 ft. or more. The coast rises in a succes-
sion of hills (fringed by a narrow margin of beach) until Cape
Guardafui is reached. Cape Guardafui isin 11 75' N., 51 26'32*E.,
and forms, as it were, the tip of the Horn of Africa. The cape,
which faces north and east, presents on its northern face a nearly
vertical wall of rock rising from the sea to a height of 900 ft. The
water is deep right to the base of the cliff and owing to the winds
and the strength of the ocean currents, navigation is dangerous.
The headland is known to the Somali as Girdif or Yardaf whence
in all probability comes the European form Guardafui. But in
the lingua^ franca of the Levant the Italian word guarda means
" beware," a meaning also attached to the Portuguese word guardafu.
Rounding Guardafui the coast trends southwards, and some
90 m. from that cape is Ras Hafun or Medudda the most easterly
point of the continent of Africa being in 10 45' S., 51 27' 52* E.,
or about a mile and a half east of Guardafui. Ras Hafun consists
of a rocky peninsula rising 600 ft. above the sea, and is connected
with the mainland by an isthmus 12 m. long. A little south is
the mouth of the Darror, a usually dry watercourse with a length
of over 200 m., which rises, as the Gebi, in the north-east of the
British protectorate. From this point a zone of upheaved coral
rocks skirts the shore for some distance.
Chief Towns. The chief towns are on the coast. They are
Mukdishu (q.v.), pop. about 5000, Brava (4000), Marka (5000),
Warsheik (3000) and Yub. These are all in the southern part of
the protectorate between o 15' S. and 2 19' N., and are known
generically as El-Benadir (the ports), a name also applied to the
coast between the ports. Yub (Jub) is a small town at the mouth
of the Juba river. In every case the port is much exposed and
unapproachable for months together. Obbia, 5 22' N., and Illig
in 7 6p' N., are points of departure for the Ogaden and Dolbahanta
countries. Alula, on the Gulf of Aden, is the chief town of the
Mijertin Somali.
In the interior is Lugh, a populous city on the left bank of the
Juba, about 240 m. from the coast, and further inland is Dolo at
the confluence of the Daua and Ganale to form the Tuba. These
places are entrepots for the trade of the interior, especially with the
Boran district.
In the coast towns of the eastern seaboard there are Swahili, Arab
and Indian settlements, and tribes, such as the Amaran, of mixed
Arab and Somali blood.
Agriculture and Trade. Though much of the land is barren, the
soil is fairly fertile in the valleys of the Webi Shebeli and Wad? Nogal.
But the most fertile district is the valley of the lower Juba, where for
over loo m. is a strip of land varying from a few hundred yards
to some 4 m. wide, annually inundated by the rise of the river.
Here are cultivated rich crops of millet and other grains. In other
districts lack of water impedes cultivation, though after the rains
pasturage is abundant, and resinous plants are so varied and
numerous as to justify the ancient name of the region.
Ivory, cattle, butter, coffee, cotton, myrrh, gums and skins are
exported from the Benadir country. In the northern ports there is
a similar but smaller trade and one also in ostrich feathers. The
chief imports are textile fabrics, rice and petroleum. During
1896-1897 the value of the Benadir trade was 120,000; in 1906-
1907 it had risen to over 250,000.
History. The Somali coast, as has been seen, early fell under
Moslem influence. The towns on the eastern seaboard, of which
Mukdishu and Brava were the chief, formed part of the Zenj
" empire " (see ZANZIBAR) and shared its fate, being conquered
in turn by the Portuguese (i6th century), the imans of Muscat
(t7th century), and the sultans of Zanzibar (1866). On account,
probably, of the inhospitable nature of the shore the northern
portion of the protectorate appears to have been little subject to
hostile invasion. By treaties with Somali sultans in 1889 and
by subsequent agreements with Great Britain, Zanzibar and
Abyssinia, the coast east of the British Somali protectorate fell
within the Italian sphere of influence (see AFRICA, 5) . In August
1892 the sultan of Zanzibar leased the Benadir ports of Italy for
fifty years. They were administered first by the Filonardi Com-
pany, and from 1898 by the Benadir Company. By an agree-
ment dated the I3th of January 1905 the sultan of Zanzibar ceded
his sovereign rights in the Benadir ports to Italy in return for
the payment of a lump sum of 144,000. Thereafter the Italian
government assumed the direct administration of the ports, a
purely commercial undertaking replacing the Benadir Company.
In 1905 also Great Britain leased to Italy a piece of land
near Kismayu to facilitate communications with the Benadir
country. In 1908 a royal decree placed that part of the country
between the Juba and the sultanate of Obbia under a civil
governor.
A notable event in the history of the protectorate was the
co-operation of the Italian authorities in the campaigns against
the Mullah Abdullah. In 1904 negotiations were opened with
the mullah by the Italians, and by arrangement with the sultan
of Obbia and the sultan of the Mijertins the territory between
Ras Aswad and Ras Bowen, which was claimed by both parties,
was handed over to the mullah. This region, that of the lower
Nogal, included the port of Illig. Here Mahommed b. Abdullah
established himself under Italian surveillance, and by an agree-
ment dated the sth of March 1905, peace was declared between
the mullah, the Italians, British and Abyssinians, and all other
Somali tribes. In 1908-1909, however, fighting was renewed, the
mullah and the Mijertins failing to agree. Italian (native) troops
were sent to the district to restore order. The mullah also
attacked tribes living in the British protectorate (see 2).
The station of Lugh, the most advanced point occupied by
Italy, had been founded by Captain Bottego in 1895. After
the treaty of Adis Adowa, recognizing the independence of
Abyssinia, had been concluded in 1896, negotiations were opened
for defining the Italian-Abyssinian frontier in the Somali regions.
In 1897 an agreement was come to that from the point on the
SOMBRERO SOMERS, BARON
British Somaliland frontier where 47 E. intersected 8 N. the
frontier line should be drawn, at a distance of about 180 m.
from the Indian Ocean, to the Juba. At the close of
1907 the Negus Menelik, in return for a pecuniary indemnity
(120,000), agreed to a modification of the 1897 line, whereby
the Italian protectorate was extended north of Lugh to
Dolo. From Dolo the frontier goes east to the Webi Shebeli,
whence the 1897 line is followed to the British-Abyssinian
frontier. By this arrangement (ratified by a convention dated
the i6th of May 1908) the Benadir coast obtained a suitable
hinterland.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. a. General descriptions, history and books of
travel. G. Ferrand, Les Comdlis (Paris, 1903), a brief but compre-
hensive survey; R. Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa (London,
1856) ; F. L. James, The Unknown Horn of Africa (London, 1888) ;
H. G. C. Swayne, Seventeen Trips through Somaliland (yd ed.,
London, 1903), perhaps the best general book on the country,
contains a special fauna section; G. ReVoil, La Vallee de Darror
(Paris, 1882) and Dix mois a la c6te orientate d'Afrique (Paris, 1888) ;
A. Donaldson Smith, Through Unknown African Countries (London,
!897); V. Bottego, II Guiba esplorato (Rome, 1895); L. Robecchi-
Bricchetti, Somalia e Benadir . . . Prima traversata della Somalia
italiana (Milan, 1899) and Nel paese degli Aromi (Milan, 1903),
M. Guillain, Documents sur I'histoire . . . de I'Afrigue orientale
(Paris, n.d. [1856]) ; P. Paulitschke, Harar (Leipzig, 1888).
b. Ethnology, flora, fauna, geology, &c. P. Paulitschke, Ethno-
graphie Nordost-Afrikas. Die materielle Cultur der Dan&kil, Galla
und Somal, vol. ii. (Berlin, 1893). Die geistige Cultur der Dan&kil,
&c. (1896), and Beitrage zur Ethnographie und Anthropologie der
Somal, Galla und Harrari (Leipzig, 1886), containing fine plates;
H. M.'Abud, Genealogies of the Somal . . . (London, 1896); A. Engler
on the flora in the Sitzungsberichte of the Prussian Academy of
Science, Nos. x.-xii. (1904); G. ReVoil, Faune et flore des pays
Somalis (Paris, 1882); C. V. A. Peel, Somaliland . . . with a complete
list of every animal and bird known to inhabit that country . . . (London,
1900), and " On a collection of Insects and Arachnids " in Proc.
Zool. Soc. (1900); R. E. Drake-Brockman, The Mammals of
Somaliland (London, 1910); J. W. Gregory, "The Geology of
Somaliland," Geol. Mag. (1896).
c. Language. Leo Reinisch, Die Somalie Sprache (Vienna, 1900,
et seq.); F. M. Hunter, Grammar of the Somal Language (Bombay,
1880); E. de Larajasse and C. de Sampont, A Practical Grammar of
the Somali Language (London, 1897) ; E. de Larajasse, Somali-English
and English-Somali Dictionary (London, 1897).
d. For the various protectorates, (i) British the annual reports
issued by the Colonial Office, London ; Official History of the Opera-
tions in Somaliland, 1(101-1904 (2 vols., London, 1907) ; War Office
maps on the scale of 1:1,000,000, also sketch map 1:3,000,000
(1907). (2) French protectorate L'Annee coloniale (Paris); L.
Henrique, Les Colonies franc_aises (Obock) (Paris, 1899) ; L. de Salma,
Obock (Paris, 1893); Carte de la cote franchise des Somalis, I :Soo,ooo
(Paris, 1908). (3) Italian protectorate Somalia italiana, 1885-1805
(official " Green Book "); C. Rossetti, Somalia italiana settentrionale,
with map (Rome, 1906); U. Ferrandi, Seconda spedizione Bottego:
Lugh empprio commerciale sul Giuba (Rome, 1903).
The Bibliografia etiopica of G. Fumagalli (Milan, 1893) includes
works dealing with Somaliland. (F. R. C.)
SOMBRERO, a wide-brimmed hat, made of felt, largely worn
throughout South and Central America, but originating in
Spain. The Spanish word is derived from sombra, shade,
generally taken to be from Lat. sub umbra, beneath the shade;
but the etymology, like that of " sombre," dark, gloomy, has
been disputed.
SOMERS, JOHN SOMERS (or SOMMERS), BARON (1651-1716),
English lord chancellor, was born on the 4th of March 1651,
near Worcester, the eldest son of John Somers, an attorney in
large practice in that town, who had formerly fought on the side
of the Parliament, and of Catherine Ceaverne of Shropshire.
After being at school at Worcester he was entered as a gentleman
commoner at Trinity College, Oxford, and afterwards studied
law under Sir Francis Winn'ington, who became solicitor-general,
and joined the Middle Temple. He appears, in addition to his
legal studies, to have written several poems and pamphlets.
He soon became intimate with the leaders of the country party,
especially with Essex, William Russell, and Algernon Sidney,
but never entered into their plans so far as to commit himself
beyond recall. He was the author of the History of the Succession
of the Crown of England, collected out of Records, &c., and was
reputed to have written the Just and Modest Vindication of the
Two Last Parliaments, which was put forward as the answer to
Charles II. 's famous declaration of his reasons for dissolving
them. This, however, was by Sidney, though probably Somers
was responsible for the final draft. When the grand jury of
Middlesex threw out the bill against Shaftesbury, and were
vehemently attacked for so doing, Somers wrote in defence of
the rights of grand juries. In 1683 he was counsel for the sheriffs
Pilkington and Shute before the court of King's Bench, and
secured a reputation which continually increased until the trial
of the seven bishops, in which he was junior counsel. " Somers
rose last. He spoke little more than five minutes, but every
word was full of weighty matter; and when he sat down his
reputation as an orator and a constitutional lawyer was estab-
lished." In the secret councils of those who were planning the
revolution Somers took a leading part, and in the Convention
Parliament was elected a member for his native town. He was
immediately appointed one of the managers for the Commons
in the conferences between the houses, and in arguing the
questions whether James II. had left the throne vacant by
abdication and whether the acts of the Convention Parliament
were legal that parliament having been summoned without
the usual writs he displayed great learning and legal subtlety.
He was further distinguished by being made chairman of
the committee which drew up the celebrated Declaration of
Right.
In May 1689 Somers was made solicitor-general. He now
became William III.'s most confidential adviser. In the con-
troversy which arose between the Houses on the question
of the legality of the decision of the court of King's Bench
regarding Titus Gates, and of the action of the Lords in sustaining
this decision, Somers was again the leading manager for the
Commons, and has left a clear and interesting account of the
debates. He was next employed in January 1690 as chairman of
the select committee of the House of Commons on the Corpora-
tion Bill, by which those corporations which had surrendered their
charters to the Crown during the last two reigns were restored
to their rights; but he refused to associate himself with the
violent measures of retaliation which the Whigs on that occasion
endeavoured to include in the bill. In April a speech by him
carried through the lower house, without opposition, the bill
which declared all the laws passed by the Convention Parliament
to be valid. As solicitor-general he had to conduct the prose-
cution of Preston and Ashton in 1691, and did so with a modera-
tion and humanity which were in marked contrast to the
customs of the former reigns. He was soon after appointed
attorney-general, and in that capacity strongly opposed the bill
for the regulation of trials in cases of high treason. On the 23rd of
March 1693, the great seal having meanwhile been in commission,
Somers was appointed lord-keeper, with a pension of 2000 a
year from the day on which he should quit his office, and at the
same time was made a privy councillor. He had previously
been knighted. Somers now became the most prominent
member of the Junto, the small council which comprised the
chief members of the Whig party. When William left in May
1695 to take command of the army in the Netherlands, Somers
was made one of the seven lords-justices to whom the adminis-
tration of the kingdom during his absence was entrusted; and he
was instrumental in bringing about a reconciliation between
William and the princess Anne.
In April 1697 Somers was made lord chancellor, and was created
a peer by the title of Baron. Somers of Evesham. When the
discussion arose on the question of disbanding the army, he
summed up the case against disbanding, in answer to Trenchard,
in a remarkable pamphlet called " The Balancing Letter." In
August 1698 he went to Tunbridge Wells for his health. While
there he received the king's letter announcing the first Partition
Treaty, and at once replied with a memorandum representing
the necessity in the state of feeling in England of avoiding
further war. When the king, on the occasion of the Disbanding
Bill, expressed his determination to leave the country, Somers
boldly remonstrated, while he clearly expressed in a speech in the
Lords the danger of the course that was being taken. Hitherto
Somers's character had kept him free from attack at the hands
SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
385
of political opponents; but his connexion in 1609 with the
notorious Captain William Kidd, to the cost of whose expedition
Somers had given 1000, afforded an opportunity; the vote of
censure, however, proposed upon him in the House of Commons
for giving Kidd a commission under the great seal was rejected by
199 to 131. The attack was renewed shortly on the ground
of his having accepted grants of Crown property to the amount
of 1600 a year, but was again defeated. On the subject of the
Irish forfeitures a third attack was made in 1700, a motion
being brought forward to request the king to remove Somers
from his counsels and presence for ever; but this again was
rejected by a large majority. In consequence, however, of the
incessant agitation William now requested Somers to resign;
this he refused to do, but gave up the seals to William's mes-
senger. In 1701 he was impeached by the Commons on account
of the part he had taken in the negotiations relating to the
Partition Treaty in 1698, and defended himself most ably
before the house, answering the charges seriatim. The im-
peachment was voted and sent up to the Lords, but was there
dismissed. On the death of the king Somers retired almost
entirely into private life. He was president of the Royal
Society from 1699 to 1704. He was, however, active in 1702 in
opposing the Occasional Conformity Bill, and in 1706 was one
of the managers of the union with Scotland. In the same year
he carried a bill regulating and improving the proceedings of the
law courts. He was made president of the council in 1708 upon
the return of the Whigs to power, and retained the office until
their downfall in 1710. He died on the 26th of April 1716.
Somers was never married, but left two sisters, of whom the
eldest, Mary, married Charles Cocks, whose grandson, Sir Charles
Cocks, bart., became the second Lord Somers in 1784, the title
subsequently descending in this line.
For a contemporary character of Somers Addison's paper in the
Freeholder for the I4th of May 1716 should be referred to; and
there is in Macaulay's History (iv. 53) an eloquent and worthy
tribute to his stainless character and comprehensive learning. A
catalogue of his publications will be found in Walpole's Royal and
Noble Authors. (O. A.)
SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF. In the iith century
Somerset and Dorset were under the jurisdiction of one sheriff,
and for a considerable period titles derived from each of these
shires were borne by the same person. (See DORSET, EARLS,
MARqUESSES AND DUKES OF.)
The earldom of Somerset in the Beaufort family dated from
1397, in which year it was granted by Richard II. to John
Beaufort (c. 1373-1410), the eldest of the three illegitimate, but
afterwards legitimated, sons of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster,
by Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford, and daughter of Sir
Payne Roelt. He was followed in the earldom successively by
his three sons: Henry, who died unmarried in 1418; John (1404-
1444), who in 1443 was created earl of Kendal and duke of
Somerset, both of which titles became extinct at his death;
and Edmund, who was created earl of Dorset in 1441, marquess
of Dorset in 1443,' and duke of Somerset in 1448. (See SOMERSET,
EDMUND BEAUFORT, DUKE OF.) On the execution of Edmund's
son Henry, sth earl and 2nd duke of Somerset, by the Yorkists
in 1464, his titles were forfeited by act of parliament; but his
brother Edmund was from that date styled duke of Somerset
by the Lancastrian party till his death in May 1471, when the
house of Beaufort became extinct. (See BEAUFORT.) In 1499
Henry VII. nominated his infant son Edmund to the dukedom
of Somerset at his baptism, but the child, who died within a few
months, was probably never formally created a peer; the title,
conjoined with the dukedom of -Richmond, was, however, borne
by Henry Fitzroy, illegitimate son of Henry VIII., from 1525 till
his death without heirs in 1536.
EDWARD SEYMOUR, duke of Somerset (?..), known as the
Protector, was the first of the line of dukes to which the holder
of the title at the present day belongs, having been created
Viscount Beauchamp of Hache, Co. Somerset, in 1336; earl
of Hertford in 1537; and in 1547 Baron Seymour and duke of
Somerset. His honours, which were entailed on the issue of
xxv. 13
his second in priority to that of his first marriage, being forfeited
by attainder in 1552, Robert Carr became earl of Somerset (g.v.)
in 1613, but died without male issue in 1645, when his title
became extinct. A curious incident in the history of this title
was the grant by Charles I. in 1644 of a commission to Edward
Somerset, son of Henry, ist marquess of Worcester, empowering
him to fill up certain blank patents of peerage with a promise of
the title of duke of Somerset for himself. After the Restoration
this instrument was cancelled in consequence of a resolution
of the House of Lords declaring it to be " in prejudice to the
peers "; and the grantee, who had meantime succeeded to the
marquessate of Worcester, surrendered his claim to the dukedom
of Somerset in September 1660. In the same month the duke-
dom of Somerset and barony of Seymour were restored to William
Seymour (1588-1660), great-grandson of the Protector, who in
1621 inherited the titles of earl of Hertford and Baron Beau-
champ which had been granted to his grandfather Edward
Seymour in 1559, and who, in 1640, had himself been created
marquess of Hertford. This nobleman, who in early life had
incurred the displeasure of James I. by marrying the king's
cousin, Lady Arabella Stuart, and had been imprisoned in the
Tower for the offence, had later an exceptional claim on the
gratitude of the royal house of Stewart, for he fought with distinc-
tion on the royalist side -in the civil war, and was one of four lords
(the others being the duke of Richmond, and the earls of Lindsey
and Southampton) who petitioned the Commons to be allowed
to assume responsibility for the actions of Charles I. and to suffer
death in his place. He died in November 1660, a few weeks after
his restoration to the dukedom, and, having outlived his three
eldest sons, was succeeded by his grandson William, 3rd duke
of Somerset (c. 1651-1671). As the latter died unmarried, his
sister Elizabeth brought to her husband, Thomas Bruce, 2nd
earl of Ailesbury, the great estates of Tottenham Park and
Savernake Forest in Wiltshire; while the Somerset title devolved
on John Seymour (c. 1628-1675), the 2nd duke's fifth and
youngest son. At the death of the latter without issue in April
1675 the marquessate of Hertford became extinct, and his cousin
Francis Seymour (1658-1678) became sth duke of Somerset.
This nobleman was the eldest surviving son of Charles Seymour,
2nd Baron Seymour of Trowbridge, whose father Sir Francis
Seymour (c. 1590-1664), a younger brother of the 2nd duke
of Somerset, was created a baron in 1641.
CHARLES SEYMOUR, 6th duke of Somerset (1662-1748),
succeeded his brother Francis, the 5th duke, when the latter
was shot in 1678 at the age of twenty, by a Genoese gentleman
named Horatio Botti, whose wife Somerset was said to have
insulted at Lerici. Charles, who thus inherited the barony of
Seymour of Trowbridge along with the dukedom of Somerset,
was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge; and in 1682 he
married a great heiress, Elizabeth, daughter of Joceline Percy,
earl of Northumberland, who brought him immense estates,
including Alnwick Castle, Petworth, Syon House and North-
umberland House in London. (See NORTHUMBERLAND, EARLS
AND DUKES or.) In 1683 Somerset received an appointment
in the king's household, and two years later a colonelcy of
dragoons; but at the revolution he bore arms for the prince of
Orange. Having befriended Princess Anne in 1692, he became
a great favourite with her after her accession to the throne,
receiving the post of master of the horse in 1702. Finding him-
self neglected by Marlborough, he made friends with the Tories,
and succeeded in retaining the queen's confidence, while his
wife replaced the duchess of Marlborough as mistress of the
robes in 1711. In the memorable crisis when Anne was at the
point of death, Somerset acted with Argyll, Shrewsbury and other
Whig nobles who, by insisting on their right to be present in the
privy council, secured the Hanoverian succession to the Crown.
He retained the office of master of the horse under George I.
till 1716, when he was dismissed and retired into private life;
he died at Petworth on the 2nd of December 1748. The duke's
first wife having died in 1722, he married secondly, in 1726,
Charlotte, daughter of the 2nd earl of Nottingham. He was a
remarkably handsome man, and inordinately fond of taking a
3 86
SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
conspicuous part in court ceremonial; his vanity, which earned
him the sobriquet of " the proud duke," was a byword among his
contemporaries and was the subject of numerous anecdotes;
Macaulay's description of him as " a man in whom the prWe of
birth and rank amounted almost to a disease," is well known.
His son Algernon (1684-1750), by his first wife Elizabeth Percy,
was called to the House of Lords as Baron Percy in 1722; and
after succeeding his father as 7th duke of Somerset in 1748, was,
on account of his maternal descent, created Baron Warkworth
and earl of Northumberland in 1749, with remainder to Sir
Hugh Smithson, husband of his daughter Elizabeth; and also
Baron Cockermouth and earl of Egremont, with remainder to
the children of his sister, Lady Catherine Wyndham. At his
death without male issue in February 17150 these titles therefore
passed to different families in accordance with the remainders
in the patents of their creation; the earldom of Hertford, the
barony of Beauchamp, and the barony of Seymour of Trowbridge
became extinct; and the dukedom of Somerset, together with
the barony of Seymour, devolved on a distant cousin, Sir Edward
Seymour, 6th baronet of Berry Pomeroy, Devonshire. (See
SEYMOUR, or ST MAUR.)
The Seymours of Berry Pomeroy were the elder branch of
the family, being descended from the protector Somerset by his
first marriage, the issue of which had been excluded from succes-
sion to the titles and estates until after the failure of the issue
of his second marriage (see above), which failure occurred on
the death of the above-named Algernon, 7th duke. Sir Edward
Seymour (1695-1757), who thus became 8th duke of Somerset,
was grandson of Sir Edmund Seymour, Speaker of the House of
Commons in the reign of Charles II. His two sons succeeded in
turn to the dukedom, and his grandson Edward Adolphus, nth
duke (1775-1855), was a mathematician and scientist of some
distinction. The latter's son Edward Adolphus, I2th duke
(1804-1885), was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
and from 1830 till he succeeded to the peerage in 1855 he was a
Liberal member of the House of Commons as Lord Seymour,
first for Okehampton, and afterwards for Totnes. He held
various offices in Lord Melbourne's administration from 1835 to
1841; was a member of Lord John Russell's cabinet in 1851; and
first lord of the admiralty from 1859 to 1866. In 1863 he was
created Earl St Maur of Berry Pomeroy. He refused to join
W. E. Gladstone's ministry in 1868, but he gave independent
support to the chief measures of the government. He died in
November 1885. In 1830, while still Lord Seymour, he married
Jane Georgiana, youngest of the three celebrated daughters of
Thomas Sheridan, who was the " Queen of Beauty " at the
famous Egiinton Tournament in 1839. The duke was the
author of Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism (1872), and
Monarchy and Democracy (1880). As his two sons both died
unmarried in his lifetime, the family titles, except the earldom
of St Maur, which became extinct, devolved on his two brothers
successively; the younger of whom, Algernon Percy Banks, i4th
duke (1813-1894), was succeeded by his son Algernon (b. 1846)
as isth duke of Somerset.
The title of Earl St Maur adopted by the I2th duke in 1863
is said to have been the original form of the family name of
which Seymour was a later corruption, and since the last-
mentioned date it has been assumed as the family surname of
the dukes of Somerset.
See SEYMOUR, or ST MAUR, and the authorities there cited.
(R. J. M.)
SOMERSET, EDMUND BEAUFORT, DUKE OF (c. 1404-1455),
was the younger son of John, earl of Somerset, and grandson of
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. He was taken prisoner at
Bauge in 1421 during his first campaign, and did not return to
England till 1431. He was then styled earl of Mortain, and in
1432 was one of the envoys to the council of Basel. In 1436 he
served at the relief of Calais, two years later he commanded
with some success in Maine, and in 1440 recovered Harfleur.
Next year he was made earl, and in 1443 marquess of Dorset.
In 1444 on the death of his elder brother he became duke of
Somerset. As head of the Beaufort party he was the rival of
Richard of York, whom in 1446 he superseded as lieutenant of
France. He lacked statesmanship, and as a general could do
nothing to stop French successes. The loss of Rouen and
Normandy during the next four years was precipitated by his
incompetence, and his failure naturally made him a special
object of Yorkist censure. The Tall of Suffolk left Somerset
the chief of the king's ministers, and the Commons in vain peti-
tioned for his removal in January 1451. In spite of York's
active hostility he maintained his position till Henry's illness
brought his rival the protectorate in March 1454. For a year
he was kept a prisoner in the Tower " without any lawful pro-
cess." On the king's recovery he was honourably discharged,
and restored to his office as captain of Calais. Mistrust of Somer-
set was York's excuse for taking up arms. The rivalry of the
two leaders was ended by the defeat of the Lancastrians and
death of Somerset at St Albans on the 22nd of May 1455.
Though loyal to his family, Somerset was without capacity as a
leader. It was a misfortune for Henry VI. that circumstances
should have made so weak a man his chief minister. Thomas
Basin, the French chronicler, describes Somerset as a handsome,
courteous and kindly man. By his wife, Eleanor, daughter and
co-heiress of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, he had two
sons, Henry and Edmund, who were executed by Edward IV.
after the battles of Hexham and Tewkesbury.
For further information see Sir James Ramsay's Lancaster and
York (Oxford, 1892), and C. Oman's Political History of England,
I 377~i485 (1906), with authorities there cited. (C. L. K.)
SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMO.UR, DUKE OF (c. 1506-1552),
protector of England, born about 1506, was the eldest surviving
son 'of Sir John Seymour of Wolf Hall, Wiltshire, by his wife
Margaret, eldest daughter of Sir Henry Wentworth of Nettlested,
Suffolk. The Seymours claimed descent from a companion of
William the Conqueror, who took his name from St Maur-sur-
Loire in Touraine; and the protector's mother was really de-
scended from Edward III. His father was knighted by Henry VII.
for his services against the Cornish rebels at Blackheath in
1497, was present at the two interviews between Henry VIII. and
Francis I. in. 1520 and 1532, and died on the 2ist of December
1536. Edward was " enfant d'honneur " to Mary Tudor at her
marriage with Louis XII. in 1514, served in Suffolk's campaign
in France in 1523, being knighted by the duke at Roze on the
ist of November, and accompanied Wolsey on his embassy to
France in 1527. Appointed esquire of the body to Henry VIII.
in 1529, he grew in favour with the king, who visited his manor
at Elvetham in Hampshire in October 1535. On the 5th of
June 1536, a week after his sister Jane's marriage to Henry,
he was created Viscount Beauchamp of Hache in Somerset,
and a fortnight after Edward VI. 's birth in October 1537, he
was raised to the earldom of Hertford.
Queen Jane's death was a blow to his prospects, and in 1538
he was described as being " young and wise " but of " small
power." He continued, however, to rise in political importance.
In 1541, during Henry's absence in the north, Hertford, Cranmer
and Audley had the chief management of affairs in London;
in September 1542 he was appointed warden of the Scottish
marches, and a few months later lord high admiral, a post which
he almost immediately relinquished in favour of the future duke
of Northumberland (<?.!>.). In March 1544 he was made lieu-
tenant-general of the north and instructed to punish the Scots
for their repudiation of the treaty of marriage between Prince
Edward and the infant Mary Queen of Scots. He landed at
Leith in May, captured and pillaged Edinburgh, and returned a
month later. In July he was appointed lieutenant of the realm
under the queen regent during Henry's absence at Boulogne, but
in August he joined the king and was present at the surrender
of the town. In the autumn he was one of the commissioners
sent to Flanders to keep Charles V. to the terms of his treaty with
England, and in January 1545 he was placed in command at
Boulogne, where on the 26th he brilliantly repelled an attempt
of Marshal de Biez to recapture the town. In May he was once
more appointed lieutenant-general in the north to avenge the
Scottish victory at Ancrum Moor; this he did by a savage foray
SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF
387
into Scotland in September. In March 1546 he was sent back
to Boulogne to supersede Surrey, whose command had not been
a success; and in June he was engaged in negotiations for peace
with France and for the delimitation of the English conquests.
From October to the end of Henry's reign he was in attendance
on the king, engaged in that unrecorded struggle for predomi-
nance which was to determine the complexion of the government
during the coming minority. Personal, political and religious
rivalry separated him and Lisle from the Howards, and Surrey's
hasty temper precipitated his own and his father's ruin. They
could not acquiesce in the Imperial ambassador's verdict that
Hertford and Lisle were the only noblemen of fit age and capacity
to carry on the government; and Surrey's attempt to secure the
predominance of his family led to his own execution and to his
father's imprisonment in the Tower.
Their overthrow had barely been accomplished when Henry
VIII. died on the 28th of January 1547. Preparations had
already been made for a further advance in the ecclesiastical
reformation and for a renewal of the design upon Scotland; and
the new government to some extent proceeded on the lines which
Chapuys anticipated that Henry VIII. would have followed had
he lived. He had no statutory power to appoint a protector,
but in the council of regency which he nominated Hertford and
Lisle enjoyed a decisive preponderance; and the council at its
first meeting after Henry's death determined to follow precedent
and appoint a protector. Hertford was their only possible choice;
he represented the predominant party, he was Edward VI. 's
nearest relative, he was senior to Lisle in the peerage and
superior to him in experience. Seven weeks later, however, after
Lord-Chancellor Wriothesley, the leading Catholic, had been de-
prived of office Hertford, who had been made duke of Somerset,
succeeded in emancipating himself from the trammels originally
imposed on him as protector; and he became king in everything
but name and prestige.
His ideas were in striking contrast with those of most Tudor
statesmen, and he used his authority to divest the government
of that apparatus of absolutism which Thomas Cromwell had
perfected. He had generous popular sympathies and was by
nature averse from coercion. " What is the matter, then ? "
wrote Paget in the midst of the commotions of 1549, " By my
faith, sir, . . . liberty, liberty. And your grace would have too
much gentleness." In his first parliament, which met in
November 1547, he procured the repeal of all the heresy laws and
nearly all the treason laws passed since Edward III. Even with
regard to Scotland he had protested against his instructions of
1544, and now ignored the claim to suzerainty which Henry VIII.
had revived, seeking to win over the Scots by those promises
of autonomy, free trade, and equal privileges with England,
which many years later eventually reconciled them to union.
But the Scots were not thus to be won in 1547: " What would you
say," asked one, " if your lad were a lass, and our lass were a
lad?" and Scottish sentiment backed by Roman Catholic
influence and by French intrigues, money and men, proved too
strong for Somerset's amiable invitations. The Scots turned
a deaf ear to his persuasions; the protector led another army into
Scotland in September 1547, and won the battle of Pinkie
(Sept. 10). He trusted to the garrisons he established throughout
the Lowlands to wear down Scottish opposition; but their
pressure was soon weakened by troubles in England and abroad,
and Mary was transported to France to wed Francis II. in
1557-
Somerset apparently thought that the religious question
could be settled by public discussion, and throughout 1547 and
1 548 England went as it pleased so far as church services were
concerned; all sorts of experiments were tried, and the country
was involved in a grand theological debate, in which Protestant
refugees from abroad hastened to join. The result convinced
the protector that the government must prescribe one uniform
order which all should be persuaded or constrained to obey;
but the first Book of Common Prayer, which was imposed by
the first Act of Uniformity in 1549, was a studious compromise
between the new and the old learning, very different from the
aggressive Protestantism of the second hook imposed after
Somerset had been removed, in 1552. The Catholic risings in
the west in 1549 added to Somerset's difficulties, but were not
the cause of his fall. The factious and treasonable conduct of
his brother, the lord high admiral, in whose execution (March
20, 1549) the protector weakly acquiesced, also impaired his
authority; but the main cause of his ruin was the divergence
between him and the majority of the council over the questions
of constitutional liberty and enclosures of the commons. The
majority scouted Somerset's notions of liberty and deeply
resented his championship of the poor against greedy landlords
and capitalists. His efforts to check enclosures by means of
parliamentary legislation, royal proclamations, and commissions
of inquiry were openly resisted or secretly foiled, and the
popular revolts which their failure provoked cut the ground
from Somerset's feet. He was divided in mind between his
sympathy with the rebels and his duty to maintain law and
order. France, which was bent on ruining the protector's
schemes in Scotland and on recovering Boulogne, seized the
opportunity to declare war on August the 8th; and the outlying
forts in the Boulonnais fell into their hands, while the Scots
captured Haddington.
These misfortunes gave a handle to Somerset's enemies.
Warwick combined on the same temporary platform Catholics
who resented the Book of Common Prayer, Protestants who
thought Somerset's mildness paltering with God's truth, and the
wealthy classes as a whole. In September he concerted measures
with the ex-lord-chancellor Wriothesley; and in October, after
a vain effort to rouse the masses in his favour, Somerset was
deprived of the protectorate and sent to the Tower. But the
hostile coalition broke up as soon as it had to frame a construc-
tive policy; Warwick jockeyed the Catholics out of the council
and prepared to advance along Protestant lines. He could
hardly combine proscription of the Catholics with that of Somer-
set, and the duke was released in February 1550. For a time
the rivals seemed to agree, and Warwick's son married Somerset's
daughter. But growing discontent with Warwick made Somer-
set too dangerous. In October 1551, after Warwick had been
created duke of Northumberland, Somerset was sent to the Tower
on an exaggerated charge of treason, which broke down at his
trial. He was, however, as a sort of compromise, condemned
on a charge of felony for having sought to effect a change of
government. Few expected that the sentence would be carried
out, and apparently Northumberland found it necessary to
forge an instruction from Edward VI. to that effect. Somerset
was executed on the 22nd of January 1552, dying with exemplary
patience and fortitude. His eldest son by his second wife was
re-created earl of Hertford by Elizabeth, and his great-grandson
William was restored as 2nd duke of Somerset in 1660. His
children by his first wife had been disinherited owing to the
jealousy of his second; but their descendants came into the titles
and property when the younger line died out in 1750.
See A. F. Pollard's England Under Protector Somerset (1900; full
bibliography, pp. 327-330), also his article in Diet. Nat. Biog. and
vol. vi. of Political History of England (1910). (A. F. P.)
SOMERSET, ROBERT CARR (or KER), EARL OF (c. 1590-1645),
Scottish politician, the date of whose birth is unrecorded, was a
younger son of Sir Thomas Ker of Ferniehurst by his second wife,
Janet, sister of Sir Walter Scott of Buccleuch. He accompanied
James I. as page to England, but being then discharged from the
royal service, sought for a time to make his fortune in France.
Returning to England he happened to break his arm at a tilting
match, at which James was present, and was recognized by the
king. Entirely devoid of all high intellectual qualities, Carr was
endowed with good looks, excellent spirits, and considerable
personal accomplishments. These advantages were sufficient
for James, who knighted the young man and at once took him
into favour. In 1607 an opportunity enabled the king to confer
upon him a more substantial mark of his affection. Sir W.
Raleigh had through his attainder forfeited his life-interest in
the manor of Sherborne, but he had previously executed a con-
veyance by which the property was to pass on his death to his
3 88
SOMERSET, LORD R. E. H. SOMERSETSHIRE
eldest son. This document was, unfortunately, rendered worth-
less by a flaw which gave the king eventual possession of the
property. Acting on Salisbury's suggestion, James resolved to
confer the manor on Carr. The case was argued at law, and
judgment was in 1609 given for the Crown. Lady Raleigh
received some compensation, apparently inadequate, and Carr
at once entered on possession. His influence was already such
that in 1610 he persuaded the king to dissolve the parliament,
which had shown signs of attacking the Scottish favourites.
On the 25th of March 1611 he was created Viscount Rochester,
and subsequently a privy councillor, while on Lord Salisbury's
death in 1612 he began to act as the king's secretary. On the
3rd of November 1613 he was advanced to the earldom of Somer-
set, on the 23rd of December was appointed treasurer of Scotland,
and in 1614 lord chamberlain. He supported the earl of North-
ampton and the Spanish party in opposition to the old tried
advisers of the king, such as Lord-Chancellor Ellesmere, who were
endeavouring to maintain the union with the Protestants abroad,
and who now in 1614 pushed forward another candidate for the
king's favour. Somerset, whose head was turned by the sudden
rise to power and influence, became jealous and peevish, and
feeling his position insecure, obtained in 1615 from the king a full
pardon, to which, however, the chancellor refused to put the
Great Seal. He still, however, retained the king's favour, and
might possibly have remained in power for some time longer
but for the discovery of the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury.
Before 1609, while still only Sir Robert Carr, Somerset had
begun an intrigue with Lady Essex. Supported by the king,
the latter obtained a decree of nullity of marriage against Lord
Essex in September 1613, and in December she married the earl
of Somerset. Ten days before the court gave judgment, Sir
Thomas Overbury, who apparently knew facts concerning Lady
Essex which would have been fatal to her success, and had been
imprisoned in the Tower, was poisoned. No idea seems to have
been entertained at the time that Lady Essex and her future
husband were implicated. The crime, however, was not dis-
closed till September 1615. Coke and Bacon were set to unravel
the plot. After four of the principal agents had been convicted
and punished, the earl and countess were brought to trial. The
latter confessed, and of her guilt there can be no doubt. Somer-
set's share is far more difficult to discover, and probably will
never be fully known. The evidence against him rested on mere
presumption, and he consistently declared himself innocent.
Probabilities are on the whole in favour of the hypothesis that he
was not more than an accessory after the fact. James, who had
been threatened by Somerset with damaging disclosures, let
matters take their course, and both earl and countess were found
guilty. The sentence was not carried into effect against either
culprit. The countess was pardoned immediately, but both
remained in the Tower till January 1622. The earl appears to
have refused to buy forgiveness by concessions, and it was not
till 1624 that he obtained his pardon. He only once more
emerged into public view when in 1630 he was prosecuted in the
Star Chamber for communicating a paper of Sir Robert Dudley's
to the earl of Clare, recommending the establishment of arbitrary
government. He died in July 1645, leaving one daughter,
Anne, the sole issue of his ill-fated marriage, afterwards wife of
the ist duke of Bedford.
See the article by S. R. Gardiner in Diet. Nat. Biog., with authori-
ties there cited, and the same author's History of England; State
Trials II. ; Life and Letters of Bacon, ed. by Spedding; Studies in Eng.
Hist., by Gairdner and Spedding.
SOMERSET, LORD ROBERT EDWARD HENRY (1776-1842),
British soldier, was the third son of the 5th duke of Beaufort,
and elder brother of Lord Raglan. Joining the isth Light
Dragoons in 1793, he became captain in the following year, and
received a majority after serving as aide-de-camp to the duke of
York in the Dutch expedition of 1799. At the end of 1800 he
became a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1801 received the command
of the 4th Light Dragoons. From 1799 to 1802 he represented
the Monmouth boroughs in the House of Commons, and from
1803 to 1823 sat for Gloucestershire. He commanded his
regiment at the battles of Talavera and Busaco, and in 1810
received a colonelcy and the appointment of A.D.C. to the king.
In 1811, along with the 3rd Dragoon Guards, the 4th Light
Dragoons fought a notable cavalry action at Usagre, and in
1812 Lord Edward Somerset was engaged in the great charge of
Le Marchant's heavy cavalry at Salamanca. His conduct on
this occasion (he captured five guns at the head of a single
squadron) won him further promotion, and he made the remain-
ing campaigns as a major-general at the head of the Hussar
brigade (7th, loth and isth Hussars). At Orthes he won further
distinction by his pursuit of the enemy; he was made K.C.B.,
and received the thanks of parliament. At Waterloo he was in
command of the Household Cavalry Brigade, which distinguished
itself not less by its stern and patient endurance of the enemy's
fire than by its celebrated charge on the cuirassiers of Milhaud's
corps. The brigadier was particularly mentioned in Wellington's
despatches, and received the thanks of parliament as well as the
Maria Theresa and other much-prized foreign orders. He died
a general and G.C.B. in 1842.
SOMERSETSHIRE, a south-western county of England,
bounded N. and N.W. by the Bristol Channel, N. and N.E. by
Gloucestershire, N.E. and E. by Wiltshire, S.E. by Dorsetshire,
S.W. and W. by Devonshire. The area is 1630-3 sq. m. In
shape the county resembles an ill-drawn crescent, curving inward
where Bridgwater Bay bends south-west and broader at its
eastern than at its western horn. It falls into three natural
divisions, being in fact a broad alluvial plain bordered by two
hill-regions. The Mendip range, breaking off from the high
ground near Wiltshire, extends north-west towards the channel,
where it ends with Brean Down; while the island of Steep Holm
stands as an outpost between the heights of Somerset and
Glamorgan. The summit of the Mendips is a long table-land,
reaching an extreme height, towards the western end, of 1068 ft.
in Black Down, sloping away gently towards the lower hills of
the north, but rising on the south in an abrupt line, broken by
many coombes or glens; the most striking of which are the cliffs
of Ebbor Rocks, near Wells, and the gorge of Cheddar (q.v.),
which winds for nearly a mile between huge and fantastic rocks.
South of the Mendips lies a broad plain watered by the Parrett
and the Brue, and known generally as Sedgemoor, but with
different names in different parts. This plain, intersected by
ditches known as. rhines, and in some parts rich in peat, is broken
by isolated hills and lower ridges, of which the most conspicuous
are Brent Knoll near Burnham, the Isle of Avalon, rising with
Glastonbury Tor as its highest point, and the long low ridge of
Polden ending to the west in a steep bluff. West of Sedgemoor
the second great region of hills extends from Devonshire to the
sea. It consists of the Black Down, Brendon and Quantock
hills, with Exmoor Forest (q.v.) in the extreme west. This
entire district is famous for the grandeur of its bare and desolate
moors, and the bold outlines and height of its mountains; the
chief of which are Dunkery, in Exmoor (1707 ft.); Lype Hill, the
westernmost point of the Brendon range (1391 ft.); and Will's
Neck, among the Quantocks (1261 ft.). The two principal rivers
of Somerset are the Avon and the Parrett. The Avon, after
forming for a short distance the boundary with Wiltshire, crosses
the north-eastern corner of the county, encircling Bath, and
forms the boundary with Gloucestershire till it reaches the sea
6 m. beyond Bristol. It is navigable for barges as far as Bath.
The Parrett from South Perrott in Dorset, on the borders of
Somerset, crosses the centre of the county north-westwards by
Bridgwater, receiving the Yeo and Gary on the right, and the
Isle and Tone on the left. Among other streams are the Axe,
which rises at Wookey Hole in the Mendips and flows north-
westward along their base to the Bristol Channel near Blackrock;
the Brue, which rises to the east of Bruton, near the borders
of Wiltshire, and enters the Bristol Channel near the mouth of
the Parrett; and the Exe (with its tributary the Barle), which
rises in Exmoor forest and passes southward into Devon. Some
of the Somersetshire streams, especially the Exe and Barle, are
in high favour with trout fishermen. Weston-super-Mare is a
flourishing seaside resort, and Minehead and other coast villages
are also frequented.
SOMERSETSHIRE
389
Geology. The oldest formation in the county is the Devonian,
which extends eastwards from Devonshire across Exmoor to the
Brendon and Quantock hills, and consists of sandstones, slates
and limestones of marine origin. The Old Red Sandstone, the
supposed estuarine or lacustrine equivalent of the Devonian, is a
series of red sandstones, marls and conglomerates, which rise as
an anticline in the Mendips (where they contain volcanic rocks), and
also appear in the Avon gorge and at Portishead. The Carbon-
iferous Limestone, of marine origin, is well displayed in the Mendip
country (Cheddar Cliffs, &c.) and in the Avon gorge; at Weston-
super-Mare it contains volcanic rocks. The Coal Measures of the
Radstock district (largely concealed by Trias and newer rocks)
consist of two series of coal-bearing sandstones and shales separated
by the Pennant Sandstone; locally the beds have been intensely
folded and faulted, as at Vobster. Indeed, all the formations
hitherto mentioned were folded into anticlines and synclines before
the deposition of the Triassic rocks. These consist of red marls,
sandstones, breccias and conglomerates, which spread irregularly
over the edges of the older rocks; the so-called Dolomitic Con-
glomerate is an old shingle-beach of Triassic (Keuper Marl) age.
The Rhaetic beds are full of fossils and mark the first invasion of
the district by the waters of the Jurassic sea. The Lias consists of
clays and limestones; the latter are quarried and are famous for their
ammonites and reptilian remains. Above the Lias comes the Lower
or Bath Oolite Series (Inferior Oolite group. Fuller's Earth and
Great Oolite group), chiefly clays and politic limestone; the famous
Bath Stone is got from the Great Oolite. The Oxford Clay is the
chief member of the Middle or Oxford Oolite Series. Above these
follow the Upper Cretaceous rocks, including the Gault, Upper
Greensand and Chalk, which extend into the county from Wiltshire
near Frome and from Dorset near Chard. There are apparently
no true glacial deposits. Low-lying alluvial flats and peat-bogs
occupy much of the surface west of Glastonbury. Caves in the
Carboniferous Limestone (e.g. Wookey Hole, near Wells) have
yielded Pleistocene mammalia and palaeolithic implements. The
thermal waters of Bath (120 F.) are rich in calcium and sodium
sulphates, &c. The chief minerals are coal, freestone and limestone,
and ores of lead, zinc and iron.
Agriculture. The climate partakes of the mildness of the south-
western counties generally. A high proportion, exceeding four-
fifths of the total area of the county, is under cultivation. In a
county where cattle-feeding and dairy-farming are the principal
branches of husbandry, a very large area is naturally devoted to
pasture; and there are large tracts of rich meadow land along the
rivers, where many of the Devonshire farmers place their herds to
graze. Floods, however, are common, and the Somerset Drainage
Act was passed by parliament on the nth of June 1877, providing
for the appointment of commissioners to take measures for the
drainage of lands in the valleys of the Parrett, Isle, Yeo, Brue, Axe,
Gary and Tone. Cheese is made in various parts, notably the famous
Cheddar Cheese, which is made in the farms lying south of the
Mendips. Sheep-farming is practised both in the lowlands and on
hill pastures, Leicesters and Southdowns being the favourite breeds.
In the Vale of Taunton heavy crops of wheat ar* raised; this grain,
barley and oats being raised on about equal areas. Turnips,
swedes and mangolds occupy most of the area under green crops.
Somerset ranks after Devon and Hereford in the extent of its apple
orchards, and the cider made from these apples forms the common
drink of the peasantry, besides being largely exported. Wild deer
are still found on Exmoor, where there is a peculiar breed of ponies,
hardy and small. The Bristol Channel and Bridgwater Bay abound
in white- and shell-fish; salmon and herring are also caught, the
principal fishing stations being Porlock, Minehead and Watchet.
Other Indiistries. Coal, from the Mendips, and freestone, largely
quarried near Bath, are the chief mineral products of Somerset,
although brown ironstone, zinc, limestone and small quantities of
slate, gravel, sand, sulphate of strontia, gypsum, ochre. Fuller's earth,
marl, cement, copper and manganese are also found. Lead mining
is carried on near Wellington, and lead washing in the Mendips; but
these industries, like the working of spathose iron ore among the
Brendon hills, are on the wane. The chief manufactures are those
of woollen and worsted goods, made in a large number of towns;
silk made at Frome, Taunton and Shepton Mallet; gloves at Yeovil,
Stoke, Martock and Taunton; lace at Chard; linen and sailcloth at
Crewkerne ; horsehair goods at Bruton, Castle Gary and Crewkerne ;
crape at Dulverton and Shepton Mallet. Tobacco, snuff and spirits
are also manufactured ; and there are large potteries at Bridgwater,
where the celebrated bath-brick is made, and at Weston-super-
Mare; carriage works at Bath and Bridgwater; engineering and
machine-works also at Bridgwater. On the Avon, copper and iron
are smelted, while several other rivers provide power for cotton,
worsted and paper mills. The bulk of the export trade passes
through Bristol, which is situated mainly in Gloucestershire, though
it has large docks on the Somerset side of the Avon, and others at
Portishead.
Communication. Somerset is well furnished with railways.
The Great Western runs between Frome, Radstock, Bath and
Bristol, and from Bristol it curves south-west through Weston and
Bridgwater to Taunton, dividing there and passing on into Devon.
Branches leave the main line for Portishead, Clevedon and Minehead
on the north, and for Witham Friary via Wells, Yeovil via Langport,
and Chard via Ilminster on the south. The South-Western main
line from London passes through the south-west of Somerset,
running from Templecombe to Axminster in Devon, a'nd the Somer-
set and Dorset runs from Bath to Shepton Mallet via Radstock.
The Kennet and Avon Canal flows from Bradford in Wiltshire to
Bath, and there joins the Avon, meeting on its way the two branches
of the Somersetshire Coal Canal which flow from Paulton and
Radstock. The Taunton and Bridgwater Canal flows into the
River Parrett.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 1,043,409 acres, with a population in 1891 of 484,337,
and in 1901 of 508,256. The area of the administrative county
is 1,037,484 acres. The county contains 40 hundreds and two
liberties. The municipal boroughs are Bath, a city and county
borough (pop. 49,839), Bridgwater (15,209), Chard (4437),
Glastonbury (4016), Taunton (21,087), Wells, a city (4849),
Yeovil (9861). The urban districts are Burnham (2897),
Clevedon (5900), Crewkerne (4226), Frome (11,057), Highbridge
(2233), Ilminster (2287), Midsomer Norton (5809), Minehead
(2511), Portishead (2544), Radstock (3355), Shepton Mallet
(5238), Street (4018), Watchet (1880), Wellington (7283), Weston-
super-Mare (19,845), Wiveliscombe (1417). Among other towns
may be mentioned Bruton (1788), Castle Gary (1902), Cheddar
(1975), Keynsham (3512) and Wincanton (1892). The county is
in the western circuit, and assizes are held at Taunton and Wells.
It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 22 petty
sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bath and Bridgwater have
separate courts of quarter sessions and commissions of the peace,
and those of Taunton, Wells and Yeovil have separate commis-
sions of the peace. The total number of civil parishes is 485.
Somerset is in the diocese of Bath and Wells, excepting small
parts in the dioceses of Bristol and Salisbury; it contains 508
ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. There are
seven parliamentary divisions Northern, Wells, Frome, Eastern,
Southern, Bridgwater and Western or Wellington, each return-
ing one member; while the parliamentary borough of Bath
returns two members, and that of Taunton one member; and
the county includes the greater part of the southern division of
the parliamentary borough of Bristol.
History. In the 6th century Somerset was the debatable
borderland between the Welsh and Saxons, the latter of whom
pushed their way slowly westward, fighting battles yearly and
raising fortifications at important points to secure their conquered
lands. Their frontier was gradually advanced from the Axe to
the Parrett, and from the Parrett to the Tamar, Taunton being
a border fort at one stage and Exeter at another. By 658
Somerset had been conquered by the West Saxons as far as the
Parrett, and there followed a struggle between the kingdoms of
Wessex and Mercia, decided by a great victory of Ine in 710,
which led to the organization of the lands east of the Parrett as
part of the kingdom of Wessex. There were still occasional
inroads by the Welsh, Taunton Castle being captured in 721, but
from the 8th century the West Saxon kings were rulers of what
is now known as Somersetshire. About this time the bishopric
of Wells was founded, and the monastery of Glastonbury restored
by Ine. The next hundred and fifty years were the period of
Danish invasions. Egbert, king of Wessex, became Bretwalda
or overlord of all England in 827, and under him Wessex with
the other frontier kingdoms was organized for defence against
the Danes, and later the assessment of danegeld led to the sub-
division of Wessex for financial and military purposes, which
crystallized into the divisions of hundreds and tithings, probably
with the system of assessment by hidation. King Alfred's vic-
tory in 878, followed by the Peace of Wedmore, ended the incur-
sions of the Danes for a time, but a hundred years later they
were again a great danger, and made frequent raids on the west
coast of Somerset. At some time before the Conquest, at a date
usually given as 1016, though evidence points to a much earlier
and more gradual establishment, England was divided into shires,
one of which was Somerset, and tradition gives the name of the
first earl as Hun, who was followed by Earnulf and Sweyn, son of
Godwin. There has been curiously little variation in the territory
390
SOMERSETSHIRE
included in the county, from the date of the Gheld Inquest
in 1084 to the second half of the igth century, when certain
minor alterations were ma'de in the county boundary. These
have been practically the only changes in the county boundary
for 900 years, if we except the exclusion of Bristol from the county
jurisdiction in 1373.
At the Conquest Somerset was divided into about 700 fiefs
held almost entirely by the Normans. The king's lands in
Somerset were of great extent and importance, and consisted in
addition to the ancient demesne of the Crown of the lands of
Godwin and Earl Harold and the estates of Queen Edith who died
in 1074. The bishop of Winchester owned a vast property of
which Taunton was the centre, and about one-tenth of the county
was included in the estates of the bishop of Coutances, which were
akin to a lay barony and did not descend as a whole at the
bishop's death. The churches of Glastonbury, Athelney and
Muchelney still owned vast lands, but Norman spoliation had
deprived them of much that they had held before the Conquest.
Among the great lay tenants who divided the conquered lands
were the count of Mortain (the Conqueror's half-brother), Roger
de Corcelles, Walter de Douai, Roger Arundel and William de
Mohun. About this time or a little later many Norman castles
were built, some of which have survived. The castles at
Richmont (near West Harptree), Nunney, Farleigh, Bridgwater,
Stoke Courcy, Taunton and Dunster were probably the most
important. Somerset was very rich in boroughs at the time of
Domesday, which points to a considerable development of trade
before the Conquest; Bath, Taunton, Ilchester, Frome, Milborne
Port, Bruton, Langport and Axbridge were all boroughs in 1087,
and there was the nucleus of a borough at Yeovil. Somerton,
Ilchester and Taunton were successively the meeting-places
of the shire court. There were joint sheriffs for Somerset and
Dorset until 1566 when a separate sheriff for each county was
appointed. In the 7th century Somerset, as part of the kingdom
of Wessex, was included in the diocese of Winchester. The new
bishopric of Sherborne, founded in 704, contained Somerset until
QIO when the see was divided into the dioceses of Salisbury,
Exeter and Wells, the latter including the whole county of
Somerset. The diocese was divided into three archdeaconries,
Bath with two deaneries, Wells with seven and Taunton with four.
Disputes between the chapters of Bath and Wells as to the
election of the bishop led to a compromise in 1245, the election
being by the chapters jointly, and the see being known as the
bishopric of Bath and Wells. There has always been a strongly
marked division of the county into East and West Somerset, a
relic of the struggles between the Welsh and Saxons, which was
recognized for parliamentary purposes by the act of 1 83 2 . Somer-
set contained 37 hundreds in 1087, and now contains 41. There
have been considerable modifications of these hundredal divi-
sions by aggregation or subdivision, but since the 1 5th century
there has been little change. The meeting-place of the hundred
courts was at the village or town which gave its name to the
hundred in the cases of Bruton, Cannington, Carhampton, Chew,
Chewton, Crewkerne, Frome, Glaston Twelve Hides, Huntspili,
Kilmersdon, Kingsbury East, Milverton, North Curry, North
Petherton, Norton Ferris, Pitney, Portbury, Somerton, South
Petherton, Taunton, Tintinhull, Wellow, Wells Forum and
Winterstoke. The hundred of Abdick and Bulstone met at
Ilford Bridges in Stocklinch Magdalen, Andersfield hundred
court was held at the hamlet of Andersfield in the parish
of Goathurst, Bath Forum hundred met at Wedcombe, Bemp-
stone at a huge stone in the parish of Allerton, Brent and
Wrington at South Brent, Catsash at an ash tree on the road
between Castle Gary and Yeovil, Hartcliffe and Bedminster
at a lofty cliff between the parishes of Barrow Gurnes and
Winford, Horethorne or Horethorne Down near Milborne Port,
Whitstone at a hill of the same name near Shepton Mallet,
Williton and Freemanors in the village of Williton in the parish
of St Decumans, and Whitley at Whitley Wood in Walton
parish. In the case of Kingsbury the meeting-place of the
hundred is not known. The great liberties of the county were
Cranmore, Wells and Leigh, which belonged to the abbey of
Glastonbury; Easton and Amrill and Hampton and Claverton,
which were the liberties of the abbey of Bath; Hinton and
Norton, which belonged to the Carthusian priory of Hinton;
Witham Priory, a liberty of the house of that name ; and Williton
Freemanor, which belonged for a time to the Knights Templars.
The chief families of the county in the middle ages were those
of De Mohun, Malet, Revel, De Courcy, Montacute, Beauchamp
and Beaufort, which bore the titles of earls or dukes of Somerset
from 1396 to 1472. Edward Seymour was made duke of
Somerset in 1547, and in 1660 the title was restored to the
Seymour family, by whom it is still held. The marquess of
Bath is the representative of the Thynne family, which has long
been settled in the county, and the predecessors of the earl of <
Lovelace have owned land in Somerset for three centuries.
Hinton St George has been the seat of the Poulet family since
the i6th century. The De Mohun family were succeeded in the
i4th century by the Luttrells, who own great estates round
Dunster Castle. The families of Hood, Wyndham, Acland,
Strachey, Brokeley, Portman, Hobhouse and Trevelyan have
been settled in Somerset since the. i6th century.
Somerset was too distant and isolated to take much share in
the early baronial rebellions or the Wars of the Roses, and was
really without political history until the end of the middle ages.
The attempt of Perkin Warbeck in 1497 received some support in
the county, and in 1547 and 1549 there were rebellions against
enclosures. Somerset took a considerable part in the Civil War,
and with the exception of Taunton, was royalist, all the strong-
holds being garrisoned and held for the king. Waller was
defeated at Landsdown near Bath in 1643, and Goring at the
battle of Allermoor in 1645. This defeat was followed by the
capture of the castles held by the royalists. Bridgwater and Bath
fell in July 1645, Sherborne Castle was taken in August, and
after the capture of Nunney, Farleigh and Bristol in September
1645 the whole county was subdued, and very heavy fines were
inflicted upon the royalists, who included nearly all the great
landowners of the county. Somerset was the theatre of Mon-
mouth's rebellion, and he was proclaimed king at Taunton in
1685. The battle of Sedgmoor on the 4th of July was followed
in the autumn by the Bloody Assize held by Judge Jeffreys.
Somerset has always been an agricultural county. Grain was
grown and exported from the nth to the end of the l8th century.
Cider-making has been carried on for centuries. Among other
early industries, salmon and herring fisheries on the west coast were
very profitable, and mining on the Mendips dated from the pre-
Roman period. Stone quarrying at Hambdon Hill and Bath began
very early in the history of the county ; and the lead mines at Welling-
ton and the slate quarries at Wiveliscombe and Treborough have
been worked for more than a century. Coal has been mined at
Radstock from a very remote date, but it did not become of great
importance commercially until the county was opened up by canals
and railways in the igth century. Sheep-farming was largely
carried on after the period of enclosures, and the woollen trade
flourished in Frome, Bath, Bridgwater, Taunton and many other
towns from the I4th to the igth centuries. Glove-making was
centred at Stoke and Yeovil at the end of the i8th century and
became an important subsidiary occupation in many country
districts. The county was represented in the parliament of 1290
and probably in the earlier parliamentary councils of Henry III.
In 1295 it was represented by two knights, and twelve boroughs
returned two burgesses each. There have been many fluctuations
in the borough representation, but the county continued to return
two members until 1832, when it was divided into Somerset East
and Somerset West, each of which divisions returned two members.
Two additional members were returned after 1867 for a third the
Mid-Somerset division of the county, until by the act of 1885 the
whole county was divided into seven divisions.
Antiquities. The great possessions of the bishopric and of
the abbey of Glastonbury led to a remarkable lack of castles in
the mid part of the county, and also tended to overshadow all
other ecclesiastical foundations. Even in the other parts of
the county castles are not a prominent feature, and no monastic
churches remain perfect except those of Bath and its cell,
Dunster. At the dissolution of monasteries Bath was suppressed,
the monastery of Glastonbury was destroyed, as were most of the
smaller monasteries also. Of those which have left any remains,
Woodspring, Montacute (Cluniac) and Old Cleeve (Cistercian)
SOMERSWORTH SOMERVILLE
are the most remarkable. Athelney, founded by Alfred on the
spot where he found shelter, has utterly perished. Montacute
and Dunster fill a place in both ecclesiastical and military history.
The castle of Robert of Mortain, the Conqueror's brother, was
built on the peaked hill (mons acutus) of Leodgaresburh, where the
holy cross of Waltham was found. The priory arose at the foot.
Dunster, one of the few inhabited castles in England, stands on
a hill crowned by an English mound. Besides these there are
also remains at Nunney and Castle Gary. In ecclesiastical
architecture the two great churches of Wells and Glastonbury
supply a great study of the development of the Early English
style out of the Norman. But the individual architectural
interest of the county lies in its great parish churches, chiefly
in the Perpendicular style, which are especially noted for their
magnificent towers. They are so numerous that it is not easy
to select examples, but besides those at Bath, Taunton and
Glastonbury, the churches at Bridgwater, Cheddar, Crewkerne,
Dunster, Ilminster, Kingsbury, Leigh-on-Mendip, Martock and
Yeovil may be specially indicated. Of earlier work there is
little Norman, and hardly any pre-Conquest, but there is a
characteristic local style in some of the smaller buildings of the
i4th century. The earlier churches were often cruciform, and
sometimes with side towers. In domestic remains no district
is richer, owing to the abundance of good stone. Clevedon
Court is a very fine inhabited manor-house of the i4th century,
and the houses, great and small, of the isth, i6th and i7th
centuries are very numerous. Indeed, the style has never quite
gone out, as the gable and the mullioned window have lingered
on to this day. Barrington Court in the i6th century and
Montacute House in the I7th are specially fine examples. There
are also some very fine barns, as at Glastonbury, Wells and
Pilton.
See J. Collinson, History and Antiquities of the County of Somerset
(Bath, 1791); W. Phelps, History and Antiquities of Somerset (London,
1839); R. W. Eyton, Domesday Studies: Analysis of the Somerset
Survey (London, 1880) ; F. T. Elworthy, West Somerset Word-Book
(Dialect Society, London, 1886); Roger, Myths and Worthies of
Somerset (London, 1887); C. R. B. Barrett, Somerset Highways,
Byways and Waterways (London, 1894) ; C. Walters, Bygone Somerset
(London, 1897); Victoria County History: Somerset; also various
publications by the Somerset Record Society, the Proceedings of the
Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society, and Somerset
Notes and Queries.
SOMERSWORTH, a city of Strafford county, New Hamp-
shire, U.S.A., on the Salmon Falls river, 5 m. N. of Dover, and
opposite the town of Berwick, Maine, industrially a part of
Somersworth. Pop. (1890) 6207; (1900) 7023 (3166 foreign-
born); (1910) 6704. Somercworth is served by the Boston &
Maine railroad, and is connected by electric line with Rochester
and Dover. The river furnishes good water power, and the city's
chief interests are in the manufacture of cotton and woollen
goods, and boots and shoes. It has a public library. In the south-
west part is Central Park, lying along the shore of Willand's
Pond. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks.
A settlement was established here in the latter part of the i7th
century, when the territory was a part of Dover. In 1729 the
parish of Summersworth was organized; in 1754 this parish was
erected into the town of Somersworth; in 1821 the first company
was formed to develop the water-power and establish cotton and
woollen mills; in 1849 the southern half of the town was set-
off and incorporated as Rollinsford; and in 1893 Somers-
worth was chartered as a city.
See W. D. Knapp, Somersworth, an Historical Sketch (1894).
SOMERVILE, WILLIAM (1675-1742), English poet, eldest son
of a country gentleman, was born at Edstone, Worcestershire,
on the 2nd of September 1675. He was educated at Winchester
College and at New College, Oxford. After his father's death
in 1 705 he lived on his estate, devoting himself especially to field
sports, which supplied the subjects of his best-known poems.
His publications were The Two Springs (1725), a fable; Occa-
sional Poems. . . (1727) ; The Chase (1735) Hobbinol, or the Rural
Games (1740), a burlesque poem; and Field Sports (1742), a
poem on hawking. Somervile died on the igth of July 1742.
His Chase passed through many editions. It was illustrated by
Bewick (1796), by Stothard (1800), and by Hugh Thomson (1896),
with a preface by R. F. Sharp.
SOMERVILLE, MARY (1780-1872), British scientific writer,
was the daughter of Admiral Sir William George Fairfax, and was
born on the 26th of December 1780 in the manse of Jedburgh,
the house of her mother's sister, wife of Dr Thomas Somerville
(1741-1830), author of My Own Life and Times, whose son was
her second husband. She received a rather desultory education,
and mastered algebra and Euclid in secret after she had left
school, and without any extraneous help. In 1804 she married
her cousin, Captain Samuel Greig, who died in 1806; and
in 1812 she married another cousin, Dr William Somerville
(1771-1860), inspector of the army medical board, who encour-
aged and greatly aided her in the study of the physical sciences.
After her marriage she made the acquaintance of the most
eminent scientific men of the time, among whom her talents
had attracted attention before she had acquired general fame,
Laplace paying her the compliment of stating that she was the
only .woman who understood his works. Having been requested
by Lord Brougham to translate for the Society for the Diffusion
of Useful Knowledge the Mecanique Celeste of Laplace, she
greatly popularized its form, and its publication in 1831,
under the title of The Mechanism of the Heavens, at once
made her famous. Her other works are the Connexion of the
Physical Sciences (1834), Physical Geography (1848), and
Molecular and Microscopic Science (1869). Much of the
popularity of her writings was due to their clear and crisp
style and the underlying enthusiasm for her subject which
pervaded them. In 1835 she received a pension of 300 from
government. She died at Naples on the 28th of November
1872. In the following year there appeared her Personal Recol-
lections, consisting of reminiscences written during her old
age, and of great interest both for what they reveal of her own
character and life and the glimpses they afford of the literary
and scientific society of bygone times.
SOMERVILLE, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the Mystic river, adjoining Boston (Charlestown),
Cambridge, Medford and Arlington. Pop. (1890), 40,152;
(1900), 61,643, of whom 17,232 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 77,236. Of the foreign-born in 1900 6400 were
English-Canadians, 5542 were Irish, 1321 were English, 610
were French-Canadians, 590 were Italians, 576 were Scotch
and 556 were Swedish. Somerville is served by the Boston
& Maine railroad and by suburban electric railway lines.
It is a residential and manufacturing suburb of Boston, of which,
industrially, it forms a part; it is included in the metro-
politan water, sewer and park districts, and in the Boston
postal district. It comprises an irregular (land) area of 4-06
sq. m. in the Mystic Valley and along a range of hills or ridges,
of which the largest are Prospect, Spring, Winter, Central and
Clarendon hills. Among its public buildings and institutions
are a fine public library (1872) with 80,000 volumes in 1908, the
city hall, a state armoury, Somerville Hospital, the city poor
house, a Roman Catholic home for the aged, and two high
schools (English and classical). Among the parks are Broadway
Park, Central Hill Park, Prospect Hill Park, Lincoln Park, and
Nathan Tufts Park. The total value of the city's factory
product in 1905 was $22,955,197, an increase of 14-4 per cent,
over that of 1900; in 1890 the product value was only $7,307,522.
The establishments include slaughtering and meat-packing
houses, whose product is by far the most valuable in the city,
bleacheries, finishing factories, glassworks, machine shops, tube
works, jewelry factories, and a desk factory. There are also
lumber and coal yards. Blue slate-stone used for building
purposes is quarried.
Somerville, originally a part of Charlestown, was settled in
1630. Six hundred acres, the " Ten Hills Farm," were granted
here in 1631 to John Winthrop, who built and launched here
in that year the " Blessing of the Bay," the first ship built in
Massachusetts. For more than a century it was a sparsely
settled farming community, the only article of manufacture
392
SOMERVILLE SOMME
being bricks. On the ipth of April 1775 the British columns
returning from Concord were harassed by the farmers here,
as in the other towns along the line of march. Several of the
hills of Somerville (e.g. Prospect and Central Hills) were fortified
during the siege of Boston. On Prospect Hill on the i8th of
July 1775 Israel Putnam raised the " Appeal to Heaven "
flag, and here also is said to have been raised on the ist of
January 1776 one of the earliest of the Continental standards,
the Union Jack and Stripes. On Powder House Hill (originally
Quarry Hill), in Nathan Tufts Park, there still stands an
interesting old slate-stone powder house, a circular building,
30 ft. high, with a conical cap, originally built (about 1703) for
a windmill, deeded in 1747 to the Massachusetts Bay Colony,
used in 1756-1822 as a powder house, and now marked by a
bronze tablet erected by the Massachusetts Society of the
Sons of the Revolution; on the ist of September 1774, General
Gage seized 250 half -barrels of powder stored here in anticipa-
tion of the outbreak of hostilities; in 1775 the powder house
became the magazine of the American forces besieging Boston,
and at that time Nathanael Greene maintained his headquarters
at the Samuel Tufts House, and Charles Lee had his head-
quarters at the Oliver Tufts House, in Somerville. After the
battle of Saratoga some of Burgoyne's officers were housed
here. The opening of the Middlesex Canal through the town
in 1803 and of the Boston & Lowell railroad in 1835 gave an
impetus to the town's growth. In 1834 an Ursuline Convent,
built in 1827 on Mt Benedict, was sacked and destroyed by an
anti-Catholic mob. In 1842 Somerville was separated from
Charlestown and incorporated under its present name; it was
chartered as a city in 1871.
See T. H. Hurd, History of Middlesex County (3 vols., Philadelphia,
1890); S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County (2 vols., Boston,
1880); E. A. Samuels, Somerville Past and Present (Boston, 1897);
Miss M. A. Haley, The Story of Somerville (Boston, 1903).
SOMERVILLE, a borough and the county-seat' of Somerset
county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the north central part of the
state, on the Raritan river, about 36 m. S.W. of New York
City. Pop. (1890), 3861; (1900), 4843, of whom 560 were
foreign-born; (1905), 4782; (1910), 5069. It is served by the
Central Railroad of New Jersey and by inter-urban electric
lines. Adjoining the borough on the west is the town of Raritan
(pop. in 1905, 3954). Places of interest in Somerville are the
Old Parsonage of the Dutch Reformed Church, built in 1750-
1751 of brick imported from Holland by the Rev. Theodorus
Jacobus Frelinghuysen, the first pastor; the Wallace House,
built in 1778 and occupied by General Washington as his head-
quarters during the following winter, when the main army was in
camp at Bound Brook; and Duke's Park (partly in Raritan),
the immense private estate (laid out as a park and open to the
public) of James B. Duke, president of the American Tobacco
Company. Somerville has a fine county court house (1909) of
Alabama white marble. Among the borough's manufactures
are stoves, ranges, soil pipe, brick, woollen goods and shirts.
Settlements were made within the present limits of Somerville
in the last quarter of the i7th century, and the village was at
first called Raritan, all that part of the Raritan Valley from
Bound Brook to the junction of the north and south branches
of the river, and including the present Somerville and Raritan,
then being popularly called " Raritans." The present name
was adopted in 1801. Somerville became the county-seat in
1 783, after the destruction of the court-house in what is now the
borough of Millstone (in Hillsborough township, about 6 m.
south of Somerville) on the 27th of October 1779 by British
troops under Colonel John Graves Simcoe; it was incorporated as
a town in 1863, and as a borough in 1909.
SOMME, a department of northern France, formed in 1790 of
a large part of the province of Picardy (comprising Vermandois,
Santerre, Amienois, Ponthieu, Vimeu, and Marquenterre) and a
small portion of Artois. Pop. (1906), 532,567. Area 2423 sq. m.
It is bounded on the N. by Pas-de-Calais, E. by Aisne, S. by
Oise, and S.W. by Seine-Inferieure, and its sea-coast extends
28 m. along the English Channel. Two streams flowing into the
Channel the Authie on the north and the Bresle on the south-
west bound it in these directions. The surface consists of
great rolling plains, generally well cultivated and very fertile.
The highest point, about 700 ft. above the sea, lies in the south-
west, not far from Aumale. From the mouth of the Authie
to the Bay of the Somme the coast is lined with a belt of sand
dunes about 2 m. broad, behind which is the Marquenterre, a
tract of 50,000 acres reclaimed from the sea by means of dykes
and traversed by drainage canals. The Bay of the Somme,
obstructed by dangerous sandbanks, contains the three fishing
ports of Crotoy, St Valery, which is also the chief commercial
port, and Le Hourdel. Next come the shingle banks, behind
which the low fields of Cayeux (25,000 acres) have been
reclaimed; and then at the hamlet of Ault commence the
chalk cliffs, which continue onwards into Normandy.
The river Somme rises to the N.N.E. of St Quentin in the
department of Aisne, where it has a course of about 25 m.; it
traverses the department of Somme from the south-east to the
north-west for a distance of about 125 m., through a marshy
valley abounding in peat. Commanded by Ham, Peronne,
Amiens and Abbeville, this valley forms a northern line of
defence for Paris. Apart from the water-power it supplies, the
Somme is of great commercial value, being accompanied by a
canal all the way from its source wherever it is not itself navig-
able. From Abbeville to St Valery its lower course forms a
maritime canal 165 ft. wide, 12 ft. deep, and 8 to 9 m. long,
capable of bearing at high tide vessels of 300 tons burden.
From St Valery to the open sea the current hollows out a very
variable bed accessible at certain tides for vessels of 500 tons.
The most important affluents of the Somme the Ancre from
the north-east by way of Albert and Corbie, the Avre from the
south-east by Roye, and the Selle from the south by Conty join
the main streams at Amiens. The Authie and the Bresle are
respectively 63 and 45 m. long. The latter ends in a maritime
canal about 2 m. long between Eu and Treport.
The mean temperature is lower than that of Paris (49 F. at
Abbeville). The mean annual rainfall is 33 in. at Abbeville. The
department, especially in the north-east, is one of the best cultivated
in France. Beetroot for sugar is the staple crop of the Pe'ronne
arrondissement ; cereals, chiefly wheat, fodder and mangel-wurzels,
oil plants, poppy, colza, flax, hemp and potatoes are grown through-
out the department, the latter more largely on the seaboard. Stock-
raising of all kinds is successfully carried on. No wine is grown, the
principal drinks being beer and cider. Market gardening is of great
importance round Amiens. Peat-cutting is actively carried on,
the best qualities and the deepest workings being in the valley of
the Somme, between Amiens and Abbeville. Phosphate of lime
is also an important mineral product. The manufacture of a great
variety of textile goods, especially velvet (Amiens), of beet sugar and
alcohol, and of locks, safes and the like (in the Vimeu), are charac-
teristic industries of the department, which also carries on saw-
milling, flour-milling, brewing, dyeing, ironfounding and forging,
printing and the manufacture of paper, chemical products, machines
and ironmongery, hosiery (in the Santerre), &c. Cereals, horses
of the Boulogne or Norman breed, cattle, hemp and linen, and the
manufactured goods are the exports of the department. St Valery
(pop. 3389) exports vegetables and farm-products (to England), and
shingle for the manufacture of earthenware. Besides the raw
materials for the manufacturing industries, wines and timber, the
latter largely imported at St Valery, dyestuffs and coal are imported.
The department is served principally by the Northern railway,
and its canals and rivers provide 140 m. of navigable waterway.
Administratively the department comprises 5 arrondissements
(those of Amiens, the capital, Abbeville, Doullens, Montdidier and
Pe'ronne), 41 cantons and 836 communes. The department belongs
to the academic (educational circumscription) of Lille, and consti-
tutes the diocese of Amiens, which city is also the seat of a court of
appeal and the headquarters of the region of the II. army corps,
wherein the department is included.
The most noteworthy places are Amiens (the capital), Abbeville,
Montdidier, Pe'ronne, Doullens, St Riquier, Crcfcy and Ham, which
are treated under those headings. The following places may also
be mentioned : Albert (pop. 6656), after Amiens and Abbeville the
most populous town in the department and a centre for machine
construction; Villers-Bretonneux (pop. 4447), a centre of hosiery
manufacture; Corbie, once celebrated for its Benedictine abbey
(founded in the 7th century) the church of which (i6th-i8th century)
is still to be seen; L'Etoile, with the well-preserved remains of a
Roman camp; Folleville, which has a church (isth century) contain-
ing the fine Renaissance tomb of Raoul de Lannoy; Picquigny, with
SOMMER SOMNATH
393
the remains of a chateau of the I4th, I5th and i6th centuries, once
one of the chief strongholds of Picardy; Rue, where there is a fine
chapel of the I5th century; and Tilloloy, which has a Renaissance
church.
SOMMER, in architecture, a girder or main beam of a floor;
if supported on two storey posts and open below, it is called a
bress or breast-summer. The word is also spelled " summer,"
and is the same as " sumpter," a pack-horse, Fr. sommier,
O. Fr., saume, from Low Lat. salma, pack, burden, Gr. cray/aa,
ffaTTdv, to fasten a pack on a horse.
SOMMERFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Lubis, 40 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder,
by the railway from Berlin to Breslau. Pop. (1905), 12,251.
It has a Roman Catholic church, three Evangelical churches,
several schools and a hospital. Its manufactures of woollen
cloth are important; and it also contains finishing and dye-
works, an ironfoundry, boiler-works and breweries.
SOMMERS, WILLIAM (d. 1560), court fool of Henry VIII.,
is said to have been brought to the king at Greenwich by
Richard Fermor, about 1525. He was soon in high favour with
Henry, whose liberality to Sommers is attested by the accounts
of the royal household. The jester possessed a shrewd wit,
which he exercised even on Cardinal Wolsey. He is said to have
warned his master of the wasteful methods of the exchequer and
to have made himself the advocate of the poor. His portrait is
shown in a painting of Henry VIII. and his family at Hampton
Court, and he again appears with Henry VIII. in a psalter
which belonged to the king and is now in the British Museum.
He was probably the William Sommers whose death is recorded
in the parish of St Leonard's, Shoreditch, on the isth of June
1560.
For his position in i6th- and 17th-century literature see T. Nash,
Pleasant Comedie called Summers' last Will and Testament (pr. 1600);
S. Rowlands, Good Newes and Bad Newes (1622); and a popular
account, A Pleasant Historie of the Life and Death of William Som-
mers (reprinted 1794). See also John Doran, History of Court Fools
(1858).
SOMNAMBULISM (from Lat. somnus, sleep, and ambulare,
to walk), or sleep-walking, the condition under which people
are known to walk along while asleep, apparently unconscious
of external impressions, return to bed, and when they awake
have no recollection of any of these occurrences. Sometimes
the actions performed are of a complicated character and bear
some relation to the daily life of the sleeper. Thus a cook has
been known to rise out of bed, carry a pitcher to a well in the
garden, fill it, go back to the house, fill various vessels carefully
and without spilling a drop of water, then return to bed, and have
no recollection of what had transpired. Again, somnambulists
have been observed to write letters or reports, execute drawings,
and play upon musical instruments. Frequently they have
gone along dangerous paths, executing delicate movements
with precision.
Four types of somnambulists may be noticed: (i) those who
speak without acting, a common variety often observed in
children and not usually considered somnambulistic; (2) those
who act without speaking, also well known and the most common
type; (3) those who both act and speak, more exceptional; and
(4) those who both act and speak and who have not merely the
sense of touch active but also the senses of sight and hearing.
The fourth class is the most extreme type and merges into the
physiological condition of mesmerism or hypnotism (q.v.),
and it is necessary here only to notice it in connexion with the
subject of sleep. Many observations indicate that, at all
events in some cases, the somnambulist engaged, for example,
in writing, has a mental picture of the page before him and of
the words he has written. He does not see what he really
writes. This has been proved by causing persons to write on a
sheet of paper lying on the top of other sheets. After he had
been allowed to write a few sentences, the sheet was carefully
withdrawn and he continued his writing on the next sheet,
beginning on the new sheet at the corresponding point where
he left off on the first one. Moreover, the somnambulist, by
force of habit, stroked t's and dotted i's at the exact places
Organic
life.
Conscious-
ness.
Imagin-
ative
faculties.
Co-ordi-
nating
faculties.
Power of
movement
and
sensibility.
Normal waking state
Sleep, I st degree .
,, 2nd degree .
3rd degree . .
Deep sleep ....
Waking, ist degree
*
,, 2nd degree (speci-
ally dreaming
state) .
,, 3rd degree. .
Complete waking
Dreaming state .
Ordinary somnambulism
(2) above.
Profound somnambulism
(perfect unconscious-
ness)
Somnambulistic dream
(movements in a dream)
where the t's and i's would have been had he written continuously
on one sheet, showing that what he was conscious of was not
what was before him, but the mental picture of what he had, done.
The following table, modified from two such tables given by
Benjamin Ball (b. 1833) and Chambard in their classical article
" Somnambulisme " in the Dictionnaire encyclopedique des sciences
medicales, shows the relation of the various intermediate conditions
of sleeping and awaking and of the dreaming and somnambulistic
states. The horizontal stroke indicates the presence of the condition
the name of which heads the column :
The somnambulist acts his dream. His condition is that of a
vivid dream in which the cerebrum is so active as to influence
centres usually concerned in voluntary movements. Under the
dominant idea he executes the movements that this idea would
naturally excite in the waking state. Many of his movements are
in a sense purposive; his eyes may be shut so that the movements
are executed in the dark, or the eyes may be open so that there is
a picture on the retina that may awaken no consciousness, and yet
may, by reflex mechanisms, be the starting-point of definite and
deliberate movements. In many cases he does not hear, the audi-
tory centres not responding; but in others suggestive words may
alter the current of his dream and lead him to perform other actions
than what he intended to do. On awaking there is either no
memory of what has taken place or the dim recollection of a fading
dream.
It is important to notice that there is scarcely any action of
which a somnambulist may not be capable, and immoral acts from
which the individual would shrink in waking hours may be per-
formed with indifference. Considering the abrogation of self-con-
trol peculiar to the physiological condition, it is evident that no
moral responsibility can be attached to such actions. In cases
where somnambulistic propensities place a person in danger, an
endeavour should be made to induce him to return to bed without
awaking him ; as a rude awakening may produce a serious shock to
the nervous system. Inquiry should then be made into the exciting
cause of the somnambulistic dream, such as a particular train of
thought, over-excitement, fhe reading of special books, the recollec-
tion of an accident or of a crisis in the person's history, with the view
of removing the cause if possible. It should never be forgotten that
somnambulism, like chorea, hysteria and epilepsy, is the expression
of a general morbid predisposition, an indication of a nervous
diathesis, requiring careful treatment so as to avoid more dangerous
maladies.
See also SLEEP and MUSCLE AND NERVE (physiology).
SOMNATH, an ancient decayed city of Kathiawar in the
province of Bombay, India. Pop. (1901), 8341. It is situated
on a bay of the Arabian Sea. The port, which is called Vera-
wal, is distinct from the city proper (Deva-Pattan, Somnath-
Pattan, or Prabhas). The latter occupies a prominence on the
south side of the bay, is surrounded by massive fortifications,
and retains in its ruins and numerous tombs many traces of its
former greatness as a commercial port. But the city was most
famous for the temple just outside its walls in which stood the
great idol or rather columnar emblem of Siva called Somnath
(Moon's lord), which was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni.
The famous " Gates of Somnath," which were supposed to
have been carried off by Mahmud to Ghazni, had probably no
connexion with Somnath. They are built of deodar (n ft. in
height and 9! in width) and are richly carved in geometric
394
SOMNUS SONATA FORMS
Saracenic patterns. The gates were attached to the building
covering Mahmud's tomb at Ghazni until their removal to India.
under Lord Ellenborough's orders, on the evacuation of Afghani-
stan in 1842. They are now contained in the arsenal at Agra.
SOMNUS, the Latin name for the personification of sleep,
in Greek Hypnos ("Tir^os). He is the son of Night and the
twin brother of Death, with whom he dwells in the darkness of
the underworld. At first the difference between the two is
strongly marked. While Death is cruel and merciless, and
never lets go his prey once seized, Sleep is gentle and kindly,
the bestower of rest and pleasant dreams, the soother of care
and sorrow. Even Zeus is unable to resist his influence, and
on two occasions was put to sleep by him at the instance of
Hera. In time, however, the conception of Death was greatly
modified, until at last he was depicted as a beautiful boy, with
or without wings. In like manner, Sleep came to be used as a
euphemism for Death. In art the representations of Sleep
are numerous and varied. On the chest of Cypselus, Night was
depicted holding in her hands two sleeping children one white
(Sleep), the other black (Death). His most common form is
that of a vigorous young man, with wings on his forehead;
his attributes a stalk of poppy, and a horn from which he drops
slumber upon those whom he puts to rest. In Ovid (Metam. xi.
592) the home of Sleep is placed in a dark grotto in the land of the
Cimmerians, where he dwells surrounded by a band of Dreams.
See Homer, Iliad xiv. 231 xvi. 672; Hesiod, Theog. 212, 758;
Pausanias, v. 18, i.
SONATA (From Ital. sonare, to sound), in music, originally
merely a piece " played " as opposed to " cantata," a piece
sung, though the term is said to have been applied once or twice
to a vocal composition. By the time of Corelli two polyphonic
types of sonata were established, the sonata da chiesa and the
sonata da camera.
The s.onata ,da chiesa, generally for one or more violins and
bass, consisted normally of a slow introduction, a loosely fugued
allegro, a cantabile slow movement 1 and a lively finale in
some such " binary " form (see SONATA FORMS) as suggests
affinity with the dance-tunes of the SUITE (q.v.). This scheme,
however, is not very clearly defined, until the works of Bach
and Handel, when it becomes the sonata par excellence and per-
sists as a tradition of Italian violin music even into the early
ipth century in the works of Boccherini.
The sonata da camera consisted almost entirely of idealized
dance-tunes. By the time of Bach and Handel it had, on the
one hand, become entirely separate from the sonata, and was
known as the suite, partita, ordre or (when it had a prelude in
the form of a French opera-overture) the overture. On the
other hand, the features of sonata da chiesa and sonata da camera
became freely intermixed. But Bach, who does not use those
titles, yet keeps the two types so distinct that they can be
recognized by style and form. Thus, in his six solo violin,
sonatas, Nos. i, 3 and 5 are sonate de chiesa, and Nos. 2, 4 and 6
are called partitas, but are admissible among the sonatas as being
sonate da camera.
The sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti (q.v.) are a special type
determined chiefly by those kinds of keyboard technique that
are equally opposed, on the one hand, to contrapuntal style,
and, on the other hand, to the supporting of melodies on a life-
less accompaniment. Longo's complete collection of Scarlatti's
sonatas shows that, short of the true developed sonata-style,
there is nothing between the old sonata da chiesa and Beet-
hovenish experiments in unorthodox "complementary keys"
that Scarlatti does not carry off with a delightfully irresponsible
" impressionism " that enables him to be modern in effect
without any serious modern principle. Great, however, as the
variety of his forms is now known to be, and numerous as are
1 A movement is a piece of music forming a complete design, or at
least not merely introductory; and within such limits as either to
contain no radical change of pace or else to treat changes of pace in a
simple and symmetrical alternation of episodes. The first complete
movement of a sonata seldom leads without break to the others,
except in modern examples; but the later movements are often
connected.
the newly published slow movements, the normal Scarlatti
sonata is that which the concert-player popularizes; fireworks
in binary form, with a perfunctory opening, a crowd of pregnant
ideas in the complementary key, and, after the double bar, a
second part reproducing these ideas as soon as possible in the
tonic. The sonatas of Paradies are mild and elongated works
of this type with a graceful and melodious little second move-
ment added. The manuscript on which Longo bases his edition
of Scarlatti frequently shows a similar juxtaposition of move-
ments, though without definite indication of their connexion.
The style is still traceable in the sonatas of the later classics,
whenever a first movement is in a uniform rush of rapid motion,
as in Mozart's violin sonata in F (Kochel's Catalogue, No. 377),
and in several of dementi's best works.
The sonata in its main classical significance is a work for one
or two instruments consisting of a group of movements, four
movements being the full scheme; the last movement in the
same key as the first; each movement normally in one tempo,
complete in design, independent from the other movements in
themes, but aptly related to them in key and style; and
constructed in the SONATA FORMS (q.v.).
Though, since the time of Bach (when trios were called sonatas),
the term is not applied to works for more than two instruments,
the full (and even the, normal) characteristics of this most
important of all instrumental art-forms are rarely revealed
except in trios, quartets, &c., and symphonies.
SONATA FORMS, in music. The sonata forms (see SONATA
above) cover the whole ground of instrumental music from
C. P. E. Bach to the advent of the instrumental lyric as matured
by Schumann and of the symphonic poem originated by Liszt.
They also have a profound influence on classical opera and vocal
music, and hence, by repulsion, upon Wagner, whose life-work
consisted in emancipating the music-drama from them. The
conditions which developed them were the conditions which made
Gluck's reform of opera possible; for they are at once the means
and the expression of that iSth-century change in the language
of music which made it a truly dramatic medium. Hence our
present task is the discussion of the largest and most central
problems pure music has ever dealt with; and, while the external
technicalities are numerous and prominent, they are significant
only so long as we maintain their connexion with those problems
with which the true masters (and only the true masters) of the
sonata forms are concerned. Much, then, that is essential to
the true sonata forms must come under the headings of instru-
mentation, harmony, and other musical categories. But here
we must confine ourselves to the purely formal aspect, allowing
only such allusion to other aspects as will help us to see behind
superficial appearances.
i. The Sonata Style. The sonata forms are representative
of the type of music that attracts us primarily by its design
and its larger contrasts, and only in the second place by the
vitality of its texture. In Bach's art the reverse is the case;
we listen chiefly to the texture, and our delight in the larger
designs, though essential, is seldom more than subconscious.
Art-forms existed already in Bach's time, in which the shape,
and not the texture, was the object of attention, but these were
lighter forms. Bach himself was the greatest master of them,
but he never transcended what was then their legitimate limit
as an art which is related to his larger work much as decorative
designs are related to architecture. Bach's suites and partitas
(see SUITE) contain (apart from their great preludes, in which
other principles are involved) one form embodied in several
different dance rhythms, which is the germ from which the
sonata was developed. It is sometimes known as the " binary "
form; but as some eminent writers classify its later develop-
ment as " ternary," we shall here avoid both terms, and refer
to it in its earlier manifestations as the " suite " form, and in
its later as the " sonata " form. In the suite it may be repre-
sented by the following diagram:
SONATA FORMS
395
where the long horizontal line represents the main key, the
short horizontal lines represent a second key, the perpendicular
line represents the division into two portions, 1 and the letters
represent the phrases. This form is often typified in the com-
pass of a single melody without change of key or marked divi-
sion, as in that beautiful English tune " Barbara Allen," where
the half-close on the dominant in the fourth bar is symmetrically
reproduced as the full close on the tonic at the end (see MELODY,
example i). On a larger scale it admits of great variety and
elaboration, but the style of the classical suite never allows it to
become much more than the musical analogue of a pattern on a
plate. The passage from the material in the main key to that in
the foreign key (from A to B in the above diagram) is continuous
and unnoticeable, nor is the second part of the design which
leads to the return of B in the tonic noticeably different in style
or movement from the earlier part. It has a slightly greater
range of key, for the sake of variety, but no striking contrast.
Lastly, the rhythms, and such texture as is necessary to keep
the details alive, are uniform throughout.
Now, the essential advance shown by the true sonata forms
involves a direct denial of all these features of the suite style.
No doubt one natural consequence of working on a larger scale
is that the sonata composer tends to use several contrasting
themes where the suite composer used only one; and an equally
natural consequence is that the shape itself is almost invariably
amplified by the introduction of a recapitulation of A as well
as of B in the tonic, so that our diagram would become modified
into the following:
DtwtcpTTient
varvmis fays
AS
But these facts do not constitute a vital difference between
sonata and suite forms. They do not, for instance, enable
composers like Boccherini and the later Italian violin writers to
emancipate themselves from the influence of the suite forms,
though the designs may be enlarged beyond the bursting point.
The real difference lies, indeed, in every category of the art,
but primarily* in a variety of rhythm that carries with it an
entirely new sense of motion, and enables music to become not
only, as hitherto, architectural in grandeur and decorative in
detail, but dramatic in range. The gigue of Bach's C major
suite for violoncello, and the allemande of his D major clavier
partita, will show that the suite forms were amply capable of
digesting a non-polyphonic style and a group of several con-
trasted themes; but they still show the uniformity of rhythm
and texture which confines them to the older world in which
visible symmetry of form is admissible only on a small scale.
Haydn can write a movement, perhaps shorter than some of
Bach's larger dance movements, containing only one theme
and mainly polyphonic in texture, as in the finale of his tiny
string quartet in D minor, Op. 42; but the transformations of
his one theme will be contrasted in structure, the changes of
rhythm will be a continual surprise, the passage from the first
key to the second will be important and emphatic, and at every
point the difference in scope between his sonata music and Bach's
suite music will be as radical as that between drama and lyric.
The process of this change was gradual; indeed, no artistic
revolution of such importance can ever have been accomplished
more smoothly and rapidly. Yet Philipp Emmanuel Bach,
the first to realize the essentials of the new style, obtained his
object only at the cost of older elements that are essential to
artistic completeness. And Haydn himself was hardly able
to reinfuse such vitality of texture as would give the new form
permanent value, before he was forty years of age.
Haydn's earlier string quartets, from Op. i to Op. 33, present
one of the most fascinating spectacles of historical development in
all music. He was content to begin at a lower level of brilliance
1 In all stages of development it has been usual to repeat at least
the first portion. The repetition is indicated by a sign and may be
ignored in analysis, though Haydn, Beethoven and Brahms have
sometimes produced special effects by it. The repetition of the
second part is now obsolete, and that of the first nearly so.
than some of his contemporaries; because from the outset
his object was the true possibilities o.f the new style, and no
luxuriance of colour could blind him to the lifelessness of an art
that is merely suite-form spun out. Haydn's earliest quick move-
ments in sonata forms are often as short as any suite movement,
except when he writes for orchestra, where he is influenced
by the style of the operatic overture as we find it in Gluck and
in the symphonies of Philipp Emmanuel Bach In his slow
movements he at first more often than not worked in the
style and form of the operatic aria; and in so mature a
piece as the quartet in G major, Op. 17, No. 5, he not only en-
dorses Philipp Emmanuel Bach's evident conviction that opera-
tic recitative is within the scope of the sonata, but convinces
us that he is right. It was easy for the early composers of
sonatas to introduce theatrical features into their instrumental
music; for the very fact that the sonata forms were in poly-
phonic days the forms of lighter music is a consequence of their
original identity with the forms of stage-music and dance (see
OVERTURE and SYMPHONY). But it needed a very great com-
poser to realize not only the radically dramatic character
of a sonata form in which the rhythm and texture is emanci-
pated from the metrical bondage of the suite, but also its true
limitations as pure instrumental music. As Haydn's work'
proceeded, so did the freedom of his rhythm and its consequent
inner dramatic life increase; while the external operatic influences
soon disappeared, not so much because they were out of place,
as because opera itself " paled its ineffectual fires " in the
daylight of the pure instrumental drama with its incomparably
swifter and terser action. Polyphony, on the other hand,
steadily increased, and was so openly encouraged that in the
first set of Haydn's quartets which is entirely free from archaism
(Op. 20) three of the finales are regular fugues. And from that
time onward there is hardly a work of Haydn's in which highly
organised fugalo passages are not a frequent means of contrast.
2. The Sonata Form. In the last-mentioned quartets of
Haydn and the works of Mozart's boyhood, the normal sonata
form, as we now accept it, is firmly established, and may be
represented as follows:
subject
?" subject
Rapi
Rapidly
nujiittla/uig
EXPOSITION
i" subject .-
I RECAPITULATION I
This diagram is, no doubt, equally true of Philipp Emmanuel
Bach's form; and thus we see how little the external shape
of a movement tells us as to the ripeness or genuineness of the
specimen. Apart from this, much confusion of thought is
caused by the unfortunate terms " first and second subject,"
which have misled not only many teachers but nearly all pseudo-
classical composers into regarding the exposition of the move-
ment as consisting essentially of two themes expanded to
the requisite size by appropriate discourse. When we use the
terms " first and second subject," then, let us be understood
to mean any number of different themes, in any variety of
proportion, but separable into two groups of which the first
is in the tonic while the second is in another related key, which
is called the complementary key. The exposition of a move-
ment in sonata form contains, then, these two "subjects"
and represents these two keys; and unless the work is too
large or too emotional for merely decorative emphasis, the
exposition is generally repeated. Then the development
follows. It is normally founded on the materials of the exposi-
tion, but neither confines itself steadily to any key nor leaves
its material as it found it. On the contrary, its function
is to provide a wide range of modulation, and to put the
materials into fresh light by regrouping them (see MELODY,
examples 2-7). It cannot be too strongly insisted that in
the sonata forms there are no rules whatever for the number
of themes and their relative prominence among themselves
and in their development. After the development the
first subject returns in the tonic, with an effect which, after
so many changes of key, is always reassuring as regards
39 6
SONATA FORMS
design, and sometimes intensely dramatic. The second subject
follows, also in the tonic. This recapitulation is normally
very exact, except for the alteration necessary to bring the
second subject into the tonic instead of the complementary
key, an alteration which, of course, will chiefly affect the first
subject, if, indeed, the original transition was not so simple
that it could be merely suppressed. In highly organized works,
however, this point is often marked by some special stroke of
genius, and even in the most exact recapitulations the great
masters make minute changes which throw the second subject
into higher relief. Modern criticism tends to dismiss the
recapitulation as a conventional and obsolescent feature; but
this is a great mistake. The classics, from Scarlatti to Brahms,
give overwhelming proof that it is a primary instinct of com-
posers with a living sense of form to conceive of all kinds of
exposition as predestined to gain force by recapitulation,
especially in any part that resembles a second subject. Haydn
we shall find to be an extreme case; but we have only to regard
his true second subject as residing in the very end of his exposi-
tion, and his mature work will then illustrate the point with
special force. Beethoven seems to give one notorious detail
to the contrary effect, in the first movement of his C minor
symphony, but the passage only proves the rule more forcibly
when seen in its context. The powerful phrase that announced
the second subject is in the recapitulation transferred from the
resounding triumph of the horns to the impotent croaking fury
of the bassoons. This looks like a mere inconvenient result of
the fact that in 1808 the horns could not transfer the phrase
from E flat to C without a change of crook. But in earlier
works Beethoven has made them change crooks on far less
provocation; and besides, he could easily have contrived a
dozen tone-colours more dignified than that of the bassoons.
The point must, then, be one of Beethoven's touches of Shake-
spearian grotesqueness; and certainly it draws attention to the
recapitulation. But even if we dismiss it with impatience we
are then immediately confronted with a new melodic and
harmonic poignancy in the subsequent crescendo, produced by
changes as unobtrusive and as essential to the life of the whole
as are the deviations from mechanical symmetry in the forms
of leaves and flowers. With the recapitulation the bare
essentials of sonata form end; but the material will probably,
in works on a large scale, furnish ample means of adding a more
emphatic conclusion, which is then called the coda. In Beetho-
ven's hands the coda ranges from a dramatic non-existence,
as in the distant thunder in which the first movement of the
D minor sonata expires, to the mighty series of new develop-
ments and climaxes which, in the 3rd and pth symphonies and
many other works, tower superbly above the normal structure.
Haydn's later treatment of sonata form is very free. He
shows a sense of space and breadth which, if second to Beet-
hoven's, can only be said to be so because the terms of Haydn's
art did not give it fuller expression. The scale on which he
worked was so small that he soon found that a regular recapitula-
tion took up all the room he wanted for larger growths to a
brilliant climax. Moreover, he found that if his second subject
began with material in sharp contrast to the first, it tended to
make his movements sound too undeveloped and sectional for
his taste; and so in his later works he generally makes his second
subject on the same material as his first, until the very end of
the exposition, where an exquisitely neat new theme forms the
close. This cadence-theme also rounds off the whole movement
with an appearance of regularity which has led to the belief
that Haydn, like Mozart, observes a custom of rigid recapitula-
tion from which Beethoven was the first to emancipate the
form. The truth is that the brilliant new developments which
oust the recapitulation almost entirely in Haydn's form are more
like Beethoven's codas than anything else in earlier music, and
the final appearance of the neat cadence-theme at the end is,
from its very formality, the most brilliant stroke of all. Lastly,
these tendencies are characteristic, not of Haydn's early, but
of his late work. They have been described as " showing
form in the making "; but this is far from true. They show
form in an advanced state of development; and further pro-
gress was only possible by the introduction" of new qualities
which at first had a decidedly restraining effect.
Mozart's greater regularity is due, not to a more formalizing
tendency than Haydn's, but to the fact that he works on a
larger scale and with a higher polyphony. In actual length,
Mozart's movements are so much greater than Haydn's that
sharply contrasted themes and regular recapitulations do not
hamper him. On the contrary, they give his designs the
necessary breadth. This was not more his aim than Haydn's;
but he had the opportunities of a later generation and the
example of Haydn's own earlier work, besides a vast experi-
ence of composition (both in contrapuntal and sonata forms)
that began in his miraculous infancy and made all technical
difficulties vanish before he was fifteen. At sixteen he was
writing string-quartets in which his blending of polyphonic and
sonata style is more surprising, though less subtle, than Haydn's.
At "twenty-two he was treating form with an expansiveness
which sometimes left his music perilously thin, though he was
never merely redundant. The emphatic reiterations in the
Paris symphony are not mannerisms or formulas; they are the
naturally simple expression of a naturally simple material.
In a series of easy-going works of this kind he soon learnt the
conditions of breadth on a large scale; and, by the time he came
under the direct influence of Haydn, every new polyphonic,
rhythmic and instrumental resource enlarged the scale of his
designs as fast as it increased their terseness and depth. His
career was cut short, and his treatment of form reached its
limit only in the direction of emotional expression. The sonata
style never lost with him its dramatic character, but, while it
was capable of pathos, excitement, and even vehemence, it could
not concern itself with catastrophes or tragic climaxes. The
G minor symphony shows poignant feeling, but its pathos is
not that of a tragedy; it is there from first to last as a result,
not a foreboding nor an embodiment, of sad experiences. In
the still more profound and pathetic G minor quintet we see
Mozart for once transcending his limits. The slow movement
rises to a height not surpassed by Beethoven himself until his
second period; an adequate finale is unattainable with Mozart's
resources, and he knows it. He writes an introduction, beautiful,
mysterious, but magnificently reserved, and so reconciles us as
he best can to the enjoyment of a lighthearted finale which has
only here and there a note of warmth to suggest to us any
pretension of compatability with what went before.
Beethoven discovered all the new resources needed to make
the sonata a means of tragic expression, and with this a means
of expressing a higher rapture than had ever been conceived in
music since Palestrina. He did not, as has sometimes been
said, emancipate sonata forms from the stiffness of the recapitu-
lation. On the contrary, where he alters that section it is almost
invariably in order to have, not less recapitulation, but more,
by stating some part of the second subject in a new key before
bringing it into the tonic. Here, as has been suggested above,
the effect of his devices is, both in minutiae and in surprises, to
throw the second subject into higher relief. Every one of the
changes which appear in the outward form of his work is a
development from within; and, as far as any one principle is more
fundamental than others, that development is primarily har-
monic. We have elsewhere mentioned his practice of organizing
remote or apparently capricious modulations on a steady
sequential progression of the bass, thereby causing such har-
monies to appear not as mere surprises or special effects (a
form in which they have a highly artistic function in Mozart
and Haydn) but as inevitable developments (see BEETHOVEN
and HARMONY). The result of this and a host of similar principles
is an incalculable intensification of harmonic and emotional
expression. Let us compare the opening of the second subject
of Haydn's quartet in A major, Op. 20, No. 6, with the corre-
sponding passage in the first movement of Beethoven's sonata,
Op. 2, No. 2. Haydn executes the masterly innovation of
a second subject that before establishing its true key passes
through a series of rich modulations. He begins in E minor,
SONATA FORMS
397
rapidly passing through G and A minor, and so to the dominant
of E, in various phases of tender humour and cheerful climax.
The keys are remote but not unrelated, the modulations are
smooth, and the style is that of a witty improvization. Beet-
hoven's second subject is intensely agitated; its modulation begins
like Haydn's as regards key, but its harmonies are startling
and its pace tremendous. Its regular rising bass carries it in
two steps to a totally unrelated key, through which it is urged
by the same relentless process with increasing speed, and when
it is at last driven to the threshold of the key which it seeks as
its home there is a moment of suspense before it plunges joyfully
into its cadence. Such resources as this enable Beethoven to
give rational dramatic force to every point in his scheme, and so
they soon oust those almost symbolical formulas of transition
and cadence which are a natural feature in Mozart's music and
a lifeless convention in imitations of it. The growth of Beet-
hoven's forms is externally most evident in his new freedom of
choice for the complementary key. Hitherto the only possible
key for the second subject was in major movements the dominant,
and in minor movements the relative major or dominant minor.
A sonata which begins by treating all directly related keys as
mere incidents in establishing the tonic, will very probably
choose some remoter key as its main contrast; and it is worth
while trying the opening of the Waldstein sonata (Op. 53)
with the simple alteration of C sharp and A natural for C
natural and A sharp in the bass of the twenty-first bar, so
as to bring the whole transition to the second subject on
to the orthodox dominant of G, in order to see, on the one
hand, how utterly inadequate that key is as a contrast to the
opening, and, on the other hand, how unnecessarily long the
transition seems when that is the key which it is intended to
establish.
3. The Sonata as a whole. The history of the Waldstein
sonata marks the irrevocable transition from Mozart to Beet-
hoven (see iv. 88); and in his rejection of the well-known
Andante in F (which was originally intended for its slow move-
ment) Beethoven draws attention to the problem of the sonata
as a whole, and the grouping of its movements. The normal
sonata, in its complete (or symphonic) form, consists of four
movements: firstly, a quick movement in that sonata form par
excellence to which our discussion has been hitherto confined;
then two middle movements, interchangeable in position, the
one a slow movement in some lighter form, and the other a dance
movement (the minuet, or scherzo) which in earlier examples is
of hardly wider range than a suite movement. The finale is a
quick movement, which may be in sonata form, but generally
tends to become influenced by the lighter and more sectional
rondo form, if indeed it is not a set of variations, or even, in
the opposite extreme, a fugue. Aesthetically, if not historically,
this general scheme is related to that of the suite, in so far as it
places the most elaborate and highly organized movement first,
corresponding to the allemande and courante; while the slow
movement, with its more lyric character and melodious expres-
sion, corresponds to the sarabande; the minuet or scherzo to the
lighter dance tunes or " Galanterien " (such as the gavotte and
bourree) , and the lively finale to the gigue. But just as the whole
language of the sonata is more dramatic, so are the contrasts
between its movements at once sharper and more essential to
its unity. Hence, the diversity of outward forms within the
limits of these four movements is incalculable.
The first movement is almost always in the sonata form par
excellence, because that admits of higher organization and more
concentrated dramatic interest than any other. Often after
such a movement a slow piece in the form conveniently known as
A B A, or simple " ternary " form (i.e. a broad melody in one
key, followed by a contrasted melody in another, and concluded
by a recapitulation of the first) is found to be a welcome relief,
and of great breadth of effect. Of course in all true classics the
very simplicity of such movements will be inspired by that sense
of rhythmic freedom and possibility of development that per-
manently raises sonata forms from the level of a mere decorative
design; nor, on the other hand, is there any limit to the complexity
of form possible to a slow movement, except that imposed by the
inevitable length of every step in its slow progress. Still, the
tendency of slow movements, even more than of finales, is to
prefer a loose and sectional organization. Sonata form is
frequently used in them by Haydn and Mozart with the success
attainable only by the greatest masters of rhythmic flow; but
even in their works the development is apt to be episodic in
character, and is very often omitted.
The minuet, in Haydn's and Mozart's hands, shows a surprising
amount of rhythmic variety and freedom within the limits of a
dance tune; but Haydn, as is well known, sighed for its develop-
ment into something larger; and, though Beethoven had long
emerged from his " first period " before he could surpass the
splendid minuet in Haydn's quartet in G major, Op. 77, No. i,
he achieved in the scherzo of his Eroica symphony the first of a
long line of movements which establish the scherzo (q.v.) as an
essentially new art-form.
The only condition that affects the forms of finales is that a
sonata involves a considerable stretch of time, and therefore
its end must be so designed as to relieve the strain on the atten-
tion. In a drama or a story the deeper artistic necessity for
this is masked by the logic of cause and effect, which automatically
produces the form of an intrigue ending in a denouement. In
music the necessity appears in its purest form. There is no need
for finales to be less serious than first movements; or even, in
certain ways, less complex; but the attention which could be
aroused at the outset by problems must be maintained at the
end by something like a solution. Hence the use of the lighter
rondo forms, which, by dividing the work into shorter and more
distinct sections, make the development easier without unduly
limiting its range. Hence, also, the influence of rondo style
upon such finales as are cast in true sonata form; and hence,
lastly, the paradox that the fugue has occasionally been found
a possible means of expression for the finale of a dramatic sonata.
For the complexity of the fugue, though incessant, is purely a
complexity of texture, and the mind in following that texture
instinctively abandons any effort to follow the form at all,
finding repose in the change of its interests.
Now, just as within the typical scheme of first and second sub-
ject development and recapitulation in the first movement,
there is room for genius in the contrasting of different rhythms
and proportions, so, within the limits of the simple four-move-
ment scheme of the whole sonata is there room for genius in
the contrast of various types and degrees of organization. The
complete four-movement scheme seldom appears in works for
less than three instruments. Beethoven was the first to adopt it
for solo sonatas, and he soon thought fit to make omissions.
In Haydn's work for less than four instruments it was not even
necessary that the " sonata " form itself should be represented
at all. Its essential spirit could be realized in the melodic and
rhythmic freedom of a group or couple of more sectional move-
ments, nor did Beethoven (in Op. 26 and Op. 2 7, No. i) consider
such works unworthy of the name of sonata, or (in Op. 54)
incapable of expressing some of his most original ideas. No
design is known to pure instrumental music that is not possible
as a movement of a sonata, if it has the characteristic freedom
of rhythm and is not much over a quarter of an hour in length.
There is no form that has not been so applied; and, indeed, the
only instrumental form that has maintained a larger develop-
ment outside than inside the scheme of the sonata is that of
variations (q.v.).
As the scope and complexity of the sonata style grew, so did
the interdependence of its movements become more evident.
With Mozart and Haydn it is already vital, as we have seen in
the crucial case of Mozart's G minor quintet; but the differences
between one scheme and another are not remarkable until we
study them closely; and, except in key-relationship, it would be
difficult to trace anything more concrete than principles of con-
trast as interacting between one movement and another. But
Beethoven's dramatic power finds as free expression in the
contrasts between whole movements as it finds within the move-
ments themselves. In his later works, the increase in harmonic
39*
SONATA FORMS
range, with the consequent prominence of remoter key-relation-
ships, necessitating the dwelling on these keys at greater length
causes the key-system of each movement to react on the others
to an extent that would be purposeless in the art of Haydn and
Mozart. Thus in the B flat trio, Op. 97, we find such remote
keys as G major, D flat and D major placed in positions of great
functional importance, until we come to the finale, which keeps
us in suspense by its very low and quiet key-colour, contrasting
so oddly with its bacchanalian temper. But when the whole
main body of this finale has passed before us in the drab colours
of tonic, dominant and sub-dominant, the coda marvellously
explains everything by opening with an enharmonic modulation
to the most distant key yet attained except as a transitory
modulation.
As Beethoven proceeded, his growing sense of the functional
expression of musical forms enabled him to modify and strengthen
them until their interaction was as free as its principles were
exact. In the C sharp minor quartet (Op. 131) the opening fugue
is functionally an enormously developed introduction. The
following allegro, in the startling key of D major, the " arti-
ficial " flat supertonic, is a first movement, with its development
suppressed, and with certain elements of rondo style as a neces-
sary contrast to the preceding fugue. The startling effect
produced by this key of D major necessitates a simple and
limited key-system within the movement itself, thus accounting
for the absence of a development. The remaining movements
fall into their place among the keys that lie between the keys
of D major and C sharp minor. Thus the slow movement (to
which the brief allegro moderato forms a dramatic introduction)
is a great set of variations in A major, and the strictness of its
variation form allows no change of key until the two brilliant
bursts of remoter harmony, F and C, in the coda. Then follows
a scherzo of extremely simple design, in E major, with a small
part of its trio in A. A short introduction in G sharp minor,
the dominant, completes the circle of related keys and leads to the
finale which (though cast in a compound of rondo and sonata
form that would allow it a free range of modulation) contents
itself with very simple changes, until towards the end, where it
systematically demonstrates the exact relationship of that first
surprising key of D major to C sharp minor.
4. The Unity of the Sonata. The gigantic emotional range
of Beethoven's work is- beyond the scope of technical discussion,
except in so far as the technical devices themselves suggest
their emotional possibilities. The struggle between decadence
and reaction since the time of Beethoven indicates on the one
side the desire to rival or surpass Beethoven in emotional
expression without developing the necessary artistic resources;
and, on the other side, a tendency to regard form as a scheme
which the artist first sets up and then fills out with material.
Early in the ipth century these tendencies gave rise to
controversies which are not yet settled; and before we discuss
what has taken place since Beethoven we must consider the
connexion between sonata movements in a last new light.
Historical views of art are apt to be too exclusively progressive
and to regard higher and lower degrees of organization in an
art-form as differing like truth and falsehood. But in trying
to prove that the megatherium could not survive under present
conditions, we must beware of arguing that it never existed; nor
must we cite the fact that man is a higher organism in order
to argue that a jelly-fish is neither organic nor alive. Organiza-
tion in art, as elsewhere, may be alive and healthy in its lowest
forms. The uniformity of key in the suite forms is low organiza-
tion; but it is not inorganic until a mild seeker after novelty,
like A. G. Muffat, tries to introduce more keys than it will hold.
The interdependence of movements in Haydn and Mozart is not
such high organization as the ideal form of the future, in which
there is no more breaking up of large instrumental works into
separate movements at all; but neither is it a mere survival
from the decorative contrasts of the suite. Evolutionists must
not forget that in art, as in nature, the survival of the fit means
the adaptability to environment. And the immortal works of
art bring their proper environment with them into later ages.
The large instrumental forms have, until recent times, remained
grouped into sonata movements, because their expression is so
concentrated and their motion so swift that they cannot,
within the limits of a single design, give the mind time to dwell
on the larger contrasts they themselves imply. Thus, in the
" Sonata Appassionata," the contrast between the first subject
and the main theme of the second is magnificent; but that calm
second theme lasts just the third part of a minute before it
breaks off. Now, though the third part of a minute bears about
the same proportion to the whole design as five hundred lines
does to the design of Paradise Lost; though, moreover, this
theme recurs three times later on, once in an exact recapitulation,
and twice transformed in terribly tragic climaxes; yet the mind
refuses to be whirled in less than ten minutes through a musical
tragedy of such Shakespearian power without opportunity for
repose in a larger scheme of contrasts than any attainable by
the perfection and breadth of the single design within these
limits. Hence the need for the following slow set of variations
on an intensely quiet tune, which, by its rigorous confinement to
the tonic of a nearly related key, its perfect squareness of rhythm,
and the absolute simplicity and strictness of its variations,
reveals the true pathos of the first movement by contrast with
its own awful repose; until its last chord, the first in a new key,
falls like a stroke of fate, and carries us headlong into the torrent
of a finale in which nothing dares oppose itself to those sublime
forces that make the terror of tragedy more beautiful than any
mere appeal for sympathy. Thus the dramatic interdependence
of sonata movements is very strict. Yet the treatment by each
movement of its own thematic material is so complete that there
is little or no scope for one movement to make use of the themes
of another. Such instances as may be suspected in Beethoven's
later works (for example, the similarity of opening themes in
various movements of the sonatas, Op. 106 * and Op. no) are
too subtle to be felt more than subconsciously; while the device
of clearly quoting an earlier movement occurs only in three
intensely dramatic situations (the introductions to the finales in
Op. 101, the violoncello sonata, Op. 102, No. i, and the gth
symphony) where its whole point is that of a surprise.
5. The Sonata since Beethoven. It is unlikely that really vital
sonata work will ever be based on a kind of Wagnerian Leit-
motif system, until the whole character of instrumental form
shall have attained the state of things in which the move-
ments are not separated at all. There has been no ambitious
or " progressive " composer since Beethoven who has not,
almost as a matter of etiquette, introduced the ghosts of his
earlier movements into his finale, and defended the procedure
as the legitimate consequence of Beethoven's Op. 101. But,
while there is no a priori reason for condemning such devices,
they illustrate no principle, new or old. The nearest approach
to some such principle is furnished once by Schumann, who
always ingeniously adapts the outward forms of the sonata to
his own peculiar style of epigrammatic and antithetic expression,
discarding as beyond his scope the finer aspects of freedom and
continuity of rhythm, and constructing works which bear much
the same relation to the classical sonata as an elaborate mosaic
bears to an easel-picture. Dealing thus with a looser and more
artificial typeof organization, Schumann was ablein his D minor
symphony to construct a large work in which the movements are
thermatically connected to an extent which in more highly organ-
ized works would appear like poverty of invention, but which
here furnishes a rich source of interest. Many other experi-
ments have been tried since Beethoven, by composers whose
easy mastery is that of the artist who, from long practice in
putting material into a ready-made form, becomes interested
in the construction of new ready-made forms into which he can
continue to put the same material. A sense of beauty is not a
thing to be despised, even in pseudo-classical art; and neither
the many beautiful, if mannered, works of Spohr, which disguise
one stereotyped form in a bewildering variety of instrumental
1 In Op. 106 the first two notes of the slow movement were an
afterthought added (as Beethoven told his publisher) for the purpose
of producing such a connexion.
SONCINO SONE
399
and literary externals, nor the far more important and essentially
varied works of Mendelssohn deserve the contempt which has
been the modern correction for their high position in their day.
But we must not forget that the subject of sonata forms is no mere
province, but covers the whole of classical instrumental music;
and we must here pay attention only to the broadest essentials
of its central classics, mentioning what diverges from them only
in order to illustrate them. Schubert's tendencies are highly
interesting, but it would carry us too far to attempt to add to
what is said of them in the articles on Music and SCHUBERT.
The last great master of the sonata style is Brahms. A larger
scale and more dramatic scope than Beethoven's seems unattain-
able within the limits of any music identifiable with the classical
forms; and the new developments of Brahms lie too deep for
more than a bare suggestion of their scope here. Much of the
light that can as yet be shed upon them will come through the
study of Counterpoint and Contrapuntal Forms (q.v.).
Outwardly we may see a further evolution of the co-
herence of the key-system of works as wholes; and we may
especially notice how Brahms's modern use of key-relationships
makes him carry on the development of a first movement
rather in a single remote key (or group of keys) than in an
incessant flow of modulations which, unless worked out on an
enormous scale (as in the 2nd and 4th symphonies), will no
longer present vivid enough colours to contrast with those of
the exposition. Beethoven's last works already show this
tendency to confine the development to one region of key.
Another point, fairly easy of analysis, is Brahms's unlimited new
resources in the transformation of themes. Illustrations of this,
as of older principles of thematic development, may be found in
musical type in the article MELODY (examples 8-10). But no
mere formal analysis or argument will go further to explain the
greatness of Brahms than to explain that of Beethoven, Haydn
or Mozart. Yet by that outward sign of dramatic mastery in
the true sonata style, that variety of rhythmic motion which we
have taken as our criterion, Brahms has not only shown in every
work his kinship with Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, but in
one particular work he has given us documentary evidence of his
faith in it. In his last years he revised, or rather recomposed,
his first piece of chamber music, the trio in B major, Op. 8. The
new material differs from the old, not only as a fresh creative
impulse, but also in the simple fact that it moves literally four
times as fast. Such rapidity is not shown by any external
display of energy; indeed there is incomparably more repose in
the new version than in the old. But the comparison of the
two clearly demonstrates that the true sonata style is, now, as
at the outset, primarily a matter of swift action and rhythmic
variety; and nothing more certainly indicates the difference
between the true style and the lifelessness of decadence or
academicism than this sense of motion and proportion.
In so far as the tendencies of modern instrumental music
represent an artistic ideal which is foreign to that of the sonata
without being false, they represent a different type of motion,
wider in its sweep, and consequently slower in its steps. The
forms such a motion will produce may owe much to the sonata
when they are realized, but they will certainly be beyond
recognition different. In all probability they constitute the
almost unconscious aims of the writers of symphonic poems (q.v.)
from Liszt onwards, just as the classical sonata constituted the
half-conscious aim of more than one quaint writer of i8th-
century programme-music. But the growing importance and
maturity of the symphonic poem does not exclude the continued
development of the sonata forms, nor has it so far realized
sufficient consistency and independence of style to take as high
a place in a sound artistic consciousness. The wider sweep of
what we may conveniently call " ultra-symphonic " rhythm
owes its origin to Wagner's life-work, which consisted in evolving
it as the only musical medium by which opera could be emanci-
pated from the necessity of keeping step with instrumental
music. Small wonder, then, that the new art of our time is as
yet, like that of Haydn's youth, stage-struck; and that all our
popular criteria suffer from the same obsession. One thing is
certain, that there is more artistic value and vitality in a sym-
phonic poem which, whatever its defects of taste, moves at the
new pace and embodies, however imperfectly, such forms as that
pace is fit for, than in any number of works in which the sonata
form appears as a clumsy mould for ideas that belong to a different
mode of thought. If from the beginnings exemplified by the
symphonic poems of the present day a new art-form arises in
pure instrumental music that shall stand to the classical sonata
as the classical sonata stands to the suite, then we may expect a
new epoch no less glorious than that which seems to have closed
with Brahms. Until this aim is realized the sonata forms will
represent the highest and purest ideal of an art-form that music,
if not all art, has ever realized.
See also BEETHOVEN; CONCERTO; HARMONY; OVERTURE; RONDO;
SCHERZO; SERENADE; SYMPHONY; VARIATIONS. (D. F. T.)
SONCINO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Cremona, n m. E. of Crema by steam tramway, 282 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901), 6150 (town); 8136 (commune). It
contains a handsome castle built in 1469-1475 for Galeazzo Maria
Sforza by Benedetto Terrini (cf. L. Beltrami, // Castello di
Soncino, Milan, i8qo). The town was the seat of a Hebrew
printing-press founded in 1472, but suppressed in 1597, when
the Jews were expelled from the duchy of Milan.
SONDERBUR6, a seaport and seaside resort of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the S.W. coast
of the island of Alsen, of which it is the chief town, and 17 m.
by steamboat N.E. from Flensburg. Pop. (1905), 7047. It is
connected with the mainland by a pontoon bridge, and has
a castle, now used as barracks, in the beautiful chapel of which
many members of the Sonderburg-Augustenburg line lie buried ;
a Lutheran church and a town hall. There is an excellent
harbour, and a considerable shipping trade is done. The town,
which existed in the middle of the i3th century, was burnt down
in 1864 during the assault by the Prussians upon the Duppler
trenches.
SONDERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the
principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, situated in a plain
37 m. by rail N. of Erfurt. Pop. (1905), 7383. It possesses a
castle, with natural history and antiquarian collections, and a
parish church (restored 1891), with the mausoleum (1892) of
the reigning princes. There are manufactures of woollens and
pins.
SONDRIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, capital of the province
of Sondrio, in the Valtellina, 1140 ft. above sea-level, on the river
Adda, 26 m. E. of Lake Como and 82 m. by rail N.E. of Milan.
Pop. (1901), 4425 (town); 7707 (commune). The Valtellina, of
which Sondrio is the capital, produces a considerable quantity
of red wine. Sondrio also has silk-works. Above the town to
the north rise the snowclad peaks of the Bernina group. The
railway goes on to Tirano, 16 m. farther east, from which diverge
the Bernina and Stelvio roads.
SONE, or SON, a river of central India which has been identified
with the Erannoboas of the Greek geographers. With the
exception of the Jumna it is the chief tributary of the Ganges
on its right bank. It rises in the Amarkantak highlands about
3500 ft. above sea-level, the Nerbudda and Mahanadi also having
their sources in the same table-land. From this point it flows
north-west through an intricate mass of hills, until it strikes the
Kaimur range, which constitutes the southern wall of the
Gangetic plain. Here it turns east and continues in that direc-
tion until it falls into the Ganges about 10 m. above Patna, after
a total course of 465 m. Its upper waters drain about 300 m. of
wild hilly country, which has been imperfectly explored; while
in its lower section of 160 m. it traverses the British districts of
Mirzapur, Shahabad, Gaya and Patna. The Sone canals, fed
by the river, form a great system of irrigation in the province of
Behar. The headworks are situated at Dehri about 25 m. below
the point where the river leaves the hilly ground. The weir
across the Sone at this point is believed to be the longest con-
structed in a single unbroken piece of masonry, the length between
abutments being 12,469 ft. A main canal is taken off on either
bank of the river, and each of these is divided into branches.
400
SONG
according to the requirements of the ground. The system
consists of some 370 m. of canals and 1200 m. of distributaries,
irrigating 555,000 acres. The Sone canals were begun in 1869,
and came into operation in 1874; they form a valuable protection
to the rice crop of Behar.
SONG, either an actual " singing " performance, or in a
literary sense a short metrical composition adapted for singing
or actually set to music. In the second sense of the word it must
strictly be lyrical in its nature; but musicians and others fre-
quently use the word in the wider sense of any short poem set
to music. A " song," as a form of poem, usually turnsonsome
single thought or emotion, expressed subjectively in a number
of stanzas or strophes. Almost every nation is in possession
of an immense store of old simple ballads (q.v.), which are the
spontaneous outcome of the inspiration of the people (" folk-
songs "), and represent in a remarkable degree their tastes,
feelings and aspirations; but in addition to these, there are, of
course, the more finished and regular compositions born of the
conscious art of the civilized poet.
In a purely literary sense the song may exist, and does largely
exist, without any necessary accompaniment of music. With
the accession of Elizabeth the attention of the English poets
was immediately drawn to the importance of this branch of
lyrical literature. The miscellanies, one of which Master
Slender would have paid more than forty shillings to have in his
pocket on a celebrated occasion, were garlands of songs, most of
them a little rude in form, only mere " packets of bald rhymes."
But about 1590 the popularity of the song having greatly in-
creased, more skilful writers were attracted to its use, and the
famous England's Helicon of 1600 marked the hey-day of Eliza-
bethan song-writing. In this Shakespeare, Sidney, Lodge,
Barnfield and Greene, to name no others, were laid under
contribution. Lyly, with such exquisite numbers as " Cupid
and my Campaspe " (1584), had preceded the best anthologies,
and is really the earliest of the artist-songsters of England.
Among superb song-writers who followed were Marlowe (" Come
live with me and be my love"), Campion ("My sweetest Lesbia")
Ben Jonson ("Drink to me only with thine eyes") and Fletcher
(" Here ye Ladies, thatdepise "), most of these being dramatists,
who illuminated their plays, and added a delicate ornament
to them, by means of those exquisite lyrical interpolations.
Side by side with such poets, and a little later, began to flourish
the school of cavalier song-writers, for whose purpose the lyric
was self-sufficient. They added to our literature jewels of
perennial lustre Wither, with his " Shall I wasting in despair,"
Herrick with " Bid me to live " and " Gather ye Rosebuds,"
Carew with " Ask me no more where June bestows," Waller with
" Go, lovely Rose," Suckling with " Why so pale and wan, fond
Lover?" and Lovelace with " Tell me not, Sweet, I am unkind."
This was the classic age of the true British song, which survived
all other forms of poetry after the decay of taste, and continued
to flourish in the hands of Dryden, Sedley, Aphra Behn and
Rochester down to the last decade of the i8th century. That
outburst of song was followed by nearly a hundred years during
which the simplest and more direct forms of lyrical utterance
found comparatively little encouragement. Just before the
romantic revival the song reasserted its position in literature,
and achieved the most splendid successes in the hands of Burns,
who adapted to his purpose all kinds of fragmentary material
which had survived up to his time in the memories of rustic
persons. In Scotland, indeed, the song was rather revived and
adorned than resuscitated; in England it may be said to have
been recreated by Blake. At the opening of the igth century
it became the vehicle of some of the loveliest fancies and the
purest art of Coleridge, Keats, Shelley, Byron and Landor;
while in a later day songs of rare perfection were composed by
Tennyson and by Christina Rossetti. (E. G.)
Song in Music.
The history of song as a musical form falls into two main
divisions, the one belonging to the folk-song, the other to the
art-song. Though the line of demarcation between the two
cannot be definitely drawn, for they have acted and reacted upon
each other ever since music existed as a cultivated art, yet it
may reasonably be maintained that the folk-song, which lies
at the base of all music, preserves, and has in all ages preserved,
characteristics such as must always distinguish the rude and
unconscious products of the human mind, working more by
instinct than by method, from the polished and conscious pro-
ducts of the schools. For the purposes then of this article,
art-song may be distinguished from folk-song by the fact that it
is the work of trained musicians and is designed, at any rate
after the close of the i6th century, for voice with instrumental
accompaniment, whereas we shall restrict the term folk-song to
such melodies as appear to have been the work of untutored
minds, and to have arisen independently of any felt necessity for
harmonic support.
The early history of song on its musical side may be regarded
as the history of the evolution of melody: and since what is
known of melody before the end of the i6th century, apart
from the folk-song, is extremely slight, it is in the folk-song itself
that this evolution is primarily to be studied. Previously to the
period named the instrumental accompaniment to vocal melody,
both in the folk-song and in the art-song, played an entirely
insignificant part. Afterwards the new conception of harmony
which came in with the I7th century not only shifted the basis
of melody itself but made the instrumental accompaniment an
essential feature of artistic song. Though it lies beyond the
province of this article to discuss fully the complex questions
involved in the evolution of vocal melody, some slight sketch is a
necessary preliminary to a proper understanding of the subject
under consideration.
It may be assumed that in the course of ages the uncouth
vocal utterances of primitive man developed, under the influence
of an instinct for expressing his inner nature through Qrtolns
a more expressive medium than language alone, into
sounds of more or less definite pitch, bearing intelligible relation-
ships one to another; and that from these emerged short phrases,
in which rhythm probably played the principal part, reiterated
with that interminable persistency, which many travellers have
noted as characteristic of savage nations in the present day. A
further stage is reached when some such primitive phrase is
repeated at a different level by way of contrast and variety, but
melody in any true sense of the word does not begin till two
different phrases come to be combined in some sort of scheme or
pattern. When the power to produce such combinations become
common in a nation, its musical history may be said to have
begun . l Racial characteristics are displayed in the choice of notes
out of which such phrases are formed. But in all races it may be
surmised that the main determining cause in the first instance is
that natural rise and fall of the voice which gives expressiveness
and meaning to speech, even though contributory causes arising
from the imitative faculty common to man may perhaps be
admitted such as the sound of the wind, the waves of the sea,
the cries of animals, the notes of birds, the striking of one object
against another, and finally the sounds made by primitive
instruments. The tendency of the speaking voice to fall a
fourth and to rise a fifth has often been noted. It is probable
that these intervals were among the first to be defined, and that
the many modes or scales, underlying the popular melodies of the
various nations of the world, were the result of different methods
1 If the one phrase is represented by A, and the other by B, the
commonest melodic schemes presented by the folk-songs of the
world may be viewed thus AS, AAB, ABB, ABA, ABAB, AABB,
AABA, ABBA. Of these, those in which the opening phrase A is
repeated at the conclusion are the most satisfactory, for both instinct
and reason are gratified by a connexion between the beginning and
the end.
As exact conformity to pattern becomes wearisome and is alien
to the progressive instinct, the element of surprise is introduced into
the above schemes by various modifications of the repeated phrase
on its second appearance, or by the entrance of an entirely new
phrase C. In some fine melodies there is no repetition of phrase, a
number of different phrases being knit, by principles, which defy
analysis, into one structure. Such melodies imply a melodic sense
of an exceptional order. Many melodies involve more than four
phrases; of these the rondo form should be mentioned ABA CAD A.
SONG
401
of determining the intervening sounds. It has been generally
assumed that the fall of a fourth is the interval earliest arrived
at by the instinct of the Indo-European race and that inter-
vening sounds were added which resulted eventually in the three
possible forms of the diatonic tetrachord, the earliest being that
which is characteristic of the ancient Dorian mode or scale (the
basis of the Greek musical system) in which two tetrachords,
having the semitone between the lowest note and the next above
it, are superimposed (see Bourgault Ducoudray, Introduction to
jo Chansons de Grece et d' Orient).
It must, however, be remembered that the popular, instinct
knows nothing about tetrachords or scales, which are abstractions,
and only creates melodies, or at least successions of sounds, which
are the outward expression of inward feelings. The Greek
theorists therefore, in recording certain modes as being in use in
their day, were in effect merely stating results arrived at by
analysing popular melodies and from the persistence with which
the Greeks, and following them, most of the musical historians
of Europe, have insisted upon a tetrachordal basis for the art of
music it may be assumed that in these melodies a basis of four
diatonic notes was a conspicuous feature.
It is a feature which marks a considerable number of folk-
songs heard in Greece at the present day, and also of many folk-
songs which are not Greek, the Breton, for example (see Bour-
gault Ducoudray, Chansons de Basse- Bretagne). The interval of
a fourth is nearly always prominent too in the music of savages.
If it is natural to connect these facts with the drop of a fourth,
characteristic of the speaking voice, it is dangerous to assume an
exclusively " tetrachordal period " of primitive song, at any rate
till it can be shown that melodies based on other principles did
not exist side by side with those that are tetrachordal. From
the rise of a fifth and the fall of a fourth, the octave, which
results from combining these intervals, may well have become
familiar at a very early epoch. Indeed a prolonged howl begin-
ning on a high note and descending a full octave in semitones or
notes approximately resembling semitones is recorded both of
the Caribs and of the natives of Australia, so that familiarity with
the octave need not presuppose an advanced stage of musical
development.
To pass from the sphere of mere speculation nearer to the
domain of history, it may be asserted with confidence that the
oldest form of song or chant which can be established is found
in certain recitation formulae. These, as is natural, will be found
to be derived from the rise and fall of the voice in speech. It is
therefore not surprising that O. Fleischer (Sammelbiinde der
inlernationalen Musik-Gesellschaft, Jan.-Mar. 1902) is able to
trace practically identical formulae in the traditional methods
of reciting the Vedas, the Koran, the Jewish and Christian
liturgies. The simplest form consists of four notes (a diatonic
tetrachord), a reciting note, preceded by two notes rising to it,
and followed by a fall, or cadence, for the close, the voice rising
above the reciting note in order to emphasize important words,
or according to the nature of the sentence. An extended form
is both natural and common.
3=1=
The influence of these and similar formulae l upon popular
melodies can be illustrated by countless examples (for which
1 The derivation of such formulae from more primitive incan-
tations of magicians and medicine-men is a possible and plausible
theory (see J. Combarieu, La Musique: ses lois et son Evolution,
Paris, 1907).
the reader is referred to I.M.G.). As characteristic as any is
the melody of the Christian hyntn which begins
Te lu - cis an - te ter -
mi - num,
and concludes
Sis prae-sul et cus - to - di - a.
Another is the Hungarian folk-song: Nem Szoktam.
Many French songs have been collected in recent years, of which
the following formula, or variations of it, form an essential
feature:
This corresponds closely with the third example given above.
That the melodies in question are of great antiquity may be
inferred from the fact that they are almost confined to the oldest
class of folk-song, that which celebrates May Day and the begin-
ning of spring. M. Tiersot (La Chanson populaire en France,
Paris, 1889) plausibly finds in them a survival of a melodic
fragment, which may have belonged to pagan hymns in honour
of spring, basing his supposition upon the fact that the phrase
in question occurs in the melody of the Easter hymn " O Filii
et Filiae." The medieval Church, acting on principles familiar
in all ages, may well have helped to merge a pagan in a Christian
festival by adopting, not merely old rites and observances, but
the actual melody with which these had for ages been associated.
A similar survival in French folk-song is that of the melody of the
Tonus peregrinus, the chant used for the psalm " When Israel
came out of Egypt " (mentioned in the 9th century by Aurelian
Reome as being very old). Its appearance, like that of the
Easter hymn, in songs, which on other grounds can be proved to
be of great antiquity, points to the probability of its being of
popular origin. It also bears equally strong marks of being
derived from a recitation formula, as indeed its appropriation
for chanting a psalm sufficiently indicates.
Endeavours to detach other primitive formulae from the
popular melodies in which they are enshrined form a branch of
folk-lore now being actively pursued. It may be hoped that
" comparative melodology " if the phrase may be coined will
do for this department of musical knowledge what the science
of comparative philology has done for language. Oscar Fleischer
(I.M.G. i. i) has endeavoured to trace the history in Europe of
the primitive phrases belonging to the melody of " Les Series "
(or Unus est Deus) as given by De Villemarque in Barzaz-Breiz
402
SONG
No. i, in the musical appendix, as also of the opening phrase in
the old Christian hymn, " Conditor alme siderum " (attributed to
Bishop Ambrose):
The phrase here belongs to a melody in the Phrygian mode, but
when it is used in major melodies its characteristic notes are
those of the common chord, with a rise to the sixth at the point of
climax, corresponding to the rise in the recitation formulae
given above.
By what processes the notes of the common chord became
universally established it is not possible to determine, but it
may be said in a general way that the reference to a given tonic
was felt in all ages to be a necessary condition even of the
simplest melody, and that, as the melodic instinct grew, an almost
equal necessity was found for a point of contrast, and that this
point of contrast became with most nations of Aryan origin the
fifth note above the tonic, at any rate in the more popular scales.
Combarieu (La Musique, p. 121) observes that we owe the use of
the octave, the fifth and the fourth to the South and East, but
that the importance of the third in our modern musical system
is due to the instinctive genius of the West and North, i.e. to
England and Scandinavia (see also Hugo Riemann, Geschichte
der Musiktheorie, Leipzig, 1898, and Wooldridge, Oxford History
of Music, i. 161-162, where the well-known quotation from
Giraldus Cambriensis, or Gerald Barry, of the i2th century,
establishing the fact of part-singing in England, is given). If,
as has been shown, the origin of many melodies can be traced to
formulae originally used for chanting or reciting, it must not be
forgotten that formulae thus derived assume very different
characters under the influence of more decided rhythms than that
of speech. To accompany bodily movements (which by a natural
law become rhythmical when often repeated) with music, vocal
or instrumental, is an almost universal human instinct, whether
to alleviate the burden or the monotony of labour, as in rowing,
sowing, spinning, hammering and a score of other pursuits, or to
promote pleasure and excitement, as in the dance.
It is unsafe to infer, as some have done, from the custom,
known in all ages, of dancing and singing at the same time,
that song arose as a mere accessory to the dance. It is more
probable that the dance has its origin in the mimetic actions,
which are the natural accompaniment of rudimentary song. At
the same time, no one will deny that races with ballads of their
own early made use of them for the dance, and that, especially
on the rhythmical side, melody owes to the dance an incalculable
debt. 1
It may be assumed then that upon some such basis as has
been roughly indicated the different nations of the world have
develo'ped each their own musical phraseology, emanating from
and answering to their several needs and temperaments and that
the short melodic phrases, out of which folk-tunes are made, have
their roots in a past as distant as that in which the elements of
language were formed, and that the popular instinct which
through countless ages has diversified those forms and arranged
them into melodies, whose constructions are mostly susceptible
to analysis, is the same instinct as that which has given to
language its grammar and its syntax.
In proceeding now to the actual history of song in Europe,
it must be remembered that it is inseparably connected with
History of poetry. Melody till within comparatively recent
Song la times continued to fulfil its original function of
Europe. enhancing the value and expressiveness of language.
For poetry of the epic kind with the long lines common to early
European peoples, some such forms of chanting as have been
indicated must have sufficed.
1 For the growth of the refrain from communal dancing and
singing, see C. J. Sharp, English Folk-Songs, p. 93. Nor should the
association of dancing with all primitive religious ceremonies be
forgotten see K. J. Freeman, Schools of Hellas (1907).
Melody, as we understand it, with compact form and balanced
phrases, could only have existed if and when the same qualities
appeared in popular poetry. This was probably the case long
before the taste for long epic narratives began to disappear in
favour of more concise forms of ballad and of lyric. The stanza
form must have been generally familiar in the early middle ages
from the Latin hymns of the Church, and these hymns themselves
are likely to have been formed, in part at any rate, on models
which were already known and popular.
We have definite information that in the early middle ages two
sorts of popular poetry existed the historical ballads (descen-
dants of those alluded to by Tacitus in his Germania
as characteristic of the Germans, and as constituting sons-""
their only historical records), and popular songs of a
character which caused them to be described as cantica nefaria
by St Augustine; the council of Agde (506) forbade Christians to
frequent assemblies where they were sung: St Cesaire, bishop
of Aries, speaks of the chants diaboliques sung by country
folk, both men and women; the Council of Chalons menaced the
women, who seem to have been the chief offenders, with excom-
munication and whipping; lastly Charlemagne, whose love for
the better class of song is attested by the fact that he ordered a
collection of them to be made for his own use, said of the other
" canticum turpe et luxuriosum circa ecclesias agereomnino,quod
et ubique vitandum est." Beyond the fact of their existence we
know nothing of these songs of the early middle ages. Their
influence on the popular mind was vigorously resisted, as we
have seen, by the Church, and for many centuries efforts were
made to supplant them by songs, the subjects of which were
taken from the Gospel narratives and the lives of the saints,
so that folk-song and church song strove together for popularity.
Doubtless the church song borrowed musical elements from its
rival: nor was the folk-song uninfluenced in its turn by the tradi-
tional music of the Church. In considering this latter music,
it is important to distinguish between the melodies adapted to
the prose portions of the ritual without definite rhythm, and those
of the hymns, where the metre of the Latin verses and their
stanza form necessitated a corresponding rhythm and musical
form. Rhythm in music, which has its origin and counterpart in
the regular bodily movements involved in various departments
of labour and in the dance, must, as has already been said, have
always been an essential feature of popular melody, and it is
reasonable to conclude from its absence in the plain-song, and
indeed for many centuries in the compositions of musicians, which
had the plain-song for their basis, that these hymns, which repre-
sented the popular part of the Church services, were also repre-
sentative of the popular tastes of the time. In all ages the Church
has drawn largely from popular song for the melodies of its
hymns. It is moreover in the highest degree improbable that
the Church should have been able to evolve out of its inner
consciousness, without pre-existing models, a melody to take
a single instance like that of " Conditor alme siderum " the
survival of which in innumerable European folk-songs has
already been alluded to.
Numerous additions to the store of plain-song melodies were
made by the monastic composers of the middle ages- the most
notable is that of the Dies Irae, of which the words are attributed
to Thomas de Celano (d. 1250).
Reference should also be made to the music of the liturgical
dramas or mysteries, popular in medieval times: The Lamentation
of Rachel, The Wise and Foolish Virgins and The Prophets of
Christ, are given, both text and music, in Coussemaker's L'Har-
monie au moyen dgc. They reflect the severe style of the plain-
song, and were probably intended for cultivated rather than
popular audiences. The same is probably true of the secular
songs quoted in the same work. These have a special interest
as being the earliest specimens of song which have come down to
us in Christian times. The best known is the " Complainte," on
the death of Charlemagne (quoted in many histories), the digni-
fied, if somewhat dreary, melody of which revolves mostly on the
first three notes of a major scale, once rising to the fourth (thus
recalling the old recitation formula). Rhythm is practically
SONG
403
absent. On the other hand, the song in honour of Otto III. has
definite rhythm and a degree of tunefulness. The " modus
Ottino " was a well-known air, which, unlike the rest of those
quoted by Coussemaker, was probably of popular origin, for the
Latin words do not fit the melody and probably represent a free
translation from an original in the vernacular tongue. 1
Modus Ottinc.
i
3
nus Cae - sar Ot - to, quern hie mo - dus
re - fert, in no - mi - ne Ot - tine die - tus, quadam
noc - te mem-bra su - a dum col- lo- cat Pa - la - ti - i
V
ca - su su - bi - to in - flam - ma - tur.
(12 more stanias.)
More remarkable still is a "Chanson de Table" of the loth
century, a really graceful melody, the quotation of which may
serve to destroy the illusion that the major scale, so often
described as modern, has any other claim to the title than the
fact that it has been preserved by modern musicians, while
others have been discarded.
Jam, dul-cis a - mi - ca, ve - ni - to, quam si-cut cor
In-tra in cu - bi - cu-luni
me-um, or- na-men-tis cunc - tis or - na -turn.
In the same collection may be found, beside other historical
songs, two odes of Boethius and two odes of Horace, set to
music; 2 but whether the melodies given represent medieval
music or Roman music, corrupted or not, it is impossible to
determine. These songs have been dwelt upon, for they not
only represent some kinds of music that were sung in the gth and
loth centuries, but indicate the sources from which later on the
work of the troubadours was derived. They may be summed
up as a church-song and folk-song, and the songs by more or less
cultured persons made after these models. For the subsequent
history of the art the folk-song represents by far the most potent
influence, but the melodies quoted by Coussemaker which might
be regarded as the works of the popular instinct afford in-
sufficient data for safe generalization. More direct evidence is to
be found in the 12th-century pastoral play Le Jeu de Robin
ct de Marion, till within recent years considered as the work of
Adam de la Hale, but since the able criticisms of M. Tiersot in
the work referred to above, likely henceforth to be regarded as
1 This melody, which is plainly derived from recitation, with A
as tonus carrens, closely resembles that of Ljomur, a folk-song of
the I-aeroe islanders, noted by H. Thuren in 1902 and identified by
him with a piece of recitation (" Fili care ") from a 12th-century
Drame liturgique " (deciphered by O. Fleischer, Neumensludien,
A p ; 25 >- . See Folkesangenpaa Farperne, H. Thuren (Copenhagen,
1908). Identity of style between a popular song of the gth century
a drame liturgique of the I2th and a folk-song still sung in the 2oth
is sumciently striking especially in view of the fact that in the
, c r oe ' slan ds instrumental music is practically unknown.
Lord Ashburnham has a Virgil of the loth century, " dans
lequel les discours directs de 1'Eneide sont accompagne's de notations
musicales" (Coussemaker).
the oldest collection of folk-songs in existence; for the original
compositions which Maitre Adam has bequeathed to posterity
preclude us from believing that he could have originated the
dainty airs contained in that play, of which Robin m'aime
is generally familiar, and is still to be heard on the lips of peasants
in the north of France (see Tiersot, p. 424, n.). If M. Tiersot's
view is correct, the melodies in Robin et Marion may be taken
to represent the popular style of an epoch considerably anterior
to the date of the play itself (though allowance must be made for
the correcting hand of a professional musician) which is our
excuse for introducing them at this place.
Before speaking of the songs of troubadours, trouveres and
minnesingers, allusion must be made to a class of men who
played a part the importance of which both in the social and
political life of the middle ages is attested by innumerable
chroniclers and poets, viz. the skalds, bards or minstrels the
chief depositories of the musical and poetical traditions of the
several countries to which they belonged. They varied greatly
in rank. Some were attached to the retinue of kings and nobles,
whilst others catered for the ear of the peasantry (eventually
to be classed with jugglers, acrobats, bearwards and the like,
sharing the unenviable reputation which attached to these
representatives of popular medieval amusements). That these
latter were also welcome at the halls of the great, is an estab-
lished fact, which may serve as a reminder that in feudal times
the distinction that now exists, bet ween the music of the culti-
vated classes and of the peasantry was but slight. The style
of the church music was as universally familiar as the style of
the folk-song. For musicians, both of high and low degree, no
other models existed. This fact is patently clear when the songs
of the troubadours, trouveres and minnesingers are studied.
Those minstrels continued the traditions of the better class of
their predecessors, with strivings after a more polished, elaborate
and artistic style. In forming their style upon an admixture of
folk-song and church-song they in fact assimilated neither, and
created a mongrel product without real vitality a product that
left practically no mark upon the subsequent development of the
art. The astonishing skill which they exhibited in adapting
the language of poetry to the most complicated metrical forms
deserted them when they touched the question of musical form
and of melody. Indeed their music, except in rare instances,
was an adornment which the poetry could have dispensed with,
and may be regarded in the main simply as a concession to the
immemorial custom of treating music and poetry as inseparable
arts.
The real importance of these courtly minstrels in the history
of song consists in their having firmly established the rhyming
stanza as the vehicle for the expression of lyrical feeling, for
with the rhyming stanza a corresponding compact and sym-
metrical melodic form was bound to come. It was, however,
reserved for the popular instinct, and not for trouveres and
minnesingers, to develop this form (it is probable too that some
at least of the stanza forms employed belonged first to popular
poetry and were afterwards developed and elaborated by these
musicians of the great houses). The scheme upon which the
lyrical stanza was usually based was one in which two similar
parts (called by the German Meister -singers, Stollen or props,
and constituting the Aufgesang or opening song) were followed
by an independent third part, the length of which was not
prescribed (called Abgesang or concluding song). The
complete stanza was called Lied and was knit together by
different schemes of rhyme. For the first part the trouveres
and Meister singers were content with some simple phrase, often
borrowed direct from the folk-song, repeating it, as was natural,
for the exactly similar second part: then for the third the
style was apt to change towards the ecclesiastical and to wander
aimlessly on to an unconvincing conclusion. The popular in-
stinct was finer, for we find in innumerable folk-songs, belonging
to the i4th and i$th centuries, that the greater length of the
Abgesang was seized upon as an opportunity, not merely for
introducing fresh material, after the repetition of the phrase
attached to the two Stollen, but also for a rcMirn to that phrase,
404
SONG
or some reminiscence or variation of it, by way of conclusion,
thus producing a compact form, answering to the natural
requirements of the artistic sense. Thus the favourite scheme
of the troubadours, which may be represented as AAB, had
developed in the folk-song into the scheme AABA and this
scheme has served for thousands of popular melodies throughout
Europe. In some rare cases the contrasting portion might be
conceived as implying modulation into the key of the dominant,
thus foreshadowing the form of the first movement in modern
sonatas and symphonies. 1 But the present writer is sceptical,
from the evidence afforded by folk-song melodies recently
collected, of an instinct for modulation among a peasantry
unfamiliar with harmonic music. Be that as it may, the courtly
minstrels both of France and Germany rendered a real service
to music in following the popular verdict in favour of the major
scale or Ionian mode, and in so doing prepared the way for modern
harmony, which is based upon a particular relationship of
contrast between the notes composing the chord of the tonic
and those composing the chords of the dominant and the sub-
dominant a relationship inherent in no other scale of the
Gregorian system but the Ionian. On it the secret of musical
form in the modern sense depends, for it brings with it the power
of modulation (unknown to medieval times), i.e. the power of
treating the same note as belonging to different tone centres
(G, for instance, as the dominant of the scale of C, and also as
the tonic of the scale of G), and the further power, by means of
the chord of the dominant seventh, of proceeding from one
tone centre to another. As long then as musicians held the
Ionian scale at arm's length, progress in the modern direction
was impossible. They did indeed arrive eventually at the goal,
partly through the practice of using popular melodies as the
foundation, or canto fermo, of masses and motets, and of arrang-
ing the melodies themselves for choirs of voices, and also through
the increasing need, as the art of part-writing became more
elaborate and better understood, of modifying the strict char-
acter of the modes by the introduction of accidentals, till, as
Sir Hubert Parry remarks, " after centuries of gradual and
cautious progress they ultimately completed a scale which they
had known all along, but had rather looked down upon as an
inferior specimen of its kind." The melodic instinct, thus
developing consciously in the minds of trained musicians, and
unconsciously in the makers of folk-songs, arrived eventually
at the same result. But the major scale once firmly estab-
lished, the trained musician based upon it a new art of harmony;
further, he modified existing minor scales for harmonic purposes,
leaving the old traditional scales as the almost exclusive posses-
sion of the folk-song (which has cherished and preserved them
in their pristine integrity up to the present day) and working
out the problem of musical composition, and of melody itself,
on a new foundation. 2
The fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and the troublous
times that ensued in Europe, involved the removal of the
patronage to which the higher kinds of minstrelsy owed their
position and their influence. Song passed with the close of
the age of chivalry from the noble to the burgher class. The
Minnesingers were succeeded by the Meister singers, the first
gild of whom is said to have been established in 1311 by Heinrich
von Meissen (popularly known as Frauenlob) at Mainz. In
their hands song was treated more in the spirit of a trade than
an art, and subjected to many absurd and pedantic regulations.
In Wagner's famous opera is given a very accurate and faithful
1 For examples see Bohme, Altdeutsches Liederbuch, Nos. 131
and 195.
! Modal folk-song melodies are often tested by their conformity
or otherwise to the modes as known from medieval composers.
This is to limit our conception of natural forces by the use made of
them by a few men at a particular epoch for special purposes. If a
mode can be said to exist for a purpose, that purpose is melody : to
apply to modal folk-melodies the canons laid down by composers
with whom melody was a quantite negligeable is sheer perversity.
Recent discoveries in the field of folk-song place us in a far better
position for understanding the true nature of the modes than
medieval composers : for in the folk-song their free development has
not been hampered by restrictions, which were a necessary condition
of polyphonic work.
picture of their methods and ideals. Their importance in the
history of song consists not so much in actual work achieved
as in the enthusiasm widely spread through their means in the
class from which most of the great German composers were
eventually to spring.
The real interest for the historian of song centres during this
period not in the attempts of minstrels and burgher gilds to
improve upon the folk-song, but in the folk-song itself. Those
who have studied the large collection of medieval melodies
contained in Bohme's Altdeutsches Liederbuch for Germany,
and in Duyse's Het oude Nederlandshe Lied for the Nether-
lands, will on other grounds than those mentioned above be
ready to confirm this judgment. It is not too much to say
that they contain many of the noblest melodies which the
world possesses, earnest and dignified in spirit, broad of outline,
and knit together in all their parts with rare and unconscious
art, on principles of structure which are carefully analysed in
the chapter on folk-song in Sir Hubert Parry's The Art of Music.
To the examples there quoted may.be added the wonderful
Tagelied (" Der Dag wil nict verborghen sin"), Ik sek adieu,
Lieblich hab sich gesellet, Abschied von Innspruck (of which both
Bach and Mozart are reported to have said that they would
rather have been the author than of any of their own composi-
tions), and " Entlaubet ist der Walde " (which, like so many of
the p*opular songs of the I4th and isth centuries, was utilized
by the Reformers for one of their finest hymns).
A characteristic feature of many of these songs, both German
and Dutch, is the melisma, or vocal flourish, of the concluding
phrase, derived, if German historians are to be trusted, from
the vocalization on the last syllable of the word Alleluia, which
in the early Church represented the congregational portion of
its services and which afterwards developed into the sequences,
so popular in the middle ages.
A similar feature is not uncommon in French melodies of
the same period (see L' Amour de moi, Vrai Dieu d'amour, and
Reveillez-wus, Piccars, in Chansons du xV siecle, by Gaston
Paris and Gevaert, Paris, 1875). If the charming English
song " The Nightingale " (Medieval and Plainsong Society) is
of popular origin, it may serve as an indication that these
melismata were also common in England (cf. also " Ah! the
sighs that come from my heart," which belongs to the reign of
Henry VIII.).
It is in the highest degree unfortunate that no collections
were made of English popular songs of the middle ages: every-
thing points to the fact that quantities of them existed. The
importance of song in the social life of every class is attested by
all the chroniclers and poets. An age that produced " Sumer
is a cumin in " (1240) must have been prolific of melody. It is
impossible to regard it as an isolated phenomenon. The beauty
of songs by early composers, and of others, which are possibly
of popular origin, met with in the reigns of Henry VII.,
Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Elizabeth (see Wooldridge's
edition of Chappell's Popular Music of the Olden Time) argue a
great and healthy activity in the preceding centuries. It is
sufficient to mention Morley's " It was a lover and his lass "
and " O Mistress mine," or " The Three Ravens," which though
it first appeared in print in 1611 is undoubtedly a folk-song
belonging to a much earlier period (for versions still to be heard
see Kidson's Traditional Times). The same is probably true
of " A poor soul sat sighing " and many others. It is to be
remarked, however, that printed versions of popular songs can
seldom be relied upon as faithfully representing their original
form, or even the form in which they were sung at a particular
epoch. Editors have seldom resisted the temptation of tamper-
ing with popular airs, if by so doing they can render them more
attractive to polite tastes. Within recent years, however,
the collection and publication of folk-songs has been undertaken
in a different spirit and it is possible in most countries to
study the folk-songs in versions which have been taken direct
from the lips of the peasantry and are presented without editorial
alterations. The question as to the propriety of such alterations,
or the larger question of what is suitable in the way of
SONG
405
instrumental accompaniment, need not be discussed here more
than to point out that the strictly scientific point of view
which seeks to understand the folk-song in its native
simplicity should not be mixed up with that of the artist
who aims at adding to the world's store of beautiful music.
It is to be deplored that the English composers of the i5th
and 1 6th centuries did not follow the example of Dutch, German
and French musicians, who utilized popular melodies as the
foundation or canto fermo of their masses and motets (one
example only is known, " O Westron Wynde ") and also arrange
them in parts for music-loving circles (to a limited extent this
appears to have been done in England, e.g. the Freemen's
Songs in Deuteromela) . But in England, as in other European
countries, survivals of medieval melodies are still to be found
among the peasantry in quantities which vary according to
the degree in which modern music has penetrated to country
districts. In Germany, for instance, where musical culture
has been most widely spread, the medieval folk-song, according
to Herr Bohme, is no longer heard; it is possible, however, that
this statement may be contradicted or modified, if the same
systematic search for the Germanic folk-song, which has been
made recently in France, England and elsewhere, is undertaken
before it is too late. Melodies formed by composers under the
principles of modern harmonic music have largely usurped their
place. 1
The folk-song is eventually killed by the products of the
musical manufactories of the town. The peasantry provided
with songs from outside is relieved from the necessity of pro-
viding for its own needs, or of cherishing with the love of earlier
times its own traditional inheritance. It is true that for many
centuries numbers of composed songs have found their way into
the popular repertory and have there undergone in many in-
stances transformations which serve as a complete disguise to their
real origin: but in general a fine ear can detect these intruders.
Fcr even when they have suffered change or transformation
in passing through a new environment the stamp of an individual
or a period remains, whereas the folk-song of tradition is the
work not of one age, but of many, not of the individual, but the
collective mind. For songs made by uncultivated persons,
and passed on to others without the aid of writing or of printing,
soon lose in the course of oral transmission even such traces
of individual authorship as they may once have possessed.
Moreover the makers of folk-songs are concerned with nothing
so little as the assertion of their own individuality. They
know that it is the most familiar that is the most acceptable.
Novelty has no charms for themselves or their audiences.
Instinct as well as policy keep them to recognized types and
formulae; and the innumerable variations which these undergo
from age to age are probably far more frequently due to
lapses of memory than to capacity for invention. Major tunes
inadvertently sung in minor modes, or vice versa, or the accidental
application of a tune to verses, for which it was not originally
intended, give rise in many cases to practically new melodies.
Though an author might be named, if it were possible to know
the history of a folk-melody, for each change that it has assumed
in the course of its history, it is clear that authorship of this
kind is not what we mean when we name Dibdin as the author
of " Tom Bowling." The theory that the folk-song is but the
degenerate offspring of a cultivated ancestry, that the peasantry
have, in fact, taken their music from a superior class, and trans-
formed it to suit their own tastes and idioms, has been and is
still held apparently by many (see Closson, Chansons populaires
beiges; and Combarieu, La Musique, p. 114). This is tanta-
mount to the assumption that the presence among songs of the
1 The error must be guarded against of supposing that melodies,
heard to-day among the peasantry, which suggest medieval times,
are necessarily medieval in origin. It has been already indicated
that dorian, aeolian and mixolydian modes (to name those which
are most prevalent) are natural modes, not church modes; they are
still employed by folk-singers in many parts of Europe. A melody
in the modern major scale is just as liable at the present day to
submit to transformation into the mixolydian or some other mode, as
melodies in other modes are liable to become major.
peasantry of beautiful melodies involves pre-existing musical
civilization, and that the popular instinct is incapable, without
cultivation, of creating melodies that are. artistically beautiful.
It would be difficult to support this assumption in the case of
the German and Dutch medieval songs, to which reference has
been made; the cases that could be cited, in which well-known
airs of the town have passed to the country and suffered trans-
formation, are insufficient data for establishing a general rule
as to the origin of folk-songs. Indeed, the very fact of such
transformation tends to prove the existence of a strictly popular
music, into whose idiom the town music is transformed. To
deny that uncultivated peasants can create melody is to forget
that the languages even of savages have their grammar and
syntax, as well as qualities that are rhythmical and musical,
and that even among civilized people those same qualities
existed long before they were analysed and tabulated by
grammarians, and further developed by trained literary men.
The case of melody is strictly analogous to that of languages.
As every country has its own store of folk-songs in which
national characteristics find expression through idioms which
differentiate its songs from those of other countries, it would be
arbitrary to select the songs of one country rather than those of
another for separate discussion.
The history of the art-song has now to be considered, of
solo song, that is, with instrumental accompaniment as an
essential part. Songs for two or more voices with
or without accompaniment, though they properly
belong to the subject of this article, are passed over,
for they but exhibit the tendencies manifested in solo song when
applied to more complicated forms. Operatic songs and arias
are likewise omitted (except in the early Italian period), as
belonging to a branch of music which requires separate treat-
ment (see ARIA; OPERA). Instrumental song arose during the
i6th century, a time in which composers, released by the spirit
of the Renaissance from the exclusive service of the Church,
were already becoming active in secular directions. The
madrigal was the favourite form of composition and was rapidly
approaching its period of maturity: it was now to be superseded
as the popular diversion of cultivated society by solo song.
The habit had already sprung up of supplying voices that might
be missing in a madrigal by instruments: if all the voices but
one were absent, the effect of a solo with instrumental accompani-
ment was realized. A still nearer approach to solo song was
made when singers, selecting one part of a madrigal for the
voice, themselves played the rest on lute or chilarrone. In such
performances the voice part was likely to receive most attention
even in madrigal-singing it was not unknown for the soprano
to embroider her part with gruppetti and ornamental passages
(see Kiesewetter's Schicksale u. Beschaffenheit des Weltlichen
Gesanges, p. 72, for an example of a simple part as embellished
by the well-known Signora Vittoria Archilei) and the accom-
paniment to undergo processes of simplification, thus preparing
the way for melodies, simple or ornate, with unobtrusive accom-
paniments, and perhaps also contributing to the invention of
that declamatory or recitative style, attributed to Cavalieri,
Peri and Caccini, the founders of oratorio and opera. Such
melodies are found in Caccini's famous Nuove Musiche, published
in Venice in 1601 (" Feri Selvaggi " may serve as a beautiful
specimen of simple melody; " Cor mio " is typical of the ornate
style, " Deh! dove son fuggite " of the declamatory: the last
two are quoted in Kiesewetter, Ceschichte und Beschafenheit
des Weltlichen Gesanges, p. 73). Caccini claimed in the preface
to that work to be the first to invent songs " fora single voice
to the accompaniment of a simple instrument." It is true that
his friends in Rome (his native city), at whose houses these
new compositions were performed, assured him that they had
never heard the like before, and that his style exhibited possibil-
ities for the expression of feeling, that were excluded, when the
voice sang merely one part in a contrapuntal work. But, about
thirty years before Caccini, lutenists in France had anticipated
his innovations, and composed solo songs, with lute accompani-
ments, in which is evidenced the struggle, not always successful,
406
SONG
to break away from polyphonic traditions. Le Roy's Airs de
Cour, published in 1571, may be cited in proof of this statement.
Of these airs " Je suis amour " is somewhat in the declamatory
recitative style of Caccini's Nuove musiche (see Sammelba'nde,
Int. Musik Gesellschaft, article " Airs de Cour of Adrien le Roy,"
by Janet Dodge). Generally speaking, it may be said of early
French songs that they were longer in shaking off the influence
of the past than the songs of the Italians, many tricks of ex-
pressions, belonging to polyphonic times, surviving both in voice
parts and accompaniments. In the voice parts sometimes
the influence of popular song is evident, at others they are neither
melodious nor yet declamatory, but merely suggest a single
part in a polyphonic composition, while the accompaniments
for the lute are generally a mixture of chords used with harmonic
effects, and certain polyphonic tricks inherited from the past
two centuries. In England two books of " Ayres," for a single
voice with lute accompaniment, one by Jones, and another by
Campion and Rosseter, were published in 1601; Jones in his
preface claims that his songs were the first of the kind, and
Rosseter says that those of Campion had been for some time
" privately imparted to his friends." Both sets therefore seem
to be independent of Caccini's Nuove musiche, the influence of
which was not felt for some years. In England the break with
the past was less violent and sudden than in Italy; for the
established practice of arranging popular songs and dances
as lute solos led naturally to, and profoundly influenced, the
later " ayres " with lute accompaniment. As Dr Walker remarks
(History of Music in England, p. 121, Clarendon Press, 1907),
" A folk-song of 1 500, a song of Thomas Campion and a song
of Henry Lawes are all bound together by a clear and strong
tie." In a simple and unpretentious way these first English
attempts at solo-song were singularly successful. The best
of them, such as Rosseter's " And would you see my Mistress'
face ? " and Campion's " Shall I come if I swim? " rank as master-
pieces of their kind. Both in structure and in feeling they
exactly catch the essentials of the lyrics of the period. Their
daintiness and charm make it easy to forgive an air of artifi-
ciality, which was after all inevitable if the songs were to
represent the spirit of their environment. 1
Meanwhile Italian composers, who, in spite of the frottole,
villote, villanelle, balletti and falalas (arrangements in vocal
parts of popular melodies common in the last half of the i6th
century) seem to have been unaffected in the new song movement
by popular influences, went straight from the polyphonic to
the recitative style, and advanced with extraordinary rapidity.
Melody was quickly added to relieve the monotony of recitative
which must have been acutely felt by the hearers of the early
operas, and considerable advance in this direction was made
by Cavalli and Cesti (see Oxford History of Music, vol. iii., for
details of their methods). Monteverde, though a greater genius
than either of them, did not succeed in forcing the daring qualities
of his own conceptions on others. The famous lament of Ariadne
was the expression of an individual genius casting all rules aside
for the sake of poignant emotional effect rather than the begin-
ning of a new epoch in song. Carissimi and Rossi in oratorio
and cantata (a word which then merely described a piece that
was sung, as sonata a piece that was played, and consisted
generally of alternate recitative and aria) brought the organiza-
tion of mejody to a high degree of elaboration, far beyond
anything attempted by Cavalli and Cesti. In their hands the
declamatory rriethods of Monteverde were made subordinate to
larger purposes of design. A broad and general characterization
1 John Dowland, the chief of English lutenists, published his first
book of songs and ayres in four parts in 1597, " So made that all the
parts together or either of them severally may be sung to the lute,
orpherion or viol da gamba." Though not strictly speaking solo-
songs they are too important not to be mentioned. Three other
books followed in 1600, 1603 and 1612, in the second of which appears
the famous " Flow my tears " (Lachrymae) for two voices, but al-
most equally effective as a solo, and doubtless often used as such.
It is published in vol. vii. of Euterpe (Breitkopf & Hartel, London),
which also contains a valuable monograph on English lutenists and
lute music by Miss Janet Dodge. Dowland's few solo-songs are
unimportant.
of emotional situations was more natural to them and to their
successors than a treatment in which points are emphasized in
detail. It was moreover inevitable in these early developments
of musical style, in which melody had to play the leading part,
that such sacrifices as were necessary in ' balancing the rival
claims of expression and form should be in favour of the latter
rather than the former. But, the formal perfection of melody
was not the only problem which 17th-century Italian composers
had to face. The whole question of instrumental accompani-
ment had to be worked out; the nature and capacities of in-
struments, including the voice itself, had to be explored; the
reconciliation of the new art of harmony with the old art of
counterpoint to be effected. It speaks volumes for the innate
musical sense and technical skill of the early Italian composers
that the initial stage of tentative effort passed so quickly, and
that at the close of the i7th century we are conscious of breathing
an atmosphere not of experimental work, but of mature art.
Alessandro Scarlatti (1650-1725) sums up the period for Italy.
That much of his work is dry, a mere exhibition of consummate
technical skill without inspiration, is not surprising when the
quantity of it is realized, and also the unfavourable conditions
under which operatic composers had to work, but the best of
it is singularly noble in conception and perfect in design. The
same is true of the best work of Legrenzi, Stradella, Caldara.
Leonardo Leo, Durante, work which was of incalculable im-
portance for the development of musical, and particularly of
vocal, art, and which will always, for minds attuned to its atmo-
sphere of classical intellectuality, severity and self-restraint,
possess an abiding charm: but comparatively few specimens
have retained the affections of the world at large. Carissimi's
" Vittoria," Scarlatti's " O Cessate " and " Le Violette " are
the most notable exceptions (" Pieta Signore " is not included,
as no one now attributes it to Stradella).
The almost universal preference of the Italians in the i7th
and 1 8th centuries for the aria in da capo form involved serious
sacrifices on the dramatic and emotional side: for although
this form was but an elaboration of the folk-song type, ABA,
yet it involved, as the folk-song type did not, the repetition
note merely of the melody of the opening part, but of the words
attached to it. It is this double repetition which from the point
of view of dramatic sincerity forms so disturbing an element.
But composers, as has been remarked, were too much occupied
with exploring the formal possibilities of melody t6 establish a
really intimate connexion between music and text (Monteverde
being a notable exception), a detailed interpretation of which
lay outside their scheme of song. Elaboration of melody soon
came to involve much repetition of words, and this was not
felt as an absurdity so long as the music was broadly in accord
with the atmosphere or situation required. A few lines of
poetry were thought sufficient for a fully developed aria. Ex-
ceptions are however to be found in what is known as the
recitatiw arioso of which remarkably fine specimens appear
in some of Scarlatti's cantatas and in occasional songs in
slighter form than the tyrannous da capo aria, such as Caldara's
" Come raggio di sol " which foreshadows with its dignified and
expressive harmonies the Schubertian treatment of song.
Before Scarlatti's death in 1725 symptoms of decline had
appeared. He was himself often compelled to sacrifice his finer
instincts to the popular demand for mere vocal display. A
race of singers, who were virtuosi rather than artists, dominated
the taste of the public, and forced composers to furnish oppor-
tunities in each role for a full display of their powers. An opera
was expected to provide for each favourite five kinds of aria!
(aria cantabile, aria di portamento, aria di mezzo caraitere, ariu
parlanle and aria d' agilitd). It was not long before easier and
more obvious types of melody, expressing easier and more obvious
feelings, became the fashion. The varied forms of accompani-
ment, in which a good contrapuntal bass had been a conspicuous
feature, were wasted upon a public which came to hear vocalists,
not music; and stereotyped figures, of the kind which second-
rate art after the first half of the i8th century has made only too
familiar, took the place of sound contrapuntal workmanship,
SONG
407
till the Italian school, which had stood as a model for the world,
became identified with all that was trivial, insipid, conventional,
melodramatic. Not that the Italian tendency in the direction
of mere tunefulness was in itself either unhealthy or unworthy.
It was indeed a necessary reaction from the severe earlier style,
as soon as that style began to lose its earnestness and sincerity,
and to pass into cold and calculating formalism. But the spirit
of shallowness and frivolity which accompanied the reaction
involved the transference of musical supremacy from Italy to
Germany, the only country, which, while accepting what was
necessary to it of Italian influences, steadily remained true
to its own ideals.
Before speaking of German song, it is necessary to glance at
what was being done outside of Italy in the 1 7th century. Reference
has already been made to the French as pioneers in establishing
solo song to lute accompaniment, which here, as in Italy, origi-
nated in adaptations of polyphonic compositions. But in
France from the first the main influence was derived from popular
sources, the native folk-song and the vaudeville, the ditties of
country and of town. In both that union of grace, simplicity
and charm, characteristic of the French nation, tended to
produce an art of dainty unpretentious attractiveness, in strong
contrast to the serious and elaborate Italian work. It preserved
these characteristics in spite of the artificial atmosphere of the
French court, in which it mainly flourished up to the time of the
Revolution, in spite too of the somewhat different influences
which might have been expected to affect it, derived from
opera, the mania for which did not, as in Italy, kill the smaller
branch of vocal music. Brunettes, musettes, minuets, vaude-
villes, bergerettes, pastourelles, as the airs de cour were styled
according to the nature of the poetry to which they were attached,
may be found in Weckerlin's Echos du temps passe, but the
reader must beware of judging the real character of these songs
from that which they assume under the hands of the modern
arranger.
With the latter part of the i8th century came in the languid
and sentimental romance, in which the weaker phases of Italian
melody are felt as an enervating influence. The romance became
after the Revolution the most popular form of polite song, lead-
ing by degrees to that purely melodious type of which Gounod
may be considered the best representative, and which other
composers, such as Godard, Massenet, Widor, have been for
the most part content to follow and develop, leaving to more
adventurous spirits the excitement of exploring less obviously
accessible regions.
In England, as in France and Italy, the beginning of the
1 7th century brought into existence solo song. Its beginnings
have already been alluded to in speaking of the songs of Rosseter,
Jones, Campion and Dowland. The work of H. Lawes, and his
contemporaries, Wiliam Lawes, Coleman and Wilson, was
equally unpretentious and simple. A gem here and there,
such as " Gather ye Rosebuds " (W. Lawes), is the student's
reward for a mass of uninspired, though not ungraceful, work
in which is to be noted an attempt to come to closer quarters
with poetry, by " following as closely as they could the rhyth-
mical outlines of non-musical speech: they listened to their
poet friends reciting their own verses and then tried to produce
artificially exact imitations in musical notes " (Ernest Walker,
History of Music in England, p. 130), producing what was neither
good melody nor good declamation. Such tentative work,
in spite of Milton's sonnet to H. Lawes, could only have a
passing vogue, especially with a Purcell so near at hand to show
the world the difference between talent and genius, between
amateurish effort and the realized conceptions of a master of
his craft. Songs like " Let the dreadful Engines " and " Mad
Bess of Bedlam " reach a level of dramatic intensity and de-
clamatory power, which is not surpassed by the best work of
contemporary Italian composers. " I attempt from love's
sickness to fly " is so familiar in its quiet beauty that we are
apt to forget that melodies so perfectly proportioned were quite
new to English art (though Dr Blow's " The Self-banished "
deserves fully to stand with it side by side). Monteverde's
" Lament of Ariadne " has already been alluded to. It is
interesting to contrast its emotional force, obtained by daring
defiance of rule, with the equally intense, but more sublime
pathos of PurcelPs " Lament of Dido," in which song a ground
bass is used throughout. The " Elegy on the death of Mr John
Playford " (quoted in full by Dr Walker, p. 176 of his history)
exhibits the same feature and the same mastery of treatment.
The " Morning Hymn " is scarcely less remarkable, and has
likewise a ground bass. Purcell died in 1695; Bach and Handel
were then but ten years old, and Scarlatti had still thirty years
to live facts of which the significance may be left to speak
for itself.
It is among the ironies of musical history that so great a
beginning was not followed up. There are echoes of Purcell
in the generation that succeeded him, in Croft, Greene, Boyce
and Arne: but they quickly died away. The genius of Handel
first and of Mendelssohn later seem to have prevented English-
men from thinking musically for themselves. At least this is
the orthodox explanation: but it should be borne in mind that
a list of English composers, who have been willing to sacrifice
ease and prosperity to a life of devotion to artistic ideals, would
be exceedingly difficult to draw up and would certainly not
include many of the best-known names. From the death of
Purcell to the Victorian era there is no consistent development
of artistic song that is worth recording in detail. The only
songs that have survived are of the melodious order; of these
Arne contributes several that are still acceptable for an air of
freshness and gracefulness which marks them as his own.
" Where the Bee sucks " and " Blow, blow, thou Winter Wind "
are typical of his style at its best, as " The Soldier tired of
War's Alarms " is typical of it at its worst. Song writers that
followed him, Shield, Hook, Dibdin, Storace, Horn, Linley (the
elder) and Bishop, were all prolific melodists, who have each
left a certain number of popular songs by which their names
are remembered, and which are still pleasant enough to be
heard occasionally; but there is no attempt to advance in any.
new direction, no hint that song could have any other mission
than to gratify the public taste for tuneful melodies allied to
whatever poetry pastoral, bacchanalian, patriotic or senti-
mental lay readiest to hand.
The musical genius of Germany, which has created for the
world the highest forms as yet known of symphony, oratorio
and opera, is not less remarkable as the originator
of the Lied the term by. which are most easily
conveyed the modern conceptions of ideal song.
Germany is moreover the only country in which in orderly and
progressive development the art of song may be traced from
the simple medieval Volkslied to the elaborate productions of
Schubert, Schumann and Brahms. If Germany is united to
the rest of Europe in her debt to Italy, still her final conceptions
of song belong to herself alone. And these conceptions have
more profoundly influenced the rest of Europe than any Italian
conception ever influenced Germany. When the rest of Europe
was content with the vapid outpourings of Italian and pseudo-
Italian puerilities, an acute observer could have read the signs in
Germany, from which the advent of a Schubert might have been
foretold. The student therefore is more profitably employed
in studying the phases of song-development in Germany than
in any other country. German ideals and German methods of
technique have permeated the best modern song-work of coun-
tries differing as widely in idiom as Russia, Norway, France and
England.
It is not necessary to dwell, except in very general terms,
upon German song of the i7th century. There had been no
development corresponding with that which produced the
airs de cour of France and the ayres of England. The very
literature necessary for such development was wanting. Indeed
German art was too profoundly affected by the spirit which
produced the Reformation to develop freely in secular directions.
Even in the domain of the Volkslied the sacred songs can scarcely
have been less numerous than the secular; and at the Reforma-
tion adaptations of secular airs to sacred words constituted
408
SONG
borrowings on a very large scale. In the i7th century the work
of the Italian monodists was bound eventually to stimulate
German composers to make songs, but their main interest lay
in larger choral-instrumental works, in which solo songs natur-
ally appear, not in song as an independent branch of art. A good
general view of such isolated songs as appeared can be obtained
from Reimann's collections Das dculsche geistliche Lied and
Das deutsche Lied (Simrock). In spite of some stiffness and
awkwardness, these 17th-century songs exhibit a loftiness of
aim, a touching earnestness and sincerity, which mark them off
as quite distinct from any work done elsewhere at the same
time. On the other hand there is not that sure grasp of their
material, nor the melodic and declamatory power, which make
Purcell in England stand out pre-eminently as the greatest song
composer of the i7th century. The treatment of the aria by
Bach and Handel is discussed in separate articles (see ARIA;
BACH; HANDEL), which render unnecessary any further comment
here. Nor need we pause to consider the vastly inferior work
of lesser composers such as Telemann, Marpurg and Agricola,
most of which is confined to opera, oratorio and cantata. Our
concern is rather with the smaller lyrical forms, and to these
the absence of suitable poetry was for long an insurmountable
barrier. It was not till the middle of the i8th century that
the reform in German poetry associated with the name of Martin
Opitz (who translated Rinuccini's text of Dafne, ]. Peri's first
opera, for Heinrich Schtitz) bore real fruit.
At the outset it is necessary to make a broad distinction
between the more distinctly popular form of song, known as the
Volkstiimliches Lied, in which the same music served for each
stanza of a poem (as in the Volkslied itself, on which the Volks-
tiimliches Lied was modelled), and the Kunstlied, or, to adopt
the more descriptive term, the durch-componirtes Lied, in which
the music forms a running commentary on a poem, without
respect to its form or, if stanza form is preserved, varying the
music in some stanzas or in all in accordance with their poetical
significance. Generally speaking the former aims at a wider
audience than the Kunstlied, the appreciation of which, when it
is worth appreciating, involves some degree of culture and
intelligence, inasmuch as it aims as a rule at interpreting more
complex and difficult kinds of poetry. In the i8th century the
simpler Volkstiimliches Lied in strophic form was most in favour,
and those who care to trace its history in the hands of popular
composers like J. A. Hiller, J. A. P. Schulz, Reichhardt, Berger
and Zelter, can easily do so by consulting Hartel's Liederlexicon
(Leipzig, 1867) or one of a number of similar publications. Side
by side with the outpouring of somewhat obvious and senti-
mental melodiousness, which such volumes reveal, it must be
remembered that the attention of greater men to instrumental
composition, the growing power to compose for keyed instru-
ments (which began to replace the lute in the middle of the i7th
century), and the mechanical improvements, through which
spinet, clavichord and harpsichord were advancing toward the
modern pianoforte, were preparing the way for the modern
Lied, in which the pianoforte accompaniment was to play an
increasingly important part. C. P. E. Bach (d. 1788) alone
of his contemporaries gave serious attention to lyrical song,
selecting the best poetry he could get hold of, and aspiring to
something beyond merely tuneful melody. The real outburst
of song had to wait for the inspiration which came with Goethe
and Schiller.
It is unfortunate that Haydn and Mozart, pre-eminently
endowed with every gift that makes for perfect song except
that of literary discernment, should have left us so little of
real value. There is indeed much to admire in some of Haydn's
canzonets, of which " My Mother bids me bind my Hair " fully
deserves its continued popularity, while Mozart's " Schlafe
mein Prinzchen " if it is Mozart's and a few others, like
these in simple strophic form, are isolated treasures which we
could not afford to lose. But in only two songs by Mozart,
" Abendempfindung " and " Das Veilchen," is the goal, to which
the art was to advance, clearly discerned and in the latter case
perfectly attained. Both are durchcomponirt, that is, they
follow the words in detail; in both the general spirit, as well as
each isolated point of beauty in the verses, is seized and portrayed
with unerring insight. " Abendempfindung " is indeed seriously
marred by some carelessness in accentuation (worse examples
may be seen in " An Chloe ") and by annoying repetition of
words, due to the development of the melody into a formal and
effective climax. In the process the balance of the poem is
destroyed, and the atmosphere of suffused warmth and tenderness,
which pervades the rest of the song, is almost lost. The lyrical
mood passes into one in which the operatic aria is suggested
on the one hand, and on the other the formality of instrumental
methods of developing melody. Not till Schubert were these
traditions, fatal to the pure lyric, finally overthrown, and the
conditions of true union between music and poetry perfectly
realized. In " Das Veilchen " however, where Mozart touched a
poem that was worthy of his genius and appealed to his extra-
ordinarily fine dramatic instinct, he produced a masterpiece
rightly regarded as the first perfect specimen of the durch-
componirtes Lied. Every incident in the flower's story is
minutely followed, with a detailed pictorial and dramatic
treatment (involving several changes of key, contrasts be-
tween major and minor, variations of rhythm and melody,
declamatory or recitative passages) which was quite new
to the art. The accompaniment too takes its full share,
illustrating each incident with exquisite fancy, delicacy and
discretion and all with no violence done to the form of the
poem.
With Beethoven song was suddenly exalted to a place among
the highest branches of composition. Taken in hand with the
utmost seriousness by the greatest musician of the age and
associated by him for the most part with lyrical poetry of a
high order, it could at last raise its head, and, freed from the
conventional formalities of the salon, look a larger world con-
fidently in the face. It cannot, however, be admitted that Beet-
hoven, in spite of several noble songs, was an ideal song com-
poser. His genius moved more easily in the field of abstract
music. The forms of poetry were to him rather a hindrance
than a help. His tendency is to press into his melodies more
meaning than the words will bear. The very qualities in fact
which make his instrumental melodies so inspiring tell against
his songs. Though his stronger critical instinct kept him as a
rule from the false accentuation which marred some of the work
of Haydn and Mozart, yet, like them, he often failed to escape
from the instrumentalist's point of view, especially in the larger
song-forms. The concluding melody of " Busselied " would
be equally effective played as a violin solo: the same might be
said of the final movements of " Adelaide " and of the otherwise
noble cycle " An die feme Geliebte " movements in which
the words have to adapt themselves as well as they can to the
exigencies of thematic development, and to submit to several
displacements and tiresome repetitions. In songs of a solemn
or deeply emotional nature Beethoven is at his best, as in that
cycle, to sacred words of Gellert, of which " Die Ehre Gottes
aus der Natur " stands as a lasting monument of simple but
expressive grandeur, in " Trocknet nicht," in " Partenza," " In
questa tomba," in the first of his four settings of Goethe's " Nur
.wer die Sehnsucht kennt," and more than all, in the cycle " An
die feme Geliebte," which represents a further stage reached in
song on the road marked out by Mozart in " Das Veilchen." We
have left behind the pretty artificialities so dear to the i8th
century, that play around fictitious shepherds and shepherdesses,
and entered the field of deeper human feeling with the surrounding
influences upon it of nature and romance. The new spirit of
the age, represented in German poetry by the lyrics of Burger,
Voss, Claudius and Holty, members of the famous Gottinger
Hainbund, and more notably by those of Goethe and Schiller,
communicates itself in Beethoven to song, which now assumes
its rightful position of joint interpreter. It needs no deep study
of Beethoven's songs to perceive that the accompaniment has
assumed, especially in the " Liederkreis, " an importance, im-
measurably greater than in the songs of any previous composer.
It begins to act the part of the chorus in Greek drama and to
SONG
409
provide both a background and a commentary to the central
personages.
The tentative and uninspired work of Zelter, Reichardt,
Schulz and others, when they attempted anything beyond a
merely tuneful melody in the strophic form, may be passed over,
but a word is due to J. R. Zumsteeg, because in spite of the
sometimes childish simplicity of his work he yet, in the kind
of use which he made of modulation as a means of lyrical ex-
pression, anticipated, more than any other composer of songs,
one of the chief features of the greatest song writer of all ages,
Franz Schubert. Schubert's " Erlkonig " was written a few
months before Beethoven's " Liederkreis," " Gretchen am Spinn-
rade " about a year before the " Erlkonig." He was eighteen
when he composed the latter, in' 1815. Lyrical song, divorced
from all hindering elements and associations, whether of salon
or theatre, was here at the threshold of his short career in almost
full maturity and plenitude of power. It is sufficiently remark-
able that a lad with so little education should have composed
such music: it is more astonishing still that he should have
penetrated with such unerring insight into the innermost secrets
of the best poetry. Two of the necessary qualifications for a
great song composer were thus at last united. Schubert pos-
sessed the third a knowledge of the human voice, partly
intuitive, partly the result of his experience as a chorister boy.
The beauty of his melodies is scarcely more striking than the
gratefulness of their purely vocal qualities. The technique of
singing had indeed been understood for nearly two centuries;
but Schubert was the first to divine fully its emotional range, and
to dissociate it in lyrical work from all traditions of the schools.
From the beginning to the end of his career he never penned a
note or a phrase because it was vocally effective. What he
wrote for the voice to sing was there because for him the poetry
could not have it otherwise. This was inherent in his method
of working, in which he relied implicitly upon his musical in-
spiration for a response, usually instantaneous, to the inordinate
receptivity of his mind to the impressions of poetry. To read
through a poem was for him not only to seize its innermost
significance, and every salient point of language or of form,
but also to visualize the scheme by which both the whole and
the parts could be translated and glorified through the medium
of music. As the singer Vogl, the first of his profession to
appreciate him, remarked, " He composed in a state of clair-
voyance." Hence the impossibility of summarizing in a short
space the innovations he introduced, for new poems invariably
suggested new types of song. His settings of Goethe's lyrics
(that is, the best of them) differ as essentially from his settings
to those of W. Muller in the cycles "Die Schone Mullerin" and
" Die Winterreise," as these again from his settings of Heine.
Hardly a single development in subsequent phases of the art
(except those which eliminate the melodious element) is not
foreshadowed in one or other of his six hundred (and more)
songs. Brahms, perhaps the greatest of his successors, said
that there was something to be learned from every one of Schu-
bert's songs. He was as perfectly at home in the durchcompo-
nirtes Lied as in the simple strophic type or the purely de-
clamatory (" Der Wegweiser," " Nahe des Geliebten," " Der
Doppelganger " may serve as familiar but supreme examples
of each). Certain features may be selected for emphasis, first,
his use of modulation as a means of emotional expression. " Du
liebst mich nicht " traverses in two pages more keys than would
serve most composers for a whole symphony, whilst the discords
on the words " Die Sonne vermissen " and " Was bliih'n die
Narcissen " gave a piercingly thrilling effect, which is quite
modern. The modulations in " Wehmuth " illustrate the subtle
atmospheric effects which he loved to produce by sudden contrasts
between major and minor harmonies. More familiar instances
occur in " Gute Nacht," " Die Rose," " Rosamunde." Secondly,
his inexhaustible fertility in devising forms of accompaniment,
which serve to illustrate the pictorial or emotional background
of a poem; we have the galloping horses (and the horn) in "Die
Post," the spinning wheel in " Gretchen," murmuring brooks
in many songs from " Die Schone Mullerin " and in " Liebesbot-
schaft," the indication of an emotional mood in " Die Stadt "
or " Litanei." Occasionally, it is true, the persistence of a
particular figure and rhythm induces monotony, as in " Ave,
Maria!" or " Normans Gesang," but generally Schubert has
plenty of means at his command to prevent it, such as the
presence of an appropriate subsidiary figure making its appear-
ance at intervals, as in " Halt," " Der Einsame," or some
enchanting ritornello, by which a phrase of the vocal melody is
echoed in the accompaniment, as in " Liebesbotschaft," " An
Sylvia," " Standchen " and " Fischerweise." Thirdly, the sud-
den entrance of declamatory passages, as in " Der Neugier'ge,"
" Am Feierabend," in " Gretchen," at the famous " Ach sein
Kuss," and in " Erlkonig " at " Mein Vater, mein Vater."
Fourthly, the realistic touches by which suggestions in a poem
are incorporated into the accompaniment, such as the cock
crowing in " Friihlingstraum," the convent bell in " Die Junge
Nonne," the nightingale's song in " Ganymed " or the falling
tears in " Ihr Bild." Finally should be noted the extreme rarity
of any slips in the matter of the just accentuation of syllables,
and this is especially remarkable in a song writer who relies
so much upon pure melody as Schubert, for to preserve a per-
fect melodic outline which shall do not the least violence to a
poet's text, presents far more difficult problems than the de-
clamatory style. Yet Schubert is as successful in " Liebes-
botschaft " as in " Prometheus." Purists may be disturbed by
the repetitions of words involved in the magnificent " Dithy-
rambe " but Schubert cannot be expected to betray a sensi-
tiveness which is really post-Wagnerian. Nor is it just to a
composer of over 600 songs to fasten for critical purposes on
those which do not represent him at his best. His best level
is so often attained as to make attacks on points which he has
missed as in some of the songs from Wilhelm Meister some-
what beside the mark. It is usually the work of enthusiasts
who wish to exalt others at Schubert's expense. For further
details the reader is referred to the brilliant essay on Song with
which Mr Hadow concludes vol. v. of the Oxford History of
Music. It must suffice here to point out in a general way that
in wideness of scope and aim, in intensity of expression Schubert
produced the same transformation in the lyrical field that
Beethoven had produced in the larger forms of sonata, string
quartet and symphony. Beethoven's work was necessary before
Schubert could arise, but Schubert's conceptions and methods
were the fruit of his own genius. Of his contemporaries Loewe
deserves mention for his singular success in overcoming the
difficulties involved in setting long ballads to music. To
preserve homogeneity in a form in which simple narration
presents perpetually shifting changes of action, of picture, of
mood, is a problem which Schubert himself only once trium-
phantly solved. Weber contributed nothing to song, except
in his operas, of permanent value, beyond a few strophic songs
of a popular nature. He disqualified himself for higher work
by that singular preference for vapid and trivial verse which
so often led Haydn and Mozart astray. Mendelssohn's literary
tastes took him to the best poetry, but he made but little attempt
as a rule, to penetrate beyond its superficial and obvious import.
His own lovable personality is far more clearly revealed in his
songs than the spirit of his poets. Differences of literary style
affected the style of his music perhaps less than that of any other
distinguished composer. He attained his highest level in " Auf
Flugeln des Gesanges,;' the first of the two songs to Zuleika, and
Nachtlied. It is noteworthy that there is no trace of Schubert's
influence. Had Schubert not lived, Mendelssohn's songs would
have been just the same. Hence in spite of graceful and flowing
melodies, elegant but simple in form, and instinct with that
polished taste and charm of manner which endeared both him-
self and his works to his own generation, his songs have exercised
no permanent influence upon the art. Their immediate in-
fluence, it is true, was enormous: it is felt occasionally in
Schumann, only too often in Robert Franz, and a host of lesser
composers in many countries besides his own, such as Gade,
Lindblad, Sterndale Bennett, and others who need not be
specified.
SONG
Of far greater importance is the work of Robert Schumann,
whose polyphonic methods of technique and peculiarly epigram-
matic style enabled him to treat complex phases of thought
and feeling which had hardly become prominent in Schubert's
time with quite extraordinary success. Both by temperament
and by choice he is identified with the so-called romantic move-
ment, a movement in which both poetry and music have tended
more and more to become rather a personal revelation than
" a criticism of life." Thus with Schubert the note of univer-
sality, the abiding mark of the classical composers, is stronger
than the impress of his own personality. With Schumann the
reverse is the case. If the romantic movement gave a new
impetus of vast importance both to music and literature, yet
it had its weaker side in extremes of sensibility, which were
not always equivalent to strength of feeling. Mendelssohn's
songs admittedly err on the side of pure sentimentality-
Schumann, with Liszt, Jensen and Franz, frequently betrays
the same weakness, but his best work, his settings to Heine
(especially the Dichterliebe), the Eichendorf " Liederkreis,"
Chamisso's " Frauenliebe u. Leben " (with some reservations),
besides a fair number of other songs, such as " Widmung,"
" Der Nussbaum," " Ihre Stimme," and his one completely
successful ballad, " Die beiden Grenadiere," are strong in feeling
and full of poetic and imaginary qualities of the very highest
order. The new poetry called for new methods of treatment.
These Schumann, instinctively an experimenter, provided,
first, by a closer attention to the minutiae of declamation than
had hitherto been attempted-r-and herein syncopation and
suspension furnished possibilities unsuspected even by Schubert
secondly by increasing the role of the pianoforte accompani-
ment and in this he was helped on the one hand by novel
methods of technique, of which himself and Chopin were the
chief originators, and on the other by his loving study of Bach,
which imparted a polyphonic treatment, quite new to song.
In nearly all Schubert's songs, and in quite all of Mendelssohn's,
the melody allotted to the voice maintained its position of
supremacy. In Schumann it not infrequently becomes the
secondary factor, the main r61e of lyric interpreter passing to
the accompaniment, as in " Es ist ein Floten u. Geigen " or
" Roselein." He also gave quite a new prominence to the
opening and closing instrumental symphonies, which become
in his hands no merely formal introduction or conclusion but
an integral part of the whole conception and fabric of the Lied.
This may be illustrated by many numbers of the Dichterliebe,
but most remarkable is the final page, in which the pianoforte,
after the voice has stopped, sums up the whole tenour of the
cycle. This feature has been seized upon by many subsequent
composers, but by few with Schumann's rare insight and judg-
ment. In Franz, for instance, the concluding symphony is
often introduced without necessity, and becomes a mere irritating
mannerism. In Brahms however it is developed, both at the
opening and close of many songs, to an importance and preg-
nancy of meaning which no other composer has attained.
A third point in Schumann's method is his fondness for short
interrupted phrases (often repeated at different levels) in place
of the developed Schubertian melodies; it is alluded to here
because of the great extension of the practice by later composers,
too often, as in the case of Franz, without Schumann's tact.
On many grounds, then, Schumann may be regarded as having
widely extended the conception of the Lied; his example has
encouraged later composers to regard no lyric poetry as too
subtle for musical treatment. Unfortunately in presenting com-
plexity of mood Schumann was not invariably careful to pre-
serve structural solidity. Many later composers have followed
the occasional looseness of design which is his fault, without
approaching the beauty of spirit, in which he stands alone.
A bold experimenter in song was Franz Liszt, whose wayward
genius, with its irrepressible bent towards the theatrical and
melodramatic, was never at home within the limits of a short
lyric. It is true that there is sincerity of feeling, if not of the
deepest kind, in " Es muss ein Wunderbares sein " and " Uber
alien Gipfeln "; but concentrated emotion, which involves for
its expression highly organized form, was alien to Liszt's genius,
which is more truly represented in songs like " Die Lorelei,"
" Kennst du das Land," " Am Rhein " in which are presented
a series of pictures loosely connected, giving the impression
of clever extemporizations on paper. It is not sufficiently
recognized that such work is far easier to produce than a
successful strophic song, even of the simplest kind, because the
composer ignores the fact that a formal lyric implies formal
music, and that the most formal poetry is often the most emo-
tional. Critics, who measure the advance of song by the increase
in number of those that are durchcomponirt, and the decreasing
output of those which have the same music to each stanza,
are in danger of forgetting the best qualities both of music and
of poetry. Formless music never interpreted a finely formed
poem, and unless the durchcomponirtes Lied has more form
instead of less than the strophic song, it is artistically valueless.
The popularity therefore of " Die Lorelei " is not so much a
tribute to Liszt's genius as an example of the extent to which
gifted singers and undiscerning critics can mislead the public.
Mere scene painting, however vivid, however atmospheric and
these qualities may be conceded to Liszt and to others who have
followed his example takes its place upon the lower planes
of art.
The admiration expressed by Liszt and Wagner for the songs of
Robert Franz, and the cordial welcome extended by Schumann
to those which first made their appearance, have led to an
undue estimate of their importance in many quarters. They
are characterized by extreme delicacy both of feeling and of
workmanship, but the ingenuity of his counterpoint, which he
owed to his intimate knowledge of Bach and Handel, cannot
conceal the frequent poverty of inspiration in his melodic phrases
nor the absence of genuine constructive power. To build a
song upon one or two phrases repeated at different levels and
coloured by changing harmonies to suit the requirements of the
poetic text (as in " Fur Musik " and " Du bist elend ") is a
dangerous substitute for the power to formulate large and ex-
pressive melodies. But it is the method which Franz instinc-
tively preferred and elaborated with skill. His songs are
mostly very short and in the strophic form, some alteration
being nearly always reserved to give point to the last verse.
His tricks of style and procedure so quickly become familiar
as to exhaust the patience even of the most sympathetic student.
But the sincerity of his aims, the idealistic and supersensitive
purity of his mind (which banished as far as possible even the
dramatic element from his lyrics), its receptiveness to the
beauties of nature and all that is chaste, tender and refined in
human character render his songs an important contribution
to our knowledge of the intimate side of German feeling, and
compensate in some degree for the lack of the larger qualities
of style and imagination. All his best qualities are represented
in the beautiful setting of Lenau's " Stille Sicherheit." Those
who care to study his limitations may compare his settings of
Heine's lyrics with the masterpieces of Schumann in the same
field, or the dulness of his " Verborgenheit " (Morike) with the
romantic fervour imparted to that poem by the later genius
of Hugo Wolf.
A higher value than is usually conceded attaches to the songs
of Peter Cornelius, a friend of Liszt and Wagner, but a follower
of neither. Before he came under their influence he had under-
gone a severe course of contrapuntal training, so that his work,
though essentially modern in spirit, has that stability of structure
which makes for permanence. He was, moreover, an accom-
plished linguist, a brilliant essayist, and a poet. That perfect
fusion between poetry and music, which since Schubert has
increasingly been the ideal of German song, is realized -in an
exceptional manner when, with Cornelius as with Wagner,
librettist and musician are one person. More exquisite declama-
tion is hardly to be found in the whole range of song than
in the subtly imaginative " Auftrag," whilst for nobility of
feeling, apart from technical excellencies of the highest order, the
" Weihnachtslieder," the " Brautlieder " and much of the sacred
cycle " Vater Unser," are hardly surpassed even by Schumann
SONG
411
at his best, and point to Cornelius as one of the most beautiful
and original spirits of the ipth century.
In the song-work of the igth century, though Schubert
remains the rock upon which it has been built, Schumann
represents the most directly inspiring influence, even when, as in
the case of Adolph Jensen (whose spontaneously melodious and
graceful, if not very deep, songs deserve mention), there are
importations from such widely divergent sources as those of
Mendelssohn and Wagner.
The application of the principles of Wagnerian music-drama
to lyrical work, allied, as was natural, with the exaggerations
and unconventionalities of Liszt and Berlioz, was sooner or
later bound to come, bound also for a time to issue in confusion ;
to rescue song from which was the work of two men of genius,
who, though approaching the task from standpoints removed
by the whole distance of pole to pole, may be considered as
placing the crown of final achievement upon the aspirations of
19th-century song Hugo Wolf and Johannes Brahms.
Wolf exhibits an entirely unconventional and original style.
He is as untroubled by tradition as Schubert, whom he resembles
not often, as in " Fussreise," and " Der Gartner," in pure
melodiousness, but in the intensity of his power to penetrate
to the very heart of poetry. To him may also be most fitly
applied the epithet' clairvoyant. He is the first who published
songs for voice and pianoforte, not songs with pianoforte
accompaniment, thus finally asserting the identity of singer and
accompanist in true lyrical interpretation.
The unerring sagacity of Brahms discerned that the pos-
sibilities of song on the lines set by Schubert were far from being
exhausted: his practical mind preferred to develop those pos-
sibilities rather than to seek after strange and novel methods,
conforming thus in song to his practice in other branches of
composition. A broad melodic outline is for him an essential
feature: equally essential is a fine contrapuntal bass. In
form the majority of his songs follow the orthodox ABA pattern,
the central portion being so organized as to offer, with the least
possible introduction of new unrelated material, a heightened
contrast with the opening portion by means of new treatment
and new tonalities and at the same time to justify itself by
producing the mood in which the return to the opening portion
is felt as a logical necessity. Chromatic effects in Brahms's
scheme of melody are rarely introduced till the middle section,
the opening being almost invariably diatonic. It must however
be admitted that Brahms's formal perfection involves occasion-
ally an awkward handling of words, and that in a few instances
(see Magelone-lieder, Nos. 3 and 6), they are frankly sacri-
ficed to that formal development of his material which has
been criticized in the cases of Mozart and Beethoven. No part
of his songs deserves closer study than the few bars of instru-
mental prelude and conclusion, in which is enshrined the very
essence of his conception of a poem. It may almost be said that,
since Schumann set the example, the first and the last word
has passed from the voice to the instrument. Accompanist,
like singer, must understand poetry as well as music: but with
no composer is his responsibility greater than with Brahms.
Complete mastery in close organization of form was allied in
Brahms not only with the warmth and tenderness of romance,
but with the imagination and insight of a profound thinker.
Concentration of style and of thought have nowhere in the
whole history of song been combined on a plane so high as that
which is reached, with all perfection of melodic and harmonic
beauty, in " Schwermuth," " Der Tod das ist die kuhle Nacht,"
" Mit vierzig Jahren," " Am Kirchhof ," " O wiisst' ich doch den
Weg zuriick " and the " Vier ernste Gesange," which closed the
list of his 197 songs. The alliance to song of so dangerous a
companion as philosophy, or at any rate of thoughts which are
philosophical rather than lyrical, proved no obstacle to Brahms's
equal success in the realm of romance. This side of his genius
may be illustrated by numerous songs from the Magelone cycle
(notably " Wie froh und.frisch " and " Ruhe, suss, Liebchen ")
and by others, of which " Liebestreu," " Die Mainacht,"
" Feldeinsamkeit," " Wie rafft' ich mich auf in der Nacht,"
" Minnelied " and " Wir wandeltcn " are a few examples picked
at random.
It has already been indicated that Brahms was a deep student
of Schubert. If he had not Schubert's absolute spontaneity
of melody, he restored it to its Schubertian place of supreme
importance. In spite of all the tendencies of his age he never
shirked that supreme test of a composer, the power to originate
and organize melody: but it is melody often of a type so severe
in its outline and proportions as to repel those hearers who are
unable to attain to his level of thought and feeling. All mere
prettiness and elegance are as alien to his nature as even the
slightest approach to sentimental weakness on the one hand,
or to realistic scene-painting on the other, so that for the world
at large his popularity is jeopardized by an attitude which is
felt to be uncompromisingly lofty and severe. It has hardly
yet had time to reconcile itself to the union of modern lyrical
poetry with a style whose elaborate contrapuntal texture differs
as much from the delicate polyphony of Schumann as that in
its turn differed from the broad harmonic system of Schubert.
But that Brahms was never difficult without reason, or elaborate
when he might have been simple, appears plainly from the
preference he felt for his slighter songs in the Volksliimlich
style and form, rather than for those which were durchcom-
ponirl. He was strongly influenced by the Volkslieder of his
country, the words of which he loved to repeat to himself, as
they suggested ideas even for his instrumental compositions.
His arrangements of Volkslieder mark an epoch in that field
of work. 1
In the history of song Brahms's name is likely to stand for the
closing of a chapter. It is difficult to conceive of more com-
plete work on lines that are essentially classical. The soundest
traditions find in him their justification and their consummation.
He has enshrined the best thought and the noblest feeling of
his age in forms where elaboration and complexity of detail serve
essential purposes of interpretation, and are never used as a
brilliant artifice to conceal foundations which are insecure.
It is not proposed to discuss the work and tendencies of
contemporary German composers of whom Felix Weingartner
(b. 1863), Max Reger (b. 1873) and Richard Strauss have at-
tracted the largest share of attention. The above summary,
though necessarily incomplete and confined only to the most
conspicuous names, may yet provide some points of view from
which the songs of other countries than Germany may be re-
garded, especially those in which German conceptions and German
methods of technique have been dominant factors. Actual
settings of German lyrics figure largely in the works of many
non-German composers, and these it is hard to judge except
by German standards. But, strongly as German influence has
been felt in Russia, for instance, in Norway and in Finland,
yet the last half century has seen the rise of more distinctly
national schools of song in all these countries, and to this result
the cult of the folk-song has very largely contributed. Glinka,
Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin, Balakirev, Cesar Cui (b. 1835),
and Moussorgsky in Russia, Nordraak (1842-1866) and Grieg
in Norway, Sibelius (b. 1865) in Finland, are conspicuous names
in this connexion.
The Latin countries have, as is natural, been but little subject
to German influences; of these France alone seems to be working
her way towards a solution of artistic problems Modern
which has interest for those who live beyond her French
borders and which bears emphatically her own hall- Son z-
mark. The melodious style of Gounod, which has so powerfully
affected composers like Massenet, Godard and Widor, has
'Their value may be tested by comparing them with the small
volume containing arrangements by R. Franz, which are sympatheti-
cally done but without inspiration, with those of Tappert, which are
models of what such things ought not to be, and with the dull,
uninviting work of A. Saran. Many of Reimann's arrangements,
however, deserve cordial recognition as both sympathetic and
scholarly. One fact emerges clearly from the study of folk-song
arrangements, in Germany and elsewhere, that success depends upon
qualities which are as rare as, and are seldom dissociated from, the
power of original composition. Only a great composer can be a great
arranger.
412
SONG
begun to yield during the last quarter of a century to tendencies
which correspond closely with those of the impressionist move-
ments in French literature and painting. The deeper side of
the movement, in which a strong element of mysticism plays
an important part, is represented in the best songs of Cesar
Franck, Faure and Bruneau, a notable group of composers,
whose occasional extravagances are atoned for by original
impressions of nature in her more unusual moods, and by much
that arrests attention both in thought and style. The songs of
Duparc (b. 1848) and Vincent d'Indy likewise repay study.
Nothing can be clearer than that traditional methods were
inadequate, if modern French poetry was to find interpretation
in the sister sphere of music ; but how far the work of composers
such as those named is likely to be regarded as final, it is pre-
mature to ask. The world had hardly had time to feel at home
with them before it was called upon to face what it is difficult
not to regard as representing the extreme limits of impressionistic
style in Debussy. We are still too much accustomed to melody
and rhythm, to harmonies that have some intelligible principle
in their successions, to judge securely of music which is neither
melodious nor rhythmical nor in the accepted sense harmonious.
We are still too much accustomed to music regulated by analys-
able laws to feel at ease with music that seems, at any rate at
present, to acknowledge none. Whether the work of Debussy
is the beginning of a new epoch the future alone can decide, but
it is permissible to feel apprehensive of an art which is based
upon impressions rather than upon convictions; and the value
of impressions is apt to be measured more by the degree in which
they are fugitive, elusive, evanescent, or merely peculiar to the
composer's temperament, than by the relation which they bear
to permanent elements in nature or humanity. Hence in the
modern school of song-writers, which finds its culmination in
Debussy, the quality of unselfconsciousness is the one which
seems most difficult for them to attain. In French art we are
too often reminded how close the sublime is to the ridiculous,
the dramatic to the theatrical, pathos to bathos, truth to paradox.
Even in the quieter pictures we are conscious of a forced atmo-
sphere, an unnatural calm, not the abiding peace of a landscape by
Corot or Millet. Lastly, the opinion of Bruneau (La Musique
franqaise, p. 233) that prose will in time supplant poetry in
drama and song is, at least to those to whom form is still an
essential element of beauty, a disquieting omen for the future.
The best qualities of the French nation, its unaffected gaiety, its
sincerity, grace, humour, pathos, tenderness, are far more
touchingly and truthfully revealed in the simple melodies of
the country-side or in the less pretentious songs (of which
Bruneau and Massenet have given examples, as well as many
others) formed upon their model.
Limitations of space do not form the only reason for dealing
in a cursory manner with English songs of the igth century.
Modem A more valid one is to be found in the absence,
English until its two closing decades, of great names to
Song. which can be attached the history of any orderly
development, of any well-conceived and definite ideals.
The authors of the very limited number of good songs are too
oftep the authors of others in larger quantities which are bad,
and that not in every case owing to failure of inspiration but
to a lowering of ideals in order to gratify the tastes of an unin-
telligent public on the one hand, and the demands of exacting
publishers on the other. That a healthier art might have arisen
is indicated by the presence of such songs as Hatton's " To
Anthea," Loder's unexpectedly fine setting of " The Brooklet "
(the words of which Schubert had already immortalized in its
original German version as "Wohin"), Sullivan's fresh and
original settings of several Shakespearian lyrics, and of Tennyson's
uninspired cycle of verses entitled " The Songs of the Wrens,"
and Clay's " I'll sing thee songs of Araby." The name of
Sterndale Bennett stands out as that of a composer who remained
steadfastly true to his ideals. His output was indeed a small
one, and covered a somewhat limited range of style and feeling:
but the thought, like the workmanship, is always of delicate
and beautiful quality. Though Mendelssohn's influence is
apparent he has a touch which is all his own. " To Chloe in
sickness," " Forget-me-not," " Gentle Zephyr " and " Sing,
Maiden, sing," have certainly not yet lost their charm. Stern-
dale Bennett marks the beginning of higher ideals in English
song but it is only within the last twenty-five years that we
have begun to see their realization, owing to the training of
many English musicians in German schools and to the increasing
familiarity of the musical public with the best German Lied.tr.
The lead has been taken by Parry and Stanford composers
who have published large numbers of songs in great variety of
styles, and with uniform seriousness of aim and treatment.
Parry's delightfully fresh early work is represented at its best
in " A Spring Song," " A Contrast," and " Why does azure deck
the skies?" The transition to a later manner is marked by the
four anacreontic odes; and several small volumes of lyrics
have since made their appearance. If some of these miss the
true lyrical note, of which absolute spontaneity is an essential
condition, yet a lofty level of thought and workmanship is
always manifest, rising to highest inspiration perhaps in " When
we two parted," " Through the ivory gate," and " I'm weaving
Sweet Violets." Stanford has essayed songs in many styles,
suited to poems drawn from many periods, but he is most
himself and most successful in Keats's weird and dramatic ballad
" La Belle dame sans merci," in Browning's cavalier songs, in
the cycle of sea songs (H. Newbolt) and above all in the Irish
idyll (Moira O'Neill) where in six pieces of rarest beauty the
composer has revealed different phases of Irish feeling, pathos
and humour with a poetical and imaginative power unequalled
in British art. It is hard to imagine a more perfect alliance
between poetry and music, from the general conception of each
song down to the minutest detail of declamation, than is found
here. As an arranger of Irish melodies of which four volumes
have been published Stanford has also shown himself a com-
plete master. Cowen, Mackenzie and Elgar have contributed
few songs worthy of reputations gained in larger forms of com-
position. Of the work done and being done by younger com-
posers much might be said. There is activity in many directions;
a cycle of songs by Arthur Somervell from Tennyson's Maud,
is an artistic work of very real value, beautiful and original as
music, and forming a highly interesting commentary upon
the poem. R. Vaughan Williams, in the more difficult task
of setting six sonnets from Rossetti's House of Life and in
three of Stevenson's Songs of Travel, has displayed imaginative
qualities of a remarkable order. Not less original is the highly
finished and poetical work of H. Walford Davies. Somewhat
slighter in style and thought, but instinct with true lyrical
tenderness and charm, are the songs of Roger Quilt er, drawn
mainly from the Elizabethan period, and the poems of Herrick.
Various songs by Maude V. White, W. H. Hadow, Hamilton
Harty, Harold Darke, Ernest Walker, Donald Tovey, William
Wallace and others give evidence, with the work already men-
tioned, of a revolution in the treatment and conception of
song .in England, which is full of promise for the future. Its
fulfilment however is likely to depend upon a change in the
'prevailing conditions, under which professional vocalists have
a financial interest in popularizing inferior productions. Good
songs, apart from the initial difficulty of finding a publisher,
are thus penalized from the start, whilst the larger and less
instructed portion of the public, which forms its taste upon what
the singers of the day provide, remains ignorant of precisely
those works which are most necessary for its enlightenment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. In Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians
(new ed.) Mrs E. Woodhouse's article on " Song " (vol. iv.) gives a
practically exhaustive bibliography of the whole subject of song
and folk-song, country by country; her account is quite unique, and
indispensable to the student. The following list is mainly of books
which the present writer has found most valuable: Sir Hubert
Parry, Art of Music (London, 1897); Oxford History of Music
(1901-1905), esp. vol. iii.;" The Seventeenth Century "bySirHubert
Parry, vol. iv.; " The Age of Bach and Handel " by J. A. Fuller-
Maitland, vol. v. ; " The Viennese Period " by W. H. Hadow, vol. vi. ;
"The Romantic Period" by E. Dannreuther ; Combarieu, La
Musique, ses lois et son evolution (Paris, 1907) ; Ambros, Geschichte
der Musik (1862-1882) ; Coussemaker, Histoire de I'harmonie au moyen
SONG
Age (1852) ; Kiesewetter, Schicksale u. Beschaffenheit des weltlichen
Gesanges (1841); Reissmann, Das deutsche Lied (1861 ; rewritten as
Geschichte des deutschen Liedes, 1874); Schneider, Das musikalische
Lied (1863) ; E. Walker, History of Musicin England (1907) ; VV. Nagel,
Geschichte der Musik in England (1894-1897); C. J. Sharp, English
Folk-songs, some Conclusions (1907) ; J. Tiersot, Histoire de la chanson
populaire en France (1889) ; Lavoix, La Musique franfaise (1891).
Collections of songs with valuable introduction and notes (those
marked with an asterisk have pianoforte accompaniments) : F. M.
Boehme, Altdeutsches Liederbuch (Breitkopf & Hartel, 1877);
Gaston Paris and Gevaert, Chansons du XV' siecle (Paris, 1875);
J. Tiersot, Chansons populaires des Alpes fran$aises (Grenoble, 1903) ;
De la Villemarque, Barzaz-Breiz, Chansons pop. de la Bretagne
(Paris, 1867); *Bourgault-Ducoudray, 30 melodies pop. de la Basse-
Bretagne (Paris, 1885); *Champfleury and Weckerlin, Chansons pop.
des provinces de France (Paris, 1860); *Weckerlin, Echos du temps
passe (3 vols., Paris, 1855), and *Chansons pop. du pays de France
(2 vols. Paris, 1903); *V. D'Indy, Chansons pop. du Vivarais, op.
52 (Paris) ; Hjalmar Thuren, Folkesangen paa Faererne (Copenhagen,
1908) ; F. van Duyse, Het oude nederlandsche Lied (The Hague,
1903-1905) ; *E. Closson, Chansons pop. des provinces beiges (Brussels,
I 95) I *Bourgault-Ducoudray, 30 melodies, pop. de Grece et d'orient
(Paris, 1897) ; Eugenie Lineff , Peasant Songs of Great Russia (St
Petersburg and London, 1905) ; *W. Chappell, Popular Music of the
Olden Time (London, 1855-1859); *E Wooldridge, revised edition of
the above, with title Old English Popular Music (London, 1893);
Folk-song Society's Journals; *C. J. Sharp, Folk-songs from Somerset
(5 vols., Barnicott & Pearce, Taunton) ; *J. A. Fuller-Maitland and
L. E. Broadwood, County Songs (Novello) ; *Sharpand Baring-Gould,
Songs of the West (Methuen); *L. E. Broadwood, English Traditional
Songs and Carols (Boosey). (W. A. J. F.)
THE SONG OF BIRDS
The characteristic modulated voice of birds is the outstanding
example of natural " song " in the animal world. The essential
requirements of a vocal organ, the pressure of vibratory mem-
branes or chord, are found in the bird's syrinx (see BIRD),
but how these membranes act in particular, and how their
tension is modified by the often numerous syringeal muscles,
we do not know. The voice of birds is produced entirely by the
syrinx; the larynx no doubt modifies it, but the tongue seems
to play no part in it. The " loosening of the tongue " by cutting
its frenum, in order to assist a bird in talking &c., is an abso-
lutely silly operation. The possession of the most elaborate
syrinx is not enough to enable a bird to sing. In this respect
they are like ourselves: special mental faculties are required
to control the apparatus. Anatomically the raven has the
same elaborate syrinx as the thrush or the nightingale, and yet
the raven cannot " sing " although it can modulate its voice
and can even learn to talk. As a rule the faculty of singing
is restricted to the males, although the females possess the same
organs; moreover, birds vary individually. Some learn to sing
marvellously well, while others remain tyros in spite of the best
education. But given all the necessary mental faculties,
birds sing only when they are in such a healthy condition that
there is a surplus of energy. This, of course, is greatest during
the time of propagation, when much of the surplus of the general
metabolism comes out to use . homely words in unwonted
functions, such as dancing, posing, spreading of feathers and
giving voice. Every one of these muscular exertions is a spasm,
releasing some energy, and again in homely parlance
relieving the mind. In many cases these antics and other
manifestations become rhythmical, and music consists of
rhythmical sounds. Of course birds, like other creatures, are
to a certain extent reflex machines, and they often sing because
they cannot help it, just as male frogs continue to croak long
after the pairing season, and not necessarily because they or
their mates appreciate those sounds. But birds stand mentally
on such a high level that we can scarcely doubt that in many
cases they enjoy, and therefore sing their song. Many a tame
bird, a canary, starling, magpie, will repay its keeper with its
song, out of season, for any kindness shown to it, or for his
mere presence.
If we regard any sound made by a bird under the all-powerful
influence of love or lust as its " song," then probably every bird
is possessed of this faculty, but in the ordinary acceptance of
the term very few, besides the oscines, can sing, and even this
group contains many which, like the ravens and the crows,
are decidedly not songsters. On the other hand, it seems unfair
not to call the charming series of notes of the dove its song.
D. Barrington in a very remarkable paper (" Experiments
and Observations on the Singing of Birds," Phil. Trans., 1773,
pp. 240-291) defines a bird's song " to be a succession of three
or more different notes, which are continued without interruption
during the same interval with a musical bar of four crotchets
in an adagio movement, or whilst a pendulum swings four
seconds." The late A. Newton (Ency. Brit., pth ed., iii. 771;
see also Diet. Birds, s.v. " Song," pp. 892-894), taking a much
wider view of " song," proceeds as follows:
" It seems impossible to draw any but an arbitrary line between
the deep booming of the emeu, the harsh cry of the guillemot
(which, when proceeding from a hundred or a thousand throats,
strikes the distant ear in a confused murmur like the roar of a
tumultuous crowd), the plaintive wail of the plover, the melo-
dious whistle of the wigeon, ' the cock's shrill clarion,' the
scream of the eagle, the hoot of the owl, the solemn chime of
the bell -bird, the whip-cracking of the manakin, the chaffinch's
joyous burst, or the hoarse croak of the raven, on the one hand,
and the bleating of the snipe or the drumming of the ruffled
grouse, on the other. Innumerable are the forms which such
utterances take. In many birds the sounds are due to a com-
bination of vocal and instrumental powers, or, as in the cases
last mentioned, to the latter only. But, however produced
and of the machinery whereby they are accomplished there is
not room here to speak all have the same cause and the same ,
effect. The former has been already indicated, and the latter
is its consummation. Almost coinstantaneously with the hatch-
ing of the nightingale's brood the song of the sire is hushed,
and the notes to which we have for weeks hearkened with rapt
admiration are changed to a guttural croak, expressive of
alarm and anxiety, inspiring a sentiment of the most opposite
character. No greater contrast can be imagined, and no
instance can be cited which more completely points out the
purpose which ' song ' fulfils in the economy of the bird, for
if the nightingale's nest at this early time be destroyed or its
contents removed, the cock speedily recovers his voice, and his
favourite haunts again resound to his bewitching strains. For
them his mate is content again to undergo the wearisome round
of nest-building and incubation. But should some days elapse
before disaster befalls their callow care, his constitution under-
goes a change and no second attempt to rear a family is made.
It would seem as though a mild temperature, and the abundance
of food by which it is generally accompanied, prompt the phy-
siological alteration which inspires the males of most birds
to indulge in the ' song ' peculiar to them. Thus after the annual
moult is accomplished, and this is believed to be the most critical
epoch in the life of any bird, cock thrushes, skylarks, and others
begin to sing, not indeed with the* jubilant voice of spring but
in an uncertain cadence which is quickly silenced by the super-
vention of cold weather. Yet some birds we have which,
except during the season of moult, hard frost, and time of snow,
sing almost all the year round. Of these the redbreast and the
wren are familiar examples, and the chiffchaff repeats its two-
noted cry, almost to weariness, during the whole period of its
residence in this country.
" Akin to the ' song of birds,' and undoubtedly proceeding
from the same cause, are the peculiar gestures which the males
of many perform under the influence of the approaching season
of pairing, but these again are far too numerous here to describe
with particularity. It must suffice to mention a few cases.
The ruff on his hillock in a marsh holds a war-dance. The
snipe and some of his allies mount aloft and wildly execute
unlooked-for evolutions almost in the clouds. The woodcock
and many of the goatsuckers beat evening after evening the
same aerial path with its sudden and sharp turnings. The
ring-dove rises above the neighbouring trees and then with
motionless wings slides down to the leafy retreat they afford.
The capercally and blackcock, perched on a commanding
eminence, throw themselves into postures that defy the skill
of the caricaturist other species of the grouse-tribe assume
414-
SONGHOI SONNET
the strangest attitudes and run in circles till the turf is worn
bare. The peacock in pride spreads his train so as to show how
nearly akin are the majestic and the ludicrous. The bower-
bird, not content with its own splendour, builds an arcade,
decked with bright feathers and shining shells, through and
around which he paces with his gay companions. The larks
and pipits never deliver their song so well as when seeking the
upper air. Rooks rise one after the other to a great height
and, turning on their back, wantonly precipitate themselves
many yards towards the ground, while the solemn raven does
not scorn a similar feat, and, with the tenderest of croaks, glides
supinely alongside or in front of his mate."
The following may be cited as the principal treatises on the
subject, besides Barrington's paper quoted above: J. Blackwall,
Mem. Litt. Phil. Soc., Manchester (1824), pp. 289-323; also in
Froriep's Notizen (1825), col. 292-298; F. Savart, Memoir sur la
voix des oiseaux, Froriep's Notizen (1826), col. l-io; C. L. Brehm,
Naumannia (1855), pp. 54-59, 96-101, 181-195; and Journ. f.
Ornith. (1855, pp. 348-351; 1856, pp. 250-255); C. Gloger, Journ.f.
Ornith. (1859), pp. 439-459; J. E. Halting, Birds of Middlesex
(London, 1866), where the notes of many of the common English
birds are musically expressed; J. A. Allen, Bull. Comp. Zool.
Harvard (1871), ii. 166-450; L. Paolucci, // Canto degli uccelli (Milan,
1878), and Muano soc. ital. atti. 20 (1877), pp. 125-247; C. L. Hett,
A Dictionary of Bird Notes (Brigg, 1898) ; C. A. Witchell, Bird-Song
and its Scientific Teaching (Gloucester, 1892); F. S. Mathews, Field
Book of Wild Birds and their Music (New York, 1904). See also
W. Warde Fowler, A Year With the Birds (1886). (H. F. G.)
SONGHOI, SONRHAY, SURHAI, &c., a great negroid race in-
habiting a large tract of country on both banks of the middle
Niger. They formed a distinct state from the 8th to the i6th
century, being at one period masters of Timbuktu (q.ii.) and the
most powerful nation in the western Sudan. The origin of this
people, who are said still to number some two millions, though
their national independence is lost, has been a source of much
dispute. Heinrich Barth, who has given the fullest account of
them, reckoned them as aborigines of the Niger valley; but he also
tried to connect them with the Egyptians. The people them-
selves declare their original home to have been to the eastward,
but it seems unlikely that they or their culture are to be connected
at all with the Nile valley. According to the Tarik 6 Sudan, a
i ;th century history of the Sudan written by Abderrahman
Sadi of Timbuktu, the first king of the Songhoi was called
Dialliaman (Arabic Dia min al Jemen, " he is come from Yemen "),
and the account given in this Arabic manuscript leaves little
doubt that he was an Arab adventurer who, as has been fre-
quently the case, became chief of a negro people and led them
westward. The Songhoi emigration must have begun towards
the middle of the 7th century, for Jenne, their chief city, was
founded one hundred and fifty years after the Hejira (about
A.D. 765), and it represents the extreme western point in their
progress. From a hundred to a hundred and twenty years
would be about the time whtch must be allowed for the years
of wandering and those of settlement and occupation in the
Songhoi countries. In the north they have mixed with the
Ruma " Moors," and in the south with the Fula. The Songhoi,
then, are probably Sudanese negroes much mixed with Berber
and even Arab blood, who settled among and crossed with the
natives of the Niger valley, over whom they long ruled.
In their physique they bear out this theory. Although
often as black as the typical West African, their faces are fre-
quently more refined than those of pure negroes. The nose of
the Songhoi is straight and long, pointed rather than flat; the
lips are comparatively thin, and in profile and jaw "projection
they are easily distinguishable from the well-known nigritic
type. They are tall, well-made and slim. In character, too,
they are a contrast to the merry light-heartedness of the true
negro. Barth says that of all races he met in negroland they
were the most morose, unfriendly and churlish. The Songhoi
language, which, owing to its widespread use, is, with Hausa,
called Kalam al Sudan (" language of the Sudan " ) by the
Arabs, is often known as Kissur. According to Friedrich Muller
it resembles in structure none of the neighbouring tongues,
though its vocabulary shows Arab influence. Keane states that
the language " has not the remotest connexion with any form
of speech known to have been at any time current in the Nile
valley."
See Heinrich Barth, Travels and Discoveries in Northern and
Central Africa (1857-1858); A. H. Keane, Man Past and Present
(Cambridge, 1899); Brix Forster in Globus, Ixxi. 193; Felix Dubois,
Timbuctoo the Mysterious (1897); Lady Lugard, A Tropical Depen-
dency (1905).
SONNEBERG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-
Meiningen, situated in a narrow valley of the Thuringian forest,
13 m. by rail N.E. of Coburg. Pop. (1905), 15,003. It is famous
for its manufacture of toys; its other industries are the making
of glass and porcelain articles, electrical works and breweries.
The town possesses a fine Gothic church, and a hydropathic
establishment.
SONNENTHAL, ADOLF VON (1834-1909), Austrian actor,
was born of Jewish parentage in Budapest on the 2ist of Decem-
ber 1834. Though brought up in penury and apprenticed to a
working tailor, he yet cultivated the histrionic art, and was
fortunate in receiving the support of a co-religionist, the actor
Bogumil Dawison, who trained him for the stage. He made
his first appearance at Temesvar in 1851, and after engagements
at Hermannstadt and Graz came in the winter of 1855-1856 to
Konigsberg in Prussia, where his first performance was so
successful that he was engaged by Heinrich Laube for the
Burgtheater in Vienna, making his first appearance as Mortimer
in Schiller's Maria Stuart. Under Laube's careful tuition he
developed within three years into an actor of the first order,
excelling both in tragedy and comedy; and in 1882, after 25
years of brilliant service at the Court Theatre, he was given a
patent of nobility. In 1884 he became manager-in-chief of
the theatre; and in 1887-1888 acted as artistic adviser. He
visited the United States in 1885, and again, in 1899 and 1902,
achieving great success. His chief parts were Nathan in Lessing's
Nathan der Weise, Wallenstein, and Der Meister von Palmyra.
SONNET (Ital. Sonetto, dim. of Suono, Fr. Sonnet). The sonnet
in the literature of modern Europe is a brief poetic form of
fourteen rhymed verses, ranged according to prescription.
Although in a language like the English it does no doubt require
considerable ingenuity to construct a satisfactory sonnet of
octave and sestet running upon four rhymes, this ingenuity is
only a means to an end, the end being properly that a single
wave of emotion, when emotion is either too deeply charged
with thought, or too much adulterated with fancy, to pass spon-
taneously into the movements of pure lyric, shall be embodied
in a single metrical flow and return. Whether any given
sonnet be composed like that of Pier delle Vigne (of two quatrains
with rhymes running a, b, a, b, a, b, a, b, and of two tercets with
rhymes running, c, d, e, c, d, e), or whether the verses be arranged
(on the authority of Shakespeare and Drayton) in three quatrains
of alternate rhymes clinched by a couplet, or, as in the sonnet of
Petrarch, in an octave of two rhymes and a sestet of either
two or three rhymes in each case the peculiar pleasure which
the ear derives from the sonnet as a metrical form lies in the
number and arrangement of the verses being prescribed, and
distinctly recognizable as being prescribed. That the impulse
to select for the rendering of single phases of feeling or reflection
a certain recognized form is born of a natural and universal
instinct is perhaps evidenced by the fact that, even when a
metrical arrangement discloses no structural law demanding a
prescriptive number and arrangement of verses, the poet will
nevertheless, in certain moods, choose to restrict himself to a
prescribed number and arrangement, as in the cases of the
Italian slornello, the Welsh Iriban, and the beautiful rhymeless
short ode of Japanese poetry. And perhaps, if we probed the
matter deeply, we should find that the recognized prescription
of form gives a sense of oneness that nothing else save the
refrain can give to a poem which, being at once too long for a
stanza in a series and too short to have the self-sustaining power
of the more extended kinds of poetic art, suffers by suggesting
to the ear a sense of the fragmentary and the inchoate. It is
not then merely the number of the verses, it is also their arrange-
ment as to rhymes an arrangement leading the ear to expect
SONNET
a prescribed sequence and then satisfying that expectation
which entitles a form of fourteen verses to be called a sonnet.
Hence the so-called irregular sonnets of S. T. Coleridge,
which lead the ear of the reader to expect the pleasure of a
prescribed arrangement when what they have to offer is a
pleasure of an exactly opposite kind the pleasure of an absolute
freedom from prescribed arrangement are unsatisfactory,
while (as the present writer has often pointed out) the same
poet's fourteen-line poem, " Work without Hope," in which the
reader expects and gets freedom from prescription, is entirely
satisfactory. This same little poem of Coleridge's also affords
an excellent illustration of another point in connexion with the
sonnet. If we trace the history and the development of the
sonnet from Pier delle Vigne to D. G. Rossetti we shall find
that the poet's quest from the very first has been to write a
poem in fourteen verses so arranged that they should, better
than any other number and arrangement of verses, produce a
certain melodic effect upon the ear, and an effect, moreover,
that should bear iteration and reiteration in other poems
similarly constructed. Now if we ask ourselves whether,
beautiful as is this poem, " Work without Hope," taken as a
single and original metrical arrangement, we should get out of
a series of poems modelled line for line upon it that pleasure of
iteration which we get out of a series of Petrarchan sonnets, we
shall easily see why the regular sonnet of octave and sestet on
the one hand, and what is called the Shakespearean sonnet on
the other, have survived all other competing forms.
In modern Europe the sonnet has always had a peculiar
fascination for poets of the first class poets, that is, in whom
poetic energy and plastic power are equally combined. It would
seem that the very fact that the sonnet is a recognized structure
suggestive of mere art suggestive in some measure, indeed, of
what Schiller would call " sport " in art has drawn some of the
most passionate poets in the world to the sonnet as the medium
of their sincerest utterances. Without being coldly artificial, like
the rondeau, the sestina, the ballade, the villanelle, &c., the sonnet
is yet so artistic in structure, its form is so universally known,
recognized, and adopted as being artistic, that the too fervid
spontaneity and reality of the poet's emotion may be in a certain
degree veiled, and the poet can whisper, as from behind a mask,
those deepest secrets of the heart which could otherwise only
find expression in purely dramatic forms.
That the sonnet was invented, not in Provence, as French
critics pretend, but in Italy in the I3th century, is pretty clear,
but by whom is still perhaps an open question. S. Waddington
and several other critics have attributed to Fra Guittone the
honour of having invented the form. But J. A. Symonds has
reminded us that the sonnet beginning Pero ch' amore, attributed
to Pier delle Vigne, secretary of state in the Sicilian court of
Frederick, has claims which no student of early Italian poetry
can ignore.
As regards English sonnets, whether the Petrarchan and the
Shakespearean are really the best of all possible forms we need
not inquire. But, inasmuch as they have become so vital and
so dominant over other sonnet forms that whenever we begin to
read the first verse of an English sonnet we expect to find one
or other of these recognized rhyme-arrangements, any departure
from these two arrangements, even though the result be such a
magnificent poem as Shelley's " Ozymandias," disappoints
the expectation, baffles the ear, and brings with it that sense
of the fragmentary and the inchoate to which we have before
alluded. If, however, some writer should arise with sufficient
originality of metrical endowment and sufficient poetic power
to do what Keats, in a famous experiment of his, tried to do
and failed impress the public ear with a new sonnet structure,
impress the public ear so powerfully that a new kind of expectance
is created the moment the first verse of a sonnet is recited 1 then
there will be three kinds of English sonnets instead of two.
With regard to the Petrarchan sonnet, all critics are perhaps
now agreed that, while the form of the octave is invariable,
the form of the sestet is absolutely free, save that the emotions
should govern the arrangement of the verses. But as regards
the division between octave and sestet, Mark Pattison says,
with great boldness, but perhaps with truth, that by blending
octave with sestet Milton missed the very object and end of
the Petrarchan scheme. Another critic, however, Hall Caine,
contends that by making " octave flow into sestet without break
of music or thought " Milton consciously or unconsciously in-
vented a new form of sonnet; that is to say, Milton, in his use
of the Petrarchan octave and sestet for the embodiment of
intellectual substance incapable of that partial disintegration
which Petrarch himself always or mostly sought, invented a
species of sonnet which is English in impetus, but Italian, or
partially Italian, in structure. Hence this critic, like William
Sharp, divides all English sonnets into four groups: (i) sonnets
of Shakespearean structure; (2) sonnets of octave and sestet of
Miltonic structure; (3) sonnets of contemporary structure, i.e. all
sonnets on the Petrarchan model in which the metrical and
intellectual " wave of flow and ebb " (as originally formulated
by the present writer in a sonnet on the sonnet, which has
appeared in most of the recent anthologies) is strictly observed,
and in which, while the rhyme-arrangement of the octave is
invariable, that of the sestet is free; (4) sonnets cf miscellaneous
structure.
With regard to what is called the contemporary form a
Petrarchan arrangement with the sestet divided very sharply
from the octave the crowning difficulty and the crowning
triumph of the sonnet writer has always been to so handle the
rhythm of the prescribed structure as to make it seem in each
individual sonnet the inevitable and natural rhythm demanded
by the emotion which gives the individual sonnet birth, and this
can perhaps only be achieved when the richness and apparent
complexity of the rhyme-arrangement is balanced by that
perfect lucidity and simplicity of syntax which is the special
quest of the " sonnet of flow and ebb."
The wave theory has found acceptance with such students
of the sonnet as Rossetti and Mark Pattison, J. A. Symonds,
Hall Caine, and William Sharp. Symonds, indeed, seems to
hint that the very name given by the Italians to the two tercets,
the volta or turn, indicates the metrical meaning of the form.
" The striking metaphorical symbol," says he, " drawn from the
observation of the swelling and declining wave can even in some
examples be applied to sonnets on the Shakespearean model;
for, as a wave may fall gradually or abruptly, so the sonnet may
sink with stately volume or with precipitate subsidence to its
close. Rossetti furnishes incomparable examples of the former
and more desirable conclusion; Sydney Dobell, in ' Home in
War Time,' yields an extreme specimen of the latter."
And now as to the Shakespearean sonnet. Some very acute
critics have spoken as if this form were merely a lawless succes-
sion of three quatrains clinched by a couplet, and as if the number
of the quatrains might just as well have been two or four as the
present prescribed number of three. If this were so, it would
unquestionably be a serious impeachment of the Shakespearean
sonnet, for, save in the poetry of ingenuity, no metric arrangement
is otherwise than bad unless it be the result of a deep metrical
necessity.
If the prescriptive arrangement of three quatrains clinched
by a couplet is not a metrical necessity, if it is not demanded
in order to prevent the couplet from losing its power, such an
arrangement is idle and worse than idle; just as in the case of
the Petrarchan sonnet, if it can be shown that the solid unity of
the outflowing wave can be maintained as completely upon
three rhymes as upon two, then the restriction of the octave
to two rhymes is simple pedantry. But he who would test the
metrical necessity of the arrangement in the Shakespearean
sonnet has only to make the experiment of writing a poem of
two quatrains with a couplet, and then another poem of four
quatrains with a couplet, in order to see how inevitable is the
metrical necessity of the Shakespearean number and arrange-
ment for the achievement of the metrical effect which Shakespeare,
Drayton and others sought. While in the poem of two quat-
rains the expected couplet has the sharp epigrammatic effect
of the couplet in ordinary stanzas (such as that of ottava rima.
416
SONNINO SONPUR
and as that of the " Venus and Adonis " stanza), destroying that
pensive sweetness which is the characteristic of the Shake-
spearean sonnet, the poem of four quatrains is just sufficiently
long for the expected pleasure of the couplet to be dispersed
and wasted.
The quest of the Shakespearean sonnet is not, like that of
the sonnet of octave and sestet, sonority, and, so to speak,
metrical counterpoint, but sweetness; and the sweetest of all
possible arrangements in English versification is a succession
of decasyllabic quatrains in alternate rhymes knit together and
clinched by a couplet a couplet coming not so far from the
initial verse as to lose its binding power, and yet not so near the
initial verse that the ring of epigram disturbs the " linked
sweetness long drawn out " of this movement, but sufficiently
near to shed its influence over the poem back to the initial verse.
A chief part of the pleasure of the Shakespearean sonnet is the
expectance of the climacteric rest of the couplet at the end (just
as a chief part of the pleasure of the sonnet of octave and
sestet is the expectance of the answering ebb of the sestet when
the close of the octave has been reached); and this expectance
is gratified too early if it comes after two quatrains, while if it
comes after a greater number of quatrains than three it is
dispersed and wasted altogether.
The French sonnet has a regular Petrarchan octave with a
sestet of three rhymes beginning with a couplet. The Spanish
sonnet is also based on the pure Italian type, and is extremely
graceful and airy. The same may be said of the Portuguese
sonnet a form of which the illustrious Camoens has left nearly
three hundred examples. (T. W.-D.)
See also ENGLISH LITERATURE : 3. Elizabethan ; Sidney Lee on the
Elizabethan sonnet in Arber's English Garner (1904) ; J. A. Noble,
The Sonnet in England (1893); M. Jasinski, Histoire du sonnet en
France (1903); C. A. Lentzner, Das Sonnett in d. eng. Dichtung bis
Milton (1886); S. Waddington, English Sonnets by Living Writers
(1881), and Sonnets of Europe (1886) ; T. Hall Caine, Sonnets of Three
Centuries (1882); William Sharp, Sonnets of this Century (1886), and
American Sonnets (1889); John Dennis, English Sonnets (1873).
SONNINO, SIDNEY, BARON (1847- ), Italian statesman
and financier, was born at Florence on the nth of March 1847.
Entering the diplomatic service at an early age, he was appointed
successively to the legations of Madrid, Vienna, Berlin and
Versailles, but in 1871 returned to Italy, to devote himself to
political and social studies. On his own initiative he conducted
exhaustive inquiries into the conditions of the Sicilian peasants
and of the Tuscan mltayers, and in 1877 published in co-operation
with Signor Leopoldo Franchetti a masterly work on Sicily (La
Sicilia, Florence, 1877). In 1878 he founded a weekly economic
review, La Rassegna Seltimanale, which four years later he con-
verted into a political daily journal. Elected deputy in 1880,
he distinguished himself by trenchant criticism of Magliani's
finance, and upon the fall of Magliani was for some months,
in 1889, under-secretary of state for the treasury. In view of
the severe monetary crisis of 1893 he was entrusted by Crispi
with the portfolio of finance (December 1893), and in spite of
determined opposition dealt energetically and successfully
with the deficit of more than 6,000,000 then existing in
the exchequer. Uy abolishing the illusory pensions fund, by
applying and amending the Bank Laws, effecting economies,
and increasing taxation upon corn, incomes from consolidated
stock, salt and matches, he averted national bankruptcy, and
placed Italian finance upon a sounder basis than at any time
since the fall of the Right. Though averse from the policy of
unlimited colonial expansion, he provided by a loan for the cost
of the Abyssinian War in which the tactics of General Baratieri
had involved the Crispi cabinet, but fell with Crispi after the
disaster at Adowa (March 1896). Assuming then the leadership
of the constitutional opposition, he combated the alliance
between the Di Rudini cabinet and the subversive parties,
criticized the financial schemes of the treasury minister, Luzzatti,
and opposed the " democratic " finance of the first Pelloux
administration as likely to endanger financial stability. After the
modification of the Pelloux cabinet (May 1899) he became leader
of the ministerial majority, and bore the brunt of the struggle
against Socialist obstruction in connexion with the Public
Safety Bill. Upon the formation of the Zanardelli cabinet
(Feb. 1901) he once more became leader of the constitutional
opposition, and in the autumn of the year founded a daily organ,
// Giornale d'ltalia, the better to propagate moderate Liberal
ideas. Although highly esteemed for his integrity and genuine
ability, it was not until February 1906 that he was called upon
to form a ministry, on the fall of the Fortis cabinet. He immedi-
ately set about introducing certain urgent reforms, suppressed
all subsidies to the press, and declared his intention of governing
according to law and justice. In May, however, an adverse vote of
the Chamber on a purely technical matter led to his resignation.
SONORA, a northern state of Mexico, bounded N. by the
United States, E. by Chihuahua, S. by Sinaloa and W. by the
Gulf of California. It is the second largest state in the republic,
having an area of 76,900 sq. m. Pop. (1900), 221,682, a large
part being Indian. The surface of the state is much broken by the
Sierra Madre Occidental, which extends through it from north to
south and covers its entire width with parallel ranges, enclosing
fertile valleys. Four important rivers traverse the state from
east to west with courses of 145 to 390 m. and discharge into the
Gulf of California, viz.: the Altar, or Asuncion, Sonora, Yaqui
and Mayo. The longest is the Yaqui, which has its source on
the eastern side of the Sierra Tarahumare in Chihuahua and
breaks through several ranges of the Sierra Madre before reaching
the gulf near Guaymas. The smaller tributaries of these
rivers of Sonora are often only dry canyons in the dry season.
Agriculture has been developed only to a limited extent in
Sonora, because of its aridity, lack of irrigation facilities, lack
of railways and roads, and the unsettled state of the country.
The soil of the sierra valleys is fertile, and when it is irrigated
forage and cereal crops may be grown in abundance. Sugar-
cane, tobacco, maguey, cotton, in small quantities, and fruits
are also produced. There are excellent pasture lai*ds, especially
in the upland districts, and stock-raising is an important and
profitable industry. Land is held in large estates, some of them
upwards of 100 sq. m. in area. The mineral resources include
silver, gold, copper, lead, tin, iron and coal, and mining is the
chief industry. The lack of transportation facilities has been
partly relieved by the construction of a branch of the Southern
Pacific (American) from Nogales southward to Guaymas and the
Sinaloa frontier, from which it has been extended to Mazatlan.
Guaymas is the only port of importance on the coast, but it
has a large trade and is visited by the steamers of several lines.
The capital of the state (since 1882) is Hermosillo (pop. 1900,
17,618), on the Sonora river, no m. north of Guaymas, with
which it is connected by rail. It suffered much in 1865-1866
from the savage struggle between Imperialists and Repub-
licans, and in subsequent partisan warfare. Other important
towns are Alamos (pop. 1895, 6197), 132 m. E.S.E. of
Guaymas, Moctezuma, 90 m. north of Hermosillo, and Ures,
the old capital of Sonora and seat of a bishopric, 33 m. north-
east of Hermosillo.
The first Jesuit mission in Sonora, founded among the Mayos
in 1613, seems to have been the first permanent settlement
in the state, although Coronado passed through it and its coast
had been visited by early navigators. The hostility of certain
tribes prevented its rapid settlement. Ures was founded in
1636, and Arizpe in 1648. Near the end of the century Sonora
and Sinaloa were divided into two districts, in 1767 the Jesuit
missions were secularized, in 1779 the government of the
province was definitely organized by Caballero de Croix, and
in 1783 Arizpe became the provincial capital. The bishopric of
Sonora was created in 1781 with Arizpe as its seat. Up to this
time the history of the province is little else than a record of
savage warfare with the Apaches, Serfs, Yaquis and other
tribes. The development of rich gold and silver mines brought
in more Spanish settlers, and then the recorcl changes to one of
partisan warfare, which continued down to the administration
of President Porfirio Diaz.
SONPUR, a feudatory state of India, in the Orissa division
of Bengal, to which it was transferred from the Central Provinces
SONSONATE SOPHIA ALEKSYEEVNA
in 1905. Area, 906 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 169,877, showing a
decrease of 13% in the decade, due to the results of famine.
Estimated revenue 8000, tribute 600. The chief is a Rajput
of the Patna line. Rice and timber are exported, and iron ore
is said to abound. The town of Sonpur is on the Mahanadi
river just above the point where it enters Orissa. Pop. (1901),
8887.
SONSONATE, the capital of the department of Sonsonate,
Salvador; on the river Sensunapan and the railway from San Sal-
vador to the Pacific port of Acajutla, 13 m. south. Pop. (1905),
about 17,000. Sonsonate is the centre of a rich agricultural
district, and one of the busiest manufacturing towns in the
republic. It produces cotton cloth, pottery, mats and baskets,
boots and shoes, sugar, starch, cigars and spirits. Through
Acajutla it exports coffee and sugar, and imports grain for
distribution to all parts of the interior.
SOOT (O. Eng. sot, cf. Icel. sot, Dan. sod; possibly from root
sed, to sit), the black substance produced in the process of the
combustion of fuel and deposited in finely granulated particles
on the interior of chimneys or pipes through which the smoke
passes. Soot is a natural nitrogenous manure (<?..), and its
value depends on the ammonia salts contained in it.
SOPHIA (1630-1714), electress of Hanover, twelfth child of
FrederickjV., elector palatine of the Rhine, by his wife Elizabeth,
a daughter of the English king James I., was born at the Hague
on the 1 4th of October 1630. Residing after 1649 at Heidelberg
with her brother, the restored elector palatine, Charles Louis,
she was betrothed to George William afterwards duke of
Liineburg-Celle; but in 1658 she married his younger brother,
Ernest Augustus, who became elector of Brunswick-Luneburg, or
Hanover, in 1692. Her married life was not a happy one. Her
husband was unfaithful ; three of her six sons fell in battle ;
and other family troubles included an abiding hostility between
her and Sophia Dorothea, the wife of her eldest son, George
Louis. Sophia became a widow in 1698, but before then her
name had been mentioned in connexion with the English throne.
When considering the Bill of Rights in 1689 the House of
Commons refused to place her in the succession, and the matter
rested until 1700 when the state of affairs in England was more
serious. William III. was ill and childless; William, duke of
Gloucester, the only surviving child of the princess Anne, had
just died. The strong Protestant feeling in the country, the
danger from the Stuarts, and the hostility of France, made it
imperative to exclude all Roman Catholics from the throne;
and the electress was the nearest heir who was a Protestant.
Accordingly by the Act of Settlement of 1701 the English Crown,
in default of issue from either William or Anne, was settled upon
" the most excellent princess Sophia, electress and duchess-
dowager of Hanover " and " the heirs of her body, being Pro-
testant." Sophia watched affairs in England during the reign
of Anne with great interest, although her son, the elector George
Louis, objected to any interference in that country, and Anne
disliked all mention of her successor. An angry letter from
Anne possibly hastened Sophia's death, which took place at
Herrenhausen on the 8th of June 1714; less than two months
later her son, George Louis, became king of Great Britain and
Ireland as George I. on the death of Anne. Sophia, who corre-
sponded with Leibnitz, was a strong woman both mentally and
physically, and possessed wide and cultured tastes.
See Memoiren der Kurfiirstin Sophie von Hannover, edited by
A. Kocher (Leipzig, 1879; Eng. trans., 1888); Briefwechsel der
Herzogin Sophie von Hannover mil ihrem Bruder, &c., edited by E.
Bodemann (Leipzig, 1885 and 1888); L. von Ranke, Aus den Briefen
der Herzogin von Orleans, Elisabeth Charlotte, an die Kurfurstin
Sophie von Hannover (Leipzig, 1870) ; E. Bodemann, A us den Briefen
der Herzogin, Elisabeth Charlotte von Orleans, an die Kurfurstin
Sophie von Hannover (Hanover, 1891); R. Fester, Kurfurstin Sophie
von Hannover (Hamburg, 1893); A. W. Ward, The Electress Sophia
and the Hanoverian Succession (London, 1909); O. Klopp, Der Fall
des Hauses Stuart (Vienna, 1875-1888); Correspondance de Leibnitz
avec I'electrice Sophie, edited by O. Klopp (Hanover, 1864-1875) ; and
R. S. Rait, Five Stuart Princesses (London, 1902).
SOPHIA ALEKSYEEVNA (1637-1704), tsarevna and regent
of Russia, was the third daughter of Tsar Alexius and Maria
xxv. 14
Miloslavskaya. Educated on semi-ecclesiastical lines by the
learned monk of Kiev, Polotsky, she emancipated herself
betimes from the traditional tyranny of the terem, or women's
quarters. Setting aside court etiquette, she had nursed her
brother Tsar Theodore III. in his last illness, and publicly
appeared at his obsequies, though it was usual only for the widow
of the deceased and his successor to the throne to attend that
ceremony. Three days after little Peter, then in his fourth
year, had been raised to the throne, she won over the stryeltsy,
or musketeers, who at her instigation burst into the Kreml,
murdering everyone they met, including Artamon Matvyeev,
Peter's chief supporter, and Ivan Naruishkin, the brother of the
tsaritsa-regent Natalia, Peter's mother (May 15-17, 1682).
When the rebellion was over there was found to be no
government. Everyone was panic-stricken and in hiding
except Sophia, and to her, as the only visible representative
of authority, the court naturally turned for orders. She took
it upon herself to pay off and pacify the stryeltsy, and secretly
wprked upon them to present (May 29) a petition to the
council of state to the effect that her half-brother Ivan should
be declared senior tsar, while Peter was degraded into the junior
tsar. As Ivan was hopelessly infirm and half idiotic, it is plain
that the absurd duumvirate was but a stepping-stone to the
ambition of Sophia, who thus became the actual ruler of Russia.
The stryeltsy were not only pardoned for their atrocities, but
petted. A general amnesty in the most absolute terms was granted
to them, and at their special request a triumphal column was
erected in the Red Square of the Kreml, to commemorate their
cowardly massacre of the partisans of Peter. When, however,
instigated by their leader Prince Ivan Khovansky, who is
suspected to have been aiming at the throne himself, and
supported by the reactionary elements of the population,
conspicuous among whom were the raskolniks or dissenters,
they proceeded on the 5th of July to the great reception-hall
of the palace in the Kreml to present a petition against all
novelties, Sophia boldly faced them. Supported by her aunts
and the patriarch, and secretly assured of the support of
the orthodox half of the stryeltsy, she forbade all discussion
and browbeat the rebels into submission. A later attempt on
the part of Khovansky to overthrow her was anticipated and
severely punished. By the 6th of November Sophia's triumph
was complete. The conduct of foreign affairs she committed
entirely to her paramour, Prince Vasily Golitsuin, while the
crafty and experienced clerk of the council, Theodore Shaklovity,
looked after domestic affairs and the treasury. Sophia's fond-
ness for Golitsuin induced her to magnify his barely successful
campaigns in the Crimea into brilliant triumphs which she
richly rewarded, thus disgusting everyone who had the honour
of the nation at heart. Most of the malcontents rested their
hopes for the future on the young tsar Peter, who was the first
to benefit by his sister's growing unpopularity. Sophia was
shrewd enough to recognize that her position was becoming very
insecure. When Peter reached man's estate she would only
be in the way, and she was not the sort of woman who is easily
thrust aside. She had crowned her little brothers in order that
she might reign in their names. She had added her name to
theirs in state documents, boldly subscribing herself " Sovereign
Princess of all Russia." She had officially informed the doge
of Venice that she was the co-regent of the tsars. And now the
terrible term of her usurped authority was approaching. In her
extremity she took council of Shaklovity, and it was agreed
(1687) between them that the stryellsy should be employed to
dethrone Peter. The stryeltsy, however, received the whole
project so coldly that it had to be abandoned. A second con-
spiracy to seize him in his bed (August 1689) was betrayed to
Peter, and he fled to the fortress-monastery of Troitsa. Here
all his friends rallied round him, including the bulk of the
magnates, half the stryeltsy, and all the foreign mercenaries.
From the 1 2th of August to the 7th of September Sophia endea-
voured to set up a rival camp in the Kreml; but all her professed
adherents gradually stole away from her. She was compelled
to retire within the Novo-Dyeyichy monastery, but without
SOPHIA DOROTHEA SOPHISTS
taking the veil. tsiine years later (1698), on suspicion of being
concerned in the rebellion of the slryeltsy, she was shorn a nun
and imprisoned for life under military supervision. As " Sister
Susannah " she disappeared from history. Russian historians
are still divided in their opinion concerning this extraordinary
woman. While some of them paint her in the darkest colours
as an unprincipled adventuress, the representative of a new
Byzantinism, others simply regard her as the victim of circum-
stances. Others, more indulgent still, acquit her of all blame;
and a few, impressed by her indisputable energy and ability,
evade a decision altogether by simply describing her as a prodigy.
See J. E. Zabyelin, Domestic Conditions of the Russian Princes
(Rus. ; Moscow, 1 895) ; N. G. Ustryalov, History of the Reign of Peter
the Great (Rus.; Petersburg, 1858); N. Y. Aristov, The Moscow
Rebellions during the Regency of Sophia (Rus.; Warsaw, 1871);
R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)
SOPHIA DOROTHEA (1666-1726), wife of George Louis,
elector of Hanover (George I. of England), only child of George
William, duke of Brunswick-Luneburg-Celle, by a Huguenot
lady named Eleanore d'Olbreuze (1639-1722), was born on the
iSth of September 1666. George William had undertaken
to remain unmarried, but his desire to improve the status of
his mistress (whom in spite of his promise he married in 1676)
and of his daughter greatly alarmed his relatives, as these
proceedings threatened to hinder the contemplated union of
the Liineburg territories. However, in 1682, this difficulty
was bridged over by the marriage of Sophia Dorothea with her
cousin George Louis, son of Duke Ernest Augustus, who became
elector of Hanover in 1692. This union was a very unhappy
one. The relatives of George Louis, especially his mother, the
electress Sophia, hated and despised his wife, and this feeling
was soon snared by the prince himself. It was under these
circumstances that Sophia Dorothea made the acquaintance
of Count Philipp Christoph von Konigsmark (q.v.), with whom
her name is inseparably associated. Konigsmark assisted her
in one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover, and
rightly or wrongly was regarded as her lover. In 1694 the
count was assassinated, and the princess was divorced and
imprisoned at Ahlden, remaining in captivity until her death
on the 23rd of November 1726. Sophia Dorothea is sometimes
referred to as the " princess of Ahlden." Her two children were
the English king, George II., and Sophia Dorothea, wife of
Frederick William I. of Prussia, and mother of Frederick the
Great. Sophia's infidelity to her husband is not absolutely
proved, as it is probable that the letters which purport to have
passed between Konigsmark and herself are forgeries.
See Briefwechsel des Grafen Konigsmark und der Prinzessin Sophie
Dorothea von Celle, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847);
A. F. H. Schaumann, Sophie Dorothea Prinzessin von Ahlden, and
Kurfurstin Sophie von Hannover (Hanover, 1878) ; C. L. von Pollnitz,
Histoire secrette de la duchesse d'Hanovre (London, 1732); W. H.
Wilkins, The Love of an Uncrowned Queen (London, iqoo) ; A.
Kocher, " Die Prinzessin von Ahlden," in the Historische Zeitschrift
(Munich, 1882) ; Vicomte H. de Beaucaire, Une Mesalliance dans la
maison de Brunswick (Paris, 1884); and A. D. Greenwood, Lives of
the Hanoverian Queens of England (1909), vol. i.
SOPHISTS (from Gr. aofrartis, literally, man of wisdom),
the name given by the Greeks about the middle of the sth
century B.C. to certain teachers of a superior grade who, dis-
tinguishing themselves from philosophers on the one hand and
from artists and craftsmen on the other, claimed to prepare
their pupils, not for any particular study or profession, but
for civic life. For nearly a hundred years the sophists held
almost a monopoly of general or liberal education. Yet,
within the limits of the profession, there was considerable
diversity both of theory and of practice. Four principal
varieties are distinguishable, and may be described as the
sophistries of culture, of rhetoric, of politics, and of " eristic,"
i.e. disputation. Each of these predominated in its turn,
though not to the exclusion of others, the sophistry of culture
beginning about 447, and leading to the sophistry of eristic,
and the sophistry of rhetoric taking root in central Greece
about 427, and merging in the sophistry of politics. Further,
since Socrates and the Socratics were educators, they too might
be, and in general were, regarded as sophists; but, as they
conceived truth so far as it was attainable rather than
success in life, in the law court, in the assembly, or in debate,
to be the right end of intellectual effort, they were at variance
with their rivals, and are commonly ranked by historians, not
with the sophists, who confessedly despaired of knowledge, but
with the philosophers, who, however unavailingly, continued
to seek it. With the establishment of the great philosophical
schools first, of the Academy, next of the Lyceum the philo-
sophers took the place of the sophists as the educators of Greece.
The sophistical movement was then, primarily, an attempt
to provide a general or liberal education which should supple-
ment the customary instruction in reading, writing, gymnastic
and music. But, as the sophists of the first period chose for
their instruments grammar, style, literature and oratory, while
those of the second and third developments were professed
rhetoricians, sophistry exercised an important influence upon
literature. Then again, as the movement, taking its rise in the
philosophical agnosticism which grew out of the early physical
systems, was itself persistently sceptical, sophistry may be
regarded as an interlude in the history of philosophy. Finally,
the practice of rhetoric and eristic, which presently became
prominent in sophistical teaching, had, or at any rate seemed
to have, a mischievous effect upon conduct; and the charge
of seeking, whether in exposition or in debate, not truth but
victory which charge was impressively urged against the
sophists by Plato grew into an accusation of holding and
teaching immoral and unsocial doctrines, and in our own day
has been the subject of eager controversy.
i. Genesis and Development of Sophistry. Sophistry arose
out of a crisis in philosophy. The earlier Ionian physicists,
Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes, in their attempts to
trace the Multiplicity of things to a single material element,
had been troubled by no misgivings about the possibility of
knowledge. But, when Heraclitus to the assumption of fire
as the single material cause added the doctrine that all things
are in perpetual flux, he found himself obliged to admit that
things cannot be known. Thus, though, in so far as he asserted
his fundamental doctrine without doubt or qualification, he
was a dogmatist, in all else he was a sceptic. Again, the Eleatic
Parmenides, deriving from the theologian Xenophanes the
distinction between eTrioTi^iTj and Sofa, 'conceived that, whilst
the One exists and is the object of knowledge, the Multiplicity
of things becomes and is the object of opinion; but, when his
successor Zeno provided the system with a logic, the consistent
application of that logic resolved the fundamental doctrine into
the single proposition " One is One," or, more exactly, into
the single identity " One One." Thus Eleaticism, though
professedly dogmatic, was inconsistent in its theory of the One
and its attributes, and openly sceptical in regard to the world of
nature. Lastly, the philosophers of the second physical succession
Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Leucippus not directly attack-
ing the great mystery of the One and the Many, but in virtue
of a scientific instinct approaching it through the investigation
of phenomena, were brought by their study of sensation to
perceive and to proclaim the inadequacy of the organs of sense.
Thus they too, despite their air of dogmatism, were in effect
sceptics. In short, from different standpoints, the three
philosophical successions had devised systems which were in
reality sceptical, though they had none of them recognized the
sceptical inference.
Towards the middle of the sth century, however, Protagoras
of Abdera, taking account of the teaching of the first, and
possibly of the second, of the physical successions, and Gorgias
of Leontini, starting from the teaching of the metaphysical
succession of Elea, drew that sceptical inference from which
the philosophers had shrunk. If, argued Protagoras in a treatise
entitled Truth, all things are in flux, so that sensation is sub-
jective, it follows that " Man is the measure of all things, of
what is, that it is, and of what is not, that it is not "; in other
words, there is no such thing as objective truth. Similarly,
Gorgias, in a work On Nature, or on the Nonent, maintained
SOPHISTS
419
(a) that nothing is, (b) that, if anything is, it cannot be known,
(c) that, if anything is and can be known, it cannot be expressed
in speech; and the summaries which have been preserved by
Sextus Empiricus (Adv. Math. vii. 65-87) and by the author
of the De Melissa, &c. (chs. 5, 6), show that, in defending these
propositions, Gorgias availed himself of the arguments which
Zeno had used to discredit the popular belief in the existence
of the Many; in other words, that Gorgias turned the destructive
logic of Zeno against the constructive ontology of Parmenides,
thereby not only reducing Eleaticism to nothingness, but also,
until such time as a better logic than that of Zeno should
be provided, precluding all philosophical inquiry whatsoever.
Thus, whereas the representatives of the three successions had
continued to regard themselves as philosophers or seekers after
truth, Protagoras and Gorgias, plainly acknowledging their
defeat, withdrew from the ungrateful struggle.
Meagre as were the results which the earlier thinkers had
obtained, the extinction of philosophy just at the time when
the liberal arts became more technical and consequently less
available as employments of leisure, threatened to leave a blank
in Hellenic life. Accordingly Protagoras, while with the one
hand he put away philosophy, with the other offered a substitute.
Emphasizing the function of the teacher, which with the philo-
sophers had been subordinate, and proclaiming the right end of
intellectual endeavour to be, not " truth " (&Mideia) or
" wisdom " (ffo<j>la), which was unattainable, but " virtue "
or " excellence " (dpen?), he sought to communicate, not a theory
of the universe, but an aptitude for civic life. " The lesson
which I have to teach," Plato makes him say (Prot. 318 E),
" is prudence or good counsel, both in respect of domestic matters
that the man may manage his household aright, and in respect
of public affairs, that he may be thoroughly qualified to take
part, both by deed and by word, in the business of the state.
In other words, I profess to make men good citizens." As
instruments of education Protagoras used grammar, style,
poetry and oratory. Thus, whereas hitherto the young Greek,
having completed his elementary training in the schools of the
7pa^tm(rrijj, the KiBapiarris, and the iraidoTpifiiis, was left to
prepare himself for his life's work as best he might, by philo-
sophical speculation, by artistic practice, or otherwise, one who
passed from the elementary schools to the lecture-room of
Protagoras received from him a " higher education." The
programme was exclusively literary, but for the moment it
enabled Protagoras to satisfy the demand which he had
discovered and evoked. Wherever he went, his lecture-room
was crowded with admiring pupils, whose homage filled his purse
and enhanced his reputation.
After Protagoras the most prominent of the literary sophists
was Prodicus of Ceos. Establishing himself at Athens, he taught
" virtue " or " excellence," in the sense attached to the word
by Protagoras, partly by means of literary subjects, partly in
discourses upon practical ethics. It is plain that Prodicus was
an affected pedant; yet his simple conventional morality found
favour, and Plato (Rep. 600 C) couples him with Protagoras
in his testimony to the popularity of the sophists and their
teaching.
At Athens, the centre of the intellectual life of Greece, there
was soon to be found a host of sophists; some of them strangers,
others citizens; some of them bred under Protagoras and
Prodicus, others self-taught. In the teaching of the sophists of
this younger generation two points are observable. First, their
independence of philosophy and the arts being assured, though
they continued to regard " civic excellence " as their aim, it
was no longer necessary for them to make the assertion of its
claims a principal element in their exposition. Secondly, for
the sake of novelty they extended their range, including scientific
and technical subjects, but handling them, and teaching their
pupils to handle them, in a popular way. In this stage of
sophistry then, the sophist, though not a specialist, trenched
upon the provinces of specialists; and accordingly Plato (Prot.
318 E) makes Protagoras pointedly refer to sophists who, " when
young men have made their escape from the arts, plunge them
once more into technical study, and teach them such subjects
as arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and music." The sophist
of whom the Platonic Protagoras is here thinking was Hippias
of Elis, who gave popular lectures, not only upon the four subjects
just mentioned, but also upon grammar, mythology, family
history, archaeology, Homerology and the education of youth.
In this polymath we see at once the degradation of the sophistry
of culture and the link which connects Protagoras and Prodicus
with the eristics, who at a later period taught, not, like Hippias,
all branches of learning, but a universally applicable method
of disputation.
Meanwhile, Gorgias of Leontini, who, as has been seen, had
studied and rejected the philosophy of western Greece, gave
to sophistry a new direction by bringing to the mother country
the technical study of rhetoric especially forensic rhetoric
(Plato, Gorg. 454 B; cf. Aristotle, Rhet. 1354, b 26) which
study had begun in Sicily with Corax and Tisias nearly forty
years before. Gorgias was already advanced in years and rich
in honours when, in 427, he visited Athens as the head of an
embassy sent to solicit aid against Syracuse. Received with
acclamation, he spent the rest of his long life in central Greece,
winning applause by the display of his oratorical gifts and
acquiring wealth by the teaching of rhetoric. There is no evi-
dence to show that at any period of his life he called himself a
sophist; and, as Plato (Gorg. 449 A) makes him describe himself
as a Aijrcop, it is reasonable to suppose that he preferred that
title. That he should do so was only natural, since his position
as a teacher of rhetoric was already secure when Protagoras
made his first appearance in the character of a sophist; and,
as Protagoras, Prodicus and the rest of the sophists of culture
offered a comprehensive education, of which oratory formed
only a part, whilst Gorgias made no pretence of teaching " civic
excellence " (Plato, Meno, 95 C), and found a substitute for
philosophy, not in literature generally, but in the professional
study of rhetoric alone, it would have been convenient if the
distinction between sophistry and rhetoric had been maintained.
But though, as will be seen hereafter, these two sorts of educa-
tion were sometimes distinguished, Gorgias and those who
succeeded him as teachers of rhetoric, such as Thrasymachus
of Chalcedon and Polus of Agrigentum, were commonly called
by the title which Protagoras had assumed and brought into
familiar use.
Rhetorical sophistry, as taught by Gorgias with special
reference to the requirements of the law courts, led by an easy
transition to political sophistry. During the century which had
elapsed since the expulsion of the Peisistratids and the establish-
ment of the democracy, the Athenian constitution had developed
with a rapidity which produced an oligarchical reaction, and the
discussion of constitutional principles and precedents, always
familiar to the citizen of Athens, was thus abnormally stimulated.
The Peloponnesian War, too, not only added a deeper interest
to ordinary questions of policy, but also caused the relations
of dissentient parties, of allied and belligerent states, of citizens
and aliens, of bond and free, of Greeks and barbarians, to be
eagerly debated in the light of present experience. It was
only natural then that some of those who professed to prepare
young Athenians for public life should give to their teaching
a distinctively political direction; and accordingly we find
Isocrates recognizing teachers of politics, and discriminating
them at once from those earlier sophists who gave popular
instruction in the arts and from the contemporary eristics.
To this class, that of the political sophists, may be assigned
Lycophron, Alcidamas and Isocrates himself. For, though that
celebrated personage would have liked to be called, not " sophist "
but " political philosopher," and tried to fasten the name of
" sophist " upon his opponents the Socratics, it is clear from his
own statement that he was commonly ranked with the sophists,
and that he had no claim, except on the score of superior popu-
larity and success, to be dissociated from the other teachers
of political rhetoric. It is true that he was not a political
sophist of the vulgar type, that as a theorist he was honest
and patriotic, and that, in addition to his fame as a teacher, he
420
SOPHISTS
had a distinct reputation as a man of letters; but he was a
professor of political rhetoric, and, as such, in the phraseology
of the day, a sophist. He had already reached the height of
his fame when Plato opened a rival school at the Academy,
and pointedly attacked him in the Gorgias, the Phaedrus and
the Republic. Thenceforward, there was a perpetual controversy
between the rhetorician and the philosopher, and the struggle
of educational systems continued until, in the next generation,
the philosophers were left in possession of the field.
While the sophistry of rhetoric led to the sophistry of politics,
the sophistry of culture led to the sophistry of disputation. It
has been seen that the range of subjects recognized by Protagoras
and Prodicus gradually extended itself, until Hippias professed
himself a teacher of all branches of learning, including in his
list subjects taught by artists and professional men, but handling
them irom a popular or non-professional point of view. The
successors of the polymath claimed to possess and to communicate,
not the knowledge of all branches of learning, but an aptitude
for dealing with all subjects, which aptitude should make the
knowledge of any subject superfluous. In other words, they
cultivated skill in disputation. Now skill in disputation is
plainly a valuable accomplishment; and, as the Aristotelian
logic grew out of the regulated discussions of the eristics and
their pupils, the disputant sophistry of the 4th century deserves
more attention and more respect than it usually receives from
historians of Greek thought. But when men set themselves
to cultivate skill in disputation, regarding the matter discussed
not as a serious issue, but as a thesis upon which to practise
their powers of controversy, they learn to pursue, not truth,
but victory; and, their criterion of excellence having been thus
perverted, they presently prefer ingenious fallacy to solid
reasoning and the applause of bystanders to the consciousness
of honest effort. Indeed, the sophists generally had a special
predisposition to error of this sort, not only because sophistry
was from the beginning a substitute for the pursuit of truth,
but also because the successful professor, travelling from city
to city, or settling abroad, could take no part in public affairs,
and thus was not at every step reminded of the importance of
the " material " element of exposition and reasoning. Paradox,
however, soon becomes stale, and fallacy wearisome. Hence,
despite its original popularity, eristical sophistry could not hold
its ground. The man of the world who had cultivated it in his
youth regarded it in riper years as a foolish pedantry, or at best
as a propaedeutic exercise; while the serious student, necessarily
preferring that form of disputation which recognized truth as
the end of this, as of other intellectual processes, betook himself
to one or other of the philosophies of the revival.
In order to complete this sketch of the development of
sophistry in the latter half of the 5th century and the earlier half
of the 4th, it is necessary next to take account of Socrates and
the Socratics. A foe to philosophy and a renegade from art,
Socrates took his departure from the same point as Protagoras,
and moved in the same direction, that of the education of youth.
Finding in the cultivation of " virtue " or " excellence " a
substitute for the pursuit of scientific truth, and in disputation
the sole means by which " virtue " or " excellence " could
be attained, he resembled at once the sophists of culture and
the sophists of eristic. But, inasmuch as the " virtue " or
" excellence " which he sought was that of the man rather than
that of the official, while the disputation which he practised
had for its aim, not victory, but the elimination of error, the
differences which separated him from the sophists of culture
and the sophists of eristic were only less considerable than the
resemblances which he bore to both; and further, though his
whole time and attention were bestowed upon the education
of young Athenians, his theory of the relations of teacher and
pupil differed from that of the recognized professors of education,
inasmuch as the taking of fees seemed to him to entail a base
surrender of the teacher's independence. The principal character-
istics of Socrates's theory of education were accepted, mutatis
mutandis, by the leading Socratics. With these resemblances
to the contemporary professors of education, and with these
differences, were Socrates and the Socratics sophists or not?
To this question there is no simple answer, yes or no. It is
certain that Socrates's contemporaries regarded him as a sophist ;
and it was only reasonable that they should so regard him, because
in opposition to the physicists of the past and the artists of the
present he asserted the claims of higher education. But, though
according to the phraseology of the time he was a sophist, he
was not a typical sophist his principle that, while scientific
truth is unattainable by man, right opinion is the only basis of
right action, clearly differentiating him from all the other
professors of " virtue." Again, as the Socratics Plato himself,
when he established himself at the Academy, being no excep-
tion were, like their master, educators rather than philosophers,
and in their teaching laid especial stress upon discussion, they,
too, were doubtless regarded as sophists, not by Isocrates only,
but by their contemporaries in general; and it may be conjectured
that the disputatious tendencies of the Megarian school made
it all the more difficult for Plato and others to secure a proper
appreciation of the difference between dialectic, or discussion
with a view to the discovery of truth, and eristic, or discussion
with a view to victory. Changing circumstances, however,
carry with them changes in the meaning and application of
words. Whereas, so long as philosophy was in abeyance
Socrates and the Socratics were regarded as sophists of an
abnormal sort, as soon as philosophy revived it was dimly
perceived that, in so far as Socrates and the Socratics dissented
from sophistry, they preserved the philosophical tradition.
This being so, it was found convenient to revise the terminology
of the past, and to include in the philosophical succession those
who, though not philosophers, had cherished the sacred spark.
As for Socrates, he ranked himself neither with the philosophers,
who professed to know, nor with the sophists, who professed
to teach; and, if he sometimes described himself as a <^iX6tro0oj
he was careful to indicate that he pretended to no other
knowledge than that of his own limitations.
It would seem then, (i) that popular nomenclature included
under the term " sophist " all teachers whether professors, or
like Socrates, amateurs who communicated, not artistic skill,
nor philosophical theory, but a general or liberal education;
(2) that, of those who were commonly accounted sophists, some
professed culture, some forensic rhetoric, some political rhetoric,
some eristic, some (i.e. the Socratics) dialectic; (3) that the
differences between the different groups of sophists were not
inconsiderable, and that hi particular the teaching of the rhe-
toricians was distinct in origin, and, in so far as its aim was
success in a special walk of life, distinct in character, from the
more general teaching of the sophists of culture, the eristics,
and the dialecticians, while the teaching of the dialecticians
was discriminated from that of the rest, in so far as the aim of
the dialecticians was truth, or at least the bettering of opinion;
and, consequently, (4) that, in awarding praise and blame to
sophistry and its representatives, the distinctive characteristics
of the groups above enumerated must be studiously kept in
view.
Lapse of time and change of circumstances brought with
them not merely changes in the subjects taught, but also changes
in the popular estimate of sophistry and sophists. The first
and most obvious sentiment which sophistry evoked was an
enthusiastic and admiring interest. The sophist seemed to his
youthful hearers to open a new field of intellectual activity and
thereby to add a fresh zest to existence. But in proportion to the
fascination which he exercised upon the young was the distrust
which he inspired in their less pliable elders. Not only were
they dismayed by the novelty of the sophistical teaching, but
also they vaguely perceived that it was subversive of authority,
of the authority of the parent over the child as well as of the
authority of the state over the citizen. Of the two conflicting
sentiments, the favour of the young, gaining as years passed
away, naturally prevailed; sophistry ceased to be novel, and
attendance in the lecture-rooms of the sophists came to be
thought not less necessary for the youth than attendance in
the elementary schools for the boy. The lively enthusiasm
SOPHISTS
421
and the furious opposition which greeted Protagoras had now
burnt themselves out, and before long the sophist was treated
by the man of the world as a harmless, necessary pedagogue.
That sophistry must be studied in its historical development
was clearly seen by Plato, whose dialogue called the Sophist contains
a formal review of the changing phases and aspects of sophistical
teaching. The subject which is discussed in that dialogue and its
successor, the Statesman, being the question " Are sophist, statesman,
and philosopher identical or different?" the Eleate who acts as
protagonist seeks a definition of the term " sophist " by means of a
series of divisions or dichotomies. In this way he is led to regard the
sophist successively (i) as a practitioner of that branch of mer-
cenary persuasion in private which professes to impart " virtue "
and exacts payment in the shape of a fee, in opposition to the flatterer
who offers pleasure, asking for sustenance in return; (2) as a practi-
tioner of that branch of mental trading which purveys from city to
city discourses and lessons about " virtue," m opposition to the
artist who similarly purveys discourses and lessons about the arts ;
(3) and (4) as a practitioner of those branches of mental trading,
retail and wholesale, which purvey discourses and lessons about
" virtue " within a city, in opposition to the artists who similarly
purvey discourses and lessons about the arts; (5) as a practitioner
of that branch of eristic which brings to the professor pecuniary
emolument, eristic being the systematic form of antilogic, and
dealing with justice, injustice and other abstractions, and antilogic
being that form of disputation which uses question and answer
in private, in opposition to forensic, which uses continuous discourse
in the law-courts; (6) as a practitioner of that branch of education
which purges away the vain conceit of wisdom by means of cross-
examination, in opposition to the traditional method of reproof
or admonition. These definitions being thus yarious, the Eleate
notes that the sophist, in consideration of a fee, disputes, and teaches
others to dispute, about things divine, cosmical, metaphysical, legal,
political, technical in fact, about everything not having know-
ledge of them, because universal knowledge is unattainable; after
which he is in a position to define the sophist (7) as a conscious
impostor who, in private, by discontinuous discourse, compels his
interlocutor to contradict himself, in opposition to the Sij/ioXo-yucis,
who, in public, by continuous discourse, imposes upon crowds.
It is clear that the final definition is preferred, not because of
any intrinsic superiority, but because it has a direct bearing upon
the question " Are sophist, statesman and philosopher identical
or different?" and that the various definitions represent different
stages or forms of sophistry as conceived from different points
of view. Thus the first and second definitions represent the
founders of the sophistry o,f culture, Protagoras and Prodicus, from
the respective points of view of the older Athenians, who disliked
the new culture, and the younger Athenians, who admired it; the
third and fourth definitions represent imitators to whom the note
of itinerancy was not applicable; the fifth definition represents the
earlier eristics, contemporaries of Socrates, whom it was necessary
to distinguish from the teachers of forensic oratory; the sixth is
framed to meet the anomalous case of Socrates, in whom many
saw the typical sophist, though Plato conceives this view to be
unfortunate; and the seventh and final definition, having in view
eristical sophistry fully developed, distinguishes it from Srifto\oyu<ri,
i.e. political rhetoric, but at the same time hints that, though
rro<iCTTi7 and 5ijMoXo-yiKi> may be discriminated, they are neverthe-
less near akin, the one being the ape of philosophy, the other the
ape of statesmanship. In short, Plato traces the changes which,
in less than a century, had taken place in the meaning of the term,
partly through changes in the practice of the sophists, partly through
changes in their surroundings and in public opinion, so as to show
by a familiar instance that general terms which do not describe
natural kinds cannot have a stable connotation.
_ Now it is easy to see that in this careful statement Plato recog-
nizes three periods. The first four definitions represent the period
of Protagoras, Prodicus, and their immediate successors, when the
object sought was " virtue," " excellence," " culture," and the
means to it was literature. The fifth and sixth definitions represent
the close of the 5th century, when sophistry handled eristically, and
perhaps, Chough Plato demurs to the inclusion, dialectically, ques-
tions of justice, injustice and the like, SIKCUUK^ or forensic rhetoric
being its proximate rival. The seventh definition represents the
first half of the 4th century, when sophistry was eristical in a wider
field, having for its rival, not forensic rhetoric, but the rhetoric of
the assembly. Plato's classification of educational theories is then
substantially the classification adopted in this article, though,
whereas here, in accordance with well-attested popular usage, all
the educational theories mentioned are included under the head
of sophistry, Plato allows to rhetoric, forensic and political, an inde-
pendent position, and hints that there are grounds for denying the
title of sophist to the dialectician Socrates. Incidentally we gather
two important facts (i) that contemporary with the dialectic of
Socrates there was an eristic, and (2) that this eristic was mainly
applied to ethical questions. Finally, we may be sure that, if Plato
was thus careful to distinguish the phases and aspects of sophistical
development, he could never have fallen into the modern error of
bestowing upon those whom the Greeks called sophists either
indiscriminate censure or indiscriminate laudation.
2. Relations of Sophistry to Education, Literature and
Philosophy. If then the sophists, from Protagoras to Isocrates,
were before everything educators, it becomes necessary to inquire
whether their labours marked or promoted an advance in educa-
tional theory and method. At the beginning of the sth century
B.C. every young Greek of the better sort already received rudi-
mentary instruction, not only in music and gymnastics, but also
in reading and writing. Further, in the colonies, and especially
the colonies of the West, philosophy and art had done something
for higher education. Thus in Italy the Pythagorean school
was, in the fullest sense of the term, an educational institution ;
and in Sicily the rhetorical teaching of Corax and Tisias was
presumably educational in the same sense as the teaching of
Gorgias. But in central Greece, where, at any rate down
to the Persian Wars, politics, domestic and foreign, were all-
engrossing, and left the citizen little leisure for self-cultivation,
the need of a higher education had hardly made itself felt.
The overthrow of the Persian invaders changed all this. Hence-
forward the best of Greek art, philosophy, and literature
gravitated to Athens, and with their concentration and conse-
quent development came a general and growing demand for
teaching. As has been seen, it was just at this period that
philosophy and art ceased to be available for educational pur-
poses, and accordingly the literary sophists were popular precisely
because they offered advanced teaching which was neither
philosophical nor artistic. Their recognition of the demand
and their attempt to satisfy it are no small claims to distinction.
That, whereas before the time of Protagoras there was little
higher education in the colonies and less in central Greece,
after his time attendance in the lecture-rooms of the sophists
was the customary sequel to attendance in the elementary
schools, is a fact which speaks for itself.
But this is not all. The education provided by the sophists
of culture had positive merits. When Protagoras included in
his course grammar, style, interpretation of the poets, and
oratory, supplementing his own continuous expositions by
disputations in which he and his pupils took part, he showed
a not inadequate appreciation of the requisites of a literary
education; and it may be conjectured that his comprehensive
programme, which Prodicus and others extended, had something
to do with the development of that versatility which was the
most notable element in the Athenian character.
There is less to be said for the teachers of rhetoric, politics
and eristic, who, in limiting themselves each to a single subject
the rhetoricians proper or forensic rhetoricians to one branch
of oratory, the politicians or political rhetoricians to another,
and the eristics to disputation ceased to be educators and
became instructors. Nevertheless, rhetoric and disputation,
though at the present day strangely neglected in English schools
and universities, are, within their limits, valuable instruments;
and, as specialization in teaching does not necessarily imply
specialization in learning, many of those who attended the
lectures and the classes of a rhetorician or an eristic sought and
found other instruction elsewhere. It would seem then that even
in its decline sophistry had its educational use. But in any
case it may be claimed for its professors k that in the course of
a century they discovered and turned to account most of the
instruments of literary education.
With these considerable merits, normal sophistry had one
defect, its indifference to truth. Despairing of philosophy
that is to say, of physical science the sophists were prepared
to go all lengths in scepticism. Accordingly the epideictic
sophists in exposition, and the argumentative sophists in debate,
one and all, studied, not matter but style, not accuracy buteffect,
not proof but persuasion. In short, in their hostility to science
they refused to handle literature in a scientific spirit. That
this defect was serious was dimly apprehended even by those
who frequented and admired the lectures of the earlier sophists;
that it was fatal was clearly seen by Socrates, who, himself
commonly regarded as a sophist, emphatically reprehended,
422
SOPHISTS
not only the taking of fees, which was after all a mere incident,
objectionable because it seemed to preclude independence of
thought, but also the fundamental disregard of truth which
infected every part and every phase of sophistical teaching.
To these contemporary censures the modern critic cannot
refuse his assent.
To literature and to oratory the sophists rendered good service.
Themselves of necessity stylists, because their professional
success largely depended upon skilful and effective exposition,
the sophists both of culture and of rhetoric were professedly
teachers of the rules of grammar and the principles of written
and spoken discourse. Thus, by example as well as by precept,
they not only taught their hearers to value literary and oratorical
excellence, but also took the lead in fashioning the style of their
time. Their influence in these respects was weighty and impor-
tant. Whereas, when sophistry began, prose composition was
hardly practised in central Greece, the sophists were still the
leaders in literature and oratory when Plato wrote the Republic,
and they had hardly lost their position when Demosthenes
delivered the Philippics. In fact, it is not too much to say that
it was the sophists who provided those great masters with their
consummate instrument, and it detracts but little from the
merit of the makers if they were themselves unable to draw
from it its finer tones.
The relation of sophistry to philosophy was throughout one
of pronounced hostility. From the days of Protagoras, when
this hostility was triumphant and contemptuous, to the days
of Isocrates, when it was jealous and bitter, the sophists were
declared and consistent sceptics. But, although Protagoras
and Gorgias had examined the teaching of their predecessors
so far as to satisfy themselves of its futility and to draw the
sceptical inference, their study of the great problem of the day
was preliminary to their sophistry rather than a part of it;
and, as the overthrow of philosophy was complete and the attrac-
tions of sophistry were all-powerful, the question " What is
knowledge? " ceased for a time to claim or to receive attention.
There is, then, no such thing as a " sophistical theory of know-
ledge." Similarly, the recognition of a " sophistical ethic "
is, to say the least, misleading. It may have been that the
sophists' preference of seeming to reality, of success to truth,
had a mischievous effect upon the morality of the time; but it
is clear that they had no common theory of ethics, and there
is no warrant for the assumption that a sophist, as such, specially
interested himself in ethical questions. When Protagoras
asserted " civic excellence " or " virtue " to be the end of educa-
tion, he neither expressed nor implied a theory of morality.
Prodicus in his platitudes reflected the customary morality of
the time. Gorgias said plainly that he did not teach " virtue."
If Hippias, Polus and Thrasymachus defied conventional morality,
they did so independently of one another, and in this, as in other
matters, they were disputants maintaining paradoxical theses,
rather than thinkers announcing heretical convictions. The
morality of Isocrates bore a certain resemblance to that of
Socrates. In short, the attitude of the sophists towards inquiry
in general precluded them, collectively and individually, from
attachment to any particular theory. Yet among the so-called
sophists there were two who had philosophical leanings, as
appears in their willingness to be called by the title of philosopher.
First, Socrates, whilst he conceived that the physicists had
mistaken the field of inquiry, absolute truth being unattainable,
maintained, as has been seen, that one opinion was better than
another, and that consistency of opinion, resulting in consistency
of action, was the end which the human intellect properly pro-
poses to itself. Hence, though an agnostic, he was not unwilling
to be called a philosopher, in so far as he pursued such truth as
was attainable by man. Secondly, when sophistry had begun
to fall into contempt, the political rhetorician Isocrates claimed
for himself the time-honoured designation of philosopher,
" herein," says Plato, " resembling some tinker, bald-pated
and short of stature, who, having made money, knocks off
his chains, goes to the bath, buys a new suit, and then takes
advantage of the poverty and desolation of his master's daughter
to urge upon her his odious addresses " (Rep. vi. 495 E). It
will be seen, however, that neither Socrates nor Isocrates was
philosopher in any strict sense of the word, the speculative
aims of physicists and metaphysicians being foreign to the
practical theories both of the one and of the other.
As for the classification of sophistical methods, so for their
criticism, the testimony of Plato is all-important. It may be
conjectured that, when he emerged from the purely Socratic phase
of his earlier years, Plato gave himself to the study of contemporary
methods of education and to the elaboration of an educational
system of his own, and that it was in this way that he came to
the metaphysical speculations of his maturity. It may be imagined
further that, when he established himself at the Academy, his first
care was to draw up a scheme of education, including arithmetic,
geometry (plane and solid), astronomy, harmonics and dialectic,
and that it was not until he had arranged for the carrying out of
this programme that he devoted himself to the special functions
of professor of philosophy. However this may be, we find amongst
his writings intermediate, as it would seem, between the Socratic
conversations of his first period of literary activity and the meta-
physical disquisitions of a later time a series of dialogues which,
however varied their ostensible subjects, agree in having a direct
bearing upon education. Thus the Protagoras brings the educa-
tional theory of Protagoras and the sophists of culture face to face
with the educational theory of Socrates, so as to expose the limita-
tions of both ; the Gorgias deals with the moral aspect of the teach-
ings of the forensic rhetorician Gorgias and the political rhetorician
Isocrates, and the intellectual aspect of their respective theories of
education is handled in the Phaedrus; the Meno on the one hand
exhibits the strength and the weakness of the teaching of Socrates,
and on the other brings into view the makeshift method of those
who, despising systematic teaching, regarded the practical poli-
tician as the true educator; the Euthydemus has for its subject
the eristical method ; finally, having in these dialogues characterized
the current theories of education, Plato proceeds in the Republic
to develop an original scheme. Plato's criticisms of the sophists
are then, in the opinion of the present writer, no mere obiter dicta,
introduced for purposes of literary adornment or dramatic effect,
but rather the expressions of profound and reasoned conviction,
and, as such, entitled at any rate to respect. For the details
of Plato's critique the reader should go not to the summaries of
commentators, but to the dialogues themselves. In this place
it is sufficient to say that, while Plato accounts no education satis-
factory which has not knowledge for its basis, he emphatically
prefers the scepticism of Socrates, which, despairing of knowledge,
seeks right opinion, to the scepticism of the sophists, which,
despairing of knowledge, abandons the attempt to better existing
beliefs.
3. The Theory of Grote. The post-Platonic historians and
critics, who, while they knew the earlier sophistry only through
tradition, were eyewitnesses of the sophistry of the decadence,
were more alive to the faults than to the virtues of the movement.
Overlooking the differences which separated the humanists
from the eristics, and both of these from the rhetoricians, and
taking no account of Socrates, whom they regarded as a philo-
sopher, they forgot the services which Protagoras and Prodicus,
Gorgias and Isocrates had rendered to education and to litera-
ture, and included the whole profession in an indiscriminate
and contemptuous censure. This prejudice, establishing itself
in familiar speech, has descended from antiquity to modern
times, colouring, when it does not distort, the narratives of
biographers and the criticisms of commentators. " The sophists,"
says Grote, " are spoken of as a new class of men, or sometimes
in language which implies a new doctrinal sect or school, as
if they then sprang up in Greece for the first time ostentatious
impostors, flattering and duping the rich youth for their own
personal gain, undermining the morality of Athens, public and
private, and encouraging their pupils to the unscrupulous
prosecution of ambition and cupidity. They are even affirmed to
have succeeded in corrupting the general morality, so that Athens
had become miserably degenerated and vicious in the latter
years of the Peloponnesian War, as compared with what she
was in the time of Miltiades and Aristeides;" and, although
amongst the pre-Grotian scholars there were some who saw
as clearly as Grote himself that "the sophists are a much-
calumniated race " (G. H. Lewes), it is certain that historians of
philosophy, and editors of Plato, especially the " acumen
plumbeum Stallbaumii," had given ample occasion for the
energetic protest contained in the famous sixty-seventh chapter
of Grote's History of Greece. Amongst the many merits of that
SOPHISTS
423
admirable scholar, it is one of the greatest that he has laid " the
fiend called die Sophistik," that is to say, the theory that
sophistry was an organized conspiracy against law and morals.
Nevertheless, in this matter he is always an advocate; and it
may be thought that, while he successfully disposes of the
current slander, his description of his clients needs correction
in some important particulars. Hence the following paragraphs,
while they will resume and affirm his principal results, will
qualify and impugn some of his positions.
In so far as he is critical, Grote leaves little to be desired.
That the persons styled sophists " were not a sect or school,
with common doctrines or method," is clear. Common doctrine,
that is to say, common doctrine of a positive sort, they could
not have, because, being sceptics, they had nothing which could
be called positive doctrine; while there was a period when even
their scepticism was in no wise distinctive, because they shared
it with all or nearly all their contemporaries. Neither were
they united by a common educational method, the end and the
instruments of education being diversely conceived by Pro-
tagoras, Gorgias and Isocrates, to say nothing of the wider
differences which separate these three from the eristics, and all
the four normal types from the abnormal type represented by
Socrates.
Again, it is certain that the theoretical and practical morality
of the sophists, regarded as a class, was " neither above nor
below the standard of the age." The taking of fees, the pride
of professional success, and the teaching of rhetoric are no proofs
either of conscious charlatanism or of ingrained depravity.
Indeed, we have evidence of sound, if conventional, principle
in Prodicus's apologue of the " Choice of Heracles," and of
honourable, though eccentric, practice in the story of Pro-
tagoras's treatment of defaulting pupils. But, above all, it is
antecedently certain that defection from the ordinary standard
of morality would have precluded the success which the sophists
unquestionably sought and won. In fact, public opinion made
the morality of the sophists, rather than the sophists the morality
of public opinion. Hence, even if we demur to the judgment
of Grote that " Athens at the close of the Peloponnesian War
was not more corrupt than Athens in the days of Miltiades
and Aristeides," we shall not " consider the sophists as the
corrupters of Athenian morality," but rather with Plato lay
the blame upon society itself, which, " in popular meetings,
law courts, theatres, armies and other great gatherings, with
uproarious censure and clamorous applause" (Rep. vi. 492),
educates young and old, and fashions them according to its
pleasure.
Nor can we regard " Plato and his followers as the authorized
teachers of the Greek nation and the sophists as the dissenters."
On the contrary, the sophists were in quiet possession of the
field when Plato, returning to Athens, opened the rival school
of the Academy; and, while their teaching in all respects accom-
modated itself to current opinion, his, in many matters, ran
directly counter to it.
But if thus far Crete's protest against prevalent assumptions
carries an immediate and unhesitating conviction, it may be
doubted whether his positive statement can be accounted
final. " The appearance of the sophists," he says, " was no
new fact. . . . The paid teachers whom modern writers set
down as the sophists, and denounce as the modern pestilence
of their age were not distinguished in any marked or generic
way from their predecessors." Now it is true that before 447
B.C., besides the teachers of writing, gymnastics and music, to
whom the young Greek resorted for elementary instruction,
there were artists and artisans who not only practised their
crafts, but also communicated them to apprentices and pupils,
and that accordingly the Platonic Protagoras recognizes in the
gymnast Iccus, the physician Herodicus, and the musicians
Agathocles and Pythoclides, forerunners of the sophists. But
the forerunners of the sophists are not to be confounded with
the sophists themselves, and the difference between them is
not far to seek. Though some of those who resorted to the
gymnasts, physicians and musicians derived from them such
substitute for " higher education " as was before 447 generally
obtainable, it was only incidentally that professional men
and artists communicated anything which could be called
by that name. Contrariwise, the sophists were always and
essentially professors of the higher education; and, although
in process of time specialization assimilated sophistry to the
arts, at the outset at any rate, its declared aim the cultivation
of the civic character sufficiently distinguished sophistical
education both from professional instruction and from artistic
training. It is true too that in some of the colonies philosophy
had busied itself with higher education; but here again the
forerunners of the sophists are easily distinguished from the
sophists, since the sophists condemned not only the scientific
speculations of their predecessors, but also their philosophical
aims, and offered to the Greek world a new employment for
leisure, a new intellectual ambition.
Nor is it altogether correct to say that " the persons styled
sophists had no principles common to them all and distinguishing
them from others." Various as were the phases through which
sophistry passed between the middle of the 5th century and the
middle of the 4th, the sophists Socrates himself being no
exception had in their declared antagonism to philosophy a
common characteristic; and, if in the interval, philosophical
speculation being temporarily suspended, scepticism ceased
for the time to be peculiar, at the outset, when Protagoras and
Gorgias broke with the physicists, and in the sequel, when
Plato raised the cry of " back to Parmenides," this common
characteristic was distinctive.
Further, it may be doubted whether Grote is sufficiently care-
ful to distinguish between the charges brought against the
sophists personally and the criticism of their educational methods.
When the sophists are represented as conscious imposters who
" poisoned and demoralized by corrupt teaching the Athenian
moral character," he has, as has been seen, an easy and complete
reply. But the question still remains Was the education
provided by Protagoras, by Gorgias, by Isocrates, by the eristics
and by Socrates, good, bad or indifferent? And, though the
modern critic will not be prepared with Plato to deny the name
of education to all teaching which is not based upon an ontology,
it may nevertheless be thought that normal sophistry as
opposed to the sophistry of Socrates was in various degrees
unsatisfactory, in so far as it tacitly or confessedly ignored the
" material " element of exposition by reasoning.
And if Grote overlooks important agreements he seems also
to understate important differences. Regarding Protagoras,
Gorgias and Isocrates as types of one and the same sophistry
(PP- 487, 493, 49S, 499, 544, 2nd ed.), and neglecting as
slander or exaggeration all the evidence in regard to the sophistry
of eristic (p. 540), he conceives that the sophists undertook " to
educate young men so as to make them better qualified for
statesmen or ministers," and that " that which stood most
prominent in the teaching of Gorgias and the other sophists was,
that they cultivated and improved the powers of public speaking
in their pupils." Excellent as a statement of the aim and method
of Isocrates, and tolerable as a statement of those of Gorgias,
these phrases are inexact if applied to Protagoras, who, making
" civic virtue " his aim, regarded statesmanship and administra-
tion as parts of " civic virtue ", and consequently assigned to
oratory no more than a subordinate place in his programme,
while to the eristics whose existence is attested not only by
Plato, but also by Isocrates and Aristotle and to Socrates
whom Grote himself accounts a sophist the description is
plainly and palpably inappropriate.
Grote's note about the eristical sophists is perhaps the least
satisfactory part of his exposition. That " there were in Athens
persons who abused the dialectical exercise for frivolous puzzles "
he admits; but "to treat Euthydemus and Dionysodorus as
samples of ' the Sophists ' is, " he continues, " altogether un-
warrantable." It would seem, then,' that, while he regards rhetoric
as the function of normal sophistry, taking indifferently as his
types Protagoras, Gorgias and Isocrates, he accounts Euthydemus
and Dionysodorus (together with Socrates) as sophists, but as
sophists of an abnormal sort, who may therefore be neglected. Now
this view is inconsistent with the evidence of Plato, who, in the
424
SOPHOCLES
Sophist, in his final and operative definition, gives prominence to
the eristical element, and plainly accounts it the main character-
istic not indeed of the sophistry of the 5th century, but of the
sophistry of the 4th. It must be presumed, then, that, in virtue
of his general suspicions of the Platonic testimony, Grote in this
matter leaves the Sophist out of account. There is, however,
another theory of the significance of Plato's allusions to eristical
sophistry, that of Professor H. Sidgwick, whose brilliant defence of
Grote is an indispensable supplement to the original document.
Giving a hearty general assent to Grote's theory, Sidgwick never-
theless introduces qualifications similar to some of those which are
suggested in this article. In particular he allows that " there was
at any rate enough of charlatanism in Protagoras and Hippias to
prevent any ardour for their historical reputation," that the
sophists generally _ " had in their lifetime more success than they
deserved, ' that it was " antagonism to their teaching which
developed the genius of Socrates," and, above all, that, " in his
anxiety to do justice to the Sophist, Grote laid more stress than
is at all necessary on the partisanship of Plato." Now this last
admission precludes Sidgwick from neglecting, as Grote had done,
the evidence of the Euthydemus. Pointing out that the sophists
of that dialogue "profess j iperijs firifif\tiav irporpe^at by means
of dialogue," that they challenge the interlocutor virix"' *&yov,"
that " their examples are drawn from common objects and
vulgar trades," that " they maintain positions that we know to
have been held by Megarians and Cynics," he infers that " what
we have here presented to us as ' sophistic ' is neither more nor
less than a caricature of the Megarian logi; "; and further, on the
ground that " the whole conception of Socrates and his effect on
his contemporaries, as all authorities combine to represent it,
requires us to assume that his manner of discourse was quite novel,
that no one before had systematically attempted to show men their
ignorance of what they believed themselves to know," he is " dis-
posed to think that the art of disputation which is ascribed to
sophists in the Euthydemus and the Sophistes (and exhaustively
analysed by Aristotle in the npi aottH.vrut.Siv i\kyx^") originated
entirely with Socrates, and that he is altogether responsible for the
form at least of this second species of sophistic." To this theory
the present writer is unable to subscribe. That Plato was not care-
ful to distinguish the Megarians and the Cynics from the eristical
sophists, and that the disputants of the 4th century affected some
of the mannerisms of the greatest disputant of the 5th century, he
willingly concedes. But he cannot allow either that the Megarians
and the_Cynics were the only eristics, or that eristical sophistry
began with Socrates. Plainly this is not the place for a full ex-
amination of the question; yet it may be remarked (i) that the
previous history of the sophists of the Euthydemus, who had been
professors of tactics (Xenophon, Mem. iii. i, i), swordsmanship,
and forensic argumentation, implies that they came to eristic not
from the sophistry of Socrates, but from that of the later human-
ists, polymaths of the type of Hippias; (2) that the fifth and sixth
definitions of the Sophist, in which " that branch of eristic which
brings pecuniary gain to the practitioner " is opposed to the
" patience-trying, purgative elenchus " of Socrates, indicate that
contemporary with Socrates there were eristics whose aims were
not his; (3) that, whereas the sophist of the final definition " dis-
putes, and teaches others to dispute, about things divine, cosmical,
metaphysical, legal, political, technical, in fact, about all things,"
we have no ground for supposing that the Megarians and the Cynics
used their eristic for any purpose except the defence of their logical
heresies.
Nor is it possible to accept the statements that " the splendid
genius, the lasting influence, and the reiterated polemics of
Plato have stamped the name sophist upon the men against
whom he wrote as if it were their recognized, legitimate and
peculiar designation," and that " Plato not only stole the name
out of general circulation, in order to fasten it specially upon
his opponents the paid teachers, but also connected with it express
discreditable attributes which formed no part of its primitive
and recognized meaning and were altogether distinct from, though
grafted upon, the vague sentiment of dislike associated with
it." That is to say, Grote supposes that for at least eight and
forty years, from 447 to 399, the paid professors had no profes-
sional title; that, this period having elapsed, a youthful opponent
succeeded in fastening an uncomplimentary title not only
upon the contemporary teachers, but also, retrospectively, upon
their predecessors; and that, artfully enhancing the indigrity
of the title affixed, he thus obscured, perverted and effaced
the records and the memories of the past. Manifestly all three
propositions are antecedently improbable. But more than this:
whereas in the nomenclature of Plato's contemporaries Pro-
tagoras, Gorgias, Socrates, Dionysodorus and Isocrates were all
of them sophists, Plato himself, in his careful investigation
summarized above, limits the meaning of the term so that it
shall include the humanists and the eristics only. Now, if
his use of the term was stricter than the customary use, he
can hardly be held answerable for the latter.
Nor is Grote altogether just in his account of Plato's attitude
towards the several sophists, or altogether judicious in his
appreciation of Plato's testimony. However contemptuous in
his portraiture of Hippias and Dionysodorus, however severe
in his polemic against Isocrates, Plato regards Protagoras with
admiration and Gorgias with respect. While he emphasizes
in the later sophists the consequences of the fundamental error
of sophistry its indifference to truth he does honour to
the genius and the originality of the leaders of the movement.
Indeed, the author of this article finds in the writings of Plato
a grave and discriminating study of the several forms of sophistry,
and no trace whatsoever of that blind hostility which should
warrant us in neglecting his clear and precise evidence.
In a word, the present writer agrees with Grote that the
sophists were not a sect or school with common doctrine or
method; that their theoretical and practical morality was neither
above nor below that of their age, being, in fact, determined
by it; and that Plato and his followers are not to be regarded
as the authorized teachers of the Greek nation, nor the sophists
as the dissenters, but vice versa. At the same time, in opposi-
tion to Grote, he maintains that the appearance of the sophists
marked a new departure, in so far as they were the first professors
of " higher education " as such; that they agreed in the rejection
of "philosophy"; that the education which they severally
gave was open to criticism, inasmuch as, with the exception
of Socrates, they attached too much importance to the form,
too little to the matter, of their discourses and arguments; that
humanism, rhetoric, politic and disputation were characteristic
not of all sophists collectively, but of sections of the profession;
that Plato was not the first to give a special meaning to the
term " sophist " and to affix it upon the professors of education;
and, finally, that Plato's evidence is in all essentials trustworthy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. On the significance of the sophistical move-
ment, see E. Zeller, Philosophic d. Griechen, i. 932-1041 (4th ed.,
Leipzig, 1876); Presocratic Philosophy, ii. 394-516 (London, 1881);
G. Grote, History of Greece, ch. Ixvii. (London, 1851, &c.); E. M.
Cope, " On the Sophists," and " On the Sophistical Rhetoric," in
Journ. Class, and Sacr. Philol. vol. ii. (Cambridge, 1855), and vol.
iii. (1857), an erudite but inconclusive reply to Grote; H. Sidgwick,
" The Sophists," in Journ. of Philol., vol. iv. (Cambridge, 1872), and
vol. v. (1874), a brilliant defence of Grote; A. W. Benn, The Greek
Philosophers i. 53-107 (London, 1882). For lists of treatises upon
the life and teaching of particular sophists, see Ueberweg, Grundriss
d. Gesch. d. Philos., i. 27-32 (History of Philosophy, London, 1880).
On the Hater use of the term " sophist," see RHETORIC. (H. JA.)
SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.C.), Greek tragic poet, was born
at Colonus in the neighbourhood of Athens. His father's name
was Sophillus; and the family burial-place is said to have been
about a mile and a half from the city on the Decelean Way.
The date assigned for the poet's birth is in accordance with the
tale that young Sophocles, then a pupil of the musician Lamprus,
was chosen to lead the chorus of boys in the celebration of the
victory of Salamis (480 B.C.). The time of his death is fixed
by the allusions to it in the Frogs of Aristophanes and in the
Muses, a lost play of Phrynichus, the comic poet, which were
both produced in 405 B.C., shortly before the capture of Athens.
And the legend which implies that Lysander allowed him funeral
honours is one of those which, like the story of Alexander and
Pindar's house at Thebes, we can at least wish to be founded
on fact, though we should probably substitute Agis for Lysander.
Apart from tragic victories, the event of Sophocles' life most
fully authenticated is his appointment at the age of fifty-five
as one of the generals who served with Pericles in the Samian
War (440-439 B.C.). Conjecture has been rife as to the possi-
bility of his here improving acquaintance with Herodotus, whom
he probably met some years earlier at Athens. But the distich
quoted by Plutarch
'fliofiv 'Hpo56r<|) rtv&v l'o<o*.-Xf;s iriuv &v
is a slight ground on which to reject the stronger tradition
according to which Herodotus was ere this established at Thurii;
SOPHOCLES
425
and the coincidences in their writings may be accounted for by
their having drawn from a common source. The fact of Sophocles'
generalship is the less surprising if taken in connexion with the
interesting remark of his biographer (whose Life, though absent
from the earliest MS. through some mischance, bears marks of
an Alexandrian origin) that he took his full share of civic duties,
and even served on foreign embassies. The large acquaintance-
ship which this implies, not only in Athens, but in Ionic cities
generally, is a point of main importance in considering the
opportunities of information at his command. And, if we credit
this assertion, we are the more at liberty to doubt the other state-
ment, though it is not incredible, that his appointment as general
was due to the political wisdom of his Antigone.
The testimony borne by Aristophanes in the Frogs to the
amiability of the poet's temper (6 5" eu/coXos H& ev0&8', e&KoXos 5'
end) agrees with the record of his biographer that he was univer-
sally beloved. And the anecdote recalled by Cephalus in Plato's
Republic, that Sophocles welcomed the release from the passions
which is brought by age, accords with the spirit of his famous
Ode to Love in the Antigone. The Sophocles who, according
to Aristotle (Rhet. iii. 18), said of the government of the Four
Hundred that it was the better of two bad alternatives (probably
the same who was one of the probuli), may or may not have been
the poet. Other gossiping stories are hardly worth repeating
as that Pericles rebuked his love of pleasure and thought him
a bad general, though a good poet; that he humorously boasted
of his own " generalship " in affairs of love; or that he said of
Aeschylus that he was often right without knowing it, and that
Euripides represented men as they are, not as they ought to
be. (This last anecdote has the authority of Aristotle.) Such
trifles rather reflect contemporary or subsequent impressions
of a superficial kind than tell us anything about the man or
the dramatist. The gibe of Aristophanes (Pax 695 seq.), that
Sophocles in his old age was become a very Simonides in his love
for gain, may turn on some perversion of fact, without being
altogether fair to either poet. It is certainly irreconcilable with
the remark (Vit. anon.) that in spite of pressing invitations
he refused to leave Athens for kings' courts. And the story
of his indictment by his son lophon for incompetence to manage
his affairs to which Cicero has given some weight by quoting
it in the De senectute appears to be really traceable to Satyrus
(fl. c. 200 B.C.), the same author who gave publicity to the most
ridiculous of the various absurd accounts of the poet's death
that his breath failed him for want of a pause in reading some
passage of the Antigone. Satyrus is atr least the sole authority
for the defence of the aged poet, who, after reciting passages
from the Oed. Col., is supposed to have said to his accusers, " If
I am Sophocles I am no dotard, and if I dote I am not Sophocles."
On the other hand, we need not the testimony of biographers
to assure us that he was devoted to Athens and renowned for
piety. He is said to have been priest of the hero Alcon, and
himself to have received divine honours after death.
That the duty of managing the actors as well as of training
the chorus belonged to the author is well known. But did
Aeschylus act in his own plays? This certainly is implied in
the tradition that Sophocles, because of the weakness of his
voice, was the first poet who desisted from doing so. In his
Thamyras, however, he is said to have performed on the lyre
to admiration, and in his Nausicaa (perhaps as coryphaeus)
to have played gracefully the game of ball. Various minor
improvements in decoration and stage carpentry are attributed
to him whether truly or not who can tell ? It is more interest-
ing, if true, that he wrote his plays having certain actors in his
eye; that he formed an association for the promotion of liberal
culture; and that he was the first to introduce three actors
on the stage. It is asserted on the authority of Aristoxenus
that Sophocles was also the first to employ Phrygian melodies.
And it is easy to believe that Aj. 693 seq., Track. 205 seq., were
sung to Phrygian music, though there are strains in Aeschylus
(e.g. Choeph. 152 seq., 423 seq.) which it is hard to distinguish
essentially from these. Ancient critics had also noted his
familiarity with Homer, especially with the Odyssey, his power
of selection and of extracting an exquisite grace from all he
touched (whence he was named the " Attic Bee "), his mingled
felicity and boldness, and, above all, his subtle delineation of
human nature and feeling. They observed that the balanced
proportions and fine articulation of his work are such that in
a single half line or phrase he often conveys the impression of an
entire character. Nor is this verdict of antiquity likely to be
reversed by modern criticism.
His minor poems, elegies, paeans, &c., have all perished;
and of his hundred and odd dramas only seven remain. These
all belong to the period of his maturity (he had no decline) ; and
not only the titles but some scanty fragments of more than
ninety others have been preserved. Several of these were, of
course, satyric dramas. And this recalls a point of some im-
portance, which has been urged on the authority of Sui'das, who
says that " Sophocles began the practice of pitting play against
play, instead of the tetralogy." If it were meant that Sophocles
did not exhibit tetralogies, this statement would have simply
to be rejected. For the word of Suidas (A.D. 950) has no weight
against quotations from the lists of tragic victories (Si6a<r/caXi<u),
which there is no other reason for discrediting. It is distinctly
asserted on the authority of the 5i5acr/caXi<u that the Bacchae
of Euripides, certainly as late as any play of Sophocles, was
one of a trilogy or tetralogy. And if the custom was thus
maintained for so long it was clearly impossible for any single
competitor to break through it. But it seems probable that
the trilogy had ceased to be the continuous development of
one legend or cycle of legends " presenting Thebes or Pelops'
line " if, indeed, it ever was so exclusively; and if a Sophoclean
tetralogy was still linked together by some subtle bond of tragic
thought or feeling, this would not affect the criticism of each
play considered as an artistic whole. At the same time it appears
that the satyric drama lost its grosser features and became more
or less assimilated to the milder form of tragedy. And these
changes, or something like them, may have given rise to the
statement in Suidas.
The small number of tragic victories attributed to Sophocles,
in proportion to the number of his plays, is only intelligible
on the supposition that the dramas were presented in groups.
If the diction of Sophocles sometimes reminds his readers
of the Odyssey, the subjects of his plays were more frequently
chosen from those later epics which subsequently came to be
embodied in the epic cycle such as the Aethiopis, the Little
Iliad, the Iliupersis, the Cypria, the Nosti, the Telegonia (all
revolving round the tale of Troy), the Thebaica, the OixoXias
aXojtus, and others, including probably, though there is no
mention of such a thing, some early version of the Argonautic
story. In one or other of these heroic poems the legends of all
the great cities of Hellas were by this time embodied; and
though there must also have been a cloud of oral tradition floating
over many a sacred spot, Sophocles does not seem, unless in
his Oedipus Coloneus, to have directly drawn from this. He
was content to quarry from the epic rhapsodies the materials
for his more concentrated art, much as Shakespeare made use
of Hollingshed or Plutarch, or as the subjects of Tennyson's
Idylls of the King were taken from Sir Thomas Malory. As
Sophocles has been accused of narrowing the range of tragic
sympathy from Hellas to Athens, it deserves mention here that,
of some hundred subjects of plays attributed to him, fifteen only
are connected with Attica, while exactly the same number
belong to the tale of Argos, twelve are Argonautic, and thirty
Trojan. Even Corinthian heroes (Bellerophon, Polyidus) are
not left out. It seems probable on the whole that, within the
limits allowed by convention, Sophocles was guided simply by
his instinctive perception of the tragic capabilities of a
particular fable.
To say that subsidiary or collateral motives were never present
to Sophocles in the selection of a subject would, however, be
beyond the mark. His first drama, the Triptolemus, must have
been full of local colouring; the Ajax appealed powerfully to
the national pride; and in the Oedipus Coloneus some faint echoes
even of oligarchical partisanship may be possibly discerned
426
SOPHOCLES
(see below). But, even where they existed, such motives were
collateral and subsidiary; they were never primary. All else
was subordinated to the dramatic, or, in other words, the purely
human, interest of the fable. This central interest is even
more dominant and pervading in Sophocles than the otherwise
supreme influence of religious and ethical ideas. The idea of
destiny, for example, was of course inseparable from Greek
tragedy. Its prevalence was one of the conditions which presided
over the art from its birth, and, unlike Aeschylus, who wrestles
with gods, Sophocles simply accepts it, both as a datum of tradi-
tion and a fact of life. But in the free handling of Sophocles
even fate and providence are adminicular to tragic art. They
are instruments through which sympathetic emotion is awakened,
deepened, intensified. And, while the vision of the eternal
and unwritten laws was hoh'er yet, for it was not the creation
of any former age, but rose and culminated with the Sophoclean
drama, still to the poet and his Periclean audience this was no
abstract notion, but was inseparable from their impassioned
contemplation of the life of man so great and yet so helpless,
aiming so high and falling down so far, a plaything of the gods
and yet essentially divine. This lofty vision subdued with the
serenity of awe the terror and pity of the scene, but from neither
could it take a single tremor or a single tear. Emotion was the
element in which Greek tragedy lived and moved, albeit an
emotion that was curbed to a serene stillness through its very
depth and intensity.
The final estimate of Sophoclean tragedy must largely depend
upon the mode in which his treatment of destiny is conceived.
That Aeschylus had risen on the wings of faith to a height of
prophetic vision, from whence he saw the triumph of equity
and the defeat of wrong as an eternal process moving on toward
one divine event that he realized sin, retribution, responsibility
as no other ancient did may be gladly conceded. But it has
been argued that because Sophocles is saddened by glancing
down again at actual life because in the fatalism of the old
fables he finds the reflection of a truth he in so far takes a step
backward as a tragic artist. This remark is not altogether just.
His value for what is highest in man is none the less because
he strips it of earthly rewards, nor is his reverence for eternal
law less deep because he knows that its workings are sometimes
pitiless. Nor, once more, does he disbelieve in Providence,
because experience has shown him that the end towards which
the supreme powers lead forth mankind is still unseen. Not
only the utter devotion of Antigone, but the lacerated innocence
of Oedipus and Deianira, the tempted truth of Neoptolemus,
the essential nobility of Ajax, leave an impress on the heart
which is ineffaceable, and must elevate and purify while it
remains. In one respect, however, it must be admitted that
Sophocles is not before his age. There is an element of unrelieved
vindictiveness, not merely inherent in the fables, but inseparable
from the poet's handling of some themes, which is only too
consistent with the temper of the " tyrant city." Aeschylus
represents this with equal dramatic vividness, but he associates
it not with heroism, but with crime.
Sophocles is often praised for skilful construction. But the
secret of his skill depends in large measure on the profound way
in which the central situation in each of his fables has been
conceived and felt. Concentration is the distinguishing note
of tragedy, and it is by greater concentration that Sophocles
is distinguished from other tragic poets. In the Septem contra
Thebas or the Prometheus of Aeschylus there is still somewhat of
epic enlargement and breadth; in the Hecuba and other dramas
of Euripides separate scenes have an idyllic beauty and tender-
ness which affect us more than the progress of the action as a
whole, a defect which the poet sometimes tries to compensate
by some novel denouement or catastrophe. But in following
a Sophoclean tragedy we are carried steadily and swiftly onward,
looking neither to the right nor to the left ; the more elaborately
any scene or single speech is wrought the more does it contribute
to enhance the main emotion, and if there is a deliberate pause
it is felt either as a welcome breathing space or as the calm of
brooding expectancy.
The result of this method is the union, in the highest degree,
of simplicity with complexity, of largeness of design with absolute
finish, of grandeur with harmony. Superfluities are thrown
off without an effort through the burning of the fire within.
Crude elements are fused and made transparent. What look
like ornaments are found to be inseparable from the organic
whole. Each of the plays is admirable in structure, not because
it is cleverly put together, but because it is so completely alive.
The seven extant tragedies probably owe their preservation
to some selection made for educational purposes in Alexandrian
times. A yet smaller " sylloge " of three plays (Ajax, Electra,
Oedipus Tyrannus) continued current amongst Byzantine stu-
dents and many more copies of these exist than is the case with
the other four. Of these four the Antigone seems to have been
the most popular, while an inner circle of readers were specially
attracted by the Oedipus Coloneus.
No example of the poet's earliest manner has come down
to us. The Antigone certainly belongs to the Periclean epoch,
and while Creon's large professions (lines 175-190) have been
supposed to reflect the policy of the Athenian statesman, the
heroine's grand appeal to the unwritten laws may have been
suggested by words which an Attic orator afterwards quoted
as having been spoken by Pericles himself: " They say that
Pericles once exhorted you that in the case of persons guilty
of impiety you should observe not only the written laws,
but also those unwritten, which are followed by the Eumolpidae
in their instructions laws which no man ever yet had power
to abrogate, or dared to contradict, nor do the Eumolpidae
themselves know who enacted them, for they believe that
whoso violates them must pay the penalty not only to man,
but to the gods" ([Lysias] contra Andocidem, x. p. 104).
Modern readers have thought it strange that Creon when
convinced goes to bury Polynices before attempting to release
Antigone. It is obvious how this was necessary to the cata-
strophe, but it is also true to character, for Creon is not moved
by compunction for the maiden nor by anxiety on Haemon's
account, but by the fear of retribution coming on himself and the
state, because of the sacred law of sepulture which he has defied.
Antigone is the martyr of natural affection and of the religion
of the family. But, as Kaibel pointed out, she is also the
high-born Cadmean maiden, whose defiance of the oppressor
is accentuated by the pride of race. She despises Creon as an
upstart, who has done outrage not only to eternal ordinance,
but to the rights of the royal house.
The Ajax, that tragedy of wounded honour, still bears some
traces of Aeschylean influence, and may be even earlier than the
Antigone. But it strikes the peculiarly Sophoclean note, that
the great and noble spirit, although through its own or others'
errors it may be overclouded for a time and rejected by con-
temporaries amongst mankind, is notwithstanding accepted
by the gods and shall be held in lasting veneration. The con-
struction of the Ajax has been adversely criticized, but without
sufficient reason. If it has not the concentration of the Anti-
gone, or of the Oedipus Tyrannus, it has a continuous movement
which culminates in the hero's suicide, and develops a fine depth
of sympathetic emotion in the sequel.
In the King Oedipus the poet attains to the supreme height
of dramatic concentration and tragic intensity. The drama
seems to have been produced soon after the outbreak of the
Peloponnesian War, but certainly not in the year of the plague
else Sophocles, like his predecessor Phrynichus, might be said
to have reminded his countrymen too poignantly of their home
troubles. " The unwritten laws " are now a theme for the
chorus. The worship of the Delphic Apollo is associated with
a profound sense of the value and sacredness of domestic purity,
and in the command to drive out pollution there is possibly
an implied reference to the expulsion of the Alcmaeonidae.
The Electra, a less powerful drama, is shown by the metrical
indications to be somewhat later than the Oedipus Rex. The
harshness of the vendetta is not relieved as in Aeschylus by long-
drawn invocations of the dead, nor, as in Euripides, is it made
a subject of casuistry. Electra's heroic impulse, the offspring
SOPHOCLES
427
of filial love, through long endurance hardened into a " fixed
idea," is irrepressible, and Orestes, supported by Pylades. goes
directly to his aim in obedience to Apollo. But nothing can
exceed the tenderness of the recognition scene lines 1098-1321,
and the description of the falsely reported chariot race (681-763)
is full of spirit.
In the Trachinian Maidens there is a transition towards that
milder pathos which Sophocles is said to have finally approved
(ijQiiuJirarov Kal apiffTov). The fate of Deianira is tragic
indeed. But in her treatment of her rival, lole, there are
modern touches reminding one of Shakespeare. The play may
have been produced at a time not far removed from the peace
of Nicias; and if this were so Deianira's prayer that her de-
scendants may never undergo captivity lines 303-305 might
remind Athenian matrons of the captive Heracleids from Pylos,
descendants through Hyllus of Deianira herself. The " modern "
note is even more conspicuous in the Philoctetes, where the
inward conflict in the mind of Neoptolemus, between ambition
and friendship, is delineated with equal subtlety and force,
and the contrast of the ingenuous youth with the aged solitary,
in whom just resentment has become a dominant idea, shows
great depth of psychological insight. The tragic catastrophe
of the Oedipus Tyrannus and the Trachiniae is absent here.
The contending interests are reconciled by the intervention
of the deified Heracles. But even more clearly than in the
Ajax the heroic sufferer, rejected by men, is accepted by the
gods and destined to triumph in the end. The Philoctetes is
known to have been produced in the year 408 B.C., when Sopho-
cles was 87 years old. The Oedipus Coloneus is said to have
been brought out after the death of Sophocles by his grandson
in the archonship of Micon, 402 B.C.
The question naturally arises, why a work of such surpassing
merit should not have appeared in the lifetime of the poet.
The answer is conjectural, but acquires some probability when
several facts are taken into one view. It is surely remarkable that
in a drama which obviously appeals to Athenian patriotism,
local sanctities should obtain prominence to the exclusion of the
corresponding national shrines on the Acropolis. It has been
thought that the aged poet felt a peculiar satisfaction in cele-
brating the beauty and sacredness of his native district. This
may well have been so, but could hardly supply a sufficient
motive for a work destined to be presented to the assembled
Athenians in the Dionysiac theatre. But there was a crisis
in Athenian politics when " Colonus of the Knights " acquired
a national significance. Those who organized the constitution
of the Four Hundred made the precinct of Poseidon at Colonus
the place of meeting, and probably sacrificed at the very altar
which is consecrated by Theseus in this play. There must have
been some reason for this. May it not have been that the occu-
pants of the whole region, including the Academy, belonged
mostly to the oligarchic faction? May not those who honoured
Colonus by frequenting it lines 62 and 63 have belonged to
the order of knighthood? The name Colonus Hippius (or rwv
lirireuv) would then have an appropriate meaning, and the
equestrian statue of the eponymous hero (line 59) would be
symbolical. In times of political agitation Colonus would then
be regarded like St Germain, as the aristocratic quarter, while
the Peiraeus was that of the extreme democracy, a sort of Fau-
bourg St Antoine. It was there that the counter-movement
reached its culmination. If so much be granted, is it not possible
that this play, so deeply tinged with oligarchic influence, may
have been thought too dangerous, and consequently withheld
from production until after the amnesty, when the name of
Sophocles was universally beloved, and this work of his old
age could be prudently made public by his descendant? The
knights in Aristophanes (424 B.C.) make their special appeal
to Poseidon of the chariot race and to the Athene of victory.
The Coloniates celebrate the sons of Theseus as worshippers of
Athene Hippia, and of Poseidon.
Theseus in Euripides (Supplices) is the first citizen of a
republic. In this drama he is the king whose word is law, and
he is warned by Oedipus to avoid the madness of revolutionary
change (lines 13361-538). The tragic story of Oedipus is resumed,
but in a later and deeper strain of thoughtful emotion. Once
more the noble spirit, rejected by man, is accepted by the gods.
The eternal laws have been vindicated. Their decrees are
irreversible, but the involuntary unconscious criminal is not
finally condemned. He has no more hope in this world, but is
in mysterious communion with unseen powers. The sufferer
is now a holy person and an author of blessing. An approach
is even made to the New Testament doctrine of the sacredness
of sorrow.
Whatever may have been the nature of a Sophoclean tetra-
logy, the practice which at one time prevailed of describing
the Oedipus Rex, Oedipus Coloneus and Antigone as " the
Theban trilogy " was manifestly erroneous and misleading.
The three plays belong to different periods in the life-work of the
poet, and the Antigone is the earliest of the three.
The spectator of a Sophoclean tragedy was invited to witness
the supreme crisis of an individual destiny, and was possessed
at the outset with the circumstances of the decisive moment.
Except in the Trachiniae, where the retrospective soliloquy of
Deianira is intended to emphasize her lonely position, this
exposition is effected through a brief dialogue, in which the
protagonist may or may not take part. In the Oedipus Tyrannus
the king's entrance and his colloquy with the aged priest intro-
duce the audience at once to the action and to the chief person.
In the Ajax and Philoctetes the entrance or discovery of the hero
is made more impressive by being delayed. Immediately after
the prologos the chorus enter, numbering fifteen, either chanting
in procession as in the Antigone and Oedipus Tyrannus, or
dispersedly as in the Oedipus Coloneus and Philoctetes, or,
thirdly, as in the Electra, where, after entering silently during
the monody of the heroine, and taking up their position in the
orchestra, they address her one by one. With a .remarkable
exception, to be noted presently, the chorus, having once
entered, remain to the end. They always stand in some
carefully adjusted relation to the principal figure. The elders
of Thebes, whose age and coldness throw into relief the fervour
and the desolation of Antigone, are the very men to realize the
calamity of Oedipus, and, while horror-stricken, to lament his
fall. The rude Salaminian mariners are loyal to Ajax, but can-
not enter into his grief. The Trachinian maidens would gladly
support Deianira, who has won their hearts, but they are too
young and inexperienced for the task. The noble Argive women
can sympathize with the sorrows of Electra, but no sympathy
can soothe her distress.
The parodos of the chorus is followed by the first scene or
epeisodion, with which the action may be said to begin. For in
the course of this the spectator's interest is strongly roused by
some new circumstance involving an unforeseen complication-
the awakening of Ajax (Aj.), the burial of Polynices (Ant.) , the
dream of Clytaemnestrt. (El,), the dark utterance of Teiresias
(Oed. Tyr. ), the arrival of Lichas with lole (Track.), the report
of Ismene announcing Creon's coming (Oed. Col.), the sudden
entreaty of Philoctetes crossed by the entrance of the pretended
mariner (Phil.). The action from this point onwards is like a
steadily flowing stream into which a swift and turbulent tribu-
tary has suddenly fallen, and the interest advances with rapid
and continuous climax until the culmination is reached and the
catastrophe is certain. The manner in which this is done, through
the interweaving of dialogue and narration with the various
lyrical portions, is very different in different dramas, one of the
principal charms of Sophocles being his power of ingenious
variation in the employment of his resources. Not less admir-
able is the strength with which he sustains the interest after
the peripeteia, 1 whether, as in the Antigone, by heaping sorrow
upon sorrow, or, as in the first Oedipus, by passing from horror
to tenderness and unlocking the fountain of tears. The extreme
point of boldness in arrangement is reached in the Ajax, where
the chorus and Tecmessa, having been warned of the impending
1 A tragic action has five stages, whence the five acts of the
modern drama : the start, the rise, the height, the change, the
close.
428
SOPHOCLES
danger, depart severally in quest of the vanished hero, and thus
leave not only the stage but the orchestra vacant for the soliloquy
that precedes his suicide.
No such general description as has been here attempted
can give even a remote impression of the march of Sophoclean
tragedy by what subtle yet firm and strongly marked grada-
tions the plot is unfolded; how stroke after stroke contributes
to the harmonious totality of feeling; what vivid interplay,
on the stage, in the orchestra, and between both, builds up the
majestic, ever-moving spectacle. Examine, for example, the
opening scene or TrpoXoyos of the Oedipus Tyrannus. Its
function is merely to propound the situation; yet it is in itself
a miniature drama. First there is the silent spectacle of the
eager throng of suppliants at the palace gate young children,
youths and aged priests. To them the king appears, with royal
condescension and true public zeal. The priest expresses their
heartfelt loyalty, describes the distress of Thebes, and, extolling
Oedipus's past services, implores him to exercise his consummate
wisdom for the relief of his people. The king's reply unveils
yet further his incessant watchfulness and anxious care for his
subjects. And he discloses a new object to their expectancy
and hope. Creon, a royal person, had been sent to Delphi, and
should ere then have returned with the response of Apollo.
At this all hearts are trembling in suspense, when Creon is seen
approaching. He is wreathed with Apollo's laurel; he looks
cheerfully. What has Phoebus said? Another moment of
suspense is interposed. Then the oracle is repeated so thrilling
to the spectator who understands the story, so full of doubt
and hope and dread to all the persons of the drama: " It is
for the blood of Laius his murderers are harboured in the land
of Thebes. The country must be purged." That is the cul-
minating point of the little tragedy. While Oedipus asks for
information, while in gaiety of heart he undertakes the search,
while he bids the folk of Cadmus to be summoned thither, the
spectators have just time to take in the full significance of what
has passed, which every word that is uttered sends further
home. All this in 150 lines!
Or, once more, consider the employment of narrative by this
great poet. The Tyrannus might be again adduced, but let
us turn instead to the Antigone and the Trachiniae. The
speech of the messenger hi the Antigone, the speeches of Hyllus
and the Nurse in the Trachiniae, occur at the supreme crisis
of the two dramas. Yet there is no sense of any retardation
in the action by the report of what has been happening else-
where. Much rather the audience are carried breathlessly
along, while each speaker brings before their mental vision the
scene of which he had himself been part. It is a drama within
the drama, an action rising from its starting-point in rapid
climax, swift, full, concentrated, until that wave subsides, and
is followed by a moment of expectation. Nor is this all. The
narrative of the messenger is overheard by Eurydice, that of
Hyllus is heard by Deianira, that of Nurse by the chorus of
Maidens. And in each case a poignancy of tragic significance
is added by this circumstance, while the speech of the Messenger
in the Antigone, and that of Hyllus in a yet higher degree,
bind together in one the twofold interest of an action which
might otherwise seem hi danger of distracting the spectator's
sympathies.
So profound is the contrivance, or, to speak more accurately,
such is the strength of central feeling and conception, which
secures the grace of unity in complexity to the Sophoclean
drama.
The proportion of the lyrics to the level dialogue is consider-
ably less on the average in Sophocles than in Aeschylus, as
might be expected from the development of the purely dramatic
element, and the consequent subordination of the chorus to the
protagonist. In the seven extant plays the lyrical portion
ranges from one-fifth to nearly one-third, being highest in the
Antigone and lowest in the Oedipus Tyrannus. The distribu-
tion of the lyrical parts is still more widely diversified. In the
Electra, for instance, the chorus has less to do than in the
Oedipus Tyrannus, although in the former the lyrics constitute
one-fourth, and in the latter only one-fifth of the whole. But
then the part of Electra is favourable to lyrical outbursts,
whereas it is only after the tragic change that Oedipus can
appropriately pass from the stately senarius to the broken
language of the dochmiac and the " lamenting " anapaest. The
protagonists of the Ajax and the PhUoctetes had also large
opportunities for vocal display.
The union of strict symmetry with freedom and variety,
which is throughout characteristic of the work of Sophocles, is
especially noticeable in his handling of the tragic metres. In
the iambics of his dialogue, as compared with those of Aeschylus,
there is an advance which may be compared with the transition
from " Marlowe's mighty line " to the subtler harmonies of
Shakespeare. Felicitous pauses, the linking on of line to line,
trisyllabic feet introduced for special effects, alliteration both
hard and soft, length of speeches artfully suited to character
and situation, adaptation of the caesura to the feeling expressed,
are some of the points which occur most readily in thinking of
his senarii. A minute speciality may be noted as illustrative of
his manner in this respect. Where a line is broken by a pause
towards the end and the latter phrase runs on into the following
lines, elision sometimes takes place between the lines, e.g. (Oed.
?>., 332-333)=
*E7<b ot>r' inavTln> oCre a' &\ywS>. rl TO.VT'
This is called synaphea, and is peculiar to Sophocles.
He differentiates more than Aeschylus does between the
metres to be employed in -the KOH^O'L (including the KOjUjuariKi)
and in the choral odes. The dochmius, cretic, and free anapaest
are employed chiefly in the jcojujuot. In the stasima he has
greatly developed the use of logaoedic and particularly of
glyconic rhythms, and far less frequently than his predecessor
indulges in long continuous runs of dactyls or trochees. The
light trochaic line-*- 1 -' u-i-\j , so frequent in Aeschylus, is
comparatively rare in Sophocles. If, from the very severity
with which the choral element is subordinated to the purely
dramatic, his lyrics have neither the magnificent sweep of
Aeschylus nor the " linked sweetness " of Euripides, they have
a concinnity and point, a directness of aim, and a truth of
dramatic keeping, more perfect than is to be found in either.
And even in grandeur it would be hard to find many passages
to bear comparison with the second stasimon, or central ode,
either of the Antigone (fi>8aiiMves olai KO.KUIV) or the first
Oedipus (el /ioi ^vvdi] fapovri). Nor does anything in
Euripides equal in grace and sweetness the famous eulogy on
Colonus (the poet's birthplace) in the Oedipus Coloneus. _
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sophocles was edited (probably from the
Venetian MSS.) by Aldus Manutius, with the help of Musurus, in
1502. The Juntine editions in which the text of Aldus was slightly
modified with the help of Florentine MSS. were published in 1522,
1547, respectively. An edition of the Scholia, very nearly corre-
sponding to those on the margin of the Medicean or chief Laurentian
MS. (La or L) has previously appeared at Rome in 1518. The first
great modification of the text was due to Turnebus, who had access
to the Parisian MSS.; but he was not fortunate in his selection.
The earliest editors had been aware that the traditional arrange-
ment of the metres was faulty, but little way had been made towards
a readjustment. Now it so happens that the Parisian MS. T, which
is a copy of the recension of Tnclinius, an early 14th-century scholar,
contains also the metrical views of the same editor; and, having
found (as he erroneously supposed) a sound authority, Turnebus
(1552) blindly adopted it, and was followed in this by H. Stephanus
(1568), and by Canter in Holland (1579), who was the first to
recognize the arrangement of the odes in strophe and antistrophe.
The error was to a large extent corrected by Brunck (1786), who
rightly preferred Par. A (2712), a 13th-century MS., belonging,
as it happened, to the same family with Ven. 467, which Aldus
had mainly followed. Thus after nearly three centuries the text
returned (though with conjectural variations) into the former
channel. Musgrave's edition was published posthumously in 1800,
and Gilbert Wakefield had published a selection shortly before.
Erfurdt in Germany then took up the succession, and his edition
formed the basis of Hermann's, whose psychological method set
the example of a new style of commentary which was adopted by
Wunder. A new era commenced with Peter Elmsley's collation
of the Laurentian MS. (made in 1818, but only published in full
after his death). His transcription of the Scholia still exists in
the Bodleian Library. The most important German commentaries
SOPHOMORE SORA
429
since Hermann's have been those of Schneidewin, G. Wolff and
VVecklein. L. Campbell's edition of the plays and fragments
(1871-1881) was quickly followed by Jebb's edition of the seven
plays (1881-1896). Editions of one or more dramas most worth
consulting are Elmsley's Oedipus Tyrannus and Oedipus
Coloneus, Bockh's Antigone, Lobeck's Ajax, I. W. Donaldson's
Antigone, O. Jahn's Electro and J. William White's Oed. Tyr. A
monograph on the Antigone by Kaibel is also well worth mention-
ing. Translations: in verse, by Francklin, Potter, Dale, Plumptre,
L. Campbell, Whitelaw; in prose by R. C. Jebb. The chief German
translations are those of Solger (1824), Donner (1839), Hartung (1853)
and Thudichum. The French prose translation by Leconte de Lisle,
and the Italian in verse by Bellotti deserve special mention. The
Antigone was produced at Berlin with Mendelssohn's music in 1841
and the Oedipus Colonews in 1845. They have been reproduced in
English several times the Antigone notably with Helen Faucit (Lady
Martin) in the title-role in 1845. The Oedipe Roi (trans. La Croix)
and the Antigone (trans. Vacquerie) have been frequently performed
in Paris. A performance of the Oedipus Tyrannus in Greek at
Harvard University, U.S.A. (1880), was remarkably successful.
Of dissertations immediately devoted to Sophocles those of Lessing,
Patin, Dronke and Evelyn Abbott (in Hellenica) are especially
noteworthy. (L. C.)
SOPHOMORE, the name in American universities (corre-
sponding to " sophister " at Cambridge, England, and Trinity
College, Dublin) for a student who has completed his first year
of academic studies. It is a corruption of the earlier " sophi-
more," due to a supposed derivation from aocjtos, wise, and
fttipos, foolish, alluding to the air of wisdom assumed by
students after their freshman's year was concluded. The earlier
word " sophimore " (cf. " Laws of Yale Coll., 1774," in Hall's
College Words) represents " sophismer," a doublet of " sophister,"
and means an arguer or debater (cf. the Cambridge use of
" wrangler "), and is formed from the Greek <ro$Kj/*a, sophism,
an ingenious or captious argument.
SOPHRON, of Syracuse, writer of mimes, flourished about
430 B.C. He was the author of prose dialogues in the Doric
dialect, containing both male and female characters, some
serious, others humorous in style, and depicting scenes from
the daily life of the Sicilian Greeks. Although in prose, they
were regarded as poems; in any case they were not intended
for stage representation. They were written in pithy and
popular language, full of proverbs and colloquialisms. Plato
is said to have introduced them into Athens and to have made
use of them in his dialogues; according to Suidas, they were
Plato's constant companions, and he even slept with them under
his pillow. Some idea of their general character may be gathered
from the 2nd and 1 5th idylls of Theocritus, which are said to have
been imitated from the 'A/ceffrptai and 'lo-dfiia^ovacu of his
Syracusan predecessor. Their influence is also to be traced in
the satires of Persius. The fragments will be found in H. L.
Ahrens's De graecae linguae dialectis (1843), ii. (app.). Latest
edition by C. J. Botzon (1867); see also his De Sophrone el
Xenarcho mimographis (1856).
SOPHRONIUS, Greek " sophist " and theological writer, was
born at Damascus. For many years he was a monk in the
monastery of Theodosius, near Jerusalem, removed to Alex-
andria, whence he was driven out by the advance of the Persians,
and finally settled in Palestine, where he became (634) suc-
cessor of Modestus in the patriarchate of Jerusalem. After
his elevation he showed himself a staunch supporter of orthodox
principles and one of the most determined opponents of the
Monothelites. In 636, when Jerusalem surrendered to the
Arabs under Omar, he succeeded in obtaining important con-
cessions for the Christians in the exercise of their worship. He
did not long survive the capture of the city, and after his death
the see remained unfilled for 29 years. Sophronius was a
prolific writer, both in prose and verse, in various departments
of literature. His chief work is a long account of the Egyptian
saints and martyrs Cyrus and John, and of the miraculous
cures effected by them, valuable for its information con-
cerning the topography of Egypt. The Life of Mary of
Egypt, who abandoned immorality for a life of the strictest
penance in Palestine for 48 years, is generally attributed to
him. He was also the author of anacreontic odes, hymns, and
epigrams.
Works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, Ixxxvii., and list in
Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, ix. 162; see also L. de St Aignan,
Vie de Sophronius (Orleans, 1884); C. Krumbacher, Ceschichte der
byzantinischen Litteratur (1897) ; and for Sophronius and Omar,
Gibbon, ch. 51.
SOPRANO (a variant of Ital. sowano, supreme, sovereign,
Late Lat. super anus, from super, above), the term applied in
music to the highest natural range of the human voice, and
often restricted to that range in the female voice, " treble "
being used of a boy's voice. Male soprani, either natural or
artificially produced, as formerly in the caslrali of the papal
choirs (see EUNUCH), are also found. The female voice whose
range is intermediate between that of a soprano or a contralto is
termed " mezzo-soprano."
SOPRON (Ger. Oedenburg; Med. Lat. Sopronium), a town
of Hungary, capital of the county of the same name,
140 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 30,628, about
60% Germans. It lies in an extensive valley enclosed on
all sides by the outskirts of the Rosalien mountains, a group
belonging to the eastern outliers of the Alps. In the principal
square are the Benedictine church, built at the end of the i3th
century and restored in the isth century, and the town
hall, completed in 1894. The Dominican church, built
in 1674; the church of St Michael, in the Gothic style,
completed in 1484, the most interesting church in the
town; and the old tower, 200 ft. high, are all worth notice.
Sopron has a thriving industry in sugar, soap, vinegar, bell-
founding and machinery, and it carries on an active trade in
cereals, fruit and wine. Large cattle markets are also held
here. Within the county a good quality of wine is produced,
especially near the little town of Ruszt (pop. 1608) and at the
village of Balf (Ger., Wolfs) on the shores of the Neusiedler
lake. In the neighbourhood of Sopron is the Brennberg, with
extensive coal-mines. Sopron was a Roman colony under the
name of Scarabantia. It was afterwards occupied by German
settlers and became a royal free town in the nth century.
Matthias Corvinus granted the town special privileges in 1464.
An important Diet of- Hungarian Protestants took place here
in 1681.
About 12 m. north, at the foot of the Leitha mountains, lies the
town of Kismarton (Ger. Eisenstadt; pop., 2951), which contains
a magnificent castle of the Esterhazy family, built in 1683 and en-
larged in 1805. About 10 m. north-west lies Nagymarton (Ger.
Mattersdorf; pop., 3789) ; and not far from it, on the frontier of
Austria, the well-preserved castle of Forchtenstein, the cradle
of the Esterhazy family. About 12 m. east, not far from the
Neusiedler lake, lies Esterhaza, with a beautiful castle in the French
Renaissance style, belonging to Count Esterhazy. About 9 m.
south-east lies the village of Nagyczenk (Ger. Zinhendorff), with
the castle of the Szechenyi family.
SORA, a city of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta,
77 m. N. by W. of that town on the railway between Roccasecca
and Avezzano, 920 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 6,050
(town); 16,022 (commune). It is built in a plain on the banks
of the Liris. This part of the valley is the seat of some im-
portant manufactures, especially of paper-mills. The original
cathedral, consecrated by Pope Adrian IV. in 1155, was de-
stroyed by the earthquake of 1634. On the precipitous rock
above the town (1768 ft.) which guards the Liris valley and
the entrance to the Abruzzi are remains of polygonal walls;
here, possibly, was the citadel of the original Volscian town.
There are also remains of medieval fortifications. In the town
itself there are no remains of antiquity nor buildings of interest.
The district around Sora is famous for the costumes of its
peasants.
Sora, an ancient Volscian town, was thrice captured by the
Romans, in 345, 314 and 305 B.C., before they managed, in
33> by means of a colony 4000 strong, to confirm its annexa-
tion. In 209 it was one of the colonies which refused further
contributions to the war against Hannibal. By the lex Julia
it became a municipium, but under Augustus it was colonized
by soldiers of the legio IV. Sorana, which had been mainly
enrolled there. It belonged technically to Latium Adjectum.
The castle of Sorella, built on the rocky height above the town,
430
SORACTE SORBONNE
was in the middle ages a stronghold of some note. Charles I.
of Anjou made Sora a duchy for the Cantelmi; it was afterwards
seized by Pius II., but, being restored to the Cantelmi by
Sixtus IV., it ultimately passed to the Delia Rovere of Urbino.
Against Caesar Borgia the city was heroically defended by
Giovanni di Montefeltro. It was purchased by Gregory XIII.
for 11,000 ducats and bestowed on the Buoncompagni, the
ancestors of the line of Buoncompagni-Ludovisi. In ancient
times Sora was the birthplace of the Decii, Attilius Regulus,
and Lucius Mummius; and among its later celebrities is Cardinal
Baronius. (T. As.)
SORACTE, a mountain in the province of Rome, Italy.
It is a narrow, isolated limestone ridge, some 5 m. S.E. of Civita
Castellana, and 35 m. in length. The highest summit is 2267 ft.
above sea-level; just below it is a monastery removed there
from the summit in 1835; it was originally founded about 748
by Carloman, son of Charles Martel (the altar has, indeed,
fragments of sculptures of this period), and until modern times
was occupied by Trinitarian monks. On the actual summit is
a church. Owing to the isolated position of the mountain
the view is magnificent, and Soracte is a conspicuous object
in the landscape, being visible from Rome itself. It is thus
mentioned by Horace ("vides ut alta stet nive candidum
Soracte?" Carm. i. 9), and Virgil, who mentions Apollo as its
guardian deity, though no traces of his temple exist ; and in reality
it was sacred to Dis Pater and the gods of the lower world. At
the bottom of the mountain on the east is a disused limestone
quarry. The village of S. Oreste at the south-east end of the
ridge owes its name to a corruption of the ancient name. In
the communal palace is a fine processional cross of the nth
century in the Byzantine style (see Romische Quartalschrift,
1905, 209 Archaologie) .
SORANUS, Greek physician, born at Ephesus, lived during
the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian (A.D. 98-138). According
to Suidas, he practised in Alexandria and subsequently in Rome.
He was the chief representative of the school of physicians
known as " methodists." Two treatises by him are extant :
On Fractures (in J. L. Ideler, Physici et medici minores, L 1841)
and On Diseases of Women (first published in 1838, later by V.
Rose, in 1882, with a 6th-century Latin translation by Moschio, a
physician of the same school). Of his most important work (On
Acute and Chronic Diseases) only a few fragments in Greek
remain, but we possess a complete Latin translation by Caelius
Aurelianus (sth century). The Life of Hippocrates (in Ideler)
probably formed one of the collection of medical biographies
by Soranus referred to by Suidas, and is valuable as the only
authority for the life of the great physician, with the exception
of articles in Suidas and Stephanus of Byzantium (s.v. Kcis).
The Introduction to the Science of Medicine (V. Rose, Anecdota
graeca, ii. 1870) is considered spurious.
See article by J. Hahn, in Dechambre's Dictionnaire encyclo-
pediqite des sciences medicales, 3rd series, torn. 10; W. Christ,
Geschichte der griechischen LUteratur (1898); J. Ilberg. Die Vber-
lieferung der Gynaekologie des Soranos von Ephesos (Leipzig, 1910).
SORANUS, BAREA, Roman senator, lived in the reign of
Nero. His gentile name was possibly Servilius. In 52 he was
consul suffectus, and (perhaps in 61) proconsul of Asia. The
upright and considerate manner in which he treated the pro-
vincials won him their affection, but at the same time brought
upon him the hatred of Nero, who felt specially aggrieved
because Soranus had refused to punish a city which had defended
the statues of its gods against the Imperial commissioners.
Soranus was accused of intimacy with Rubellius Plautus
(another object of Nero's hatred), and of endeavouring to obtain
the goodwill of the provincials by treasonable intrigues. One
of the chief witnesses against him was Egnatius Celer of Berytus,
his client and former tutor. Soranus was condemned to death
(in 65 or 66), and committed suicide. His daughter Servilia,
who was charged with having consulted the sorcerers, professedly
in regard to her father's fate, but in reality with evil designs
against the emperor, was involved in his downfall. The
accuser, who was condemned to death in the reign of Vespasian
for his conduct on this occasion, is a standing example of
ingratitude and treachery.
Tacitus, Annals, xvi. 30, 32; Hist. iv. 10; Juvenal iii. 116; Dio
Cassius Ixii. 26.
SORAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on the Sorebach, 54 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-
Oder by rail, and at the junction of lines to Cottbus and Gorlitz.
Pop. (1905), 16,410. Ofte of the oldest towns in Lower Lusatia,
Sorau contains a number of ancient buildings, among which the
most prominent are several of the churches (one dating from
1204), the town hall, built in 1260, and the old palace of 1207
(now a prison). The new palace, erected in 1711 by Count
Erdmann II. of Promnitz, is utilized for government offices.
The varied manufactures of the town comprise cloth, linen,
wax candles, starch, glass and porcelain.
Sorau is said to have existed in 840, and to have belonged to
the abbey of Fulda till the i2th century. It received civic
rights in 1260. With the surrounding district, known as the
barony of Sorau, it became the seat of successive noble families;
and in 1400 it was united with the barony of Triebel. The
last Count of Promnitz, whose ancestor had purchased both
baronies from Frederick of Bohemia in 1556, sold them in 1765
to the elector of Saxony for an annuity of 12,000 thalers (1800).
In 1815 Saxony ceded them to Prussia.
See Worbs, Geschichte der Herrschaft Sorau und Triebel (Sorau ,1826).
SORBONNE, the name given originally to the college founded
by Robert de Sorbon in Paris; hence applied afterwards popu-
larly to the theological faculty, and so to the institution which
is now the seat of the Academic of that city (see UNIVERSITIES).
The Sorbonne owes its origin and its name to Robert of Sorbon,
near Reims (1201-1274), who went to Paris about the beginning
of the reign of St Louis in order to qualify for the priesthood,
attained high repute by his sanctity and eloquence, and was
appointed by the king to be his confessor. Assisted by royal
liberality, he built a modest establishment in which were
accommodated seven priests charged with the duty of teaching
theology gratuitously; to this he added a college of preparatory
studies, all under the direction of a provisor, under whom was
an annual prior who had the actual management. The new
institution was authorized in 1252 by a deed signed by Queen
Blanche, on behalf of Louis IX. (who was in Palestine); and in
1257 a site was given by the king in the heart of the Latin
quarter. It was declared " useful to religion " by Pope Alex-
ander IV. in 1259, and papal bulls authorizing and confirming
the college were granted in 1263 and 1268. Destined originally
for poor students (and called domus magistrorum pauperrima,
" most poor house of masters "), the Sorbonne soon became a
meeting-place for all the students of the university of Paris,
who resorted thither to hear the lectures of the most learned
theologians of the period Guillaume de Saint Amour, Eudes
de Douai, Laurent 1'Anglais, Pierre d'Ailly. At the close of
the century it was organized into a full faculty of theology, and
under this definite form it conferred bachelors', licentiates'
and doctors' degrees, and the severity of its examinations gave
an exceptional value to its diplomas. The so-called " these
sorbonique," instituted towards the beginning of the I4th
century, became the type of its order by the length and difficulty
of its tests. Ultimately the professors of the Sorbonne came
to be resorted to not only for lectures and examinations, but
also for dogmatic decisions and judgments in canon law; the
clergy of France and of the whole Catholic world had recourse
to them in difficult cases, and the Curia Romana itself more
than once laid its doubts before them, giving them the title
of " Concilium in Gallia subsistens." To the Sorbonne belongs
the glory of having introduced printing into France in 1469:
within its precincts it assigned quarters for Ulric Gering and two
companions in which to set up their presses. The Sorbonne
took a leading part in the religious discussions which agitated
France during the i6th and i8th centuries, and its influence
thus inevitably extended to political questions. During the
insanity of Charles VI. it helped to bring about the absolution
of Jean Sans-Peur for the assassination of the duke of Orleans.
SORBS SORDINO
Shortly afterwards it demanded and supported the condemnation
of Joan of Arc; during the Reformation it was the animating
spirit of all the persecutions directed against Protestants and
unbelievers: without having advised the massacre of St
Bartholomew, it did not hesitate to justify it, and it inflamed
the League by its vigorous anathemas against Henry III. and
the king of Navarre, hesitating to recognize the latter even
after his abjuration. From this point dates the beginning of
its decadence, and when Richelieu in 1626 ordered the recon-
struction of its church and buildings the following prophetic
couplet was circulated
"Instaurata ruet jamjam Sprbona. Caduca
Dum fuit, inconcussa stetit; renovata peribit."
The declaration of the clergy in 1682, which it subscribed,
proved fatal to its authority with the Curia Romana; it revived
for a short time under Louis XV. during the struggle against
Jansenism, but this was its last exploit; it was suppressed like
the old universities in 1792.
When the university of France was organized in 1808 the
Sorbonne became the seat of the academic of Paris; and between
1816 and 1821 the faculties of theology (since disappeared),
science and literature were installed there. The university
library was transferred to the Sorbonne in 1823. In 1868 was
organized the ficole des Hautes Etudes, and in 1897 tHe Ecole
des Chartes also found its home at the Sorbonne.
In 1852 the Sorbonne was made the property of the city of
Paris; a reconstruction of the buildings, projected by Napoleon
III., was begun in 1884, under the architectural direction of
Nenot, and completed in 1889. The old church containing the
tomb of Richelieu was retained on account of its artistic merit.
This new Sorbonne is one of the finest university edifices in the
world, and has developed into the chief French centre of learning.
See A. Franklin, .La Sorbonne (1875) ; Denifle, Documents relatifs
a la fondation de Vuniversite de Paris (1883); J. A. Randolph,
History of the Sorbonne.
SORBS, the tribal name of the Slavonic people, whom the
Germans call Wends in Lusatia (Lausitz) ; they call themselves
Serbs or Luzicane. Their country includes the western ex-
tremity of the kingdom of Saxony and parts of the districts of
Hoyerswerda, Muskau, Kottbus, Kalau, Spremberg and Sorau
in Prussia; they are now surrounded on all sides by Germans,
but they formerly had them as neighbours only on the west
along the Fulda, while on the north towards Kopenick they
marched with the Lutici, on the east with the Poles and Silesians
along the Queiss and Bobr, and on the south were separated
from the Bohemians by the mountains that now make the
Austrian frontier. The Sorbs are divided into High and Low
along a line from Sagan to Muskau and Spremberg. They are
in all about 180,000 in number; 80,000 Low Sorbs and 40,000
of the 100,000 High Sorbs are hi Prussia, and 60,000 High Sorbs
in Saxony. These have gained definite rights for their language
in school and administration, so that Bautzen (Budysin), their
capital, is the intellectual centre not only for Saxon subjects, but
for all High Sorbs and to a great extent for Low Sorbs. The
first monuments of both dialects belong to the Reformation period,
these being translations of Luther's Catechism by Warichius and
Moller. Some Sorbs are Protestants, though the Saxon Sorbs
are mostly Roman Catholics. Early in the igth century the
High Sorbs had a revival under the leadership of F. A. Klin,
a lawyer and politician; A. Seidler, a considerable poet, and
S. E. Smoler, an ethnographer and publicist. More recent writers
are J. Cisinsk and J. Radyserb. A Macica or Literary and
Linguistic Society was founded in 1847, and publishes a Casopis
or Periodical. Meanwhile Low Sorb has remained almost unculti-
vated owing to the pressure of the Prussian administration.
The two dialects stand between Polish and Cech: they have
lost the nasal vowels, have the accent on the first syllable, and
make tj into t, dj into 2, like Cech, but they retain x and y and,
like Polish, have grod for Cech grad. High Sorb has h,
Low the original g. They have kept the old aorist and dual.
Sorb is usually printed in German blackletter variously adapted;
the Macica publishes some books spelt after the Cech system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. Krai, Grammatik der wendischen Sprache
in der Oberlausitz (Bautzen, 1895) ; K. E. Mucke, Historische und
vergleichende Laut- u. Formen-Lehre d. niedersorbischen Sprache
(Jablonowski Preisschrift, xviii.) (Leipzig, 1891) ; Pfuhl, Lausitzisch-
Wendisch Worterbuch (High Sorb) (Bautzen, 1866) ; J. G. Zwahr,
Niederlausitz-wendisch-deutsches Handworterbuch (Spremberg, 1847);
M. Hornik, Citanka (Chrestomathy of High Sorb) (Bautzen, 1863);
L. Haupt and J. S. Smoler, Volkslieder der Wenden in der Ober-
und Niederlausitz (Grimma, 1842-1843). (E. H. M.)
SORBY, HENRY CLIFTON (1826-1908), English micro-
scopist and geologist, was born at Woodbourne near Sheffield
on the loth of May 1826. He early developed an interest in
natural science, and one of his first papers related to the excava-
tion of valleys in Yorkshire. He subsequently dealt with the
physical geography of former geological periods, with the wave-
structure in certain stratified rocks, and the origin of slaty
cleavage. He took up the study of rocks and minerals under
the microscope, and published an important memoir On the
Microscopical Structure of Crystals in 1858 (Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc.). In England he was one of the pioneers in petrography;
he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological
Society of London in 1869, and when president of the society he
published hi his addresses the results of original researches on
the structure and origin of limestones, and of the non-calcareous
stratified rocks (1879-1880). He had previously been president
of the Royal Microscopical Society. He wrote on the construc-
tion and use of the micto-spectroscope in the study of animal
and vegetable colouring matter, and in later essays he dealt
with such varied subjects as the microscopical structure of iron
and steel, and the temperature of the water in estuaries. He
also applied his skill in making preparations of invertebrate
animals for lantern-slides. In 1882 he was elected president
of Firth C611ege, Sheffield. He died on the 9th of March
1908.
SORCERY, magic, enchantment, witchcraft; the use of
supposed supernatural powers by the agency of evil spirits
called forth by spells, incantations, &c., on the part of the
magician, sorcerer or witch. The word meant originally divina-
tion by means of the casting or drawing of lots, and is derived
from the O. Fr. sorcerie, sorcier, a sorcerer, Med. Lat. sortiarius,
one who practises divination by lots, sortes (see MAGIC, DIVINA-
TION and WITCHCRAFT).
SORDELLO, a 13th-century Italian troubadour, bom at
Mantua, who is praised by Dante in the De imlgari eloquio,
and hi the Purgalorio made the type of patriotic pride. He
is also the hero of a well-known poem by Robert Browning.
The real Sordello, so far as we have authentic facts about his
life, hardly seems to justify these idealizations, though he was
the most famous of the Italian troubadours. About 1220 he
appears at Florence in a tavern brawl; and hi 1226, while at
the court of Richard of Bonifazio at Verona, he abducts his
master's wife, Cunizza, at the instigation of her brother, Ezze-
lino da Romano. The scandal resulted in his flight (1229) to
Provence, where he seems to have been for some tune. He
entered the service of Charles of Anjou, and probably accom-
panied him (1265) on his Naples expedition; in 1266 he was a
prisoner in Naples. The last documentary mention of him is
in 1269, and he is supposed to have died in Provence. His
didactic poem, L'Ensenhamen d'onor, and his love songs and
satirical pieces have little in common with Dante's presentation,
but the invective against negligent princes which Dante puts
into his mouth in the 7th canto of the Purgatorio is more ade-
quately paralleled in his Seruentese (1237) on the death of his
patron Blacatz, where he invites the princes of Christendom
to feed on the heart of the hero.
For Sordello's life and works see the edition of Cesare de Lollis
( Halle, 1896); for Browning's poem see Stopford Brooke's Browning
(1902).
SORDINO, SORDONI, SORDUNI, Italian terms somewhat
promiscuously applied by various writers (i) to contrivances
for damping or muting wind, string and percussion instruments
(Sordini); (2) to a family of obsolete wind instruments blown
by means of a double reed (Sordoni or Sordun) ; (3) to a stringed
instrument. To these must also be added the Surdellina or
432
SOREL, AGNES-^-SOREL, ALBERT
Sordellina, a kind of musette invented (see BAGPIPE) in Naples
in the lyth century, and evidently named after class 2.
1. Under the Italian term sordini are comprised the dampers
used with stringed instruments, such as the violin, and the dampers
of keyboard instruments, all well known, and described with the
instruments themselves. As a certain amount of misconception
exists concerning the sordini (Fr. sourdines, Ger. Dampfer), used
from the i6th century with the trumpet and later with the horn,
they may be briefly described. It would appear that the art has
almost been lost of making mutes for trumpets and French horns,
which should affect the timbre only, giving it a certain veiled
mysterious quality similar to that of the sons bcuches or hand-
stopped notes, but affecting the pitch not at all. We read that
when it is necessary to produce this peculiar timbre on the valve-
horn, as for instance in Wagner's Rheingold, the rise of a semi tone
in pitch caused by the introduction of the mute or the hand into the
bell of the horn must be compensated by means of the second
piston which lowers the pitch a semi-tone. 1
If the sordino used early in the iyth century had had this effect
of raising the pitch, the fact would have been stated by such writers
as Mersenne and Praetorius; it would, moreover, have rendered
the mute useless with instruments on which no sort of com-
pensation was possible. H. Domnich 1 and J. Frohlich, 8 however,
describe the sordino which leaves the pitch unaffected: it con-
sisted of a hollow cone of wood or cardboard, truncated at the
apex to allow the air to pass through and escape through a hole in
the base. The bore of the instrument thus continued through the
cone of the mute was the essential point, and the proportions to be
maintained between the diameters of the two bores were also, no
doubt, of importance. Domnich expressly states that it was when
Hampel substituted a plug of cotton-wool (therefore solid and
providing no central passage for the air) for the mute, that he found
the pitch of the horn raised a semi-tone. Domnich's evidence is
of value, for his father was a horn-player contemporary with
Hampel, and he himself was the intimate friend and colleague of
Punto, Hampel's most celebrated pupil.
2. The sordun or sordoni family are often confused with the
dolcians (Fr. cniinaud, Eng. single curtail, Ger. Kort'or Kortholt),
from which, however, they differed radically. This difference
was not understood by Michael Praetorius, who acknowledges his
mystification. The contra-bass sordun, he says, hardly half the
length of the contra-fagotto, is yet practically of the same pitch,
which is astonishing since the bore is only double once upon itself
as in the fagotto. The kprt likewise is of the same size as the
bass sordun, and yet in pitch it is but a tenor. _ The following
description of the construction and acoustic properties of the sordoni
will clear up the mystery. The body consisted of a cylinder of
wood in which were cut two parallel channels of narrow cylindrical
bore, communicating with each other at the bottom through a
bend, but not with ambient air. At the top of the cylinder was
fitted a double-reed mouthpiece giving access to the column of air
at one end of the bore, while the other was vented through a small
hole in the side, similar to the finger-holes; in the tenor, bass and
contra members of the family, the reed was attached to a curved
brass crook similar to that of the fagotto. So far the description
would almost apply to the dolcian also, but in the latter there is
the radical difference that the bore of the channels is conical, so
that it has the acoustic properties of the open pipe. The sordun,
however, having a cylindrical bore, has the acoustic properties of
the stopped pipe, i.e. the sound waves are twice the length of the
pipe, so that to produce a sound of any given pitch, for instance
for C, the bore need only be half the length, i.e. 4 ft. long. Over-
blowing, on the sordoni, moreover, produced as first harmonic
(the only one required for reed-blown instruments in order to produce
the diatonic scale for the second octave) not the octave, but the
twelfth, or number 3 of the series. This accounts for the fact
that instruments of the fagotto and dolcian type require but 6 or
7 holes to give the diatonic scale throughout the compass, whereas
the sordoni require II or 12 holes. Praetorius states that those
figured by him (Plate XII.) have 12 open holes, and that some speci-
mens have in addition two keys; a hole is also bored through the
bottom of the instrument to allow the moisture condensed from the
breath 'to be shaken out. The 12 holes are stopped by means of
fingers and thumbs and by the ball of the hand or the fleshy under-
part of the joints of the fingers. The compass of the 5 sizes of
sordoni was as follows :
g; to ~
-
f
i.
to-
3E
I tC
I
Contrabass.
s
7
^<*" Tenor or
Alto.
Basses
1 See Victor Mahillon, "
(Brussels and London, 1907]
1 Methode de premier et de
Le Cor," Instruments . a . en<
, pp. 34 and 53.
second cor (Pans, c. 1807), pp.
, pt.
3 and
ii.
4-
* Vollstandige theor.-prakt. Musiklehre fur alle bei dem Or-
chester gebrauchliche Instrumente (Cologne and Bonn, c. 1811).
Two sourdines belonging to the Museum of the Brussels Conserva-
toire, said to be facsimiles of some instruments belonging to the
emperor Maximilian I.'s band, are reproduced in Captain C. R. Day's
Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments (London, 1891). They
differ slightly in construction from the Italian instruments described
by Praetorius. The straight crook is set in the side of the instru-
ment, almost at right angles, the top of the cylinder is surmounted
by a cap, and there are but 6 open holes, the rest being covered by
brass keys in wooden boxes. The pitch of these instruments lies
within a semi-tone of that of the contra-bass and bass of Praetorius.
(K. S.)
SOREL, AGNES (c. 1422-1450), mistress of King Charles VII.
of France, was born of a family of the lesser nobility at Fromen-
teau in Touraine. While still a girl she was attached to the
service of Isabel of Lorraine, queen of Sicily, wife of Rene
of Anjou, the brother-in-law of Charles VII. From 1444 until
her death in 1450 she was the acknowledged mistress of the king,
the first woman to hold that semi-official position which was
to be of so great importance in the subsequent history of the
old regime. Her ascendancy dated from the festivals at Nancy
in 1444, the first brilliant court of Charles VII. Here her great
beauty captivated the king, whose love for her remained constant
until her death. He gave her wealth, castles and lands, and
secured for her the state and distinction of a queen. This first
public recognition of his mistress by a king of France scandal-
ized alf good people and awakened jealousy and intrigue. Her
sudden death from dysentery, shortly after the birth of her
fourth child, was accordingly attributed to poison. Burgundian
historians even openly accused the Dauphin, afterwards
Louis XI., of her death, and later the enemies of Jacques
Coeur, in their search for crimes to be brought against him,
used this rumour to charge him with the one crime most
likely to turn the king against him. Her heart was buried
in the abbey of Jumieges, her body in the collegiate church
of Loches. Contemporary writers all bear witness to her extra-
ordinary beauty, but no genuine portraits of her have come
down to us.
Legend has made an entirely different character of this first
official mistress of the French kings. The date of her birth was
placed at about 1409, her liaison with the king dated from
1433. Then, so the story ran, she drew him from his indolence,
continuing the work of Joan of Arc, both by nerving the king
to warlike enterprises she did apparently induce him to take
part personally in the conquest of Normandy and by surround-
ing him with that band of wise advisers who really adminis-
tered France during her ascendancy. Recent investigation has
exploded this romantic story by simply showing that Charles VII.
had not met her until ten years later than in the legend.
Instead of being his sole good angel, she seems rather to have
demoralized the king, who, hitherto chaste, henceforth gave
himself up to courtesans. Yet she favoured the best advisers
of the king, and at least in this deserved the gratitude of the
realm. Pierre de Breze seems especially to have used Agnes
to gain his ascendancy over the king.
See A. Vallet de Viriville's articles in Bibliotkeque de I'&cole des
chartes (3rd series, torn, i.); and R. Duquesne, Vie et aventures
galantes de la belle Sorel (1909).
SOREL, ALBERT (1842-1906), French historian, was born
at Honfleur on the I3th of August 1842. He was of a character-
istically Norman type, and remained all his life a lover of his
native province and its glories. His father, a rich manufac-
turer, would have liked him to succeed to the business, but his
literary vocation prevailed. He went to live hi Paris, where he
studied law, and after a prolonged stay in Germany entered the
Foreign Office (1866). He had strongly-developed literary and
artistic tastes, was an enthusiastic musician, even composing a
little, and wrote both verses and novels, which appeared a little '
later (LaGrande Falaise, 1785-1793, in 1871, Le Docteur Egra in
1873); but he did not go much into society. He was anxious to
know and understand present as well as past events, but he was
above all things a student. In 1870 he was chosen as secretary
by M. de Chaudordy, who had been sent to Tours as a delegate in
charge of the diplomatic side of the problem of national defence;
in these affairs he proved himself a most valuable collaborator;
SOREL, C. SORGHUM
he was unremitting in his labours, full of finesse, good temper
and excellent judgment, and at the same time so discreet
that we can only guess at the part he played in these terrible
crises. After the war, when Boutmy founded the Ecole libre des
sciences politiques, Sorel was appointed to teach diplomatic
history (1872), a duty which he performed with striking success.
Some of his courses have formed books: Le Trait& de Paris du
20 novembre 1815 (1873); Histoire diplomatique de la guerre
franco-allemande (1875); we ma y also add the Precis du droit des
gens which he published (1877) in collaboration with his colleague
Theodore Funck-Brentano. In 1875 Sorel left the Foreign
Office and became general secretary to the newly-created office
of the Presidence du senat. Here again, in a congenial position
where, without heavy responsibilities, he could observe and
review affairs, he performed valuable service, especially under
the presidency of the due d'Audiffred Pasquier, who was glad to
avail himself of his advice in the most serious crises of internal
politics. His duties left him, however, sufficient leisure to
enable him to accomplish the great work of his life, L' Europe et la
revolution franfaise. His object was to do over again the work
already done by Sybel, but from a less restricted point of view
and with a clearer and more calm understanding of the chess-
board of Europe. He spent almost thirty years in the prepara-
tion and composition of the eight volumes of this history (vol. i.,
1885; vol. viii., 1904). For he was not merely a conscientious
scholar; the analysis of the documents, mostly unpublished,
on French diplomacy during the first years of the Revolution,
which he published in the Revue historique (vol. v.-vii., x.-xiii.),
shows with what scrupulous care he read the innumerable des-
patches which passed under his notice. He was also, and above
all things, an artist. He drew men from the point of view of a
psychologist as much as of a historian, observing them in their
surroundings and being interested in showing how greatly they
are slaves to the fatality of history. It was this fatality which
led the rashest of the Conventionals to resume the tradition of
the Ancien Regime, and caused the revolutionary propaganda
to end in a system of alliances and annexations which carried on
the work of Louis XIV. This view is certainly suggestive, but
incomplete; it is largely true when applied to the men of the
Revolution, inexperienced or mediocre as they were, and in-
competent to develop the enormous enterprises of Napoleon I.
In the earlier volumes we are readily dominated by the grandeur
and relentless logic of the drama which the author unfolds
before our eyes; in the later ones we begin to make some reser-
vations; but on the whole the work is so complete and so power-
fully constructed that it commands our admiration. Side by
side with this great general work, Sorel undertook various
detailed studies more or less directly bearing on his subject.
In La Question d'Orient au XVIII" siecle, les origines de la triple
alliance (1878), he shows how the partition of Poland on the one
hand reversed the traditional policy of France in eastern Europe,
and on the other hand contributed towards the salvation of re-
publican France in 1793. In the Grands 6crivains series he was
responsible for Montesquieu (1887) and Mme de Sta'el (1891) ; the
portrait which he draws of Montesquieu is all the more vivid for
the intellectual affinities which existed between him and the
author of the Leltres persanes and the Esprit des lois. Later,
in Bonaparte ei Hoche en 1797, he produced a critical comparison
which is one of his most finished works (1896); and in the
Recueil des instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs he prepared
vol. i. dealing with Austria (1884). Most of the articles which
he contributed to various reviews and to the Temps newspaper
have been collected into volumes: Essais d'histoire et de critique
(1883), Lectures historiques (1894), Nouveaux essais d'histoire et
de critique (1898), Etudes de litterature et d'histoire (1901); in
these are to be found a great deal of information and of ideas
not only about political men of the last two centuries, but also
about certain literary men and artists of Normandy. Honours
came to him in abundance, as an eminent writer and not as a
public official. He was elected a member of the Academic des
sciences morales et politiques (December 18, 1889) on the death
of Fustel de Coulanges, and of the Academic frangaise (1894)
433
on the death of Taine. His speeches on his two illustrious
predecessors show how keenly sensible he was of beauty, and how
unbiased was his judgment, even in the case of those whom he
most esteemed and loved. He had just obtained the great
Prix Osiris of a hundred thousand francs, conferred for the first
time by the Institut de France, when he was stricken with his
last illness and died at Paris on the agth of June 1906.
(C. B.)
SOREL, CHARLES, SIEUR DE SOUVIGNY (1597-1674), French
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris about
1597. Very little is known of his life except that in 1635 he was
historiographer of France. He wrote on science, history and
religion, but is only remembered by his novels. He tried to
destroy the vogue of the pastoral romance by writing a novel
of adventure, the Histoire comique de Francion (1622). The
episodical adventures of Francion found many readers, who
nevertheless reserved their admiration for the Astr&e it was
intended to ridicule. Sorel decided to make his intention un-
mistakable, and in Le Berger extravagant (3 vols., 1627) he wrote
a burlesque, in which a Parisian shop-boy, his head turned by
sentiment, chooses an unprepossessing mistress and starts life
as a shepherd with a dozen sheep on the banks of the Seine.
Sorel did not succeed in founding the novel of character, and
what he accomplished was more in the direction of farce, but
he struck a shrewd blow at romance. Among his other works
are Polyandre (1648) and La Connaissance des bans livres (1673).
He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1674.
SOREL, a town and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, capital
of Richelieu county, 42 m. N.E. of Montreal, at the confluence
of the Richelieu and St Lawrence rivers. Pop. (1901), 7057. It
is on the Grand Trunk and the Quebec Southern railways, and
is a port of call for the Montreal and Quebec river steamers. It
contains iron and leather manufactories, and shipbuilding is
carried on. It occupies the site of a fort built in 1665 by A. de
Tracy to guard the route by way of the Richelieu to Lake
Champlain and the Hudson, and is named after the first com-
mandant of the garrison.
SORGHUM, a genus of grasses belonging to the tribe Andro-
pogoneae, and including one of the most important tropical
grains, Sorghum vulgare, great millet, Indian millet or Guinea
corn. In India it is known as jawari (Hindustani), jowari
(Bengali), cholum (Tamil), and
jonna (Telugu), and in the
West Indies as Negro or
Guinea Corn. It is a strong
grass, growing to a height of
from 4 to 8 or even 16 ft.; the
leaves are sheathing, solitary,
and about 2 in. broad and 25 ft.
in length; the panicles are
contracted and dense, and the
grains, which are enclosed in
husks and protected by awns,
are round, hard, smooth, shin-
ing, brownish-red, and some-
what larger than mustard
seeds. The plant is cultivated
in various parts of India and
other countries of Asia, in the
United States, and in the
south of Europe. Its culms
and leaves afford excellent
fodder for cattle; and the
grain, of which the yield in
favourable situations is up-
wards of a hundredfold, is
used for the same purposes
as maize, rice, corn and other
cereals.
Sorghum vulgare.
Speaking of its cultivation, Eduard Hackel (in his article on
" Grasses " in Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien) says the culture
of Sorghum probably had its origin in Africa, where a variety
434
SORIA SORRENTO
known as durra is now cultivated over the entire continent, and
has become the most important cereal; the natives also chew
the stem, which contains sugar. In Europe it is raised less for
bread than for mechanical purposes; the panicles are made into
the so-called rice-brooms and into brushes. In Germany it
is occasionally raised for green fodder. From the fruit the
Kaffirs make an alcoholic drink, Tialva, and the negroes one
known as Merisa. Allied species are S. tricolor, much valued
in India as a forage-plant, and 5. saccharatum, commonly called
sorghum or Chinese sugar-cane, which is extensively cultivated
in China, North India and Africa. The latter species is grown
in America chiefly for the manufacture of molasses from its
juice, and in France as a source of alcohol.
A full account of the cultivation and use of the species in India will
be found in Sir G. Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of
India (1893).
SORIA, a province of Spain, formed in 1833 of districts
belonging to Old Castile, and bounded on the N. by Logrono,
E. by Saragossa, S. by Guadalajara and W. by Segovia and
Burgos. Pop. (1900), 150,462; area, 3983 sq. m. Soria is a
bleak and lofty region, bounded on three sides by mountains.
A range of sierras culminating in the peaks of Urbion (7389 ft.)
and Cebollera (7139 ft.) on the north, and the great Sierra del
Moncayo (7707 ft.) on the east, separate the valley of the Duero
(Douro) from that of the Ebro, while on the south it is divided
from the valley of the Tagus by a continuation of the Sierra
Guadarrama. Almost the whole of the province belongs to the
region watered by the Duero and its affluents. This river rises
among the southern slopes of Urbion and traverses the province
in a circuitous course, first to the south and then to the west.
The other rivers are mostly affluents of the Duero, but a few of
the tributaries of the Ebro have their sources within the limits
of the province. The soil is not remarkable for fertility; a large
proportion of the area being occupied with barren mountains,
which are covered with snow for a great part of the year. There
are, however, in some places extensive forests of pine, oak and
beech; while in others there are large tracts of pasture land, on
which numbers of cattle, sheep and swine are reared. Grain
and vegetables are raised, but neither of very good quality nor
in sufficient quantities to supply the wants of the population.
The climate is cold and dry, and the scenery grand, but austere.
Most of the people are employed in farming and rearing cattle;
but the cutting and sawing of timber and the preparation of
charcoal also occupy a considerable number. There is a great
want of roads; and, although three railways traverse the pro-
vince, commerce is consequently very limited. Fine wool was
formerly produced; but the only important articles of trade at
present are timber, salt, asphalt, leather and cheese, which
are sent to Madrid and Aragon. Salt and asphalt are the only
minerals worked, though others are known to exist. The
capital, Soria, is described below. The only other town with
more than 3500 inhabitants is El Burgo de Osma (3509), an
episcopal see. Between 1887 and 1900 the population decreased
by nearly 7000; its density in the last-named year was 37-7 per
sq. m., or lower than that of any other Spanish province except
Cuenca (37-6). The gradual depopulation of many districts is due
to the stagnation of industry, and the attraction of emigrants
to large towns outside the province.
SORIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Soria; on the
right bank of the river Duero (Douro), 155 m. N.E. of Madrid
by the Madrid- Alcuneza-Soria railway. Pop. (1900), 7151.
Soria has a provincial institute, schools for teachers of both
sexes, many primary schools, savings banks, two hospitals,
barracks, a theatre and a bull-ring. The churches of Santo
Domingo and San Nicolas, the cloisters of the convent of San
Juan, and several other ecclesiastical buildings are fine specimens
of Romanesque work of the i2th and I3th centuries. Near the
Duero are the ruins of the old citadel, and in many places the
remains of the I3th century walls of the city are yet standing.
The more modern streets are clean and well paved. The bridge
across the Duero is a massive structure which formerly had
a tower in the centre. The population is chiefly agricultural;
but there are also flour mills, tanneries, potteries, &c. ; and some
trade in timber, wool and fruit is carried on. The Iberian and
Carthaginian city of Numantia, captured in 133 B.C. by the
Romans, after a long and heroic resistance, was situated 3 m.
N., on a hill overlooking the confluence of the small river Tera
with the Duero.
SOROKI, a town of south Russia, in the government of
Bessarabia, 81 m. N.N.W. of Kishinev, in a narrow ravine on
the right bank of the Dnieper. Pop. (1900), 25,523, half of whom
were Jews. It is an important river port for the export of corn,
wool, fruit, wine and cattle. Formerly it was the old Genoese
colony of Olchionia, and has still the ruins of a 13th-century
Genoese castle. In the i sth century the Moldavians erected here
a fort, which the Poles took in the 1 7th century. Peter the Great
captured the place in 1711, but it was returned to the Turks, and
was only definitely annexed to Russia in 1812. (M. H. S.)
SOROLLA Y BASTIDA, JOAQUIN (1863- ), Spanish
painter, was born in Valencia, and received his art education
first in his native town and under F. Pradilla, and then in Italy
and Paris. His first striking success he achieved with " Another
Margaret," which was awarded a gold medal in Madrid and was
bought for the St Louis Gallery. He soon rose to general fame
and became the acknowledged head of the modern Spanish
school of painting. His picture of the " Fishermen's Return "
was much admired at the Paris Salon and was acquired by the
state for the Luxembourg Museum. His exhibit at the Paris
Universal Exposition of 1900 won him a medal of honour and
his nomination as Knight of the Legion of Honour. A special
exhibition of his works figure subjects, landscapes and por-
traits at the Georges Petit Gallery in Paris in 1906 eclipsed
all his earlier successes and led to his appointment as Officer of
the Legion of Honour. He is represented at the Berlin National
Gallery, at the Venice and Madrid Museums, and in many private
collections in Europe and America, especially in Buenos Aires.
He painted portraits of King Alphonso and Queen Victoria
Eugenie of Spain, and a magnificent portrait group of the
family of Don Aureliano de Beruete. Three of his works were
shown in London at the Spanish Exhibition, Guildhall, 1901.
SORREL, Rumex Acetosa, a member of the natural order
Polygonaceae, a hardy perennial, native to Britain and found
throughout the north temperate zone. The leaves are used in
soups, salads and sauces. Sorrel grows freely in any good garden
soil, and is increased by dividing the roots during the early
part of spring. They should be planted in rows 15 to 18 in.
apart. The leaves, when fully grown, are gathered singly.
The common garden sorrel is much superior to the wild plant;
but the Belleville, which is the kind generally cultivated near
Paris, is still better, its leaves being larger and not so acid.
The Blistered-leaved, which has large leaves with a blistered
surface, has the advantage of being slow in running to seed.
French Sorrel (Rumex scutatus) is a hardy perennial, distributed
through Europe but not native in Britain, with densely-branched
trailing stems. The leaves are roundish, heart-shaped and
glaucous; they are more acid than those of the common sorrel.
SORRENTO (anc. Surrentum, q.v.), a city of Campania, Italy,
in the province of Naples, 10 m. by [electric tramway (along
the highroad) S.W. from Castellammare di Stabia, and served
also by steamer from Naples (16 m.). Pop. (1901), 6849 (town) ;
8832 (commune). It stands on cliffs about 160 ft. above sea-level
on the north side of the peninsula that' separates the Bay of
Naples from the Bay of Salerno. Sorrento contains only a few
ancient remains, and its present prosperity depends mainly on
its reputation as a place of resort both in winter and in summer,
its northerly aspect rendering it comparatively cool. Its
climate is delightful and healthy, and it is situated amid pictur-
esque coast scenery. The chief local industries are the inlaying
of wood, silk and lace-making and straw-plaiting,' and the
growing of oranges and lemons. In ancient times the Surrentine
wines had a great repute.
In 1558 the corsair Pialy attacked the town and carried off two
thousand prisoners. It was at Sorrento that Bernardo Tasso
wrote his Amadigi; and Torquato Tasso, to whom a marble
SOSIGENES SOTO
435
statue has been erected in the Piazza, was born in the town in
1544-
SOSIGENES, Greek astronomer and mathematician, probably
of Alexandria, flourished in the ist century B.C. According to
Pliny (Nat. Hist, xviii. 25), he was employed by Julius Caesar
in the reform of the Roman calendar (46 B.C.), and wrote three
treatises, which he conscientiously corrected. From another
passage of Pliny (ii. 8) it is inferred that Sosigenes maintained
the doctrine of the motion of Mercury round the sun, which is
referred to by his contemporary Cicero, and was also held by the
Egyptians.
The astronomer is to be distinguished from the Peripatetic
philosopher of the same name, who lived at the end of the 2nd century
A.D. He was the tutor of Alexander of Aphrodisias, the most
famous of the commentators on Aristotle. He wrote a work
on Revolving Spheres, from which some important extracts have
been preserved in Simplicius's commentary on Aristotle's De
caelo (the subject is fully discussed by T. H. Martin, " Sur deux
Sosigene," in Annales de lafac. des letlres de Bordeaux, i., 1879).
SOSITHEUS (c. 280 B.C.), Greek tragic poet, of Alexandria
Troas, a member of the Alexandrian " pleiad." He must have
resided at some time in Athens, since Diogenes Laertius tells
us (vii. 5, 4) that he attacked the Stoic Cleanthes on the stage,
and was hissed off by the audience. As Suidas also calls him a
Syracusan, it is conjectured that he belonged to the literary
circle at the court of Hiero II. According to an epigram of
Dioscorides in the Greek Anthology (Anth. Pal. vii. 707) he
restored the satyric drama in its original form. A considerable
fragment is extant of his pastoral play Daphnis or Lityerses, in
which the Sicilian shepherd, in search of his love Pimplea, is
brought into connexion with the Phrygian reaper, son of Midas,
who slew all who unsuccessfully competed with him in reaping
his corn. Heracles came to the aid of Daphnis and slew
Lityerses.
See O. Crusius s.v. Lityerses in Roscher's Lexikon der griechischen
und romischen Mythologie. The fragment of twenty-one lines in
Nauck's Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta apparently contains
the beginning of the drama. Two lines from the Aethlius (probably
the traditional first king of Elis, father of Endymion) are quoted
by Stobaeus (Flor. li. 23).
SOTADES, Greek satirist, of Maronea in Thrace (or of Crete),
chief representative of the writers of coarse satirical poems,
called KivcuSoi, 1 composed in the Ionic dialect and in a metre
named after him " sotadic." He lived in Alexandria during the
reign of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). For a violent
attack on the king, on the occasion of his marriage to his own
sister Arsinoe, Sotades was imprisoned, but escaped to the
island of Caunus, where he was afterwards captured by Patro-
clus, Ptolemy's admiral, shut up in a leaden chest, and thrown
into the sea (Athenaeus xiv. p. 620; Plutarch, De educatione
puerorum, 14).
Only a few genuine fragments of Sotades have been preserved
(see J. G. Hermann, Elementa doctrinae metricae, 1816); those in
Stobaeus are generally considered spurious. Ennius translated
some poems of this kind, included in his book of satires, under the
name of Sola.
SOTER, pope from about 167 to 174. He wrote to the Church
of Corinth and sent it aid. His letter is mentioned in the reply
given by Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, and Harnack thinks it
can be identified with the second so-called epistle of Clement to
the Corinthians.
SOTHEBY, WILLIAM (1737-1833), English author, was born
in London on the gth of November 1757. He was educated at
Harrow, and subsequently procured a commission in a cavalry
regiment. In 1780 he retired from the army on his marriage
and devoted himself to literature, becoming a prominent figure
in London literary society. His ample means enabled him to
play the part of patron to many struggling authors, and his
friends included Scott, Byron, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey,
Hallam and Tom Moore. He himself soon acquired a consider-
able reputation as a translator, his verse translation of Virgil's
1 The word is also used of the dancers in indecent ballets, to
which such poems were probably written as an accompaniment.
In Greek and Latin authors nlvaibm (cinaedus) generally means
" catamite."
Georgics (1800) being specially praised by contemporary critics,
while in later life he published translations of the Iliad and
Odyssey. He also wrote several historical tragedies for the
stage, of which one was acted, and some poems. He died on
the 30th of December 1833.
SOTHERN, EDWARD ASKEW (1826-1881), English actor,
was born in Liverpool on the ist of April 1826, the son of a
merchant. He began acting as an amateur, and in 1849 drifted
into a professional engagement with a dramatic company at St
Heliers in Jersey, where he appeared as Claude Melnotte in
Bulwer Lytton's Lady of Lyons. Between then and 1858 he played
in various companies without particular success, in Birmingham
and in America, where he went in 1852. On the i2th of May
1858 Tom Taylor's Our American Cousin, a play of no special
merit, was brought out in New York, with Southern in the small
part of Lord Dundreary, a caricature of an English nobleman.
He gradually worked up the humour of this part so that it
became the central figure of the play. In 1861, when it was
produced at the Haymarket Theatre, in London, he made such a
hit that the piece ran for nearly five hundred nights: " Dundreary
whiskers " became the fashion, and Dundreary this, that or
the other made its appearance on every side. At various
times Sothern revived the character, which retained its popu-
larity in spite of all the extravagances to which he developed its
amusing features; and his name will always be famous in con-
nexion with this r61e. In T. W. Robertson's David Garrick
(1864) he again had a great success, his acting in the title-part,
which he created, being wonderfully effective. He won wide
popularity also from his interpretation of Sam Slingsby in
Oxenford's Brother Sam (1865). Sothern was a born comedian,
and off the stage had a passion for practical joking that amounted
almost to a mania. His house in Kensington was a resort for
people of fashion, and he was as much a favourite in America
as in the United Kingdom. He died in London on the 2 ist of
January 1881.
Sothern had three sons, all actors, the second of them, EDWARD
H. SOTHERN (b. 1859), being prominent on the American stage.
SOTHIC PERIOD, in ancient Egyptian chronology, the period
in which the year of 365 days circled in succession through all
the seasons. The tropical year, determined as it was in Egypt
by the heliacal rising of Sirius (Sothis), was almost exactly the
Julian year of precisely 3655 days (differing from the true solar
year, which was n minutes less than this). The sothic period
was thus 1461 years.
See EGYPT, Ancient, F. " Chronology."
SOTO, FERDINANDO [FERNANDO, or HERNANDO] DE (1496?-
1542), Spanish captain and explorer, often, though wrongly,
called the discoverer of the Mississippi (first sighted by Alonzo
de Pineda in 1519), was born at Jerez de los Caballeros, in Estre-
madura, of an impoverished family of good position, and was
indebted to the favour of Pedrarias d'Avila for the means of
pursuing his studies at the university. In 1519 he accompanied
d'Avila on his second expedition to Darien. In 1528 he explored
the coast of Guatemala and Yucatan, and in 1532 he led 300
volunteers to reinforce Pizarro in Peru. He played a prominent
part in the conquest of the Incas' kingdom (helping to seize
and guard the person of Atahualpa, discovering a pass through
the mountains to Cuzco, &c.), and returned to Spain with a
fortune of 180,000 ducats, which enabled him to marry the
daughter of his old patron d'Avila, and to maintain the state
of a nobleman. Excited by the reports of Alvaro Nunez
(Cabeza de Vaca) and others as to the wealth of Florida (a term
then commonly used in a much wider extension than subse-
quently), he sold great part of his property, gathered a force of
620 foot and 1 23 horse, armed four ships, and obtained from
Charles V. a commission as " adelantado of the Lands of Florida"
and governor of Cuba. Sailing from San Lucar in April 1338,
he first went to Havana, his advanced base of operations; starting
thence on the i2th of May 1539 he landed in the same month
in Espiritu Santo Bay, on the west coast of the present state of
Florida. For nearly four years he led his men in fruitless search
of gold hither and thither over the south-east of the North
SOU SOULT
American continent. His exact route is often doubtful; but it
seems to have passed north into Georgia as far as 35' N., then
south to the neighbourhood of Mobile, and finally north-west
towards the Mississippi. This river was reached early in 1541,
and the following winter was spent on the Ouachita, in modern
Arkansas and Louisiana, west of the Mississippi. As they were
returning in 1542 along the Mississippi, De Soto died (either
in May or June; the 2$th of June is perhaps the true date),
and his body was sunk in its waters. Failing in an attempt
to push westwards again, De Solo's men, under Luis Moscoso
de Alvarado, descended the Mississippi to the sea in nineteen
days from a point close to the junction of the Arkansas with the
great river,and thence coasted along the Gulf of Mexico to Panuco.
Of this unfortunate expedition three very different narratives
are extant, of seemingly independent origin. The first was pub-
lished in 1557 at Evora, and professes to be the work of a Portuguese
gentleman of Elvas, who had accompanied the expedition : Relaxant
verdadeira dos trabalhos q ho gouernador do Fernado d'Souto &
certos fidalgos Portugueses passarom no d'scobrimeto da Provincia
da Florida. Agora nouamete feita per hu fidalgo Deluas. An
English translation was published by Hakluyt in 1609 (reprinted
from the 1611 edition by the Hakluyt Society [London, 1851]), and
another by an anonymous translator in 1686, the latter being based
on a French version by Citri de la Guette (Paris, 1685). The
second narrative is the famous history of Florida by the Inca,
Garcitasso de la Vega, who obtained his information from a Spanish
cavalier engaged in the enterprise; it was completed in 1591, first
appeared at Lisbon in 1605 under the title of La Florida del Ynca,
and has since passed through many editions in various languages.
The third is a_ report presented to Charles V. of Spain in his Council
of the Indies in 1544, by Luis Hernandez de Biedma, who had ac-
companied De Soto as His Majesty's factor. It is to be found in
Ternaux-Compans' " Recueil de pieces sur la Floride " in the Histo-
rical Collections of Louisiana (Philadelphia, 1850) and in W. B. Rye's
reprint for the Hakluyt Society of Hakluyt's translation of the
Portuguese narrative (The Discovery and Conquest of Terra Florida,
London, 1851).
See also Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. i. ; J. H.
M'Culloch, Researches . . . concerning the aboriginal history of
America (Baltimore, 1829) ; Albert Gallatin, " Synopsis of the Indian
Tribes," in Archaeologia americana, vol. ii. (Cambridge, Mass.,
1836) ; E. G. Bourne (ed.), Narratives of the Career of Hernando de Soto
in the Conquest of Florida (2 v., New York, 1904); J. W. Monette,
History of the Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Mississippi
(New York, 1846, 2 vols.).
SOU (0. Fr. sol, Lat, solidus, sc. nummus), the name of the
bronze 5-centime French coin, corresponding to the English
" halfpenny." It is still colloquially used in France in reckoning,
and the franc, 2 and 5-franc pieces are known as piece de vingt,
quarante and cent sous respectively. The solidus was originally
a gold coin, first struck c. A.D. 312 by Constantine to take the
place of the aureus. In the Eastern Empire this gold coin
was the standard down to 1453, and, as the " bezant," circulated
from Portugal to the Indies. In the West after Pippin gold
coinage ceased and the solidus in silver became the standard, one
pound of silver making 22 sols (solidi) and 264 denier 'S (denarii).
Under Charlemagne one pound of silver =20 sols =240 deniers.
The lime (libra), the sol and the denier formed the universal
money of account throughout France until the Revolution; and
they have left their mark on the English money symbols s. d.,
for pounds, shillings and pence.
SOUBISE, BENJAMIN DE ROHAN, Due DE (? 1580-1642),
Huguenot leader, younger brother of Henri de Rohan, inherited
his title through his mother Catherine de Parthenay. He served
his apprenticeship as a soldier under Prince Maurice of Orange-
Nassau in the Low Countries. In the religious wars from 1621
onwards his elder brother chiefly commanded on land and in the
south, Soubise in the west and along the sea-coast. His exploits
in the conflict have been sympathetically related by his brother,
who if he was not quite an impartial witness, was one of the best
military critics of the time. Soubise's chief exploit was a singu-
larly bold and well-conducted attack (in 1625) on the Royalist
fleet in the river Blavet (which included the cutting of a boom
in the face of superior numbers) and the occupation of Oleron.
He commanded at Rochelle during the famous siege, and (if
we may believe his brother) the failure of the defence and of the
English attack on Rhe was mainly due to the alternate obstinacy
of the townsfolk and the English commanders in refusing to
listen to Soubise's advice. When surrender became inevitable
he fled to England, which he had previously visited in quest of
succour. He died in 1642 in London. The Soubise title after-
wards served as the chief second designation (not for heirs
apparent, but for the chief collateral branch lor the time being)
of the house of Rohan-Chabot.
The name Soubise appears again in the military history of
France in the person of CHARLES DE ROHAN, PRINCE DE SOUBISE
(1715-1787), peer and marshal of France, the grandson of the
princesse de Soubise, who is known to history as one of
the mistresses of Louis XIV. He accompanied Louis XV. in the
campaign of 1744-48 and attained high military rank, which
he owed more to his courtiership than to his generalship. Soon
after the beginning of the Seven Years' War, through the
influence of Mme de Pompadour, he was put in command of a
corps of 24,000 men, and in November 1757 he sustained the
crushing defeat of Rossbach. He was more fortunate, however,
in his later military career, and continued in the service until
the general peace of 1763, after which he lived the life of an
ordinary courtier and man of fashion in Paris, dying on the 4th
of July 1787.
SOUHAM, JOSEPH, COUNT (1760-1837), French soldier, was
born at Lubersac on the 30th of April 1760, and served in the
French army as a private from 1782 to 1790. In 1792, having
shown himself active in the cause of the Revolution, he was
elected commandant of a volunteer battalion, and by 1793 he
had risen to the rank of general of division. He served with
credit under Pichegru in Holland (1795), but in 1799 fell into
disgrace on suspicion of being concerned in Royalist intrigues.
He was reinstated in 1800 and served under Moreau in the Danube
campaign of that year. During the Consulate he appears to
have been involved in conspiracies, and along with his old com-
manders Moreau and Pichegru was disgraced for alleged par-
ticipation in that of Georges Cadoudal. He regained his rank,
however, in 1809, took a notable part in Gouvion St Cyr's opera-
tions in Catalonia, and won the title of count by his conduct at
the action of Vich, in which he was wounded. In 1812 Marshal
Massena, in declining the command of Marmont's army which
had just been defeated at Salamanca, recommended Souham
for the post. The latter was thus pitted against Wellington, and
by his skilful manoeuvres drove the English general back from
Burgos and regained the ground lost at Salamanca. In 1813 he
distinguished himself again at Liitzen and at Leipzig (when he
was wounded). At the fall of the First Empire he deserted the
emperor, and having suffered for the Royalist cause was well
received by Louis XVIII., who gave him high commands.
These Souham lost at the return of Napoleon and regained
after the Second Restoration. He retired in 1832, and died on
the 28th of April 1837.
SOULARY, JOSEPHIN [JOSEPH MARIE] (1815-1891), French
poet, son of a Lyons merchant of Genoese origin (Solan), was
born on the 23rd of February 1815. He entered a line regiment
when he was sixteen, serving for five years. He was chef de
bureau in the prefecture of the Rh6ne from 1845 to 1867, and
in 1868 he became librarian to the Palais des arts in his native
town. He died at Lyons on the 28th of March 1891. His
works include A trovers champs (1837); Les Cinq cord.es du luth
(1838); Les Ephemeres (two series, 1846 and 1857); Sonnets
humoristiques (1862); Les Figulines (1862); Pendant Vinvasion
(1871); Les Rimes ironiques (1877); Jeux divins (1882), and
two comedies. His (Euvres poetiques were collected in three
volumes (1872-1883). 'His Sonnets humoristiques attracted great
attention, and charmed their readers by the mixture of gaiety
and tragedy. His mastery over the technical difficulties of his
art, especially in the sonnet, won him the title of the " Benvenuto
of rhyme."
See also Paul Marieton, Soulary et la PUiade lyonnaise (1884).
SOULT, NICOLAS JEAN DE DIEU, Duke of Dalmatia (1769-
1851), marshal of France, was born at Saint-Amans-la-Bastide
(now in department of the Tarn) on the 29th of March 1769, and
was the son of a country notary at that place. He was fairly well
educated, and intended for the bar, but his father's death when
SOUMET SOUND
437
he was still a boy made it necessary for him to seek his fortune,
and he enlisted as a private in the French infantry in 1785. His
superior education ensured his promotion to the rank of sergeant
after six years' service, and in July 1791 he became instructor
to the first battalion of volunteers of the Bas-Rhin. He served
with his' battalion in 1792. By 1794 he was adjutant-general
(with the rank of chef de brigade). After the battle of Fleurus,
in which he greatly distinguished himself for coolness, he was
promoted general of brigade by the representatives on mission.
For the next five years he was constantly employed in Germany
under Jourdan, Moreau, Kleber and Lefebvre, and in 1799 he
was promoted general of division and ordered to proceed to
Switzerland. It was at this time that he laid the foundations
of his military fame, and he particularly distinguished himself
in Massena's great Swiss campaign, and especially at the battle
of Zurich. He accompanied Massena to Genoa, and acted as his
principal lieutenant throughout the protracted siege of that city,
during which he operated with a detached force without the
walls, and after many successful actions he was wounded and
taken prisoner at Monte Cretto on the i3th of April 1800. The
victory of Marengo restoring his freedom, he received the
command of the southern part of the kingdom of Naples, and in
1802 he was appointed one of the four generals commanding the
consular guard. Though he was one of those generals who
had served under Moreau, and who therefore, as a rule, disliked
and despised Napoleon, Soult had the wisdom to show his de-
votion to the ruling power; in consequence he was in August 1803
appointed to the command-in-chief of the camp of Boulogne, and
in May 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of France.
He commanded a corps in the advance on Ulm, and at Austerlitz
(q.v.) he led the decisive attack on the allied centre. He played
a great part in all the famous battles of the Grande Armee,
except the battle of Friedland (on the day of which he forced his
way into Konigsberg), and after the conclusion of the peace of
Tilsit he returned to France and was created (1808) duke of
Dalmatia. In the following year he was appointed to the com-
mand of the II. corps of the army with which Napoleon intended
to conquer Spain, and after winning the battle of Gamonal he
was detailed by the emperor to pursue Sir John Moore, whom
he only caught up at Corunna.
For the next four years Soult remained in Spain, and his
military history is that of the Peninsular War (q.v.). In 1809,
after his defeat by Sir John Moore, he invaded Portugal and
took Oporto, but, busying himself with the political settlement
of his conquests in the French interests and, as he hoped, for his
own ultimate benefit as a possible candidate for the throne,
he neglected to advance upon Lisbon, and was eventually dis-
lodged from Oporto by Sir Arthur Wellesley, making a painful
and almost disastrous retreat over the mountains. After the
battle of Talavera he was made chief of staff of the French
troops in Spain with extended powers, and on the igth of No-
vember 1809 won the great victory of Ocana. In 1810 he invaded
Andalusia, which he speedily reduced, with the exception of
Cadiz. In 1811 he marched north into Estremadura, and took
Badajoz, and when the Anglo-Portuguese army laid siege to it
he marched to its rescue, and fought the famous battle of Albuera
(May 1 6). In 1812, however, he was obliged, after Welling-
ton's great victory of Salamanca, to evacuate Andalusia, and
was soon after recalled from Spain at the request of Joseph
Bonaparte, with whom, as with the other marshals, he had
always disagreed. In March 1813 he assumed the command of
the IV. corps of the Grande Armee and commanded the centre
at Liitzen and Bautzen, but he was soon sent, with unlimited
powers, to the south of France to repair the damage done by
the great defeat of Vittoria. His campaign there is the finest
proof of his genius as a general, although he was repeatedly
defeated by the English under Wellington, for his soldiers were
but raw conscripts, while those of Wellington were the veterans
of many campaigns.
Such was the military career of Marshal Soult. His political
career was by no means so creditable, and it has been said of
him that he had character only in front of the enemy. After
the first abdication of Napoleon he declared himself a Royalist,
received the order of St Louis, and acted as minister for war from
the 3rd of December 1814 to the nth of March 1815. When
Napoleon returned from Elba Soult at once declared himself a
Bonapartist, was made a peer of France and acted as major-
general (chief of staff) to the emperor in the campaign of Water-
loo, in which role he distinguished himself far less than he had
done as commander of an over-matched army. At the Second
Restoration he was exiled, but not for long, for in 1819 he was
recalled and in 1820 again made a marshal of France. He once
more tried to show himself a fervent Royalist and was made a
peer in 1827. After the revolution of 1830 he made out that he
was a partisan of Louis Philippe, who welcomed his adhesion
and revived for him the title of marshal-general. He served as
minister for war from 1830 to 1834, as ambassador extraordinary
to London for the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838, and
again as minister for war from 1840 to 1844. In 1848, when
Louis Philippe was overthrown, Soult again declared himself
a republican. He died at his castle of Soultberg, near his
birthplace, on the 26th of November 1851. Soult himself wrote
but little. He published a memoir justifying his adhesion to
Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and his notes and journals
were arranged by his son Napoleon Hector (1801-1857), who
published the first part (Memoires du marechal-general Soult) in
1854. Le Noble's Memoires sur les operations des Francois en
Galicie are supposed to have been written from Soult papers.
See A. Salle, Vie politique du marechal Soult (Paris, 1834) I A.
de Grozelier, Le Marechal Soult (Castres, 1851) ; A. Combes, Histoire
anecdotigue du marechal Soult (Castres, 1869).
SOUMET, ALEXANDRE (i 788-1845) , French poet, was born on
the 8th of February 1788 at Castelnaudary, department of Aude.
His father wished him to enter the army, but an early-developed
love of poetry turned the boy's ambition in other directions.
He was an admirer of Klopstock and Schiller, then little known in
France, and reproached Mme de Stael with lack of enthusiasm
for her subject in De I'Allemagne. Soumet came to Paris in
1810, and some poems in honour of Napoleon secured his nomi-
nation as auditor of the Conseil d'Etat. His well-known elegy
La Pauwe fille appeared in 1814, and two successful tragedies
produced in 1822, Clytemnestre and Saul, secured his admission
to the Academy in 1824. Jeanne a' Arc (1825) aroused great
enthusiasm, and was the best of his plays. Among his other
pieces Elisabeth de France (1828), a weak imitation of Schiller's
Don Carlos, may be noted, but Soumet's real bent was towards
epic poetry. His most considerable work is a poem inspired
by Klopstock, La Divine epopee, which describes the descent of
Christ into Hades. Under Louis XVIII. he became librarian
of Saint-Cloud, and subsequently was transferred to Rambouillet
and to Compiegne. He died on the 3Oth of March 1845, leaving
an unfinished epic on Jeanne d'Arc. His daughter Gabrielle
(Mme Beauvain d'Altenheim) had collaborated with him in some
of his later works.
SOUND, 1 subjectively the sense impression of the organ of
1 " Sound " is an interesting example of the numerous homony-
mous words in the English language. In the sense in which it is
treated in this article it appears in Middle English as soun, and
comes through Fr. son from Lat. sonus; the d is a mere addition,
as in the nautical term " bound " (outward, homeward bound) for
the earlier " boun," to make ready, prepare. In the adjectival
meaning, healthy, perfect, complete, chiefly used of a deep undis-
turbed sleep, or of a well-based argument or doctrine, or of a person
well trained in his profession, the word is in O. Eng. sund, and appears
also in Ger. gesund, Du. gezond. It is probably cognate with the
Lat. sanus, hea'thy, whence the Eng. sane, insanity, sanitation,
&c. Lastly, there is a group of words which etymologists are in-
clined to treat as being all forms of the word which in O. Eng. is sund,
meaning " swimming." These words are for (i) the swim-bladder
of a fish; (2) a narrow stretch of water between an inland sea and
the ocean, or between an island and the mainland, &c., cf. SOUND,
THE, below; (3) to test or measure the depth of anything, particu-
larly the depth of water in lakes or seas (see SOUNDING, below).
As a substantive the term is used of a surgical instrument for the
exploration of a wound, cavity, &c., a probe. In these senses
the word has frequently been referred to Lat. sub undo, under the
water; and Fr. sombre, gloomy, possibly from sub umbra, beneath
the shade, is given as a parallel.
438
SOUND
[INTRODUCTORY
' hearing, and objectively the vibratory motion which produces
the sensation of sound. The physiological and psychica
aspects of sound are treated in the article HEARING. In thi
article, which covers the science of Acoustics, we shall consider
only the physical aspect of sound, that is, the physical phenomen;
outside ourselves which excite our sense of hearing. We shal
discuss the disturbance which is propagated from the source
to the ear, and which there produces sound, and the modes in
which various sources vibrate and give rise to the disturbance.
Sound is due to Vibrations. We may easily satisfy ourselves
that, in every instance in which the sensation of sound is excited
the body whence the sound proceeds must have been thrown
by a blow or other means, into a state of agitation or tremor
implying the existence of a vibratory motion, or motion to anc
fro, of the particles of which it consists.
Thus, if a common glass-jar be struck so as to yield an audible
sound, the existence of a motion of this kind may be felt by the
finger lightly applied to the edge of the glass; and, on increasing
the pressure so as to destroy this motion the sound forthwith
ceases. Small pieces of cork put in the jar will be found to
dance about during the continuance of the sound; water or
spirits of wine poured into the glass will, under the same circum-
stances, exhibit a ruffled surface. The experiment is usually
performed, in a more striking manner, with a bell-jar and a
number of small light wooden balls suspended by silk strings
to a fixed frame above the jar, so as to be just in contact with
the widest part of the glass. On drawing a violin bow across
the edge, the pendulums are thrown off to a considerable dis-
tance, and falling back are again repelled, and so on.
It is also in many cases possible to follow with the eye the
motions of the particles of the sounding body, as, for instance,
in the case of a violin string or any string fixed at both ends,
when the string will appear through the persistence of visual
sensation to occupy at once all the positions which it successively
assumes during its vibratory motion.
Sound takes Time to Travel. If we watch a man breaking stones
by the roadside some distance away, we can see the hammer
fall before we hear the blow. We see the steam issuing from
the whistle of a distant engine long before we hear the sound.
We see lightning before we hear the thunder which spreads out
from the flash, and the more distant the flash the longer the
interval between the two. The well-known rule of a mile for
every five seconds between flash and peal gives a fair estimate
of the distance of the lightning.
Sound needs a Material Medium to Trawl Through. In order
that the ear may be affected by a sounding body there must
be continuous matter reaching all the way from the body to the
ear. This can be shown by suspending an electric bell in the
receiver of an air-pump, the wires conveying the current passing
through an air-tight cork closing the hole at the top of the
receiver. These wires form a material channel from the bell
to the outside air, but if they are fine the sound which they carry
is hardly appreciable. If while the air within the receiver is at
atmospheric pressure the bell is set ringing continuously, the
sound is very audible. But as the air is withdrawn by the pump
the sound decreases, and when the exhaustion is high the bell
is almost inaudible.
Usually air is the medium through which sound travels, but
it can travel through solids or liquids. Thus in the air-pump
experiment, before exhaustion it travels through the glass of
the receiver and the base plate. We may easily realise its trans-
mission through a solid by putting the ear against a table and
scratching the wood at some distance, and through a liquid by
keeping both ears under water in a bath and tapping the side of
the bath.
Sound is a Disturbance of the Wave Kind. As sound arises in
general from vibrating bodies, as it takes time to travel, and as
the medium which carries it does not on the whole travel for-
ward, but subsides into its original position when the sound has
passed, we are forced to conclude that the disturbance is of the
wave kind, We can at once gather some idea of the nature of
sound waves in air by considering how they are produced by a bell.
Let AB (fig. i) be a small portion of a bell which vibrates to and
fro from CD to EF and back. As AB moves from CD to EF it
pushes forward the layer of air
in contact with it. That layer C
presses against and pushes forward
the next layer and so on. Thus
a push or a compression of the
air is transmitted onwards in the
direction OX. As AB returns
from EF towards CD the layer of
air next to it follows it as if it 1 '
FIG. i.
were pulled back by AB. Really,
of course, it is pressed into the
space made for it by the rest of the air, and flowing into this space
it is extended. It makes room for the next layer of air to move
back and to be extended and so on, and an extension of the air is
transmitted onwards following the compression which has already
gone out. As AB again moves from CD towards EF another
compression or push is sent out, as it returns from EF towards CD
another extension or pull, and so on. Thus waves are propagated
along OX, each wave consisting of one push and one pull, one wave
emanating from each complete vibration to and fro of the source
AB.
Crova's Disk. We may obtain an excellent representation of
the motion of the layers of air in a train of sound waves by
means of a device due to Crova and known as " Crova's disk."
A small circle, say 2 or 3 mm. radius, is drawn on a card as in
fig. 2, and round this circle equidistant points, say 8 or 12, are
FIG. 2.
taken. From these points as centres, circles are drawn in succes-
sion, each with radius greater than the last by a fixed amount, say
4 or 5 mm. In the figure the radius of the inner circle is 3 mm.
and the radii of the circles drawn round it are 12, 16, 20, &c.
[f the figure thus drawn is spun round its centre in the right
direction in its own plane waves appear to travel out from the
centre along any radius. If a second card with a narrow slit
n it is held in front of the first, the slit running from the centre
outwards,* the wave motion is still more evident. If the figure
>e photographed as a lantern slide which is mounted so as to
urn round, the wave motion is excellently shown on the screen,
he compressions and extensions being represented by the
crowding in and opening out of the lines.
Another illustration is afforded by a long spiral of wire with coils,
say 2 in. in diameter and J in. apart. It may be hung up by threads
so as to lie horizontally. If one end is sharply pressed in, a com-
)ression can be seen running along the spring.
The Disturbance in Sound Waves is Longitudinal. The motion
)f a particle of air is, as represented in these illustrations, to
ind fro in the direction of propagation, i.e. the disturbance
SOUND WAVES]
SOUND
439
is " longitudinal." There is no " transverse " disturbance, that
is, there is in air no motion across the line of propagation, for
such motion could only be propagated from one layer to the
next by the " viscous " resistance to relative motion, and would
die away at a very short distance from the source. But trans-
verse disturbances may be propagated as waves in solids. For
instance, if a rope is fixed at one end and held in the hand at the
other end, a transverse jerk by the hand will travel as a trans-
verse wave along the rope. In liquids sound waves are longi-
tudinal as they are in air. But the waves on the surface of
a liquid, which are not of the sound kind, are both longitudinal
and transverse, the compound nature being easily seen in
watching the motion of a floating particle.
Displacement Diagram. We can represent waves of longitudinal
displacement by a curve, and this enables us to draw very important
conclusions in a very simple way. Let a train of waves be passing
from left to right in the direction ABCD (fig. 3). At every point
N
FIG. 3.
let a line be drawn perpendicular to AD and proportional to the
displacement of the particle which was at the point before the
disturbance began. Thus let the particle which was at L be at
I, to the right or forwards, at a given instant. Draw LP upward
and some convenient multiple of LI. Let the particle which was
at M originally be at m at the given instant, being displaced to
the left or backwards. Draw MQ downwards, the same multiple
of Mm. Let N be displaced forward to n. Draw NR the same
multiple of Nw and upwards. If this is done for every point we
obtain a continuous curve APBQCRD, which represents the dis-
placement at every point at the given instant, though by a length
at right angles to the actual displacement and on an arbitrary
scale. At the points ABCD there is no displacement, and the
line AD through these points is called the axis. Forward dis-
placement is represented by height above the axis, backward
displacement by depth below it. In ordinary sound waves the dis-
placement is very minute, perhaps of the order io- 6 cm., so that
we multiply it perhaps by 100,000 in forming the displacement
curve.
Wave Length and Frequency. If the waves are continuous and
each of the same shape they form a " train," and the displacement
curve repeats itself. The shortest distance in which this repetition
occurs is called the wave-length. It is usually denoted by X. In
fig. 3, AC=X. If the source makes n vibrations in one second
it is said to have " frequency " n. It sends out n waves in each
second. If each wave travels out from the source with velocity
U the n waves emitted in one second must occupy a length U and
therefore U=nX.
Distribution of Compression and Extension in a Wave. Let fig. 4
be the displacement diagram of a wave travelling from left to right.
At A the air occupies its original position, while at H it is displaced
towards the right or away from A since HP is above the axis.
Between A and H, then, and about H, it is extended. At J the dis-
placement is forward, but since the curve at Q is parallel to the
axis the displacement is approximately the same for all the points
close to J, and the air is neither extended nor compressed, but
merely displaced bodily a distance represented by JQ. At B
there is no displacement, but at K there is displacement towards
B represented by KR, i.e. there is compression. At L there is also
displacement towards B and again compression. At M, as at J,
there is neither extension nor compression. At N the displacement
is away from C and there is extension. The dotted curve represents
the distribution of compression by height above the axis, and of
extension by depth below it. Or we may take it as representing
the pressure ^xcess over the normal pressure in compression,
defect from it in extension.
The figure shows that when the curve of displacement slopes
down in the direction of propagation there is compression, and
the pressure is above the normal, and that when it slopes up there
is extension, and the pressure is below the normal.
Distribution of Velocity in a Wave. If a wave travels on without
alteration the travelling may be represented by pushing on the
displacement curve. Let the wave AQBTC (fig. 5) travel to
A'QB'TC' in a very short time. In that short time the displace-
ment at H decreases from HP to HP' or by PP'. The motion of
the particle is therefore backwards towards A. At J the displace-
ment remains the same, or the particle is not moving. At K it
increases by RR' forwards, or the motion is forwards towards B.
At L the displacement backward decreases, or the motion is forward
FIG. 5.
At M, as at J, there is no change, and at N it is easily seen that
the motion . is backward. The distribution of velocity then is
represented by the dotted curve and is forward when the curve
is above the axis and backward when it is below.
Comparing figs. 4 and 5 it is seen that the velocity is forward in
compression and backward in extension.
The Relations between Displacement, Compression and Velocity.
The relations shown by figs. 4 and 5 in a general manner may
easily be put into exact form. Let OX (fig. 6) be the direction
FIG. 6.
of travel, and let x be the distance of any point M from a fixed point
O. Let ON=x+dx. Let MP = ;y represent the forward dis-
placement of the particle originally at M, and NQ=y+dy that
of the particle originally at N. The layer of air originally of thick-
ness dx now has thickness dx+dy, since N is displaced forwards
dy more than M. The volume dx, then, has increased to dx+dy
or volume I has increased to I +dy/dx and the increase of volume
i is dy/dx.
Let E be the bulk modulus of elasticity, defined as increase of
pressure _-=- decrease of volume per unit volume where the pressure
increase is so small that this ratio is constant, w the small increase
of pressure, and (dyldx) the volume decrease, then
E = o>/( dyldx) or a /E = dy/dx (i )
This gives the relation between pressure excess and displacement.
To find the relation of the velocity to displacement and pressure
we shall express the fact that the wave travels on carrying all its
conditions with it, so that the displacement now at M will arrive
at N while the wave travels over MN. Let U be the velocity of
the wave and let u be the velocity of the particle originally at N.
Let MN=dx = Ud<. In the time at which the wave takes to
travel over MN the particle displacement at N changes by QR,
and QR=-w<&, so that QR/MN = -M/U. But QR/MN =
ay \ax. Then
u/V=-dyjdx (2)
This gives the velocity of any particle in terms of the displacement.
Equating (i) and (2)
M/U=w/E (3)
which gives the particle velocity in terms of the pressure excess.
Generally, if any condition <j> in the wave is carried forward
unchanged with velocity U, the change of <j> at a given point in
time dt is equal to the change of <j> as we go back along the curve
a distance dx = \Jdt at the beginning of dt.
Then
dx
The Characteristics of Sound Waves Corresponding to Loudness,
Pilch and Quality. Sounds differ from each other only in the
three respects of loudness, pitch and quality.
The loudness of the sound brought by a train of waves of
given wave-length depends on the extent of the to and fro
excursion of the air particles. This is obvious if we consider
that the greater the Vibration of the source the greater is the
excursion of the air in the issuing waves, and the louder is the
sound heard. Half the total excursion is called the amplitude.
Thus in fig. 4 QJ is the amplitude. Methods of measuring the
amplitude in sound waves in air have been devised and will
be described later. We may say here that the energy or the
intensity of the sound of given wave-length is proportional
to the square of the amplitude.
The pitch of a sound, the note which we assign to it, depends
on the number of waves received by the ear per second. This is
generally equal to the number of waves issuing from the source
per second, and therefore equal to its frequency of vibration.
Experiments, which will be described most conveniently when
440
SOUND
[VELOCITY
we discuss methods of determining the frequencies of sources,
prove conclusively that for a given note the frequency is the
same whatever the source of that note, and that the ratio of the
frequencies of two notes forming a given musical interval is the
same in whatever part of the musical range the two notes are
situated. Here it is sufficient to say that the frequencies of a
note, its major third, its fifth and its octave, are in the ratios
of 4 : s = 6 : 8.
The quality or timbre of sound, i.e. that which differentiates
a note sounded on one instrument from the same note on another
instrument, depends neither on amplitude nor on frequency or
wave-length. We can only conclude that it depends on wave
form, a conclusion fully borne out by investigation. The dis-
placement curve of the waves from a tuning-fork on its resonance
box, or from the human voice sounding oo, are nearly smooth
and symmetrical, as in fig. -ja. That for the air waves from a
violin are probably nearly as in fig. jb.
FIG. 7.
Calculation of the Velocity of Sound Waves in Air. The velocity
with which waves of longitudinal disturbance travel in air or
in any other fluid can be calculated from the resistance to com-
pression and extension and the density of the fluid. It is con-
venient to give this calculation before proceeding to describe
the experimental determination of the velocity in air, in other
gases and in water, since the calculation serves to some extent
as a guide in conducting and interpreting the observations.
The waves from a source surrounded by a uniform medium at
rest spread out as spheres with the source as centre. If we take
one of these spheres a distance from the source very great as
compared with a single wave-length, and draw a radius to a
point on the sphere, then for some little way round that point
the sphere may be regarded as a plane perpendicular to the
radius or the line of propagation. Every particle in the plane
will have the same displacement and the same velocity, and these
will be perpendicular to the plane and parallel to the line of
propagation. The waves for some little distance on each side
of the plane will be practically of the same size. In fact, we may
neglect the divergence, and may regard them as " plane waves."
We shall investigate the velocity of such plane waves by a method
which is only a slight modification of a method given by W. J. M.
Rankine (Phil. Trans., 1870, p. 277).
Whatever the form of a wave, we could always force it to travel
on with that form unchanged, and with any velocity we chose,
if we could apply any " external " force we liked to each particle,
in addition to the " internal " force called into play by the com-
pressions or extensions. For instance, if we have a wave with
displacement curve of form ABC (fig. 8), and we require it to travel
A' M
on in time dt to A'B'C', where AA' = \Jdt, the displacement of the
particle originally at M must change from PM to P'M or by PP'.
This change can always be effected if we can apply whatever force
may be needed to produce it.
We shall investigate the external force needed to make a train
of plane waves travel on unchanged in form with velocity U.
We shall regard the external force as applied in the form of a
pressure X per square centimetre parallel to the line of propagation
and varied from point to point as required in order to make the dis-
turbance travel on unchanged in form with the specified velocity U.
In addition there will be the internal force due to the change in
volume, and consequent change in pressure, from point to point.
Suppose that the whole of the medium is moved backwards in
space along the line of propagation so that the undisturbed portions
travel with the velocity U. The disturbance, or the train of waves,
is then fixed in space, though fresh matter continually enters the
disturbed region at one end, undergoes the disturbance, and then
leaves it at the other end.
Let A (fig. 9) be a point fixed in space in the disturbed region,
B a fixed point where the medium is not yet disturbed, the medium
FIG. 9.
moving through A and B from right to left. Since the condition
of the medium between A and B remains constant, even though
the matter is continually changing, the momentum possessed by
the matter between A and B is constant. Therefore the momentum
entering through a square centimetre at B per second is equal to
the momentum leaving through a square centimetre at A. Now
the transfer of momentum across a surface occurs in two ways,
firstly by the carriage of moving matter through the surface, and
secondly by the force acting between the matter on one side of the
surface and the matter on the other side. U cubic centimetres
move in per second at B, and if the density js po the mass moving
in through a square centimetre is po U. But it has velocity U, and
therefore momentum poll 2 is carried in. In addition there is a
pressure between the layers of the medium, and if this pressure
in the undisturbed parts of the medium is P, momentum P per
second is being transferred from right to left across each square
centimetre. Hence the matter moving in is receiving on this
account P per second from the matter to the right of it. The total
momentum moving in at B is therefore P+poU 2 . Now consider the
momentum leaving at A. If the velocity of a particle at A relative
to the undisturbed parts is u from left to right, the velocity of the
matter moving out at A is U , and the momentum carried
out by the moving matter is p(U ) 2 . But the matter to the
right of A is also receiving momentum from the matter to the left
of it at the rate indicated by the force across A. Let the excess
of pressure due to change of volume be &, so that the total
" internal " pressure is P-fw. There is also the " external "
applied pressure X, and the total momentum flowing out per
second is
X-t-P+a+p(U-) J .
Equating this to the momentum entering at B and subtracting P
from each
If y is the displacement at A, and if E is the elasticity, substituting
for w and u from (2) and (3) we get
But since the volume dx with density po has become volume dx+dy
with density p
= po.
X-Eg+p U'(i+g)=poU.,
Then
or X = (E po\J*)dy/dx. (5)
If then we apply a pressure X given by (5) at every point, and move
the medium with any uniform velocity U, the disturbance remains
fixed in space. Or if we now keep the undisturbed parts of the
medium fixed, the disturbance travels on with velocity U if we
apply the pressure X at every point of the disturbance.
If the velocity U is so chosen that E poU 2 =o, then X = o,
or the wave travels on through the action of the internal forces
only, unchanged in form and with velocity
U-V(E/ P ). (6)
The pressure X is introduced in order to show that a wave can
be propagated unchanged in form. If we omitted it we should
have to assume this, and equation (6) would give us the velocity
of propagation if the assumption were justified. But a priori we
are hardly justified in assuming that waves can be propagated at
all, and certainly not justified in assuming that they go on unchanged
by the action of the internal forces alone. If, however, we put
on external forces of the required type X it is obvious that any
wave can be propagated with any velocity, and our investigation
shows that when U has the value in (6) then and only then X is
zero everywhere, and the wave will be propagated with that velocity
when once set going.
It may be noted that the elasticity E is only constant for small
volume changes or for small values of dy/dx.
Since by definition E= v(dp/dv) = p(dp/dp) equation (6) becomes
The value U = V(E/p) was first virtually obtained by Newton
(Principia, bk. ii., 8, props. 48-49). He supposed that in air
Boyle's law holds in the extensions and compressions, or that
p-kp, whence dp/dp = k=p/p. His value of the velocity in
air is therefore
U = V (pip) (Newton's formula).
At the standard pressure of 76 cm. of mercury or 1,014,000
dynes / sq. cm., the density of dry air at o C. being taken as
0-001293, we 8 et f r the velocity in dry air at o C.
U =28,ooocm.sec. (about 920 ft./sec.)
VELOCITY]
SOUND
44
approximately. Newton found 979 ft. /sec. But, as we shall see,
all the determinations give a value of Uo in the neighbourhood of
33,000 cm. /sec., or about 1080 ft./sec. This discrepancy was not ex-
plained till 1816, when Laplace (Ann.dechimie, 1816, vol. iii.) pointed
out that the compressions and extensions in sound waves in air
alternate so rapidly that there is no time for the temperature
inequalities produced by them to spread. That is to say, instead
of using Boyle's law, which supposes that the pressure changes so
exceedingly slowly that conduction keeps the temperature constant,
we must use the adiabatic relation p = kpy, whence
and U = V(7/p) [Laplace's formula]. (8)
If we take y = I -4 we obtain approximately for the velocity in
dry air at o C.
Uo = 33. I 5 cm./sec.,
which is closely in accordance with observation. Indeed Sir
G. G. Stokes (Math, and Phys. Papers, iii. 142) showed that a very
small departure from the adiabatic condition would lead to a
stifling of the sound quite out of accord with observation.
If we put p = kp(i+at) in (8) we get the velocity in a gas at
At o C. we have Uo= V (vk~), and hence
= Uo(i +0-00184*) (for small values of t). (9)
The velocity then should be independent of the barometric pressure,
a result confirmed by observation.
For two different gases with the same value of y, but with densi-
ties at the same pressure and temperature respectively pi and p 2 ,
we should have
U,/U, = VWpi), (10)
another result confirmed by observation.
Alteration of Form of the Waves when Pressure Changes are Con-
siderable. When the value of dy/dx is not very small E is no longer
constant, but is rather greater in compression and rather less in
extension than yP. This can be seen by considering that the
relation between p and p is given by a curve and not by a straight
line. The consequence is that the compression travels rather
faster, and the extension rather slower, than at the speed found
above.
We may get some idea of the effect by supposing that for a short
time the change in form is negligible. In the momentum equation
(4) we may now omit X and it becomes
Let us seek a more exact value for o>. If when P changes to P+u
volume V changes to V v then (P+w)(V )* = PV*,
t. n / i 7(7+1) P 2 \ Pi)/ , 7+It>\
whence u = P^-) yjj = ">'VV 1 " 1 2~W -
We have U-M = U(i-w/U)=U(i-/V), since /U= -dy/dx=v[V.
Also since p(V f)=poV, or p = po/(l r/V), then p(U ) 2 =
Vp<,U 2 (i-f/V).
Substituting in the momentum equation, we obtain
whence
U 2 =^
T+i u
If U = V(7P/po) is the velocity for small disturbances, we may
put Uo for U in the small term on the right, and we have
T + i \
irJ
or U = U +4-(T+i). (Ji)
This investigation is obviously not exact, for it assumes that the
form is unchanged, i.e. that the momentum issuing from A (fig. 9)
is equal to that entering at B, an assumption no longer tenable
when the form changes. But for very small times the assumption
may perhaps be made, and the result at least shows the way in which
the velocity is affected by the addition of a small term depending
on and changing sign with u. It implies that the different parts
of a wave move on at different rates, so that its form must change.
As we obtained the result on the supposition of unchanged form,
we can of course only apply it for such short lengths and such short
times that the part dealt with does not appreciably alter. We see
at once that, where M=O, the velocity has its " normal " value,
while where u is positive the velocity is in excess, and where u is
negative the velocity is in defect of the normal value. If, then,
a. (fig. 10) represents the displacement curve of a train of waves,
b will represent the pressure excess and particle velocity, and from
(n) we see that while the nodal conditions of 6, with w = o and
= o, travel with velocity V(E/p), the crests exceed that velocity
by 4(7 + 1)", and the hollows fall short of it by $(y+i)u,
with the result that the fronts of the pressure waves become
steeper and steeper, and the train b changes into something
like c. If the steepness gets very great our investigation ceases
to apply, and neither experiment nor theory has yet shown what
happens. Probably there is a breakdown of the wave somewhat
like the breaking of a water-wave when the crest gains on the next
trough. In ordinary sound-waves the effect of the particle velocity
in affecting the velocity of transmission must be very small.
G displacement
find
velocity
FIG. 10.
Experiments, referred to plater, have been made to find the
amplitude of swing of the air particles in organ pipes. Thus
Mach found an amplitude 0-2 cm. when the issuing waves were
250 cm. long. The amplitude in the pipe was certainly much
greater than in the issuing waves. Let us take the latter as o-i mm.
in the waves a very extreme value. The maximum particle
velocity is 2irna (where n is the frequency and a the amplitude),
or 2iraU/X. This gives maximum u = about 8 cm./sec., which
would not seriously change the form of the wave in a few wave-
lengths. Meanwhile the waves are spreading out and the value
of u is falling in inverse proportion to the distance from the source,
so that very soon its effect must become negligible.
In loud sounds, such as a peal of thunder from a near flash, or
the report of a gun, the effect may be considerable, and the rumble
of the thunder and the prolonged boom of the gun may perhaps
be in part due to the breakdown of the wave when the crest of
maximum pressure has moved up to the front, though it is probably
due in part also to echo from the surfaces of heterogeneous masses
of air. But there is no doubt that with very loud explosive sounds
the normal velocity is quite considerably exceeded. Thus Regnault
in his classical experiments (described below) found that the velocity
of the report of a pistol carried through a pipe diminished with the
intensity, and his results have been confirmed by J. Violle and T.
Vautier (see below). W. W. Jacques (Phil. Mag., 1879, 7, p. 219)
investigated the transmission of a report from a cannon in different
directions; he found that it rose to a maximum of 1267 ft./sec. at 70,
to 90 ft. in the rear and then fell off.
A very curious observation is recorded by the Rev. G. Fisher
in an appendix to Captain Parry's Journal of a Second Voyage to
the Arctic Regions. In describing experiments on the velocity of
sound he states that " on one day and one day only, February 9,
1822, the officer's word of command ' fire ' was several times heard
distinctly both by Captain Parry and myself about one beat of the
chronometer [nearly half a second] after the report of the gun."
This is hardly to be explained by equation (i i), for at the very front
of the disturbance =o and the velocity should be normal.
The Energy in a Wave Train. The energy in a train of waves
carried forward with the waves is partly strain or potential energy
due to change of volume of the air, partly kinetic energy due to the
motion of the air as the waves pass. We shall show that if we
sum these up for a whole wave the potential energy is equal to
the kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy per cubic centimetre is ipM 2 , where p is the
density and u is the velocity of disturbance due to the passage of
the wave. If V is the undisturbed volume of a small portion of
the air at the undisturbed pressure P, and if it becomes V v
when the pressure increases to P+<3, the average pressure during
the change may be taken as P+JS, since the pressure excess for
a small change is proportional to the change. Hence the work
done on the air is (P+J<S)i;, and the work done per cubic centi-
metre is (P+Jw)u/V. The term Pzi/V added up for a complete
wave vanishes, for P/V is constant and 2t> = o, since on the whole
the compression equals the extension. We have then only to con-
sider the term juf/V.
But n /V =/U from equation (2)
and 3 =E/U from equation (3)
Then JSu/V = JEtt 2 /U 2 = ipu 2 from equation (6)
Then in the whole wave the potential energy equals the kinetic
energy and the total energy in a complete wave in a column i sq. cm.
cross-section is W
=J * pu'dx.
442
SOUND
[VELOCITY
We may find here the value of this when we have a train of waves
in which the displacement is represented by a sine curve of amplitude
2ir
a, viz. y = a sin -^-(x U<). For a discussion of this type of wave,
see below.
We have
and
The energy per cubic centimetre on the average is
(12)
(13)
and the energy passing per second through I sq. cm. perpendicular
to the line of propagation is
apiHUWA 2 (14)
The Pressure of Sound Waves. Sound waves, like light waves,
exercise a small pressure against any surface upon which they im-
pinge. The existence of this pressure has been demonstrated
experimentally by W. Altberg (Ann. der Physik, 1903, II, p. 405).
A small circular disk at one end of a torsion arm formed part of
a solid wall, but was free to move through a hole in the wall slightly
larger than the disk. When intense sound waves impinged on the
wall, the disk moved back through the hole, and by an amount showing
a pressure of the order given by the following investigation :
Suppose that a train of waves is incident normally on the surface
S (fig. u), and that they are absorbed there without reflection.
Let ABCD be a column of air
i sq. cm. cross-section. The
pressure on CD is equal to the
momentum which it receives per
second. On the whole the air
S within ABCD neither gains nor
loses momentum, so that on the
whole it receives as much
through AB as it gives up to CD.
If P is the undisturbed pressure
and P+u the pressure at AB,
the momentum entering through AB per second IsJ'^P+ia+pu^dt.
But J Pdt = P is the normal pressure, and as we only wish to find
the excess we may leave this out of account.
The excess pressure on CD is therefore f*(> + pu')dt. But the
values of >+pu? which occur successively during the second
at AB exist simultaneously at the beginning of the second over
the distance U behind AB. Or if the conditions along this distance
U could be maintained constant, and we could travel back along
it uniformly in one second, we should meet all the conditions actually
arriving at AB and at the same intervals. If then d{ is an element
of the path, putting dt=d/U, we have the average excess of
pressure
P =
Here d is an actual length in the disturbance. We have 5 and
expressed in terms of the original length dx and the displacement
dy so that we must put d = dx+dy = (i+dyldx)dx, and
FIG. II.
We have already found that if V changes to Vv
dy
since /V= dy/dx.
We also have pu? = pyU' i /(l+dy/dx). Substituting these values
and neglecting powers of dy/dx above the second we get
But l -r-dx = o since the sum of the displacements = o. Then
putting (dy/dx) 1 = (/U) 2 , we have
= Jfa + i) average energy per cubic centimetre, (15)
a result first published by Lord Rayleigh (Phil. Mag., 1905, 10,
P- 364)-
If the train of waves is reflected, the value of p at AB will be the
sum of the values for the two trains, and will, on the average, be
doubled. The pressure on CD will therefore be doubled. But
the energy will also be doubled, so that (15) still gives the average
excess of pressure.
Experimental Determinations of the Velocity of Sound.
An obvious method of determining the velocity of sound
in air consists in starting some sound, say by firing a gun, and
stationing an observer at some measured distance from the
gun. The observer measures by a clock or chronometer the
time elapsing between the receipt of the flash, which passes
practically instantaneously, and the receipt of the report. The
distance divided by the time gives the velocity of the sound.
The velocity thus obtained will be affected by the wind. For
instance, William Derham (Phil. Trans., 1708) made a series
of observations, noting the time taken by the report of a cannon
fired on Blackheath to travel across the Thames to Upminster
Church in Essex, 12^ m. away. He found that the time varied
between 55^ seconds when the wind was blowing most strongly
with the sound, to 63 seconds when i.t was most strongly against
the sound. The value for still air he estimated at 1142 ft. per
second. He made no correction for temperature or humidity.
But when the wind is steady its effect may be eliminated by
" reciprocal " observations, that is, by observations of the time
of passage of sound in each direction over the measured distance.
Let D be the distance, U the velocity of sound in still air, and
w the velocity of the wind, supposed for simplicity to blow directly
from one station to the other. Let T : and Tz be the observed times
of passage in the two directions. We have U+w=D/Ti and
U w = D/Tj. Adding and dividing by 2
If TI and Tj are nearly equal, and if T = 3 (Ti +T 2 ) , this is very
nearly U = D/T.
The reciprocal method was adopted in 1738 by a commission
of the French Academy (Mfmoires de I'acadtmie des sciences,
(1738). Cannons were fired at half-hour intervals, alternately
at Montmartre and Montlhery, 17 or 18 m. apart. There were
also two intermediate stations at which observations were
made. The times were measured by pendulum clocks. The result
obtained at a temperature about 6 C. was, when converted to
metres, U = 337 metres/second.
The theoretical investigation given above shows that if U
is the velocity in air at / C. then the velocity U at o C. in the
same air is independent of the barometric pressure and that
U =U/(i+o-ooi840, whence U = 332 met./sec.
In 1822 a commission of the Bureau des Longitudes made
a series of experiments between Montlh6ry and Villejuif, n m.
apart. Cannons were fired at the two stations at intervals
of five minutes. Chronometers were used for timing, and the
result at 15-9 C. was 11 = 340-9 met./sec., whence Uo=33o-6
met./sec. (F. J. D. Arago, Connaissance des temps, 1825).
When the measurement of a time interval depends on an
observer, his " personal equation " comes in to affect the
estimation of the quantity. This is the interval between the
arrival of an event and his perception that it has arrived, or
it may be the interval between arrival and his record of the
arrival. This personal equation is different for different observers.
It may differ even by a considerable fraction of a second.
It is different, too, for different senses with the same observer,
and different even for the same sense when the external stimuli
differ in intensity. When the interval between a flash and a
report is measured, the personal equations for the two arrivals
are, in all probability, different, that for the flash being most
likely less than that for the sound. In a long series of experi-
ments carried out by V. Regnault in the years 1862 to 1866 on
the velocity of sound in open air, in air in pipes and in various
other gases in pipes, he sought to eliminate personal equation
by dispensing with the human element in the observations,
using electric receivers as observers. A short account of these
experiments is given in Phil. Mag., 1868, 35, p. 161, and the
full account, which serves as an excellent example of the extra-
ordinary care and ingenuity of Regnault's work, is given in the
Memoir es de I'acadtmie des sciences, 1868, xxxvii. On page
459 of the Memoire will be found a list of previous careful
experiments on the velocity of sound.
In the open-air experiments the receiver consisted of a large
REFLECTION]
SOUND
443
cone having a thin india-rubber membrane stretched over its
narrow end. A small metal disk was attached to the centre
of the membrane and connected to earth by a fine wire. A metal
contact-piece adjustable by a screw could be made to just touch
a point at the centre of the disk. When contact was made it
completed an electric circuit which passed to a recording station,
and there, by means of an electro-magnet, actuated a style
writing a record on a band of travelling smoked paper. On
the same band a tuning-fork electrically maintained and a
seconds clock actuating another style wrote parallel records.
The circuit was continued to the gun which served as a source,
and stretched across its muzzle. When the gun was fired,
the circuit was broken, and the break was recorded on the paper.
The circuit was at once remade. When the wave travelled
to the receiver it pushed back the disk from the contact-piece,
and this break, too, was recorded. The time between the breaks
could be measured in seconds by the clock signals, and in
fractions of a second by the tuning-fork record. The receiving
apparatus had what we may term a personal equation, for the
break of contact could only take place when the membrane
travelled some finite distance, exceedingly small no doubt,
from the contact-piece. But the apparatus was used in such a
way that this could be neglected. In some experiments in
which contact was made instead of broken, Regnault determined
the personal equation of the apparatus.
To eliminate wind as far as possible reciprocal firing was
adopted, the interval between the two firings being only a few
seconds. The temperature of the air traversed and its humidity
were observed, and the result was finally corrected to the velocity
in dry air at o C. by means of equation (10).
Regnault used two different distances, viz. 1280 metres and 2445
metres, obtaining from the first U = 33i-37 met./sec. ; but the
number of experiments over the longer distance was greater, and he
appears to have put more confidence in the result from them, viz.
Uo = 33-7i met./sec.
In the Phil. Trans., 1872, 162, p. I, is given an interesting deter-
mination made by E. J. Stone at the Cape of Good Hope. In this
experiment the personal equations of the observers were deter-
mined and allowed for.
Velocity of Sound in Air and other Gases in Pipes. In the
memoir cited above Regnault gives an account of determinations
of the velocity in air in pipes of great length and of diameters
ranging from 0-108 metres to i-i metres. He used various
sources and the method of electric registration. He found
that in all cases the velocity decreased with a diameter. The
sound travelled to and fro in the pipes several times before the
signals died away, and he found that the velocity decreased
with the intensity, tending to a limit for very feeble sounds,
the limit being the same whatever the source. This limit for
a diameter i-i m. was U =33O-6 met./sec., while for a diameter
0-108 it was 110=324-25 met./sec.
Regnault also set up a shorter length of pipes of diameter
0-108 m. in a court at the College de France, and with this
length he could use dry air, vary the pressure, and fill with other
gases. He found that within wide limits the velocity was inde-
pendent of the pressure, thus confirming the theory. Com-
paring the velocities of sound Ui and U 2 in two different gases
with densities pi and p 2 at the same temperature and pressure,
and with ratios of specific heats 7,, 72, theory gives
Ui/U 2 = V (7Wwi !
This formula was very nearly confirmed for hydrogen, carbon
dioxide and nitrous oxide.
J. Violle and T. Vautier (Ann. Mm. phys., 1890, vol. 19)
made observations with a tube 0-7 m. in diameter, and,
using Regnault's apparatus, found that the velocity could be
represented by
33i'3(i+CVP),
where P is the mean excess of pressure above the normal.
According to von Helmholtz and Kirchhoff the velocity in a
tube should be less than that in free air by a quantity depending
on the diameter of the tube, the frequency of the note used,
and the viscosity of the gas (Rayleigh, Sound, vol. ii. 347~ 8 )-
Correcting the velocity obtained in the 0-7 m. tube by Kirch-
hofi's formula, Violle and Vautier found for the velocity in open
air at o C.
Uo=33i-io met./sec.
with a probable error estimated at o- 10 metre.
It is obvious from the various experiments that the velocity
of sound in dry air at o C. is not yet known with very great
accuracy. At present we cannot assign a more exact value
than
U = 331 metres per second.
Violle and Vautier made some later experiments on the
propagation of musical sounds in a tunnel 3 metres in diameter
(Ann. Mm. phys., 1905, vol. 5). They found that the velocity
of propagation of different musical sounds was the same.
Some curious effects were observed in the formation of har-
monics in the rear of the primary tone used. These have yet
to find an explanation.
Velocity of Sound in Water. The velocity in water was
measured by J. D. Colladon and J. K. F. Sturm (Ann. Mm.
phys., 1827 (2), 36, p. 236) in the water of Lake Geneva. A bell
under water was struck, and at the same instant some gunpowder
was flashed in air above the bell. At a station more than
13 kilometres away a sort of big ear-trumpet, closed by a mem-
brane, was placed with the membrane under water, the tube
rising above the surface. An observer with his ear to the tube
noted the interval between the arrival of flash and sound. The
velocity deduced at 8-1 C. was 11 = 1435 met./sec., agreeing
very closely with the value calculated from the formula
2 = E/p.
Experiments on the velocity of sound in iron have been made
on lengths of iron piping by J. B. Biot, and on telegraph wires
by Wertheim and Brequet. The experiments were not satis-
factory, and it is sufficient to say that the results accorded
roughly with the value given by theory.
Reflection of Sound.
When a wave of sound meets a surface separating two media
it is in part reflected, travelling back from the surface into the
first medium again with the velocity with which it approached.
Echo is a familiar example of this. The laws of reflection of
sound are identical with those of the reflection of light, viz. (i)
the planes of incidence and reflection are coincident, and (2)
the angles of incidence and reflection are equal. Experiments
may be made with plane and curved mirrors to verify these
laws, but it is necessary to use short waves, in order to diminish
diffraction effects. For instance, a ticking watch may be put
at the focus of a large concave metallic mirror, which sends a
parallel " beam " of sound to a second concave mirror facing
the first. If an ear-trumpet is placed at the focus of the second
mirror the ticking may be heard easily, though it is quite inaud-
ible by direct waves. Or it may be revealed by placing a
sensitive flame of the kind described below with its nozzle at
the focus. The flame jumps down at every tick.
Examples of reflection of sound in buildings are only too
frequent. In large halls the words of a speaker are echoed
or reflected from flat walls or roof or floor; and these reflected
sounds follow the direct sounds at such an interval that syllables
and words overlap, to the confusion of the speech and the
annoyance of the audience.
Some curious examples of echo are given in Herschel's article
on " Sound " in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, but it appears
that he is in error in one case. He states that in the whispering
gallery in St Paul's, London, " the faintest sound is faithfully
conveyed from one side to the other of the dome but is not heard
at any intermediate point." In some domes, for instance in
a dome at the university of Birmingham, a sound from one end
of a diameter is heard very much more loudly quite close to
the other end of the diameter than elsewhere, but in St Paul's
Lord Rayleigh found that " the abnormal loudness with which
a whisper is heard is not confined to the position diametrically
opposite to that occupied by the whisperer, and therefore, it
would appear, does not depend materially upon the symmetry
444
SOUND
[REFRACTION
of the dome. The whisper seems to creep round the gallery
horizontally, not necessarily along the shorter arc, but rather
along that arc towards which the whisperer faces. This is a
consequence of the very unequal audibility of a whisper in front
and behind the speaker, a phenomenon which may easily be
observed in the open air " (Sound, ii. 287).
Let fig. 12 represent a horizontal section of the dome through
the source P. Let OPA be the radius
through P. Let PQ represent a ray
of sound making the angle 6 with the
tangent at A. Let ON( = OP cos 6)
be the perpendicular on PQ. Then
the reflected ray OR and the ray
reflected at R, and so on, will all
touch the circle drawn with ON as
radius. A ray making an angle less
than 8 with the tangent will, with
its reflections, touch a larger circle.
Hence all rays between will be
confined in the space between the
outer dome and a circle of radius
OP cos 0, and the weakening of in-
tensity will be chiefly due to vertical
spreading.
Rayleigh points out that this clinging of the sound to the
surface of a concave wall does not depend on the exactness of the
spherical form. He suggests that the propagation of earthquake
disturbances is probably affected by the curvature of the surface
of the globe, which may act like a whispering gallery.
In some cases of echo, when the original sound is a compound
musical note, the octave of the fundamental tone is reflected
much more strongly than that tone itself. This is explained
by Rayleigh (Sound, ii. 296) as a consequence of the irregu-
larities of the reflecting surface. The irregularities send back a
scattered reflection of the different incident trains, and this
scattered reflection becomes more copious the shorter the wave-
length. Hence the octave, though comparatively feeble in the
incident train, may predominate in the scattered reflection
constituting the echo.
Refraction of Sound.
When a wave of sound travelling through one medium meets
a second medium of a different kind, the vibrations of its own
particles are communicated to the particles of the new medium,
so that a wave is excited in the latter, and is propagated through
it with a velocity dependent on the density and elasticity of the
second medium, and therefore differing in general from the
previous velocity. The direction, too, in which the new wave
travels is different from the previous one. This change of
direction is termed refraction, and takes place, no doubt, accord-
ing to the same laws as does the refraction of light, viz. (i) The
new direction or refracted ray lies always in the plane of incidence,
or plane which contains the incident ray (i.e. the direction of
the wave in the first medium), and the normal to the surface
separating the two media, at the point in which the incident
ray meets it; (2) The sine of the angle between the normal and
the incident ray bears to the sine of the angle between the normal
and the refracted ray a ratio which is constant for the same
pair of media. As with light the ratio involved in the second
law is always equal to the ratio of the velocity of the wave in
the first medium to the velocity in the second; in other words,
the sines of the angles in question are directly proportional to
the velocities.
Hence sound rays, in passing from one medium into another,
are bent in towards the normal, or the reverse, according as the
velocity of propagation in the former exceeds
or falls short of that in the latter. Thus, for
instance, sound is refracted towards the per-
pendicular when passing into air from water,
or into carbonic acid gas from air; the
converse is the case when the passage takes
place the opposite way.
It further follows, as in the analogous case
of light, that there is a certain angle termed
ff
FIG. 13.
the critical angle, whose sine is found by dividing the less by
the greater velocity, such that all rays of sound meeting the
surface separating two different bodies will not pass onward,
but suffer total reflection back into the first body, if the
velocity in that body is less than that in the other body, and
if the angle of incidence exceeds the limiting angle.
The velocities in air and water being respectively 1090 and
4700 ft. the limiting angle for these media may be easily shown
to be slightly above 155. Hence, rays of sound proceeding
from a distant source, and therefore nearly parallel to each other,
and to PO (fig. 13), the angle POM being greater than 155, will
not pass into the water at all, but suffer total reflection. Under
such circumstances, the report of a gun, however powerful,
should be inaudible by an ear placed in the water.
Acoustic Lenses. As light is concentrated into a focus by a
convex glass lens (for which the velocity of light is less than for
the air), so sound ought to be made to converge by passing
through a convex lens formed of carbonic acid gas. On the
other hand, to produce convergence with water or hydrogen gas,
in both which the velocity of sound exceeds its rate in air, the
lens ought to be concave. These results have been confirmed
experimentally by K. F. J. Sondhauss (Pogg. Ann., 1852, 85.
p. 378), who used a collodion lens filled with carbonic acid. He
found its focal length and hence the refractive index of the
gas, C. Hajech (Ann. chim. phys., 1858, (iii). vol. 54) also
measured the refractive indices of various gases, using a prism
containing the gas to be experimented on, and he found that the
deviation by the prism agreed very closely with the theoretical
values of sound in the gas and in air.
Osborne Reynolds (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1874, 22, p. 531) first pointed
out that refraction would result from a variation in the tempera-
ture of the air at different heights. The velocity
of sound in air is independent of the pressure, j
but varies with the temperature, its value at t C.
being as we have seen
U-Ui(i+ioO.
where U is the velocity at o C., and a is the coefficient of
expansion -00365. Now if the temperature is higher overhead
than at the surface, the velocity overhead is greater. If a wave
front is in a given position, as a i (fig. 14), at a given instant
a 6
FIG. 14.
the upper part, moving faster, gains on the lower, and the front
tends to swing round as shown by the successive positions in
a 2, 3 and 4; that is, the sound tends to come down to the
surface. This is well illustrated by the remarkable horizontal
carriage of sound on a still clear frosty morning, when the
surface layers of air are decidedly colder than those above.
At sunset, too, after a warm day, if the air is still, the cooling
of the earth by radiation cools the lower layers, and sound
carries excellently over a level surface. But usually the lower
layers are warmer than the upper layers, and the velocity below
is greater than the velocity above. Consequently a wave front
such as b i tends to turn upwards, as shown in the successive
positions b 2, 3 and 4. Sound is then not so well heard along
the level, but may still reach an elevated observer. On a hot
summer's day the temperature of the surface layers may be
much higher than that of the higher layers, and the effect on
the horizontal carriage of sound may be very marked.
It is well known that sound travels far better with the wind
than against it. Stokes showed that this effect is one of
refraction, due to variation of velocity of the air Ketractloa
from the surface upwards (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1857, P- by wind."
22). It is, of course, a matter of common observation
that the wind increases in velocity from the surface upwards.
An excellent illustration of this increase was pointed out by
F. Osier in the shape of old clouds; their upper portions always
appear dragged forward and they lean over, as it were, in the
DIFFRACTION]
SOUND
445
direction in which the wind is going. The same kind of thing
happens with sound-wave fronts when travelling with the
wind.
The velocity of any part of a wave front relative to the ground
will be the normal velocity of sound + the velocity of the wind
at that point. Since the velocity increases as we go upwards
the front tends to swing round and travel downwards, as shown
in the successive positions a i, 2, 3 and 4, in fig. 14, where we
must suppose the wind to be blowing from left to right. But
if the wind is against the sound the velocity of a point of the
wave front is the normal velocity the wind velocity at the
point, and so decreases as we rise. Then the front tends to
swing round and travel upwards as shown in the successive
positions 6 I, 2, 3, and 4, in fig. 14, where the wind is travelling
from right to left. In the first case the waves are more likely
to reach and be perceived by an observer level with the source,
while in the second case they may go over his head and not be
heard at all.
Diffraction of Sound Waves.
Many of the well-known phenomena of optical diffraction
may be imitated with sound waves, especially if the waves
be short. Lord Rayleigh (Scientific Papers, iii. 24) has given
various examples, and we refer the reader to his account.
We shall only consider one interesting case of sound diffraction
which may be easily observed. When we are walking past a
fence formed by equally-spaced vertical rails or overlapping
boards, we may often note that each footstep is followed by a
musical ring. A sharp clap of the hands may also produce the
effect. A short impulsive wave travels towards the fence, and
each rail as it is reached by the wave becomes the centre of a
new secondary wave sent out all round, or at any rate on the
front side of the fence.
S'
FIG. 15.
Let S (fig. 15) be the source very nearly in the line of the rails
ABCDEF. At the instant that the original wave reaches F the
wave from E has travelled to a circle of radius very nearly equal
to EF not quite, as 5 is not quite in the plane of the rails. The
wave from D has travelled to a circle of radius nearly equal to DF,
that from C to a circle of radius nearly CF, and so on. As these
" secondary waves " return to S their distance apart is nearly equal
to twice the distance between the rails, and the observer then hears
a note of wave-length nearly 2EF. But if an observer is stationed
at S' the waves will be about half as far apart and will reach him
with nearly twice the frequency, so that he hears a note about an
octave higher. As he travels further round the frequency increases
still more. The railings in fact do for sound what a diffraction
grating does for light.
Frequency and Pitch.
Sounds may be divided into noises and musical notes. A mere
noise is an irregular disturbance. If we study the source produc-
ing it we find that there is no regularity of vibration. A musical
note always arises from a source which has some regularity
of vibration, and which sends equally-spaced waves into the
air. A given note has always the same frequency, that is to say,
the hearer receives the same number of waves per second what-
ever the source by which the note is produced. Various instru-
ments have been devised which produce any desired note, and
which are provided with methods of counting the frequency
of vibration. The results obtained fully confirm the general
law that " pitch," or the position of the note in the musical scale,
depends solely on its frequency. We shall now describe some
of the methods of determining frequency.
Savart's toothed wheel apparatus, named after Felix Savart
(1791-1841), a French physicist and surgeon, consists of a brass
wheel, whose edge is divided into a number of equal projecting
teeth distributed uniformly over the circumference, and which is
capable of rapid rotation about an axis perpendicular to its plane
and passing through its centre, by means of a series of multiplying
wheels, the last of which is turned round by the hand. The toothed
wheel being set in motion, the edge of a card or of a funnel-shaped
piece of common notepaper is held against the teeth, when a note
will be heard arising from the rapidly succeeding displacements
of the air in its vicinity. The pitch of this note will rise as the rate
of rotation increases, .and becomes steady when that rotation is
maintained uniform. It may thus be brought into unison with
any sound of which it may be required to determine the correspond-
ing number of vibrations per second, as for instance the note As,
three octaves higher than the A which is indicated musically by
a small circle placed between the second and third lines of the
G clef, which A is the note of the tuning-fork usually employed for
regulating concert-pitch. As may be given by a piano. Now,
suppose that the note produced with Savart's apparatus is in unison
with As, when the experimenter turns round the first wheel at the
rate of 60 turns per minute or one per second, and that the cir-
cumferences of the various multiplying wheels are such that the
rate of revolution of the toothed wheel is thereby increased 44 times,
then the latter wheel will perform 44 revolutions in a second,
and hence, if the number of its teeth be 80, the number of taps
imparted to the card every second will amount to 4^X80 or 3520.
This, therefore, is the number of vibrations corresponding to the note
A. If we divide this by 2 3 or 8, we obtain 440 as the number of
vibrations answering to the note A. If, for the single toothed
wheel, be substituted a set of four with a common axis, in which
the teeth are in the ratios 4: 5: 6: 8, and if the card be rapidly
passed along their edges, we shall hear distinctly produced the
fundamental chord C, E, G, Ci and shall thus satisfy ourselves
that the intervals C, E; C, G and C, Ci are |, | and 2 respectively.
Neither this instrument nor the next to be described is now used
for exact work; they merely serve as illustrations of the law of
pitch.
The siren of L. F. W. A. Seebeck (1805-1849) is the simplest form
of apparatus thus designated, and consists of a large circular disk
mounted on a central axis, about which it may be made _ **
to revolve with moderate rapidity. This disk is per- si ^, n
forated with small round holes arranged in circles
about the centre of the disk. In the first series of circles, reckoning
from the centre the openings are so made as to divide the respective
circumferences, on which they are found, in aliquot parts bearing
to each other the ratios of the numbers 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20,
24, 32, 40, 48, 64. The second series consists of circles each of
which is formed of two sets of perforations, in the first circle arranged
as 4:5, in the next as 3:4, then as 2:3, 3:5, 4:7. In the outer
series is a circle divided by perforations into four sets, the numbers
of aliquot parts being as 3 : 4 : 5 : 6, followed by others which we
need not further refer to.
The disk being started, then by means of a tube held at one end
between the lips, and applied near to the disk at the other, or more
easily with a common bellows, a blast of air is made to fall on the
part of the disk which contains any one of the above circles. The
current being alternately transmitted and shut off, as a hole passes on
and off the aperture of the tube or bellows, causes a vibratory motion
of the air, whose frequency depends on the number of times per second
that a perforation passes the mouth of the tube. Hence the note
produced with any given circle of holes rises in pitch as the disk
revolves more rapidly; and if, the revolution of the disk being kept
as steady as possible, the tube be passed rapidly across the circles
of the first series, a series of notes is heard, which, if the lowest
be denoted by C, form the sequence C, Ci, EI, Gi, Cj, &c. In like
manner, the first circle in which we have two sets of holes dividing
the circumference, the one into say 8 parts, and the other into 10,
or in ratio 4: 5, the note produced is a compound one, such as would
be obtained by striking on the piano two notes separated by the
interval of a major third (|). Similar results are obtainable by
means of the remaining perforations.
A still simpler form of siren may be constituted with a good
spinning-top, a perforated card disk, and a tube for blowing with.
The siren of C. Cagniard de la Tour is founded on the same principle
as the preceding. It consists of a cylindrical chest of brass, the
base of which is pierced at its centre with an opening
in which is fixed a brass tube projecting outwards, and *J Tn . "*. .
intended for supplying the cavity of the cylinder with * g *
compressed air or other gas, or even liquid. The top
of the cylinder is formed of a plate perforated near its edge
by holes distributed uniformly in a circle concentric with the
plate, and which are cut obliquely through the thickness of the
plate. Immediately above this fixed plate, and almost in contact
with it, is another of the same dimensions, and furnished with the
same number, n, of openings similarly placed, but passing obliquely
through in an opposite direction from those in the fixed plate, the
one set being inclined to the left, the other to the right.
This second plate is capable of rotation about an axis per-
pendicular to its plane and passing through its centre. Now, let
the movable plate be at any time in a position such that its holes
are immediately above those in the fixed plate, and let the bellows
by which air is forced into the cylinder (air, for simplicity, being
SOUND
[FREQUENCY AND PITCH
supposed to be the fluid employed) be put in action; then the air
in its passage will strike the side of each opening in the movable
plate in an oblique direction (as shown in
fig. 16), and will therefore urge the latter
to rotation round its centre. After I /nth
of a revolution, the two sets of perforations
will again coincide, the lateral impulse of
the air repeated, and hence the rapidity
. , r . , 'i-i >ii
of rotation increased. This will go on
continually as long as air is supplied to the cylinder, and the
velocity of rotation of the upper plate will be accelerated up to a
certain maximum, at which it may be maintained by keeping the
force of the current constant.
Now, it is evident that each coincidence of the perforations in
the two plates is followed by a non-coincidence, during which the
air-current is shut off, and that consequently, during each revolution
of the upper plate, there occur n alternate passages and interceptions
of the current. Hence arises the same number /of successive im-
pulses of the external air immediately in contact with the movable
plate, which is thus thrown into a state of vibration at the rate of
n for every revolution of the plate. The result is a note whose
pitch rises as the velocity of rotation increases, and becomes steady
when that velocity reaches its constant value. If, then, we can
determine the number m of revolutions performed by the plate
in every second, we shall at once have the number of vibrations
per second corresponding to the audijple note by multiplying m by n.
For this purpose the axis is furnished at its upper part with a
screw working into a toothed wheel, and driving it round, during
each revolution of the plate, through a space equal to the interval
between two teeth. An index resembling the hand of a watch
partakes of this motion, and points successively to the divisions
of a graduated dial. On the completion of each revolution of this
toothed wheel (which, if the number of its teeth be 100, will com-
prise 100 revolutions of the movable plate), a projecting pin fixed
to it catches a tooth of another toothed wheel and turns it round,
and with it a corresponding index which thus records the number
of turns of the first toothea wheel. As an example of the applica-
tion of this siren, suppose that the number of revolutions of the plate,
as shown by the indices, amounts to 400 in a minute, that is,
to 90 per second, then the number of vibrations per second of the
note heard amounts to gon, or (if number of holes in each plate = 8)
to 720.
H. N. Dove (1803-1879) produced a modification of the siren
by which the relations of different musical notes may be more
readily ascertained. In it the fixed and movable plates
are gagj, furnished with four concentric series of per-
forations, dividing the circumferences into different
aliquot parts, as, for example, 8, 10, 12, 16. Beneath the lower
or fixed plate are four metallic rings furnished with holes corre-
sponding to those in the plates, and which may be pushed round by
projecting pins, so as to admit the air-current through any one
or more of the series of perforations in the fixed plate. Thus may
be obtained, either separately or in various combinations, the four
notes whose vibrations are in the ratios of the above numbers,
and which therefore form the fundamental chord (CEGCi). The
inventor has given to this instrument the name of the many-voiced
siren.
Helmholtz (Sensations of Tone, ch. yiii.) further adapted the
siren for more extensive use, by the addition to Dove's instrument
*. another chest con-
taming its own fixed
anc * movaD l e perforated
plates and perforated
rings, both the movable platas being
driven by the same current and
revolving about a common axis.
Annexed is a figure of this instru-
ment (fig. 17).
Graphic Methods. The relation
between the pitch of a note and
the frequency of the corresponding
vibrations has also been studied by
graphic methods. Thus, if an elastic
metal slip or a pig's bristle be at-
tached to one prong of a tuning-
EF- m fork, and if the fork, while in
Jl\ \ vibration, is moved rapidly over a
U\ r \ Uf| glass plate coated with lamp-black,
1 \ P \V V tne at tached st y' e touching the
%'tt-i .J _ '\^J\ plate lightly, a wavy line will be
traced on the plate answering to
* I the vibrations to and fro of the
fork. The same result will be ob-
tained with a stationary fork and a
_ ,
ove s
Double
Slrea.
FIG. 17.
movable glass plate; and, if the time occupied by the plate in
moving through a given distance can be ascertained and the number
of complete undulations exhibited on the plate for that distance,
which is evidently the number of vibrations of the fork in that
time, is reckoned, we shall have determined the numerical vibration-
value of the note yielded by the fork. Or, if the same plate
be moved in contact with two tuning-forks, we shall, by compar-
ing the number of sinuosities in the one trace with that in the
other, be enabled to assign the ratio of the corresponding numbers
of vibrations per second. Thus, if the one note be an octave
higher than the other, it will give double the number of waves
in the same distance. The motion of the plate may be simply
produced by dropping it between two vertical grooves, the
tuning-forks being properly fixed to a frame above.
Greater accuracy may be attained with a revolving-drum chrono-
graph first devited by Tho'mas Young (Lect. on Nat. Phil., 1807,
i. 190), consisting of a cylinder which may be coated
with lamp-black, or, better still, a metallic cylinder
round which a blackened sheet of paper is wrapped.
The cylinder is mounted on an axis and turned round, while the
style attached to the vibrating body is in light contact with it, and
traces therefore a wavy circle, which, on taking off the paper
and flattening it, becomes a wavy straight line. The superiority
of this arrangement arises from the comparative facility with
which the number of revolutions of the cylinder in a given
time may be ascertained. In R. Koenig's arrangement (Quelques
experiences d'acoustique, p. i) the axis of the cylinder is fashioned
as a screw, which works in fixed nuts at the ends, causing a sliding
as well as a rotatory motion of the cylinder. The lines traced out
by the vibrating pointer are thus prevented from overlapping
when more than one turn is given to the cylinder. In the phonauto-
graph of E. L. Scott (Comptes rendus, 1861, 53, p. 108) any sound
whatever may be made to record its trace on the paper by means
of a large parabolic cavity resembling a speaking-trumpet, which
is freely open at the wider extremity, but is closed at the other
end by a thin stretched membrane. To the centre of this membrane
is attached a small feather-fibre, which, when the reflector is suit-
ably placed, touches lightly the surface of the revolving cylinder.
Any sound (such as that of the human voice) transmitting its rays
into the reflector, and communicating vibratory motion to the
membrane, will cause the feather to trace a sinuous line on the paper.
If, at the same time, a tuning-fork of known number of vibrations
per second be made to trace its own line close to the other, a
comparison of the two lines gives the number corresponding to the
sound under consideration. The phonograph (q.t.) may be regarded
as an instrument of this class, in that it records vibrations on a
revolving drum or disk.
Lissajous Figures. A mode of exhibiting the ratio of the fre-
quencies of two forks was devised by Jules Antoine Lissajous (1822
1880). On one prong of each fork is fixed a small plane mirror.
The two forks are fixed so that one vibrates in a vertical, and the
other in a horizontal, plane, and they are so placed that a converging
beam of light received on one mirror is reflected to the other and
then brought to a point on a screen. If the first fork alone vibrates,
the point on the screen appears lengthened out into a vertical
line through the changes in inclination of the first mirror, while
if the second fork alone vibrates, the point appears lengthened out
into a horizontal line. If both vibrate, the point describes a curve
which appears continuous through the persistence of the retinal
impression. Lissajous also obtained the figures by aid of the vibra-
tion microscope, an instrument which he invented. Instead of
a mirror, the objective of a microscope is attached to one prong
of the first fork and the eyepiece of the microscope is fixed behind
the fork. Instead of a mirror the second fork carries a bright
point on one prong, and the microscope is focused on this. If
both forks vibrate, an observer looking through the microscope
sees the bright point describing Lissajous figures. If the two
forks have the same frequency, it is easily seen that the figure will
be an ellipse (including as limiting cases, depending on relative
amplitude and phase, a circle and a straight line). If the forks
are not of exactly the same frequency the ellipse will slowly revolve,
and from its rate of revolution the ratio of the frequencies may be
determined (Rayleigh, Sound, i. 33). If one is the octave of the
other a figure of 8 may be described, and so on. Fig. 18 shows
curves given by intervals of the octave, the twelfth and the fifth.
The kaleidophone devised by Charles Wheatstone in 1827 gives
these figures in a simple way. It consists of a straight rod clamped
in a vice and carrying a bead at its upper free end. The bead is
illuminated and shows a bright point of light. If the rod is circular
in section and perfectly uniform the end will describe a circle,
ellipse or straight line; but, as the elasticity is usually not exactly
the same in all directions, the figure usually changes and revolves.
Various modifications of the kaleidophone have been made
(Rayleigh, Sound, 38).
Koenig devised a clock in which a fork of frequency 64 takes
the place of the pendulum (Wied. Ann., 1880, ix. 394). The motion
of the fork is maintained by the clock acting through
an escapement, and the dial registers both the number
of vibrations of the fork and the seconds, minutes and
hpurs. By comparison with a clock of known rate
the total number of vibrations of the fork in any time may be
accurately determined. One prong of the fork carries a micro-
scope objective, part of a vibration microscope, of which the
eyepiece is fixed at the back of the clock and the Lissajous figure
FREQUENCY AND PITCH]
SOUND
447
made by the clock fork and any other fork may be observed. With
this apparatus Koenig studied the effect of temperature on a
standard fork of 256 frequency, and found that the frequency
decreased by 0-0286 of a vibration for a rise of 1, the frequency
being exactly 256 at 26-2 C. Hence the frequency may be put as
256)10-000113 (t 26-2)).
Clarke's
Strobo-
scopk
Method.
(From Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.)
FIG. 18.
Koenig also used the apparatus to investigate the effect on the
frequency of a fork of a resonating cavity placed near it. He
found that when the pitch of the cavity was below that of the fork
the pitch of the fork was raised, and vice versa. But when the pitch
of the cavity was exactly that of the fork when vibrating alone,
though it resounded most strongly, it did not affect the frequency
of the fork. These effects have been explained by Lord Rayleigh
(Sound, i. 117).
In the stroboscopic method of H. M'Leod and G. S. Clarke, the
full details of which will be found in the original memoir (Phil.
Trans., 1880, pt. i. p. l), a cylinder is ruled with equi-
M'Lcodaad distant white lines parallel to the axis on a black
ground. It is set so that it can be turned at any de-
sired and determined speed about a horizontal axis,
and when going fast enough it appears grey. Imagine
now that a fork with black prongs is held near the
cylinder with its prongs vertical and the plane of vibration
parallel to the axis, and suppose that we watch the outer out-
line of the right-hand prong. Let the cylinder be rotated so that
each white line moves exactly into the place of the next while the
prong moves once in and out. Hence when a white line is in
a particular position on the cylinder, the prong will always be the
same distance along it and cut off the same length from view.
The most will be cut off in the position of the lines corresponding
to the furthest swing out, then less and less till the furthest swing
in, then more and more till the furthest swing out, when the appear-
ance will be exactly as at first. The boundary between ,the grey
cylinder and the black fork will therefore appear wavy with fixed
undulations, the distance from crest to crest being the distance
between the lines on the cylinder. If the fork has slightly greater
frequency, then a white line will not quite reach the next place
while the fork is making its swing in and out, and the waves will
travel against the motion of the cylinder. If the fork has slightly
less frequency the waves will travel in the opposite direction, and
it is easily seen that the frequency of the fork is the number of
white lines passing a point in a second the number of waves
passing the point per second. This apparatus was used to find the
temperature coefficient of the frequency of forks, the value ob-
tained -oooi i being the same as that found by Koenig. Another
important result of the investigation was that the phase of vibra-
tion of the fork was not altered by bowing it, the amplitude alone
changing. The method is easily adapted for the converse deter-
mination of speed of revolution when the frequency of a fork is
known.
The phonic wheel, invented independently by Paul La Cour and
Lord Rayleigh (see Sound, i. 68 c), consists of a wheel carrying
several soft-iron armatures fixed at equal distances
p? frf S round its circumference. The wheel rotates between
W L . the poles of an electro-magnet, which is fed by an
intermittent current such as that which is working an
electrically maintained tuning-fork (see infra). If the wheel be
driven at such rate that the armatures move one place on in about
the period of the current, then on putting on the current the electro-
magnet controls the rate of the wheel so that the agreement of
period is exact, and the wheel settles down to move so that the
electric driving forces just supply the work taken out of the wheel.
If the wheel has very little work to do it may not be necessary to
apply driving power, and uniform rotation may be maintained by
the electro-magnet. In an experiment described by Rayleigh
such a wheel provided with four armatures was used to determine
the exact frequency of a driving fork known to have a frequency
near 32. Thus the wheel made about 8 revolutions per second.
There was one opening in its disk, and through this was viewed
the pendulum of a clock beating seconds. On the pendulum was
fixed an illuminated silver bead which appeared as a bright point
of light when seen for an instant. Suppose now an observer to
be looking from a fixed point at the bead through the hole in the
phonic wheel, he will see the bead as 8 bright points flashing out
in each beat, and in succession at intervals of g second. Let us
suppose that he notes the positions of two of these next to each other
in the beat of the pendulum one way. If the fork makes exactly
32 vibrations and the wheel 8 revolutions in one pendulum beat,
then the positions will be fixed, and every two seconds, the time
of a complete pendulum vibration, he will see the two positions
looked at flash out in succession at an interval of | second. But
if the fork has, say, rather greater frequency, the hole in the wheel
comes round at the end of the two seconds before the bead has
quite come into position, and the two flashes appear gradually
to move back in the opposite way to the pendulum. Suppose that
in N beats of the clock the flashes have moved exactly one place
back. Then the first flash in the new position is viewed by the
8Nth passage of the opening, and the second flash in the original
position of the first is viewed when the pendulum h^s made exactly
N beats and by the (8 N + i)th passage of the hole. Then the
wheel makes 8 N + i revolutions in N clock beats, and the fork
makes 32 N + 4 vibrations in the same time. If the clock is going
exactly right, this gives a frequency for the fork of 32 + 4/N. If
the fork has rather less frequency than 32 then the flashes appear
to move forward and the frequency will be 32 4/N. In Rayleigh's
experiment the 32 fork was made to drive electrically one of fre-
quency about 128, and somewhat as with the phonic wheel, the
frequency was controlled so as to be exactly four times that of the
32 fork. A standard 128 ;fork could then be compared either
optically or by beats with the electrically driven fork.
Scheibler's Tonometer. When two tones are sounded together
with frequencies not very different, " beats " or swellings-out of the
sound are heard of frequency equal to the difference of frequencies
of the two tones (see below). Johann Heinrich Scheibler (1777-
1838) tuned two forks to an exact octave, and then prepared a
number of. others dividing the octave into such small steps that
the beats between each and the next could be counted easily.
Let the forks be numbered o, I, 2, . . . N. If the frequency
of o is n, that of N is 2n. Suppose that No. i makes mi beats
with No. o, that No. 2 makes m t beats with No. I, and so on, then
the frequencies are
n, n+m\, n+mi+m?, . . ., n+m t +m^+ . . . + mu-
Since n+mi+>2+ . . . + m^=2n, n = mi-\-mi-\- . . . -\-m-^,
and it follows that when n is known, the frequency of every fork
in the range may be determined.
Any other fork within this octave can then have its frequency
determined by finding the two between which it lies. Suppose,
for instance, it makes 3 beats with No. 10, it might have frequency
either 3 above or below that of No. 10. But if it lies above No. 10
it will beat less often with No. II than with No. 9; if below
No. 10 less often with No. 9 than with No. n. Suppose it lies
between No. 10 and No. II its frequency is that of No. 10+3.
Manometric Flames. This is a device due to Koenig (Phil. Mag.,
J 873, 45) and represented diagrammatically in fig. 19. / is a flame
FIG. 19.
from a pinhole burner, fed through a cavity C, one side of which is
closed by a membrane m; on the other side of the membrane is
another cavity C', which is put into connexion with a source of
sound, as, for instance, a Helmholtz resonator excited by a fork
of the same frequency. The membrane vibrates, and alternately
checks and increases the gas supply, and the flame jumps up and
down with the frequency of the source. It then appears elongated.
To show its intermittent character its reflection is viewed in a re-
volving mirror. For this purpose four vertical mirrors are arranged
round the vertical sides of a cube which is rapidly revolved about
a vertical axis. The flame then appears toothed as shown. If
several notes are present the flame is jagged by each. Interesting
results are obtained by singing the different vowels into a funnel
substituted for the resonator in the figure.
SOUND
[DIATONIC SCALE
If two such flames are placed one under the other they may be
excited by different sources, and the ratio of the frequencies may be
approximately determined by counting the number of teeth in each
in the same space.
The Diatonic Scale.
It is not necessary here to deal generally with the various
musical scales. We shall treat only of the diatonic scale,
which is the basis of European music, and is approximated to
as closely as is consistent with convenience of construction in
key-board instruments, such as the piano, where the eight white
notes beginning with C and ending with C an octave higher
may be taken as representing the scale with C as the key-note.
All experiments in frequency show that two notes, forming
a definite musical interval, have their frequencies always in the
same ratio wherever in the musical scale the two notes are
situated. In the scale of C|the intervals from the key-note, the
frequency ratios with the key-note, the successive frequency
ratios and the successive intervals are as follows:
Note . . .
C
D
E
F
G
A
B
C
Interval with C
second
major
fourth
fifth
major
seventh
octave
third
sixth
Frequency *.
i
1
I
1
i
V
2
Successive fre-
I
V
II
1
10
1
I
tl
quency ratios.
Successive in-
major
minor
major
major
minor
major
major
tervals
tone
tone
semi-
tone
tone
tone
semi-
tone
tone
If we pass through two intervals in succession, as, for instance,
if we ascend through a fourth from C to F and then through
a third from F to A, the frequency ratio of A to C is f , which is
the product of the ratios for a fourth f , and a third f. That is,
if we add intervals we must multiply frequency ratios to obtain
the frequency ratio for the interval which is the sum of the two.
The frequency ratios in the diatonic scale are all expressible
either as fractions, with i, 2, 3 or 5 as numerator and denomina-
tor, or as products of such fractions; and it may be shown that
for a given note the numerator and denominator are smaller
than any other numbers which would give us a note in the
immediate neighbourhood.
Thus the second f=$XfXj, and we may regard it as an
ascent through two fifths in succession and then a descent
through an octave. The third i= 5X5X5 or ascent through
an interval f, which has no special name, and a descent
through two octaves, and so on.
Now suppose we take G as the key-note and form its diatonic
scale. If we write down the eight notes from G to g in the key
of C, their frequency ratios to C, the frequency ratios required
by the diatonic scale for G, we get the frequency ratios required
in the last line:
Notes on scale of C
G
A
B
c
d
' e
f
t
Frequency ratios with C = i .
Frequency ratios of diatonic scale
*
i
V
2
I
"
8
3
with G = i
i
^
\
g
8
I
V
2
Frequency ratios with C = I, G = J .
f
H
V
2
f
5
1
3
We see that all but two notes coincide with notes on the scale
of C. But instead of A = jj we have H, and instead of /= f we
have 4$. The interval between i and f$ - H + f = f J- is
termed a " comma," and is so small that the same note on an
instrument may serve for both. But the interval between f and
f| = ^-f -i- f = ^ff is quite perceptible, and on the piano,
for instance, a separate string must be provided above /. This
note is /sharp, and the interval }-f is termed a sharp.
Taking the successive key-notes D, A, E, B, it is found that
besides small and negligible differences, each introduces a new
sharf), and so we get the five sharps, C, D, F, G, A, represented
nearly by the black keys.
If we start with F as key-note, besides a small difference at
d, we have as the fourth from it f X f = V, making with
B = V an interval }$, and requiring a new note, B flat.
This does not coincide with A sharp which is the octave below
the seventh from BoxVXVXf- Hf It makes with
it an interval = V + ?if = fM&, rather less than a comma;
so that the same string in the piano may serve for both. If we
take the new note B flat as key-note, another note, E flat, is
required. E flat as key-note introduces another flat, and so
on, 'each flat not quite coinciding with a sharp but at a very
small interval from it.
It is evident that for exact diatonic scales for even a limited
number of key-notes, key-board instruments would have to be
provided with a great number of separate strings or pipes,
and the corresponding keys would be required. The construc-
tion would be complicated and the playing exceedingly difficult.
The same string or pipe and the same key have therefore to
serve for what should be slightly different notes. A compromise
has to be made, and the note has to be tuned so as to make the
compromise as little unsatisfactory as possible. At present
twelve notes are used in the octave, and these are arranged at
equal intervals 2^. This is termed the equal temperament scale,
and it is obviously only an approach to the diatonic scale.
Helmholtz's Notation. In works on sound it is
usual to adopt Helmholtz's notation, in which the
octave from bass to mic}dle_ C is written c d e f e
a b c'. The octave above is c' d' e' j' g' a' V c .
The next octave above has two accents, and each
succeeding octave another accent. The octave
below bass C is written CDEFGABc. The
next octave below is Ci Di EI FI Gi Ai Bi C, and
each preceding octave has another accent as suffix.
The standard frequency for laboratory work is
= 128, so that middle '=256 and treble c* =
512.
The standard for musical instruments has varied (see PITCH,
MUSICAL). Here it is sufficient to say that the French standard is
a' =435 with c" practically 522, and that in England the pitch is
somewhat higher.
The French notation is as under :
CDEFGABc
Uti Rei Mi Fai Soli Lai Su Utj.
The next higher octave has the suffix 2, the next higher the suffix 3,
and so on. French forks are marked with double the true frequency,
so that Utj is marked 512.
Limiting Frequencies for Musical Sounds. Until the vibrations of
a source have a frequency in the neighbourhood of 30 per second
the ear can hear the separate impulses, if strong enough, but does
not hear a note. It is not easy to determine the exact point at
which the impulses fuse into a continuous tone, for higher tones are
usually present with the deepest of which the frequency is being
counted, and these may be mistaken for it. Helmholtz (Sensations
of Tone, ch. ix.) used a string loaded at the middle point so that the
higher tones were several octaves above the fundamental, and so
not likely to be mistaken for it; he found that with 37 vibrations
per second a very weak sensation of tone was heard, but with 34
there was scarcely anything audible left. A determinate musical
pitch is not perceived, he says, till about 40 vibrations per second.
At the other end of the scale with increasing frequency there is
another limiting frequency somewhere about 20,000 per second,
beyond which no sound is heard. But this limit varies greatly
with different individuals and with age for the same individual.
Persons who when young could hear the squeaks of bats may be
quite deaf to them when older. Koenig constructed a series of bars
forming a harmonicon, the frequency of each bar being calculable,
and he found the limit to be between 16,000 and 24,000.
The Number of Vibrations needed to give the Perception of Pitch.
Experiments have been made on this subject by various workers,
the most extensive by W. Kohlrausch (Wied. Ann., 1880, x. i).
He allowed a limited number of teeth on the arc of a circle to strike
against a card. With sixteen teeth the pitch was well defined;
with nine teeth it was fairly determinate; and even with two teeth
it could be assigned with no great error. His remarkable result
that two waves give some sense of pitch, in fact a tone with wave-
length equal to the interval between the waves, has been confirmed
by other observers.
Alteration of Pitch with Motion of Source or Hearer: Doppler's
Principle. A very noticeable illustration of the alteration of pitch
by motion occurs when a whistling locomotive moves rapidly past
an observer. As it passes, the pitch of the whistle falls quite
appreciably. The explanation is simple. The engine follows up
any wave that it has sent forward, and so crowds up the succeeding
waves into a less distance than if it remained at rest. It draws
off from any wave it has sent backward and so spreads the succeeding
waves over a longer distance than if it had remained at rest. Hence
the forward waves are shorter and the backward waves are longer.
Since U = n X where U is the velocity of sound, X the wave-length,
and n the frequency, it follows that the forward frequency is greater
than the backward frequency.
The more general case of motion of source, medium and receiver
MUSICAL QUALITY]
SOUND
449
may be treated very easily if the motions are all in the line joining
source and receiver. Let S (fig. 20) be the source at a given instant,
and let its frequency of vibration, or the number of waves it sends
out per second, be n. Let S' be its position one second later, its
velocity being . Let R be the. receiver at a given instant, R' its
position a second later, its velocity being v. Let the velocity of the
air from S to R be w, and let U be the velocity of sound in still air.
FIG. 20.
If all were still, the n waves emitted by S in one second would spread
over a length U. But through the wind velocity the first wave is
carried to a distance U + vi from S, while through the motion of
the source the last wave is a distance u from S. Then the n waves
occupy a space U -f- w u. Now turning to the receiver, let us
consider what length is occupied by the waves which pass him in
one second. If he were at rest, it would be the waves in length
U + w, for the wave passing him at the beginning of a second would
be so tar distant at the end of the second. But through his motion
in the second, he receives only the waves in distance U + w v.
Since there are n waves in distance U + w u the number he actu-
ally receives is n(U -\-w f)/(U -\-iti u). If the velocities of
source and receiver are equal then the frequency is not affected by
their motion or by the wind. But if their velocities are different,
the frequency of the waves received is affected both by these
velocities and by that of the wind.
The change in pitch through motion of the source may be
illustrated by putting a pitch-pipe in one end of a few feet of rubber
tubing and blowing through the other end while the tubing is whirled
round the head. An observer in the plane of the motion can easily
hear a change in the pitch as the pitch-pipe moves to and from him.
Musical Quality or Timbre. Though a musical note has definite
pitch or frequency, notes of the same pitch emitted by different
instruments have quite different quality or timbre. The three
characteristics of a longitudinal periodic disturbance are its ampli-
tude, the length after which it repeats itself, and its form, which may
be represented by the shape of the displacement curve. Now the
amplitude evidently corresponds to the loudness, and the length
of period corresponds to the pitch or frequency. Hence we must
put down the quality or timbre as depending on the form.
The simplest form of wave, so far as our sensation goes that is,
the one giving rise to a pure tone-^is, we have every reason to suppose,
one in which the displacement is represented by a harmonic curve
or a curve of sines, y=a sin m(x e). If we put this in the form
y=a sin y (xe), we see that y=o, for x=e, e+%\, e+|X,
e+IX, and so on, that y is + from x = e to *=e+JX, from
e + %\ to e+iX, and so on, and that it alternates between the
values+a and a.
The form of the curve is evidently as represented in fig. 21, and
it may easily be drawn to exact scale from a table of sines.
H
I
A/
M
K
FIG. 21.
In this curve ABCD are nodes. OA = e is termed the epoch,
being the distance from O of the first ascending node. AC is the
shortest distance after which the curve begins to repeat itself;
this length X is termed the wave-length. The maximum height
of the curve HM=a is the amplitude. If we transfer O to A,
e = o, and the curve may be represented by y=a sin ^x.
If now the curve moves along unchanged in form in the direction
ABC with uniform velocity U, the epoch e = OA at any time t will
be \Jt, so that the value of y may be represented as
y = a sin -(x Vf).
(16)
The velocity perpendicular to the axis of any pbint on the curve
at a fixed distance x from O is
The acceleration perpendicular to the axis is
(18)
which is an equation characteristic of simple harmonic motion.
The maximum velocity of a particle in the wave-train is the
amplitude of dyjdt. It is, therefore,
xxv. 15
The maximum pressure excess is the amplitude of S> = Eu/U
= (ElU)dyldt. It is therefore
u m = (E / U) 27rUa/X = 2irpUo. (20)
We have already found the energy density in the train and the
energy stream in equations (13) and (14).
The chief experimental basis for supposing that a train of longi-
tudinal waves with displacement curve of this kind arouses the
sensation of a pure tone is that the more nearly a source is made to
vibrate with a single simple harmonic motion, and therefore,
presumably, the more nearly it sends out such a harmonic train,
the more nearly does the note heard approximate to a single
pure tone.
Any periodic curve may be resolved into sine or harmonic curves
by Fourier's theorem.
Suppose that any periodic sound disturbance, consist- ~.
ing of plane waves, is being propagated in the Theorem -
direction ABCD (fig. 22). Let it be represented by a displacement
curve AHBKC. Its periodicity implies that after a certain distance
the displacement curve exactly repeats itself. Let AC be the
L
FIG. 22.
shortest distance after which the repetition occurs, so that CLDME
is merely AHBKC moved on a distance AC. Then AC = X is the
wave-length or period of the curve. Let ABCD be drawn at such
level that the areas above and below it are equal; then ABCD is
the axis of the curve. Since the curve represents a longitudinal
disturbance in air it is always continuous, at a finite distance from
the axis, and with only one ordinate for each abscissa.
Fourier's theorem asserts that such a curve may be built up by
the superposition, or addition of ordinates, of a series of sine curves
of wave-lengths X, \\, \\, JX. . . if the amplitudes a, 6, c. . .and
the epochs e, f, g. . . . are suitably adjusted, and the proof of the
theorem gives rules for finding these quantities when the original
curve is known. We may therefore put
y = a sin (x-e)+b sin ^(x-f)+c sin -^(x-g)+&c. (21)
where the terms may be infinite in number, but always have wave-
lengths submultiples of the original or fundamental wave-length X.
Only one such resolution of a given periodic curve is possible, and
each of the constituents repeats itself not only after a distance
equal to its own wave-length \/n, but evidently also after a distance
equal to the fundamental wave-length X. The successive terms of
(21) are called the harmonics of the first term.
It follows from this that any periodic disturbance in air can be
resolved into a definite series of simple harmonic disturbances of
wave-lengths equal to the original wave-length and its successive
submultiples, and each of these would separately give the sensa-
tion of a pure tone. If the series were complete we should have
terms which separately would correspond to the fundamental, its
octave, its twelfth, its double octave, and so on. Now we can see
that two notes of the same pitch, but of different quality, or different
form of displacement curve, will, when thus analysed, break up into
a series having the same harmonic wave-lengths; but they may
differ as regards the members of the series present and their ampli-
tudes and epochs. We may regard quality, then, as determined by
the members of the harmonic series present and their amplitudes and
epochs. It may, however, be stated here that certain experiments
of Helmholtz appear to show that the epoch of the harmonics has
not much effect on the quality.
Fourier's theorem can also be usefully applied to the disturbance
of a source of sound under certain conditions. The nature of these
conditions will be best realized by considering the case of a stretched
string. It is shown below how the vibrations of a string may be
deduced from stationary waves. Let us here suppose that the string
AB is displaced into the form AHB (fig. 23) and is then let go. Let
FIG. 23.
us imagine it to form half a wave-length of the extended train
ZGAHBKC, on an indefinitely extended stretched string, the values
of y at equal distances from A (or from B) being equal and opposite.
Then, as we shall prove later, the vibrations of the string may be
represented by the travelling of two trains in opposite directions
each with velocity
V tension -r mass per unit length
each half the height of the train represented in fig. 23. For the
superposition of these trains will give a stationary wave between A
5
450
SOUND
[INTENSITY OR LOUDNESS
and B. Now we may resolve these trains by Fourier's theorem into
harmonics of wave-lengths X, JX, iX, &c., where X = 2AB and the
conditions as to the values of y can be shown to require that the
harmonics shall all have nodes, coinciding with the nodes of the
fundamental curve. Since the velocity is the same for all disturb-
ances they all travel at the same speed, and the two trains will
always remain of the same form. If then we resolve AHBKC into
harmonics by Fourier's theorem, we may follow the motion of the
separate harmonics, and their superposition will give the form of the
string at any instant. Further, the same harmonics with the same
amplitude will always be present.
We see, then, that the conditions for the application of Fourier's
theorem are equivalent to saying that all disturbances will travel
along the system with the same velocity. In many vibrating
systems this does not hold, and then Fourier's theorem is no longer
an appropriate resolution. But where it is appropriate, the disturb-
ance sent out into the air contains the same harmonic series as
the source.
The question now arises whether the sensation produced by a
periodic disturbance can be analysed in correspondence with this
.._, /n _ geometrical analysis. Using the term " note" for the
sound produced by a periodic disturbance, there is no
doubt that a well-trained ear can resolve a note into pure tones of
frequencies equal to those of the fundamental and its harmonics.
If, for instance, a note is struck and held down on a piano, a little
practice enables us to hear both the octave and the twelfth with the
fundamental, especially if we
have previously directed our
attention to these tones by
sounding them. But the har-
monics are most readily heard
if we fortify the ear by an air
cavity with a natural period
equal to that of the harmonic
to be sought. The form used
by Helmholtz is a glove of thin
brass (fig. 24) with a large hole
at one end of a diameter, at
the other end of which the
brass is drawn out into a short,
narrow tube that can be put
close to the ear. But a card-
board tube closed at one end, with the open end near the ear, will
often suffice, and it may be tuned by more or less covering up
the open end. If the harmonic corresponding to the resonator is
present its tone swells out loudly.
This resonance is a particular example of the general principle
that a vibrating system will be set in vibration by any periodic
P a VI- ^ orce applied to it, and ultimately in the period of the
",, force, its own natural vibrations gradually dying down.
brut ton sito , -, < _i.r j - t i
Vibrations thus excited are termed forced vibrations,
' and their amplitude is greater the more nearly the
period of the applied force approaches that of the system when
vibrating freely. The mathematical investigation of forced vibra-
tions (Rayleigh.Sottmi, i. 46) shows that, if there were nodissipation
of energy, the vibration would increase indefinitely when the periods
coincided. But there is always leakage of energy either through
friction or through wave-emission, so that the vibration only
increases up to the point at which the leakage of energy balances
the energy put in by the applied force. Further, the greater the
dissipation of energy the less is the prominence of the amplitude of
vibration for exact coincidence over the amplitude when the periods
are not quite the same, though it is still the greatest for coincidence.
The principle of forced vibration may be illustrated by a simple
case. Suppose that a mass M is controlled by some sort of spring,
so that moving freely it executes harmonic vibrations given by
Mi= \ix, where fix is the restoring force to the centre of vibration.
Putting tt/M=n? the equation becomes x+ri>x = o, whence
x = A sin nt, and the period is 2ir/n.
Now suppose that in addition to the internal force represented by
iix, an external harmonic force of period 2v/p is applied. Repre-
senting it by P sin pt, the equation of motion is now
^-.sinpt=O. (22)
FIG. 24. Helmholtz Resonator.
Let us assume that the body makes vibrations in the new period
2-rp, and let us put x = B sin pt; substituting in (22) we have
-p*B+n*B + P/M =o, whence
and the " forced " oscillation due to P sin pt is
P sin pt
' '
(23)
If p> n the motion agrees in phase with that which the applied force
alone would produce, obtained by putting n=o. If p<n the
phases are opposite. If p = n the amplitude becomes infinite. This
is the case of " resonance." The amplitude does not, of course,
become infinite in practice. There is always loss of energy by dissi-
pation in the vibrating machinery and by radiation into the medium,
and the amplitude only increases until this loss is balanced by the
gain from the work done by the applied force.
According to Helmholtz, the ear probably contains within it a
series of resonators, with small intervals between the periods of the
successive members, while the series extends over the The Ear
whole range of audible pitch. We need not here enter a p ourier
into the question of the structure constituting these . ourier
resonators. Each of them is supposed to have its own
natural frequency, and to be set into vibration when the ear receives
a train of waves of that frequency. The vibration in some way
arouses the sensation of the corresponding tone. But the same
resonator will be appreciably though less affected by waves of
frequency differing slightly from its own. Thus Helmholtz from
certain observations (Sound, ii. 388) thought that if the
intensity of response by a given resonator in the ear to its own tone
is taken as I, then its response to an equally loud tone a semitone
different may be taken as about fa. According to this theory, then,
when a pure tone is received the auditory apparatus corresponding
to that tone is most excited, but the apparatus on each side of
it is also excited, though by a rapidly diminishing amount, as the
interval increases. If the sensations corresponding to these neigh-
bouring elements are thus aroused, we have no such perception as a
pure tone, and what we regard as a pure tone is the mean of a group
of sensations. The sensitiveness of the ear in judging of a given tone
must then correspond to the accuracy with which it can judge of the
san.
Measurements of Intensity of Sound or Loudness. Various
devices have been successfully employed for making sounds
of determinate loudness in order to test the hearing of partially
deaf people. But the converse, the measurement of the loudness
of a sound not produced at our will, is by no means so easy.
If we compare the problem with that of measuring the illumina-
tion due to a source of light, we see at once how different it is.
In sound sensation we have nothing corresponding to white
light. A noise such as the roar due to traffic in a town may
correspond physically in that it could probably be resolved into
a nearly continuous series of wave-lengths, but psychically it
is of no interest. We do not use such noise, but rather seek to
avoid it. We certainly do not wish to measure its loudness,
and even if we did it might be difficult to fix on any unit of
noisiness. Probably we should be driven to a purely physical
unit, the stream of energy proceeding in any direction, and if
the noise were great enough we might measure it possibly by
the pressure against a surface.
The intensity of the stream of energy passing per second
through a square centimetre when a given pure tone is sounded
is more definite and can be measured. There are two practical
methods. In the one, the energy of vibration of the source
is measured, and the rate at which that energy decreases is
observed. The amount radiated out in the form of sound waves
is deduced, and hence the energy of the stream at any distance
is known. In the other, the waves produce a measurable effect
on a vibrating system of the same frequency, and the amplitude
in the waves can be deduced.
The first may be illustrated by Lord Rayleigh's experiments to-
determine the amplitude of vibration in waves only just audible
(Sound, ii. 384). He used two kinds of experiment,
but it will be sufficient here to indicate the second. A ?'" e
fork of frequency 256 was used as the source. The energy ot ^ ua!ble
of this fork with a given amplitude of vibration could Sounds-
be calculated from its dimensions and elasticity, and '
the amplitude was observed by measuring with a microscope
the line into which the image of a starch grain on the prong was
drawn by the vibration. The rate of loss of energy was calculated
from the rate of dying down of the vibration. This rate of loss for
each amplitude was determined (l) when the fork was vibrating
alone, and (2) when a resonator was placed with its mouth under
the free ends of the fork. The difference in loss in the two cases
measured the energy given up to and sent out by the resonator as
sound. The amplitude of the fork was observed when the sound
just ceased to be audible at 27-4 metres away, and the rate of energy-
emission from the resonator was calculated to be 42-1 ergs / second.
Assuming this energy to be propagated in hemispherical waves, it
is easy to find the quantity per second going through I sq. cm. at
the distance of the listener, and thence from the energy in a wave,
found above, to determine the amplitude. The result was an
amplitude of 1-27X10^ cm. Other forks gave results not very
different.
In a later series of experiments Lord Rayleigh (Phil. Mag.. 1907,
14, p. 596) found that the least energy stream required to excite
sensation did not vary greatly between frequencies of 512 and 256,
SOURCES]
SOUND
but that the stream required increased rapidly as the frequency was
reduced below 256.
The second method may be illustrated by the experiments of
M. Wien (Wied. Ann., 1889, xxxvi. 834). He used a spherical Helm-
holtz resonator resounding to the tone to be measured. The orifice
which is usually placed to the ear was enlarged and closed by a
corrugated plate like that of an aneroid barometer, and the motion
of this plate was indicated by means of a mirror which had one edge
fixed, while the other was attached to a style fixed to the centre of
the plate. When the plate vibrated the mirror was vibrated about
the fixed edge, and the image of a reflected slit was broadened out
into a band, the broadening giving the amplitude of vibration of the
plate. From subsidiary experiments (for which the original memoir
must be consulted) the pressure variations within the resonator
could be calculated from the movements of the plate. The open
orifice of the resonator was then exposed to the waves from a
source of its own frequency. Helmholtz's theory of the resonator
(Rayleigh, Sound, ii. 31 1) gives the pressure variations in the
incident waves in terms of those in the resonator, and so the pressure
variation and the amplitude of vibration in the waves to be measured
were determined.
For minimum audible sounds Wien found a somewhat smaller
value of the amplitude than Rayleigh. It is remarkable that, as
Lord Rayleigh says, " the streams of energy required to influence
the eye and the ear are of the same order of magnitude." Wien
also used the apparatus to find the decrease of intensity with increase
of distance, and found that it was somewhat more rapid than the
inverse square law would give.
In a later series of experiments (Science Abst. vi. 301) Wien used
a telephone plate, of which the amplitude could be determined from
the value of the exciting current, and he found that the smallest
amplitude audible was 6-3 Xio- 10 cm.
W. Zernoy (Ann. d. Physik, 1906, 21, p. 131) compared the indica-
tions of Wien's resonator manometer with those of V. Altberg's
sound pressure apparatus and found very satisfactory agreement.
Stationary Waves. As a preliminary to the investigation of the
modes of vibration of certain sources of sound we shall consider the
formation of " stationary waves." These are not really waves in
the ordinary sense, but the disturbance arising from the passage
through the medium in opposite directions of two equal trains.
The medium is divided up into sections between fixed points, and
these sections vibrate. We can form stationary waves with ease
by fixing one end of a rope say 20 ft. long and holding the other
end in the hand. When the hand is moved to and fro transversely
waves are sent along the rope and reflected at the fixed end. The
direct and reflected systems are practically equal, and by suitably
timing the vibrations of the hand for each case the rope may be
made to vibrate as a whole, as two halves, as three-thirds and so on.
When it vibrates in several sections, each section moves in the
opposite way to its neighbours.
Let us suppose that two trains of sine waves of length X and
amplitude a are travelling in opposite directions with velocity U.
We may represent the displacement due to one of the trains by
. 2ir. TT .. . .
yi=a sm -r-(x \Jt). (24)
A
where x is measured as in equation (16) from an ascending node as
A in fig. 21. If we measure t from an instant at which the two trains
exactly coincide, then as U for the other train has the opposite sign,
its displacement is represented by
(25)
The sum-of the disturbance is obtained by adding (24) and (25)
2JT T , . 25T
yyi-ryz=2a cos ~\"U' sin ~\~x, (26)
At any given instant t this is a sine curve of amplitude 2a cos (2ir/X)U<,
and of wave-length X, and with nodes at x = o, jX, X, . . . ,
that is, there is no displacement at these nodes whatever the value
of t, and between them the displacement is always a sine curve,
but of amplitude varying between +20 and 2a. The ordinate
of the curve changes sign as we pass through a node, so that succes-
sive sections are moving always in opposite directions and have
opposite displacements. Each section then vibrates, and its
amplitude goes through all its values in time given by 2irUT/X =2*-,
or T=X/U, and the frequency is U/X. We may represent such a
train of " stationary waves " by fig. 25, where the curves give the
FIG. 25.
two extreme amplitudes. The points A, B, C, D are termed
" nodes," and the points half-way between them " loops."
The general character of these results may be obtained by a
graphic construction. Let fig. 26 (l) represent a wave-length of
each train when they are coincident. It is sufficient to take a single
wave-length. The dotted curve represents the superposition,
which simply doubles each ordinate. Divide the wave-length into,
say, eight equal parts as marked. Then move one train marked
(I) JX to the right, and the other train (II) |X to the left, intro-
ducing new parts of each train at one end, and sending out old parts
at the other. Then we get fig. 26 (2), the dotted curve representing
FIG. 26.
the resultant with amplitude I/V2 that of (i). Another movement
of JX in each direction gives (3) with resultant a straight line, and
so on for (4) and (5). In (5) the displacement is evidently equal and
opposite to that in (l). Further displacement will give the figures
(4). (3), (2), (i) again, but with (I) and (II) interchanged. When we
get back to (i) each train has been displaced through X and the
period is X/U. Further, the original nodes are always at rest, and
the intervening sections vibrate to and fro.
The vibrations of certain sources of sound may be represented,
at least as a first approximation, as consisting of stationary waves,
and from a consideration of the rate of propagation of waves along
these sources we can deduce their frequency when we know their
length.
Sources of Sound.
Elementary Theory of Pipes. The longitudinal vibration of
air in cylindrical pipes is made use of in various wind instruments.
We shall deduce the modes of vibration of the air column in a
cylindrical pipe from the consideration that the air in motion
within the pipe forms some part of a system of stationary waves,
one train being formed by the exciter of the disturbance, and the
other being formed by the reflection of the train at the end of
the pipe.
In order to justify the use of stationary waves we must show
that two such trains can move in opposite directions over the
same ground without modifying each other so long as the dis-
placement in either is small. For this it is necessary that the
total force on an element due to the sum of the displacements
should be equal to the sum of the forces due to the two displace-
ments considered separately. The medium then acts for the
second train just as if it were undisturbed by the first. It is
sufficient then to show that the excess of pressure at any point
is the sum of the excesses due to either train separately.
If a is the total pressure excess, and if y is the total displacement
at *, then u = EXchange of volume-*- original volume ;= Edy/dx.
If y\ and y 2 are the two separate displacements and if y y\-\-yt,
then ta= E (dyi/dx + dy^dx)=tai + tat- This proves the pro-
position. It is a case of the principle of superposition of small
disturbances.
Let us suppose that a system of stationary waves is formed in the
air in a pipe of indefinite length, and let fig. 27 represent a part of
the system. At the nodes A, B, C, D, E there is no displacement,
but there are maximum volume and pressure changes. Consider,
for instance, the point B. When the displacement is represented
by AHBKC the particles on each side of B are displaced towards it
452
SOUND
[PIPES
giving a compression, and since the slope is steepest there, or
dy/dx a maximum, the compression is also a maximum there.
When the displacement is represented by AH'BK'C the particles
on each side of B are displaced from it, giving an extension, and since
the slope is again the steepest, the extension is a maximum.
M'
M
FIG. 27.
At the loops, for instance at H, the displacement is a maximum.
The tangent to the displacement curve is always parallel to the axis,
that is, for a small distance the successive particles are always
equally displaced, and therefore always occupy the same volume.
This means that at the loops while the motion is greatest there are
no pressure changes.
We have now to select such portion of this system as will suit the
conditions imposed by any actual pipe. There are three distinct
types, which we will consider in succession.
i. Pipe Closed at One End, Open at the Other. At the closed end
there is no motion, for the pressure always constrains the air to
remain in contact with the end. The closed end is therefore a node.
At the open end, as a first approximation to be corrected later, there
are no pressure changes, for any tendency to excess can be relieved by
immediate expansion into the outer air, and any tendency to defect
can be filled up by an inrush from the outer air. The open end is
therefore a loop. It is to be noted that the exciter of the vibrations
is in general at the open end, and that the two trains forming the
stationary system consist of the direct waves from the exciter
travelling into the tube, and the waves reflected back from the
closed end.
In fig. 27 we may have the length AH occupying the tube. In
this case AH = iXi = /, the length of the tube, and the frequency
ni = U/Xi = U/4/. But we may also have a shorter wave-length
X a such that the length AK occupies the tube. In this case AK =
|X 2 =/, and the frequency n 2 = U/X 2 = 3U/4/. With a still shorter
wave-length X 3 we may have the length AL occupying the tube and
AL = |X S = J, an d tne frequency nj = U/X s = 5U/4/, and so on, as
we take succeeding loops for the open end.
In fig. 28 are represented the stationary wave systems of the first
four modes, and any of the succeeding ones are easily drawn.
FIG. 28.
The reader will be able to make out the simultaneous motions and
pressures at vario.us points. It is obvious that the nodes are alter-
nately in compression and extension, or vice versa, and that for JX
on each side of a node the motion is either to it on both sides or from
it on both sides.
The first mode of vibration gives the " fundamental tone, and
the succeeding modes are termed " overtones." The whole series
forms the series of odd harmonics. A " stopped pipe " in an organ
is a pipe of this type, and both the fundamental and the overtones
may occur simultaneously when it is blown.
We may illustrate the successive modes of vibration by using as
;ipe a tall cylindrical jar, and as exciter a vibrating tuning-fork
eld over the mouth. The length of the pipe may be varied by
pouring in water, and this is done until we get maximum resonance
of the pipe to the fork. Thus if a fork 11*3 = 256 is used, the length
of pipe for the fundamental at o C. is about 33,000/4X256 = 33 cms.
If a fork Sol, = 768 is used the pipe resounds to it according to the
mode of the first overtone. If the temperature is P the length for
given frequency must be increased by the factor i +o-ooi84<.
Correction to Length at the Open End. The approximate theory of
pipes due to Bernoulli assumes a loop at the open end, but the
h'
condition for a loop at the open end, that of no pressure variation,
cannot be exactly fulfilled. This would require that the air outside
should have no mass in order that it should at once move out and
relieve the air at the end of the pipe from any excess of pressure,
or at once move in and fill up any defect. There are variations,
therefore, at the open end, and these are such that the loop may be
regarded as situated a short distance outside the end of the pipe.
It may be noted that in practice there is another reason for pressure
variation at the end of the pipe. The stationary wave method
regards the vibration in the pipe as due to a series of waves travelling
to the end and being there reflected back down the pipe. But the
reflection is not complete, for some of the energy comes out as
waves; hence the direct and reflected trains are quite equal, and
cannot neutralize each other at the loop.
The position of the loop has not yet been calculated for an ordinary
open pipe, but Lord Rayleigh has shown (Sound, ii. 307) that for
a cylindrical tube of radius R, provided with a flat extended flange,
the loop may be regarded as about 0-82 R, in advance of the end.
That is, the length of the pipe must be increased by 0-82 R before
applying Bernoulli's theory. This is termed the " end correction."
FIG. 29.
Using this result Rayleigh found the correction for an unflanged
open end by sounding two pipes nearly in unison, each provided
with a flange, and counting the beats. Then the flange was removed
from one and the beats were again counted. The change in virtual
length by removal of the flange was thus found, and the open end
correction for the unflanged pipe was 0-6 R. This correction has
also been found by David James Blaikley by direct experiment
(Phil. Mag., 1879, 7, p. 339). He used a tube of variable length
and determined the length resounding to a given fork, (i) when the
closed end was the first node, (2) when it was the second node. If
these lengths are /i and k, then I? 1\ = %\ and JCi A) A is the
correction for the open end. The mean value found was 0-576 R.
2. Pipe Open at Both Ends. Each end is a loop. We must there-
fore select a length of fig. 27 between two loops. The fundamental
mode is that in which H and K represent the ends of the pipe. In
this case HK = |Xi=/, and the frequency is n\ = U/Xi = U/2/.
There is a node in the middle. In the next mode H and L represent
the ends and HL = X 2 =/ and n 2 = U/X 2 = 2U/2/. In the third mode
HM =^Xa=/ and ns = U/X 3 = 3U/2/, and so on.
In fig. 29 are represented the stationary wave systems of the
first four modes. The whole series of fundamental and overtones
gives the complete set of harmonics of frequencies proportional to
I, 2, 3, 4, . . . , and wave-lengths proportional to I, J, f, J. . . .
A metal or brass tube will serve as such a pipe, and may be excited
by a suitable tuning-fork held at one end. To obtain the virtual
length we must add the correction for each open end, probably
about 1-2 radius. If the frequency is 256 the corrected length for
the fundamental is about (33,000/2X256) (i +-001840 at f. The
pipe will also resound to forks of frequencies 512, 768, 1024 and
so on.
An open " flue " organ pipe is of this type. The wind rushing
through the slit S (fig. 30) maintain? the vibration in a way to be
discussed later, and the opening O makes the lower end a loop.
The modes of vibration in an open organ pipe may be exhibited
by means of Koenig's manometric flames (Phil. Mag., 1873, vol. ^5).
The pipe is provided with manometric flames at its middle point,
and at one-quarter and three-quarters of its length. When the
pipe is blown softly the fundamental is very predominant, and
there is a node at the middle point. The flame there is much
STRINGS]
SOUND
453
affected by the nodal pressure changes, while the other two vibrate
only slightly. If, however, the pipe is blown strongly, the funda-
mental dies away, and the first overtone is predominant.
Then the middle point is a loop, and the middle flame
is only slightly affected, while the other two, now being
at nodes, vibrate strongly.
3. Pipe Closed at Both Ends. The two ends in such
a pipe are nodes. It is evident that the overtones
will follow the same rule as for a pipe opened at both
ends. This case is not exactly realized in practice, but
it is closely approximated to in Kundt's dust-tube. A
glass tube, the " dust-tube," 3 ft. or more in length, and
perhaps I in. in diameter, has a jittle lycopodium
powder introduced, and the powder is allowed to run
all along the tube, which is then fixed horizontally.
A closely-fitting adjustable piston is provided at one
end. A glass or metal rod, the " sounder," is clamped
at its middle point, and fixed along the prolongation
of the axis of the dust-tube as in fig. 31, a loosely-
fitting cork or card piston being fixed on one end of
the sounder, which is inserted within the dust-tube.
The other end of the sounder is stroked outwards
with a damp cloth so as to make it sound its funda-
mental. Stationary waves are formed in the air in
the dust-tube if the length is rightly adjusted by the
closely-fitting piston, and the lycopodium dust collects
at the nodes in little heaps, the first being at the fixed
end and the last just in front of the piston on the sounder. The
stationary wave system adjusts itself so that its motion agrees
with that of the sounder, which is therefore not exactly at a node.
If U, is the velocity of longitudinal waves along the sounder, and /
the length of the sounder, the frequency of vibration is U,/2/. If
L is the distance between successive dust-heaps, i.e. half a wave-
length, the frequency in the air is U/2L, where U is the velocity
of sound in the pipe. Then, since the frequencies are the same,
= U,/2/ or L/J = U/U..
FIG
'
FIG. 31.
The velocities in different gases may be compared by this appara-
tus by filling the dust-tube with the gases in place of air. If L; is
the internodal distance and Ui the velocity in a gas, L and U being
the corresponding values for air, we have Ui/U = Li/L.
Kundt's dust-tube may also be employed for the determination
of the ratio of the specific heats of a gas or vapour. If U is the
Specific velocity of sound in a gas at pressure P with density p,
Heats' and if waves of length X and frequency N are propagated
Ratio. through it, then the distance between the dust-heaps is
where 7 is the ratio of the two specific heats. If d is measured
for two gases in succession for the same frequency N, we have
72 = P2Pl *|
7i PiP 2 <ii 2 '
where the suffixes denote the gases to which the quantities relate.
If 71 is known this gives 72. Kundt and Warburg applied the
method to find 7 for mercury vapour (Pogg. Ann., 1876, 157, p. 356),
using a double form of the apparatus in which there are two dust-
tubes worked by the same sounding rod. This rod is supported at
\ and i of its length where it enters the two dust-tubes, as represented
diagrammatically in fig. 32. It is stroked in the middle so as to
f 1
1 1
FIG. 32.
excite its second mode of vibration. The method ensures that the
two frequencies shall be exactly the same. In the mercury experi-
ment the sounding rod was sealed into the dust-tube, which was
exhausted of air, and contained only some mercury and some quartz
dust to give the heaps. It was placed in a high temperature oven,
where the mercury was evaporated. The second tube containing
air was outside. When a known temperature was attained the
sounder was excited, and d* and d t could be measured. From the
temperature, P 2 /p 2 was known, and 72/71 could then be found.
Taking 71 = 1-41, 72 was determined to be 1-66. Lord Rayleigh
and Sir William Ramsay (Phil. Trans. A. 1895, pt. i. p. 187) also
used a single dust-tube with a sounder to find 7 for argon, and again
the value was i -66.
Determinations of Pressure Changes and Amplitude of Vibrations
tn Pipes. If th maximum pressure change is determined, the
amplitude is given by equation (20), viz.
5> m = 2irnap\J ,
for in the stationary wave system the pressure change and the
amplitude are both double those in either train, so that the same
relation holds.
Determinations of the pressure changes, or extent of excursion
of the air, in sounding organ pipes have been made by A. Kundt
(Pogg. Ann., 1868, 134, p. 163), A. J. I. Topler and
L. Boltzmann (Pogg. Ann., vol. 141, or Rayleigh,^'"".'"' 60 '
Sound, ii. 4220), and E. 'Mach (Optisch-akustischen"' rat ' oa -
Versuche, 1873). Mach's method is perhaps the most direct. The
pipe was fixed in a horizontal position, and along the top wall ran
a platinum wire wetted with sulphuric acid. When the wire was
heated by an electric current a fine line of vapour descended from
each drop. The pipe was closed at the centre by a membrane
which prevented a through draught, yet permitted the vibrations,
as it was at a node. The vapour line, therefore, merely vibrated to
and fro when the pipe was sounded. The extent of vibration at
different parts of the pipe was studied through a glass side wall, a
stroboscopic method being used to get the position of the vapour line
at a definite part of the vibration. Mach found an excursion of
0-4 cm. at the end of an open pipe 123 cm. long. The amplitude
found by the other observers was of the same order. For the
vibration of air in other cavities than long cylindrical pipes we refer
to Rayleigh's Sound, vol. ii. chs. 12 and 16.
Propagation of Waves in Pipes of Circular Section. Helmholtz
investigated the velocity of propagation of sound in pipes, taking
into account the viscosity of the air (Rayleigh, Sound, ii. 347), and
Kirchhoff investigated it, taking into account both the viscosity
and the heat communication between the air and the walls of the
pipe (loc. cit. ii. 350). Both obtained the value for the velocity
U I ~
where U is the velocity in free air, R is the radius of the pipe, N the
frequency, and p the air density. C is a constant, equal to the
coefficient of viscosity in Helmholtz's theory, but less simple in
Kirchhoff's theory. Experiments on the velocity in pipes were
carried out by H. Schneebeli (Pogg. Ann., 1869, 136, p. 296) and by
T. J. Seebeck (Pogg. Ann., 1870, 139, p. 104) which accorded with
this result as far as R is concerned, but the diminution of velocity
was found to be more nearly proportional to N" 3 . Kundt also
obtained results in general agreement with the formula (Rayleigh,
Sound, ii. 260). He used his dust-tube method.
Elementary Theory of the Transverse Vibration of
Musical Strings. .
We shall first investigate the velocity with which a disturbance
travels along a string of mass m per unit length when it is
stretched with a constant tension T, the same at all points.
We shall then show that on certain limitations two trains of
disturbance may be superposed so that stationary waves may
be formed, and thence we shall deduce the modes of vibration
as with pipes.
FIG. 33.
Let AB (fig. 33) represent the string with the ends AB fixed. Let
a disturbance once set going travel along unchanged in form from
A to B with velocity U. Then move AB from right to left with
this velocity, and the disturbance remains fixed in space. Take
a point P in the disturbed part, and a point Q which the disturbance
has not yet reached. Since the conditions in the region PQ remain
always the same, the momentum perpendicular to AB entering the
region at Q is equal to the momentum perpendicular to AB leaving
the region at P. But, since the motion at Q is along AB, there is
no momentum there perpendicular to AB. So also there is on the
whole none in that direction leaving at P. Let the tangent at P
make angle <t> with AB. The velocity of the string at P parallel to
PM is U sin $, and the mass of string passing P is m\J per second, so
that m.U 2 sin <j> is carried out per second. But the tension at P is T,
parallel to the tangent, and T sin <t> parallel to PM, and through this
T sin < is the momentum passing out at P per second. Since the
resultant is zero, mil* sin <f> T sin <=o, or U 2 = T/m.
Now keep AB fixed, and the disturbance travels with velocity U.
We might make this investigation more general by introducing a
force X as in the investigation for air, but it nardly appears necessary.
To form stationary waves two equal trains must be able to travel
in opposite directions with equal velocities, and to be superposed.
We must show then that the force called out by the sum of the dis-
turbances is equal to the sum of the forces called out by each train
separately.
In order that the velocity shall remain unchanged the tension T
must remain the same. This implies that the disturbance is so small
that the length is not appreciably altered. The component of T
454
SOUND
[WIRES AND RODS
acting parallel to the axis or straight string is Tdx/ds, and when the
disturbance is sufficiently small the curve of displacement is so
nearly parallel to the axis that dx/ds= I, and this component is T.
The component of T perpendicular to the axis is Tdylds = fdy/dx.
Now if y\ and yj are the displacements due to the two trains
separately, and y = y\-\-yi, the two separate forces are Tdyi/dx and
Tdyijdx, while that due to y is Tdy/dx. But since y = yi+y2,
Tdy/dx = Tdyi/dx+Tdy l /dx, or the condition for superposition
holds when the displacement is so small that we may put dx/ds=i.
Evidently this comes to neglecting <t> 3 . Let two trains of equal
waves moving in opposite directions along such a string of indefi-
nite length form the stationary system of fig. 27. Since the
nodes are always at rest we may represent the vibration of a
given string by the length between
any two nodes. The fundamental
mode is that in which A and B
represent the ends of the string. In
this case AB = i\i=/ the length, and
the frequency n\ = U/Xi = U/2/ =
(l/2/)V(T/w). The middle of the
string is a loop. In the next mode
A and C represent the ends and
AC = \i = l and n 2 = U/X 2 = 2U/2/ =
(2/2/)V(T/m). In the third mode
A and D represent the ends and
S = / and
FIG. 34.
(3/2/)V(T/m) and so on. In fig. 34
the stationary wave systems of the
first four modes are represented.
The complete series of harmonics
are possible modes.
The experimental demonstration
of these results is easily made by the sonometer or monochord
(fig- 35)- A string is fixed at C on the top of a hollow box, and
C
FIG. 35-
passes over two edges AB, which serve as the fixed ends, and then
over a pulley P, being stretched by a weight W. Between A and B
a " bridge " D, i.e. another edge slightly higher than A or B, can
be inserted in any position, which is determined by a graduated
scale. The effective length of the string is then AD. Keeping the
same tension, it may be shown that nl is constant by finding n for
various lengths. Keeping AD constant and varying W it may be
shown that n ooVW. Lastly, by using different strings, it may be
shown that, with the same T and I, n x ^(i/m).
The various modes of vibration may also be exhibited. If D is
removed and the string is bowed in the middle, the fundamental is
brought out. If it is touched in the middle with a feather, the edge
of a card, or the finger nail, and bowed a quarter of the way along
the octave, the first overtone comes out. Each of the first few
harmonics may be easily obtained by touching the string at the first
node of the harmonic required, and bowing at the first loop, and the
presence of the nodes and loops may be verified by putting light
paper riders of shape A on the string at the nodes and loops. When
the harmonic is sounded the riders at the loops are thrown off, while
those at the nodes remain seated.
Not only may the fundamental and its harmonics be obtained
separately, but they are also to be heard simultaneously, particularly
the earlier ones, which are usually more prominent than those
higher in the series. A practised ear easily discerns the coexistence
of these various tones when a pianoforte or violin string is thrown
into vibration. It is evident that, in such case, the string, while
vibrating as a whole between its fixed extremities, is at the same time
executing subsidiary oscillations about its middle point, its points
FIG. 36.
of trisection, &c., as shown in fig. 36, for the fundamental and the
first harmonic. When a string is struck or bowed at a point, any
harmonic with a node at that point is absent. Since the quality
of the note sounded depends on the mixture of harmonics, the quality
therefore is to some extent dependent on the point of excitation.
A highly ingenious and instructive method for illustrating the
laws of musical strings was contrived by F. E. Melde. It consists
in attaching to the loop or ventral segment of a vibrating body, e.g. a
tuning-fork or a bell-glass, a silk or cotton thread, the other extremity
being either fixed or passing over a pulley and supporting weights
by which the thread may be stretched to any degree required. The
vibrations of the larger mass are communicated to the thread, which
by proper adjustment of its length and tension vibrates in unison
and divides itself into one or more loops or ventral segments easily
discernible by a spectator. If the length of the thread be kept
invariable, a certain tension will give but one ventral segment; the
fundamental note of the thread is then of the same pitch as the note
of the body to which it is attached. By reducing the tension to one
quarter of its previous amount, the number of ventral segments will
be seen to be increased to two, indicating that the first harmonic of
the thread is now in unison with the solid, and consequently that its
fundamental is an octave lower than it was with the former tension ;
thus confirming the law that n varies as VT. In like manner,
on further lowering the tension to one ninth, three ventral segments
will be formed, and so on.
The law that, caeteris paribus, n varies inversely as the thickness
may be tested by forming a string of four lengths of the single thread
used before, and consequently of double the thickness of the latter,
when, for the same length and tension, the compound thread will
exhibit double the number of ventral segments presented by the
single thread.
The other laws admit of similar illustration.
Longitudinal Vibrations of Wires and Rods.
Subject to a limitation which we shall examine later, the
velocity of a longitudinal disturbance along a wire or rod depends
only on the material of the rod, and not upon the cross-section.
Since the forces called into play by an extension or compression
of the material are proportional to the cross-section, it follows
that if we consider any case and then another case in which, with
the same longitudinal disturbance, the cross-section is doubled,
the force in the second case is doubled as well as the mass to be
moved. The acceleration therefore remains the same, and the
velocity is unaltered. We shall find the velocity of propagation,
just as in previous cases, from the consideration of transfer of
momentum.
Suppose that a disturbance is travelling with velocity U unchanged
in form along a rod from left to right. Let us move the rod from
right to left, so that the undisturbed parts move with velocity U.
Then the disturbance remains fixed in space. Let A be a point in
FIG. 37.
the disturbance, and B a point in the undisturbed part. The
material between A and B, though continually changing, is always
in the same condition, and therefore the momentum within AB is
constant. Hence the amount carried out at A is equal to that
carried in at B.
Now momentum is transferred in two ways, viz. by the force
acting between contiguous portions of a body and by the transfer
of moving matter. At B there is only the latter kind, and since
the transfer of matter is pooioU, where po is the undisturbed density
and coo is the undisturbed cross-section, since its velocity is U the
passage of momentum per second is pocooW. At A, if the velocity
of the disturbance relative to undisturbed parts of the rod is u from
left to right, the velocity relative to A is U u. If p is the density
at A, and S> the cross-section, then the momentum carried past A
is pco(U uf. But if y is the displacement at A, dy/dx is the extension
at A, and the force acting is a pull across A equal to Yuody/dx, where
Y is Young's modulus of elasticity. Then we have
YSod:y/<fo+pS(U-) 2 = po<3oU 2 . (27)
Now /U=- dy/dx, (28)
for the particle at A moves over dy backwards, while the disturbance
moves over U. Also since dx has been stretched to dx+dy
pa(dx+dy) = po>adx
or p>(l+dy/dx)= patio. (29)
Substituting from (28) in (27)
YoSo-^ + pcoU' (i + 3!) = Po-SoU 1 , (30)
and substituting from (29) in (30)
(30
whence Ycoo = poioU 2 ,
or U' =Y/p, (32)
where now p is the normal density of the rod. The velocity with
which the rod must travel in order that the disturbance may be
fixed in space is therefore U = V(Y/p), or, if the rod is kept fixed,
this is the velocity with which the disturbance travels.
This investigation is subject to the limitation that the diameter
of the cross-section must be small compared with the wave-length.
When the rod extends or contracts longitudinally it contracts or
PLATES]
SOUND
455
extends radially and in the ratio a, known as Poisson's ratio, which
in metals is not far from \. Let us suppose that the rod is circular,
of radius r, and that the radial displacement of the surface is TJ. The
longitudinal extension is dy/dx, and therefore the radial contraction
is itlr = <rdy/dx. If then y = a sin y(* U/), 1= "^ COt-j^* U$).
If r is of the order of X, it is of the order of y; and the kinetic energy
of the radial motion is of the same order as that of the longitudinal
motion. But our investigation entirely leaves this out of account,
and is therefore faulty. In fact, the forces are then no longer parallel
to the axis. TJjere are shears of the order dri/dx and the simple
Young's modulus system can no longer be taken to represent the
actual condition (see Rayleigh, Sound, i. 157). But keeping r/X
small we may as before form stationary waves, and it is evident that
the series of fundamental and overtones will be just as with the air
in pipes, and we shall have the same three types fixed at one end,
free at both ends, fixed at both ends with fundamental frequencies
respectively
Y i . /Y , i. Y
The overtones will be obvious.
For an iron wire Y/p is about !O 12 /4, so that for a frequency of
500 in a wire fixed at both ends a length about 5 metres is required.
If the wire is stretched across a room and stroked in the middle with
a damp cloth the fundamental is easily obtained, and the first
harmonic can be brought out by stroking it at a quarter the length
from one end. A glass or brass rod free at both ends may be held
by the hand in the middle and excited by stroking one end outwards
with a damp cloth. If it is clamped at one-quarter and three-
quarters of the length from the ends, and is stroked in the middle,
the first harmonic sounds.
Young's modulus may be obtained for the material of a rod by
clamping it in the middle and obtaining the frequency of the funda-
mental when Y = 4/ 2 n 2 p.
The value thus obtained is generally appreciably greater than
that obtained by a statical method in which the rod is pulled out by
an applied tension.
Rods of different materials may be used as sounders in a Kundt's
dust tube, and their Young's moduli may be compared, since:
. length of rod
velocity in rod = velocity in air X distance between dust-heaps.
Torsional Vibrations of Rods and Wires. The velocity of propaga-
tion of a torsional disturbance along a wire of circular section may
be found by the transfer of momentum method, remembering that
we must now replace linear momentum by angular momentum.
Let the disturbance be supposed to travel unchanged in form from
left to right with velocity U. Now suppose that the wire or rod is
moved from right to left with velocity U. The disturbance is then
fixed in space. Let A be a point in the disturbance and B a point
in the undisturbed portion. The condition of the matter between
A and B remains constant, though fresh matter keeps coming in at
B and an equal quantity leaves at A. Hence the angular momentum
of the part between A and B remains constant, or as much enters at
B as leaves at A. But at B there is no torsion, and no torsion couple
of one part of the wire on the next. So that no angular momentum
enters at B, and therefore on the whole none leaves at A. The
transfer of angular momentum through A is of two kinds first, that
due to the passage of rotating matter, and, secondly, that due to the
couple with which matter to the right of A acts upon matter to the
left of A. The mass of matter moving through A per second is
fnra?U, where a is the radius of the wire and p is its density. If 9 is
the angle of twist, the angular velocity is dO/dt. The radius of
gyration of the section is fa 2 . Hence the angular momentum
conveyed per second outwards is ^p-!ra*Vd6/dt. The couple due
to the twist of a wire of length / through <t> is G = %nira 1 <i>/l, and we
may put <t>/l = d8/dx. Since no angular momentum goes out on the
whole
1 2 mra*d6/dx + % P Tra t Ud8/dt = o. (33)
But the condition of unchanged form requires that the matter
shall twist through (dd/dx)dx while it is travelling over dx, i.e. in
time dx/V.
de dx d9, de ,,dO
,
Then
Tt
.
Substituting in (33) we get
(34)
If we now keep the wire at rest the disturbance travels along it with
velocity U = V (n/p), and it depends on the rigidity and density of
the wire and not upon its radius.
It is easy to deduce the modes of vibration from stationary waves
as in the previous cases. If a rod is clamped at one end and free
at the other, the fundamental frequency is (i//)V (n/p). For iron
n/p is of the order 10", so that the frequency for a rod I metre long
is about 3000. When a cart wheel is ungreased it produces a very
high note, probably due to torsional vibrations of the axle.
The torsional vibrations of a wire are excited when it is bowed.
If small paper rings are put on a monochord wire they rotate through
these vibrations when the wire is bowed.
Transverse Vibrations of Bars or Rods. When a bar or rod is of
considerable cross-section, a transversal disturbance calls into play
forces due to the strain of the material much more important than
the forces due to any tension which is ordinarily applied. The
velocity of a disturbance along such a bar, and its modes of vibration,
depend therefore on the elastic properties of the material and the
dimensions of the bar. We cannot investigate the vibrations in an
elementary manner. A full discussion will be found in Rayleigh's
Sound, vol. i. ch. 8. We shall only give a few results.
The cases interesting in sound are those in which (i) the bar is
free at both ends, and (2) it is clamped at one end and free at the
other.
For a bar free at both ends the fundamental mode of vibration has
two nodes, each 0-224 of the length from the end. The next mode has
a node in the middle and two others each 0-132 from the end. The
third mode has four nodes 0-094 and 0-357 f. ronl eacn e "d. and so
on. The frequencies are nearly in the ratios 3 2 :5 2 :7 2 . . . . Such
bars are used in the harmonicon.
When one end is clamped and the other is free the clamped end is
always a node. The fundamental mode has that node only. The
next mode has a second node 0-226 from the free end; the next,
nodes at 0-132 and 0-5 from the free end, and so on. The frequencies
are nearly in the ratios 1:6-25:17-5. Such bars are used in musical
boxes and as free reeds in organ pipes.
The most important example of this type is the tuning-fork,
which may be regarded as consisting of two parallel bars clamped
together at the base. The first overtone has frequency 6-25 that
of the fundamental, and is not in the harmonic series. If the
fork be mounted on a resonance box or held in front of a cavity
resounding to the fundamental and not to the first overtone, the
fundamental is brought out in great purity.
Vibrations of Plates. These are for the most part interesting
rather from the point of view of elasticity than of sound. We shall
not attempt to deal with the theory here but shall describe only the
beautiful mode of exhibiting the regions of vibration and of rest
devised by E. F. F. Chladni (1756-1827). As usually arranged, a
thin metal plate is screwed on to the top of a firm upright post at
the centre of the plate, which is horizontal. White sand is lightly
scattered by a pepper-box over the plate. The plate is then bowed
at the edge and is thrown into vibration between nodal lines or curves
and the sand is thrown from the moving parts or ventral segments
into these lines, forming " Chladni's figures." The development of
these figures by a skilful bower is very fascinating. As in the case
of a musical string, so here we find that the pitch of the note is higher
for a given plate the greater the number of ventral segments into
which it is divided; but the converse of this does not hold good, two
different notes being obtainable with the same number of such
segments, the' position of the nodal lines being, however, different.
The upper line of annexed figures shows how the sand arranges
itself in three cases, when the plate is square. The lower line gives
the same in a sort of idealized form. Fig. 38, i, corresponds to the
FIG. 38.
lowest possible note of the particular plate used; fig. 38, 2, to the
fifth higher; fig. 38, 3, to the tenth or octave of the third, the numbers
of vibration in the same time being as 2 to 3 to 5.
If the plate be small, it is sufficient, in order to bring out the
simpler sand-figures, to hold the plate firmly between two fingers
of the same hand placed at any point where at least two nodal
lines meet, for instance the centre in (i) and (2), and to drawa violin
bow downwards across the edge near the middle of a ventral segment.
But with larger plates, which alone will furnish the more complicated
figures, a clamp-screw must be used for fixing the plate, and, at the
same time, one or more other nodal points ought to be touched with
the fingers while the bow is being applied. In this way, any of the
possible configurations may be easily produced.
By similar methods, a circular plate may be made to exhibit
nodal lines dividing the surface by diametral lines into four or a
greater, but always even, number of sectors, an odd number being
incompatible with the general law of stationary waves that the parts
of a body adjoining a nodal line on either side must always vibrate
oppositely to each other.
Another class of figures consists of circular nodal lines along
with diametral lines (fig. 39).
SOUND
[BELLS AND OTHER SOURCES
Circular nodal lines unaccompanied by intersecting lines cannot
be produced in the manner described; but may be got either by drill-
ing a small hole through the centre,
and drawing a horse-hair along its
edge to bring out the note, or by
attaching a long thin elastic rod to
the centre of the plate, at right
angles to it, holding the rod by the
p middle and rubbing it lengthwise
39- with a bit of cloth powdered with
resin, till the rod gives a distinct note; the vibrations are com-
municated to the plate, which consequently vibrates transversely,
and causes the sand to heap itself into one or more concentric rings.
Paper, parchment, or any other thin membrane stretched over
a square, circular, &c., frame, when in the vicinity of a sufficiently
powerful vibrating body, will, through the medium of the air, be
itself made to vibrate in unison, and, by using sand, as in previous
instances, the nodal lines will be depicted to the eye, and seen to
vary in form, number and position with the tension of the plate and
the pitch of the originating sound. The membrana tympani or
drum of the ear, has, in like manner and on the same principles, the
property of repeating the vibrations of the external air which it
communicates to the internal parts of the ear.
Bells may be regarded as somewhat like circular plates vibrating
with radial nodes, and with the edges turned down. Lord Rayleigh
has shown that there is a tangential motion as well as a motion in
and out. Ordinarily when a bell is struck the impulse primarily
excites the radial motion, and the tangential motion follows as a
matter of course. When a finger-glass (an inverted bell), is excited
by passing the finger round the circumference, the tangential motion
is primarily excited and the radial follows it. Some discussion of
the vibrations of bells will be found in Rayleigh, Sound, vol. i.
ch. 10 (see also BELLS).
Singing Flames. A " jet tube," i.e. a tube a few inches long with
a fine nozzle at the top, is mounted as 'in fig. 40, so as to rise out
of a vessel to which coal-gas, or, better, hydro-
gen, is supplied. The supply is regulated so
that when the gas is lighted the flame is half
or three-quarters of an inch high. A " sound-
ing tube," say an inch in diameter, and some-
what more than twice the length of the jet tube,
is then lowered over the flame, as in the figure.
When the flame is at a certain distance within
the tube the air is set in vibration, and the
sounding tube gives out its fundamental note
continuously. The flame aopears to lengthen,
but if the reflection is viewed in a vertical
mirror revolving about a vertical axis or in
Koenig s cube of mirrors, it is seen that the
flame is really intermittent, jumping upland
down once with each vibration, sometimes
f apparently going within the jet tube at its
lowest point. For a given jet tube there is
a position of maximum efficiency easily ob-
\tained by trial. The jet tube, for a reason
which will be given when we consider the
maintenance of vibrations, must be less than
On, half the length of the sounding tube.
1 Supoif ^ series of pipes of lengths to give any
FIG. 40. Singing desired series of notes may be arranged. If
Flame. two tubes in unison are employed, a pretty
example of resonance may be obtained. One
is adjusted so as just not to sing. The other is then made to
sing and frequently the first will be set singing also.
Sensitive Flames and Jets. When a flame is just not flaring, any
one of a certain range of notes sounded near it may make it
flare while the note is sounding. This was first noticed by John
Le Conte (Phil. Mag., 1858, 15, p. 235), and later by W. F. Barrett
(Phil. Mag., 1867, 33, p. 216). Barrett found that the best form of
burner for ordinary gas pressure might be made of glass tubing
about f in. in diameter contracted to an orifice fa inch in diameter,
the orifice being nicked by a pair of scissors into a V-shape. The
flame rises up from the burner in a long thin column, but when an
appropriate note is sounded it suddenly drops down and thickens.
Barrett further showed by using smoke jets that the flame is not
essential. John Tyndall (Sound, lecture vi. 7 seq.) describes
a number of beautiful experiments with jets at higher pressure than
ordinary, say 10 in. of water, issuing from a pinhole steatite
burner. The flame may be 16 in. high, and on receiving a
suitably high sound it suddenly drops down and roars. The sensi-
tive point is at the orifice. Lord Rayleigh (Sound, ii. 370), using
as a source a " bird-call," a whistle of high frequency, formed a series
of stationary waves by reflection at a flat surface. Placing the
sensitive flame at different parts of this train, he found that it was
excited, not at the nodes where the pressure varied, but at the loops
where the motion was the greatest and where there was little pressure
change. In his Sound (ii. ch. 21) he has given a theory of the
sensitiveness. When the velocity of the jet is gradually increased
there is a certain range of velocity for which the jet is unstable,
so that any deviation from the straight rush-out tends to increase
as the jet moves up. If then the jet is just on the point of insta-
bility, and is subjected as its base to alternations of motion, the
sinuosities impressed on the jet become larger and larger as it flows
out, and the flame is as it were folded on itself. Another form of
sensitive jet is very easily made by putting a piece of fine wire gauze
2 or 3 in. above a pinhole burner and igniting the gas above the
gauze. On adjusting the gas so that it burns in a thin column,
just not roaring, it is extraordinarily sensitive to some particular
range of notes, going down and roaring when a note is sounded. If
a tube be placed over such a flame it makes an excellent singing
tube. The flame of an incandescent gas mantle if turned low is
frequently sensitive to a certain range of notes. Such a flame may
jump down, for instance, to each tick of a neighbouring clock.
Savart's Liquid Jets. If a jet of water issues at an angle to the
horizontal from a round pinhole orifice under a few inches pressure,
it travels out as an apparently smooth cylinder for a short distance,
and then breaks up into drops which travel at different rates, collide,
and scatter. But if a tuning-fork of appropriate frequency be set
vibrating with its stalk in contact with the holder of the pipe from
which the jet issues, the jet appears to go over in one continuous
thread. Intermittent illumination, however, with frequency equal
to that of the fork shows at once that the jet is really broken up
into drops, one for each vibration, and that these move over in a
steady procession. The cylindrical form of jet is unstable if its
length is more than IT times its diameter, and usually the irregular
disturbances it receives at the orifice go on growing, and ultimately
break it up irregularly into drops which go out at different rates.
But, if quite regular disturbances are impressed on the jet at intervals
of time which depend on the diameter and speed of outflow (they
must be somewhat more than x times its diameter apart), these
disturbances go on growing and break the stream up into equal
drops, which all move with the same velocity one after the other.
An excellent account of these and other jets is given in C. V. Boys'
Soap Bubbles, lecture iii.
Maintenance of Vibrations. When a system is set vibrating and
left to itself, the vibration gradually dies away as the energy leaks
out either in the waves formed or through friction. In order that
the vibration may be maintained, a periodic force must be applied
either to aid the internal restoring force on the return journey, or
weaken it on the outgoing journey, or both. Thus if a pendulum
always receives a slight impulse in the direction of motion just about
the lowest point, this is equivalent to an increase of the restoring
force if received before passage through the lowest point, and to a
decrease if received after that passage, and in either case it tends
to maintain the swing. If the bob of the pendulum is iron, and if
a coil is placed just below the centre of swing, then, if a current passes
through the coil, while and only while the bob is moving towards
it, the vibration is maintained. If the current is on while the bob
is receding the vibration is checked. If it is always on it only acts
as if the value of gravity were increased, and does not help to
maintain or check the vibration, but merely to shorten the period.
In a common form of electrically maintained fork, the Electrically
fork is set horizontal with its prongs in a vertical Maintained
plane, and a small electro-magnet is fixed between p or ^
them. The circuit of the electro-magnet is made
and broken by .the vibration of the fork in different ways say, by
a wire bridge attached to the lower prong which dips into and lifts
out of two mercury cups. The mercury level is so adjusted that the
circuit is just not made when the fork is at rest. When it is set
vibrating contact lasts during some part of the outward and some
part of the inward swing. But partly owing to the delay in making
contact through the carriage down of air on the contact piece, and
partly owing to the delay in establishing full current through self-
induction, the attracting force does not rise at once to its full value
in the outgoing journey, whereas in the return journey the mercury
tends to follow up the contact piece, and the full current continues
up to the instant of break. Hence the attracting force does more
work in the return journey than is done against it in the outgoing,
and the balance is available to increase the vibration.
In the organ pipe as in the common whistle a thin sheet of
air is forced through a narrow slit at the bottom of the embouchure
and impinges against the top edge, which is made very Qrfan plpe
sharp. The disturbance made at the commencement
of the blowing will no doubt set the air in the pipe vibrating in its
own natural period, just as any irregular air disturbance will set a
suspended body swinging in its natural period, but we are to con-
sider how the vibration is maintained when once set going. When
the motion due to the vibration is up along the pipe from the em-
bouchure, the air moves into the pipe from the outside, and carries
the sheet-like stream in with it to the inside of the sharp edge.
This stream does work on the air, aiding the motion. When the
motion is reversed and the air moves out of the pipe at the embou-
chure, the sheet is deflected on to the outer side of the sharp edge,
and no work is done against it by the air in the pipe. Hence the
stream of air does work during half the vibration and this is
not abstracted during the other half, and so it goes on increasing
the motion until the supply of energy in blowing is equal to the loss
by friction and sound.
INTERFERENCE]
SOUND
457
Singlag
Tube.
The maintenance of the vibration of the air in the singing tube
has been explained by Lord Rayleigh (Sound, vol. ii. 322 h) as due
to the way in which the heat is communicated to the
vibrating air. When the air in a pipe open at both
ends is vibrating in its simplest mode, the air is
alternately moving into and out from the centre. During the
quarter swing ending with greatest nodal pressure, the kinetic
energy is changed to potential energy manifested in the increase of
pressure. This becomes again kinetic in the second quarter
swing, then in the third quarter it is changed to potential energy
again, but now manifested in the decrease of pressure. In the last
quarter it is again turned to the kinetic form. Now suppose that at
the end of the first quarter swing, at the instant of greatest pressure,
heat is suddenly given to the air. The pressure is further increased
and the potential energy is also increased. There will be more
kinetic energy formed in the return journey and the vibration tends
to grow. But if the heat is given at the instant of greatest rare-
faction, the increase of pressure lessens the difference from the un-
disturbed pressure, and lessens the potential energy, so that during
the return less kinetic energy is formed and the vibration tends to
die away. And what is true for the extreme points is true for the
half periods of which they are the middle points; that is, heat given
during the compression half aids the vibration, and during the
extension half damps it. Now let us apply this to the singing tube.
Let the gas jet tube be of somewhat less than half the length of the
singing tube, and let the lower end of the jet tube be in a wider tube
or cavity so that it may be regarded as an " open end." When the
air in the singing tube is singing, it forces the gas in the jet tube
to vibrate in the same period and in such phase that at the nozzle
the pressure in both tubes shall be the same. The lower end of the
jet tube, being open, is a loop, and the node may be regarded as
in an imaginary prolongation of the jet tube above the nozzle.
It is evident that the pressure condition will be fulfilled only if
the motions in the two tubes are in the same direction at the same
time, closing into and opening out from the nodes together. When
the motion is upwards gas is emitted ; when the motion is downwards
it is checked. The gas enters in the half period from least to greatest
pressure. But there is a slight delay in ignition, partly due to
expulsion of incombustible gas drawn into the jet tube in the previous
half period, so that the most copious supply of gas and heat is thrown
into the quarter period just preceding greatest pressure, and the
vibration is maintained. If the jet tube is somewhat longer than
half the sounding tube there will be a node in it, and now the condi-
tion of equality of pressure requires opposite motions in the two
at the nozzle, for their nodes are situated on opposite sides of
that point. The heat communication is then chiefly in the quarter
vibration just preceding greatest rarefaction, and the vibration is
not maintained.
Interference of Sound.
When two trains of sound waves travel through the same
medium, each particle of the air, being simultaneously affected
by the disturbances due to the different waves, moves in a
different manner than it would if only acted on by each wave
singly. The waves are said mutually to interfere. We shall
exemplify this subject by considering the case of two waves
travelling in the same direction through the air. We shall then
obviously be led to the following results:
If the two waves are of equal length X, and are in the same
phase (that is, each producing at any given moment the same
,,. .-".. state of motion in the
air particles), their com-
bined effect is equivalent
to that of a wave of the
same length X, but by
which the excursions
of the particles are
increased, being the
sum of those due to the
two component waves
FIG. 41.
respectively, as in fig. 41, i.
If the two interfering waves, being still of same length X, be
in opposite phases, or so that one is in advance of the other by
iX, and consequently one produces in the air the opposite state
of motion to the other, then the resultant wave is one of the
same length X, but the excursions of the particles are decreased,
being the difference between those due to the component waves
as in fig. 41, 2. If the amplitudes of vibration which thus
mutually interfere are moreover equal, the effect is the total
mutual destruction of the vibratory motion.
FIG. 42.
Thus we learn that two musical notes, of the same pitch,
conveyed to the ear through the air, will produce the effect of
a single note of the same pitch, but of increased loudness, if
they are in the same phase, but may affect the ear very slightly,
if at all, when in opposite phases. If the difference of phase
be varied gradually from zero to^X, the resulting sound will
2
gradually decrease from a maximum to a minimum.
Among the many experimental confirmations which may be
adduced of these proportions we will mention the following:
Take a circular plate, such as is available for the production of
Chladni's figures, and cut out of a sheet of pasteboard a piece of the
shape ABOCD (fig. 42), consisting of two
circular quadrants of the same diameter as
the plate. Let, now, the plate be made
in the usual manner to vibrate so as to
exhibit two nodal lines coinciding with
two rectangular diameters. If the ear
be placed right above the centre of the
plate, the sound will be scarcely audible.
But, if the pasteboard be interposed so as
to intercept the vibrating segments AOB,
DOC, the note becomes much more dis-
tinct. The reason of this is, that the
segments of the plate AOD, BOC always
vibrate in the same direction, but oppo-
sitely to the segments AOB, DOC. Hence, when the pasteboard
is in its place, there are two waves of same phase starting from
the two former segments, and reaching the ear after equal distances
of transmission through the air, are again in the same phase, and
produce on the ear a conjunct impression. But when the paste-
board is removed, then there is at the ear opposition of phase
between the first and the second pair of waves, and consequently
a minimum of sound.
A tubular piece of wood shaped as in fig. 43, and having a piece
of thin membrane stretched over the opening at the top C, some
dry sand being strewn over the membrane, is so
placed over a circular or rectangular vibrating
plate that the ends A, B lie over the segments of
the plate, such as AOD, COB in the previous figure,
which are in the same state of motion. The sand
at C will be set in violent movement. But if the
same ends A, B be placed over oppositely vibrating
segments (such as AOD, COD), the sand will be
scarcely, if at all, affected.
If a tuning-fork in vibration be turned round
before the ear, four positions will be found in which
it will be inaudible, owing to the mutual interference
of the oppositely vibrating prongs of the fork. On
interposing the hand between the ear and either prong of the fork
when in one of those positions, the sound becomes audible, because
then one of the two interfering waves is cut off from the ear. This
experiment may be varied by holding the fork over a glass jar
into which water is poured to such a depth that the air-column
within reinforces the note of the fork when suitably placed, and then
turning the fork round.
Helmholtz's double siren is well calculated for the investigation
of the laws of interference of sound. For this purpose a simple
mechanism is found in the instrument, by means of which the fixed
upper plate can be turned round and placed in any position relatively
to the lower one. If, now, the apparatus be so set that the notes
from the upper and lower chest are in unison, the upper fixed
plate may be placed in four positions, such as to cause the air-current
to be cut off in the one chest at the exact instant when it is freely
passing through the other, and vice versa. The two waves, therefore,
being in opposite phases, neutralize one another, and the result
is a faint sound. On turning round the upper chest into any inter-
mediate position, the intensity of the sound will increase up to a
maximum, which occurs when the air in both chests is being admitted
and cut off contemporaneously.
If two organ pipes in unison are mounted side by side on a wind-
chest with their ends close together, and are. blown for a very short
time, they sound. But if the blowing is continued, usually in less
than a second the sound dies away to a small fraction of that due to
either alone. Yet the air within the pipes is vibrating more vigor-
ously than ever, but in opposite phases in the two pipes. This may
be shown by furnishing the pipes with manometric flames placed in
the same vertical line. When the flames are viewed in a revolving
mirror and the pipes are blown, each image of one flame lies between
two images of the other. The essential fact, as pointed out by
Lord Rayleigh (Scientific Papers, i. 409), is not the common wind
chest, but the nearness of the open ends, so that the outrush from
one pipe can supply the inrush to the other, and the converse. If,
the two pipes are slightly out of tune when sounded separately
together they sound a common note which may be higher than that
due to either alone. Lord Rayleigh (loc. cit.) points out that this
FIG. 43.
458
SOUND
[BEATS
is due to reduction of the end correction. When the air rushes
out from one pipe, it has not to force its way into the open air, but
finds a cavity being prepared for it close at hand in the other pipe,
and so the extensions and compressions at the ends are more easily
reduced. Even the longer pipe may be effectively shorter than the
corrected shorter pipe when sounding alone.
Beats.
When two notes are not quite in unison the resulting sound
is found to alternate between a maximum and minimum of
loudness recurring periodically. To these periodical alternations
has been given the name of Beats. Their origin is easily explic-
able. Suppose the two notes to correspond to 200 and 203
vibrations per second; at some instant of time, the air particles,
through which the waves are passing, will be similarly displaced
by both, and consequently the joint effect will be a sound of
some intensity. But, after this, the first or less rapidly vibrating
note will fall behind the other, and cause a diminution in the
joint displacements of the particles, till, after the lapse of one-
sixth of a second, it will have fallen behind the other by half a
vibration. At this moment, therefore, opposite displacements will
be produced of the air particles by the two notes, and the sound
due to them will be at a minimum. This will be followed by
an increase of intensity until the lapse of another sixth of a
second, when the less rapidly vibrating note will have lost
another half-vibration relatively to the other, or one vibration
reckoning from the original period of time, and the two com-
ponent vibrations will again conspire and reproduce a maximum
effect. Thus, an interval of one-third of a second elapses
between two successive maxima or beats, and there are pro-
duced three beats per second. By similar reasoning it may
be shown that the number of beats per second is always equal
to the difference between the numbers of vibrations in the same
time corresponding to the two interfering notes. The more,
therefore, these are out of tune the more rapidly will the beats
follow each other.
The formation of beats may be illustrated by considering the
disturbance at any point due to two trains of waves of equal ampli-
tude a and of nearly equal frequencies ni n?. If we measure the
time from an instant at which the two are in the same phase the
resultant disturbance is
y = a sin 2rn\t+a sin 2-rnit
= 20 cos ir(i ni)t sin
which may be regarded as a harmonic disturbance of frequency
(ni-\-ni)/2 but with amplitude 2a cos ir(nin 2 )t slowly varying with
the time. Taking the squares of the amplitude to represent the
intensity or loudness of the sound which would be heard by an
ear at the point, this is
4<i 2 cos 2 ir(ni ni}t
= 2o 2 ji+cos 2ir(ni ni)t\,
a value which ranges between o and 4<z 2 with frequency n\ n^.
The sound swells out and dies down n\ n% times per second, or
there are n\ ni beats per second. If, instead of considering one
point in a succession of instants, we consider a succession of points
along the line of propagation at the same instant, we evidently
have waves of amplitude varying from 2a down to o, and then up
to 20. again in distance U/(j nj).
The phenomena of beats may be easily observed with two organ-
pipes put slightly out of tune by placing the hand near the open end
of one of them, with two musical strings on a resonant chest, or with
two tuning-forks of the same pitch mounted on their resonance
boxes, or held over a resonant cavity (such as a glass jar), one of the
forks being put out of tune by loading one prong with a small lump
of beeswax. In the last instance, if the forks are fixed on one
solid piece of wood which can be grasped with the hand, the beat
will be actually felt by the hand. If one prong of each fork be
furnished with a small plain mirror, and a beam of light from a
luminous point be reflected successively by the two mirrors, so as
to form an image on a distinct screen, when one fork alone is put in
vibration, the image will move on the screen and be seen as a line of a
certain length. If both forks are in vibration, and are prefectly in
tune, this line may either be increased or diminished permanently in
length according to the difference of phase between the two sets
of vibrations. But if the forks be not quite in tune then the length
of the image will be found to fluctuate between a maximum and a
minimum, thus making the beats sensible to the eye. The vibro-
graph is also well suited for the same purpose, and so in an especial
manner is Helmholtz's double siren, in which, by continually turning
round the upper box, a note is produced by it more or less out of
tune with the note formed by the lower chest, according as the handle
is moved more or less rapidly, and most audible beats ensue. We
have already explained how beats are used on Scheibler's tonometer
to give a series of forks of known frequencies. Beats also afford
an excellent practical guide in the tuning of instruments, but more
so for the higher notes of the register, inasmuch as the same number
of beats are given by a smaller deviation from unison by two notes
of high pitch than by two notes of low pitch. Thus, two low notes of
32 and 30 vibrations respectively, whose interval is therefore | or
if, i.e. a semitone, give two beats per second, while the same number
of beats are given by notes of 32X16 (four octaves higher than the
first of the preceding) or 512, and 514 vibrations, which are only
slightly out of tune.
Beats and Dissonance. As the interval between two tones, and
consequently the number of beats, increases the effect on the ear
becomes more and more unpleasant. The sound is jarring and harsh,
and we term it a " dissonance " or " discord." In the middle notes
of the musical register the maximum harshness occurs when the
beats are about 30. Thus the interval b'c" with frequencies 405
and 528, giving 33 beats in a second, is very dissonant. But the
interval b \>c" gives nearly twice as many beats and is not nearly
so dissonant. The minor third a'c" with 88 beats per second shows
scarcely any roughness, and when the beats rise to 132 per second
the result is no longer unpleasant.
We are then led to conclude that beats are the physical founda-
tion for dissonance. The frequency of beats giving maximum
dissonance rises as we rise higher in the musical scale, and falls
as we descend. Thus b"c'" and b'\>c" have each 66 beats per second,
yet the former is more dissonant than the latter. Again b'c" and
CG have each 33 beats per second, yet the latter interval is practi-
cally smooth and consonant. This beat theory of dissonance was
first put forward by Joseph Sauveur (1653-1716) in 1700. Robert
Smith (Harmonics, 2nd ed., 1759, p. 95) states that Sauveur " in-
ferred that octaves and other simple concords, whose vibrations
coincide very often, are agreeable and pleasant because their beats
are too quick to be distinguished, be the pitch of the sounds ever so
low; and on the contrary, that the more complex consonances
whose vibrations coincide seldom are disagreeable because we can
distinguish their slow beats; which displease the ear, says he, by
reason of the inequality of the sound. And in pursuing this thought
he found that those consonances which beat faster than six times
in a second are the very same that musicians treat as concords;
and that others which beat slower are the discords; and he adds that
when a consonance is a discord at a low pitch and a concord at a
high one, it beats sensibly at the former pitch but not at the latter."
But Sauveur fixed the limiting number of beats for the discord
far too low, and again he gave no account of dissonances such as the
seventh, where the frequency of the beats between the funda-
mentals is far beyond the number which is unpleasant. Smith,
though recognizing the unpleasantness of beats, could not accept
Sauveur's theory, and, indeed, it received no acceptance till it was
rediscovered by Helmholtz, to whose investigations, recorded in
his Sensations of Tone, we owe its satisfactory establishment.
Suppose that we start with two simple tones in unison; there is
perfect consonance. If one is gradually raised in pitch beating
begins, at first easily countable. But as the pitch of the one rises
the beats become a jar too frequent to count, and only perhaps
to a trained ear recognizable as beats. The two tones are now
dissonant, and, as we have seen, about the middle of the scale the
maximum dissonance is when there are between 30 and 40 beats per
second. If the pitch is raised still further the dissonance lessens,
and when there are about 130 beats per second the interval is con-
sonant. If all tones were pure, dissonance at this part of the scale
would not occur if the interval were more than a third. But we
have to remember that with strings, pipes and instruments gener-
ally the fundamental tone is accompanied by overtones, called also
" upper partials," and beating within the dissonance range may
occur between these overtones.
Thus, suppose a fundamental 256 has present with it overtone
harmonics 512, 768, 1024, 1280, &c., and that we sound with it
the major seventh with fundamental 480, and having harmonics
960, 1440, &c. The two sets may be arranged thus
c 256 512 768 1024 1280
b 480 960 1440,
and we see that the fundamental of the second will beat 32 times
per second with the first overtone of the first, giving dissonance.
The first overtone of the second will beat 64 times per second with
the third of the first, and at such height in the scale this frequency
will be unpleasant. The very marked dissonance of the major
seventh is thus explained. We can see, too, at once how the octave
is such a smooth consonance. Let the two tones with their harmonic
overtones be
256 512 768 1024 1280 1536
512 1024 1536.
The fundamental and overtones of the second all coincide with
overtones of the first.
Take as a further example the fifth with harmonic overtones as
under
1024 1280 1536
256 512 768
384
768
1152
1536.
BEATS]
SOUND
459
The fundamental and overtones of the second either coincide with
or fall midway between overtones in the first, and there is no
approach to a dissonant frequency of beats, and the concord is
perfect.
But obviously in either the octave or the fifth, if the tuning is
imperfect, beats occur all along the line wherever the tones should
coincide with perfect tuning. Thus it is easy to detect a want ol
tuning in these intervals.
The harshness of deep notes on instruments rich in overtones
may be explained as arising from beats between successive over-
tones. Thus, if a note of frequency 64 is sounded, and if all the
successive overtones are present, the difference of frequency will
be 64, and this is an unpleasant interval when we get to the middle
of the scale, say to overtones 256 and 320 or to 512 and 576. Thu
Helmholtz explains the jarring and braying which are sometimes
heard in bass voices. These cases must serve to illustrate the
theory. For a full discussion see his Sensations of Tone, ch. 10.
Dissonance between Pure Tones. When two sources emit only pure
tones we might expect that we should have no dissonance when, as
in the major seventh, the beat frequency is greater than the range
of harshness. But the interval is still dissonant, and this is to be
explained by the fact that the two tones unite to give a third tone of
the frequency of the beats, easily heard when the two primary
tones are loud. This tone may be within dissonance range of one
of the primaries. Thus, take the major seventh with frequencies
256 and 480. There will be a tone frequency 480256 = 224, and
this will be very dissonant with 256.
The tone of the frequency of the beats was discovered by Georg
Andreas Sorge in 1740, and independently a few years later by
Giuseppe Tartini, after whom it is named. It may easily be heard
when a double whistle with notes of different pitch is blown strongly,
or when two gongs are loudly sounded close to the hearer. It is heard,
too, when two notes on the harmonium are loudly sounded. For-
merly it was generally supposed that the Tartini tone was due to
the beats themselves, that the mere variation in the amplitude
was equivalent, as far as the ear is concerned, to a superposition
on the two original tones of a smooth sine displacement of the same
periodicity as that variation. This view has still some supporters,
and among its recent advocates are Koenig and Hermann. But
it is very difficult to suppose that the same sensation would be
aroused by a truly periodic displacement represented by a smooth
curve, and a displacement in which the period is only in the amplitude
of the to-and-fro motion, and which is represented by a jagged
curve. No explanation is given by the supposition; it is merely a
statement which can hardly be accepted unless all other explana-
tions fail.
Combination Tones. Helmholtz has given a theory which certainly
accounts for the production of a tone of the frequency of the beats
and for other tones all grouped under the name of " combination
tones "; and in his Sensations of Tone (ch. n) he examines the beats
due to these combination tones and their effects in producing
dissonance. The example we have given above of the major seventh
must serve here. The reader is referred to the full discussion by
Helmholtz. We shall conclude by a brief account of the ways
in which combination tones may be produced. There appears
to be no doubt that they are produced, and the only question is
whether the theory accounts sufficiently for the intensity of the
tones actually heard.
Combination tones may be produced in three ways: (i) In the
neighbourhood of the source; (2) in the receiving mechanism of
the ear; (3) in the medium conveying the waves.
I. We may illustrate the first method by taking a case dis-
cussed by Helmholtz (Sensations of Tone, app. xvi.) where the
two sources are reeds or pipes blown from the same wind-chest.
Let us suppose that with constant excess of pressure, p, in the
wind-chest, the amplitude produced is proportional to the pressure,
so that the two tones issuing may be represented by pa sin 2-irnit
and pb sin 2irnd. Now as each source lets out the wind periodi-
cally it affects the pressure in the chest so that we cannot re-
gard this as constant, but may take it as better represented by
p+Xa sin (2irnit+e)+nb sin (2Trn 2 t+f). Then the issuing dis-
turbance will be
jp + Xa sin (2irn t t+e}+iJ> sin (2irn 2 < +/) | (a sin 2irn,t+b sin 2i 2 <|
= pa sin 2irnit+pb sin 2irn t t
. a*X a'X
+ cos e cos (4irn,t+e)
+ --J- cos/ j^ cos (4)rw 2 <+/)
^j- cos J2ir(,-n 2 )<-|-ej-2j- cos \2*(ni-\-n l )t+e\
abn , . ., abu
cos \2ir(ni-n,)t-f\ cos |2jr(ni+n 2 )<+/)
(35)
Thus, accompanying the two original pure tones there are (i) the
octave of each; (2) a tone of frequency (HI n 2 ); (3) a tone of
frequency (ni+n 2 ). The second is termed by Helmholtz the
difference tone, and the third the summation tone. The amplitudes of
these tones are proportional to the products of a and b multiplied
by X or /. These combination tones will in turn react on the
pressure and produce new combination tones with the original
tones, or with each other, and such tones may be termed of the
second, third, &c., order. It is evident that we may have tones of
frequency
Ai kn-t hni ktH h
where h and k are any integers. But inasmuch as the successive
orders are proportional to X X 2 X 3 , or ^ if jt 3 , and X and M are small,
they are of rapidly decreasing importance, and it is not certain
that any beyond those in equation (35) correspond to our actual
sensations. The combination tones thus produced in the source
should have a physical existence in the air, and the amplitudes
of those represented in (35) should be of the same order. The
conditions assumed in this investigation are probably nearly realized
in a harmonium and in a double siren of the form used'by Helmholtz,
and in these cases there can be no doubt that actual objective tones
are produced, for they may be detected by the aid of resonators of
the frequency of the tone sought for. If the tones had no existence
outside the ear then resonators would not increase their loudness.
There is not much difficulty in detecting the difference tone by
a resonator if it is held, say, close to the reeds of a harmonium,
and Helmholtz succeeded in detecting the summation tone by the
aid of a resonator. Further, Riicker and Edser, using a siren as
source, have succeeded in making a fork of the appropriate pitch
respond to both difference and summation tones (Phil. Mag.,
l ^95< 39, P- 341- But there is no doubt that it is very difficult
to detect the summation tone by the ear, and many workers have
doubted the possibility, notwithstanding the evidence of such an
observer as Helmholtz. Probably the fact noted by Mayer (Phil.
Mag., 1878, 2, p. 500, or Rayleigh, Sound, 386) that sounds of
considerable intensity when heard by themselves are liable to be
completely obliterated by graver sounds of sufficient force goes
far to explain this, for the summation tones are of course always
accompanied by such graver sounds.
2. The second mode of production of combination tones, by
the mechanism of the receiver, is discussed by Helmholtz (Sensa-
tions of Tone, App. xii.) and Rayleigh (Sound, i. 68). It depends
on the restoring force due to the displacement of the receiver not
being accurately proportional to the displacement. This want of
proportionality will have a periodicity, that of the impinging waves,
and so will produce vibrations just as does the variation of pressure
in the case last investigated. We may see how this occurs by-
supposing that the restoring force of the receiving mechanism is
represented by Xx+^x 2 , where x is the displacement and to? is
very small. Let an external force F act on the system, and for
simplicity suppose its period is so great compared with that of the
mechanism that we may take it as practically in equilibrium with
the restoring force. Then F = \x+nx 2 . Now /a? is very small
compared with \x, so that x is nearly equal to F/X, and as an approx-
imation, F = Xx+ M F 2 /X 2 , or x = F/X-AiF 2 /X 3 . Suppose now
that F = a sin 2irnit+b sin 2iw 2 <, the second term will evidently
produce a series of combination tones of periodicities 2n\, 2n?,
ni n 2 , and ni+n 2 , as in the first method. There can be no
doubt that the ear is an unsymmetrical vibrator, and that it makes
combination tones, in some such way as is here indicated, out of two
pure tones. Probably in most cases the combination tones which we
hear are thus made, and possibly, too, the tones detected by Koenig,
and by him named " beat-tones." He found that if two tones of
frequencies p and q are sounded, and if q lies between N/> and
(N + i)p, then a tone of frequency either (N + i)p q, or of
frequency q-Np, is heard. The difficulty in Helmholtz s theory-
is to account for the audibility of such beat tones when they are
of a higher order than the first. Riicker and Edser quite failed to
detect their external existence, so that apparently they are not
produced in the source. If we are to assume that the tones received
by the ear are pure and free from partials, the loudness ot the beat-
tones would appear to show that Helmholtz's theory is not a
complete account.
3- The third mode of production of combination tones, the pro-
duction in the medium itself, follows from the varying velocity
of different parts of the wave, as investigated at the beginning of
this article. It is easily shown that after a time we shall have
to superpose on the original displacement a displacement propor-
tional to the square of the particle velocity, and this will intro-
duce just the same set of combination tones. But probably in
practice there is not a sufficient interval between source and hearer
For these tones to grow into any importance, and they can at most
be only a small addition to those formed in the source or the ear.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the history of experimental and theoretical
acoustics see F. Rosenberger, Geschichte der Physik (1882-1890);
J. C. Poggendorff, Geschichte der Physik (1879) ; and E. Gerland and
F. Traumuller, Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst
(1899). The standard treatise on the mathematical theory is Lord
Rayleigh's Theory of Sound (2nd ed., 1894); this work also contains
an account of experimental verifications. The same author's
Scientific Papers contains many experimental and mathematical
contributions to the science. H. von Helmholtz treats the theoretical
aspects of sound in his Vorlesungen iiber die mathematischtn
460
SOUND, THE SOUNDING
Principien der Akustik (1898), and the physiological and psychical
aspects in his Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen (ist ed., 1863;
5th ed., 1896), English translation by A. J. Ellis, On the Sensations
of Tone (1885). Sedley Taylor, Sound and Music (1882), contains
a simple and excellent account of Helmholtz's theory of consonance
and dissonance. R. Koenig, Quelques experiences d'acoustique (1882)
describes apparatus and experiments, intended to show, in op-
position to Helmholtz, that beats coalesce into tones, and also that
the quality of a note is affected by alteration of phase of one of its
component overtones relative to the phase of the fundamental.
Lamb, The Dynamical Theory of Sound (1910), is intended as a
stepping-stone to the study of the writings of Helmholtz and Rayleigh.
Barton, A Text-Book on Sound (1908), aims to provide students with
a text-book on sound, embracing both its experimental and theore-
tical aspects. J. H. Poynting and J. J. Thomson, Sound (sth ed.,
1909), contains a descriptive account of the chief phenomena, and
an elementary mathematical treatment. John Tyndall, Sound (5th
ed., 1893), originally delivered as lectures, treats the subject descrip-
tively, and is illustrated by a large number of excellent experiments.
Good general accounts are given in J. L. G. Violle, Cours de physique,
tome ii., " Acoustique " ; A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik,
Band ii., "Akustik 1 '; Miiller-Pouillet, Lehrbuch der Physik (1907),
ii. i; L. A. Zellner, Vortrage uber Akustik (1892), pt. I, physical;
pt. 2, physiological; R. Klimpert, Lehrbuch der Akustik (1904-
1907) ; A. Wiillner, Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik (1907), 6th ed.,
vol. i.; and C. L. Barnes, Practical Acoustics (1898), treats the
subject experimentally. (J. H. P.)
SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund), the easternmost of the straits
giving entrance to the Baltic Sea from the Cattegat, between
the Danish island of Zealand and Sweden. Its extreme length
reckoned from the promontory of Kullen to that of Falsterbo,
both on the Swedish shore, is 70 m. Its narrowest point is
between Helsingor in Denmark and Helsingborg in Sweden,
which are 3 m. apart. Its extreme width, 30 m.,is towards
the south, where Kjoge Bay indents the coast of Zealand. Three
islands lie in it Hven, belonging to Sweden, and Saltholm and
Amager (which is separated from Zealand by a narrow channel
at Copenhagen), belonging to Denmark. The strait between
Amager and Saltholm is called Drogden, and is followed by the
larger vessels passing through the Sound. The extreme depth
of the Sound is about 14 fathoms. Navigation is open in winter,
though three instances are recorded of the Sound being
frozen completely over: in 1306, 1830 and 1836. From the
i Sth century Denmark levied " Sound dues " on foreign vessels
passing through the strait, the Hanse traders and certain others
being exempt. In the I7th century quarrels arose on this
matter between Denmark and the Netherlands and Sweden,
while in modern times the powers found the dues irksome,
and in 1843 and 1853 protests were made by the
representatives of the United States of America,
but Denmark based her right on immemorial cus-
tom, and adhered to it. In 1856 the matter came
up in connexion with the renewal of the treaty of
1826 between the two countries; considerable tension
resulted, and the possibility of reprisals by the
United States against the Danish possessions in the
West Indies was discussed. But the treaty was
provisionally extended to the following year, and
a conference in Copenhagen, at which most of the
affected powers were represented, resulted in the
remission of the dues from the ist of April 1857,
Denmark receiving a united compensation of
30,476,325 rix-dollars (equalling about 4,000,000),
out of which the amount paid by the British
government was 1,125,000. The annual income
accruing to Denmark from the dues during the ten
previous years had been about 2, 500,000 rix-dollars.
SOUNDING (for derivation see SOUND above),
the term used for measuring .the depth of water (From W harton's nongraphic Sumy.)
The operation of sounding is readily performed in shallow
water by letting down a weight or " lead " attached to a cord,
which is marked off into fathoms by pieces of leather, rag and
twine. The bottom of the weight usually presents' a hollow,
which is filled with tallow, so that a portion of the material
from the bottom may be brought up and give an indication
of its nature as well as an assurance that it has really been
touched.
For depths over 20 fathoms sounding machines are often
employed, and for deep soundings they are practically indispen-
sable. In them wire, the use of which for this purpose was
introduced by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), has entirely
superseded hemp gear. Its smooth surface and minute section,
reducing friction to a minimum, give a rapidity of descent of
about 100 fathoms per minute, and this velocity is not materially
diminished even at great depths. Reeling in may be accom-
plished at nearly the same rate. Soundings are thus obtained
with a degree of accuracy not formerly possible. The apparatus
is light, compact and automatic in its action. Soundings
with wire can be carried out at night with the same facility as in
daytime, and in almost any circumstances of wind and -weather
short of a strong gale, against which the ship could not steam or
face the sea. A sounding of 1000 fathoms may be obtained in
twenty-five minutes from the time the weight is lowered to the
time the order is given to put the ship on her course, or in half
that time if sounding from astern and going ahead on getting
bottom; 2000 fathoms will require forty-five minutes and 3000
fathoms seventy-five minutes. Beyond that depth, much
greater caution being required, the time occupied is correspon-
dingly increased, and reeling in must then be done very deliber-
ately. A sounding of 5269 fathoms was obtained near the island
of Guam by the U.S. cable-surveying ship "Nero." Soundings
at such depths may occupy as long as five or six hours.
Among the sounding machines in general use the Lucas
carries nearly 6000 fathoms of 2o-gauge wire, and is fitted with
two brakes one a screw brake for holding the reel
when required, the other an automatic brake for
stopping the reel when the weights strike the bottom.
A gvtider for the purpose of winding the wire uniformly on to
the reel is also attached, and is worked by a small handle. After
leaving the reel the wire passes over a registering wheel, the
dial of which indicates the amount of wire run out. Similar
machines of smaller size are supplied for use in boats. The large
machine is represented in fig. i.
Lucas
Machine.
(and so, figuratively, of anything). Tbe process
of ascertaining the depth of the sea has been
practised from very early times for purposes of
navigation, but it is only since the introduction of
submarine telegraphy that extensive efforts have
been made to obtain a complete knowledge of the
contour of the ocean-bed (see OCEAN).
FIG. I. Lucas Machine.
A, Reel or drum. H, Measuring wheel.
B, Brake. J. Indicator.
C, Brake lever. K, Stop.
D, Springs. L, Wire guiding roller.
E, Regulating screw. M, Handle for working roller.
F, Hand wheel. N, Bolt.
G, Swivelling frame. O, Screw Brake.
SOUNDING
461
Heaving in is accomplished by means of a hemp " swifter " or
driving belt, which conveys the motion of the drum of a donkey
engine to the drum carrying the wire of the sounding machine.
It being impracticable to regulate the speed of the engine by hand
according to the heave of the ship, in order to obviate the sudden
and excessive strains on the wire so caused, an ingenious mechanical
arrangement has been fitted by which frictional disks, geared by
cog-wheels and capable of adjustment are interposed on the axle
connecting the grooved wheel actuated by the nemp swifter and
the revolving drum carrying the wire. By this arrangement the
latter can be controlled as desired, both in speed and direction
of motion, by means of a lever regulating the strap on the frictional
disks, which may be set by experiment to act at any given tension
of the wire. As the tension approaches this limit, the velocity of
revolution of the drum is automatically checked ; and if the tension
further increases, the motion of the drum is actually reversed,
thus causing the wire to run out, until the tension is. relieved
sufficiently to allow the frictional disks again to act in the
direction of heaving in. The drum may be stopped instantly by
moving the lever in the proper direction to throw the apparatus
out of gear.
Galvanized-steel wire of 2O-gauge and 21 -gauge is supplied on
drums in lengths of 5000 fathoms. The 2O-gauge wire when new
has a breaking strain of 240 Ib, and the smaller wire 190 Ib. The
large machines will hold sufficient quantity of the larger wire for
the deepest soundings; there is therefore no longer any necessity
for the smaller wire, and its use is not recommended. The zinc
wears off to a considerable extent with constant use ; it is necessary
do pass the wire through an oily wad whenever soundings are
suspended for a time, and the surface layers on the drum should be
kept well coated with oil and covered over with oily waste. A
fortnight's continuous use is about the limit to the trustworthiness
of any piece of wire ; no amount of care will prevent it from becoming
brittle ; and directly it can be snapped by twisting in the hand, it
should be condemned and passed on to the boats' machines. A
magnifying glass will assist in examining its condition. Taut and
even winding on the reel from the drum is most important ; otherwise,
when heaving up after a sounding, the strain forces each layer as it
comes in to sink down amongst the previous layers loosely reeled
on, with the result that at the next sounding slack turns will sud-
denly develop on running out, to the great risk of the wire. The
wire is liable to cut grooves in the interior of the swivelling frame;
a file must constantly be applied to smooth these down, or they will
rip the splices. A roller of hard steel, underneath which wire
passes, and which placed in rear of the swivelling frame, obviates
this to a great extent.
Splices are made about 5 ft. in length, one wire being laid round
the other in a long spiral of about one turn per inch. _ A seizing
of fine wire is laid over each end and for 2 or 3 in. up the
splice, no end being allowed to project, and solder is then applied
the whole length of the splice. Three more seizings should be placed
at intervals. Splices are the weakest parts of the wire, and their
multiplication is to be avoided. They should be frequently
examined and their position noted, so that in heaving in they
may be eased round the wheel with the guider nearly in the centre,
to avoid tearing.
Under 1000 fathoms a lead of 30 to 40 Ib weight can be
recovered, and no detaching rod is necessary. At a little risk
Sounding to the wire, when sounding from astern up to that
Rods and depth, the ship may go ahead directly bottom is
sinkers. s t r uck, increasing speed as the wire comes in; the
great saving in time thus effected will often justify the increased
risk of parting the wire. For greater depths the " Driver
rod" is the best detaching apparatus for slipping the sinkers;
its construction is easier than that of the " Baillie rod," and
with a piece of gas piping cut to the proper length the ship's
blacksmith can make one in a day. Both rods are fitted with
tubes to bring up a specimen of the bottom, and the same
sinkers fit them both.
The " Driver rod " is shown in fig. 2. ABC is a tube about 2 ft.
in length, fitted at the top with a flap valve D, working on a hinge at
E. The lower part of the tube C screws on and off, and contains a
double flap valve to retain the bottom specimen. The sinkers WW,
each 25 Ib in weight, conical in form, and pierced with a cylindrical
hole through which the Driver rod passes loosely, are slung by
wire or cod line secured to a flat ring or grummet shown at L
and passing over the stud G. A stud K on each side of the tube
fits loosely into the slot H in the lower part of the slipping lever
MH. The weight of the apparatus being taken by the sounding
wire, the sinkers remain suspended; but on striking the bottom,
the wire slackens, and the weight of the sinkers drags the slip-
ping lever down till the stud K bears against the upper part of the
slot H. By this action the point M of the slipping lever is
brought to bear against the upper end of the standard EF, being
thereby forced outward sufficiently to ensure that the weight
acting at the point G will tilt the slipping lever right over, and thus
disengage the sling. The tube being then drawn up, the sinkers are
left behind. In descending, the valves
at top and bottom, opening upwards,
allow the water to pass through freely ;
but on drawing up they are closed,
thus retaining the plug of mud with
which the tube is filled. For water
under 2000 fathoms two conical
weights are sufficient. In deeper
water a third cylindrical weight of
20 Ib should be put between them. It
is important to interpose a piece of
hemp line, some 10 fathoms long,
between the end of the wire (into
which a thimble is seized) and the
lead or rod. This tends to prevent
the wire from kinking on the lead
striking the bottom. A piece of sheet
lead, about 2 Ib in weight, wrapped
round the hemp just below the junction,
keeps the wire taut while the hemp
slacks. Small brass screw stoppers,
fitted with a hempen tail to secure
to a cleat, hold the wire during the
sounding if necessary to repair splices
or clear slack turns. In heaving in
the springs are replaced with a spring
balance, by which the amount of
strain is seen and the deck engine
worked accordingly. A system of
signals is required by day and by
night, by which the officer superin-
tending the sounding can control the
helm, main engines and deck engine.
Method of Sounding. The machine
is placed on a projecting platform
on the forecastle. An endless hemp
swifter, led through blocks with large
sheaves, connects the sounding ma-
chine and deck engine, and when
heaving in is kept taut by a snatch
block set up with a jigger. As the
wire runs out, the regulating screw of
the brake must be gradually screwed
up, so as to increase the power of
the brake in proportion to the amount
of wire out. The regulating screw
is marked for each 500 fathoms.
In fairly smooth water the brake
FIG. 2. Driver Rod.
will at once act when the weight strikes the bottom and the
reel stops. Under 3000 fathoms one spring only is sufficient, but
beyond that depth two springs are required. If the ship is pitching
heavily, the automatic brake must be assisted by the screw brake
to ensure the reel not overrunning. The marks on the regulating
screw are only intended as a guide; the real test is that the brake
is just on the balance, so as to act when the strain lessens, which
may be known by the swivelling frame being just lifted off the
stop. As the wire weighs 1\ ft for each 500 fathoms, the 500-
fathoms mark on the screw should be at the position in which
the screw has to be to sustain a weight of 7j Ib; the looo-fathoms
mark, 15 ft; and so on. This can be tested and the marks verified.
Handling the Ship. Sounding from forward enables the ship to
be handled with greater ease to keep the wire up and down, and
especially so in a tide- way; but in very heavy weather soundings
may be obtained from a machine mounted over the stern, when it
would be quite impossible to work on the forecastle. The spanker
must be set with the sheet to windward, unless a strong weather
tide renders it undesirable ; the ship's head must be kept in a direction
which is the resultant of the direction and force of the wind and
current; and this is arrived at by altering the course while sounding,
point by point, until the wire can be kept up and down by moving
the engines slowly ahead as necessary. It should seldom, or never,
be necessary to move the engines astern.
The temperature of the water is usually taken at intervals of
loo fathoms down to a depth of 1000 fathoms, and at closer intervals
in the first 100 fathoms. If a second wire machine is
available,- the observations may be made from aft
whilst the sounding is being taken forward. A 3O-ft
sinker is attached to the end of the wire, and the
registering thermometers are secured to the wire by the
metal clips at the back of the cases, at the required intervals. To
avoid heavy loss, not more than four thermometers should be on
the wire at one time. When sounding a thermometer is usually
attached to the line a short distance above the lead.
The primary object of the machine called the " submarine sentry "
is to supply an automatic warning of the approach of a ship to
shallow water: it has been instrumental in discovering many un-
suspected banks in imperfectly surveyed waters. . By means of a
Observa-
tions of
Tempera-
ture.
462
SOUSA
single stout wire the sinker, an inverted kite, called the "sentry,"
can be towed steadily for any length of time, at any required
. . vertical depth down to 40 fathoms with the red kite
and 30 fathoms with the black kite; should it strike the
bottom, through the water shallowing to less than the
set depth, it will at once free itself and rise to the surface, simul-
taneously sounding an alarm on board, and thus giving instant
FIG. 3. The Submarine Sentry.
warning. The vertical depth at which the sentry sets itself when
a given length of wire is paid out is not changed by any variation
of speed between 5 and 13 knots, and is read off on the graduated dial-
plate on the winch. One set of graduations on the dial indicates
the amount of wire out; the other two sets refer to the red and
black kites respectively, and show the depth at which the sentry
is towing. By this machine single soundings down to 40 fathoms
can be taken at any time while the ship is under way. The sentry
being let down slowly, the gong will indicate when the bottom is
touched, and the dial corresponding to the kite used will show at
once the vertical depth at the place where the sentry struck.
By removing the kite and substituting a lead, with atmospheric
sounder or other automatic depth gauge, flying single soundings
up to 100 fathoms can be obtained in the ordinary manner without
stopping the ship. The winch is secured to the deck a short distance
from the stern; the towing wire passes from the drum under a roller
fairlead at the foot of the winch, thence through an iron block with
sheave of large diameter, suspended from a short davit on the
stern rail and secured to the sling of the sentry. The dial being set
to zero with the sentry at the water's edge, the ship's speed is
reduced to 8 or 9 knots, and the wire paid out freely until the kite
is fairly in the water, when the brake should be applied steadily and
without jerking, veering slowly until the required depth is attained,
when the pawl is put on the rachet wheel and the speed increased
to 12 knots if desired when using the black kite or 10 knots with the
red kite.
The kite in its position when being towed is indicated in fig. 3.
The point of the catch C, passing through a thimble M in the short
leg of the sling, is slipped into the hole at the top of trigger T, which
is hinged at K and kept in its place by the spring S attached to the
hook H. On the trigger striking the bottom the catch is released,
the short leg of the sling slips off, and the sentry, which then rises
to the surface, is left towing by the long leg. The winch is fitted
with two handles for heaving in the wire; one gives great power and
slow speed, and the other, acting on the drum spindle direct, winds in
quickly. The wire supplied with the machine has a steady breaking
strain of about 1000 ft. Using the black kite at a speed of 7 knots,
the strain on the wire is about 150 Ib, and at 10 knots about 300 ft.
The red kite increases the strain largely. (A. M. F.*)
SOUSA, LUIZ DE [MANGEL DE SOUSA COUTINHO] (1555-1632),
Portuguese monk and prose-writer, was born at Santarem, a mem-
ber of the noble family of Sousa Coutinho. In 1576 he broke off
his studies at Coimbra University to join the order of Malta,
and shortly afterwards was captured at sea by Moorish pirates
and taken prisoner to Argel, where he met Cervantes. A year
later Manoel de Sousa Coutinho was ransomed, and landing
on the coast of Aragon passed through Valencia, where he made
the acquaintance of the poet Jaime Falcao, who seems to have
inspired him with a taste for study and a quiet life. The national
disasters and family troubles increased this desire, which was
confirmed when he returned to Portugal after the battle of
Alcacer and had the sorrow of witnessing the Spanish invasion
and the loss of his country's independence Between 1584
and 1586 he married a noble lady, D. Magdalena de Vilhena,
widow of D. John of Portugal, the son of the poet D. Manoel of
Portugal, to whom Camoens had dedicated his seventh ode.
Settling at Almada, on the Tagus opposite Lisbon, he divided
his time between domestic affairs, literary studies and his
military duties as colonel of a regiment. His patriotic dislike
of an alien rule grew stronger as he saw Portugal exploited by
her powerful partner, and it was ultimately brought to a head
in 1599. In that year, to escape the pest that devastated Lisbon,
the governors of the kingdom for Philip II. decided to move
their quarters to his residence; thereupon, finding his protest
against this arbitrary resolution unheeded, he set fire to his
house, and to escape the consequences of his courageous act
had to leave Portugal. Going to Madrid, he not only escaped
any penalty, owing no doubt to his position and influence at
the Spanish court, but was able to pursue his literary studies
in peace and to publish the works of his friend Jaime Falcao
(Madrid, 1600). Nothing is known of how he passed the next
thirteen years, though there is a tradition that, at the instance of
a brother resident in Panama, who held out the prospect of
large commercial gains, he spent some time in America. It is
said that fortune was unpropitious, and that this, together with
the news of the death of his only child, D. Anna de Noronha,
caused his return home about 1604. In 1613 he and his wife
agreed to a separation, and he took the Dominican habit in
the convent of Bemfica, while D. Magdalena entered the convent
of the Sacramento at Alcantara. According to an old writer,
the motive for their act was the news, brought by a pilgrim
from Palestine that D. Magdalena's first husband had survived
the battle of Alcacer, in which he was supposed to have fallen,
and still lived; Garrett has immortalized the legend in his play
Frei Luiz de Sousa. The story, however, deserves no credit,
and a more natural explanation is that the pair took their
resolution to leave the world for the cloister from motives of
piety, though in the case of Manoel the captivity of his country
and the loss of his daughter may have been contributory causes.
He made his profession on the 8th of September 1614, and took
the name by which he is known as a writer, Frei Luiz de Sousa.
In 1616, on the death of Frei Luiz Cacegas, another notable
Dominican who had collected materials for a history of the order
and for a life of the famous archbishop of Braga, D. Frei Bartho-
lomew of the Martyrs, the task of writing these books was confided
to Frei Luiz. The Life of the Archbishop appeared in 1619,
and the first part of the Chronicle of St Dominic in 1623, while
the second and third parts appeared posthumously in 1662
and 1678; in addition he wrote, by order of the government,
the Annals of D. John III., which were published by Herculano
in 1846. After a life of about nineteen years spent in religion,
he died in 1632, leaving behind him a memory of strict observance
and personal holiness.
The Chronicle of St Dominic and the Life of the Archbishop have
the defect of most monastic writings they relate for the most part
only the good, and exaggerate it without scruple, and they admit
all sorts of prodigies, so long as these tend to increase devotion.
Briefly, these books are panegyrics, written for edification, and are
not histories at all in the critical sense of the word. Their order and
arrangement, however, are admirable, and the lucid, polished style,
purity of diction, and simple, vivid descriptions, entitle Frei Luiz
de Sousa to rank as a great prose-writer. His metaphors are well
chosen, and he employs on appropriate occasions familiar terms
and locutions, and makes full use of those charming diminutives in
which the Portuguese language is rich. His prose is characterized
by elegance, sweetness and strength, and is remarkably free from
the affectations and false rhetoric that characterized the age. In
addition to his other gifts, Frei Luiz de Sousa was a good Latin
poet. There are many editions of the Life of the Archbishop, and it
appeared in French (Paris, 1663, 1679 and 1825). in Italian (Rome,
1727-1728), in Spanish (Madrid, 1645 and 1727) and in English
SOUSLIK SOUTH AFRICA
463
(London, 1890). The Historia de S. Domingos may ba read in a
modern edition (6 vols., Lisbon, 1866).
AUTHORITIES. Obras de D. Francisco Alexandre Lobo, ii. 61-
171; Innocencio da Silva, Diccionario bibliographico portuguez,
v. 327, xvi. 72; Dr Sousa Viterbo, Manoel de Sousa Coutinho
(Lisbon, 1902). (E. PR.)
SOUSLIK, or SUSLIK, the vernacular name of a European bur-
rowing rodent mammal, nearly allied to the marmots, but of
much smaller size and of more slender and squirrel-like build
(see RODENTIA). The species, Spermophilus (or Citillus) citillus,
is rather smaller than an ordinary squirrel, with minute
ears, and the tail reduced to a stump of less than an inch in
length. The general colour of the upper parts is yellowish grey,
with or without a rusty tinge, which is, however, always notice-
able on the head; while the underparts are lighter. The range
of this species embraces south-east Europe, from southern
Germany, Austria and Hungary to the south of Russia. Farther
east it is replaced by more or less nearly allied species; while
other species extend the range - of the genus across central
and northern Asia, and thence, on the other side of Bering
Strait, all through North America, where these rodents are
commonly known as gophers. Many of the species have medium
or even long tails, while some are nearly double the size of the
typical representative of the group. All, however, have large
cheek-pouches, whence the name of pouched marmots, by
which they are sometimes called; and they have the first front-
toe rudimentary, as in marmots. They are divided into several
subgeneric groups. One of the most striking American species
is the striped gopher, S. (Ictidomys) Iridecemlineatus, which is
marked on each side with seven yellow stripes, between which
are rows of yellow spots on a dark ground. The common
souslik lives in dry, treeless plains, especially on sandy or clayey
soil, and is never found either in forests or on swampy ground.
It forms burrows, often 6 or 8 ft. deep, in which food is stored
up and the winter sleep takes place. Each burrow has but one
entrance, which is closed up when winter approaches; a second
hole, however, being previously driven from the sleeping place
to within a short distance of the surface of the ground. This
second hole is opened the next year, and used as the ordinary
entrance, so that the number of closed up holes round a burrow
gives an indication of the length of time that it has been occupied.
Sousliks feed on roots, seeds and berries, and occasionally on
animal food, preying on eggs, small birds and mice. They bring
forth in the spring from four to eight young ones, which, if
taken early, may be easily tamed. Sousliks are eaten by the
inhabitants of the Russian steppes, who consider their flesh an
especial delicacy. (R. L.*)
SOUTANE, the French term adopted into English for a cassock
especially used for the general daily dress worn by the secular
Roman clergy in France, Italy, Spain and Portugal. The
Med. Lat. subtaneus, adapted in O. Fr. as sotane, in Span, and
Ital. as solatia, and Port, as sotaina, meant an under-skirt,
and is formed from subtus, beneath, sub, under. (See CASSOCK.)
SOUTH, ROBERT (1634-1716), English divine, was born at
Hackney, Middlesex, in September 1634. He was educated at
Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford. Before
taking orders in 1658 he was in the habit of preaching as the
champion of Calvinism against Socinianism and Arminianism.
He also at this time showed a leaning to Presbyterianism, but
on the approach of the Restoration his views on church govern-
ment underwent a change; indeed, he was always regarded as a
time-server, though by no means a self-seeker. On the xoth of
August 1660 he was chosen public orator of the university, and
in 1661 domestic chaplain to Lord Clarendon. In March 1663
he was made prebendary of Westminster, and shortly afterwards
he received from his university the degree of D.D. In 1667
he became chaplain to the duke of York. He was a zealous
advocate of the doctrine of passive obedience, and strongly
opposed the Toleration Act, declaiming in unmeasured terms
against the various Nonconformist sects. In 1676 he was
appointed chaplain to Lawrence Hyde (afterwards earl of
Rochester), ambassador-extraordinary to the king of Poland,
and of his visit he sent an interesting account to Edward Pococke
in a letter, dated Dantzic, i6th December, 1677, which was
printed along with South's Posthumous Works in 1717. In
1678 he was presented to the rectory of Islip, Oxfordshire.
Owing, it is said, to a personal grudge, South in 1693 published
with transparent anonymity Animadversions on Dr Sherlock's
Book, entitled a Vindication of the Holy and Ever Blessed Trinity,
in which the views of William Sherlock (q.v.) were attacked
with much sarcastic bitterness. Sherlock, in answer, published
a Defence in 1694, to which South replied in Trilheism Charged
upon Dr Sherlock's New Notion of the Trinity, and the Charge
Made Good. The controversy was carried by the rival parties
into the pulpit, and occasioned such keen feeling that the king
interposed to stop it. During the greater part of the reign
of Anne South remained comparatively quiet, but in 1710 he
ranked himself among the partisans of Sacheverell. He declined
the see of Rochester and the deanery of Westminster in 1713.
He died on the 8th of July 1716, and was buried in West-
minster Abbey.
South had a vigorous style and his sermons were marked by
homely and humorous appeal. His wit generally inclines towards
sarcasm, and it was probably the knowledge of his quarrelsome
temperament that prevented his promotion to a bishopric. He
was noted for the extent of his charities. He published a large
number of single sermons, and they appeared in a collected form in
1692 in six volumes, reaching a second edition in his lifetime in 1715.
There have been several later issues; one in two volumes, with a
memoir (Bohn, 1845). His Opera posthuma latina, including his
will, his Latin poems, and his orations while public orator, with
memoirs of his life, appeared in 1717. An edition of his works in
7 vols. was published at Oxford in 1823, another in 5 vols. in 1842.
See also W. C. Lake, Classic Preachers of the English Church ( 1st series,
1877). The contemporary notice of South by Anthony Wood in
his Athenae is strongly hostile, said to be due to a jest made by
South at Wood's expense.
SOUTH AFRICA. As a geographical unit South Africa is
usually held to be that part of the continent south of the middle
course of the Zambezi. The present article (i) deals with that
part of Africa as a whole, (2) outlines the constitution of the
British possessions forming the Union of South Africa, and (3)
summarizes the history of the country from the time of its
discovery by Europeans.
I. GENERAL FEATURES
In the geographical sense stated South Africa lies between
16 and 35 S. and 12 and 36 E., narrows from 1600 m. from
west to east along its northern border to some 600 m. of coast
facing south. Its greatest length south-west to north-east is
also about 1600 m. It has an area of about 1,333,000 sq. m.
It comprises the Union of South Africa (i.e. the provinces of the
Cape of Good Hope, Natal, with Zululand, the Orange Free
State and the Transvaal); Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Swazi-
land and Southern Rhodesia, all British possessions; German
South-West Africa, and the southern part of Portuguese East
Africa. By some writers Northern Rhodesia is included in
South Africa, but that district belongs more accurately to the
central portion of the continent. Other writers confine the
term to the British possessions south of the Zambezi, but in
this case British South Africa is the proper designation. South
African standard time, adopted in 1903, is that of 30 E., or
two hours in advance of Greenwich.
Physical Features. There is a marked uniformity in physical
features throughout South Africa. The coast line, from the mouth
of the Kunene on the west to the delta of the Zambezi on the
east, is little indented and contains only two sheltered natural
harbours of any size Saldanha Bay on the west and Delagoa
Bay on the east. At Port Natal, however, the removal of the
sand bar at its entrance has made available a third magnificent
harbour, while at Table Bay (Cape Town) and at other places
ports have been constructed. South Africa presents, however,
a solid land mass without peninsulas of any size or any large
islands off its coasts. Moreover, behind the low-lying coast-
lands, which extend in general from 50 to 250 m. inland,
rise ramparts of hills shutting off the interior. This conforma-
tion of the country has been a powerful influence in determining
its history and development. Here and there the mountains,
SOUTH AFRICA
[GENERAL FEATURES
which run in lines parallel to the coast, approach close to. the
sea, as at Table Bay. In the south-east, in the Drakensberg,
they attain heights of 10,000 to 11,000 ft., elsewhere the highest
points are between 8000 and 9000 ft. They form terrace-like
steps leading to a vast tableland (covering about 900,000 sq. m.)
with a mean elevation of 4000 ft., the highest part of the plateau
the High Veld of the Transvaal being fully 6000 ft. above
the sea. In its southern part the plateau has a general tilt
to the west, in the north it tilts eastward. This tilt determines
the hydrographical system. In the south the drainage is to the
Atlantic, chiefly through the Orange River, in the north to the
Indian Ocean through the Zambezi, Limpopo and other streams.
A large number of smaller rivers rise on the outer slopes of the
mounta ; n ramparts and flow direct to the sea. In consequence
of their great slope and the intermittent supply of water the
rivers except the Zambezi are unnavigable save for a few
miles from their mouths. The central part of the interior
plateau, covering some 120,000 sq. m., is arid and is known as
the Kalahari Desert. The western region, both plateau and
coastlands, specially that part north of the Orange, is largely
semi or wholly desert, while in the Cape province the terrace
lands below the interior plateau are likewise arid, as is signified
by their Hottentot name karusa (Karroo). The southern and
eastern coastlands, owing to different climatic conditions (see
infra) are very fertile.
The geological structure is remarkably uniform, the plateau
consisting mainly of sedimentary deposits resting on crystalline
rocks. The Karroo system (sandstones and marls) covers
immense areas (see AFRICA, Geology). Intrusive dikes
locally known as ironstone by preventing erosion are often
the cause of the flat-topped hills which are a common feature of
the landscape. The Witwatersrand series of the Transvaal
includes auriferous conglomerates which have been worked
since 1886 and constitute the richest gold-mines in the world.
The diamondiferous areas at Kimberley and in the Pretoria
district are likewise the richest known. Coal beds are widely
distributed in the eastern districts while there are large copper
deposits in the west, both at the Cape and in German territory.
Climate. The general characteristics of the climate are determined
more by the physical conformation of the land than its proximity
to the equator. The eastern escarpments (the Drakensberg, &c.)
of the plateau intercept the rain-bearing winds from the Indian
Ocean, so that over the greater part of the interior the rainfall is
slight (5 to 24 in.). This, added to the elevation of the land, makes
the climate in general dry, bracing and suitable for Europeans, not-
withstanding that the northern part is within the tropics. Tem-
perature is high, the mean yearly average lying between 60 and
70 F. Only along the south-eastern coast and in some of the river
valleys is the climate of a markedly tropical character; here the
rainfall rises to 50 in. a year and the coast is washed by the warm
Mozambique current. The Cape peninsula and the western coast
receive the cold currents from the Antarctic regions. Except in
southern and western Cape Colony and along the Atlantic coast,
summer is the rainy season.
Flora and Fauna. In consequence of the deficient rainfall over
the greater part of the country the flora is not luxuriant and there
are no large forests. Coarse grasses are the characteristic vegetation
of the tableland. On the plains where grasses cannot find sufficient
moisture their place is taken by " bush," composed mainly of stunted
mimosas, acacias, euphorbia, wild pomegranate, bitter aloes and
herbaceous plants. Forest patches are found in the kloofs and
seaward sides of the mountains; willows often border the water-
courses; heaths and bulbous plants are common in some areas.
In the semi-tropical regions south-east of the Drakensberg, i.e. the
coastlands of Natal and Portuguese East Africa, the vegetation is
abundant, and mangroves, palms, baobab and bombax trees flourish.
Here, and also in the upper Limpopo valley, cotton, tobacco,
and rubber vines are found. Among the timber trees are species
of pine, cedar, ebony, ironwood, stinkwood and sneezewood. Flower-
ing plants include numerous species of terrestrial orchids, the so-
called arum lily (Richardia Ajricana), common in low-lying moist
land, and the white everlasting flower, found abundantly in some
regions of Cape Colony. Of non-indigenous flora are the oak, poplar,
bluegum, the Australian wattle, the vine, and almost every variety
of fruit tree and European vegetables. In suitable regions tea,
coffee, sugar and rice, as well as tobacco and cotton, are cultivated.
In the western districts of the Cape viticulture is largely followed.
The cereal most grown is maize (known in South Africa as mealies) ;
kaffir corn, wheat, barley and oats are also largely cultivated. The
soil is everywhere rich, but the lack of perennial water and the
absence of irrigation works on a large scale retards agriculture.
Most of the veld is divided into huge farms devoted to the rearing
of cattle, sheep, goats and horses. On the Karroo are numerous
ostrich farms. Lucerne is very largely grown as fodder for the
cattle.
The native fauna was formerly very rich in big game, a fact
sufficiently testified by the names given by the early European
settlers to mountains and streams. The lion, elephant, rhinoceros,
hippopotamus, giraffe, buffalo, quagga, zebra and other large animals
were, however, during the i8th and igth centuries driven out of
the more southern regions (though a few elephants and buffaloes,
now carefully preserved, are still found at the Cape), the quagga
being totally exterminated. In the Kalahari and in the eastern
lowlands (from Zululand to the Zambezi delta) most of these animals
are still found, as well as the eland, wildebeest and gemsbok. The
leopard (called a tiger in South Africa) is still fairly common in
all mountainous regions. Spotted hyenas and jackals are also
numerous. The kudu is now the most common of the larger ante-
lopes, the duiker and klipspringer are among the smaller antelopes still
existing in large numbers. Baboons are common in some districts.
Birds include the ostrich, great kori bustard, the eagle, vulture,
hawk and crane, francolin, golden cuckoo, loorie, scarlet and yellow
finches, kingfishers, parrots (in the eastern regions), pelicans and
flamingoes. There are thirty varieties of snakes. Locusts are
conspicuous among the common plagues of the country. In Rhodesia
and on the east coast the tsetse fly is found and termites are widely
distributed.
Inhabitants. The aborigines of South Africa are represented
by the Bushmen and Hottentots, now found in any racial
purity only in the Kalahari and in the southern part of German
South-West Africa. All the other natives, popularly called
Kaffirs, are members of the Bantu-negroid family, of whom they
here form three distinct branches: (i) the Zulu-Xosas, origin-
ally confined to the south-east seaboard between Delagoa Bay
and the Great Fish River, but later (ipth century) spread by
conquest over Gazaland, parts of the Transvaal, and Rhodesia
(Matabeleland), (2) the Bechuanas, with the kindred Basutos,
on the continental plateau from the Orange to the Zambezi, and
ranging westwards over the Kalahari desert and the Lake
Ngami region; (3) the Ova-Herero and Ova-Mpo, confined to
German South-West Africa between Walfish Bay and the
Kunene River.
All these mixed Bantu peoples are immigrants at various
periods from beyond the Zambezi. The Bechuanas, who occupy
by far the largest domain, and preserve the totemic tribal
system, were probably the first arrivals from the north or the
north-sea coastlands. As early, probably, as the 8th century A.D.
Arabs had formed a settlement on the coast at Sofala, 130 m.
south of the mouth of the Zambezi, but they got no further
south nor do they appear to have penetrated inland, though they
traded for gold and other articles with the inhabitants of the
northern part of the plateau the builders of the zimbabwes
and other ruins in what is now Rhodesia (q.v.) The Asiatic
inhabitants of South Africa of the present day are mainly Indian
Population (1(104).
Area in
White.
Coloured.
Total.
sq. m.
British South Africa:
'Cape of Good
vjj
Hope. . .
276,995
579,741
1,830,063
2,409,804
o *C
Natal (with
g<
Zululand)
35-371
97,109
1,011,645
1,108,754
1-fl
Orange Free
p
State .
50,392
142,679
244,636
387,315
&
Transvaal .
111,196
297,277
972,674
1,269,951
Southern Rhodesia .
148,575
12,623
600,000'
612,623
Basutoland
10,293
895
347-95?
348,848
Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate. .
225.000 1
1,004
119,772
120,776
Swaziland.
6,536
898
84,586
85,484
Total British . .
864,358
1,132,226
5,211,329
6,343,555
German S.W. Africa .
322,450
7,1 io 2
200, ooo 1
207,110
Portuguese East Africa
(southern part of)
I45.000 1
I0.000 1
I^OO.OOO 1
1,710,000
Total South Africa
1,331,808
1,149-336
7,111,329
8,260,665
1 Estimates. * 1907.
GENERAL FEATURES]
SOUTH AFRICA
465
coolies brought to Natal since 1860. The white races represented
are mainly Dutch and British; colonization by European races
dating from the i;th century. There are a few thousand
Germans and Portuguese, chiefly in the territories belonging to
their respective countries. The table on p. 464 shows the
inhabitants, white and coloured, in the different territories
into which South Africa is divided, and also the area of these
territories.
It will be seen that the population is sparse, less than 6\ persons
per square mile. (Excluding the Bechuanaland Protectorate and
German South-West Africa, which contain very large desert areas,
the population is slightly over 7 per square mile.) In British South
Africa the coloured races are nearly five times as numerous as the
whites. . The great majority of the coloured inhabitants are Bantus
of pure blood, but the total coloured population includes in the Cape
province 298,334 persons of mixed blood (chiefly white and Hot-
tentot) and in Natal 100,918 Asiatics. Save in the German colony
the official returns do not discriminate between the nationality
of the white inhabitants. Those of British and Dutch origin are
probably about equal in numbers, but a very large proportion of
the British inhabitants live in the towns, the country population
being in most districts predominantly Dutch. The chief cities are
Cape Town (pop. 1904, 77,668), Port Elizabeth (32,959). East London
(25,220) and Kimberley (34,331) in the Cape province; Durban
(67,847) in Natal; Johannesburg (155,642) and Pretoria (36,839) in
the Transvaal; and Bloemfontein (33,883) in the Orange Free State.
Salisbury and Buluwayo are the chief towns in Southern Rhodesia.
The only town of any size outside the British possession is Lourencp
Marques (Pop. 1907, 9849) in Delagoa Bay.
Economic Condition. Originally regarded by Europeans merely
as a convenient dep6t for ships on their way to India, the wealth
of South Africa for long consisted in its agricultural and pastoral
resources. Mealies and wheat were the principal crops. Wool,
mohair and ostrich feathers were the chief exports, the only mineral
exported being copper (from the Namaqualand mines). The open-
ing up of the diamond mines at Kimberley (1870) followed (1886)
by the discovery of the Witwatersrand goldfields completely
revolutionized the economic situation and profoundly modified the
history of the country. They led, among other things, to the
improvement of ports and the building of railways, so that by the
close of the first decade of the 2oth century the reproach of in-
accessibility from which South Africa had suffered was no longer
true. From the seaports of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East
London, Durban, Lourenco Marques and Beira railway lines run
to Kimberley, Bloemfontein, Johannesburg and Pretoria, while a
trunk line extends north from Kimberley through Rhodesia (in
which gold mining began on an extensive scale in 1898) and across
the Zambezi below the Victoria Falls into the Congo basin, where
it serves the Katanga mineral area. The distance from Cape Town
to Katanga is over 2100 miles. The German territory is also pro-
vided with railways, intended eventually to link with the British
systems. The standard gauge is 3 ft. 6 in. and in 1910 some 12,000 m.
of railway were open. In nearly every instance the railways
are state owned. While gold and diamond mining continue the
greatest of South African industries other sources of wealth have
been added. In the Cape, Natal and the Transvaal coal mining is
largely developed ; in the Transvaal and the Cape tobacco is grown
extensively; sugar, tea and other tropical and sub-tropical produce
are largely cultivated in Natal and the Portuguese territory, and,
since 1905, mealies have become an important article of export.
There are few manufactures; among the chief are the making of
wine and brandy in the Cape province, and flour-milling. Cattle
and mealies constitute the most valuable possessions of the natives.
The imports are of a general nature, textiles and food-stuffs being
the most important.
Irrigation. The scanty rainfall in many parts of South Africa
and its unequal distribution necessitates a system of artificial
irrigation unless much of the land be allowed to remain uncultivated.
But in many regions the soil is deficient in phosphates and nitrates,
and large irrigation works can be profitable only in districts where
the soil is exceptionally fertile. Before 1877 little was done to
make use of the water resources of the country. In that year the
Cape legislature provided for the constitution of irrigation boards.
Later boring operations were undertaken by the government, and
the advice of engineers acquainted with Egyptian and Indian irriga-
tion works sought. A report was drawn up by Sir (then Mr) Wm.
Willcocks in 1901 in which he estimated that there were in the Cape,
Orange Free State and the Transvaal, 3,000,000 acres which could
be brought under irrigation at a cost of about 30,000,000. The
value of the land, in its arid condition almost nil, when irrigated
he placed at some 100,000,000. None of the South African govern-
ments was, however, then in a position to undertake large works.
At the Cape the census of 1904 gave 415,688 acres as the area under
irrigation, an increase of 105,827 acres since 1891. In the Robertson
district a canal (completed in 1904) 21 m. long took off from the
Breede River and fertilized a large area, with the result that Robert-
son ranks as the second richest district in the province. Over the
Karroo and other arid regions some 10,000 boreholes had been sunk
to depths varying from 50 to 500 ft., their yield being 60,000,000
gallons a year. The value of land under artesian well irrigation
(e.g. in the Graaff Reinet district) has increased from 2Os. to 200
per morgen. More important, however, are the supplies to be
derived from the control of flood water, millions of cubic feet of
the best soil being annually washed into the sea. The Boer govern-
ments had done little to promote irrigation, but during 1905-1907
a strong intercolonial commission investigated the subject as it
affected the Transvaal and Orange Free State, and their final report,
issued at Pretoria in 1908, contains full particulars as to the irrigation
possibilities in those provinces. At least 350,000 acres in the Trans-
vaal could be remuneratively irrigated, and a proportionally large
area in the Orange province. In Natal an act of 1904 gave power
to the government to forward irrigation schemes. Under that
act the Winterton Irrigation Settlement (18,000 acres) was formed
on the upper Tugela. In 1909 an irrigation congress representative
of all the governments of British South Africa was held at Robertson,
in the Cape province.
Commerce. All the British states and territories are members
of postal, telegraphic and customs unions. The customs are of
a protective character, while there is a rebate on goods from Great
Britain and British possessions 1 (see below, History). There is
internal free trade throughout the Union of South Africa. The
customs tariff in the Portuguese possessions is of a highly protective
nature; goods coming from Portugal pay one-tenth of the dues
levied on foreign goods. In German South-West Africa no
discrimination is made as to the country of origin of imports.
A South African Customs Statistical Bureau, which deals with
the external trade of British South Africa, 2 was established in July
1905. The statistics issued by the bureau showed a total volume
of trade in 1905 of 72,910,000 made up as follows: Imports
29,859,000 (including 4,208,000 received through Portuguese
ports) ; exports 43,050,000. Of this amount 25,644,000 was put as
the value of raw gold exported, and 9,257,000 as the value of the
diamonds shipped. Only 414,000 worth of goods was exported
via Portuguese ports. For 1907 the figures were: Value of total
trade 74,153,000; imports 25,920,000, exports 48,233,000.
Goods valued at 4,036,377 received through Portuguese ports
are included in the imports, and goods valued at 507,000 shipped
at Portuguese ports in the exports. The value of raw gold exported
in 1907 was 29,510,000, of diamonds 8,973,000. In 1908 the figures
were: Total trade 70,093,000; imports 24,438,000 (including
4,641,000 via Portuguese ports); exports 45,655,000 (including
513,000 from Portuguese ports). The raw gold exported was worth
32,047,000 but the export of diamonds fell to 4,796,000. In
1909 the value of the imports into British South Africa was
returned at 29,842,000; the value of the exports at 51,151,000.*
Of the imports over 16,850,000 came from the United Kingdom,
over 2,240,000 from Australia, 2,450,000 from Germany, and
2,195,000 from the United States. Of the exports raw gold was
valued at 33,303,000, diamonds at 6,370,000, wool at 3,728,000
and ostrich feathers at 2,091,000. The value of the imports
through Delagoa Bay and other Portuguese ports was 6,795,000,
the exports from Portuguese ports were valued at slightly over
500,000. In the four years the imports from the United Kingdom
were about 58%, from other parts of the empire 13%. Of the
exports the United Kingdom took some 95%; a considerable
quantity of South African produce, especially wool, shipped to
England ultimately however finds its way to other countries. Next
to Great Britain the countries doing most trade with South Africa
are Australia and New Zealand, Germany, the United States,
Canada, Brazil, India, Belgium, Holland and France.
Religion. The great majority of the white inhabitants are
Protestants. Most of those of Dutch descent are members of the
Dutch Reformed Church (Nederduitsch Heruormde Kerk), the state
church of the early Cape colonists, or of churches formed by dis-
sentient members of the original church such as the Gereformeerde
Kerk (the " Dopper " Church), a branch (introduced in 1858) of
the Separatist Reformed Church of Holland. These churches are
Calvimstic in doctrine and Presbyterian in organization. _ Until
1843 the Cape synod was controlled by government commissioners;
it was then given power to regulate its own internal affairs. There
are separate synods with independent authority for the congrega-
tions of the Dutch Reformed Churches in the Cape, Orange Free
State and Transvaal provinces. The Doppers (" roundheads ")
and other dissentient bodies have also separate synods. Besides
these churches there are a number of Lutheran congregations among
the Dutch speaking population.
The South Africans of British descent are divided, mainly, into
Anglicans, Wesleyans and Presbyterians. The Baptists and Con-
gregationalists are smaller bodies. All form independent churches
in communion with the mother churches in Great Britain. The
oldest established is that of the Presbyterians. The Anglican
1 The total amount rebated in 1908 was 430,017.
2 Including North- West Rhodesia.
' For the six months January to June 1910 the figures were:
imports 14,770,000; exports 24,442,000.
4 66
SOUTH AFRICA
[GENERAL FEATURES
organization dates from 1847. Being declared by judicial decision
in 1863 a voluntary body, the Anglicans formed " The Church of
the Province of South Africa." It is divided into the dioceses of
Cape Town, Graham's Town, Maritzburg (Natal), Kaffraria, Bloem-
fontein, Pretoria, Zululand, Mashonaland and Lebombo. The
last-named diocese is that part of Portuguese East Africa south of
the Sabi river ; the Mashonaland diocese includes the Portuguese
territory between the Sabi and the Zambezi. German South-West
Africa is not included in the Anglican organization. The metropoli-
tan is the archbishop of Cape Town. The constitution of the church
was drawn up at a provincial synod in 1870. It accepts the doctrines
of the Church of England, but acknowledges none save its own
ecclesiastical tribunals, or such other tribunal as may be accepted
by the provincial synod in other words it rejects the authority
of the English privy council. Bishop Colenso of Natal and other
Anglicans did not accept the authority of the provincial synod,
regarding themselves as in all respects members of the Church of
England. This was, especially in Natal, the cause of prolonged
controversy among the members of the Anglican community. By
1901, however, the majority of the " Church of England party
were represented in the provincial synod. Nevertheless the tempor-
alities of this party remained in the hands of curators and not in
the possession of the provincial church. In 1910 the practical
amalgamation of the two bodies was effected (see further NATAL).
The Roman Catholics area comparatively small body ; the majority
of their adherents are found in the Cape and Natal. At the head
of their organizations are vicars-apostolic for the Cape (eastern
district), the Cape (western district), Natal, Orange River, Kimberley
and the Transvaal, and prefects-apostolic for Basutoland and
Zambezi (or Rhodesia).
All the churches maintain missions to the natives. The first
to enter the field were the Jesuits and Dominicans, who laboured
on the south-east coast and among the subjects of the monomotapa
(see PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA). Their work lasted from about
MI i l $ ( * > to I ' r . 6o> k ut ** ^ as ' 5 ' t ' it:t ' e trace - Tne ear 'v
Nttlve' m dern missions were all Protestant. A Moravian
mission to the Hottentots was begun in 1737, continued
to 1744 and was re-established against the wishes of the colonists
in 1792. Before the close of the century the London Missionary
Society entered the field. The work of this society's agents has
had a greater influence on the history of South Africa than that of
any other religious body save the Dutch Reformed Church. Next
in order came the Wesleyans and the Glasgow Missionary Society
(Presbyterian), the last-named society founding in 1824 the station
of Lovedale now the most important institution in South Africa
in connexion with native missions. In 1829 the Paris Evangelical
Society (whose agents have laboured chiefly in Basuto and Barotse
lands) sent out their first missionaries, who were closely followed
by the agents of other societies (see MISSIONS). The Roman
Catholics entered the field later on. By the end of the igth century
fully 5 % of the total native population professed Christianity.
The Jews form a small but influential community. There are
some thousands of Mahommedans in the Cape (chiefly Malays) and
larger numbers in Natal, where there is also a large Hindu popula-
tion. At Lourenco Marques the Chinese colony has its own temple
and religious services.
Law. 1 The basis of the common law of British South Africa is
the Roman-Dutch law as it existed in Holland at the end of the
1 8th century. This was simply the old Roman jurisprudence
embodied in the legislation of Justinian, modified by custom and
legislative decrees during the course of the centuries which
witnessed the growth of civilization in Europe; and it is to all
intents and purposes the jurisprudence which was the foundation
of the Code Napoleon. It was in part closely akin to the
" modern Roman law " which is practised widely over the con-
tinent of Europe, and even in Scotland, at the present day.
The authorities upon the common law in South Africa are: the
Dutch commentators upon the civil law, the statute law of
Holland, the decisions of the Dutch courts, and, failing these,
the corpus juris civilis itself.
In the period which has elapsed since the establishment of
British rule at the Cape the law has been considerably modified
and altered, both by legislation and by judicial decisions, and
it is not too much to say that at the present time there exists
hardly any material difference in principle over the greater part
of the field of jurisprudence between the law of England and the
law of South Africa. The law of contracts, the law of torts,
the mercantile law, the law relating to shipping and insurance,
not to mention other subjects, are practically identical with
those of England; and even the criminal law is virtually the
1 For the sections here incorporated on South African law and
language we are indebted to the late J. W. Leonard, K.C. (d. 1909),
twice attorney-general of Cape Colony.
same, though the greater elasticity of the civil jurisprudence
allows fewer opportunities for the escape of malefactors, notably
in cases of fraud or falsity in any form, than exist under the law
of England. The constitution of the courts is based on the
example of the English judiciary, and the rules of evidence
and procedure are practically the same in both criminal and
civil cases as in England. Ah 1 serious cases of crime are tried
before a judge and jury, with the same formalities and safeguards
as in England, while minor offences are dealt with by stipendiary
magistrates possessing a limited statutory jurisdiction. In
criminal cases it is necessary for the jury to find a unanimous
verdict. In civil cases either party may demand a jury, a
privilege which is seldom exercised; but in a civil case the verdict
of the majority of jurors prevails.
The most marked difference between the English and South
African systems of law is, as might be expected, to be found
in the law relating to real property. In South Africa there is
a rigid and universal application of the principle of registration.
The title to land is registered, in all cases; and so, with a few
exceptions, is every servitude or easement, mortgage or charge,
upon land. With regard to the devolution of property upon
death, it may be remarked that the law of intestate succession
applies equally to real and personal estate, there being no law of
primogeniture. The rules of distribution in intestacy differ,
however, very considerably from those established in England.
There is absolute freedom of testamentary disposition in the
Cape province and in some other parts of South Africa. The
effect of marriage upon the property of the spouses is, by the
Roman-Dutch law and in the absence of any ante-nuptial
contract to the contrary, to bring about a complete community
of property, virtually a universal partnership between husband
and wife, subject to the sole and absolute control of the husband
while the marriage lasts. The courts have, however, the right
to interfere for the protection of the wife in case of any flagrant
abuse of the power thus vested in the husband. Ante-nuptial
agreements may be of any nature the parties may choose. Such
agreements must in all cases be publicly registered. Upon the
dissolution of a marriage in community of property, or in the
event of a judicial separation a communione bonorum, the
property of the spouses is divided as upon the liquidation of a
partnership. It is not necessary here to refer particularly to
certain exceptions to this general rule in cases of divorce.
By the common law gifts between husband and wife during
marriage are void as against creditors. This rule cannot be
evaded even by ante-nuptial agreement. By the statute law
of Natal post-nuptial agreements between spouses are permitted
under certain conditions, to which it is not possible now to refer
at length. Divorce is granted to either spouse for either
adultery or malicious desertion, the distinctions established by
the English law between husband and wife in respect of divorce
being disregarded.
Language. The languages spoken in South Africa by the
inhabitants of European descent are English and Dutch, the
latter chiefly in the form of a patois colloquially known as the
Taal. (German and Portuguese are spoken in the possessions
of those countries, but a knowledge of English or Dutch is
frequent even in those territories.) The history of the Dutch
language in South Africa is intimately bound up with the history
of the South African Dutch people. The basis of the language
as spoken to-day is that 17th-century Dutch of Holland which
the first settlers brought to the country; and although the Dutch
of Holland and the Dutch of South Africa differ very widely
to-day, Cape Dutch differs less widely from the Dutch language
of the 1 7th century than from the modern Dutch of Holland.
The tongue of the vast majority of the Dutch-speaking inhabitants
may thus be said to be a degenerate dialect of the 17th-century
Dutch of Holland, with a very limited vocabulary. The
limiting of the vocabulary is due to two reasons. In the first
place, the early settlers were drawn principally from the peasant
class, being chiefly discharged soldiers and sailors; and, further,
when once settled, the necessity for making the language in-
telligible to the natives by whom the settlers were surrounded led
''^y 9 ^^^^
x
\
by The Encyclopaedia. Britannic*. Co.
CONSTITUTION]
SOUTH AFRICA
to a still further simplification of speech structure and curtail-
ment of the vocabulary. There thus grew up an ungrammatica
dialect of Dutch, suited only to the most ordinary requirements
of the everyday life of a rural population. It became a lan-
guage with neither a syntax nor a literature. At the same time
it remained in character almost entirely Dutch, no French
in spite of the incorporation into the population of the Hugue-
not emigrants and only a few Malay words finding a place in
the Taal. But side by side with this language of everyday life
a purer form of Dutch has continued to exist and find its uses
under certain conditions. It must be borne in mind that the
Boers of every grade have always been more or less sedulously
instructed in religious subjects, at all events to the extent
required to fit them for formal membership of their church,
and in all their wanderings they have usually been attended
by their pastors. The Dutch Bible and Catechism are written
in pure Dutch. The language of the Dutch Bible is as majestic
as that of the English version. Moreover, the services of the
Church have always been conducted in grammatical though
simple Dutch; and the clergy, in their intercourse with the
people, have as a general rule abstained from conversing in the
ordinary dialect. The Boer thus has but slight difficulty in
reading and understanding pure Dutch. Under the influence
of Africander nationalism strenuous efforts have been made
to teach the language in the schools throughout the greater
part of South Africa. In the Transvaal and Orange Free State
education was imparted almost exclusively in Dutch. All
public business in the government offices and law courts was
conducted in the language, and the Transvaal at the time of
its annexation by Great Britain was being gradually inundated
by officials, railway servants and others introduced from Holland,
who spoke modern Dutch. Officially throughout the Union of
South Africa both languages are now on a footing of equality.
Throughout South Africa a number of words, mainly Dutch, are
in general use by the English-speaking inhabitants and also, to a
considerable extent, among the natives. The most common of
these words, with their English meanings, are here set forth. When
not otherwise stated the words are of Dutch origin:
Assegai .
Boschveld .
Bywoners .
Daal . . .
Dorp
Dritt . . .
Ervan (sing, erf)
Fontein .
Hoek . . .
Inspan .
Kaffir . . .
Karroo .
Kloof . . .
Kop ...
Kopje
Kraal . . .
Krantz (or Kranz)
Nek
Poort
Rand .
Ruggens
Slim .
Sluit
a spear used by the Kaffir tribes; a word
adopted from the Portuguese, but of Berber
origin.
a plain or open stretch of country covered
with thin wood or bush. Often written
bushveld.
(literally witnesses) " poor whites," the name
given by the Boers to the landless whites,
hangers-on at farms, &c.
valley,
village.
ford (a " Taal " word).
plots of land,
fountain, spring.
corner, angle, hook. Common in place-names,
to harness.
(Arabic for unbeliever [in Islam]) a native of
Bantu stock ; more loosely any native,
any arid district; now the name of definite
regions (from the Hottentot),
fissure or crevice, hence a ravine or narrow
valley.
(literally head) a hill, generally rounded.
Flat-topped hills are usually called tafel
(table) or plat (flat) bergs,
a little hill; the name given to the isolated
pointed hills which are a characteristic feature
of the plains of South Africa,
an enclosure, hence a native village. Prob-
ably from the Portuguese,
an overhanging wall of rock, hence a steep
cliff, a precipice. A " Taal " word derived
from the Dutch krans, a wreath, chaplet or
cornice.
literally neck ) mountain passes or passes
literally gate $ between mountains,
border, edge, hence a low and usually round
range of hills.
ridges, applied to undulating slopes or un-
irrigated hilly country,
cunning, clever, adroit.
(Dutch shot) ditch, gutter, small stream.
467
Spruit .... (literally shoot, spruiten, to spring up), stream,
small river. The name given to intermittent
streams liable to sudden freshets.
Stoep .... (literally a step), the name given to the plat-
form or veranda of a house. The stoep is
shaded by a roof and is a favourite rendez-
vous for the household and for visitors.
Formerly all South African houses had stoeps,
but in the central parts of the larger towns
the buildings are now without verandas.
Trek .... (literally, pull, tug, trekken, to draw or pull),
to leave a place, to take a journey ; also the
distance covered in a journey.
Veld .... field. The name given to open plains and
to the grass-covered plateaus of the interior.
Vlei a hollow filled with water during rainy
weather.
Uitspan .... to unharness.
Uitlander . . . outlander, i.e. a foreigner.
Among other Dutch words frequently used in place-names may be
instanced: rhenoster (rhinoceros) olifant (elephant), mooi (pretty),
modder (mud), klip (cliff), berg (mountain), burg or stad (town),
zwart (black), klein (little), groote (great), breede (broad), nieuw
(new), zuur (sour), bokke (buck).
A number of Dutch weights and measures are also in general use.
They include: muid =3 bushels; morgen =2-11654 acres. A Cape
rood equals 12-396 English feet, and a Cape ton contains 2000 ft.
II. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
In accordance with the provisions of an act of the British
Parliament (South Africa Act 1909) Cape Colony, Natal, the
Transvaal and Orange River colonies were united under one
government in a legislative union under the British crown.
The Union of South Africa, as the new state is named, was
established on the 3ist of May 1910. Upon its formation the
colonies named became provinces of the Union. In the case
of the Orange River colony its title was changed to Orange
Free State province. The colonial legislatures were abolished,
provincial councils, with strictly subordinate and delegated
powers, were set up, and provincial administrators (local men)
replaced the various governors. The history of the movement
which led to unification is given in the following section. The
main provisions of the constitution J are as follows:
The executive government of the Union is vested in the king
and may be exercised by the sovereign in person. It is, however,
administered by a governor-general, who holds office _.
during the king's pleasure. The governor-general E
can dismiss ministers and dissolve parliament. He is tixecutlve -
empowered to dissolve both houses of the legislature simultaneously
or the House of Assembly alone. He can perform no official act
when beyond the territorial limits of the Union, but he can appoint
a deputy to act for him during temporary absences. The governor-
general is paid 10,000 a year out of the consolidated funds of the
Union. He is advised by an executive council, whose members
he nominates. The council must include the ministers of state;
ministers administering departments of state may not exceed ten
in number. Ministers cannot hold office for a longer period than
three months unless they are or become members of either house of
parliament. The control and administration of native affairs (which
Defore the Union was, except at the Cape, largely in the hands of
:he colonial governors personally) is vested exclusively in the
governor in council and to the same authority is entrusted all matters
specially or differentially affecting Asiatics throughout the Union.
The legislative power is vested in a parliament consisting of the
Sovereign, a Senate, and a House of Assembly. The Senate consists of
40 members, 8 representatives from each province, and 8 members
nominated by the governor-general in council. Four of the nominated
members are selected on the ground mainly of their thorough
acquaintance with " the reasonable wants and wishes " of the
coloured races in South Africa. The presence of both nominated
and elected members in the Senate is a novel provision in the con-
stitution of the upper chambers of British colonial legislatures.
The senators chosen in 1910 hold office for ten years. After 1920
.he Union parliament may make any alteration it sees rfte
it in the constitution of the senate. A senator must Legislature.
>e_ a British subject of European descent, must be
hirty years old. be a parliamentary voter in one of the provinces,
lave lived for five years in the Union, and if an elected member be
>ossessed of immovable property within the Union of the clear
alue of 500.
1 For a detailed examination of the constitution and a comparison
of it with the federal constitutions of Canada and Australia see
' South African Union," by A. Berriedale Keith, in the Journ.
Soc. Comp. Legislation for October 1909.
SOUTH AFRICA
[HISTORY
The House of Assembly consists (as originally constituted) of 121
members, elected by single-membered constituencies, each con-
stituency containing as nearly as possible the same number of voters.
Of these members the Cape Province returns 51, the Transvaal 36,
and Natal and Orange Free State 17 each. As population increases
the total number of members may be raised to 150. The seats
allotted to each province are determined by its number of European
male adults as ascertained by a quinquennial census, the quota for
a constituency being obtained by dividing the total number of such
adults in the Union as ascertained at the 1904^ census by the number
of members at the establishment of the Union. The commission
charged with the delimitation of constituencies is permitted
to vary the quota as much as 15% either way. Members
of the House of Assembly must, like senators, be British subjects
of European descent, they must be qualified to be registered as
voters and have lived for five years within the Union. A general
election must take place every five years, and all polls must be
taken on the same day. There must be a session of parliament
every year, so arranged that twelve months shall not elapse between
the last day of one session and the first sitting of the next session.
The qualifications of parliamentary voters are those which existed
in the several colonies at the establishment of the Union, save that
"no member of His Majesty's regular forces on full pay" can be
registered as a voter. As the franchise laws in the several colonies
differed the qualifications of voters in the provinces differ also. In
the Transvaal and Orange Free State provinces the franchise is
restricted to white adult male British subjects. In neither province
is there any property qualification, but a six months' residence before
registration is required. In Natal (q.v.) there is a low property
qualification. In that province coloured persons are not by name
debarred from the franchise, but they are in practice excluded. In
the Cape province, where there is also a low property qualification,
no colour bar exists and there are a large number of Kaffir voters (see
CAPE COLONY: Constitution). Parliament may alter the qualifica-
tions for the vote, but no law which would deprive coloured persons
in the Cape province of the franchise can be effective " unless the
bill be passed by both houses of parliament sitting together and at
the third reading be agreed to by not less than two-thirds oi the total
number of members of both houses."
Save as subject, ultimately, to the British parliament the Union
parliament is a sovereign body. The provinces have no original
authority, possessing only such powers as are delegated to them by
the parliament. In certain cases the governor-general must reserve
the royal assent to bills, e.g. any bill abolishing the coloured vote
in the Cape province. The king is given the power to disallow any
law within a year of it having received the assent of the governor-
general.
With regard to bills the two houses are not in a position of equality.
Bills appropriating revenue or moneys, or imposing taxation, must
originate in the House of Assembly and may not be amended by the
Senate. If a bill passed by the Assembly has been twice rejected
by the Senate, provision, is made for a joint sitting of both houses,
when members vote and decide upon the measure concerned as one
body. In the case of a money bill rejected by the Senate a joint
sitting to decide its fate may be held in the same session in which
the Senate has failed to pass the bill. Every minister of state may
sit and speak in either house, but can vote only in the house of which
he is a member. Re-election is not necessary on the appointment
of a member as a minister of state. Members of parliament are
paid 400 a year, 3 being deducted from this allowance for every
day's absence during the session.
A Supreme Court of Judicature for South Africa was created at
the establishment of the Union. The former Supreme, High and
j.^ e Circuit Courts of the several colonies then became
ii.dk-aiiirr provincial and local divisions of the Supreme Court
JUOKalUrVt r e r, L AC t_ I f j-
of South Africa, which consists of two divisions, namely
the Supreme Court and the Appellate Division. Appeals from the
decisions of the provincial and local divisions of the court and from
those of the High Court of southern Rhodesia, must be made to the
appellate division of the Supreme Court. Unless special leave of
the privy council be obtained there can be no appeal from the deci-
sions of the Appellate Division, save in admiralty cases. This
restriction of the power of appeal to the privy council is much greater
than are the restrictions upon appeals from the Commonwealth
of Australia, where appeals to the privy council lie by right from
the several state Supreme Courts. The difference arises from the
fact that the Commonwealth is a federation of states; whereas the
Union of South Africa is but one state with but one Supreme Court.
One result of this unification of the courts of South Africa is that
any provincial or local division of the Supreme Court in which an
action is begun can order its transference to another division if
that course be deemed more convenient. Moreover the judgments
of each provincial division can be registered and enforced in any
other division. The administration of justice throughout the Union
is vested in a minister of state who has all the powers of the attorney-
generals of the several colonies at the time of the Union, save that
power as to the prosecution of crimes is vested in each province
in an official appointed by the governor-general in council and styled
the attorney-general of the province.
Among the general provisions of the constitution the most im-
portant is that both the English and Dutch languages are official
languages of the Union and are treated on a footing of equality ;
all records of parliament, and all notices of general public n eaera i
importance or interest issued by the government of provisfoas
the Union must be in both languages. (Persons
in the public service at the establishment of the Union cannot,
however, be dispensed with because of lack of knowledge of either
English or Dutch.) Other general provisions enact free trade
throughout the Union, but the customs and excise leviable under
the laws existing in any of the colonies at the establishment of Union
remain in force unless parliament otherwise provides. All persons
who had been naturalized in any of the colonies are naturalized
throughout the Union. All rights and obligations under conventions
and agreements which were binding on any of the colonies have
devolved upon the Union.
The harbours of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and
Durban are state owned, as are also nearly all the railways in the
Union. All revenues derived from these services are paid into a
separate fund. The administration of the railways, ports and har-
bours is entrusted to a board of not more than three commissioners
(appointed by the governor-general in council) presided over by a
minister of state. Each commissioner holds office for five years
and may be reappointed. The board is directed to administer its
service on business principles, due regard being had to agricultural
and industrial development, &c., within the Union. So far as may
be the total earnings are not to be more than are sufficient to meet
necessary outlays.
Provincial Administration. While the Union parliament has
full power to make laws for the whole of the Union, to provincial
councils have been delegated the immediate control of affairs
relating solely to the provinces. The subjects delegated to
the councils include direct taxation within the provinces for
local revenue purposes, the borrowing of money (on the sole
credit of the provinces) with the consent of the ministry; agri-
culture (within the limits denned by parliament) and municipal
institutions, divisional councils, and other local institutions.
The control of elementary education was also guaranteed
to the provincial councils up to 1915, and thereafter until
parliament otherwise provides.
The councils consist of not fewer than 25 members and not more
than the number of members returned by the province to the House
of Assembly. Each councillor represents a separate constituency,
these constituencies, as far as possible, to be the same as the parlia-
mentary constituencies. (In the Cape and Transvaal provinces
they were the same in 1910; Natal and Orange Free State returning
only 17 members to the House of Assembly, the parliamentary
constituencies have been rearranged.) The qualifications for
electors are the same as for parliament, and any person qualified
to vote is qualified to be a member of the council. As in the Cape
province coloured persons are qualified to vote, they are thus also
qualified to_ be members of the provincial council. Any member
of the provincial council who becomes a member of either House
of Parliament thereupon ceases to be a member of such provincial
council. Each provincial council continues for three years from
the date of its first meeting and is not subject to dissolution save
by effluxion of time.
The executive power in each province is invested in an officer
appointed by the government and styled provincial administrator.
He holds office for five years. The administrator is assisted by an
executive committee of four persons elected from among its own
members, or otherwise, by the provincial council on the proportional
representation principle. The administrator and any other member
of the executive committee, not being a member of the council, has
the right to take part in the proceedings of the council, but has not
the right to vote. The provincial councils have not the right to
make laws, but ordinances, which must receive the assent of the
governor-general in council before becoming valid. (F. R. C.)
III. HISTORY
The history of South Africa is, almost entirely, that of its
colonization by European races, of their conflicts with, and
influence over, its native inhabitants, and of the struggle for
supremacy between the British and Dutch settlers. The
little that is known concerning the doings of the natives before
the appearance of the white man belongs to the domain of
ethnology rather than of history. When the Portuguese first
reached the southern part of Africa there was but one place in
it where a civilized race held sway. This was at Sofala, the
most southerly post of the East African Arabs. From that port
the Arabs traded for ivory, slaves and (principally) gold with
Bantu peoples of the far interior the Rhodesia of to-day.
These natives, whose earliest existing buildings may go back
to the time of the Norman Conquest, were in a higheV state of
HISTORY]
SOUTH AFRICA
469
development than the Bushmen and Hottentots living farther
south. The part played by the various native races in modifying
the character of the European colonization will be best considered
as they successively came into contact with the white settlers.
At this point it is only necessary to state that at the same time
as the Europeans were slowly extending northward from the
south-western point of the continent, a conquering race of
Bantu negro stock, originating from somewhere beyond the
Zambezi, was spreading southward along the western side of the
country.
A. From the Discovery of the Cape to the Great Trek. What
led to the discovery of America led also to the discovery, exploita-
tion and colonization of South Africa.- In the isth century the
great Eastern trade with Europe was carried on by the Venetian
Republic Venice was the gate from West to East, and her
fleets, richly laden with goods brought down to the shores of the
Mediterranean in caravans, supplied Europe with the luxuries
of the Orient. It was in that century that Portugal rose to
prominence as a maritime power; and being anxious to enjoy
at first hand some of the commerce which had brought such
prosperity to Venice, Portugal determined to seek out an ocean
pathway to the Indies. It was with this intention that Bar-
tholomew Diaz, sailing southwards, discovered the Cape of Good
Hope in I488. 1 Nine years after the discovery of the Cape by
Diaz another Portuguese expedition was fitted out under Vasco
da Gama. Da Gama entered Table Bay, but did not land.
Thence he pushed on round the coast, landed in Mossel Bay,
then sailing up the south-east coast he sighted land again on
the zsth of December 1497, and named it in honour of the day,
Natal. Still proceeding northwards he entered the Quilimane
River and eventually reached India.
For many years subsequent to this date South Africa repre-
sented merely an inconvenient promontory to be rounded on the
voyage to the Indies. Ships stopped at different ports, or rather
at such few natural harbours as the inhospitable coast offered,
from time to time, but no attempt was made by the Portuguese
to colonize the southern end of the continent. On the west
coast their southernmost settlement for a long period was
Benguella, and the history of Angola (q.v.) had not until the
last quarter of the igth century any close connexion with that
of South Africa. On the east coast the Portuguese were masters
of Sofala by 1506, and a trading-post was first established in
Delagoa Bay in 1545. Here alone Portugal obtained an impor-
tant foothold in South Africa. But between Benguella on the
west and Lourengo Marques on the east the Portuguese made
no attempt to form permanent settlements or trading stations
along the coast. It was too barren a shore to prove attractive
when the riches of East Africa and India were available.
The first Europeans to follow in the wake of the Portuguese
voyagers were the English. In 1601 the English East India
English Company fitted out a fleet of five vessels, which
East India sailed from Torbay. After four months at sea they
Company. dropped their anchors in Table Bay, where they
remained for seven weeks before proceeding eastwards. From
that time forward Table Bay was used as an occasional port of
call for British ships, and in 1620 two English captains formally
took possession of the Cape in the name of James I. This
patriotic act was not, however, sufficiently appreciated by either
King James I. or the English East India Company to evoke any
official confirmation on their part. Meanwhile the Dutch East
India Company had been formed in Holland, and the Dutch
had entered keenly into the competition for the glittering
prizes of Eastern commerce. In 1648 one of their ships was
stranded in Table Bay, and the shipwrecked crew were left to
forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were
so pleased with the resources of the country that on their return
to Holland they represented to the directors of the company
the great advantages that would accrue to the Dutch Eastern
trade from a properly provided and fortified station of call at
the Cape. The result was that in 1652 a fort and vegetable
1 The date usually assigned (1486), on the authority of De Barros,
has been snown to be incorrect (see DIAZ).
gardens were laid out at Table Bay by a Dutch expedition
sent for the purpose under a surgeon named Jan van Riebeek.
In 1657 a few soldiers and sailors, discharged by the Dutch
East India Company, had farms allotted them, and these men
constituted the first so-called " free burghers." Dutch East
By this step the station became a plantation or lad/a
settlement. More settlers were landed from time to Cotopaoy.
time, including a number of orphan girls from Amsterdam, and
during 1688-1689 the colony was greatly strengthened by the
arrival of some three hundred Huguenots (men, women
and children), who were located at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein,
Frenchhoek and Paarl. In process of time the French settlers
were absorbed in the Dutch population, but they have had an
enduring influence on the character of the people. The little
settlement gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 the country
as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony. At this time
the white colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They
possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity
to make it an article of export, and were famed for the good
quality of their wines. But their chief wealth was in cattle.
Such prosperity as they enjoyed was in despite of the system of
government prevailing. All through the latter half of the i7th
and the whole of the i8th century troubles arose from time to
time between the colonists and the government. The adminis-
tration of the Dutch East India Company was of an extremely
despotic character. The most complete account of the com-
pany's tenure and government of the Cape was written in 1857
by E. B. Watermeyer, a Cape colonist of Dutch descent resid-
ing in Cape- Town. He points out that it was after failing
to find a route by the north-east to China and Japan that the
Dutch turned their eyes to the Cape route. The Cape of Good
Hope subsequently " became not a colony of the Republic of
the United Provinces, but a dependency of the ' Nether-
lands Chartered General East India Company ' for mercantile
purposes; and to this fact principally can be traced the slow
progress, in all but extension of territory, of a country which
was settled by Europeans within thirty years of the time when
the Pilgrim Fathers, the founders of a mighty empire, landed at
Plymouth to plant democratic institutions and European
civilization in the West."
On the settlement under van Riebeek, and the position in
it which the so-called " free burghers " enjoyed, this candid
Dutch writer throws an interesting light.
" The people," he says, " who came here with Riebeek himself
were not colonists intending permanently to settle at the Cape. . . .
The proposition that any freemen or burghers not in the pay of
the company should be encouraged to cultivate the ground was
first made about three years after Riebeek's arrival. Accordingly,
some discharged sailors and soldiers, who received on certain condi-
tions plots of ground extending from the Fresh River to the
Liesbeek, were the first free burghers of the colony. . . . Here it
is sufficient to say that, generally, the term ' free burgher ' was
a complete misnomer. The first burghers were, in truth, a mere
change from paid to unpaid servants of the company. They thought,
in obtaining their discharge, that they had much improved their
condition, but they soon discovered the reverse to be the fact.
And henceforward, to the end of the last [iSth] century we fird the
constantly repeated and well-founded complaint, that the company
and its officers possessed every advantage, while the freemen were
not allowed even the fruit of their own toil. . . . The natural effect
of this narrow and tyrannous rule was discontent, amounting often
to disaffection. After a time every endeavour was made to escape
beyond the immediate control of the authorities. Thus the ' trek-
king ' system, with its attendant evils, the bane of South Africa,
was born. By their illiberal spirit, which sought but temporary
commercial advantage in connexion with the Eastern trade, the
Dutch authorities themselves, although generally humanely disposed
towards the natives, created the system which caused their oppres-
sion and extermination."
When it is borne in mind that the Dutch at the Cape were
for one hundred and forty-three years under the rule of the
Dutch East India Company, the importance of a correct appre-
ciation of the nature of that rule to any student of South African
history is obvious. No modern writer approaches Watermeyer
either in the completeness of his facts or the severity of his
indictment. Referring to the policy of the company, Watermeyer
says:
470
SOUTH AFRICA
[HISTORY
The Dutch colonial system as exemplified at the Cape of Good
Hope, or rather the system of the Dutch East India Company
(for the nation should not wholly suffer under the condemnation
justly incurred by a trading association that sought only pecuniary
profit), was almost without one redeeming feature, and was a dis-
honour to the Netherlands' national name. In all things political
it was purely despotic; in all things commercial, it was purely
monopolist. The Dutch East India Company cared nought for
the progress of the colony provided only that they had a refresh-
ment station for their richly laden fleets, and that the English,
French, Danes and Portuguese had not. Whatever tended to
infringe in the slightest degree on their darling monopoly was
visited with the severest penalties, whether the culprit chanced
to be high in rank or low. An instance of this, ludicrous while
grossly tyrannical, is preserved in the records. Commander van
Quaelbergen, the third of the Dutch governors of the colony, was
dismissed from the government in 1667, and expelled the service
of the company, because he had interchanged civilities with a French
governor bound eastwards, the United Provinces being then at
peace with France. 1
Of this nature was the foreign policy of the Dutch company at
the Cape of Good Hope ; modified, indeed, in some degree from time
to time, but governed by principles of jealous, stringent monopoly
until the surrender of the colony by Commissioner Sluysken in
1795. The internal government of the colonists for the entire
duration of the East India Company's rule was always tyrannical,
often oppressive in the extreme. With proclamations, placaats and
statutes abundantly filling huge tomes, the caprice of the governor
was in truth the law. A mockery of popular institutions, under
the name of a burgher council, indeed existed; but this was a mere
delusion, and must not be confounded with the system of local
government by means of district burgher councils which that most
able man, Commissioner de Mist, sought to establish during the
brief government of the Batavian Republic from 1803 to 1806, when
the Dutch nation, convinced and ashamed of the false policy by
which they had permitted a mere money-making association to
disgrace the Batavian name, and to entail degradation on what
might have been a free and prosperous colony, sought to redeem
their error by making this country a national colonial possession,
instead of a slavish property, to be neglected, oppressed or ruined,
as the caprice or avarice of its merchant owners might dictate.
From time to time servants in the direct employment of the
company were endowed with the right of " freeburghers,"
but the company retained the power to compel them
Boers *o return into its service whenever they deemed it
necessary. This right to enforce into servitude those
who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high
officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals
themselves who had received this conditional freedom; it
was, adds Watermeyer, claimed by the government to be ap-
plicable likewise to the children of all such. The effect of this
tyranny was inevitable: it drove men to desperation. They fled
from oppression; and thus trekking began, not in 1835, as is gen-
erally stated, but before 1700. From 1720 to 1780 trekking had
gone steadily forwards. In 1780 van Plettenberg, the governor,
proclaimed the Sneeuwbergen the northern boundary of the
colony, expressing " the anxious hope that no more extension
should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the
rambling peasants to wander beyond." In 1789 so strong had
feeling amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent
from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam.
After this deputation some nominal reforms were granted; but
in 1795 a number of burghers settled in the Swellendam and
Graaf Reinet districts drove out the officials of the company and
established independent governments. The rebellion was
accompanied by an assertion of rights on the part of the
burghers or freemen, which contained the following clause,
the spirit of which animated many of the Trek Boers:
That every Bushman or Hottentot, male or female, whether
made prisoner by commanders or caught by individuals, as well in
time past as in future, shall for life be the lawful property of such
burghers as may possess them, and serve in bondage from generation
to generation. And if such Hottentots should escape, the owner
shall be entitled to foljow them up and to punish them, according
to their merits in his discretion.
1 It was not until the time of Ryk Tulbagh (governor of the colony,
I 75 l ~ 1 77 l ) that the Chamber ot Seventeen permitted foreign ships
to provision at Table Bay. Tulbagh was the most popular of the
governors under the East India Company. During his governorship
no new taxes were levied on the burghers. He was succeeded by
van Plettenberg.
And as to the ordinary Hottentot, already in service, brought
up at the places of Christians, the children of these shall be compelled
to serve until their twenty-fifth year, and may not go into the service
of any other save with their master's consent ; that no Hottentot,
in future deserting his service shall be entitled to refuge or protection
in any part of the colony, but that the authorities throughout the
country shall immediately, whatever be the alleged cause of desertion,
send back the fugitive to his master.
After one hundred and forty-three years the rule of the Dutch
East India Company came to an end at the Cape. What its
principles were we already have seen. Watermeyer recapitulates
its effects as follows:
The effects of this pseudo-colonization were that the Dutch, as
a commercial nation, destroyed commerce. The most industrious
race of Europe, they repressed industry. One of the freest states in
the world, they encouraged a despotic misrule in which falsely-called
free citizens were enslaved. These men, in their turn, became tyrants.
Utter anarchy was the result. Some national feeling may have
lingered, but, substantially, every man in the country, of every hue,
was benefited when the incubus of the tyranny of the Dutch East
India Company was removed.
To this one further note must be added. The Trek Boers
of the i gth century were the lineal descendants of the Trek Boers
of the 1 8th. What they had learnt of government from the
Dutch East India Company they carried into the wilderness
with them. The end of the igth century saw a revival of this
same tyrannical monopolist policy in the Transvaal. If Water-
meyer's formula, " In all things political, purely despotic; in all
things ccmmercial, purely monopolist," was true of the govern-
ment of the Dutch East India Company in the i8th century.
it was equally true of Kruger's government in the latter part
of the igth.
The rule of the Dutch East India Company was extinguished
(September 1795) by the occupation of the colony by the British,
who acted on behalf of the prince of Orange, Holland having
fallen under the control of the revolutionary government of
France. Following the peace of Amiens the colony was handed
over (February 1803) by Great Britain to a commissioner of the
Batavian Republic. During the eight years the British held
the Cape notable reforms in the government were effected, but
the country remained essentially Dutch, and few British settlers
were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during
this period was 16,000,000. The Batavian Republic enter-
tained very liberal views as to the administration of the country.
but they had little opportunity for giving them effect. In less
than three years (January 1806) the Cape was reconquered by
the British, who were at war both with France and Holland.
The occupation was at first of a provisional character, but by
the third additional article to the convention with the Nether-
lands of the I3th of August 1814 the country was definitely
ceded to Great Britain. In consideration of retaining the Cape
and the Dutch settlements now constituting British
Guiana, Great Britain paid 6,000,000. The British
title to Cape Colony is thus based upon conquest,
treaty and purchase. The wishes of the inhabitants were not
consulted, and among them resentment was felt at the way in
which their future was thus disposed of. The Europeans at the
Cape at that time numbered about 27,000.
Before tracing the history of South Africa during the igth
century, the early relations of the white settlers with the natives
maybe briefly reviewed. The natives first encoun- ^f/y R t ia.
tered at the Cape were the Hottentots (q.v.). They tioaswHh
at that time occupied the Cape peninsula and sur-
rounding country, and in the early days of the
settlement caused the colonists a considerable amount of
trouble. An extract from the diary of van Riebeek in 1659
will best illustrate the nature of the relations existing between
colonists and natives at that time:
yd June. Wet weather as before, to the prevention of our
operations. Our people who are out against the plundering Hotten-
tots, can effect nothing, neither can they effect anything against
us; thus during the whole week they have been vainly trying to get
at our cattle, and we have been trying vainly to get at their persons;
but we will hope that we may once fall in with them in fine weather,
and that the Lord God will be with us.
HISTORY]
SOUTH AFRICA
47
Next to the Hottentots the white settlers encountered the
Bushmen (q.v.). When first known to the early colonists they
were inveterate stock thieves, and were treated as wild animals,
to be shot whenever an opportunity occurred. 1 Such opposition
as Hottentots and Bushmen were able to offer to European
colonization was not difficult to overcome (see CAPE COLONY:
History). The expansion of the colony was little retarded by
native opposition until the Dutch encountered the Bantu negro
tribes. As already stated, the Bantus, like the Europeans, were
invaders of South Africa, and the meeting of these rival invaders
was the cause of many bloody conflicts. At first the Cape
government endeavoured to come to an amicable arrangement
with the new power threatening its eastern border, and in 1780
it was agreed that the Great Fish River should be the permanent
boundary between the colonial and Bantu territories. The
Bantus or Kaffirs (<?.zO, as they were universally called, then held
all the coast-lands between Delagoa Bay and the Great Fish
River, and for many years they were strong enough to bar the
further progress eastward of the white races. But the agreement
of 1780 was impossible of fulfilment. The peace was broken
in 1789 by an invasion of the colonial territory by the Kaffirs,
and this conflict proved to be but the first of a series of Kaffir
wars which lasted for a century. In 1811 it was deemed neces-
sary to expel the Kaffirs from the Zuurveld, and the British
headquarters in that campaign became the site of Graham's Town.
In 1817-1819 the Kaffirs returned and laid waste a large area.
They were driven back and the country up to the Keiskama
River annexed to the colony; but the disaster which nearly
overwhelmed the eastern province convinced Lord Charles
Somerset, then governor of the colony, of the necessity for a line
British of frontier forts and a more numerous settlement of
Settlers of colonists. Representations on the matter in England,
IS2 - coupled with assurances from Somerset as to the
fertility of the district, induced the British government to vote
50,000 for the purpose of sending out a number of emigrants,
Applications were called for, and no fewer than 90,000 were
received. Of these, only 4000 were selected and shipped to
South Africa. They were landed in 1820, in Algoa Bay, where
they founded Port Elizabeth and the Albany settlement. Among
these settlers were a number of married men with families.
They were recruited from England, Ireland and Scotland, and
came from all grades of society. Among them were cadets of
old families, retired officers, professional men, farmers, trades-
men, mechanics and labourers. They encountered many difficul-
ties and some suffering in their early days, but on the whole
they throve and prospered. Their descendants, the Atherstones,
Bowkers, Barbers, Woods, Whites, Turveys, and a number of
other well-known frontier families, are to-day the backbone of
the eastern district of the Cape, and furnish the largest portion
of the progressive element in that province. Among them was
a gifted Scotsman named Thomas Pringle (1789-1834). His
poems, including " Afar in the desert I love to ride," depict the
scenes of those early days in glowing lines. The vast spaces of
the veld, the silence of the solitudes, the marvellous, varied and
abundant animal life, the savage, half-weird character of the
natives and the wild adventure of the early colonists have been
caught with a true spirit of genius. Since his day no one, unless
it be Olive Schreiner in The Story of an African Farm, has so
vividly painted the life and the atmosphere of that vast continent
lying to the south of the Zambezi.
Various Protestant missions had sent agents among the natives
during the closing years of the i8th century, and after the
definite acquisition of the Cape by Great Britain the number of
missionaries in the country greatly increased. Many became
pioneers, settling in regions beyond the limits of British juris-
diction. Others remained within Cape Colony, while several
were stationed among the Kaffirs along the colonial border.
The missionaries from the first often found themselves at variance
1 It appears that the first persons to treat the Bushmen other than
as animals to be destroyed were two missionaries, Messrs J. J.
Kicherer and Edwards, who in the early years of the Kjth century
devoted themselves to ameliorating the lot of these aborigines.
with the Dutch and also the British settlers, whose methods of
dealing with the natives often deserved condemnation. At this
period Dr John Philip (q.v.), of the London Missionary Society,
was the most prominent of the missionaries in the colony, and
his influence was powerful with the home government. The
publication in 1828 of his book Researches in South Africa had
an important effect on the future of the country. The British
government adopted his negrophil attitude and made its agents
at the Cape conform to it. The equality of all free Hottentots
and other free persons of colour with the white colonists was
decreed in that year (1820). Philip's action lacked discrimina-
tion, and his faith in the natives was excessive. His charges
greatly embittered the Boers, who were further aggrieved by the
emancipation of the slaves. The Slave Emancipation Act,
freeing all slaves throughout the British Empire, Bmanclpa-
came into force in December i834. 2 The slaves in "on of
Cape Colony, who consisted of negroes from Mozam- Slaves -
bique, natives of Madagascar, and of Hottentots and Malays were
estimated at the time at 36,000. The Cape governments both
Dutch and British had been consistently averse from the
importation of slaves in large numbers, and the great majority
of the slaves were therefore Hottentots. The sum voted by the
British government to slave-owners in Cape Colony, out of a
total compensation paid of 20,000,000, was 1,250,000 (the
official estimate of their value being 3,000,000). This money
was only made payable in London, and the farmers were com-
pelled to sell their claims for compensation to agents, who
frequently paid a merely nominal price for them. In many
instances farmers were unable to obtain native labour for a
considerable time after the emancipation, and in several cases
ruin was the result. A very bitter feeling was thus created
among the Dutch colonists.
The championship of the natives by the missionaries led to
attacks, in part justified, upon the policy of the missions not
only by the Dutch, but by the British colonists. The zeal of
the missionaries frequently outran their discretion. This was
especially the case in early days. They not only endeavoured
to protect and guide the natives beyond the colonial border,
but among the Hottentots within the colony they instilled notions
of antipathy to the white farmers, and withdrew large numbers
of them from agricultural pursuits. Their general attitude may
be explained as a reaction against the abuses which they saw
going on around them, and to a misconception of the character
of the Hottentot and Bantu races. A longer experience of all the
African negroid races has led to a considerable modification in
the views originally held in regard to them. The Work of
black man is not simply a morally and intellectually the Mis-
undeveloped European, and education, except in rare sloaarles -
instances, does not put him on an equality with the European.
But, admitting all that may be justly urged against the extreme
attitude of some of the missionaries, no unprejudiced man will
deny that their work on the whole has been a good one. The
fair fame of Great Britain has more than once been upheld in
South Africa at the instigation and by the conduct of these
intrepid pioneers. Robert Moffat and David Livingstone among
the Bechuanas, E. Cassalis among the Basutos, Francois Coillard
among the Barotse, James Stewart in Cape Colony, to name but
a few of the great missionaries, have all had an excellent influence
upon the natives. They have (besides their purely spiritual
work) opposed the sale of alcohol, denounced inhumanity from
the farmers, encouraged the natives to labour and taught them
mechanical arts. Technical education, begun about 1840, now
occupies a position little, if at all, inferior to that of doctrinal
teaching, and the effect is an excellent one. Strong testimony
to the beneficial result of their labours was borne by a thoroughly
impartial commission, presided over by Sir Godfrey Lagden,
which in 1903-1905 investigated the status and condition of the
natives of South Africa.
To return to the period of Dr Philip's activity. 3 Largely upon
1 The slaves, after passing four years in a species of apprenticeship,
were finally freed on the 1st of December 1838.
3 At this time (c. 18151840) numbers of persons brought discredit
on the missionary cause by their illiteracy, narrow-minded prejudices
472
SOUTH AFRICA
[HISTORY
his advice it was decided to create a band of native states on
the northern and eastern frontiers of the colony. These treaty
states, as they were called, were intended to serve
States. a double purpose; they would be a barrier protecting
the colony from the inroads of hostile tribes, and they
would enable native civilized nations to grow up (under the tute-
lage of the missionaries) strong enough to protect themselves
from the encroachments of the whites. In fact, neither of these
results followed. With one exception, that of Moshesh, the
chief of the Basutos, none of the chiefs with whom treaties were
made were men powerful enough to found kingdoms, nor had
they, in most cases, any better right than their neighbours to
the territory recognized as theirs by the British government.
Moreover, to treat these men as independent or semi-independent
princes was a complete mistake; the failure of the treaty state
system is now seen to have been inevitable. The first treaty of
this kind was concluded on the nth of December 1834 with a
Griqua chief named Andries Waterboer. This chieftain lived
north of the Orange river in the district now known as Griqua-
land West, and ruled over some 4000 people, a bastard race
sprung from the intercourse between Boers and native women. In
1843 two more of these treaty states were established, one under
Adam Kok (the third of that name) and the other under Moshesh.
Adam Kok had under him a small number of Griquas, who
dwelt in the country east of that occupied by Waterboer (see
GRIQUALAND). And east of this country, again, was a tract
of territory occupied by Basutos under Moshesh. In the same
way Pondoland was established as a treaty state in 1844. The
distinction between these states must be remembered to under-
stand aright subsequent developments. Moshesh ruled over a
region largely mountainous and over a people numerous and
virile; Pondoland was sornewhat remote and was densely in-
habited by warlike Kaffirs; the two Griqua states were, however,
missionary creations; they were thinly inhabited and occupied
open plains easy of access hence their ultimate collapse.
The year which witnessed the emancipation of the slaves and
the creation of the first treaty state also saw the beginning
of another disastrous Kaffir war. Fighting began in December
1834, and lasted nearly a year. The Kaffirs wrought great havoc,
and Sir Benjamin D 'Urban (q.v.), the governor, in order to secure
peace, extended the boundary of the colony to the Kei river.
The Kaffirs had suffered much injustice, especially from the
commando-reprisal system, but they had also committed many
injustices, and for the disturbed state of the border the vacil-
lating policy of the Cape government was largely to blame.
Sir Benjamin's policy which had the cordial approval both of
the Dutch and the British colonists was one of close settlement
by whites in certain districts and military control of the Kaffirs
in other regions, and it would have done much to ensure peace.
Lord Glenelg, secretary for the colonies in Lord Melbourne's
second administration, held that the Kaffirs were in the right
in the quarrel, and he compelled D'Urban to abandon the
conquered territory, a mistaken decision adopted largely on the
advice of Dr Philip and his supporters. Thus at this time (1836)
a critical state had arisen in South Africa. The colonists had lost
their slaves, the eastern frontier was in a state of insecurity,
native interests appeared to be preferred to those of the whites.
The British immigrants of 1820 were still struggling
against heavy odds; the Dutch colonists were in a
state of great indignation. In these circumstances
what is known as the Great Trek occurred. It lasted from 1836
to 1840. During that period no fewer than 7000 Boers (including
women and children), impatient of British rule, emigrated from
Cape Colony into the great plains beyond the Orange river, and
across them again into Natal and into the fastnesses of the
Zoutspanberg, in the northern part of the Transvaal.
In view of the vast consequences ensuing from this exodus of
Dutch families from the Cape a somewhat detailed consideration
and in some cases lax sexual morality. These persons " assumed
to themselves the important office of teachers in the missionary
schools within the colony." See H. Cloete's The Great Boer Trek,
lecture II.
The Oreat
Trefc -
of its causes is necessary. Material for forming a judgment will
be found chiefly in the correspondence of Sir Benjamin D'Urban
with the Colonial Office, in the statements made by the voor-
trekkers, and in a series of lectures delivered in Pietermaritzburg
in 1852-1855 by the Hon. Henry Cloete, whose statements as
to the causes of the trek were founded on intimate knowledge and
are impartially set forth. Piet Relief, the ablest of the leaders
of the exodus, on the eve of leaving the colony published a de-
claration at Graham's Town, dated January 22nd 1837, in which
he declared the chief reasons animating the emigrants to be:
1. We despair of saving the colony from those evils which threaten
it by the turbulent and dishonest conduct of vagrants, who are
allowed to infest the country in every part ; nor do we see any pros-
pect of peace or happiness for our children in a country thus dis-
tracted by internal commotions.
2. We complain of the severe losses which we have been forced
to sustain by the emancipation of our slaves, and the vexatious laws
which have been enacted respecting them.
3. We complain of the continual system of plunder which we
have ever endured from the Kafirs and other colored classes, and
particularly by the last invasion of the colony, which has desolated
the frontier districts and ruined most of the inhabitants.
4. We complain of the unjustifiable odium which has been cast
upon us by interested and dishonest persons, under the cloak of
religion, whose testimony is believed in England to the exclusion
of all evidence in our favour; and we can foresee, as the result of
this prejudice, nothing but the total ruin of the country. 1
These four points correspond to the " three great grievances "
under which the farmers suffered, enumerated by Cloete as
(i) The Hottentot Question (I.e. the first and fourth points of
Relief's manifesto combined); (2) The Slave Question; (3) The
Kaffir Question. Enough has already been said as to the relations
between the missionaries, the Boer farmers and the Hottentots;
this grievance, however, " proved quite secondary to the inten-
sity' of feeling with which the colonists saw the steps taken by
the government to deprive them of that labour (slave labour)
over which they claimed an unquestionable right of property." a
Then came the Kaffir War of 1834-1835, the reversal by the home
government of the statesmanlike settlement of Sir Benjamin
D'Urban, and the refusal of any compensation to the sufferers
from the war, whose losses amounted to some 500,000. These,
then, were the direct causes of the voluntary expatriation of the
majority of the first trekkers, who included some of the best
families in the colony, but they fail to explain the profound
hostility to Great Britain which thereafter animated many,
but not all, of the emigrants, nor do they account for the easy
abandonment of their homes by numbers of the trekkers. The
underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-
descended colonists in the eastern and north-eastern parts of the
colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral
and nomad habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for
their flocks and herds, and possessing no special affection
for any particular locality. In the next place these people,
thinly scattered over a wide extent of territory, had lived for
long under little restraint from the laws, and when in 1815, by
the institution of " Commissions of Circuit," justice was brought
nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light,
the remedying of which caused much resentment. An effort to
bring a man named Frederick Bezuidenhout to justice led to
armed resistance and finally to the hanging of five men at
Slachter's Nek in circumstances that made an indelible impression
throughout the frontier (see CAPE COLONY: History). It intensi-
fied in the minds of many Boers the feeling of hostility towards
the British already existing; some of the trekkers in 1836-1840
had taken part in and others had passively aided the rebellion
of 1815 " the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men
to wage war against their sovereign " (Cloete, op. cit. p. 28).
What, however, was probably the most powerful motive of the
Great Trek was the equality established by the British between
the black and white races. In the eyes of the Boers the possi-
bility of equality between the whites and the natives was not
1 See F. R. Cana, South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union
(London, 1909), pp. 295-297 for the full text of Retief's manifesto.
1 See H. Cloete, The History of the Great Boer Trek (London,
1899), p. 44.
HISTORY]
SOUTH AFRICA
473
admitted. This sentiment, which found formal recognition
later on in the constitution of the South African Republic, was
held in fullest force by the voortrekkers. Summing up, it may
be said that the exasperation caused by just grievances unreme-
died was no stronger a motive with the trekkers than the desire
to be free from the restraints imposed on British subjects and the
wish to be able to deal with the natives after their own fashion.
The departure of so large a number of persons caused serious
misgiving both to the Cape and the home governments. The
trekkers had been told by the lieutenant-governor of the eastern
province (Sir Andries Stockenstrom) that he was not aware of
any law which prevented any British subject from settling in
another country, and in the words of Piet Relief's declaration
they quitted the colony " under the full assurance that the English
government has nothing more to require of us, and will allow
us to govern ourselves without its interference in future."
The British government thought otherwise; they held that the
trekkers could not divest themselves of their allegiance to the
Crown. Moreover, though the farmers might leave British terri-
tory they were still held to be liable to the jurisdiction of British
courts. An act passed in 1836 (the Cape of Good Hope Punish-
ment Act) empowered the colonial courts to deal with offences
committed by British subjects in any part of South Africa up to
the 25th degree of south latitude. Intended by its authors to
protect the native tribes from aggression on the part of white
men and to check the exploration by Europeans of the lands of
the Kaffirs, Bechuanas, &c., the act led in fact to the assertion
of British authority in regions beyond the Cape frontier.
B. From the Foundation of the Republics to Majuba. While
the home government was seeking to prevent the expansion
Foundation ^ tne white races the first steps had been taken
of the Boer by a body of Englishmen to found a new colony at
Republics Natal. Since 1824 a few traders had been settled
and Natal. at p Qrt jjatal, and m jg^ f orma i petition was made
that their settlement should be recognized as a British colony.
The request was refused, and not long afterwards (1837) some of
the Dutch emigrant farmers under Retief entered the country
by way of the Drakensberg. Retief, like his English prede-
cessors at Port Natal (known also since 1835 as Durban),
sought a formal grant of territory from the chief of the Zulu
nation, the Zulus being the acknowledged overlords of the tribes
living in Natal. Retief and his party were, however, treacher-
ously murdered by Dingaan, the Zulu king (February 1838).
Other trekkers followed in the wake of Retief, and attacking
Dingaan avenged the massacre.
The Boers then established a republican government at Maritz-
burg. Though most anxious to avoid any extension of
responsibility in South Africa, Great Britain recognized the
potential danger arising from the creation of an independent
state on the coast. The Boers at first rejected offers of
accommodation. Troops were then sent to the country, and
finally a settlement was made by Henry Cloete, the British
commissioner, with the Boer leaders, and Natal constituted a
British colony in 1843. Many Boers, dissatisfied with this
arrangement, withdrew beyond the Drakensberg. Natal shortly
afterwards received a considerable number of emigrants from
England, and the white inhabitants have since been predomi-
nantly British. At first Natal was dependent on Cape Colony.
In 1856 it was constituted a separate colony, but it did not
possess self-government until 1893. A notable departure from
the labour policy of the other states was made by Natal in
1860, when Indian coolies were introduced. At the time the
matter attracted little attention, but the Asiatic inhabitants
speedily increased, and forty years later they outnumbered the
whites (see NATAL).
It had taken the British government nearly ten years to decide
on the annexation of Natal; its policy towards the Boers settled
north of the Orange was marked by the same hesitation (see
ORANGE FREE STATE). By 1847, when Sir Harry Smith became
high commissioner, the failure of the treaty state policy was
evident. Sir Harry, deeming no other course open to him, pro-
claimed (February 1848) the country between the Orange and Vaal
rivers British territory, under the name of the Orange River
Sovereignty. Sir Harry had, in the previous December, extended
the northern frontier of Cape Colony to the Orange, orange
and had reoccupied the territory on the Kaffir border River Sore-
which D 'Urban had been forced to abandon. 1 The nl * ai y-
extension of British rule north of the Orange was opposed by
Andries Pretorius, who, being defeated at Boomplaats, withdrew
north of the Vaal, where, though not interfered with by the
British, the Boers split up into several rival parties. In the Sove-
reignty difficulties arose in defining the reserves of the native
chiefs, and with the Basutos there were armed conflicts. The
home government (the first Russell administration), which had
reluctantly consented to confirm Sir Harry Smith's annexation
of the Orange River territory, on learning of these difficulties,
and also that many of the burghers remained dissatisfied, changed
their policy, and in 1851 the governor was informed that the
ultimate abandonment of the Sovereignty was a settled point. 2
In fulfilment of their settled policy to keep the British South
African dominions within the smallest possible limits, the cabinet
decided to recognize the independence of the Boers living
beyond the Vaal. This recognition, the necessary preliminary
to the abandonment of the Orange River Sovereignty, was made
in the Sand River Convention on the 1 7th of January j aaepeaa .
1852. The Transvaal thus became an independent eaceofthe
state, or rather it formed a number of mutually Transvaal
jealous communities, and it was not until 1864 that Rec x alzed -
they were all united. Despite their distracted condition the
Transvaal Boers had no sooner obtained their independence than
they began to make claims to authority in Bechuanaland. But
the championship of the Bechuanas by Moffat, Livingstone and
other missionaries, and their determination that the road to the
interior should not be closed by the Boers, had its effect, and
the Beers did not succeed in making themselves masters of the
country (see TRANSVAAL: History, and BECHUANALAND). The
British government meantime pursued its policy of abandon-
ment, and in February 1854, by the Bloemfontein Convention,
forced, independence upon the people of the Sovereignty, which,
now became the Orange Free State. A clause was inserted
in the Bloemfontein Convention stating that Great
Britain had no alliance with any native chiefs or
tribes to the north of the Orange, with the exception
of the Griqua chief Adam Kok. Numerous protests were made by
many of the inhabitants of the Orange River Sovereignty against
the abandonment of it by the British government, but the
duke of Newcastle, who was then colonial secretary in Lord
Aberdeen's administration, replied that the decision was in-
evitable (see ORANGE FREE STATE).
The abandonment of the Orange River Sovereignty marked
the close of the eventful period in South African history which
began eighteen years before with the Great Trek. At the begin-
ning of that time there was but one civilized government in
South Africa Cape Colony; at its close there were five separate
states or provinces, three, the Cape, Natal and British Kaffraria,
owning allegiance to Great Britain, and two forming Boer
republics the Transvaal and Orange Free State. While vast
additional territories had been occupied by British Results of a
or Boers the unity of administration, which had Policy of
marked the previous stages in the expansion of the ******
white races in South Africa, had been lost. Whether or not a
wiser policy on the part of Great Britain would have secured
the continued allegiance of all the Boers it is impossible to say;
the fact that numbers of Boers remained in Natal under British
rule, and that the majority of the Boers who settled between the
Orange and the Vaal desired to remain British subjects, points to
that conclusion. With justice the Boers complained of the course
actually adopted by the British authorities. They might at the
outset either have let the trek Boers go, and given them their
blessing and liberty, or they might have controlled the trek and
1 Part of the territory thus reannexed was added to Cape Colony
while the region between the Keiskamma and Kei was created a
separate territory under the name-of British Kaffraria.
2 Despatch of Earl Grey, dated October 2 1st, 1851, printed in
Correspondence Relative to the State of the Kaffir Tribes (C. Feb. 1853).
474
SOUTH AFRICA
[HISTORY
made effective their contention that the trekkers were still
British subjects. As has been demonstrated the action taken
was one of vacillation between these two courses, and was
complicated by a native policy which, though well intentioned
and intelligible, needlessly irritated the white colonists (British
and Dutch) and did not prevent bloodshed. In the words of
Mr Paul Botha, a Boer writer, England first blew hot and then
blew cold. But in 1854 a definite standpoint appeared to have
been reached Great Britain would confine her energies to the
Cape and Natal, leaving the republics to work out their own
destinies undisturbed. It was at this juncture that Sir George
Grey was sent to the Cape as governor. A gifted
s/r George an( j f ar . seem g m an, he had no sooner arrived than he
addressed himself with energy and diligence to the
great problems awaiting him. His first care was to ameliorate
the condition of Cape Colony. He resolved that in dealing
with the natives on the eastern frontier an attempt should
be made to civilize them and thus do away with the
necessity of periodical warfare. Grey's efforts to promote
good government in Kaffraria received unexpected help in
consequence of the extraordinary delusion among the Ama-Xosa
in 1856, which resulted in the death of many thousands of natives
(see CAPE COLONY: History). Land left derelict was occupied
by colonial farmers, and over 200x3 German immigrants were
introduced by Sir George and settled along the frontier (1858-
1859). By this time the colonists of British descent predominated
in the eastern provinces a circumstance which had important
bearings on the future of the colony.
Sir George Grey found it impossible to maintain a policy of
total abstention from the affairs of the republics. The party in
the Free State which had objected to independence being forced
upon it was still strong and made overtures for union with the
Cape; attempts were also made to unite the Free State and
the Transvaal. In the conflicts between the Free Staters
and the Basutos Grey's intervention was sought. All the evi-
dence before Sir George, and the study he made of the Boer
character, convinced him that the barriers separating the
various white communities were largely artificial. He sought to
remedy the mistake which had been made, and in 1858 he sub-
mitted a scheme of federation between the various South African
states. In a memorable despatch to Sir E. Bulwer Lytton,
then colonial secretary in the second Derby administration,
he wrote (November 19, 1858):
When the policy was adopted of dividing South Africa into many
states, bound together by no ties of union, it was thought that the
mother country derived no real benefit from the possession of this
part of the African continent, except in holding the seaport of
Simon's Bay. ... It was further thought that the occupation by
Great Britain of the country beyond the Orange River had been a
bubble and a farce, in which the Cape colonists were all interested ;
for that it was to them a great gaming table and put of the reach
of the police. . . . Although these European countries lying beyond
our colonies are treated as separate nations, their inhabitants bear
the same family names as the inhabitants of this colony, and maintain
with them ties of the closest intimacy and relationship. ... I think
there can be no doubt that in any great public, or popular, or
national question and movement the mere fact of calling these
people different nations would not make them so, nor would the
fact of a mere fordable stream running between them sever their
sympathies or prevent them from acting in unison. . . . Experience
has shown that the views which led to the dismemberment of South
Africa were mistaken ones. . . . What therefore I would recommend
would be that . . . measures should be taken which would permit
of the several states and legislatures of this country forming among
themselves a federal union.
When he penned this despatch Grey was well aware of the
distraught condition of the Free State and the agitation for a
change in its government. He held that the federation of that
state with Cape Colony was preferable to its union or federation
with the Transvaal, and it was with considerable satisfaction
that he learned that on the 7th of December of the same year
(1858) the Volksraad of the Free State had passed a resolution
in favour of " a union or alliance with the Cape Colony " and
sought to ascertain the views of the Cape legislature on the sub-
ject . In bringing the matter before the Cape parliament in March
1859 Grey stated that in his opinion it would confer a lasting
Denefit upon Great Britain and upon the inhabitants of South
Africa if it could succeed in devising a form of federal union.
Unfortunately, Grey's views did not meet with the First Coa-
approval of the British government. 1 Had they been federation
supported it is highly probable that federation would P">t>**l.
have been effected. But the golden opportunity was lost. When
Grey attempted to persevere with his scheme he was recalled.
He left Cape Town in August 1859, but on his arrival in
England he found that there had been a change of ministry.
The new colonial secretary, the duke of Newcastle, reinstated
liim, but with instructions not again to raise the federation issue.
The first project for reunion thus came to naught, but from that
time forward it was recognized in South Africa that federation
would afford the best solution of most of the difficulties that beset
the country. The Transvaal was perhaps the greatest sufferer
through Grey's failure, that country continuing for years in a
distracted condition. The Free State, under the guidance of
Sir John Brand, who became president in 1864, attained a
considerable measure of prosperity. Its difficulties with the
Basutos were at last composed, and Moshesh and his people
were in 1868 definitely taken under British protection. The
policy of non-interference proclaimed in 1854 had proved
impracticable, and the annexation of Basutoland was an open
confession of the fact. In 1871 thecountry was annexed to Cape
Colony, but its pacification proved a task of great difficulty.
Up to the year 1870 the Dutch considerably outnumbered the
British inhabitants; indeed, save in Natal, in the eastern province
and in Cape Town, the British inhabitants were com- Economic
paratively few. The industries were almost entirely Develop-
pastoral, and remained chiefly in the hands of the weat '
Dutch. The continual feuds with the Kaffirs, and also the con-
tinual desire to trek into new countries, all tended to keep back
farming, and the country in the years 1867 to 1870 was in a gener-
ally very depressed condition. But in 1870 the era of commer-
cial expansion began. In that year, following smaller finds of
diamonds on the banks of the Vaal and Orange rivers, the diamond
mines of Du Toils Pan and Bultfontein were opened up. In
1869 gold had been found in the Lydenburg and Zoutpansberg
districts in the Transvaal, and diggers had resorted there from
different parts of the world; moreover, in the far interior, in the
territories of Mashonaland, Thomas Baines had reported dis-
coveries of gold. Among the purely pastoral population ostrich-
farming became a new industry and added a considerable asset
to the wealth of Cape Colony. The revenue derived from the
export of ostrich feathers in 1899 was recorded at half a million.
It was, however, the discoveries of diamonds and gold that
chiefly determined the development of the country. A large
population grew up, first at Kimberley, afterwards at Barberton,
and finally at Johannesburg a population modern in its ideas,
energetic, educated, cosmopolitan, appreciating all the resources
that modern civilization had to offer them, and with a strong
partiality for the life of the town or the camp rather than that
of the farm and the veld. The majority of the Boers remained
very much what they had been in the I7th century. Their
life of continual strife with natives, continual trekking to fresh
pastures, had not been conducive to education or the enlarge-
ment of intellectual outlook. In religion they were Calvinistic,
fanatic, and their old traditions of Dutch East India government,
together with their relation to the natives, developed a spirit of
caste and even tyranny.
It was at this stage of affairs that responsible government
was granted to Cape Colony (1872). From that time down to
the annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, to quote neCarnar-
once more the homely phrase of Paul Botha, Great von Con-
Britain "blew hot " in South Africa. A great change federation
in public sentiment towards the colonies generally Scbeme '
began to make itself felt in Great Britain in the late sixties and
early seventies of the igth century. The constitution of the
Dominion of Canada (1867-1873) was an evidence of that feeling.
Sir E. Bulwer Lytton wrote (Feb. n, 1859): " H.M. Govern-
ment are not prepared to depart from the settled policy of their
predecessors by advising the resumption of British sovereignty in
any shape over the Orange Free State."
HISTORY]
SOUTH AFRICA
475
With the advent to power of the Disraeli ministry in 1874 the
nascent Imperial spirit grew in strength. Lord Carnarvon (the
4th earl), when under-secretary for the colonies in 1858-1859, had
regarded Grey's federation proposal with disfavour, but later,
as secretary of state, he had introduced the bill for the federation
of the Canadian provinces. He now returned to the Colonial
Office filled with the idea of doing for South Africa what had been
done in British North America. 1 Recent events in South Africa
had appeared for a brief period to favour a union of its various
colonies and states. The intimation of the impending grant of
self-government to Cape Colony was regarded by both Boer
republics as bringing nearer the prospect of their union with the
British colonies. But just at that time differences arose between
Great Britain and the republics as to the ownership of the
Kimberley diamond fields which estranged the Boers (see
GRIQUALAND and TRANSVAAL). In the Transvaal Pretorius
was succeeded by T. F. Burgers, a man totally unfitted to
govern a country distracted by factions, harassed by wars with
natives, and with an almost depleted exchequer. Yet in the
condition of the Transvaal Lord Carnarvon found another
argument in favour of federation. Union with the neighbouring
states would, he thought, cure its ills and promote the general
welfare of South Africa. As a preliminary step he accepted
an offer from J. A. Froude to visit South Africa unofficially,
and by travelling through its different states find out what
were the obstacles to confederation and the means by which
such obstacles could be removed. Froude landed at Cape
Town on the 2ist of September 1874, and having visited
Natal, the Free State and Pretoria as well as Cape Colony,
sailed for England on the icth of January 1875. In the three
and a half months he had spent in the country he had reached
the conclusion expressed by the duke of Newcastle nearly twenty
years previously, namely, that all England needed there was
Table Bay or the Cape peninsula as a naval and military
station. The South African states, he believed, might be left
in internal affairs to work out their own future. These views
coincided with those of Lord Carnarvon, who looked to federation
as a means of relieving the Imperial government of some of the
heavy responsibilities pressing upon it in South Africa, and he
asked Froude to return to the Cape to take part in a conference
in South Africa on the federation scheme. The offer was
accepted, and Froude reached Cape Town again in June 1875.
Lord Carnarvon's despatch (May 4, 1875), indicating his views,
had preceded the arrival of Froude, and had incensed J. C.
Molteno, the Cape premier, by its disregard of the colony's
self-governing powers. A motion was carried in the Cape
parliament affirming that any movement for federation should
originate in South Africa and not in England. Froude on his
arrival was much chagrined at the attitude taken by the Cape
parliament, and conducted an oratorical campaign throughout
the country in favour of federation. His speeches were lacking
in judgment and tact, and created an unfavourable impression,
The conference was not held, and Froude returned to England in
the autumn. 2
Lord Carnarvon was far from abandoning his plan. The
Transvaal was now in a condition bordering on anarchy, and
numbers of its inhabitants were supposed to be looking to Great
Britain for help. Another party in the Transvaal was seeking
alliances with Germany and Portugal, and this danger of foreign
interference was a further cause for action. In August 1876 the
colonial secretary assembled a conference on South African
affairs in London, nominating Froude as representative of
Griqualand West. President Brand represented the Free State.
Another member of the conference was Sir Theophilus Shepstone,
(q.v.) Neither Cape Colony nor the Transvaal was represented,
1 At Sir Henry Barkly's request Lord Carnarvon's predecessor,
Lord Kimberley, had in November 1871 given him (Sir Henry)
authority to summon a meeting of representatives of the states and
colonies to consider the " conditions of union," but the annexation
of the diamond fields had occurred meantime and Sir Henry thought
the occasion inopportune for such a conference.
2 For Froude's views and actions, see especially the blue book
C- 1399 ( I 876), containing his report to Lord Carnarvon.
and the conference was abortive, President Brand having no
permission from his state to consider federation. That subject
was, in fact, not discussed by the delegates. In view of the
troubles in the Transvaal, and in furtherance of Carnarvon's
federation scheme, Shepstone was, on the sth of October fol-
lowing, given a dormant commission to annex the republic " if it
was desired by the inhabitants and in his judgment necessary."
The secretary of state sought the aid of Sir Bartle Frere as his
chief agent in carrying through confederation, the then governor
of Cape Colony and high commissioner for South Africa, Sir
Henry Barkly, sharing the views of the Cape ministry that the
time was inopportune to force such a step upon South Africa.
In a letter dated the i3th of October, offering Frere the post
Barkly was about to vacate, Lord Carnarvon wrote:
. . . The war between the Transvaal republic and the natives
has had this further effect, it rapidly ripened all South African
policy. ... It brings us near to the object and end for which I
have now for two years been steadily labouring the union of the
South African colonies and states. I am indeed now considering
the details of a bill for their confederation, which I desire to introduce
next session, and I propose to press, by all means in my power, my
confederation policy in South Africa.
The time required for the work of confederating and of con-
solidating the confederated states Lord Carnarvon estimated at
not more than two years, and he was sanguine enough /:/<
to hope that Frere would stay on at the Cape tot Annexation
two or three years "as the first governor-general "* 6
of the South African dominion. " Frere accepted Tr '" sraal -
the offer, but did not leave England until March 1877. Shep-
stone preceded him, and in January 1877 had gone to Pretoria.
His conferences with the leading men in the Transvaal and a
consideration of the dangers which threatened it and the grave
disorders within its borders satisfied Shepstone that he had no
choice except to act upon his commission, and on the izth
of April he issued a proclamation annexing the country to
the British Crown. During the interval between Shepstone's
arrival in the country and the annexation the Volksraad had
rejected the proposals for confederation laid before them in
accordance with Lord Carnarvon's permissive bill, and had made
no real attempt at reform. The annexation was acquiesced
in by a considerable number of the white inhabitants. Shep-
stone was convinced that it was the only step which could save
the country from ruin. The subject is discussed at greater
length under TRANSVAAL. Frere, who had reached Cape Town on
the 3ist of March, learnt on the i6th of April that the annexation
had taken place. He was inclined to regard Shepstone's act
as premature, and he realized that it stirred very deeply Dutch
national feeling throughout South Africa. Though anxious
to promote Carnarvon's policy, Frere found that native affairs
called for immediate attention. The Basuto and Kaffir tribes
were giving trouble, and the 40,000 trained Zulu warriors under
Cetywayo threatened the peace both of Natal and the Trans-
vaal. In the same month (Aug. 1877) in which the British
parliament passed the act, foreshadowed by the secretary of
state, " for the union under one government of such of the
South African colonies and states as may agree thereto, "
another war with the Kaffirs broke out. This conflict lasted until
May 1878, and largely absorbed the energies of Sir Bartle Frere. 3
In the meantime a scheme of unification, as opposed to federation,
put forward by the Molteno ministry a scheme which in its
essence anticipated the form of government established in 1910
had met with no support from Frere or the home ministry. In
January 1878 Lord Carnarvon resigned, and the driving force
of the federation scheme thus disappeared. It was not, however,
finally dropped until 1880. In July of that year proposals
for a confederation conference were submitted to the Cape
parliament. At that time Paul Kruger and Piet Joubert,
delegates from the Transvaal Boers, were in Cape Town, and
they used their influence to prevent the acceptance of the
proposals, which were shelved by the ministry accepting " the
3 Serious troubles with the Basutos which began in 1879 reacted
on the situation in the Transvaal and Natal. These troubles were
finally ended in 1884, when the country was given up by the Cape
and became a crown colony (see BASUTOLAND).
476
SOUTH AFRICA
[HISTORY
previous question " (June 29). Thus ended an attempt which
lacked the element essential to success spontaneity.
Confederation had, for the time being, ceased to be a living
issue some time before its formal shelving by the Cape par-
liament. The Kaffir War of 1878 was followed by war with the
Zulus. Frere, believing that the Zulu power was a standing
menace to the peace of South Africa, and that delay in dealing
with Cetywayo would only increase the danger, sent an ulti-
matum to the chief in November 1878. The invasion of Zulu-
land began in January 1879, and was speedily followed by
the disaster at Isandhlwana and by the defence of Rorke's
Drift and of Eshowe. But at the battle of Ulundi in July
the Zulu power was crushed, and a little later Cetywayo was
taken prisoner (see ZULULAND: History). The removal of
the Zulu danger did not, however, restore harmony between
the British and the Boers in the Transvaal. The mal-
content Boers became a powerful element in the country.
They were largely influenced by an important section of the
Dutch community in western Cape Colony, which carried on
a campaign against annexation, seeing in it a blow to the
ideal they had begun to entertain of a united South Africa
of a Dutch republican type. Sir Garnet Wolseley, at this
period (June i87o-May 1880) high commissioner of South-
East Africa, gave the Transvaal a legislative council, but the
members were all nominated. This could not be regarded as
a redemption of the promise of a liberal constitution, and it
had an injurious, though limited, effect on the Boer community. 1
After the receipt in December 1879 of the reports of Mr
Gladstone's speeches during his Midlothian campaign in which
he denounced annexation as obtained by means dishonourable
to Great Britain the Boers expected nothing less than the
retrocession of the country.
There was one strong reason against retrocession, concerning
which the Boers if they gave it thought would naturally
be silent. To the British mind in general it was apparently
non-existent. It had, however, been seen and its strength
recognized by Sir Garnet Wolseley during his brief governor-
ship of the Transvaal. Wolseley, in a despatch dated the I3th
of November 1879 said:
The Transvaal is rich in minerals; gold has already been found
in quantities, and there can be little doubt that larger and still more
valuable goldfields will sooner or later be discovered. Any such
discovery would soon bring a large British population here. The
time must eventually arrive when the Boers will be in a small
minority, as the country is very sparsely peopled ; and would it
not therefore be a very near-sighted policy to recede now from the
position we have taken up here, simply because for some years to
come the retention of 2000 or 3000 troops may be necessary to
reconsolidate our power.
As Lord Morley in his Life of Gladstone says, " this pregnant
and far-sighted warning seems to have been little considered
by English statesmen of either party at this critical time or
afterwards, though it proved a vital element in any far-sighted
decision. "
The result of the general election of 1880 was to place Mr
Gladstone in power. The new administration, notwithstanding
Mr Gladstone's public utterances, declared their intention of
retaining British sovereignty in the Transvaal, coupling with
that decision a pious hope for the speedy accomplishment of
confederation so as to allow of free institutions being given to
Natal and the Transvaal. 2 The disillusionment occasioned
by this decision caused the Boer delegates then at the Cape to
help to wreck the federation proposals (see supra). But if
unwilling at the time to undo the work of Sir T. Shepstone,
the Liberal cabinet were prepared to get rid of the chief British
representative in South Africa partly to please the extreme
Radicals among their followers. Accordingly on the 2nd of
August 1880 Frere received a telegraphic despatch from Lord
1 Had Shepstone's promise been redeemed at an early date, it
might well have extinguished the agitation for independence.
2 It is remarkable that the Liberal government, despite this
aspiration, and despite stronger language used by Mr Gladstone,
did nothing to give the Boers any real self-government. Sir Bartle
Frere pressed the new administration, as he had the Conservative
government, on this point without effect.
Majuba.
Kimberley (the new secretary of state for the colonies)
announcing his recall. 3 Frere's task was one of extreme
delicacy; he chose to face difficulties rather than Recall of
evade them, and had he been unfettered in his sir Bartle
action might have accomplished much more than Fren -
he was able to do; in its main lines his policy was sound. (See
FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE.)
Finding that the Gladstone administration would not give
up the Transvaal voluntarily, the Boers now determined on
rebellion. Hostilities began in December 1880, and eventually
a series of engagements ended in the rout (Feb. 27, 1881)
of a small British force which had occupied Majuba Hill the
previous evening. The killed included the general in command,
Sir George Colley. Meanwhile the resolution of Mr Gladstone
and his colleagues to keep the Transvaal had been shaken by
the Boer declaration of independence. After the first engage-
ments this resolution was further weakened; and when, after
a British reverse at Ingogo (Feb. 8), overtures were made by
Mr Kruger on behalf of the Boers, the cabinet was
strongly inclined to come to terms. The news of
Majuba did not turn it from its purpose. Opinions will always
differ as to the course adopted by the Liberal government.
" We could not, " wrote Mr Gladstone, " because we had failed
on Sunday last, insist on shedding more blood." It is at all
events abundantly clear that had the Boers not resorted to
arms they would not have gained the support of the cabinet. 4
Sir Evelyn Wood, who had succeeded Colley as general in
command and governor of Natal, under instructions from home,
concluded a treaty of peace on the 22nd of March. The terms
agreed upon were elaborated in a convention signed at Pretoria
in August following. By this instrument the Transvaal was
granted self-government subject to British suzerainty and the
control of the foreign relations of the state. In 1884 the Glad-
stone administration made further concessions by the London
convention of that year. This last document still, however,
reserved for Great Britain certain rights, including the power
of veto over treaties concluded by the Transvaal with any
power other than the Orange Free State. But the success of
the Transvaal Boers both in war and diplomacy had quickened
the sense of racial unity among the Dutch throughout the
country, and there arose a spirit of antagonism between the
Dutch and the British which affected the whole future of South
Africa.
Before, however, dealing with the relations between the
British and the Boers subsequent to 1881 brief reference may be
made to affairs in which other powers were concerned ; affairs
which were the prelude to the era of expansion associated with
the career of Cecil Rhodes. In 1868 the Europeans in Great
Namaqualand and Damaraland petitioned for annexation to
Great Britain. Eventually (1878) only Walfish Bay Oermany
and a small strip of adjacent territory were annexed. I" South
In 1883 Germany entered the field and during Atrka *
1884-1885, owing to the procrastinating policy of the Cape
and British governments, all the coast between Jhe Orange and
the Portuguese frontier, save Walfish Bay, was placed under
German protection (see AFRICA, 5). The eastern boundary of
German South- West Africa was fixed in 1890, the frontier run-
ning through the Kalahari Desert. Bechuanaland, the region
between the German colony and the Transvaal, was secured
for Great Britain. It was not on the west coast only that
Germany made efforts to secure a footing in South Africa.
In September 1884 an attempt was made to secure St
Lucia Bay, on the coast of Zululand. Here, however, Great
Britain stood firm. St Lucia Bay had been ceded to the
British by the Zulu king Panda in 1843, and this cession has
always been regarded as valid. Eventually Germany agreed to
make no annexation on the east coast of Africa south of Delagoa
Bay. With the proclamation of a British protectorate over
the coast of Pondoland in January 1885 the coast-line from the
3 Frere sailed for England on the isth of September. His
successor, Sir Hercules Robinson, reached the Cape at the end of
January 1 88 1.
4 Morley's Life of Gladstone, bk. viii. ch. 3, " Majuba."
HISTORY]
SOUTH AFRICA
477
mouth of the Orange to Delagoa Bay (save for the small
stretch of Amatonga shore-line) became definitely British.
To Delagoa Bay, or rather to the southern part of the bay,
Great Britain had laid unsuccessful claim. On the northern
bank of the chief estuary of the bay the Portuguese
na< ^ f rom the i6th century onward maintained a
precarious foothold; it was their most southerly
station on the east coast of Africa. In 1823 treaties had been
concluded by the British with tribes inhabiting the southern
shores of the bay. Neither the Portuguese nor the British
claims seemed of much importance until the rise of the South
African republic. Anxious for a seaport, the Transvaal Boers
in turn laid claim to Delagoa Bay. This brought the dispute
between Great Britain and Portugal to a head, the matter
being referred in 1872 to the president of the French republic
for arbitration. In 1875 an award was given by Marshal
MacMahon entirely in favour of the Portuguese (see DELAGOA
BAY). As a port outside British control Delagoa Bay was a
source of strength to the Boers, especially as the railway 1 was
under their control. In the war which began in 1899 munitions
of war and recruits for the Boers were freely passed through
Delagoa Bay.
C. The Struggle for Supremacy between British and Dutch.
Bechuanaland, through which territory runs the route to the
Bechaaaa- far interior the countries now known as Rhodesia
land was acquired, despite the strong desire of the
Annexed. Gladstone administration to avoid further annexa-
tions in South Africa. At first the encroachments on Bechuana
territory by Boers from the Transvaal were looked upon
with comparative indifference. The Boers respected neither
tlie frontier laid down by the Pretoria convention nor that
(modified in their favour) drawn in the London convention.
But missionary influence was strong; it was reinforced by the
growing strength of the imperialistic spirit and by the fears
excited by Germany's intrusion on the south-west coast. An
expedition was sent out in October 1884 under Sir Charles
Warren; the Boers, who had set up the " republics " of Goshen
and Stellaland, were obliged to give way, and the country was
annexed (see BECHUANALAND). It was in connexion with this
affair that Cecil Rhodes first came into prominence as a poli-
tician. As a member of the Cape parliament he undertook
a mission, before the arrival of Warren, to the Goshen and
Stellaland Boers, endeavouring, unsuccessfully, to obtain from
them a recognition of British sovereignty. The acquisition
of Bechuanaland by Great Britain was the essential preliminary
to the development of the schemes which Rhodes entertained
for the extension of British rule into Central Africa. In his
endeavours to realize this aim he had to contend with the new
spirit of national consciousness animating the Boers, which
found expression in the formation of the Afrikander Bond.
In its external, as in most of its internal policy, the Trans-
vaal was controlled from 1881 onward by Paul Kruger, who
The AM- w as elected president of the state in 1883. Yet
kander Kruger was scarcely the real leader in the nationalist
Bond. movement to which the successful revolt of
1 880-8 1 gave strength. The support given by the Cape Colony
Dutch to the malcontent Transvaal Boers has already been
mentioned. During the 1880-81 revolt many Free State
burghers, despite the moderating influence of President
Brand, joined the Transvaal commandoes. Now a definite
effort was made to build up a united South Africa on anti-
British lines. In the latter part of 1881 a Dutch pastor at the
Paarl, a town in western Cape Colony named Du Toit, in a
paper called De Patriot, suggested the organization of an Afri-
kander Bond; in the same year Carl Borckenhagen, a German
resident in the Free State, advocated such a bond in his paper,
the Bloemfonlein Express. The Bond was formed, its work
being almost confined to Cape Colony. It held its first congress
at Graaf Reinet in 1882. In the " programme of principles "
upon which its constitution was modelled it was set forth that:
1 For the international difficulties connected with the building
of the railway from Delagoa Bay to Pretoria see LouRENjo-M ARQUES.
While in itself acknowledging no single form of government as
the only suitable form, and whilst acknowledging the form of govern-
ment existing at present [the Bond] means that the aim of our
national development must be a united South Africa under its
own flag.
In the following year the Farmers' Protection Association
was amalgamated with the Bond, and the joint organization
fell under the control of J. H. Hofmeyr, the leader of the Dutch
party in Cape Colony. Under Hofmeyr's politic control all
declarations inconsistent with allegiance to the British Crown
were omitted from the Bond's constitution. It remained, how-
ever, a strong nationalist organization, which in practice was
inimical not so much to the British connexion as to the British
section of the population and to the development of the country
on enlightened lines. (For the Afrikander Bond see further
CAPE COLONY: History, and HOFMEYR.)
Not long after the Warren expedition the valuable gold fields
which Sir Garnet Wolseley had foreseen would be discovered
in the Transvaal were actually found. By 1886, the year in
which Johannesburg was founded, the wealth of the Witwaters-
rand fields was demonstrated. The revenue which these dis-
coveries brought into the Transvaal treasury increased the im-
portance of that state. The new industrial situation created had
its effect on all parties in South Africa, and in some measure
drew together the British and Dutch sections outside the
Transvaal. A customs union between Cape Colony and the Free
State was concluded in 1889, to which later on all the other
South African states, save the Transvaal, became parties.
But Kruger remained implacable, bigoted, avaricious, deter-
mined on a policy of isolation. In 1887 he made proposals
for an alliance with the Free State. Brand refused to be
ensnared in Kruger's policy, and the negotiations led to
no agreement. (For details of this episode see ORANGE
FREE STATE: History.) Not many months afterwards (July
1888) the Free State lost by death the wise, moderating guidance
of Sir John Brand. The new president, F. W. Reitz, one of the
founders of the Bond, in 1889 committed the Free State to an
offensive and defensive alliance with the Transvaal. Kruger
thus achieved one of the objects of his policy. Within the
Transvaal a great change was coming over the population.
There flocked to the Rand many thousands of British and other
Europeans, together with a considerable number of Americans.
This influx was looked upon with disfavour by Kruger and his
supporters, and, while the new comers were heavily taxed, steps
were speedily taken to revise the franchise laws Kruger's
so that the immigrants should have little chance of Host/My to
becoming burghers of the republic. This exclusion the Ult -
policy was even applied to immigrants from the *
other South African countries. A system of oppressive trade
monopolies was also introduced. The situation with which
the Boers were called upon to deal was one of great difficulty.
They could not keep back the waves of the new civilization,
they feared being swamped, and they sought vainly to maintain
intact their old organization while reaping the financial benefit
resulting from the working of the gold mines. The wider
outlook which would have sought to win the Uitlanders (as they
were called) to the side of the republic was entirely lacking.
The policy actually followed was not even stationary; it was
retrogressive.
Meanwhile, and partly through distrust of the Kruger policy,
there was growing up in Cape Colony a party of South African
Imperialists, or, as they have been called, Afrik-
ander Imperialists, who came to a large extent under
the influence of Cecil Rhodes. Among these were
W. P. Schreiner (afterwards premier of the colony) and J. W.
Leonard (sometime attorney-general) and, to some extent,
Hofmeyr. From the time of his entrance into politics Rhodes
endeavoured 'to induce the leading men in the country to realize
that a development of the whole country could and should be
accomplished by South Africans for South Africans. He fully
admitted that the cry which had become so popular since 1881 of
" Africa for the Afrikanders " expressed a reasonable aspiration,
but he constantly pointed out that its fulfilment could most
SOUTH AFRICA
[HISTORY
advantageously be sought, not, as the Kruger party and ex-
tremists of the Bond believed, by working for an independent
South Africa, but by working for the development of South
Africa as a whole on democratic, self-reliant, self-governing
lines, under the shelter of the British flag. Hofmeyr was among
those whom Kruger's attitude drove into a loose alliance with
Rhodes. In 1884, having the power in his hands when the
Scanlen ministry fell, Hofmeyr had put into office a ministry
dependent upon the Bond, and had talked of a possible Dutch
rebellion in Cape Colony if the Boer freebooters in Bechuanaland
were ejected; in 1890 Rhodes became premier with Hofmeyr's
approval and support. Rhodes remained in office as prime min-
ister until January 1896. During these six years the part he
played in the development and public life of South Africa was
greater than that of any other man. He used his period of
power to put into execution his plans for the extension of
British dominion over the country up to the Zambezi.
In 1888 Rhodes had succeeded in inducing Sir Hercules
Robinson, the high commissioner, to allow J. S. Moffat, the
British British resident at Bulawayo, to enter into a treaty
south Africa with Lobengula, the Matabele chief. Under this
Company, treaty Lobengula bound himself not to make a
treaty with any other foreign power, nor to sell or in any
other way dispose of any portion of his country without the
sanction of the high commissioner. This step prevented the
country from falling into the hands of Germany, Portugal or the
Boers. The treaty was followed by the formation of the British
South Africa Company, which obtained a royal charter in 1889,
and by the occupation of Mashonaland in 1890. Difficulties
with the Portuguese followed, but the Salisbury administration
firmly upheld British claims, with the result that the British
sphere of influence was extended not only to the Zambezi but
beyond to the shores of Lake Tanganyika (see AFRICA: 5). In
1893 a war was fought with the Matabele by Dr L. S. Jameson,
then administrator of Mashonaland, and Bulawayo was occupied.
The name Rhodesia was conferred upon the country in 1894
(see RHODESIA). Living in Cape Town and at the head of the
government, Rhodes used every effort to demonstrate to the
Cape Colonists that the work he was doing in the north must
eventually be to the advantage of Cape Colonists and their
descendants. On the whole, Hofmeyr and his friends were
well pleased at having secured the co-operation of the " big
Englander " Rhodes, or, as he was at one time called by Mr J.
X. Merriman, 1 an old parliamentary hand and treasurer-general
during part of Rhodes's premiership, the " young burgher."
In 1891 the Bond Congress was held at Kimberley, and
harmony appeared to reign supreme. During his term of
office Mr Rhodes addressed himself to bringing
1 together all interests, as far as it was practicable
to do so. He showed that his views of the situation
were broad and statesmanlike. His handling of the native ques-
tion in Cape Colony gave general satisfaction. Rhodes was also
a firm believer in the federation of the South African states
and colonies, and he sought to promote this end by the develop-
ment of inter-state and inter-colonial railway systems, and the
establishment of common customs, tariffs, and inter-colonial
free trade under a customs union. 2 The persistent opponent
to both these measures was the Transvaal. In matters of
domestic legislation, such as taxation and excise, Rhodes fell
in to a considerable extent with Dutch prejudices.
While in the rest of South Africa there was a growing feeling
of trust between the Dutch and British, accompanied by in-
Pl ni creasing trade and the development of agriculture,
Transvaal the condition of the Transvaal was becoming serious.
Reform At first the new-comers to the Rand had submitted
Movement. tQ ^ econom { c an( j political burdens to which they
were subjected, but as they grew in numbers and found their
1 Mr Merriman (b. 1841) was ason of N. J. Merriman (1810-1882),
bishop of Graham's Town. He was a member of various Cape
ministries from 1875 onwards.
2 For Rhodes's scheme of commercial federation see further CAPE
COLONY j History.
burdens increased they began to agitate for reforms. In 1892
(the year in which the railway from Cape Town reached the Rand) ,
the National Union was founded at Johannesburg by ex-Cape
Colonists of the Imperial progressive party. For three
years petitions and deputations, public meetings and news-
paper articles, the efforts of the enlightened South African
party at Johannesburg and Pretoria, were all addressed to the
endeavour to induce President Kruger and his government
to give some measure of recognition to the steadily increasing
Uitlander population. Urgent representations were also made
by the British government. President Kruger remained as
impenetrable as adamant. Nine-tenths of the state revenue
was contributed by the Uitlanders, yet they had not even any
municipal power. By a law of 1882 aliens could be naturalized
and enfranchised after a residence in the country of five years,
but between 1890 and 1894 the franchise laws were so altered
as to render it practically impossible for any foreigner to become
a burgher. By the law of 1894 the immigrant must have been at
least 14 years in the country and be 40 years old before in the
most favourable circumstances he could be admitted to the
franchise. The Uitlanders once more petitioned, over 34,000
persons signing a memorial to the Raad for the extension
of the franchise. The appeal was refused (August 1895).
Up to this period a section of the Uitlanders had believed
that Kruger and his following would listen to reason; now
all realized that such an expectation was vain. Rhodes,
who had large interests in the Rand mines, had consistently
endeavoured to conciliate the extreme Boer section in the
Transvaal and win it over (as had happened in the case of the
Cape Dutch) to a policy which should benefit the whole of
South Africa. He was even willing to see the Transvaal obtain
a seaport (at Kosi Bay, in Amatongaland) if in return it would
join the customs union. This opportunity Kruger let slip;
and in May 1895, on the representation of Sir H. Loch, the Rose-
bery administration annexed Amatongaland, thus making the
British and Portuguese frontier conterminous. This action,
finally blocking the Boer road to the sea, taken by a Liberal
government, was clear indication that Great Britain was de-
termined to maintain her supremacy in South Africa.
The situation in August 1895 was thus one of extreme tension.
There had been a change of ministry in Great Britain and
Joseph Chamberlain had become colonial secretary. Sir
Hercules Robinson, who was regarded sympathetically by the
Dutch population of South Africa, had succeeded Loch as high
commissioner. Both high commissioner and the imperial
government were hopeful that Kruger might even yet be induced
to modify his policy; the Uitlanders now entertained no such
hope and they prepared to appeal to arms to obtain redress of
their grievances. The first proposals for an armed rising came
from Rhodes in June, but it was not until November that
the Uitlander leaders came to a definite understanding with
the Cape premier as to the course to be pursued. To lay before
South Africa the true position of affairs in the Transvaal
Charles Leonard issued a manifesto as chairman of the National
Union. It concluded with a list of demands (see TRANSVAAL),
their gist being " the establishment of this republic as a true
republic " with equitable franchise laws, an independent judi-
cature and free trade in South African products.
This manifesto, issued on the 26th of December, called a public
meeting for the night of Monday the 6th of January 1896,
" not with the intention of holding the meeting, but as a blind
to cover the simultaneous rising in Johannesburg and seizing
of the arsenal in Pretoria on the night of Saturday the 4th of
January " (Fitzpatrick, The Transvaal from Within, ch. iii.).
Had the Transvaal government given way, even at the last hour,
the reformers would have been satisfied. Of this, however,
there was no expectation. The arrangement with Rhodes
included the use of an armed force belonging to the
Chartered Company, and led by Dr Jameson. soa
Accordingly some troops were brought from Rhodesia
and stationed near Mafeking, a few miles from the Transvaal
frontier. For some weeks the plot appeared to progress
HISTORY]
SOUTH AFRICA
479
favourably. It might have succeeded but for a vital difference
which arose between the Uitlanders in Johannesburg and
Rhodes. As Charles Leonard's manifesto stated, the reformers
as a body, desired to maintain the autonomy of the Transvaal
and the republican form of government; Rhodes wished the
revolution to be accomplished under the British flag. 1 " I was
not going to risk my position," he stated subsequently, " to
change President Kruger for President J. B. Robinson " (the
only prominent Uitlander who stood aloof from the reform
movement). This divergence of views manifested itself on
Christmas Day 1895, and although, under pressure, Rhodes did
not insist on the British flag, it was determined to postpone the
rising. Jameson was so informed, nevertheless he precipitated
the crisis by invading the Transvaal on the evening of December
the 29th. The Transvaal government, meantime, had obtained
some knowledge of what was being projected, and the Raid
ended in a forced surrender (January 2, 1896) to a superior
force of Boers. The Reform Committee, i.e. the Uitlander
leaders, after holding Johannesburg for over a week, also sur-
rendered, and by the gth of January the plot had ended in
complete failure. Mr Chamberlain still desired Kruger to grant
immediate reforms and propounded a scheme of " Home Rule "
for the Rand. The time was inopportune, however, for press-
ing the Transvaal on the subject, and nothing was done. 2
The Jameson raid had a profound effect on the history of
South Africa. It greatly embittered racial feeling throughout
the country; it threw the Free State Boers completely on to
the side of the Transvaal; it destroyed the alliance between
the Dutch in Cape Colony and the Imperialists led by Rhodes.
It did more, it divided British opinion, sympathy for the Boer
republics leading in some cases to a disregard for the real griev-
ances of the Uitlanders. It also gave a much desired oppor-
tunity for the intrusion of other powers in the affairs of the
Transvaal; 3 and it led Kruger to revive the scheme for a united
South Africa under a Dutch republican flag. This scheme found
many supporters in Cape Colony. A suspicion that the Colonial
Office in London was cognizant of Rhodes's plans further excited
Dutch national feeling, and the Bond once more became actively
anti-British. Rhodes had resigned the premiership of the Cape
a few days after the Raid, and during the greater part of 1896
was in Rhodesia, where he was able to bring to an end, in Sep-
tember, a formidable rebellion of the Matabele which had
broken out six months previously.
A section of the Dutch population was not however disposed to
sacrifice the development of industries and commerce for racial
considerations; while sharing the political aspirations of Kruger
and Steyn the wiser among them wished for such a measure of
reform in the Transvaal as would remove all justification for
outside interference. Nevertheless the cleavage at the Cape
between the Dutch and British grew. Sir Gordon Sprigg, who
had become Premier of Cape Colony in succession to Rhodes,
found his position untenable, and in October 1898 he was suc-
ceeded by a Bond ministry under Mr W. P. Schreiner. The
term " Progressive " was now formally adopted by the British
mercantile communities in the large towns and among the sturdy
farmers of British descent in the eastern province. On returning
to South Africa after the Raid inquiry at Westminster in 1897,
1 In his evidence before the House of Commons Select Committee
which inquired into the Raid, Rhodes did not object to the continued
existence of the republic " for local matters," but desired a federal
South Africa under the British flag; see Blue Book (165) 1897
p. 21; also Sir Lewis Michell's Life of Rhodes, vol. ii. ch. xxx.
2 Jameson and the other raiders were handed over to the British
government for punishment. Four of the Reform leaders were
condemned to death on the 27th of April, but the sentence was
commuted to a fine of 25,000 each. For details of the Reform
movement and Jameson Raid see TRANSVAAL: History.
3 Rhodes informed the House of Commons Select Committee that
the belief that the Boers intended to introduce the influence of
another foreign power in the already complicated system of South
Africa " greatly influenced " him in promoting the revolt. Germany
at the time of the Raid was prepared to intervene, and on the 3rd
of January 1896 the German Emperor, by telegram, congratulated
Kruger that " without appealing to the help of friendly powers "
the Boers had overcome Jameson.
Rhodes had intended to withdraw from Cape politics and devote
his energies for a time entirely to Rhodesia, but the pressure
put upon him by a section of the British colonists was so strong
that he determined to throw in his lot with them.
In the Transvaal, meantime, the situation of the Uitlanders
grew worse. The monopoly and concessions regime continued
unchecked, the naturalization laws were not amended, while
the judicature was rendered subservient to the executive (see
TRANSVAAL: History). The gold mining industry was fostered
only so far as it served to provide revenue for the state, and
large sums from that revenue were used in fortifying Pretoria
and in the purchase of arms and ammunition. This process
of arming the republic had begun before the Raid; after that
event it was carried on with great energy and was directed
against Great Britain. Kruger also sought (unsuccessfully)
to have the London Convention of 1884 annulled, and he entered
into a closer union with the Free State. Great Britain watched
the development of Kruger's plans with misgiving, but except
on points of detail it was felt for some time to be impossible to
bring pressure upon the Transvaal. The retirement of Lord
Rosemead (Sir Hercules Robinson) from the post of high
commissioner was, however, taken advantage of by the British
government to appoint an administrator who should at the
fitting opportunity insist on the redress of the Uitlanders'
grievances.
Sir Alfred Milner (see MILNER, VISCOUNT), the new high
commissioner, took up his duties at the Cape in May 1897. He
realized that one of the most potent factors in the Miiaer
situation was the attitude of the Cape Dutch, and appointed
in March 1898 at Graaff Reinet Milner called upon HighCom-
the Dutch citizens of the Cape, " especially those m ' ssloaer -
who had gone so far in the expression of their sympathy
for the Transvaal as to expose themselves to charges of dis-
loyalty to their own flag " to use all their influence, not in
confirming the Transvaal in unjustified suspicions, not in en-
couraging its government in obstinate resistance to all reform,
but in inducing it gradually to assimilate its institutions, and
the temper and spirit of its administration, to those of the free
communities of South Africa, such as Cape Colony or the Orange
Free State. Moreover the Graaff Reinet speech showed that
Milner was aware of the dangerous policy being followed by the
Bond. The Dutch party at the Cape was shown to be incurring
a heavy responsibility, especially as its leaders were aware, in
the words of Mr J. X. Merriman, of " the inherent rottenness "
of the Kruger regime. That party soon afterwards had it in its
power to bring pressure officially upon President Kruger, for it
was a few months after the delivery of the speech that Mr
Schreiner became premier. To some extent this was done
but in a manner which led the Transvaal Boers to count in any
event on the support of the Cape Dutchmen. In the Transvaal,
as has been said, affairs were steadily going from bad to worse.
An Industrial Commission, appointed (under pressure) by Pre-
sident Kruger in 1897 to inquire into a number of grievances
affecting the gold industry, had reported in favour of reforms.
The recommendations of the commission, if adopted, would
have done something towards relieving the tension, but Presi-
dent Kruger and his executive refused to be guided seconrf
by them. Once more the Uitlanders determined Transvaal
to make a further attempt to obtain redress by
constitutional means, and the second organized
movement for reform began by the formation in 1897 of a
branch of the South African League.
At the end of 1898 the feelings of the Uitlanders were wrought
up to fever pitch. The police service, which was violent where
it should have been reasonable, and blind where it should have
been vigilant, had long been a source of great irritation. On
the i8th of December a Boer policeman, in pursuit of an Eng-
lishman named Edgar, whom he wished to arrest for an alleged
assault on another man, entered his house and shot him dead.
The deepest indignation was aroused by this incident, and was
still further increased by the trivial way in which the case was
dealt with by the court. The killing of Edgar was followed by
Movemeni -
480
SOUTH AFRICA
[HISTORY
the breaking up of a public meeting at Johannesburg, and in
March the Uitlanders handed to the high commissioner a
petition for intervention with 21,684 signatures attached to
it (see TRANSVAAL: History).
On the 4th of May 1899 Sir Alfred Milner felt it his duty to
The Case re P ort at som e length by cable to Mr Chamberlain.
lor British The concluding passages of this message, which
lotervea- summed up the whole South African situation in a
tioa ' masterly manner, were as follows:
The case for intervention is overwhelming. The only attempted
answer is that things will right themselves if left alone. But, in
fact, the policy of leaving things alone has been tried for years, and
it has led to their going from bad to worse. It is not true that this
is owing to the Raid. They were going from bad to worse before
the Raid. We were on the verge of war before the Raid, and the
Transvaal was on the verge of revolution. The effect of the Raid
has been to give the policy of leaving things alone a new lease of life,
and with the old consequences.
The spectacle of thousands of British subjects kept permanently
in the position of helots, constantly chafing under undoubted griev-
ances, and calling vainly to Her Majesty's government for redress,
does steadily undermine the influence and reputation of Great
Britain, and the respect for British government within the queen's
dominions. A certain section of the press, not in the Transvaal
only, preaches openly and constantly the doctrine of a republic
embracing all South Africa, and supports it by menacing references
to the armaments of the Transvaal, its alliance with the Orange
Free State, and the active sympathy which, in case of war, it would
receive from a section of Her Majesty's subjects. I regret to say
that this doctrine, supported as it is by a ceaseless stream of malig-
nant lies about the intentions of the British government, is produc-
ing a great effect upon a large number of our Dutch fellow-colonists.
Language is frequently used which seems to imply that the Dutch
have some superior right even in this colony to their fellow-citizens
of British birth. Thousands of men peaceably disposed and, if
left alone, perfectly satisfied with their position as British subjects,
are being drawn into disaffection, and there is a corresponding
exasperation on the side of the British.
I can see nothing which will put a stop to this mischievous
propaganda but some striking proof of the intention of Her Majesty's
government not to be ousted from its position in South Africa.
And the best proofs alike of its power and its justice would be to
obtain for the Uitlanders in the Transvaal a fair share in the govern-
ment of the country which owes everything to their exertions. It
could be made perfectly clear that our action was not directed
against the existence of the republic. We should only be demand-
ing the re-establishment of rights which now exist in the Orange
Free State, and which existed in the Transvaal itself at the time of,
and long after, the withdrawal of British sovereignty. It would
be no selfish demand, as other Uitlanders besides those of British
birth would benefit by it. It is asking for nothing from others
which we do not give ourselves. And it would certainly go to the
root of the political unrest in South Africa; and though temporarily
it might aggravate, it would ultimately extinguish the race feud,
which is the great bane of the country.
In view of the critical situation Milner and Kruger met in
conference at Bloemfontein on the 3ist of May. Milner
practically confined his demands to a five years' franchise,
which he hoped would enable the Uitlanders to work out their
own salvation. On his side Kruger put forward inadmissible
demands (see TRANSVAAL), and the conference broke up on
the 5th of June without any result. A new franchise law,
on a seven years' naturalization basis, was passed in July by the
Transvaal volksraad, but the law was hedged about with many
restrictions. Messrs Hofmeyr and Herholdt, the one the
leader of the Bond and the other the Cape minister of agri-
culture, visited Pretoria to reason with Kruger. They found
him deaf to all arguments. The fact is that the Boers had
made up their minds to a trial of strength with Great Britain
for supremacy in South Africa. At the time which from a
military standpoint they thought most opportune (October 9)
an ultimatum was handed to the British agent at Pretoria, and
a war was at once precipitated, which was not to close for over
two and a half years. (A.P.H.; F.R.C.)
D. From the Annexation of the Dutch Republics to the Union.
An account of the Anglo-Boer War of 1890-1902 will be found
under TRANSVAAL. After the surrender of Cronje at Paarde-
berg (February 1900) to Lord Roberts, Presidents Kruger and
Steyn offered to make peace, but on terms which should include
the acknowledgment of " the incontestable independence of
both republics as sovereign international states "; the Boers
also sought, unavailingly, the intervention of foreign powers.
The British government had decided that the con- Last EHorta
tinued existence of either republic was inadmissible; to Preserve
on the 28th of May 1900 the annexation of the** eBoer
Free State was formally proclaimed, and on the RepuWfcs<
ist of September the Transvaal was also annexed to the
British Empire. A few days later ex-President Kruger
sailed from Lourenco Marques for Europe. The refusal
of the German Emperor to receive him extinguished alike
his political influence and all hopes that the Boers might
still have entertained of help from foreign governments. At
that time all the chief towns in both of the late republics were
held by the British, and the Boers still in the field were reduced
to guerilla warfare. Most of the men on their side who had
come to the front in the war, such as General Louis Botha in
the Transvaal, had been opponents of the Kruger regime; they
now decided to continue the struggle, largely because they
trusted that the Cape Dutch, and their sympathizers in Great
Britain, would be able to obtain for them a re-grant of inde-
pendence. The Cape Dutch all through 1901 and the first part
of 1902 conducted a strong agitation in favour of the former
republics, the border line between constitutional action and
treason being in many cases scarcely distinguishable. The Cape
Afrikanders also formed what was styled a " conciliation com-
mittee " to help the party in Great Britain which still supported
the Boer side. Messrs Merriman and Sauer went to England
as delegates to plead the cause, but it was noted that Hofmeyr
refused to join, and the appeal to the British public was a com-
plete failure. The war had indeed stirred every part of the
empire in support of the policy of the government, and from
Australia, Canada, New Zealand and India, contingents were
sent to the front. No terms could be granted which did not
include the explicit recognition of British sovereignty. At last
the Boer commandos gave up the struggle and on the 3ist of
May 1902 their leaders signed articles of peace at Pretoria.
Henceforth, save for the German and Portuguese possessions,
on the west and east coasts respectively, there was but one
flag and one allegiance throughout South Africa. With the
elimination of the republics one great obstacle to federation was
removed; while the establishment of self-government in the new
colonies, promised (after a probationary period of " representa-
tive institutions") in No. VII. of the peace articles, would give
them an opportunity to enter into federal union on equal terms.
The task of founding new and better administrative machinery
in the new colonies was left to Lord Milner, and was begun even
before the war had ended. The two new colonies The Work of
were for the time governed on crown colony lines. Recoastruc-
But the co-operation of the people was at once sought tjon -
by nominating non-official members to the leglislative councils,
and seats on the Transvaal council were offered to Louis Botha,
C. J. Smuts and J. H. Delarey. The Boer leaders declined the
offer they preferred the position of untrammelled critics, and
the opportunity to work to regain power on constitutional lines
when the grant of self-government should be made. Milner
had thus an additional difficulty in his reconstruction work.
The first necessity was to restart the gold mining industry on
the Rand. The Uitlanders, who had fled from Johannesburg
just before the war opened, began to return in May 1901, and
by the time the war ended most of the refugees were back on the
Rand and mining was resumed. A tax of 10% on their annual
net produce, imposed in 1902, was the main available source of
revenue. The repatriation of some 200,000 Boers followed,
and the departments of justice, education and agriculture were
remodelled. 1 In all that he did Milner had endeavoured to
promote closer union. Thus the railway and constabulary of
both the ex-republics were under a single management. In this
1 To aid him Milner had the services of some of the best men
in the British service, e.g. Sir Godfrey Lagden, Sir Arthur Lawley,
Sir J. Rose-Innes, Sir Richard Solomon. He also secured the help
of a considerable number of young Oxford men who became known
as " the Milner Kindergarten."
HISTORY]
SOUTH AFRICA
481
work the high commissioner had the support of Mr Chamberlain,
\vho paid a visit to South Africa which extended from Christmas
1902 to the end of February 1903. He sanctioned the calling
of an inter-colonial conference, which led to a customs convention
including all the British possessions in South Africa, and to
united action regarding railway rates and native questions. 1
The great expenditure incurred during the war had led to
much deception as to the growth of trade, while the large sums
spent on repatriation and other temporary work main-
< Labour. ta i ne< i tms deception for some time after the war had
ceased. But before 1903 had ended it was manifest
that this had been a spurious activity, and a period of marked
commercial depression, lasting until 1909, ensued. This de-
pression was in considerable measure due to, and was largely
aggravated by, the comparative inactivity of the Rand mines,
and that inactivity was due in turn to the insufficiency of native
labour Kaffirs being employed to do all the unskilled work on
the mines. At the close of 1903 the mine-owners, to meet the
deficiency, asked for permission to import Chinese. The consent
of the high commissioner and of the home government was
obtained, and in June 1904 the first batch of coolies reached the
Rand. They came on three-years' indentures, over 50,000
Chinese being eventually brought over. This introduction of
Chinese labour met with considerable opposition. The South
African objections were economic and racial, based on the
results which had followed the introduction of Indian coolies into
Natal. In Natal these coolies had been allowed to remain after
the completion of their indentures, and had succeeded in prac-
tically monopolizing the petty trade of the country. They had
also rapidly multiplied, so that by 1904 they were more numerous
than the whites in the colony. The introduction of this large
alien element, leading from 1895 onwards to the passing of
restrictive measures in Natal, was a mistake which South Africans
elsewhere had no desire to repeat. But these objections were
overcome by regulations which made repatriation compulsory,
and which definitely restricted the coolies to unskilled labour in
the mines. These regulations also met the objections voiced
by Australians and New Zealanders that the country won for
Great Britain at such cost had been thrown open to hordes of
Asiatics. In Great Britain, however, the restrictive regulations
were precisely those which aroused criticism, the objection taken
being that the conditions imposed were of a servile character, if
they did not actually make the coolies " slaves. " In the attacks
made upon the Unionist government this cry was loudly
voiced by the Liberal party in England, and in the political
campaign which followed, the " Chinese Slavery " issue un-
doubtedly helped to swell the majority obtained by Sir H.
Campbell-Bannerman in January 1906. Milner's own object
in assenting to the introduction of the Chinese was besides
aiding to put the gold mining industry on a more stable basis
to obtain revenue for the great task he had on hand, " the re-
starting of the colonies on a higher plane of civilization than they
had ever previously attained "; and in respect of the working
of the mines and consequently in providing revenue the intro-
duction of the Chinese proved eminently successful; but in
February 1906 the Campbell-Bannerman administration felt it
incumbent to announce that no ordinance imposing " servile
conditions " would be sanctioned. The point as to whether the
original conditions were or were not servile was never legally
tested, for eventually on the grant of self-government to the
Transvaal the Botha cabinet decided (June 1907) not to renew
the indentures nor to permit any new importation of coolies.
The economic situation had in the meantime considerably
altered, and the Transvaal was able to bring pressure upon
Portugal to permit the recruiting of many thousands more
Kaffirs from Mozambique province. By February 1910 the
last of the coolies had been repatriated.
By the middle of 1904 the high commissioner and Mr Alfred
Lyttelton, who had become secretary for the colonies, agreed
that the work of reconstruction had so far progressed that steps
1 This action was on the lines of the commercial federation
scheme of Cecil Rhodes, who had died in March 1902.
xxv. 16
should be taken to give the Transvaal " representative govern-
ment. " This decision was made public in July of that year,
and was followed by marked political activity. The
The Boers in the Transvaal, headed by Louis Botha, Lyttelton
formed an association which was called Het Volk Coostltum
(the people), and in the Orange Colony a similar
organization, the Oranjie Unie, was formed. On the 3ist
of March 1905 the text of the new constitution was issued
by letters patent. Short of granting full self-government it
was of a liberal character. It provided that the legislative
council was to consist of not fewer than six or more than nine
official members, and, provisionally, of not fewer than thirty
or more than thirty-five elected members. Seats were to be
allotted on a voters' (not population) basis, and there was to be
an automatic redistribution of seats as voters increased or de-
creased in given localities. These provisions subsequently
adopted in the electoral law of the Union of South Africa were
made to secure equal rights for the British and Dutch sections of
the community. The promulgation of the Lyttelton constitution
was quickly followed by the retirement of Lord Milner. He
left South Africa in April 1905, and was succeeded as high
commissioner and governor of the Transvaal and Orange River
colonies by Lord Selborne. But before the new constitution
could be established a change of ministry in Great Britain put
the Liberals in office, with Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman as
premier (Dec. 1906).
A sudden change was now made. Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman,
with several of his colleagues in the ministry, held that the
annexation of the republics had not been justified,
but there was no question now, as there had been in _
government.
1881, of a restoration of independence; that matter
the Boers themselves had settled by their acceptance of British
sovereignty. The Liberal leader held, however, that the Boers
should be given self-government at once. Experience, he
declared 2 had proved, unfavourable to the working of representa-
tive institutions, and it was safer and better to begin with respon-
sible government. Moreover, the cabinet looked forward, without
forcing it in any way, to the federation of South Africa. In the
Transvaal the burghers of British origin were about equal in
number with those of Dutch origin, and the fairly even balance
of parties might be held to be a guarantee against retrogression;
in the Orange River Colony it was notorious that the grant of self-
government meant handing over the control of the country
not simply to the Boers, but to that section of them which since
the war had exhibited the greatest racial bitterness. In these
circumstances the decision of the Liberal cabinet, however
generous, was fraught with peril. But the policy of complete
trust in the Boers was a bold one, which was justified by
success.
The new letters patent instituting self-government in the
Transvaal were issued on the 1 2th of December 1906 ; the elections
were held in February 1907, and gave the Het Vclk party a clear
majority of seven (in a house numbering 69 members) over all
other parties. General Botha became premier, with Mr Smuts
as colonial secretary. In the Orange River Colony the first
elections under the self-government constitution were held in
November 1907, and out of 38 seats in the House of Assembly
Oranjie Unie candidates secured 29. A ministry was formed
with Mr A. Fischer as premier and Generals Hertzog and de Wet
as prominent colleagues. These triumphs of the Dutch section
of South Africans were followed in the general election in Cape
Colony early in 1908 by a sweeping victory of the Bond, helped
by the suffrages of re-enfranchised rebels. Dr Jameson who had
been premier of the colony since the Progressive victory at the
election of 1904 was succeeded as premier by Mr J. X. Merriman,
who was regarded as a Bond nominee. Thus, working within
constitutional lines, the Dutch Afrikanders had attained in three
out of the four self-governing colonies, political supremacy.
The situation in 1908 was, however, radically different from
that which existed before the war of 1899-1902. Then half the
white population of the Transvaal were as " helots "; now the
2 In a speech in the House of Commons, February 19, 1906.
482
SOUTH AFRICA
[HISTORY
ex-Uitlanders held 26 seats in the Transvaal parliament, and
were able to exercise an effective influence over legislation.
Both the war of 1899-1902 and the grant of self-government
to the new colonies were necessary preliminaries to the success
of any unification scheme, but the causes which now led to the
question of closer union being raised were not political but
The Move- economic. Since the development of the diamond
meat for and gold mining industries the coast colonies had
CJoser unduly neglected their own resources and had relied
Uaioa. chiefly on the forwarding trade. Hence there was
jealousy and competition between the Cape and Natal and a
tendency to use the railways (which were state owned) , by means
of rebates, to counteract the effects of common customs dues.
Then, too, an increasingly important factor was the competition
of Lourenco Marques for the Rand trade. In a time of acute
trade depression this commercial rivalry was disastrous to the
welfare of South Africa. In March 1906 the customs convention
was provisionally renewed (on a strongly protective basis, and
with preference for British goods) but there was a distinct pros-
pect of a tariff war when the convention expired in 1908. Again
it was known that the Transvaal and Orange River colonies on
their attainment of self-government would each demand full
control of their own resources, to the detriment of the unitary
services which Lord Milner had established. There were, more-
over, dangerous differences on such questions as Asiatic
immigration, the status of natives, mining, agriculture, &c.
Thus the antagonism between the various states on economic
lines was at the end of 1906 greater than any racial divisions.
The leading South African statesmen realized that unless an
effort to remedy this condition was made without delay
affairs would go from bad to worse. In these circumstances Dr
Jameson, as premier of Cape Colony, took the first overt step to
reopening the question of federation. 1 In a minute dated the
z8th of November 1906 the Cape ministry declared its belief that
the questions which were causing so much friction should be
capable of solution " by some duly constituted South African
authority responsible to all parties in the country," and it
appealed to Lord Selborne, as high commissioner, to review
the situation in such a manner that the people of South Africa
might form a competent judgment on the question. In answer
to this appeal, which was backed by the Natal ministry, Lord
Selborne drew up a despatch (dated Jan. 7, 1907) in which
the whole case for closer union was set forth in a masterly
manner. For insight and breadth of view the despatch ranks
with that which Sir George Grey drew up in 1858. In the
fifty years that had elapsed the case for closer union had
become overwhelming and the dangers of isolation much greater.
Four or five administrations, the despatch pointed out, were
pursuing rival interests, whereas the country had but one
interest. Reviewing one by one the questions on which rivalry
existed, Lord Selborne showed that the internal self-government
which each colony enjoyed accentuated the difficulty of dealing
with these questions as a whole. 2 Stability the thing which
South Africa required above everything else was unattainable so
long as there were five separate governments developing different
systems in all branches of public life, but no national government
with power to harmonize the whole. " The people of South
Africa . . . are not self-governing in respect to South African
affairs because they have no South African government with
which to govern." Only by the creation of a central govern-
ment could South Africa be wisely and successfully governed. 3
The opportunity for testing the strength of the movement
for closer union came with the meeting of an inter-colonial
conference in May 1908 to consider the thorny questions of tariff
and railway rates. In the meantime the Jameson ministry
1 A number of members of the Transvaal administration during
the Crown Colony period had worked steadily, in private, to promote
closer union. Prominent among these men was Mr Lionel Curtis,
at that time (1906) assistant colonial secretary.
1 Lord Selborne wrote in anticipation of the establishment, a few
months subsequently, of self-government in the new colonies.
1 For the text of the despatch and memorandums going into details
see the Blue Book (Cd. 3564) July, 1907.
had given place to the Bond nominee ministry with Mr Merriman
as premier (see CAPE COLONY: History), but the movement
initiated by Jameson had received the support of the Bond as
well as that of the Botha administration. The delegates at
the conference were all representative of the parties in power;
that is, with the exception of the Natal delegates, they all
represented Dutch ideals in politics. Nevertheless they unani-
mously resolved " that the best interests and the permanent
prosperity of South Africa can only be secured by an early union,
under the crown of Great Britain, of the several self-governing
colonies," and they recommended the calling of a national con-
vention entrusted with the task of drawing up a draft constitu-
tion. Thus for the first time for two generations both the chief
white races of South Africa were found working in cordial co-
operation. No appeal was made to the electorate, but
the colonial parliaments rightly interpreted public opinion in
endorsing the recommendations of the conference. Delegates
representative of all parties were appointed, and the national
convention to consider the question of union met at Durban in
October 1908.
The most prominent members of the convention were Sir
Henry.de Villiers, 4 chief justice of Cape Colony (president), ex-
President Steyn (vice-president), Generals Botha, The
de Wet and Delarey, Messrs Smuts, Schalk Burger, National
Merriman and F. R. Moor (premier of Natal), Dr Convwitfoa.
Jameson, Sir George Farrar and Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, the last
two the .leading representatives of the Transvaal Progressives
(i.e. the ex-Uitlanders). The greatness of the opportunity was
rightly stated by the governor of Natal (Sir Matthew Nathan),
who declared that the convention might create a commonwealth
which should add to and not draw upon the strength of the
empire a commonwealth which in culture as in power would
be among the foremost nations of the world. After sitting at
Durban for a month, the convention adjourned to Cape Town
and concluded its elaboration of a draft constitution by February
1909. The fundamental points which the delegates had to
settle concerned (a) the basis of parliamentary representation,
(b) the status of the natives with respect to the franchise, (c) the
position of the Dutch language, (d) the form of government.
The adjustment of tariff and railway rates gave little trouble
when once it was agreed to consider the country as a unit. Points
(a) and (6) both concerned the franchise, but each had its separate
issue (a) raising the question of representation as it concerned the
white population only. Suspicions had been raised that the attempt
would be made to force union on a Dutch Afrikander basis, which
might have resulted had the basis of representation adopted been
the total European population. To this the Progressive party would
not agree, and they gained support from Botha, Smuts and other
prominent Dutch delegates for their contention that " equal rights "
could only be secured by making the basis of representation the
number of voters as distinct from the number of European inhabi-
tants of any given area. As finally settled, the number of European
male adults was chosen as the basis of representation. As the
Transvaal and Orange colonies already possessed manhood suffrage,
and as the property qualifications in the coast colonies were low,
this alteration made little difference. Point (b) raised a graver issue
still. The Cape delegates found themselves in isolation in advocating
the extension of the electoral system which prevailed in their colony,
where there was no colour bar to the exercise of the franchise. The
merits of the Cape system to minimize the differences between
the white and native races, typified in the declaration of " equal
rights to all civilized men " or that of the opposite system (as
warmly advocated by the Natal delegates as by those from the ex-
Boer republics), which would keep the native races in permanent
inferiority, cannot here be discussed ; it may be stated, however, that
the admittance of Kaffirs to the franchise in the Cape had not been
attended with the evil consequences feared. At the convention
a way out of the difficulty for a time at least was found in acorn-
promise, namely, that in the state about to be created the franchise
in each constituent part should be that which existed before union
was effected. Thus in the Cape the Kaffir would have a right to
the franchise, but not in the other divisions of the country. Point
(c) was decided by placing, for all official purposes, the English and
Dutch languages on a footing of perfect equality. As to point (d) the
4 Sir Henry de Villiers (b. 1842), chief justice of Cape Colony
since 1874, was created a peer of the United Kingdom in 1910
under the title of Baron de Villiers of Wynburg. He became in
the same year chief justice of South Africa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY]
SOUTH AFRICA
483
issue was between a federal and a unitary form of government.
Federation was supposed to afford protection to the smaller com-
munities Natal and the Orange River Colony and in Natal there
was much anxiety lest its interests should be overborne. Nevertheless
the advocates of unification gained a complete victory and a
form of government was agreed to which made the union of South
Africa as close as that of the United Kingdom.
Among the other decisions of the convention were: the choice
of Pretoria as the seat of administration and of Cape Town as the
seat of the legislature, the renaming the Orange River Colony,
Orange Free State Province; the provision of three membered con-
stituencies and of proportional representation and the safe-guarding
of the smaller communities by giving Natal and the Orange River
colonies more members of parliament than they were entitled to on
the voters basis.
The draft constitution was made public on the gth of February
1909, and was adopted by the Transvaal parliament in its en-
tirety. The Orange River parliament also approved with only
slight alterations; the Natal parliament made some amend-
ments, but they were of a minor character. The opposition
to union among an influential number of old Natalians
intensely zealous for local independence was however so marked
that it was decided that before Natal was committed to union a
referendum on the subject should be taken. Apart from this
doubtful attitude of Natal, the chief danger to the draft con-
stitution came from the Cape Dutch. The draft act, with
its " one vote one value " principle, its three-membered con-
stituencies and its scheme for proportional representation,
threatened Dutch supremacy in the rural districts, and aroused
the opposition of Hofmeyr, who secured the passage of amend-
ments through the Cape parliament which destroyed the principle
of equal rights. Such was the position when the convention
reassembled in May at Bloemfontein to consider the amend-
ment of the various legislatures. Through the firmness of the
Transvaal delegates, supported by the Progressives, the principle
of equal rights was retained; the concession made to the Cape
was the abandonment of proportional representation, while
one-membered constituencies were substituted for three-mem-
bered constituencies. The document embodying the alterations
in the draft act was signed on the nth of May and the convention
dissolved. In June the referendum on union was taken in Natal,
and resulted in a complete rout of the separatists. There voted,
for the draft act 11,121, against it 3701 majority for union 7420.
South Africans had thus after seventy years of discord agreed
upon union. It was a momentous step, the essential pre-
Passiogof liminary to that fusion of the white races of South
the Act at Africa upon which the prosperity of the country
in inn, depends; and a step rendering easier the ultimate
attainment of imperial union. A delegation carried
the draft act to England, and, recast in the form of an imperial
bill, it was submitted to the parliament at Westminster. The
imperial government made but one alteration of consequence
that explicitly placing the control and administration of matters
" specially or differentially affecting Asiatics "in the sole control
of the union parliament. The bill passed through parliament
unaltered, the only jarring note in the debates in either house
concerning the exclusion of natives from the franchise (save in
the Cape province). This decision was deplored by all parties
in the British parliament, but it was recognized that to alter a
decision deliberately come to by South African statesmen would
wreck the union. The measure, known as the South Africa Act
1909 received the Royal Assent on the 2oth of September, and
subsequently the 3 ist of May 1910 the eighth anniversary of the
signing of the articles of peace at Pretoria was fixed as the date
for the formal establishment of the Union.
The interval between the passing of the South Africa Act and
the establishment of union was employed by the various colonies
in putting their houses in order. This task, on the economic
side, was rendered easier by the gradual return of commercial
prosperity. An agreement between the Transvaal and the
Portuguese governments, concluded in April 1909, while the fate
of the draft constitution was still in doubt, assigned to Lourenco
Marques 50 to 55% of the import trade to the Rand, and (with
certain exceptions) provided for free trade in native products
between the Mozambique province and the Transvaal. The
Portuguese further agreed to facilitate the recruitment of natives
in their territory for work in the Rand mines, and in consequence
Kaffirs were obtained in sufficient numbers to replace the
Chinese coolies as they were repatriated. The agreement was
to last ten years, and provision was made for its recognition
by the government of the Union. The native protectorates,
Basutoland, Swaziland and Bechuanaland had been left by the
South Africa Act under direct imperial control. As to Natal and
Zululand, there was a disposition to leave to the new govern-
ment the task of dealing with the natives there but both the
Transvaal and Natal adopted an Asiatic exclusion policy which
gave rise to much friction. In the Orange River Colony,
General Hertzog aroused much opposition by administering
the education act in a way which forced the teaching of Dutch
in a rather arbitrary fashion. This was a point of importance,
inasmuch as, by the Act of Union, elementary education was left
(for five years) in the hands of the provinces. The divergence
of views was so great that shortly after the union had been
established private schools were opened in opposition to those
of the provincial administration.
In the autumn of 1909 it became known that Lord Selborne,
whose services in bringing about the union were generally recog-
nized, would not remain to represent the Crown in in-
augurating the new form of government,and the choice
of the British government fell on the home secretary,
Mr Herbert Gladstone (who was in March 1910 created Viscount
Gladstone of Lanark) as first governor-general of the Union.
Lord Gladstone had the responsibility of summoning the first
prime minister of the Union a task rendered more difficult as
the decision had to be taken before the first election to the
Union parliament was held. There had been a strong agitation
for a coalition cabinet, and negotiations took place to this end
between General Botha and Dr Jameson. These efforts ended
in failure. They had met with the determined opposition of
Mr Merriman (the Cape premier), of the Orange Free State Boers,
and of the Bond, which had lost the counsel of Hofmeyr. That
typical leader of the Cape Afrikanders had died in London,
whither he had gone as one of the delegates to lay the draft con-
stitution before the British parliament. Towards the end of
May, Lord Gladstone called upon General Botha to form a
ministry, which was constituted from the ranks of the existing
cabinets and included Natal ministers as well as strong
Boer partisans like Mr Fischer and General Hertzog. Mr
Merriman declined to serve under General Botha. The formal
proclamation of the Union took place on the 3ist of May.
The first general election, held on the isth of September, was,
perhaps inevitably, fought to a large extent on racial lines.
The Dutch Afrikander candidates stood as " Nationalists," while
their opponents took the name of Unionists. In Natal the British
section of the electorate (four-fifths of the whole) preferred to
maintain an independent attitude. The elections, which resulted
in a Nationalist majority of 13 over all other parties, showed that
the Unionists were stronger than had been thought. They secured
37 seats, while 13 were held by Natal Independents. The polls
were remarkable for the defeat of three ministers General
Botha (by Sir Percy Fitzpatrick) at Pretoria East, Mr Hull
(by Sir George Farrar) on the Rand, and Mr Moor in Natal.
General Botha decided to retain office, and seats for him and
Mr Hull were found by means of by-elections. Mr Moor was
nominated to the senate, as were, among others, Mr W. P.
Schreiner and ex-President Reitz (who became president of
that body). On the 4th of November the first session of the
Union Parliament was opened by the duke of Connaught.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.' I. General descriptions, travel and exploration.
Besides the works of De la Caille, Le Vaillaint, Thunberg, Barrow,
Lichtenstein, Burchell and others quoted in CAPE COLONY, Biblio-
graphy, see Sir J. E. Alexander, An Expedition of Discovery into the
Interior of Africa (2 vols., 1838); R. Moffat, Missionary Labours and
Scenes in S. Africa (1842) ; Sir F. Galton, The Narrative of an Explorer
in Tropical South Africa (1853); C. J. Anderson, Lake Neami . . .
Wanderings in the Wilds of South-Western Africa (1856); David
1 Unless otherwise stated the place of publication is London.
4 8 4
SOUTH AFRICA
[BIBLIOGRAPHY
Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa
(1857); W. E. Oswell, William Cotton Oswell, Hunter and Explorer
(2 vols., 1900) ; T. Baines, Explorations in South-West Africa (1864) ;
K. Mauch, Reisen im Inneren von Sud-Afrika, 1865-1872 (Gotha,
1874); E. Holub (Eng. trans. E. E. Frewer), Seven Years in South
Africa, Travels . . . between the Diamond-fields and the Zambesi,
1872-1870 (1881); E. Manheimer, Du Cap au Zambese (Geneva,
1884); G. Fritsch, Sudafrika bis zum Zambesi (1885); H. Blink,
Aardrijksunde van Zuid-Afrika (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1889) ; F. C.
Selous, Travel and Adventure in South East Africa (1893); E. & O.
Reclus, L'Afrique australe (Paris, 1901) ; A. H. Keane, Africa, vol. ii.,
South Africa (new ed., 1904); W. Kultz, Deutsch-Siidafrika im 2$ten
Jahre deutscher Schutzherrschaft (Berlin, 1909) ; A. S. & G. G. Brown,
The Guide to South Africa (yearly).
II. Geography (physical), geology, climate, flora and fauna.
Sir C. P. Lucas and H. E. Egerton, Geography of South and East
Africa (Oxford, 1904) ; W. P. Greswell, Geography of Africa South of
the Zambesi (Oxford, 1892); S. Passarge, Sudafrika, eine Landes-
Volks-und Wirtschaftskunde (Leipzig, 1908); J. C. Brown, The Water
Supply of South Africa (Edinburgh, 1877) ; Sir W. Willcocks, Report
on Irrigation in South Africa (1901); Proceedings 1st South African
Irrigation Congress (Cape Town, 1909) ; R. Marloth, Das Kapland,
insonderheit das Reich der Kapflora, das Waldgebiet und die Karroo,
pflanzengeographisch dargestellt (Jena, 1908) ; F. H. Hatch & G. S.
Corstorphine, The Geology of South Africa (2nd ed., 1909); Trans.
Geol. Soc. S. Africa (Cape Town) ; W. Flint and J. D. F. Gilchrist
(eds.), Science in South Africa (Cape Town, 1905); Reports of the
S. A. Assoc. for Advancement of Science (Johannesburg); J. D. F.
Gilchrist (ed.), Marine Investigations in S. Africa (3 vols., Cape Town,
1902-1905); Sir David Gill, Report on the Geodetic Survey cf South
Africa (3 vols., Cape Town, 1896-1905); W. C. Scholtz, The South
African Climate ...the Country as a Health Resort ( 1 897) ; W. T. Thisel-
ton-Dyer (ed.), Flora Capensis, vols. i.-vii. (1896-1900) ; H. Harvey,
The Genera of South African Plants, 2nd ed., edited by Sir J. D. Hooker
(Cape Town, 1 868) ; G. Henslow, South African Flowering Plants
(1903) ; W. L. Sclater, The Fauna of South Africa (4 vols., 1900-
1901) ; F. Le Valliant, Histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'Afrique (6 vols.,
Paris, 1805-1808); F. L. Layard and R. Bowdler Sharpe, The Birds
of South Africa (1875-1884); R. Trimen, Rhopalocera Africae
australis; a Catalogue of South African Butterflies (Cape Town, 1862) ;
R. Trimen and J. H. Bowker, South African Butterflies, a Monograph
of the Extra-Tropical Species (3 vols., 1887-1889); G. B. Sowerby,
Marine Shells ofS. Africa (1892-1897) ; R. Trimen, Insect Lifein South
Africa (Cape Town, 1869); E. E. Austen, A Monograph of the Tsetse
Flies (1903); J. A. Nicolls and W. Eglinton, The Sportsman in South
Africa (1892); The following books are specially noteworthy for
their accounts of the larger wild animals : Sir W. C. Harris, The Wild
Sports of Southern Africa . . . Narrative of an Expedition . . . during
1836 and 1837 from the Cape . . . to the Tropic of Capricorn (Bombay,
1838; 5th ed., London, 1857); R. Gordon-dimming, Five Years of a
Hunter's Life in the Far Interior of South Africa (2 vols., 1855);
F. C. Selous, A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa (ist ed. 1881 ; 5th ed.,
1907), and African Nature Notes and Reminiscences (1908) ; H. A.
Bryden, Nature and Sport in South Africa (1897); P. Selous and
H. A. Bryden, Travel and Big Game (1897).
III. Ethnology, archaeology, art and languages (see also works
cited under racial headings and BANTU LANGUAGES). G. Fritsch,
Die Eingeborenen Sudafrikas (Breslau, 1872) ; G. W. Stow, The Native
Races of South Africa (1905) ; W. H. Bleek, A Brief Account of Bushman
Folk-lore and other Texts (1875) ; D. Kidd, The Essential Kafir (1904) ;
Savage Childhood (1906), and Kafir Socialism and the Dawn of Indi-
vidualism (1908) ; J. P. Johnson, Stone Implements ofS. Africa (1907),
Pre-Historic Period in S. Africa (1910); A. P. Hillier, Antiquity of
Man in S. Africa (1898); Bushman Paintings, copied by M. Helen
Tongue, preface by Henry Balfour (Oxford, 1909), reproductions in
colours; D. Randall-Maclver, Medieval Rhodesia (1906); R. N. Hall,
Prehistoric Rhodesia (1909); A. H. Keane, The Gold of Ophir (1901);
C. Peters, The Eldorado of the Ancients (1902) ; W. H. Bleek, Compara-
tive Grammar of the South African Languages (18621869) ! J- Torrend,
A Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Languages
(1891) ; A. C. Madan, An Outline Dictionary intended as an Aid to the
Study of the Languages of the Bantu and other Uncivilized Races (1905) ;
C. Meinhof, Die Sprache der Herero, a grammar and vocabulary
(Berlin, 1909); G. M. G. Hunt, English-Afrikander: Afrikander-
English (1901) ; W. J. Viljoen, Beitrage zur Geschichte der cap-holldn-
dischen Sprache (Strassburg, 1896); D. C. Hesseling, Bijdrage tot de
geschiedenis der nederlandsche taal in Zuid-Afrika (Leiden, 1899) ;
H. Elffers, Practische hollandsche Spraakkunst (Cape Town, 1894), and
Elementary Grammar of the Dutch Language (Cape Town, 1898).
IV. History and Politics, (i.) Sources. The Cape archives are
full and complete from 1652 onward. Selections from them have
been published by H. C. V. Leibbrandt and G. McCall Theal; the
last named has also published records of the Cape from MSS. in the
Record Office, London (see CAPE COLONY: Bibliography). See
Theal's Records of South East Africa, (9 vols., 1897-1904) ; The Record
. . . Official Papers Relative to the Condition and Treatment of the Native
Tribes of South Africa, parts I to 5 (1649-1809), edited by Donald
Moodie, late Protector of Slaves (Cape Town, 1838), the same
writer's The Evidence of the Motives and Objects of the Bushman Wars,
1769-77, &c. (Cape Town, 1841) ; also Treaties with Native Chiefs . . .
entered into by . . . British Authorities . . . between 1803 and 1854 (Cape
Blue Book, 1857); Engagements subsisting between (Great Britain)
and any States or Native Tribes in S. Africa (British Parliamentary
Paper, 1884); A. N. Macfayden, South African Treaties . . . subsist-
ing on the ist of Sept. 1898 (Cape Blue Book, 1898) and Hertslet's
Map of Africa by Treaty (1909 ed.). Lists of the British Parliamen-
tary papers concerning South Africa will be found in the Colonial
Office List (yearly). The Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State
official publications should also be consulted, (ii.) Histories.
G. McCall Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa south of
the Zambesi from . . . 1505 to ... 1795 (3 vols., 1907-1910) and
History of South Africa since Sept. 1795 (5 vols., 1908) ; these two
series represent the final form of Dr Theal's history (valuable
bibliographies), but the main narrative is not carried beyond
1872; Sir C. P. Lucas, The History of South Africa to the Jameson
Raid (Oxford, 1899) ; Frank R. Cana, South Africa from the Great
Trek to the Union (1909), a political history covering the period
1836-^1909, with bibliography; P. Wlast, Sudafrika; Entwicklungs-
geschichte und Gegenwartsbilder (Berlin, 1900); De Geskidenis von
ons Land (Paarl, 1895); W. Greswell, Our South African Empire
(2 vols., 1885). For special studies see; H. P. Relief, Datums van
Gebeurtenissen uit de Geschiedenis van Zuid Afrika van 1486 to 1895
(Paarl, 1895); H. Deherain, Cap de Bonne Esperance au XVII'
siecle (Paris, 1909), and L'Expansion des Boers au XIX' siecle
(Paris, 1905); J. Bird, Annals of Natal, 1493-1845 (2 vols., Maritz-
burg, 1888) ; C. de Mello, Os Inglezes na Africa austral (Lisbon, 1890) ;
E. B. Watermeyer, Three Lectures on the Cape of Good Hope under the
Government of the Dutch East India Co. (Cape Town, 1857) ; Selections
from the Writings of Watermeyer (Cape Town, 1877) ; H. Cloet6, Five
Lectures on the Emigration of the Dutch Farmers to Natal (Cape Town,
1856), republished in London (1899), as The Great Boer Trek; J.
Noble, A Short History of the European Settlements at the Cape (1877) ;
G. E. Cory, The Rise of South Africa ... to 1857, deals with eastern
Cape Colony (4 vols., 1910 sqq.) ; J. C. Voight, Fifty Years of the His-
tory of the Republic in South Africa [1795-1845] (2 vols., 1890);
J. Cappon, Britain's Title in S. Africa (1901) ; J. Nixon, The Complete
Story of the Transvaal (1885); H. Rider Haggard, Cetywayo and his
White Neighbours (1882) ; W. J. Leyds, The First Annexation of the
Transvaal (1906); Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, The Transvaal from Within
(1899); F. E. Garrett and E. J. Edwards, The Story of an African
Oms[thejame " ' " '-" ^ A ""
Times in South .
Southern Rhodesia
illustrating . . . the condition of the Native Tribes (2 vols., 1828);
South African Native Affairs Commission, 1903-1905, Reports and
minutes of evidence (5 vols., CapeTown. 1904-1905); Sir Godfrey Lagden,
The Basutos (1909) ; " The Times " History of the_ War [of 1899-1902]
in South Africa (7 vols., 1900-1909) ; British Official History of the War
in South Africa (4 vols., 1906-1910). (iii.) Lives. Valuable historical
information will be found in the Lives of W. E. Gladstone, the 2nd
Earl Granville, Sir Harry Smith, Sir George Grey, Sir Bartle Frere,
Sir G. Pomeroy-Colley, Cecil Rhodes, Paul Kruger and Lord Milner.
See also P. A. Molteno, Life and Times of Sir J. C. Molteno (2 vols.,
1900) ; A. Wilmot, The Life and Times of Sir Richard Southey (1904) ;
Sir J. Robinson, A Life Time in South Africa (1900); W. D. Mac-
kenzie, John Mackenzie (1902); Coillard of the Zambesi (1907).
(iv.) Miscellaneous. E. A. Pratt, Leading Points in South African
History 1486 to March joth 1900 (1900) ; J. A. Froude, Two Lectures
on South Africa (new ed., 1900); J. Bryce, Impressions of South
Africa (2nd ed., 1899); A. R. Colquhoun, The Afrikander Land
(1906); A. P. Hillier, Raid and Reform (1898) and South African
Studies (1900); Lionel Phillips, Transvaal Problems (1905); Paul
Botha, From Boer to Boer and Englishman (Cape Town, 1900) ; Sir
BartleFrere, The Union of British South Africa (1881) ; P. A. Molteno,
A Federal South Africa (1896) ; The Government of South Africa (2 vols.,
Cape Town, 1908) ; The Framework of Union (Cape Town, 1908) ;
R. H. Brand, The Union of South Africa (Oxford, 1909).
V. Economics and Commerce. Statistical Year Books or
Registers; Census Reports; Reports of the Statistical Bureau (since
1905) ; Annual Trade Returns and other official publications, especi-
ally those on native affairs, mining, agriculture and railways; Argus
Annual and South African Directory (Cape Town) ; L. V. Praagh (ed.),
The Transvaal and its Mines (1907) ; S. J. Truscott, The W it-water sr and
Goldfields (2nd ed., 1902) ; A. Wilmot, Book of South African Indus-
tries (CapeTown, 1892); F. Blersch, Handbook of Agriculture (Cape
Town, 1906) ; S. Ransome, The Engineer in South Africa (1903) ;
Gardner F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South Africa (revised
ed., New York, 1905); A. R. E. Burton, Cape Colony for the Settler
(!93) i (account oil urban and rural industries their probable
future development). " Indicus," Labour and other Questions in
South Africa (1904) ; (designed to bring to light " the disabilities
under which the coloured races . . . suffer," &c.). W. Bleloch, The
New South Africa (1902).
VI. Church, Law, &c. Bishop A. H. Baynes, Handbooks of
English Church Expansion : South Africa (1908) ; Sir G. W. Cox's
Life of Bishop Colenso (1888) ; Church of the Province of South Africa;
Constitution and Canons (Cape Town, 1899 ed.) ; J. Stewart, Lovcdale
(1884) and Dawn in the Dark Continent (1903); the Reports on the
SOUTHALL NORWOOD SOUTH AMERICA
485
synods of the Dutch Reformed Church, those of the London Mis-
sionary Society and of other missionary bodies. J. W. Wessels,
History of the Roman-Dutch Law, (Grahamstown 1908) ; G. T. Morice,
English and Roman-Dutch Law (Grahamstown, 1903) ; W. H. S. Bell
and M. Nathan, The Legal Hand Book of Practical Laws . . . in British
South Africa (Grahamstown, 1905); C. H. van Zyl, The Judicial
Practice of ... South Africa generally (Cape Town, 1893) ; A. F. S.
Maasdorp, The Institutes of Cape Law (Cape Town, 1903) ; E. H.
Crouch, A Treasury of South African Poetry and Verse (anded., 1909).
VII. Bibliographies. H. C. Schunke Hollway, " Bibliography of
South Africa . . . with special reference to geography. From the time
of Vasco da Gama to ... 1888," Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc., vol. v. pt. 2
(Cape Town, 1898) ; Catalogue of the Books relative to Philology in the
Library of Sir George Grey, vol. i. pt. i. The Dialects of South Africa
(Cape Town, 1858); Books, Pamphlets and Articles on British South
Africa (Birmingham Free Library, 1901), Mendelssohn's South
African Bibliography (2 vols. 1910). See also AFRICA : Bibliography.
(F. R. C.)
SOUTHALL NORWOOD, an urban district in the Brentford
parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, suburban to
London, 12 m. W. of St Paul's Cathedral, on the Great Western
railway. Pop. (1891), 7896; (1901), 13,200. Brickfields,
flour-mills and chemical works are established in the district,
which is also largely residential. The Grand Junction Canal
serves Southall. Cattle markets are held weekly under a grant
of William III. The Elizabethan manor-house of Southall
remains, and the parish church of Norwood, though greatly
restored, has Early English and Decorated portions, a canopied
tomb dated 1547 and brasses of the I7th century.
SOUTH AMBOY, a city of Middlesex county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on Raritan Bay at the mouth of the Raritan river,
about 27 m. S.W. of New York City. Pop. (1900) 6349 (1700
foreign-born); (1910) 7007. It is served by the Pennsylvania,
the Central of New Jersey, and the Raritan River railways.
A railway drawbridge and a traffic bridge across the river
connect the city with Perth Amboy. South Amboy is an
important point for shipments of coal from the Pennsylvania
mines. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company and the Susque-
hanna Coal Company have coal docks here and the latter has
great storage yards. Among the city's industries are the
mining of clay and sand, and the manufacture of terra cotta.
South Amboy, originally a part of South Amboy township
(incorporated in 1798), was laid out in 1835, was incorporated as
a borough in 1888, and became a city under a general state law
in 1908.
SOUTH AMERICA. The early physical history of the South
American continent as recorded in the rocks has been exten-
Deveiopmeat sively obliterated or greatly obscured by the events
of the of its later history. The early land areas are supposed
Continent, to kg on i v approximately suggested by the present
exposures of granite and gneisses. The largest of these old land
areas is along the east of the continent, extending with a few inter-
ruptions from the mouth of the Rio de la Plata to within a short
distance of the mouth of the Amazon river. North of the present
Amazon valley and occupying the present highlands of Guiana,
north-east Brazil, and south-east Venezuela was another one of
these old land areas a large island or a group of islands. A
chain of islands extended from the Falkland Islands along
what is now the entire west side of the continent. Upon these
ancient shores were laid down the sedimentary beds of the
Cambrian seas. At the close of the Cambrian period the
continent was elevated, many of the former islands were joined
together, and the continental land area was considerably
enlarged. The Silurian seas, however, still covered the basin
of the Paraguay, extending from the Serra do Mar on the
Brazilian coast to the axis of the Andes on the west, and
covering at the same time a considerable part of the basin of
the Rio Sao Francisco, filling the straits between the Andes
and the Matto Grosso highlands and opening east through the
region now occupied by the lower Amazon valley.
During the Devonian period there was a still further enlarge-
ment of the continent through elevation and the joining of
islands, and the disappearance of the old Silurian sea in the basin
of the Rio Sao Francisco on the east of the continent. In early
Carboniferous times the sea still covered a narrow belt through
the lower part of the Amazon valley, and part of what is now the
Andes lying south of the equator. During Permian times the
basin of the Paraguay and the south-east coast of Brazil was
covered with lagoons and swamps in which here and there coal
beds were laid down. At the close of this period molten lavas
broke through the earth's crust and flowed over and buried
large areas in what is now Paraguay and south Brazil.
There was a general depression of the continent during the
Cretaceous period and the ocean covered most of the continent
as we now know it. The Serra do Espinhaco along the east coast
of Brazil was above water and the coast line between the Rio de
la Plata and Cape St Roque was little different from what it is
at present. But through the highlands of Brazil from near Per-
nambuco west there was a broad sound containing many islands
extending to the base of the Andes and possibly connecting with
the Pacific Ocean. In the extreme north there were also many
islands, bays and sounds, while a continental mass occupied the
region of the Antilles. To the south the Atlantic Ocean filled
most of the lower Paraguay basin and washed the eastern bases
of the Andes. There was shallow-water connexion during this
period between South America and southern India, through the
Antarctic regions, probably by way of Australia.
In Early Tertiary times great changes took place in the
geography of South America. The continent rose much higher
than its present elevation, the coast-lines were extended ocean-
ward, and the continent was considerably larger than it is at
present. The Abrolhos Islands on the east coast of Brazil were
then a part of the mainland and the seashore was some 200 m.
further east. The Falkland Islands were also at that time a
part of the continent, and South America had land connexion
through the Antarctic regions or through the south Pacific
Ocean with New Zealand and Australia, and through the West
Indies region with Cuba and North America. Toward the
close of Tertiary times the continent sank again beneath the
ocean and salt water flowed into the Amazon and Orinoco
valleys, turning the Guiana highlands again into an island or
group of islands, and again separating the continent from
land connexion with other continents. The valleys of Rio
Magdalena, Rio Cauca and Lake Maracaibo were bays that
covered large areas of adjacent territory.
It was during the Tertiary period that the continent took on
its most characteristic features. Volcanic activity culminated;
the Andes rose from low ridges and islands near sea-level to be
one of the greatest mountain systems of the globe. This elevation
was partly due to the uplifting of the continent en masse, partly
to faulting and folding of the rocks, and partly to the pouring
out of lavas and the accumulations upon the surface about vents
of other volcanic ejectments. This volcanic activity was not
confined to the main range of the Andes, but extended into
Venezuela and the islands along the north coast, to the plains
of Patagonia, the highlands of the Parana basin and as far east
as the islands of Fernando de Noronha. In recent times volcanic
activity has greatly diminished over the continent and has
entirely ceased along its eastern and north-eastern parts. The
great elevation and depression of the continent deeply affected
the climate over certain large areas. For example, along the
east coast, where winds blew on-shore, the rainfall was greatly
increased during the elevation, while the later depression
brought about a corresponding diminution of the rainfall. In
Pleistocene times the south of the continent stood somewhat
lower than it does at present, so that the ocean covered the
plains of Patagonia and La Plata. During the glacial epoch
the south of the continent and as far north as latitude 27 on
the west coast was covered with glaciers that flowed down from
the high mountain ranges. On the east side of the mountains
the glaciers did not extend so far north as they did on the
west side. The glaciers through the high Andes were also larger
and longer than they are at present; there were no glaciers in
the eastern or Brazilian portion of the continent.
Physical Geography. The South American continent rises
abruptly from the ocean floor along nearly all of its coast, but the
steepness of the continental margin is more marked on the
SOUTH AMERICA
western than on the eastern side. From Valparaiso to the Isthmus
of Panama, a distance of 3000 m., the great Andes themselves are
but the upper or subaerial portions of mountains whose
Submarine bases are JQ.OOO ft. below the surface of the Pacific
Relief, Ocean. South of Valparaiso the lo,ooo-foot contour
lies well out from the coast, but opposite the Straits of Magellan it
approaches within 150 m. of the coast-line. On the east side of the
continent the looo-foot contour passes to the east of the Falkland
Islands showing that this group stands upon a submerged shelf or
shoulder of the continent. From the mouth of the Rio de la Plata
northward the looo-foot submarine contour keeps at a distance of
from 50 to 1 50 m. off the shore nearly to Bahia, Brazil ; from Bahia
northward and around Cape St Roque this same contour is close
inshore, and the ocean-floor sinks abruptly to a depth of 5000 ft.
North-west of Cape St Roque the continental shelf of shallow waters
widens until opposite the mouth of the Amazon the looo-foot contour
is 300 m. off the coast. The broad shelf follows along this part of
the coast as far as the island of Trinidad, west of which it narrows,
though the islands along the northern shores of Venezuela all stand
upon and form parts of this shallow continental shelf.
Scale. 1:64,000.000
English Miles
500
V :.',\
OeologFcat Information
Inoompttrt*
Quaternary
Tertiary
. Basic Lava*, probably Mgaoxoic
Sandstones of uncertain age, with
intervallaliona of Baiio Lava in theSouth
Uesoioic probably Trias
Juraisic and TriaMia
Coal-beariw snalu with Okatopteris |V>
Palaeozoic wsm
Artnean and metamorphosed PuJaeaioic H
Younger Volcanic Rocks ^ittM
The striking features of the land relief of South America are: (i)
The great Andean mountain chain with its accompanying narrow
plain lying between it and the Pacific Ocean. (2) The
Brazilian plateau with the Serra do Mar and Serra do
ftelii-f. Espinhaco near the Atlantic and spreading westward
and northward to the heart of the continent. (3) The highlands
of Guiana and Venezuela between the Orinoco and the mouth of the
Amazon. (4) The lowlands that spread out along the three main
lines of continental drainage, namely the Orinoco, the Amazon
and the Paraguay basins.
The physical features of the west coast are bold, and, in many
parts, extremely picturesque. From Cape Horn, where the peaks
of the submerged southern end of the Andes form the islands of
Tierra del Fuego to the Isthmus of Panama, the great Cordillera
follows the coast-line closely and at an even distance from it. The
low coastal belt between the ocean and the mountains has an average
width of about 40 m., and on rare occasions, when the weather is
favourable, the mountains are visible from the sea nearly^all the
way from the Straits of Magellan to Panama. South of 41 S. the
coast is characterized by a vast system of fjords and islands, probably
produced by the recent submergence of a mountain system and the
consequent invasion of its steep-sided valleys by the ocean. The
many islands along this part of the coast, including Chiloe, Welling-
ton and the Tierra del Fuego group itself are but the high portions
of these mountains that have remained above water, while Smyth
Channel and the other sounds on the west coast and the Straits
of Magellan 400 m. long and 4 to 20 m. wide, are the submerged
valleys. In Smyth Channel at many places the glaciers flow nearly
or quite down to sea-level. Some of the islands are steep-sided,
barren and uninhabited peaks rising to an elevation of 4000 ft. above
sea-level. North of 41 S. the west coast is but little indented, and
there are but few good ports. Along the northern part of the
continent from Guayaquil to Panama the coastal belt is covered
with tropical vegetation; but from a little south of Guayaquil
to 30 S. much of the coast is a sandy, arid and barren alkali
desert. Across this arid belt flow the streams that descend from
the high mountains, and along these are fertile valleys. Many
of the smaller streams, however, do not reach the sea but dry up
on their way across the arid coastal plain.
The Cordillera is a broad ridge upon which rise many great isolated
peaks. Near its northern end the range divides: one branch, the
Western Cordillera, continuing northward near the coast ; the Merida
branch swings eastward and ends with the northern side of the island
of Trinidad, while a third division, the Sierra de Perija, runs north-
ward between the valley of the Magdalena and Lake Maracaibo.
The western slope of the main Cordillera is steep, and is scored by
narrow steep-sided valleys; the eastern slope is usually more gentle,
and the valleys are less precipitous. Upon the Cordilleran ridge
rise many of the highest peaks in the world. The following are some
of the most noted, with their elevations. 1
Peak.
Country.
Elevation.
Snow-line
(approximate).
ft.
ft.
Aconcagua . '. .
Argentina
23,080
17.500
Mercedario .
Argentina
22,315
Tupungato
Argentina
21.550
Illampu (Sorata) .
Bolivia
21,500
Illimani ....
Bolivia
21,030
Chimborazo .
Ecuador
20,545
16,700
Juncal ....
Chile
20,180
Cotopaxi ....
Ecuador
19-613
15.500
Antisana ....
Ecuador
19.335
16,000
Cayambe ....
Ecuador
19,186
15,000
Tolima ....
Colombia
18,300
Misti
Peru
17,934
Maipo ....
Argentina
17.670
Sierra de Santa Marta
Colombia
16,640
Pichincha ....
Ecuador
15,918
The snow-line of the mountains is generally lower on the east than
on the west side. Of the Andean peaks those of Cotopaxi, Tungu-
ragua, Maipo and Sangai are the highest active volcanoes in the world.
There are many glaciers in the Andes even beneath the equator
itself; and though these glaciers are small and mostly confined to
the highest peaks, toward its southern end along Smyth Channel
and in the Straits of Magellan, they are large and flow far down the
slopes, and at several places enter the sea.
The eastern side of the continent is in strong physical contrast
with the western. North of the Strait of Magellan the coast is flat
as far as the northern part of Rio Grande do Sul. From latitude
29 30' to 19 30' the Serra do Mar makes this the most picturesque
portion of the east coast of South America. The mountains rise
in many places directly from the seashore to an elevation of 2000 ft.
In places these form bare granite walls, while in others they are
covered from base to summit with the most luxuriant tropical
vegetation. On this part of the coast are some of the finest and
most beautiful harbours in the world, notably those of Rio de Janeiro,
Santos and Victoria, formed by a depression that submerged the
coastal valleys.
The range or group of mountain ranges known under the general
name of Serra do Mar falls away toward the north and west in a
S:ntly sloping plateau commonly called the Brazilian highlands,
n this Brazilian plateau the highest points of which the elevations
are known are as follows :
Peak.
Brazilian State.
Elevation.
Itatiaya
Itajuba orTemb6 .
Organ Mountains .
Frade
Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo
Rio de Janeiro
Espirito Santo
ft.
9823
7800
7321
6770
Caraca
Itamb6
Minas Geraes
Minas Geraes
6412
5959
Itacolomi
Minas Geraes
5748
Pyrenees
Goyaz
4536
North of latitude 20 the high mountains swing inland and the
ast is low as far as latitude 17 25'; north of this the coast is
coast
1 Various authorities differ in their estimates of these elevations.
SOUTH AMERICA
487
bordered by a wall of brightly coloured bluffs from 50 to 250 ft.
high which continue with occasional interruptions to the mouth
of the Amazon. About Cape St Roque the coast is covered with
sand dunes. From the Abrolhos Islands northward to longitude
37 west of Cape St Roque, there are many coral reefs, some of them
several miles off shore and many miles in length and breadth, while
in other places they follow the coast-line for a hundred miles or more
with a few interruptions, now touching the shore, and now standing
out two or three miles from the land. Along the parts of the coast
where the toral reefs occur are also reefs of hard sandstone that are
often mistaken for coral reefs. These stone reefs stand like artificial
walls or breakwaters across the mouths of the smaller rivers and the
choked up valleys, and thus form several important ports on the
north-east coast: such are the ports of Pernambuco, Natal, Porto
Seguro, and others of minor importance. North of the mouth
of the Amazon the coast is low, much of it is swampy, and all of it
is forest-covered as seen from the ocean. This low coast extends
as far north and west as the headland north of the Gulf of Paria
where the Merida or Venezuelan branch of the Andes reaches the
sea.
In southern Venezuela and Guiana and northern Brazil is a plateau
commonly known as the Guiana highlands, above which rise several
peaks.
Peaks. Elevation.
ft.
Roraima 8740
Ouida 8500
Maraguaca 8230
Turagua 6000
This highland region is mostly forest-covered, but it contains also
large areas of open grass-covered plains.
Earthquakes occur throughout the entire length of the Andes;
the shocks are sometimes of sufficient violence to do serious damage
to cities and towns and to destroy many lives. Such disturbances
are almost unknown along the Brazilian side of the continent.
The eastern coast of South America has remarkably few islands,
and these are mostly small, except Trinidad off the coast of Venezuela
Islands ant ^ l islands of the Marajo group in the mouth of the
Amazon. Trinidad (area 1755 sq. m.) is separated
from the continent by the Gulf of Paria. Along the northern edge
of the island is a range of mountains about 3000 ft. high, which are
geologically the eastern end of the Cumana range of the Venezuelan
mainland. On the south side of this island is the famous pitch lake
the most extensive deposit of asphalt known. West and north of
Trinidad, and lying farther off the coast, are several small islands of
historical interest and commercial importance: Tobago, Margarita,
Blanquilla and the Curasao group. Off Cape St Roque (230 m.) is
the small Fernando de Noronha group of volcanic islands. The
main island has an area of only 12 sq. m. Though this island is
separated from the mainland by a channel 13,000 ft. deep, it really
stands upon the submerged corner of the South American continent.
The Rocas is a small island 80 m. west of Fernando de Noronha.
The Falkland Islands in lat. 51 cover an area of 6500 sq. m. ; their
shores are indented by long tortuous channels that have the appear-
ance of having been made by the depression of a hilly land surface.
One of these channels separates the two main islands. Mt Adams,
the highest peak on the group, has an elevation of 2300 ft. The
group stands upon the submerged edge of the continent, from which
it is separated by a shallow sea. Its flora and fauna show that it
was formerly a part of the mainland. The Tierra del Fuego group
of islands, as well as the many islands both large and small that
border the west coast as far north as latitude 42, are all the higher
portions of the continental margin left above water when this part
of the continent was depressed. The islands of Juan Fernandez in
the same latitude as Valparaiso, and the Galapagos group imme-
diately under the equator are the only others on the west coast
worthy of mention.
The Amazon, the Orinoco and the Paraguay or La Plata river
systems jointly drain an area of 3,686,400 sq. m. Less imposing
Rivers but Y el l al e an ^ important streams are the Magdalena
in Colombia, the Essequibo in British Guiana and the
Sao Francisco in Brazil. The Amazon (properly the Rio das
Amazonas or river of the Amazons) and its tributaries is not only the
largest of the South American rivers, but it is the largest in the world.
The total navigable length of the main stream from Para to the head
of navigation on the Huallaga in Peru is 3000 m.; and this does not
include the hundreds of navigable parallel side channels that accom-
pany the main stream from its mouth almost to the mouth of the
javary. Above the falls again these streams are all navigable for
long distances. Except at Obidos the Amazon is nowhere confined
to a single channel, but it spreads over a vast flood-plain and flows
with a sluggish current through thousands of side channels that
anastomose with each other, so that one unfamiliar with the stream
cannot distinguish the main channel. At several places the river is
so wide that one looking across it sees a water horizon as if at sea.
Much of the region is more like a great fresh-water sea filled with
islands than an ordinary valley with a river running through it.
For_the most part the land along the stream is low, flat, marshy and
at times under water. At a few places, however, notably at Erer6,
Obidos, Velha Pobre, Parti, Paraua-quara and Almeirim table-
topped hills are visible from the river. The banks of the stream and
of its side channels are everywhere covered with a dense forest.
The valley, however, is not all forest-covered. From near the
Oyapok on the Guyana frontier a series of open grassy campos,
interrupted only by the wooded banks of streams, follow along the
north side of the Amazon for about 500 m. and extend into British
Guiana and the region of the headwaters of Rio Branco. The upper
Amazon basin opens broadly northward connecting with the Orinoco
drainage across a low watershed, while on the south it is separated
by a low divide from the Paraguay basin. The Orinoco rises in the
highlands between Venezuela and Brazil, flows westward and north-
ward around this elevated region and then flows eastward into the
Atlantic. Along its lower course the banks of the stream are covered
with dense forests; in its upper course the mountainous highlands
are visible along its right bank, while on its left are vast stretches of
flat, treeless, grass-covered plains that extend to the foot-hills of the
Cordillera de Merida. The main stream is navigable during a part
of the year for a distance of 1000 m. or more.
Under the name of Rio de la Plata may be included the Uruguay
and the Paraguay, which enter the ocean through the La Plata
estuary, and the Parana which is the most important branch of the
Paraguay. It is a noteworthy feature of the streams entering
the Paraguay or La Plata basin that many of those flowing from the
arid regions on the west are more or less brackish, while those from
the rainy forest-covered regions of Brazil are all fresh-water streams.
The upper Paraguay is a sluggish stream winding through grass-
covered plains dotted over with palm trees. Above rise a few
isolated peaks like so many islands in a great lake. The Gran Chaco
is a vast plain, almost perfectly flat, covered with rank vegetation
and much of it with water, lying along the west side of the Rio
Paraguay in northern Argentina and in Paraguay.
The Sao Francisco, the largest river that lies wholly in Brazil,
rises in the highlands of Minas Geraes jn latitude 21 and flows
north-eastward parallel with the coast until it reaches latitude 9 30'
where it bends sharply to the right and enters the Atlantic. It flows
entirely through a hilly or mountainous country. It is navigable
along its lower course nearly to the falls of Paulo Affonso, 140 m.
from jts mouth, and also above the falls. In Colombia the Magda-
lena is a crooked muddy stream about 2000 m. long and navigable
as far as Honda.
Most of the lakes of South America are mountain lakes in the
Andes or along its base. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is, in respect of
elevation and position, the most remarkable of its size
in the world. Its surface is 12,545 ft. above sea-level, Lakes.
it has an area of nearly 5000 sq. m. and a maximum depth of 700 ft.,
and never freezes over. This lake discharges into a marsh that is
supposed to have no outlet. Lake Junin or Chinchaicocha on the
plateau east of Lima has an altitude of 13,380 ft., and covers an area
of 200 sq. m. Along the eastern base of the Andes in southern
Argentina is a series of lakes whose basins were probably made by
the glaciers that formerly flowed down from the mountains on the
west. There are many lakes, both large and small, scattered over the
flood-plains of the great rivers of South America, but these are
mostly phases of river development. Along the coast-lines there are
also occasional lakes of brackish water produced by the depression
of the coast and the closing of the open mouths of estuaries thus
formed, or by sand barrier beaches thrown up by the sea. Such is
Lagoa dos Patos in southern Brazil and many smaller ones on the
Brazilian coast. Lake Maracaibo on the coast of Venezuela is a
large narrow-necked bay like those of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia,
rather than a true lake.
Flora. The warm, wet, tropical portions of South America are
especially favourable to the development of plant life. This conti-
nent has therefore furnished an unusually large number of the world's
useful plants. Among these are several valuable woods, rubber-
producing plants, cotton, potato, tomato, mandioca, pineapple,
maize, cinchona, ipecac, vegetable ivory, coca, the chocolate plant
and Paraguayan tea. Other tropical and sub-tropical plants such
as coffee, sugar-cane, oranges and bananas have been introduced and
are extensively cultivated. The flora of the continent embraces a
large number of peculiar types that originated either in the highlands
of Brazil or in the Andes.
The flora of the Amazon valley may be taken as the type of that
of the moist tropical valleys. The forests are so dense, rank and
matted with undergrowth as to be almost impenetrable. Palms are
the most characteristic and beautiful trees, and reach their greatest
development in the Amazon region. They take on a great variety
of forms: some have trunks 100 ft. and more in height while others
have no trunks at all, but spring like tufts from the ground ; some are
two feet or more in diameter, while others are as slender as a lead
pencil. Bamboos grow to an enormous size and form dense thickets
along certain streams. The shaded portions of the forests frequently
abound in beautiful ferns, some of which are so small as to be almost
microscopic, while others reach the dimensions of trees. For the
most part the plants of the open campos have a stunted appearance
and the grasses are wiry and tough.
A noteworthy feature of these tropical forests is that they are
seldom made up of trees of a single species or of but few species. In
4 88
SOUTH AMERICA
the high table-lands of southern Brazil, however, the araucarian pine
grows in beautiful forests as far north as Barbacena in the highlands
near the headwaters of Rio Sao Francisco. In the north-west of
the continent the western slopes of the Andes are covered with a
dense tropical vegetation, while on the east the slopes are compara-
tively bare. In the high mountains the llora is scanty and bears a
general resemblance to that of the temperate regions; 60% of
the genera are like those of the temperate zones, but the species are
peculiar to the Andes. In the south of the continent plant life is
necessarily less tropical.
Fauna. The fauna of South America includes a large number of
species but relatively a small number of individuals. With local
exceptions this seems to be true of all the forms of life within the
tropical portions of that continent. The land mammals are nearly
all small; the tapir is the largest of them, and is found only in the
northern two-thirds of the continent. There are many species of
monkeys, all of them arboreal in their habits. The only reptiles
that are at all abundant are lizards, and in some places alligators.
The alligators do not extend south of the La Plata region. Of snakes
only the boa constrictor and the water boa are large, and these, like
all other kinds, are not abundant. Certain ruminants having long
woolly hair are found only in the high Andes; these are the llamas,
alpacas and vicunas. The llama has been domesticated and is used
for carrying small burdens. The condor, the largest living bird of
flight, inhabits the lofty Andes. The insects of the highest moun-
tains are related generically, but not specifically, to those of the
temperate latitudes of North America a fact understood by biolo-
gists to mean that there has been no migration across the inter-
mediate region since the glacial epoch. Owing to temperature and
climatic conditions the life forms of the high Andes, whether animal
or plant, are more nearly related to those of the lower regions to
the south than to those of the lower regions to the north.
The fresh-water fish fauna of the Amazon region is the richest in
the world. The distribution of species shows that there has long
been direct communication between the drainage of the three great
river systems, namely, the Orinoco, the Amazon and the Paraguay.
Inhabitants. At the time of the discovery of the South American
continent by Europeans, the races inhabiting it differed greatly
among themselves in customs, languages and civilization. They
had then generally developed the arts of spinning, weaving and the
manufacture of pottery, and locally were skilled in certain kinds of
metallurgy, sculpture, architecture and agriculture. These abori-
ginal peoples have necessarily been profoundly affected by the inva-
sion of European races and the importation of African races, but
in some localities their descendants still form the bulk of the popula-
tion, and the native American languages are still spoken.
Immediately after the discovery of South America the western
and northern portions of the continent and the region of the Rio de
la Plata began to be colonized by Spaniards, while the eastern portion
was colonized by the Portuguese. To these races were added
Africans, for many years imported as slaves, especially into Portu-
guese territory. Of late there has also been a large immigration
of Italians into Argentina and southern Brazil. In Argentina about
18% of the population is foreign-born, and of these 56% are Italian,
22% Spanish and 11 % French. In Chile only 2-3% of the popula-
tion is of foreign birth.
Spanish is the language of the country from the eastern end ot
Venezuela through all the northern and western parts of the conti-
nent and over a large part of the Paraguay basin. Throughout
Brazil, which covers little less than half of the entire continent, the
language is Portuguese. South America is therefore pre-eminently
a Latin continent ; its few British, Dutch and German colonies count
for less in the great ensemble of its population than do the depleted
aboriginal races themselves.
Political Geography. The continent was first visited by Euro-
peans in 1498, when Columbus upon his third voyage touched
at the mouth of the Orinoco. Other navigators
'' shortly followed and sailed along the northern and
eastern coasts, and by 1509 the coast had been visited as far
south as the Rio de la Plata. In 1513 Balboa discovered the
Pacific Ocean in the Gulf of Panama, and in 1520 Magellan
(properly Magalhaes) passed through the straits of Magellan
and crossed the Pacific Ocean. Inland the. earliest explorations
followed the Amazon river, but aside from the discovery of the
size, course, and character of the river and its immediate shores,
they were of but little importance. Great impulse to exploration
and development was given by the silver mines of Peru and later
by the discovery of gold and diamonds in the highlands of
Brazil.
The early settlement of South America by Europeans began
shortly after the discovery of the continent. These settlements
were originally colonies under the control of Spain and of
Portugal, and they remained for some time dependencies of the
mother countries. Eventually, however, they became indepen-
dent. For many years most of these countries were more or
less disturbed by internal dissensions and revolutions, but in
process of time, and as industries and commerce have become
better established, the governments have become more stable.
The political divisions of the continent are best seen upon an
ordinary map, and verbal descriptions of them are therefore
omitted. Brazil is the largest and most important single country.
The bulk of the remainder is divided into several Spanish-speak-
ing republics that border the continent from Venezuela on the
north to Patagonia on the south, while between Venezuela and
the Brazilian frontier on the north-east are three comparatively
small countries known as British Guiana, Dutch Guiana and
French Guiana. These Guianas are the only places at which
colonies under European control are established on the mainland
of South America. There are, however, a few islands that belong
to European countries, such as Trinidad, Tobago and the Falk-
land Islands to Great Britain, and Curacao, Buen Ayre and Oruba
to Holland.
Industries and Commerce. The industry that gave the first great
impetus to the settlement of South America by Europeans was
mining. The silver deposits of the Andes awakened .._/__
the cupidity of adventurers shortly after the discovery
of the continent, and large numbers of Spaniards poured into that
region. The mining pt silver that had begun in that part of the
world in prehistoric times has continued down to the present day.
The Potosi mines of Bolivia are supposed to have yielded in all over
a billion and five hundred million dollars' worth of silver. The
guano of the coast of Peru and the nitre beds of Chile are now, and
have long been, among the most important and valuable natural
deposits of the kind in the world. In the world's production of
borax Chile ranks third; in the production of tin Bolivia ranks
third.
In 1693 gold was found in the highlands of Brazil, and within a
few years Minas GeraesC' General Mines "),astheminingdistrictwas
called, came to be the leading gold-producing region of the world.
The mines reached their greatest productiveness between 1752 and
1761, when the annual yield was worth about six million dollars.
During the early period most of the gold came from placer washings.
Many mines in the hard rocks have been opened, some have been
worked out and exhausted, and some are still in operation. The
total gold production of all South America for the year 1895 was
estimated at about $13,000,000.
In 1729 or possibly a little earlier diamonds were also discovered
in the gold districts of Brazil, and a fresh impetus was given to
European immigration and to the importation of African slaves to
work the mines. From that time down to the discovery of diamonds
in South Africa Brazil was the leading producer of diamonds in the
world. The diamonds are found in three widely separate districts :
in the state of Minas Geraes in the vicinity of Diamantina, in the
state of Bahia in the vicinity of Lencoes, and on the headwaters of
the Paraguay river in the state of MattO 4 Grosso. The Bahia region
also produces carbonados, or the black diamonds used in the manu-
facture of diamond drills. The best estimate possible places the
market value of the diamond production of Brazil from 1729 to 1885
at $100,000,000. Of late years Brazil has led the world in the
production of monazite, which occurs on the coast of Bahia in the
form of beach sands. In 1905 the output of manganese by Brazil
was second only to that of Russia. There are enormous deposits
of iron ore in Minas and Sao Paulo, though but little developed at
present. The agates of southern Brazil are famous.
The forest industries are chiefly such as depend upon the natural
products of tropical forests. They include the gathering of rubber,
cacao, coca, ipecac, balsam copaiva, cinchona bark,
palm fibre (piassaba), brazil-nuts and Paraguay tea.
The bulk of the world's supply of cacio comes from
Ecuador, Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia. There is much wood
suited for fine cabinet work, but the facilities for supplying such
woods are limited. The agricultural industries are chiefly those
suited to tropical countries. Those that have reached the greatest
development are the growing of sugar cane and the manufacture
of sugar, and the growing and preparation for market of cotton,
coffee and tobacco. Sugar is made mostly near the seancoast from
near Rio de Janeiro northward along the eastern^ side of the
continent. Cotton is grown in the interior from Bahia northward,
while the chief coffee-producing region is in the Brazilian states of
Sao Pau'.o, Rio de Janeiro, Minas, Espirito Santo and Bahia. Wheat
is one of the chief agricultural products of the Argentine Republic.
The most important pastoral industries are in the region about the
Rio de la Plata, where wool growing and stock-raising have reached
a marvellous development.
The manufacturing industries are necessarily not so well developed
as those of older countries. In the early history of Maaufac .
the South American colonies the home countries were lufes
interested in the building up of an export trade, and
manufacturing in the colonies was therefore discouraged, even by
SOUTHAMPTON, EARL OF
489
direct legislation, while trade with other than the parent countries
was prohibited. For some time after the independence of the new
countries, facilities for manufacture and transport were poor, while
the lack of established commercial relations and facilities retarded
their growth. The development of manufacturing industries has
been more marked of late years, though internal development is
still retarded by the lack of highways.
The exterior commercial relations of South America were at first
naturally and necessarily with Spain and Portugal. In time other
European countries established relations with the rising
Commerce ^ utn American cities, the relative importance of Spain
and Portugal in South American commerce has greatly
diminished, and the bulk of trade is now with other countries.
EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF THREE SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES
(In millions sterling, annually c. 1906-1910.)
Imports from
Exports to
f
United Kingdom
20
United Kingdom
15
Argentina J.
Germany
United States
9
9
Belgium .
Germany.
. 8
. 8
Chile . . J
United Kingdom
Germany .
6
!
United Kingdom
Germany.
. ii
. 5
1
United States .
2
United States .
3
United Kingdom
2
France .
Uruguay . J
Germany .
I-I
Argentina
1-4
1
France .
I
Germany.
. i
CHIEF EXPORTS OF THREE AMERICAN COUNTRIES
(In millions
sterling.)
Ar nt'n 5 Animals and prodi
48
r '
5 Cofe
cts
23
j Rubber
i Nitrates
1 Cooper .
Settlement. The continent as a whole is but sparsely settled.
The total population in 1905 was reckoned to be 38,482,000. About
half of it, including all the most inaccessible portions, had a popula-
tion probably not much exceeding what it had at the period of the
discovery. It averaged five persons to the square mile, while in
North America it was 13 and in Europe 104 to the square mile. The
most thickly populated parts are on and near the sea-coast. On
the east seaboard a more densely populated narrow belt follows the
coast from near Natal just south of Cape St Roque to and south of
Buenos Aires. About the cities of Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de
Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Montevideo and Buenos
Aires the areas of greater density widen, and, in some instances
(notably near Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Buenos Aires) extend
inland for several hundred miles. The considerably populated
belt begins on the west coast about latitude 42 and follows
northward and eastward to the island of Trinidad on the Venezuelan
coast, though there are stretches of coast almost entirely unin-
habited. Several of the largest cities of South America compare
favourably with the finest cities of Europe. The best streets of
Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, Buenos Aires and Valparaiso are among
the most attractive in any part of the world. The large cities are
all well supplied with water, lighted with electricity, possess facilities
for transport and are supplied with public libraries, museums of
science and arts and educational institutions.
Communications. The commercial relations of South America
with the outside world are maintained by a large number of regular
and well-equipped lines of steamers running between its ports and
European ports. There is also a large freight business done by
steamers sailing at irregular periods, and by sailing vessels. Con-
nexions with the interior of the continent were for a long time con-
fined to navigation along the principal streams and to tedious
overland travel on horseback along almost impassable trails. Since
1858, however, when the first 3O-m. section of the Dom Pedro II
railway from Rio de Janeiro to Queimados was opened, railways
have extended far inland and even across the Andes. The boring
of the tunnel completing railway connexion between Buenos Aires
and Valparaiso was completed in November 1909. Railway
building has been especially active in Brazil and in the Argentine
Republic. From Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo lines now penetrate
the highlands of Minas Geraes, while from Buenos Aires they cover
the most productive portions of the Argentine Republic, and bring
some portions of the interiors of these countries into close communi-
cation with all parts of the world. In the meanwhile river and
coastwise navigation has greatly developed.
The railway mileage of the various countries was approximately
as follows in 1906:
Miles of Railway.
Argentine Republic 11,460
Bolivia 700
Brazil 10,408
Chile 2,800
Colombia.
Ecuador .
Paraguay.
Peru . .
Uruguay .
Venezuela
Miles of Railway.
....... 411
125
156
1,146
1,210
529
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Anonymous, The History of South America from
its Discovery to the Present Time ... By an American. Translated
from the Spanish by Adnah D. Jones (London, 1899) ; A. H. Keane,
Central and South America, i. 611, ill.; ii. 410-478 (London,
1901), vol. ii. relates chiefly to Central America, but Trinidad
and the Guianas are included in this volume) ; Hugh Robert Mill,
The International Geography, " South America," pp. 813-888 (New
York, 1900); E. Rdclus, Nouvelle geographic universelle. Amerique
du Sud. (Paris, 1893), a monumental work; Wilhelm Sievers, Sud
und Mittelamerika, 2 le Aufl. (Leipzig and Vienna, 1903), this
work contains a valuable bibliography at the end of the volume;
Robert Grant Watson, Spanish and Portuguese South America
during the Colonial Period (London, 1884). Travels. Frank G.
Carpenter, South America; Social, Industrial and Political (New
York, 1900) ; Francis de Castelnau, Expedition dans les parties
centrales de VAmerique du Sud, de Rio de Janeiro a Lima, et de Lima
au Para (1843-1847) ; Histoire du voyage (Paris, 1850-1851) ; G. Earl
Church, " South America: An Outline of its Physical Geography,"
The Geographical Journal, xvii. 333-409 (London, 1901). Sir
Martin Conway, Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego (London, 1902).
William E, Curtis, Between the Andes and the Ocean . . .from the
Isthmus of Panama to the Straits of Magellan (Chicago, 1900);
Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches into the Natural History, &c. of
the Countries Visited during the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle (New York,
1878; other editions); A. Gallenga, South America (London, 1880;
a good general description of conditions at the time). William
Hadfield, Brazil, the River Plate, and the Falkland Islands, &c.
(London, 1854) ; Captain Basil Hall, Extracts from a Journal Written
on the Coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico, in the years 1820-1822
(Edinburgh, 1824); Alexander Humboldt and Aim6 Bonpland, Per-
sonal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Conti-
nent During the Years 1799-1804 (3rd ed., London, 1819^-1829) ; C. B.
Mansfield, Paraguay, Brazil and the Plate. Letters written in 1852-
I 853 (Cambridge, 1856) ; Edward D. Mathews, Up the Amazon and
Madeira Rivers, Through Bolivia and Peru (London, 1879) ; Alcide
d'Orbigny, Voyage dans VAmerique meridionale (le Bresil, la Repub-
lique orientale de I' Uruguay &cl) execute pendant les annees 1826-
1833 (Paris, 1835-1849); James Orton, The Andes and the Amazon,
or Across the Continent of South America (3rd ed., New York, 1876) ;
Charles M. Pepper, Panama to Patagonia (Chicago, 1906) ; W. Reiss
und A. Stubel, Reisen in Sudamerika (Berlin, 1889); W. Smyth and
F. Lowe, Narrative of a Journey from Lima to Pard, &c. (London,
1836); G. Steinmann, " Sketch of the Geology of South America,"
in Amer. Nat. xxy. 855 (1891); J. J. von Tschudi, Reisen durch
Sudamerika (Leipzig, 1866-1869) ; Frank Vincent, Around and About
South America (sth ed., New York, 1895). See further AMAZON,
ANDES, and the articles on the separate countries. (J. C. BR.)
POUT-HAMPTON, EARL OF, an English title borne by the
families of Fitzwilliam and Wriothesley. In 1537 Sir William
Fitzwilliam (c. 1490-1542), lord high admiral of England, was
created earl of Southampton. A son of Sir William Fitzwilliam
of Aldwarke, near Rotherham, Fitzwilliam was a companion
in boyhood of Henry VIII., and was knighted for his services
at the siege of Tournai in 1513. Later he was treasurer of
Cardinal Wolsey's household, and was sent several times to
France on diplomatic business. As vice-admiral he commanded
a fleet when England and France were at war in 1523. He was
comptroller of the royal household, chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster, and keeper of the privy seal. He went to Calais to
conduct Anne of Cleves to England and wrote in flattering terms
to Henry about his bride. While marching with the English
army into Scotland he died at Newcastle in October 1542. He
left no sons and his titles became extinct.
In 1547 Thomas Wriothesley (1505-1550) was created ear)
of Southampton. Entering the service of Henry VIII. at an
early age, Wriothesley soon made himself very useful to his
royal master, and he was richly rewarded when the monasteries
were dissolved, obtaining extensive lands between Southampton
and Winchester. Having been on errands abroad, he was made
one of the king's principal secretaries in 1 540, and was knighted
in the same year; in spite of the fall of his patron, Thomas
Cromwell, he rose higher and higher in the royal favour, and in
1542 it was said that he almost governed everything in England.
He sought to bring about an alliance between England and
49
SOUTHAMPTON, ^D EARL OF
Spain in 1543, and was created Baron V/riothesley of Titchfield
in 1544. Having been lord keeper of the privy seal for a few
months, he became lord high chancellor in 1544, in which capacity
he became notorious by his proceedings against Anne Askew.
He was one of the executors of Henry's will, and in accordance
with the dead king's wishes he was created earl of Southampton
in February 1547. However, he had committed an offence in
appointing four persons to relieve him of his duties as lord
chancellor and advantage was taken of this to deprive him of his
office in March, when he also ceased to be a member of the
privy council. Again in the council Southampton took a leading
part in bringing about the fall of Somerset, but he had not
regained his former position when he died on the 3oth of July
1550. His successor was his son, Henry (1545-1581), the 2nd
earl, one of the Roman Catholic nobles who conspired for the
release of Mary Queen of Scots. He died oh the 4th of October
1581 and was succeeded by his son, Henry, the 3rd earl (see
below).
For the career of the 1st earl see Lord Campbell, Lives of the Lord
Chancellors; E. Foss, Judges of England; and the various state
papers and letters of the reign of Henry VIII.
The 3rd earl was succeeded by his son Thomas (1607-1667) as
4th earl. When the dispute began between the king and the
parliament he took the side of the latter, but soon the violence
of its leaders drove him into the arms of Charles, one of whose
most loyal advisers he remained thenceforward. He was however
very anxious for peace, and treated on behalf of the king with the
representatives of the parliament in 1643, and again at Uxbridge
in 1645. Having paid over 6000 to the state, Southampton was
allowed to live unmolested in England during the Common-
wealth period, and on the restoration of Charles II. he was made
lord high treasurer. As treasurer he was remarkable for his
freedom from any taint of corruption and for his efforts in the
interests of economy and financial order. He died without sons
on the i6th of May 1667, when his titles became extinct.
Much of his property passed to his eldest daughter Elizabeth
(d. 1693), wife of Edward Noel, ist earl of Gainsborough (1641-
1689). The name of the earl is perpetuated in London in South-
ampton Row and Southampton Street, Holborn, where his
London residence stood. After the death of Lady Gainsborough
the London property of the earl passed to her sister Rachel, wife
of William, Lord Russell, the patriot, and later to the duKes of
Bedford.
In 1670 the mistress of Charles II., Barbara, countess of
Castlemaine, was created duchess of Cleveland and countess of
Southampton. Her son, Charles Fitzroy (1662-1730), was
created duke of Southampton in 1675, this title becoming extinct
when his son William died in May 1774.
The barony of Southampton was created in 1780 in favour
of Charles Fitzroy (1737-1797), a grandson of Charles Fitzroy,
2nd duke of Grafton, he being thus, like the holders of the duke-
dom of Southampton, descended from Charles II. and the
duchess of Cleveland. The title is still held by his descendants.
SOUTHAMPTON, HENRY WRIOTHESLEY, 3RD EARL OF
(1573-1624), one of Shakespeare's patrons, was the second son of
Henry Wriothesley, 2nd earl of Southampton, and his wife Mary
Browne, daughter of the ist Viscount Montague. He was born
at Cowdray House, near Midhurst, on the 6th of October 1573,
and succeeded to the title in 1581, when he became a royal ward,
under the immediate care of Lord Burghley. He entered St
John's College, Cambridge, in 1585, graduating M.A. in 1589;
and his name was entered at Gray's Inn before he left the
university. At the age of seventeen he was presented at court,
where he was soon counted among the friends of the earl of
Essex, and was distinguished by extraordinary marks of the
queen's favour. He became a munificent patron of poets.
Nashe dedicated his romance of Jack Wilton to him, and Gervase
Markham his poem on Sir Richard Grenville's last fight. His
name is also associated with Barnabe Barnes's Parthenophil and
Parthenope, and with the Worlde of Wordes of John Florio, who
was for some years in his personal service as teacher of Italian.
But it is as a patron of the drama and especially of Shakespeare
that he is best known. " My Lord Southampton and Lord
Rutland," J writes Rowland White to Sir Robert Sydney in
1599, " come not to the court . . . They pass away the time in
London merely in going to plays every day " (Sydney Papers, ed.
Collins, ii. 132). Venus and Adonis (1593) is dedicated to
Southampton in terms expressing respect, but no special
intimacy; but in the dedication of Lucrece (1594) the tone is
very different. " The love I dedicate to your lordship is
without end . . . What I have done is yours; what I have to
do is yours; being part in all I have, devoted yours." Nicholas
Rowe, on the authority of Sir William Davenant, stated in his
Life of Shakespeare that Southampton on one occasion gave
Shakespeare a present of 1000 to complete a purchase.
Nathan Drake in his Shakespeare and his Times (1819; vol. ii.
pp. 62 seq.) first suggested that' Lord Southampton was the
person to whom the sonnets of Shakespeare were addressed.
He set aside Thomas Thorpe's dedication to the " onlie begetter "
of the sonnets, " Mr W. H.," by adopting the very unusual
significance given by George Chalmers to the word " begetter,"
which he takes as equivalent to " procurer." " Mr W. H." was
thus to be considered only as the bookseller who obtained the
MS. Other adherents of the Southampton theory suggest that
the initials H. W. (Henry Wriothesley) were simply reversed
for the sake of concealment by the publisher. It is possible in
any case that too much stress has been laid on Thomas Thorpe's
mystification. The chief arguments in favour of the South-
ampton theory are the agreement of the sonnets with the tone of
the dedication of Lucrece, the friendly relations known to have
existed between Southampton and the poet, and the correspon-
dence, at best slight, between the energetic character of the earl
and that of the young man of the sonnets. Mr Arthur Acheson
(Shakespeare and the Rival Poet, 1903) brings much evidence in
favour of the theory, first propounded by William Minto, that
George Chapman, whose style is parodied by Shakespeare in the
2 ist sonnet and in Love's Labour's Lost, was the rival poet of the
78th and following sonnets. Mr Acheson goes on to suppose that
Chapman's erotic poems were written with a view to gaining
Southampton's patronage, and that that nobleman had refused
the dedication as the result of Shakespeare's expostulations.
The obscurity surrounding the subject is hardly lightened by
the dialogue between H. W. and W. S. in Willobie his Aviso, a
poem printed in 1 549 as the work of Henry Willobie (q.i>.) If the
sonnets were indeed addressed to Southampton, the earlier
ones urging marriage upon him must have been written before the
beginning (1595) of his intrigue with Elizabeth Vernon, cousin
of the Earl of Essex, which ended in 1 598 with a hasty marriage
that brought down Queen Elizabeth's anger on both the
contracting parties, who spent some time in the Fleet
prison in consequence. The " Southampton " theory of the
sonnets cannot be regarded as proved, and must in any
case be considered in relation to other interpretations (see
SHAKESPEARE).
Meanwhile in 1596 and 1597 Southampton had been actively
employed, having accompanied Essex on his two expeditions
to Cadiz and to the Azores, in the latter of which he distinguished
himself by his daring tactics. In 1598 he had a brawl at court
with Ambrose Willoughby, and later in the same year he attended
Sir Robert Cecil on an embassy to Paris. In 1599 he went to
Ireland with Essex, who made him general of his horse, but the
queen insisted that the appointment should be cancelled, and
Southampton returned to London. He was deeply involved
in Essex's conspiracy against the queen, and in February 1601
was sentenced to death. Sir Robert Cecil obtained the commu-
tation of the penalty to imprisonment for life.
On the accession of James I. Southampton resumed his place
at court and received numerous honours from the new king.
On the eve of the abortive rebellion of Essex he had induced the
players at the Globe theatre to revive Richard II., and on his
release from prison in 1603 he resumed his connexion with the
stage. In 1603 he entertained Queen Anne with a performance
Roger Manners, 5th earl of Rutland, a close ally and friend of
Southampton.
SOUTHAMPTON
491
of Love's Labour's Lost by Burbage and his company, to which
Shakespeare belonged, at Southampton House.
Southampton took a considerable share in promoting the
colonial enterprises of the time, and was an active member of the
Virginia company's council. He seems to have been a born
fighter, and engaged in more than one serious quarrel at court,
being imprisoned for a short time in 1603. He was in more serious
disgrace in 1621 for his determined opposition to Buckingham.
He was a volunteer on the Protestant side in Germany in 1614,
and in 1617 he proposed to fit out an expedition against the
Barbary pirates. In 1624 he and his elder son enrolled themselves
as volunteers for the United Provinces of the Netherlands against
Spain. Immediately on landing they were attacked with fever,
to which both succumbed, the father surviving until the loth of
November 1624.
There exist numerous portraits of Southampton, in which he
is depicted with dark auburn hair and blue eyes, compatible with
Shakespeare's description of a " man right fair. " Sir John
Beaumont (1583-1627) wrote a well-known elegy in his praise,
and Gervase Markham wrote of him in a tract entitled Honour
in his Perfection, or a Treatise in Commendation of . . . Henry,
Earl of Oxenford, Henry, Earle of Southampton, Robert, Earl of
Essex (1624).
For further information see " Memoirs of Henry Wriothesley,
the third Earl of Southampton," in . Boswell's Shakespeare (1821), xx.
427 sqq., where many of the elegies on Southampton are printed;
also Nathan Drake, Shakespeare and his Times (1817), ii. 120;
Sidney Lee, Life of William Shakespeare (1898); Gerald Massey,
The Secret Drama of Shakespeare's Sonnets (1888); Samuel Butler,
Shakespeare's Sonnets Reconsidered (1899), where there is some
distinctive criticism of the Southampton theory (ch. v.-vii.) ;
an article by William Archer, " Shakespeare's Sonnets. The Case
against Southampton," in the Fortnightly Review (Dec. 1897);
and Sidney Lee's article on Southampton in the Diet. Nat. Biog.,
arguing in favour of his identity with the hero of the sonnets.
P. Alvor. in Das neue Shakespeare Evangelium (Munich, 1906),
brings forward a theory that Southampton and Rutland were the
authors of the Shakespeare tragedies and comedies respectively, and
borrowed William Shakespeare's name to secure themselves from
Elizabeth's suspicion.
SOUTHAMPTON, a municipal, county, and parliamentary
borough of Hampshire, England, a seaport, and county in itself,
79 m. S.W. by S. from London by the London & South-Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 104,824. It is finely situated near the
head of Southampton Water, an inlet of the English Channel
which forms the estuary of the river Test; on a peninsula
bounded east by the river Itchen. There are considerable remains
of the old town walls, dating from Norman times, but strength-
ened on various later occasions. The most remarkable portion
occurs on the western side, where for a distance of nearly 100
yds. the wall is arcaded on its exterior face. The wall was
strengthened by towers at intervals, such as the Arundel Tower
at the north-western corner. The site of the castle, on the
western side near the water, is built over, but the wall is well seen
here. The castle was originally a Saxon fortress, and was rebuilt
on the erection of the walls. It was partly demolished in 1650,
and in 1805 its reconstruction was begun by the marquess of
Lansdowne, but was not completed. Near the site there are some
very ancient houses, one of which, known as King John's Palace,
is of the highest interest, as it is considered to be earlier than any
example of the I2th century in England, and is well preserved.
Of the ancient town gates the Bar or North Gate, South Gate,
West Gate, and Blue Anchor Gate remain. The first three
are important; the South and West gates date from the early
I4th century, while Bar Gate, as it stands, is later, and retains
excellent Decorated work. Numerous early vaults remain
below the houses within the walls. The two old churches, St
Michael's, the central tower and lofty spire of which rise from
Norman arches, and Holy Rood, partly Decorated, are greatly
modernized. St Michael's contains a Norman font of black
marble, comparable with that in Winchester Cathedral. All
Saints' Church dates from 1795, and among numerous modern
churches St Mary's, erected from designs by G. E. Street, is
noteworthy, and occupies the site of a Saxon church. The
chapel of St Julian, where French Anglican services are held,
is of transitional Norman architecture, greatly altered by
restoration. It was originally attached to the hospital of God's
House, founded in the time of Henry III. for eight poor persons,
the existing buildings of which are modern. In the chapel are
buried the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope, and Sir Thomas
Grey, who were executed in 1415 outside the Bar Gate for con-
spiracy against Henry V. The chapel was allocated as a place
of worship by Queen Elizabeth to certain Protestant Walloon
refugees. The priory of St Denys, an Augustinian foundation
of 1124, gives name to a suburb by the Itchen, and has left only
fragmentary ruins.
In the municipal offices interesting ancient regalia and records
are kept. The Gildhall, used as a court-house, is in the upper
part of Bar Gate. Noteworthy modern buildings are the public
library, corn exchange, custom-house, and assembly rooms.
The Hartley Institution, founded under the will of Mr H. R.
Hartley, contains a library, museum, art gallery, lecture hall,
laboratories, and school of science and art associated with that
of South Kensington, London; the foundation was created for
SOUTHAMPTON
and Environs
Scale. 1:100.000
English Miles
the advancement of natural history, astronomy, antiquities,
and classical and Oriental literature. The Edward VI. grammar
school was founded in 1550 and reorganized in 1875, and occupies
modern buildings. Alderman Taunton's trade school was
founded in 1752, and includes a technical department. The
ordnance survey office is the headquarters of the ordnance
survey department of Great Britain and Ireland. The Royal
South Hampshire Infirmary is the principal of numerous benevo-
lent and charitable institutions. To the north of the old town
are the East and West Parks and the Hampshire county cricket
ground, and to the south the small Queen's Park. South-
ampton Common, with its fine avenue, north of the town, was
formerly part of the manor of Shirley. There is a statue in the
parks of Dr Isaac Watts, the theologian (1674-1748), a native of
the town, in whose memory the Watts Memorial Hall was
erected in 1875. The headquarters of the Royal Southampton
and the Royal Southern Yacht Clubs are in the town.
The history of the modern importance of Southampton as a
port begins with the creation of a pier and harbour commission
in 1803, and the erection of the Royal Victoria Pier (opened
by Princess, afterwards Queen, Victoria) in 1831. But its
present prosperity really dates from the opening of railway
communication with London in 1840. The harbour is one of the
finest natural harbours in the kingdom, and has the advantage
of a double tide, the tide of the English channel giving it high
water first by way of the Solent and two hours later by way of
Spithead. In 1892 the docks, which lie at the southern end of
the peninsula, became the property of the London & South-
Western Railway Company. They measure about 300 acres,
comprising extensive quays in both the Test and the Itchen
492
SOUTHAMPTON SOUTH AUSTRALIA
rivers, with 28 ft. and upwards of water at low water of ordinary
spring tides, and over 15,000 lineal feet of accommodation; the
Empress dock, i8 acres, with a depth of 26 ft. at low water
spring tide; the outer dock, 16 acres, with 18 ft. at low water
spring tide; and the inner dock, 10 acres. In 1907 the construc-
tion of a new dock was undertaken, to cover 16 acres, with a
depth of 40 ft. below low water. There are also two coal barge
docks capable of floating 10,000 tons of coal at one time. There
are five dry docks, having from 29 ft. to 12 ft. depth of water
over blocks at neaps. The Prince of Wales, or No. 5 dry dock,
opened in 1895, was at that time the largest single dock in the
world; it is 750 ft. long by 87! ft. wide at sill, and 112 ft. at cope
level. In 1905 a sixth graving dock was opened, having a
length of 8751 ft., and a width of 90 ft. at sill and 125 ft. at cope
level. The principal passenger steamers sailing from the port
are those of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company for the
West Indies and the Pacific (via Panama) and for Brazil and the
River Plate, &c., and the Union-Castle line for the Cape of Good
Hope, Natal, East Africa, &c., both of which companies have
their headquarters here. New York is served by the American
line, the North German Lloyd line, &c. Regular steamers serve
the Channel Islands, Cherbourg and Havre, the principal English
ports, Dublin, Belfast and Glasgow; and local steamers serve
Cowes (Isle of Wight) and other neighbouring ports. The South-
western Company owns the local railway stations (Town and
Dock and Southampton West, besides suburban stations), but
through connexions are made with the north by way of the Great
Western and Great Central and the Midland and South- Western
Junction railways. Among the principal imports are cocoa,
coffee, grain (including Indian corn), fruit, provisions (including
butter, eggs and potatoes from France and the Channel Islands) ,
wines and spirits, sugar, wool, and other foreign and colonial
produce. Exports are all kinds of manufactured goods, such as
cotton, linen, woollen, worsted and leather goods, machinery
and hardware.
Southampton gives name to a suffragan bishopric in the
diocese of Winchester. The parliamentary borough returns two
members. The county borough was created in 1888. The town
is governed by a mayor, sheriff, senior and junior bailiffs, 13
aldermen, and 39 councillors. The area, which includes the
suburbs of Shirley, Freemantle and others, is 4501 acres.
History. There was a Roman settlement of some importance
on the site of the suburb of Bitterne on the E. bank of the
Itchen. It was walled, and inscribed stones, coins, pottery, &c.,
have been found. It is probable that after the Danish invasions
of the nth century the modern Southampton (Hantune, Suhamp-
ton) gradually superseded the Saxon Hantune as the latter did
the Roman settlement, the site being chosen for its stronger
position and greater facilities for trade. It was a royal borough
before 1086, and a charter of Henry II. (1154-5) declares that
the men of Southampton shall hold their gild liberties and
customs as in the time of Henry I. Richard I. in 1189 freed
the burgesses from tolls and all secular customs. In 1199 John
repeated the grant and gave them the farm of the customs of their
own port and those of Portsmouth at a yearly rent of 200.
Henry III. in 1256 granted all the liberties and customs enjoyed
by Winchester. Grants and confirmations were made from the
reign of Henry III. to Henry VI., that of 1401 (2 Henry IV.)
granting further to the mayor and bailiffs cognisance of all pleas
to be held in the Gildhall (guyhalda). The charter of incorpora-
tion was given by Henry VI. in 1445, under which the town was
governed by a mayor, 2 bailiffs and burgesses, while by charter
of 1447 the neighbouring district was amalgamated with the
new borough as a distinct county under the title of " the town
and county of the town of Southampton." Further privileges
were granted by successive kings, and a charter was finally given
by Charles I. in 1640. Southampton has returned two members
to parliament since 1295. The inhabitants appear to have had a
prescriptive right to hold a cattle-market, which was confirmed
by Henry IV. in 1400, and later by Elizabeth. Markets on
Wednesday for cattle and Friday for corn are now held. Trinity
fair, dating from the year 1443, is now a pleasure fair. In
medieval times Southampton owed its importance to the fact
that it was the chief port of Winchester. It had a large import
and export trade, and in the i3th century was the second wine
port in England. Wool was very largely exported, and the fact
that it was brought to this port to be shipped probably led to the
first establishment of the woollen trade in the W. of England.
The rise of London as a port, the prohibition of the export of wool,
the loss of the Winchester market after the suppression of the
monastic institutions, and the withdrawal of the court led to the
gradual decline of trade from the i6th century onwards until
railway facilities and the opening of new dockyards gave South-
ampton the position it holds to-day.
See Victoria County History: Hampshire, iii. 490 seq.; B. B.
Woodward, History of Hampshire (London, 1861-9); Rev.
Silvester Davies, History of Southampton (London, 1883).
SOUTHAMPTON, a township of Suffolk county, New York,
occupying the western part (W. of Easthampton) of the
south-eastern peninsula of Long Island, S. of the Peconic
Bay and N. of the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900), 10,371;
(1910), 11,240. Separated from the ocean by a narrow
beach only, in the south-western part of the township are
the nearly landlocked East Bay and Shinnecock Bay, and
farther east are Mecox Bay (landlocked) and other ponds
near the ocean. At Canoe Place, an old portage, Shinne-
cock Bay and Peconic Bay are less than 3 m. apart. On the
northern shore of the township are the small settlements called
Flanders, Southport, Sebonac, North Haven and North Sea.
Nearer the south shore and served by the Long Island railway
are Speonk, Westhampton, Quogue, Good Ground, Shinnecock
Hills, Southampton (pop. in 1910, 2509), Water Mill and Bridge-
hampton, from which there is a branch line of the Long Island
railway to Sag Harbor. Good sailing and sea-bathing are obtained
at several places; and the golf links of the Shinnecock Golf Club,
at Shinnecock Hills, is one of the best in the country. The first
" summer cottages" were built near the village of Southampton
in the latter part of the decade 1870-1880, and the summer
colony was long called the "New York Annex" or the "Annex."
The village of Southampton has been called the Newport of
Long Island; in it is the Rogers Memorial Library (1893). The
whale fishery was formerly important; it began here about 1660.
The Shinnecock Indians long took part in it and many of the
men of the tribe were lost in the wreck of the " Circassian " here
on the 3ist of December 1876. The Indians now on the reser-
vation are mostly mixed bloods with a large proportion of negro
blood. Southampton was settled in 1640, probably before
Southold, by a " company of undertakers " formed in March
1639 at Lynn, Massachusetts, who received from James Forrett,
agent of the proprietor, William Alexander, Lord Stirling, a
patent dated the i7th of April 1640 for 8 m. square of
land and whose deed from the Indians is dated the i3th of
December 1640. Their first attempt to settle was broken up by
the Dutch. The name may have been taken in honour of Henry
Wriothesley, earl of Southampton. The settlement was a
commercial scheme, and in spite of the rigid Puritanism of
Abraham Pierson, their first pastor and a sympathizer with New
Haven, the people voted to attach themselves to Connecticut
(1645). The Mosaic law was adopted for the government of the
township. In 1678 Governor Edmund Andros, in a note to the
home government, said: " Our principall places of trade are
New York and Southampton, except Albany for the Indyans."
The village of Southampton was incorporated in 1894.
See Geo. R. Howell, Early History of Southampton, L.I. (2nd ed.,
Albany, 1887), and the Town Records (4 vols., Sag Harbor, 1874-
1 879) , with notes by W. S. Pelletreau.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA, a British colonial state, forming part
of the Commonwealth of Australia. (For map, see AUSTRALIA).
It lies between 129 and 141 E. long., has Queensland, New
South Wales and Victoria on the E., Western Austrah'a on the
W., and the Southern Ocean on the S. Originally its northern
line was [26 S. lat.; by the addition of the Northern
Territory the area was extended from 380,070 sq. m. to
903,690, and the northern border carried to the Indian Ocean;
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
493
but by acts of 1910 this territory was made over to the
federal government. It is, however, described below.
The southern coast-line shows two large gulfs, Spencer and
St Vincent the first 180 m. long, the other 100. Spencer Gulf
is open to the ocean, while St Vincent Gulf is partly shielded by
Kangaroo Island, with Investigator Straits as its western and
Backstairs Passage as its eastern entrance. Yorke Peninsula
separates the two gulfs. Eyre's Peninsula is to the west of Spencer
Gulf, and at its southern extremity are Port Lincoln, Sleaford Bay
and Coffin's Bay, of which the first is the most important. Along
the Great Australian Bight are several small bays, and the
junction of South and Western Australia is on the Bight. Going
eastward from the Gulf of St Vincent is Encounter Bay, through
which there is an entrance to Lake Alexandrina, the mouth of
the Murray river. The^Coorong is the name given to the narrow
sheet of water, nearly 200 m. long, formed by the Murray and
separated from the ocean by a very narrow strip of land. Lace-
pede andJRivoli Bays are the only other important indentations
of this coast. In Northern Territory are several important
indentations, Melville, Adam, Arnheim and Raffles Bays, Van
Diemen's Gulf, Port Essington and Port Darwin (lat. 12 S.).
The Gulf of Carpentaria divides the territory from Cape Yorke
Peninsula of Queensland, the more important inlets on the shore
of the gulf in Northern Territory being Caledon Bay and Limmen
Bight. The principal island belonging to South Australia is
Kangaroo Island, situated at the mouth of the Gulf of St Vincent;
it is also the longest Australian island, measuring 210 m. by 85 m.
at its widest part. Off the north coast of Northern Territory are
Melville and Bathurst Islands, the Wessel group, and Groote
Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria.
Mountain ranges are not an important feature of the country,
which, on the whole, is level where not slightly undulating. In
the south of the state the principal ranges run north and south ;
the Mount Lofty range, beginning at Cape Jervis, runs parallel
with St Vincent's Gulf and at one or two points touches 3000 ft.,
Mount Lofty, near Adelaide, having an elevation of 2330 ft.
The Flinders range rises on the eastern shores of Spencer Gulf
and extends north for several hundred miles, terminating near
the so-called Lake Blanche; there are in this range several isolated
peaks which attain 3000 ft., the most prominent being Mt
Remarkable, 3100 ft., Mt Brown, about the same height, and
Mts Arden and Serle, about 3000 ft. The Gawler range,
running across Eyre's Peninsula, south of the lakes, attains an
elevation of about 2000 ft. at several points. Beyond Lake
Torrens the ranges tend in the direction of north-west and after-
wards east and westerly; and occasional summits reach 5000 ft.
Northern Territory is traversed by several minor ranges, but the
country has not been thoroughly explored and the heights
and direction of the ranges have not been in all cases determined;
no elevation above 2000 ft. has, however, been discovered.
South Australia is by no means a well-watered country, but
there are some fine streams in the north of Northern Territory.
In South Australia proper the Murray enters the sea at Lake
Alexandrina, after having received the drainage of three states.
The Torrens, Wakefield, Hindmarsh, Tuman and Gawler are
unimportant streams; on the banks of the first named is situated
the city of Adelaide. From Queensland flows the Barcoo, or
Cooper's Creek, into Lake Eyre, which also receives the Macumba,
with its tributary the Alberga, and several other rivers. These
are rivers only when they are filled with the torrential rains of
the interior, and for the most part are depressions destitute of
water. Northern Territory is marked by an absence of water
except at the extreme north, where there are several fine rivers,
some of which are navigable for over 100 m.; the most note-
worthy are: the Roper, flowing into Limmen Bight in the Gulf
of Carpentaria, the Liverpool, the South Alligator, the Adelaide,
the Daly and the Victoria. There are numerous lakes shown
on the maps of South Australia, but none are permanent; they
are depressions filled by the rivers in times of flood, but otherwise
waterless or containing shallow pools of salt water. (T. A. C.)
Geoloey. South Australia may be divided geologically into four
parts, the geology of each of which is so distinct that they may be
conveniently considered apart. These divisions are (i) the Great
Valley of South Australia and the adjacent highlands that border
it, (2) the Lake Eyre Basin, (3) the Western Plateau, (4) the basin of
the Lower Murray, with (5) the Northern Territory.
The western division consists of a plateau of Archean gneisses,
granites and schists, which extend, across Australia from the Eyre
Peninsula on the south to the northern coasts on Port Darwin.
In the south-western corner of the state the Archean plateau is
separated from the Southern Ocean by the Cainozoic limestones
of the Nullarbor plains, which extend from the shore of the Great
Australian Bight to the foot of the great Victorian desert. Thence
northward, the Archean rocks form the whole foundation of the
country, until they end in a scarp, the " so-called coastal range,"
to the south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and in the exposures near
Palmerston, on Port Darwin. This plateau bears occasional deposits
of later age. The chief of these are the Ordovician rocks of the
Macdonnell Chain; they there trend approximately west-north-
west to east-south-east, and represent part of the old Lower Palaeo-
zoic mountain chain, which appears to have once extended across
Australia from Kimberley to Adelaide and Tasmania. To the
north-east of the Ordovician rocks of the Macdonnell Chain are the
Cambrian deposits of Tempe Downs and the head of the Herbert
river. Some Jurassic fresh-water deposits occur in basins on the
plateau, having been proved by a bore, now being put down, in the
hope of forming a flowing well at Lake Phillipson.
In contrast to the striking uniformity of the Western Plateau
is the geological complexity of the part of South Australia known as
" the Counties," including the settled districts in the south of the
state around Spencer Gulf. The country is underlain by Archean
and granitic rocks; they are exposed in the Gawler Range to the
west, in the Archean outcrops near the New South Wales frontier,
on the railway to Broken Hill, and at the foot of the highlands,
along the western edge of the Murray basin. The highlands of
South Australia consist mainly of contorted Lower Palaeozoic
rocks, including the best representative in Australia of the Cambrian
system. These Cambrian deposits, in addition to yielding a rich
Cambrian fauna, contain a long belt of glacial deposits, the discovery
of which is due to W. Howchin. These highlands form the whole of
the mountainous country to the east of Lake Torrens; they extend
southward to the highlands behind Adelaide, and form the axis of
Kangaroo Island, while a branch from them forms the backbone
of Yorke Peninsula. The highlands end to the north along a line
running approximately east and west through Mt Babbage and
the Willouran and Hergott ranges, to the south of Lake Eyre.
The country to the west of Lake Torrens is a plateau, capped by the
Lake Torrens Quartzites, which are apparently of Upper Palaeozoic
age. This plateau has been separated from the South Australian
highlands by the formation of the rift valley, in which lie Lake
Torrens and Spencer Gulf. St Vincent Gulf occupies a foundered
area between the Mount Lofty ranges, the Yorke Peninsula and
Kangaroo Island. The south-eastern corner of South Australia is
occupied by the basin of the Lower Murray, which in middle Caino-
zoic times was occupied by a sea, in which was laid down a thick
series of marine sands and limestones. These rocks have yielded a
rich fossil fauna from the cliffs beside the Murray. In the southern
part of this district there is a western continuation of the basaltic
sheets so conspicuous in Victoria. Some of them have been ejected
from volcanoes, of which the vents are still well marked. The best
extinct crater known is Mt Gambler.
The Lake Eyre basin occupies a vast depression to the north of
the South Australian highlands; it is bounded to the west by a line
of ridges and mountains of Archean and Lower Palaeozoic rocks,
which connect the north-western end of the South Australian high-
lands with the mountains on the Archean plateau at the head of the
Macumba and the Finke rivers. The Lake Eyre basin was occupied
in Lower Cretaceous times by a sea, which extended southward from
the Gulf of Carpentaria ; and it appears to have been bounded to the
south by the northern edge of the South Australian highlands.
In this sea were laid down sheets of clays, known as the Rolling
Downs formation. After the retreat of this sea the clays were
covered by the Desert Sandstone, which has been cut up by denuda-
tion into isolated plateaux and tent-shaped hills. On the margin
of the Desert Sandstone in Queensland there are some marine beds
interstratified with the Desert Sandstone, and the fossils fix its age
as Upper Cretaceous. The origin of the Desert Sandstone has
given rise to considerable discussion; but it is no doubt in the main a
terrestrial formation including some lake deposits. The surface
is often converted into a vitreous quartzite by deposition of an
efflorescent chert. Obsidian buttons are scattered over the central
deserts, and have been regarded as of meteoric origin; they have
also been considered proof of local volcanic action, but they have
probably been scattered by the aborigines. Extensive estuarine
deposits of Pliocene or early Pleistocene age, with a rich fauna of
extinct marsupials and birds, occur on the plains to the east of Lake
Eyre.
The Northern Territory includes the mountains of the Macdonnell
Chain, and all the country thence to the northern coast. It consists
of an Archean plateau, covered in places by Cambrian and Ordo-
vician deposits. To the north of the Victoria river and the Roper
494
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
River, the country rises into a high, dissected table-land of Archean
rocks; but round the coast there is a coastal plain including Permo-
Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Cainozoic deposits. The Cretaceous
deposits include ammonites of the varians type and a species of
AitceUa.
The chief mineral product of South Australia is copper, the mines
of which occur in Cambrian limestones along the western edge of
the South Australian highlands at Mopnta, Wallaroo and Burra
Burra. Gold occurs in numerous small mines in the South Australian
highlands; and also in the Western Plateau, as in the Tarcoola
goldfield ; and in the Northern Territory, in the Arltunga goldfield,
at the eastern end of the Macdonnell chain. Gold and tin are
scattered in the Arnheim Peninsula of the Northern Territory; but
hitherto the gold-mines of South Australia have been less important
than those of any other of the Australian states. The only coal
deposits are those formed in lacustrine deposits of Jurassic age, as
at Leigh's Creek, east of Lake Torrens, where they have been
mined.
Most of the geological information regarding South Australia is
scattered in a series of reports, mainly by H. Y. L. IJrown, published
in the parliamentary papers of South Australia. There are also
numerous reports by R. Tate, W. Howchin, &c. in the Trans. R.
Soc. S. Austral. The geology of the Macdonnell range is described
in the reports of the Horn Expedition, and the fauna of Lake Calla-
bonna in Memoirs issued by Stirling and Zeitz, published by the
Royal Society of South Australia. The literature is catalogued in
Gill's Bibliography of South Australia (Adelaide, 1885), and that of
the Lake Eyre basin and its adjacent islands in J. W. Gregory, The
Dead Heart of Australia (1906). The Miocene marine fauna has
been catalogued last by Dennant and Kitson, Records Geol. Survey,
Victoria (1905), No. II. (J. W. G.)
Fauna. South Australia is not separated from the neighbouring
colonies by any natural boundaries; hence the fauna includes
many animals which are also to be found in the land lying to the
east and west. The northern half of the colony lies within the
tropics, and possesses a tropical fauna, which is, however, practically
identical with that of Northern Queensland. In spite of its immense
extent north and south, and a corresponding diversity in climate,
the colony is poorer in animal life than its neighbours. It possesses
thirty-five genera of mammals. These include both genera of the
order Monotremata the Echidna, or spiny ant-eater, and the
Ornithorhynchus, or duck-billed platypus, both of which are found
also in Eastern Australia and Tasmania. The other order of Mam-
malia associated with Australia, the Marsupialia, is well represented
in South Australia. It contains seven genera of Macropodidae or
kangaroos, including the wailaby and kangaroo rat, four genera of
Phalangistidae, or opossums, and five species of Dasyuridae, or
" native cats." Two genera of this family are peculiar to the
region the Chaetocercus and the Antichinomys; the latter is found
in the interior. It is a mouse-like animal with large ears, and is
remarkable for the elongation of its fore-arm and hind-foot and for
the complete absence of the hallux. The Phascolomys, or wombat,
one of the largest of the marsupials, is also found in South Australia,
and the curious Myrmecobius, or ant-eater of Western Australia.
This remarkable animal is about the size of a squirrel ; it possesses
fifty-two teeth (a greater number than any known quadruped), and,
unlike the other members of its order, the female has no pouch, the
young hanging from nipples concealed amongst the hair of her
abdomen. The Choeropus, with peculiarly slender limbs and a
pouch opening backwards, is found in the interior. The remaining
Mammalia consist of the dingo, or native dog, and a few species
of Muridae, the mouse family, and Cheiroptera, or bats. There are
about 700 species of birds, including 60 species of parrots. Of the
9 families peculiar to the Australian region, 5 are well represented,
including the Meliphagidae (honey-suckers), Cacatuidae (cockatoos),
Platycercidae (broad-tailed and grass parakeets), Megapodidae
(mound-makers) and Casuaridae (cassowaries). The last-named
family is represented by the Dromaeus, or emu, which is hunted in
some parts of the colony. Reptiles are fairly represented : there are
fifteen species of poisonous snakes. The lizards are very peculiar;
South and Western Australia contain twelve peculiar genera. No
tailed Amphibia exist in the continent, but frogs and toads are
plentiful.
Flora. The plant species resemble those of the eastern colonies
and Western Australia, but are more limited in variety. The
colony, from its dryness, lacks a number known elsewhere. Enor-
mous areas are almost destitute of forests or of timber trees. The
Eucalyptus family, so valuable for timber and gum as well as for
sanitary reasons, are fairly represented. Acacias are abundant,
the bark of some being an article of commerce. Flinders range
has much of the valuable sugar-gum, Eucalyptus Corynocalyx,
which is being now preserved in forest reserves. Its timber is
very hard and strong, not warping, resisting damp and ants. The
head-flowered stringybark, Euc. capitettata, has a persistent bark.
A sort of stringybark, Euc. tetrodonta, is found in Northern Territory.
The gouty-stem tree (Adansonia) or monkey-bread of the north is a
sort of baobab. About 500 northern plants are Indian. The
Tamarindus indica occurs in Arnhem land, with native rice, rattans
and wild nutmeg. The cedar is of the Indian variety. Pines are
numerous in the south, palms in the north ; among the most beautiful
is the Kentia acuminata. Banksias are very common in sandy
districts. Flowering shrubs are common in the south. There are
130 known grasses in Northern Territory.
Fisheries. Whaling was formerly an important industry about
Encounter Bay, as sealing was in Kangaroo Island. The whales
have migrated and the seals are exterminated. On the northern
side trepang or b&he-de-mer fishery is carried on, and pearl fisheries
have been established. Of fish within colonial waters there are
forty-two peculiar genera. The tropical north has similar fish to
those of north Queensland, while those of southern bays resemble
many of the species of Victoria, Tasmania and New South Wales.
There are the barracouta, bonito, bream, carp, catfish, rock cod
and Murray cod, conger, crayfish, cuttle, dogfish, eel, flatfish, flat-
head, flounder, flying-fish, gadfish, grayling, gurnard, hake, John
Dory, ray, salmon (so-called), schnapper, seahorse, shark, sole,
squid, swordfish, whiting, &c. Though called by English names,
the fish do not always correspond to those in Europe. The Murray
cod is a noble fresh-water fish.
Climate. The climate of South Australia proper is, on the whole,
extremely healthy, and in many respects resembles that of southern
Europe. In the south-eastern corner of the state the spring and
winter seasons are most pleasant, and although the thermometer
occasionally registers high in summer, the heat is dry and much
more endurable than a much lesser heat in a moist climate. In the
interior districts, however, the heat is sometimes very trying to
Europeans. In Northern Territory the climate is of a tropical
character, except on the table-lands where it is comparatively cool.
Observation has determined the area of the state adapted by
reason of seasonal rains to the growth of wheat, and in this area
crops are almost certain; agriculture outside this area is, however,
purely speculative. The average rainfall at Adelaide taken for a
period of 52 years was 21-204 in - -As the rain falls at seasonable
times the quantity is sufficient for cereal cultivation. The maxi-
mum shade temperature recorded at Adelaide Observatory in
1905 was 109-7 the highest for any Australian city; the minimum
was 34-8 and the mean temperature 61-1.
Population. The population of South Australia in 1860 was
124,112, and the province was third in importance among the
states forming the Australasian group. In 1870 the population
stood at 183,797, and in 1880 at 267,573; i n 1890 it was 319,414;
in 1901, 362,604; and at the end of 1905, 378,208. These figures
are inclusive of the population of Northern Territory, the pro-
vince of South Australia, properly so-called, containing 374,398
inhabitants, and Northern Territory, 3810, the respective density
of the two divisions being one person per square mile and one
per 128 sq. m. The estimated population of Adelaide in 1905
was 175,000. The number of males in 1905 was 197,487, and
the females 180,721. The births in the same year were 8868
and the deaths 3804, representing 23-44 and 10-05 per 1000
of population respectively. The birth-rate has declined
greatly.
Dividing the years from 1861 to 1905 into five-yearly groups the
following were the average birth-rates :
Period.
Births per 1000
of Population.
Period.
Births per 1000
of Population.
1861-1865
1866-1870
1871-1875
1876-1880
1881-1885
44-14
40-60
37-24
38-28
38-52
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1900-1905
34-48
31-24
26-59
24-46
Illegitimate births are less frequent in South Australia than elsewhere
in Australia ; in 1905 the proportion of illegitimate to total births was
..-y O/
The death-rate has always been remarkably light, not having
exceeded 13 per 1000 in any year since 1886. The averages for each
quinquennial period from 1861 were as follows:
Period.
Deaths per 1000
of Population.
Period.
Deaths per 1000
of Population.
1861-1865
1866-1870
1871-1875
1876-1880
1881-1885
I5-70
15-01
I5-83
14-90
14-71
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
12-55
12-08
1 1 -93
10-78
The excess of births over deaths in 1905 was 5071 or 13-48 per
1000 of population. The number of marriages celebrated during 1905
was 2599; this represents a marriage-rate of 6-87 per 1000. The
number of divorces and judicial separations during the ten years
closing with 1905 was 72.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
495
The people are mainly of British race; out of 362,604 persons
whose birthplace was ascertained at the census of 1901, 348,352
were of British or Australian parentage, the number born in the
Commonwealth being 289,440, and in South Australia itself
271,671; 9396 were born on the continent of Europe, of whom
6664 were Germans, and 931 Scandinavians and 3253 were
Chinese. The total foreign-born element of the population
numbered only 3-73%.
The census showed the number of breadwinners in the state to
be 153,296 120,328 males and 32,968 females. Agriculture, the
main industry, provided employment for 34,186 persons, of whom
33,039 were males and 1147 females. Pastoral pursuits employed
4193, dairying 2868 and mining 6301. The industrial class may
be divided into (a) persons engaged in manufacturing industries,
18,163 males, 6761 females; (b) persons engaged in the construction
of buildings, railways, roads, &c., numbering 8652 ; and (c) persons
engaged in other industrial pursuits, 7657 these are chiefly persons
whose census description is merely labourer. The commercial
class, including trades of all kinds as well as persons engaged in
finance, numbered 20,165, namely 17,080 males and 3085 females.
The professional class comprised 5372 males and 3485 females, or a
total of 8857 ; while the domestic class comprising persons engaged
in providing board and lodging, hotel and restaurant keepers, as well
as servants numbered 17,981, namely 3452 males and 14,529
females. The foregoing classes show the distribution of employment
amongst the 153,296 breadwinners; the remainder of the population,
comprising 209,308 persons (64,094 males and 145,214 females) were
dependent on the breadwinners.
Administration. South Australia, as one of the states of the
Commonwealth, returns six senators and seven representatives
to the Federal parliament. The local parliament consists of a
Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. The former has
eighteen members, elected by the districts into which the state
is divided for that purpose, the franchise being limited to persons
with freehold or leasehold estate, and to occupiers of dwellings
of 25 annual value; while the Assembly contains 42 members,
elected by 13 districts; the electoral qualifications for the
Assembly are the attainment of the age of 21 years, and having
been upon the electoral roll not less than six months. Women
have the right to vote.
Local Government. Adelaide was the first Australian city to
acquire the right of self-government; on the 3ist of October 1840
the first municipal elections in Australia were held in that city.
There are 33 municipal councils and 142 district councils in the
settled parts of the state, the area under local government being
about 43,000 sq. m. Local rates are assessed upon the assumed
annual value of the properties liable to be rated; and the amount
of such assessed annual value was, in 1905, 2,739,808, and the
capital value 55 millions. The revenue of the various local bodies
in 1905 was 294,723, of which 170,235 was obtained from rates,
30,618 from government endowment and 93,870 from other
sources; 130,489 was spent on public works. The total debt of the
local bodies in that year was 102,261.
Education. The South Australian system of popular education
in its present form dates from 1878. It is compulsory, secular and
free. The compulsory ages are over seven and under thirteen years,
but children who have attained a certain standard of education are
exempt from compulsory attendance. Religious instruction is not
allowed to be given in state schools except out of ordinary school
hours. Secondary instruction is in the hands of private and
denominational establishments, and the university of Adelaide is
well endowed and efficient. The state maintained in 1905 722
schools, with a gross enrolment of 59,026 pupils, and the average
attendance was about 41,807. The sum expended in that year on
public instruction was 181,583, and of that amount 150,000 was
on account of primary instruction. Although education is free, the
instruction department has a small revenue; this in 1905 amounted
to 12,783, of which 6131 was derived from rents, 3630 from the
sale of books and school material, and 682 from fees; the greater
portion of the fees comes from the advanced school for girls, the
remainder being paid by pupils attending classes in agriculture held
in the public schools. The average cost of primary instruction to
the state, including cost of school premises and maintenance, is
about 3, i is. 4jd. per scholar in average attendance. The revenue
of the Adelaide University in 1905 was 21,462, 155. 7d., of which
6639 was obtained from the government, 9845 from fees and
4979 from other sources. The number of students attending
lectures during the same year was 595, of whom 366 had matricu-
lated. Technical education is well advanced; the School of Mines
and Industries, founded in 1899, had in 1905 an enrolment of 1600
students. Private schools numbered 213, with 725 teachers and
10,206 scholars. Of the teachers 559 were engaged in general
instruction, while 166 were specially engaged in particular subjects.
The peculiarity of religion is the strength of the non-Episcopal
churches. The Church of England, which includes over 40% of
the population of the other Australian states, claims only 27 % in
South Australia; and the Roman Catholic Church, whose adherents
number 22% in the other colonies, numbe/s about 14% in South
Australia. The Presbyterian churches have also fewer supporters,
for only 5-5% of the population belong to such churches, compared
with 13% in the 'other colonies. To the Wesleyan churches
19% of the population belong, to the Congregational churches
3-7%, Baptists 5-5% Lutherans 7-5% and other Protestants
about 8 %.
Finance. For the year ending June 1905 the state had a public
revenue of 2,798,849, which is equal to 7, los. 2d. per inhabitant.
This amount includes revenue received by the Commonwealth
government on behalf of the state. The principal sources of public
revenue were: customs duties (balance of amount collected by the
Commonwealth government), 555,692; land, income and other
taxes, 442,030; railways, 1,279,481; public lands, 192,337; other
revenue, 527,843. In 1871 the revenue of the province was
778,000, or 4, 43. 3d. per inhabitant ; from that year it rose rapidly
until in 1881 it stood at 2,172,000, or 7, i6s. lod. per head ; in 1891
it was 2,732,000, or 8, I is. id. per head. The expenditure for the
year ended the 3Oth of June 1905 was as follows: railway working
expenses, 746,636 ; public instruction, i 8 1 ,583 ; interest and charges
of public debt, 1,049,643; other services, 915,261. The debt
charges amount to 2, us. 8d. per head, and absorb 36-28 % of the
total revenue of the state. Against this must be placed the net
return from services upon which the loan moneys were expended;
this amounts to about 746,459, so that the real burden of the
state's debt is reduced to 303,184 per annum. On the 3Oth of June
1905 the public debt of the state stood at 28,727,895, which is
equal to 78, is. id. per head; and the purposes for which the debt
was incurred were : railway construction and equipment, 13,732,567 ;
water supply and sewerage, 4,993,638; telegraphs and telephones,
1,010,738; and other works and services not producing direct
revenue, 8,990,952. These figures include the debt of the Northern
Territory. The amount of the debt at certain periods beginning
with 1861 was:
Year.
Total Debt.
Debt per Head.
1861
1871
1881
1891
1901
1905
866,500
2,167,700
11,196,800
20,347,125
26,423,805
28,727,895
s. d.
6 16 8
ii 13 7
39 2 i
62 9 2
73 2 6
78 i i
Defence. As part of the Commonwealth the defence of South
Australia is undertaken by the Federal government. On the 3lst
of December 1905 the defence force of the state totalled 5066 men,
comprising 1262 partially paid troops, a paid staff of 37 and 3178
riflemen. In addition to the land force there is a corps of 127 men
capable of being employed on local war vessels, or as a light artillery
land force.
Minerals. South Australia, though without coal, was the first
Australian colony to have a metallic mine, and the first to possess
a gold-mine. In 1841 the wheel of a dray, going over a hill near
Adelaide, disclosed to view silver-lead ore. In the midst of the bad
times in 1843 the Kapunda copper-mine was found. In 1845 the
wonderful Burra Burra copper was first wrought. The land,
10,000 acres, cost 10,000; and for several years the dividends
to shareholders were 800% per annum. The first colonial
mineral export was 30 tons of lead ore, value 128, in 1843. The
copper declined as prices fell. It was 322,983 in 1885, when rates
were 5 a ton, but 762,386 ten years before with over 90. In
1886 most of the mines were closed. Between 250 and 400 m.
north of Adelaide a very rich copper district exists. Lead is
very abundant. Manganese, nickel, bismuth, antimony and silver
have been mined. Tin is seen in granitic places. Iron occurs in
almost all formations and in all conditions. There is abundance of
haematite, micaceous, bog and other ores rich in the metal. Talisker
and other mines paid in silver. The wonderful Silverton, of Barrier
Ranges, in a desert, is just outside the boundary, though 300 m. only
from Adelaide while 6op from Sydney. Gold was got from a quartz
vein at the Victoria mine, near Adelaide, as early as 1846, but did
not pay the company. Partial gold working has been conducted
at Echunga, &c., in southern hills. There are rich alluvial and
quartz gold mines in Northern Territory, at from too to 150 m. south
of Port Darwin. For the year 1884 the yield was 77,935. Of 1349
miners 1205 were Chinese. Gold is now worked at Waukaringa,
225 m. north of Adelaide. Copper, tin and silver are found in
Northern Territory. Among other minerals asbestos, roofing
slates and fine marbles may be named. Some forty years, ago
precious stones, especially garnets and sapphires, were gathered in
the Barossa Hills. Carbonaceous material is found at the Coorong,
&c., yielding 50% of oil. Lake Eyre has a rude coal. Kapunda
marble quarry is a success. The great copper mines at Moonta and
496
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Wallaroo are still worked, but the production has greatly fallen off.
In 1900 the value of copper raised in the province was 386,015, and
the gross production to the end of that year amounted to 22,321,969.
The production of copper in 1905 was 470,324. Gold to the value
f 85,555 was won in 1905, being chiefly obtained in Northern
Territory; the total production of gold prior to that year was
2,764,336. The value of minerals other than gold and copper won
during 1905 was 96,672. In 1871 the mineral production of the
state was valued at 725,000, in 1881 at 421,000, in 1891 at 365,000
and in 1905 at 652,551.
Land System. The aggregate area of South Australia, exclusive
of the Northern Territory, is computed to be 380,070 sq. m., or
243,244,800 acres. About 136,828 sq. m., or a little more than one-
third, represent the limits within which the country is at present
occupied. The 46 counties proclaimed to date embrace an area of
80,453 so,, m. or 51,489,920 acres, of which 7,955,305 acres are
purchased, 365,526 acres are partly purchased and 121,735 acres
have been granted for public purposes, making the total area
alienated, wholly or conditionally, 8,442,566 acres; 176,537 acres
are set apart, but not granted, for forest purposes, and 42,870,817
acres are still in possession of the Crown but occupied under various
kinds of tenure, chiefly for pastoral purposes. In addition to the
land alienated, there are 17,104,062 acres held direct from the Crown
by 19,511 lessees for farming or grazing purposes. Outside the
counties are 299,617 sq. m. or 191,754,880 acres, of which 1105
acres are purchased, 23 granted for public purposes, 76,570,750
held by 497 lessees as sheep or cattle runs, leaving 115,184,130 acres
open for pastoral settlement, if suitable.
Agriculture. South Australia is essentially an agricultural state.
In its first establishment the land was cut up for sale into eighty-acre
lots with the view of settling the people on arrival, and concentrating
them, instead of having them scattered as in the neighbouring
colonies, in which pastoral pursuits completely dwarfed the farming
industry. This wise provision made the colony for years the supplier
of breadstuffs to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Auckland.
As neighbours became wheat-producers, Adelaide merchants had to
seek markets in Natal, Mauritius, the Cape, or even Europe. At all
times the state has lent every assistance to agriculture. As the
colony suffers more from drought than anything else, public reser-
voirs are constructed and artesian wells are sunk. Forest culture
has especially attracted government attention. Reforesting and
the establishment of nurseries for the trees, fruits and vegetables of
other lands go hand in hand. Hundreds of thousands of trees are
planted annually.
The chief industry is wheat-growing; out of 3,342,626 acres under
cultivation in 1905, 1,757,036 acres were under wheat for grain and
317,924 under wheat for hay. In some parts of South Australia
fine yields are obtained ; but taking it as a whole, the yield of the
province is light. During the ten years 1891-1900 the return per
acre varied from a minimum of 1-7 bushels in 1897 to a maximum of
6-1 bushels in 1893. South Australian wheat is of excellent quality
and strength, and well known in European markets, to which the
province has sent wheat since 1850. There has been little expansion
of wheat cultivation since 1880; nor, indeed, has there been any
material expansion in the total area under crop. Up to the year
mentioned, every season showed an additional area devoted to culti-
vation ; but repeated failure of crops, due to want of seasonable rain,
have disheartened farmers, and much land that was formerly culti-
vated now lies fallow; 1,087,057 acres were fallow in 1905. The
following is a statement of the area of wheat harvested for grain at
specified intervals from 1861 :
Year.
Acreage under
Wheat.
Production.
Average Yield
per Acre.
Acres.
Bushels.
Bushels.
1861
310,636
3,410,756
II-O
1871
692,508
3-967,079
5-7
1881
1,768,781
8,087,032
4-6
1891
1.552,423
6,436,488
5-6
1899
1,778,770
8,778,900
4-9
1900
1,821,137
8,453,135
4-6
1901
1,913,247
11,253,148
5-9
1905
1,757,036
20,143,798
11-46
The total area under crop during the same period was: 1861, 400,717
acres; 1871, 837,730 acres; 1881, 2,156,407 acres; 1891,1,927,689
acres; 1901, 2,369,680 acres. In 1905 other leading crops grown
with this acreage were: oats, 56,950 acres; barley, 26,250 acres;
potatoes, 9540 acres; vines, 23,603 acres; other crops, 30,532 acres.
In viticulture the province has made considerable progress, and
many Germans are employed in the industry. The production of
wine for the year 1905 amounted to 2,845,853 gallons, while 16,714
cwt. of currants and 8697 cwt. of raisins were also made. The wine
msftle is of excellent quality, and 718,660 gallons, of a total produc-
tion of 2,845,853 gallons, were exported in 1905, principally to
London.
The production of wool has been one of the chief industries since
the foundation of the state, but of late years it has been much affected
by droughts and low prices, so that the export of locally-grown wool
in 1901 was considerably less in quantity than in 1880, and little
more than half as valuable. In 1861 the colony carried 3,038,000
sheep; in 1871, 4,412,000; in 1881, 6,811,000; in 1891, 7,745,000;
in 1900, 5,283,247; and in 1905, 6,202,330. The quantity of wool
exported in the year last named was equal to 45,214,766 u>, valued
at 1,668,214. As a cattle-breeding country South Australia does
not take a prominent place beside the three eastern states of Aus-
tralia. The province depastured, in 1905, 647,631 cattle as against
520,379 in 1904, 347,666 being in Northern Territory. In 1891 the
number was 677,000, and 1881, 315,000. !t was between 1881 and
1891 that Northern Territory was stocked. The horses in South
Australia number about 216,350; the number in 1881 was 159,678.
Although there are some 30,000 persons engaged in one form or
other of manufacturing, only 18,664 are accounted for in the annual
statistics of the state; these hands are employed in 1339 establish-
ments. The horse-power employed in the manufactories is 11,756,
the value of the plant being estimated at 1,730,000.
Commerce. The tonnage of shipping entering the ports in 1905
was 2,625,997, which is equal to upwards of 6 tons per inhabitant, a
very considerable ratio compared with most countries; but this
tonnage is quite beyond the requirements of the province, whose
trade represents only about 750,000 tons per annum, and is due to
the fact that Adelaide is a place of call for all the great lines of
steamships trading between Europe and Australia ; but when every
allowance is made, it will be found that Adelaide is a great shipping
centre and the third port of Australasia. The tonnage entering at
Adelaide during 1905 was 2,106,854; at Port Pirie, 226,903; at
Wallaroo, 105,228; and at Port Darwin, 116,981. The value of the
total imports was 8,439,609, and the total exports 9,490,667. The
ports command the greater part of the trade of the Broken Hill
and trans-Darling districts of New South Wales, and this trade is
very valuable both to the merchants and the railways of the province.
The trade at the periods specified was:
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
Total Trade.
Exports
of Domestic
Produce.
1861
1871
1881
1891
1899
1900
1905
1,976,018
2,158,022
5-320,549
10,051,123
6,884,358
8,131,782
8,439,609
2,032,311
3-582,397
4,508,754
10,642,416
8,388,396
8,122,100
9,490,667
4,008,329
5,740,419
9,829,303
20,693-539
15-272,754
16,253,882
17,930,276
1,838,639
3,289,861
3,755-781
4,810,512
3,945,045
3-770,983
6,031,619
The great expansion following 1881 was due to the opening up of
trade with the western districts of New South Wales. The exports
of domestic produce, the value of which is given in the last column,
when compared with the other figures in the table, show how greatly
the province depends upon its re-export trade. The chief items of
trade are breadstuffs, wool and minerals; the export of breadstuffs
is very variable, depending so largely upon the rainfall, which in
South Australia is extremely uncertain. In 1884 the value of
wheat and flour exported was 2,491,896, falling to 633,426 in
1886, and rising again to 2,197,735 in 1888. Since the year last
named there have been great fluctuations; in 1898 the export fell
to 261,898; in 1899 it was 785,341; in 1900, 837,642; in 1901,
1,329,059; in 1904, 1,649,414; and in 1905, 1,877,318.
Railways. The first railway was opened in 1856, and connected
Adelaide with its port, and the following year saw a line constructed
to Gawler, 25 m. from Adelaide. The inability of the government
to borrow money at reasonable rates greatly retarded the construc-
tion of railways in the province, and in 1875 there were less than
200 m. of line: in the next ten years 800 m. were opened for traffic,
and in 1905 there were 1746 m. in the state proper and 146 m. in
Northern Territory. There were, in addition, 34 m. of privately
owned lines. The cost of constructing and equipping the state lines
stood at 14,766,465 and the net earnings at 538,890 ; this represents
3-64% on the capital invested. The actual interest paid by the
state upon its outstanding loans was in the same year 3-79%:
there was therefore a loss of 0-15% upon the working of the lines;
but the state claims that the indirect benefits of railway construction
far more than compensate for the direct loss. The gross earnings
for the year 1905 were 1,318,521, and the working expenses
756,403 ; the net profit per average mile open being 297, and per
train mile 34-68 pence. In 1905 the number of passengers carried
was 9,870,821, and the goods tonnage 1,684,793. South Australia
has two gauges, namely 508 m. of 5 ft. 3 in., and 1384 m. of 3 ft. 6 in.
line. The line joining Adelaide with the Victorian border, as well
as several of the trunk lines, is on the wider gauge.
Posts and Telegraphs. In 1905 there were 711 post-offices in the
state of which 299 were also telegraph stations. The business
transacted was: letters and postcards transmitted, 26,230,337;
newspapers, 6,717,787; packets, 1,659,775; and telegrams, 1,244,126.
The total revenue from these services for the year 1905 was 274,892,
and the expenditure 259,656; in these sums are included the
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
497
*elephone revenue and expenditure, the former amounting to 25,815.
These sums are exclusive of revenue received by the Commonwealth
government. The use of telephones in Adelaide is rapidly extending;
in 1905 there were eleven exchanges and 2284 telephones in actual
use. There were 6092 m. of telegraph line in operation in that year;
the state owns the principal overland line by which communication
with Europe and the East is maintained.
Banking. The assets of all the banks of issue trading in South
Australia at the end of December 1905 amounted to 7,425,775,
and the liabilities to 7,623,060; these latter comprised deposits
at call and at interest, 6,866,281; notes and bills in circulation,
381,573; and other liabilities 52,929. Among the assets were coin
and bullion 1,861,691. The South Australian people are very thrifty,
and thirty-one in every hundred have accounts with the savings
banks. On the 3Oth of June 1905 the depositors numbered 126,821,
the amount of their credit being 4,380,358, a sum equal to
34, los. gd. per depositor. Taking deposits in banks of issue and in
savings banks together, the total was 11,186,639, which is equal to
29, I2s. 4d. per inhabitant.
AUTHORITIES. E. G. Blackmore, The Law of the Constitution of
South Australia (Adelaide, 1894); H. Y. L. Brown, A Record of the
Mines of South Australia (Adelaide, 1890); John Ednie Brown, A
Practical Treatise on Tree Culture in South Australia (Adelaide, 1881) ;
J. F. Conigrave, South Australia: A Sketch of its History and
Resources. A Handbook compiled for the Colonial and Indian
Exhibition in London, 1886 (Adelaide, 1886); B. T. Finniss, The
Constitutional History of South Australia, 1836-1857 (London, 1886) ;
R. Gouger, The Founding of South Australia, edited by E. Hpdder
(London, 1898); William Harcus, South Australia: Its History,
Resources, Productions and Statistics (London, 1876); Edwin Hodder,
The History of South Australia, with maps (2 vols. 8vo., London,
1893); S. Newland, The Far North Country (Adelaide, 1887); South
Australian Year Book (1904-1905); T. A. Coghlan, Australia and
New Zealand (1903-1904). (T. A. C.)
History. Though the coast of Northern Territory was well
known to Portuguese and Spanish navigators as early as perhaps
1530, being called Great Java, it was not surveyed till 1644, when
Tasman laid down the line of shore pretty accurately. The
western part of the southern coast had been seen and named
Nuyt's Land in 1627. But Flinders, by his discovery of the two
great gulfs, Kangaroo Island and Encounter Bay, in 1802,
was the first to reveal South Australia proper. Captain Sturt
descended the Murray in 1830, and looked over the hills near
Adelaide. The first to direct attention to a settlement there was
Major Baron, who communicated with the colonial office in
February 1831. His suggestion was to establish, at no charge
to the British government, a private company, that should
settle a party on Yorke Peninsula. He believed a large river
entered Spencer Gulf. In August Colonel Torrens and others
proposed to purchase land between 132 and 141 500,060 acres
at 55. an acre. Some were in favour of Spencer Gulf, others of
Kangaroo Island, and a few for the mainland towards the Murray.
Memorialists in 1832 sought a charter for the South Australian
Association, giving extensive powers of self-government. Land
sales were to pay the passages of free labour, chiefly young
married people, and no convicts were ever to be sent thither.
Lord Goderich did not favour the scheme, and thought a colony
with free institutions might prejudice the interests of New South
Wales, while free trade would interfere with the English navi-
gation laws. After much negotiation, the English authorities
regarded the scheme more favourably, but would not consent
to give the company the powers they sought. The company
receded in their demands, and offered security for the proper
observance of law and order, while depositing cash for the
purchase of land. Captain Sturt in 1834 informed the colonial
secretary that Spencer Gulf and Kangaroo Island were objec-
tionable, but that the eastern side of St Vincent Gulf was
the best locality. In 1835 the ministry got an act passed for the
erection of a colony under commissioners appointed by the
Crown, who would be responsible for their acts to the British
government. It was arranged that a local government should
be established when the settlement had 50,000 people. Mr
George Fife Angas advanced a large sum as security to the
state. Though the first settlers were sent to Kangaroo Island,
all were afterwards gathered on the Adelaide plains. The
colony was proclaimed under a gum tree on the a8th of
December, 1836. Great delay took place in the survey of land.
The South Australian Company purchased large tracts from
the commissioners at 125. per acre and sold at zos. A general
speculative spirit arrested progress. Governor Gawler went into
extravagant outlay on public buildings, &c., and drew against
orders upon the English treasury. Such difficulties arose that
the British rulers had to suspend the charter in 1841 and make
South Australia a Crown colony. A revival of prosperity took
place when the farms were tilled and poverty had taught pru-
dence. Copper and lead mines were subsequently discovered.
Kapunda in 1843, and the Burra Burra copper-mine in 1845,
greatly aided in the restoration of commercial credit. The gold
fever in Victoria drew off numbers in 1852; but the good prices
then realized for breadstuffs gave a great impetus to farming.
In 1856 the colony was given its own constitution and self-
government. On the attainment of autonomy Governor
MacDonnell, in closing the last session of the then partially
nominated legislature, made use of the following words:
" I confidently expect that the extended political power en-
trusted to the people of this country, and the universal suffrage
conceded by the new constitution, will prove in reality a safe
and conservative measure; and whilst conferring the utmost
possible power of self-government, will render stronger and
more enduring than ever the cherished ties of affection and
loyalty which link this province to the throne of our respected
and beloved sovereign." This prediction appears to have been
amply verified: South Australia enjoys the reputation of being
one of the most progressive and at the same time one of the most
stable of existing communities. From its origin as the venture
of private enterprise the state has passed through orderly
stages of evolution up to the zenith of democratic government.
Such alterations as have been made in the constitution have been
in the direction of a still further enlargement of the franchise.
Payment of members proved to be the corollary of manhood
suffrage. In 1887 a temporary act was passed for the payment
of 200 a year to each member of both houses, and in 1800
the law was made permanent. Thus was rendered possible
the direct representation of all classes. Soon afterwards the
parliamentary Labour party came into existence; this forms
a considerable proportion of the membership of both houses,
and includes in its ranks men of the highest intelligence, in-
dustry and eloquence. In 1894 the principle of " one man one
vote " was extended to that of " one adult one vote " by the
inclusion of women as voters on terms of absolute equality
with men. There is no bar to the election of women to parlia-
ment whenever the electors think fit to be so represented.
The delegates to the Federal convention and to the Common-
wealth parliament were in South Australia elected by the
combined vote of men and women. Elections were formerly
held in successive batches, but since 1893 they have taken place
simultaneously in all the districts. Electoral expenses are
rigidly limited, both as to objects and amount, and a declaration
of money thus expended has to be filed by every candidate.
Experience has demonstrated that, owing to the intrusion of the
personal element, general elections have often failed to afford
conclusive evidence of the state of the popular will. Attention
was therefore directed towards the referendum as a means of
obtaining an unquestionable verdict on important public issues,
although no general statute was formulated on the subject.
In 1896, at the general elections, the following questions were
submitted to the electors: " Do you favour (i) the continuance
of the present system of education in the state schools? (2) the
introduction of scriptural instruction in the state schools during
school hours? (3) the payment of a capitation grant to denomi-
national schools for secular results ? " An overwhelming
majority pronounced in favour of (i) and against (2) and (3).
Again, in 1899, a direct vote was similarly taken on the question
of household franchise for the legislative council. Undoubtedly
the practical application of the referendum in South Australia
facilitated the adoption of this principle in the ratification and
in the method of amendment of the Commonwealth constitu-
tion. The right of the Second Chamber to suggest amendments
to bills which it has not power to amend was borrowed by the
Commonwealth from the constitution of South Australia, as
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
c
/ 'rf"
*'
also was the idea of a simultaneous dissolution of both houses
as a means of overcoming possible deadlocks between the
chambers. As one among many improvements in parliamentary
procedure may be mentioned the practice of permitting bills
lapsed owing to prorogation to be replaced on the notice paper
in the ensuing session by motion without debate.
In partially settled countries such as South Australia the Crown
lands policy rivals finance in engrossing the attention of the legisla-
ture, but as time goes on the relative importance of
these subjects vanes in inverse ratio. The earlier
budgets, compared with those of later years, when
the country had become more fully developed, might be said
to resemble the finances of the nursery, whereas the initial alien-
ations of land, comprising the most central and most valuable
blocks, necessarily surpassed later transactions in significance.
Many phases of public opinion as to the method of disposing of the
Crown lands have been witnessed. A general review indicates
clearly that the change has been uniformly in the direction of
removing impediments and increasing facilities for the settlement
of the people, either as freeholders or as state tenants, on the land.
Under the auction system the land was allotted to the highest bidder,
with the result that the payment of the purchase-money frequently
exhausted the resources of the settler, and subsequent relief had to be
afforded by relaxation of the conditions of the agreement to purchase.
Eventually land boards were created to allot selections to applicants
at low rates and deferred purchase. Perpetual leases are now
taking the place of absolute alienation. The tenure is equally good
for all purposes of the bona-fide settler, and capital which would
otherwise be sunk in acquiring the freehold is set free for making
improvements, purchasing machinery and the manifold requirements
of efficient husbandry. Small blocks of 20 acres, or not exceeding
100 of unimproved value, can be obtained by working men in the
vicinity of towns, thus on the one hand affording the necessary
supply of agricultural labour during the busy seasons, and on the
other hand providing a homestead which the holder can with advan-
tage cultivate at slack times when unemployed. Provision was
made, under the Closer Settlement Act of 1897, for the repurchase of
large estates for agricultural purposes; these lands are leased to
farmers at an average rent of about 4} % on the value. The industry
of wheat-growing has received an impetus through the system of
drilling in a small quantity of phospnatic manure with the seed.
By this means exhausted lands have been restored almost to primi-
tive fertility. Vine-growing has now become one of the staple
industries, and, owing to stringent precautions, the state remains
free from the scourge of phylloxera. The great bulk of
Agriculture the unalienated land of South Australia is held in huge
and Water, areas by Crown tenants, known as squatters, under
pastoral leases, which now have a currency of 42 years,
with security of tenure. In 1893, when the unemployed were very
numerous, the government established co-operative village settle-
ments on tracts of land adjoining the river Murray. Seven of these
are now in existence as irrigation colonies. The water is raised from
the river by rotary pumps, and distributed by means of channels,
after the plan adopted at Renmark. By the application of water
to the adjacent sun-steeped soil miles of worthless mallee scrub
have been converted into vistas of vineyards, orange groves and
orchards. The paramount importance of water-supply and con-
servation has received ever-increasing recognition. The Beetaloo
reservoir has a capacity of 800,000,000 gallons, and from its 695 m.
of trunk mains a district of over 1,000,000 acres is reticulated.
The supply of Adelaide and its vicinity has been reinforced by a
reservoir at Happy Valley, having a contour of about 7i m. at high-
water mark, and containing 2,950,000,000 gallons. The reservoir
was formed by the construction of an earthen embankment 2645 ft.
long and 72 ft. high ; this is filled from the Onkaparinga river through
half a mile of steel main, 6 ft. in diameter, and 3j m. of tunnel.
Works on a large scale have also been constructed at Bundaleer
and Barossa. The custom for many years past has been to construct
these and other great public works departmentally instead of by
contract. Many artesian wells have been sunk on the routes for
travelling stock in the interior. The bores of some of these exceed
3000 ft. in depth, and the supply varies from 200,000 to 1,000,000
gallons a day. Around some of these wells in the far north planta-
tions of date-palms have yielded excellent results.
South Australia was founded when the tide of the laissez-faire
regime was running high, and a patriotic bias in the customs tariff
was regarded as an unwarrantable restriction; it is therefore not
surprising that free trade should at the outset have received many
adherents. There were not wanting, however, some who saw clearly
that a country almost entirely occupied in primary production
would prove but a barren field for the cultivation of the many-sided
activity necessary to a complete national life. It was also main-
tained that if inducements were given to capital to embark in home
industries, a cheapening of the product, due to approximation of
supply and demand, would ensue. In accordance with these views,
a protective tariff was adopted in 1885. Two years later the duties
were increased and extended. The establishment of manufactures
and new industries opened a career for youths of inventive and
mechanical aptitude, and in several instances the predicted reduction
in price of the protected article has been strikingly manifested.
One of the most notable developments in public policy consisted
in the extension of the sphere of the state so as to embrace activities
formerly considered to be solely within the province
of private enterprise. Railways from the outset have Government
been government undertakings, so also have been Enterprise.
waterworks of any degree of magnitude; telegraphs
and telephones, taken over by the Commonwealth, have always
been regarded as state monopolies. A public trustee undertakes,
when desired, the administration of estates. In 1895 a state bank
was established to provide farmers with the necessary working
capital at lowest current rates of interest. A state produce d^pdt
was also organized at the same time to assist farmers in placing
their produce to the best advantage on the world's markets.
Produce is received by the department of agriculture, prepared for
shipment, certified as to quality, and graded. Small parcels from
a number of producers are grouped together in one consignment and
shipped at the lowest rates. The government of South Australia
also undertakes, if so desired, to act as agent in London for the con-
signor, and to arrange for the sale of his produce; so that a farmer
who has no representative at the port of destination, but is desirous
of ascertaining whether a profitable trade can be established in any
class of produce, has only to send the goods to the dp6t, and await
the arrival of a cheque when the sales accounts come to hand. An
advance amounting to three-fifths of the value of the produce at
5 % is made if desired. Wine shipped through the produce d6p6t is
analysed and examined in bulk by government experts, and if found
to be both sound and pure is sent to_ the bonded cJjSp&t in London
with a certificate to that effect : this is recorded on the label of the
bottles in which it is retailed, under the name of the " Orion " brand.
Cyanide works have been erected in various centres for treating ore
raised by miners working in the neighbourhood. State smelters
for copper ore have been built at Port Augusta, but are not now in
operation. There is a Factory Act permitting the establishment of
wages boards, and also legislation providing for a weekly half-
holiday and the early closing of shops. A compulsory Conciliation
Act deals with the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes.
The Right Hon. C. C. Kingston was the pioneer in Australasia of
legislation of this description. These measures were at first
denounced by some as Socialistic, and were regarded by many as an
undue interference with private enterprise. Some of the state aids
were, however, speedily recognized as affording additional incentives
to industry, and by enabling producers and workers to obtain a
better return for their labour may fairly be held to have assisted
rather than to have retarded private enterprise. In 1893 a bonus
on butter exported to the world's markets was successful in bringing
into existence a fully equipped export trade. Public opinion in
South Australia has little tolerance with laxity. Children are pre-
vented from selling articles in the streets after 8 p.m., and are not
allowed to fetch beer from public-houses. The age of consent has
been raised to 17 years. The notification by medical men of cases
of pulmonary tuberculosis to the local authorities is compulsory.
No pains have been spared to keep pace with modern improve-
ments in popular education as an indispensable feature in democracy.
South Australia holds in reverent and loving memory crf uca // n
the name of John Anderson Hartley, the originator of
the state school system, who died in 1896, and to whose character
as a man and genius as an organizer the schools of South Australia
will remain as a perennial monument. School fees for children
under the compulsory age of 13 were abolished in 1891, and in
1898 the older children were also admitted free. Students in
training have now the advantage of a two-years' course at the
university. Technical education has received much attention. A
foundation was long ago laid in the primary schools by the inclu-
sion of drawing as a compulsory subject, and by affording facilities
for manual training. In 1889 the South Australian School of
Mines and Industries was established, and under the presidency
of Sir Langdon Bonython proved a most valuable institution.
Other technical schools are in operation in industrial and mining
centres. A reserve of 2 acres is attached to all new country
schools, and systematic lessons in practical agriculture are given
by many teachers. In order to encourage tree-planting, a yearly
school holiday devoted to this purpose, and known as Arbor Day^
was established in 1886. With a similar object the state has dis-
tributed, free of charge, 5,000,000 forest trees to 21,000 persons.'
Over 1,250,000 vines have also been given away. The boys' field
club (1887), with the motto " The Naturalist loves Life," under
the direction of Mr W. C. Grasby, was one of the pioneers of Nature-
study'. A state secondary school for girls has been for many years
self-supporting, and in 1897 secondary agricultural schools for
boys were organized in Adelaide and other centres. Half the school
hours of each day are spent in the class-room, the remainder being
devoted to workshop, field and laboratory practice. An agri-
cultural college at Roseworthy, 25 m. north of Adelaide, imparts
a high-class theoretical and practical training in the various branches
of agriculture, including viticulture and wine-making. The fee
charged is 30 a year, includingjioard and lodging. Information
SOUTH BEND SOUTH CAROLINA
499
as to practical and scientific husbandry is disseminated among the
farmers by means of an agricultural bureau, with numerous branches
throughout the country. A journal is published conjointly by the
departments of agriculture and industry, containing reports of
the proceedings of the bureaus and articles by government experts,
together with industrial topics and matters of interest to artisans,
and also particulars furnished by the labour bureau as to prospects
of employment in various districts. (J. A. Co.)
SOUTH BEND, a city and the county-seat of St Joseph
county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the head of navigation and on the
southern bend (hence the name) of the St Joseph river of Michigan,
and (by rail) 86 m. E. by S. of Chicago. Pop. (IQOO), 35,999,
of whom 8601 were foreign-born (including 3053 Poles and
2402 Germans); (1910, census), 53,684. Land area (1906),
6-2 sq. m. It is served by the Grand Trunk, the Lake Shore
& Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central, the New Jersey
Indiana & Illinois, the Chicago, Indiana & Southern, and
the Vandalia railways, and by four inter-urban electric lines.
Among the principal buildings are the city-hall, the county
court-house, the public library, and the Oliver Hotel. In
Notre Dame, a suburb, are St Mary's College and Academy
(Roman Catholic, chartered 1855) for girls, and the university
of Notre Dame du Lac (Roman Catholic, first opened in
1842, and chartered in 1844). In 1910 the university had 87
instructors, 1005 students, and a library of 60,000 volumes.
It is the headquarters of the order of the Holy Cross, whose
sisters have charge of St Mary's College and Academy. South
Bend ranked fourth among the manufacturing cities of the
state in 1905. Its industrial establishments include carriage
and wagon works (those of the Studebaker Bros. Manufacturing
Company being the largest in the world), plough and agricul-
tural machine works the Oliver Chilled Plow Works, founded
by James Oliver (1823-1909), being particularly well known
the wood-working department of the Singer Sewing Machine
Company, iron and steel foundries, flour-mills, and paper and
pulp mills. The water-supply is obtained from 122 artesian
wells, with a daily capacity of about 24,000,000 gallons. South
Bend was the site of an Indian village and of a French trading
post. It was settled about 1820, laid out about 1831 (when it
became the county-seat of St Joseph county), incorporated
as a village in 1835, and chartered as a city in 1865.
SOUTH BETHLEHEM, a borough of Northampton county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Lehigh river, about 57 m. N.W.
of Philadelphia, and opposite Bethlehem, with which it is con-
nected by bridges.. Pop. (1900), 13,241, of whom 3322 were
foreign-born and 115 were negroes; (1910 census), 19,973.
It is served by the Lehigh Valley, the Philadelphia & Reading,
the Central of New Jersey and the Lehigh & New England
railways. The borough is the seat of Lehigh University.
This institution was founded in 1865 by Asa Packer, who then
gave $500,000 and 60 acres (afterwards increased to 115 acres)
of land in the borough, and by his will left to the university
library $500,000, and to the university an endowment of
$1,500,000 and a large interest (about one-third) in his estate.
The university was chartered in 1866; it embraces a school of
technology, with courses in civil, mechanical, metallurgical,
mining, electrical and chemical engineering, electrometallurgy
and chemistry, and a school of general literature (1878), with
classical and Latin-scientific courses. In 1908-1909 it had 68
instructors, 1720 students, and a library of 127,000 volumes.
The principal buildings of the university are Packer Hall (1869),
largely taken up by the department of civil engineering, the
chemical and metallurgical laboratory, the physical and elec-
trical engineering laboratory, the steam engineering laboratory,
Williams Hall for mechanical engineering, &c., Saucon Hall for the
English department, Christmas Hall, with drawing-rooms and
the offices of the Y.M.C.A., the Sayre astronomical observatory,
the Packer Memorial Church, the university library (1897),
dormitories (1907) given by Andrew Carnegie, Drown Memorial
Hall, a students' club, the college commons, and a gymnasium.
South Bethlehem is the see of a Protestant Episcopal
bishop. The Bethlehem Steel Company manufactures here iron
and steel, including Bessemer steels, armour plate, steel rails,
government ordnance, drop forgings, iron and steel castings,
stationary engines, gas engines, hydraulic pumps, projectiles,
steel shaft and pig iron; zinc is smelted and refined; and
there are large hosiery and knitting mills, and silk mills and
cigar factories. The total value of the borough's factory
products increased from $9,964,054 in 1900 to $15,275,411 in
1905, or 53-3%.
In 1846 a water-cure was established where St Luke's
hospital now stands, in the adjoining borough of Fountain
Hill (pop. in 1900, 1214), and for a few years this attracted
a considerable number of visitors during the summer season.
In 1853 works were established for the manufacture of white
oxide of zinc from a calamine iound here, in the next year
metallic zinc was produced, and in 1865 the first sheet zinc
made in America was rolled here. The borough was incor-
porated in 1865.
SOUTHBRIDGE, a township of Worcester county, Massachu-
setts, U.S.A., on the Quinabaug river (which here falls 165 ft.),
about 20 m. S.S.W. of Worcester. Pop. (1900), 10,025, of
whom 3468 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 12,592.
Area, about 20 sq. m. The township is served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by inter-urban
(electric) lines to Worcester and Springfield. The Southbridge
public library (1870) contained 22,000 volumes in 1910. Optical
goods, cotton, woollen and print goods, cutlery and shuttles
are the principal manufactures; in 1905 the value of the total
factory product was $4,201,853. The factory of the American
Optical Company here is probably the largest of its kind in
the world.
In 1801 a poll parish, named the Second Religious Society
of Charlton, and popularly called Honest Town, was formed
from the west part of Dudley, the south-west part of Charlton
and the south-east part of Sturbridge; and in 1816 this parish
became the township of Southbridge.
See the Leaflets published (1901 sqq.) by the Quinabaug Historical
Society of Southbridge.
SOUTH CAROLINA, a South Atlantic state of the United
States of America, and one of the original thirteen, lying be-
tween latitudes 32 2' and 35 17' N. and between longitudes
78 30' and 83 20' W. It is bounded N. by North Carolina,
E. by North Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, S.E. by the
Atlantic Ocean, S.W. and W. by the Savannah, Tugaloo and
Chattooga rivers, which separate it from Georgia. Its total
area is 30,989 sq. m., and of this 494 sq. m. are water surface.
Surface Features. South Carolina is mainly in the Coastal Plain
and Piedmont Plateau regions, but in the north-west it extends
slightly into the Appalachian Mountain region. Locally the
Coastal Plain region is known as the low country, and the Pied-
mont Plateau and Appalachian Mountain regions are known as
the up-country. The coast, about 200 m. in length, is generally
low. For 60 m. south-west of the North Carolina border it is un-
broken and lined with a smooth, hard beach of light-coloured sand,
but below this it becomes increasingly broken by estuaries and is
lined with flat and low sea-islands that increase in size and number
toward the Georgia border. For about 10 m. back from the coast
the Coastal Plain region is occupied very largely by salt marshes.
Then, although still continuing flat, the surface rises at the rate of
about 2j ft. per mile for 40 m. or more; beyond this it rises more
rapidly, reaches a maximum elevation in Lexington county of
about 700 ft. above the sea, and becomes increasingly broken into
rolling plateaus and deep valleys to the Fall Line, which marks the
boundary between the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Plateau.
This line, at which the south-east flowing rivers fall from higher
levels in the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont Plateau down to
somewhat lower levels in the softer rocks of the Coastal Plain,
passes in a general south-west direction from the North Carolina
border north-east of Cheraw through Camden and Columbia to the
Savannah river opposite Augusta, Georgia. The Piedmont Plateau
region, rising gradually from an elevation of about 500 ft. along
the Fall Line to ropo ft. or more in the north-west, is a plateau
broken into undulating ridges and deeply cut valleys. In the small
section of South Carolina which is traversed by the Appalachian
Mountain region a few mountains of the Blue Ridge rise abruptly
from the foot-hills to 3413 ft. in Mt Pinnacle, 3218 ft. in Caesars
Head, and 3157 ft. in Table Rock. The highest point in the state
is Sassafras Mountain (3548 ft.) in the Blue Ridge and on the North
Carolina state line. The mean elevation of the entire state is about
350 ft. The principal rivers rise in the Appalachian Mountains
500
SOUTH CAROLINA
and flow south-east into the Atlantic Ocean. In the middle section
the Santee river is formed by the confluence of the Wateree, which
is known in North Carolina as the Catawba, and the Congaree,
which is in turn formed by the Broad and the Saluda, and the basin
of this system embraces about one-half the area of the state. In the
north-east the Great Pedee and its tributaries the Little Pedee,
Waccamaw and Lynches are wholly within the Coastal Plain, but
the main stream is a continuation below the Fall Line of the Yadkin
river, which rises in the mountains of North Carolina. On the
Georgia border the Chattooga river, rising in the Blue Ridge,
becomes tributary to the Tugaloo, which in turn becomes tributary
to the Savannah. The Combahee and the Edisto, in the south-
east, and the Black, north of the Santee, are the principal rivers
that rise within the Coastal Plain and flow direct to the ocean.
In the Piedmont Plateau region the current of the rivers is usually
swift, and not infrequently there are falls or rapids; but in the
Coastal Plain region the current becomes sluggish, and in times
of high water the rivers spread over wide areas.
Fauna. The principal animals and birds in South Carolina are
deer, rabbits, squirrels, opossums, musk-rats, raccoons, minks,
geese, ducks, wild turkeys, " partridge " (quail or bobwhite),
woodcock and snipe. Foxes, bears, wolves, lynx (wild cats) and
otters are very rare, and pumas (panthers) and beavers long
ago disappeared. Common among birds of prey are owls, hawks
and kites, and there are many turkey buzzards. Song birds are
numerous and of many varieties; among them are thrushes, mocking
birds, blue birds, robins, wrens, chickadees, warblers, vireos,
sparrows, bobolinks (reed birds or rice birds), meadow larks
and orioles. In the bays and lower courses of the rivers are por-
poises, whiting, sea bass, channel bass, shad, sturgeon, mullet,
drum, bluefish, snappers, sheepshead, weakfish or squeteague,
groupers, and several other kinds of fish. Oysters, crabs, shrimp and
terrapins are also abundant here, and in the inland streams are
some pike, perch, trout and catfish.
Flora. From the number of palmettoes along the coast South
Carolina has become popularly known as the Palmetto state.
Scarcely less conspicuous for some distance from the ocean are the
magnolias, the live oaks draped with long gray moss, and the reed-
covered marshes. In the swamps there are cypresses and some
gum and bay trees. In most of the uplands of the Coastal Plain
region the long-leaf pine is predominant, but large water-oaks
and undergrowths of several other oaks and of hickories are not
uncommon. On the Piedmont Plateau and in some of the more
hilly and heavy-soil sections below the Fall Line there is some
short-leaf pine, but most of the trees in these sections are of the
hardwood varieties: deciduous oaks are most common, but beech,
birch, ash, maple, black walnut, chestnut, sycamore and tulip
trees also abound. On the mountains are the cucumber tree,
laurel, white pine and hemlock. Among indigenous trees, shrubs
and vines that bear edible fruits or nuts the state has the black-
berry, grape, pawpaw, persimmon, plum, crabapple, hickory,
chestnut and hazel nut. The English walnut, pecan, apple, apricot,
pear and cherry are also cultivated. Both medicinal and flowering
plants are exceptionally abundant ; a few of the former are ginseng,
snakeroot, bloodroot., hore-hound, thoroughwort, redroot (Ceano-
thus Americanus) , horse mint and wild flax, and prominent among
the latter are jessamines, azaleas, lilies, roses, violets, honey-suckle
and golden-rod. Venus's flytrap is found along the coast.
Climate. Along the coast the climate is comparatively mild and
equable. At Charleston, for example, the mean winter temperature
is 51 F., the mean summer temperature 81 F., the mean annual
temperature 66 F., and the range of extremes from 104 F. to 7 F.
or 97 F. Toward the north-west the mean winter temperature
decreases to 47 F. at Columbia and to 40 F. at Greenville; the mean
summer temperature decreases only to 80 F. as far as Columbia,
but from there to Greenville decreases to 75 F.; and the mean
annual temperature decreases to 62 F., at Columbia and to 58 F.
at Greenville. The range of extremes increases to 108 F. (106 to
-2) at Columbia, and then decreases to IO2F. (97 to -5) at
Greenville. The greatest range of extremes in the state is from
11 F. at Santuck, Union county, in February 1899, to 106 F.
at Columbia in August 1900. For the whole state the mean annual
temperature is about 63 F., the mean summer temperature 79 F.,
and the mean winter temperature 44 F. In nearly all sections
January is the coldest month and July the warmest. The mean
annual rainfall for the state is about 49 in., and its distribution is
excellent. Extremes for the various sections range only from
53-4 in. at Charleston to 44-4 in. at Stateburg, in Sumter county.
Seventeen inches, or more than one-third, falls during the summer,
and for the other seasons the range is only from 10-1 in. for autumn
to 1 1 -6 in. for winter. Snow is uncommon in the south-east of
the state, and whenever there is a snow-storm the snow usually
melts as it falls; but in the centre and north-west occasionally
covers the ground to a depth of several inches. The prevailing
winds are from the south-west along the coast, from the north-east
in the north-central section, and from the west in the west section.
Tornado winds sometimes occur in the west section, and the east
section occasionally suffers from West Indian hurricanes.
Soils. In general the soils of the Piedmont Plateau region
are such as have been formed by the disintegration of the under-
lying rocks. These consist mostly of granite and gneiss, but in
the north-central section there is trap -rock, and in the south-east
section some slate. On the more level areas of the Piedmont Plateau
the granitic soil is a grey mixture of sand and clay, but on the
hillsides of the river basins it is a heavy clay of reddish colour,
the sand having been washed down to form the soils of the Coastal
Plain. In all sections of the Piedmont Plateau the subsoil is a
reddish or yellowish clay. In the upper section of the Coastal
Plain region the soil is for the most part a loose sand, but lower down
it becomes finer, more tenacious, and consequently more fertile.
Agriculture. The number of farms in South Carolina was 93,864
in 1880, 115,008 in 1890 and 154,166 in 1900 the number for the
two last named years not including farms of less than 3 acres and
of relatively small productivity. The total acreage in farms in
1880 was 13,457,613 acres, of which 4132 acres were improved;
in 1890, 13,184,652 acres, of which 5,255,237 acres were improved;
and in 1900, 13,985,014 acres, of which 5,755,741 acres were im-
proved. The total value of farm property, with improvements,
machinery and livestock, was $84,079,702 in 1880; $119,849,272
(average value per farm, $1042) in 1890; and $153,591,159 (average
value, $989) in 1900 ; while the average value per acre of farm-land
increased from $9.09 in 1890, to $10.98 in 1900. Of farms of 1000
acres and more there were 1635 in 1880 and 1010 in 1900; of be-
tween 500 acres and 1000 acres there were 3693 in 1880 and 2314
in 1900; of 50 acres and less than 100 acres there were 13,612 in
1880 and 29,944 in 1900; of 20 acres and less than 50 acres there
were 3688 in 1880 and 5261 in 1900. Farms worked by owners
numbered 46,645 in 1880 and 60,471 in 1900; by cash tenants,
21,974 ' n 1880 and 57,046 in 1900; by share tenants, 25,245 in
1880 and 37,838 in 1900. Of the 155,355 farms in the state in
1900, 85,381 were worked by negroes of whom 22-2% were owners
of their farms, 49-7 % cash tenants and 27-9% share tenants.
The state long out-ranked all other states in the growing of rice,
but this industry has declined, and South Carolina is now surpassed
by both Louisiana and Texas. Cotton is the state's most valuable
crop. The cotton product of the state in 1889 was 747.190 bales,
in 1899 it was 881,422 bales, and in 1909, 1,095,000 bales. The
principal ceref Is, with the amounts and values of the crops in 1899
and 1909 are: Indian corn, 17,429,610 bush. ($9,149,808) in 1899
and 37,041,000 bush. ($33,337,ooo) in 1909; wheat, 1,017,319
bush. ($958,158) in 1899 and 3,810,000 bush. ($5,563,000) in
1900. Oats, 2,661,670 bush. ($1,226,575) m l8 99 an d 443 1,000
bush. ($3,190,000) in 1909. Rice, 47,360,128 Ib ($1,366,528)
in 1899, on 23,726 farms, nearly half of the total number (48,155)
of rice farms in the United States, which, however, decreased to
476,000 bush. ($433,000) in 1909. The rye crop was 19,372 bush.
(518,405) in 1899, and 39,000 bush. ($55,000) in 1909. Other
important crops are: tobacco 19,895,970 ft ($1,297,293) in 1899,
and 32,000,000 ft ($2,336,000) in 1909; hay and forage, 213,249
tons ($2,304,734) in 1899, and of hay alone 81,000 tons ($1,256,000)
in 1909; potatoes, 3,369,957 bush. ($1,538,205) in 1899 and 765,000
bush. ($880,000) in 1909.
Mining. The value of the mineral product of the state was
$1,834,134 in 1902, $2,305,203 in 1907 and $2,081,001 in 1908.
The total value of the products of manufacturing industries based
on mining was $18,565,682 in 1900, or 17-2% of the total value
of the product of all manufacturing industries. The most valuable
single mineral is phosphate rock, which is found in a belt 70 m.
long by 30 m. wide, extending from the mouth of the Broad river
near Port Royal in the south-east to the headwaters of the Wando
river in the north-east. The chief deposits are found in Berkeley,
Dorchester, Charleston, Colleton and Beaufort counties, at the
bottom of rivers, 20 to 30 ft. in depth, and on land at an elevation
but little above mean tide. Its commercial value for the manu-
facture of fertilizer was established in 1867, and the mining of it
began soon afterwards in the Ashley River region. The amount
mined in 1868 was 12,262 long tons; in 1902, 313,365 long tons;
and in 1908, 225,495 long tons, valued at $989,881. The value of
other minerals produced in 1908 was as follows: Granite, $297,874;
clay, $110,636; and monazite, $13,494. The product and value
of mineral waters was 786,754 gals. ($195,182) in 1907 and 271,572
gals. (S 70,937) in 1908. Minerals which were not mined com-
mercially in 1902 include asbestos, which occurs in Spartanburg
and Pickens counties; fullers'-earth ; graphite in Spartanburg and
Greenville counties ; iron ores in the north and north-west portions
of the state; iron pyrites in Spartanburg and York counties; talc,
bismuth, ochre, pyrites, galena, brown coal, malachite, phosphate
of lead and barytes.
Manufactures. The number of factories in South Carolina in
1900, was 1369, in 1905, 1399*; the amount of capital invested
in such establishments was $62,750,027 in 1900, and in 1905
$113,422,224; the value of products in 1900 was $53,335. 811 : j n
1905, $79,376,262; and the average number of wage earners in
'The special census of 1905 was confined to manufactures
under the factory system, and the statistics above for 1900 have
been reduced to the same standard to make them comparable
with the statistics for 1905.
SOUTH CAROLINA
1900, 47,025, and in 1905, 59,441. Except in n.umber, the rural
establishments showed greater increases than the urban. 1 The
number of rural establishments in 1900 was 1174; in 1905, 1179;
and the number of urban establishments in 1900, 195; in 1905,
220; but the capitalization of the rural establishments increased
from $50,057,922 in 1900 to $97,942,185 in 1905; while that of the
urban increased from $12,692,105 to $15,480,030; the value of the
products of the rural establishments increased from $41,930,816
to $64,887,748; while that of the urban establishments increased
from $11,404,995 to $14,488,514; and the number of employes
jn rural establishments increased from 36,616 to 50,744, while those
in urban establishments increased from 7409 to 8697. More than
half of the manufacturing establishments were engaged in the
manufacture of cotton goods, of lumber and timber, of fertilizers,
of cotton-seed oil and cake, of lumber and planing-mill products,
of cars and general shop construction, and of hosiery and knit
goods.
The manufacture of cotton goods was much the most important
industry in 1900 and 1905, and showed a remarkable growth. The
capital invested in this industry was $39,258,946 in 1900 and
$82,337,429 in 1905; the value of the products was $29,723,919
in 1900 and $49,437,644 in 1905; the average number of wage-
earners was 30,201 in 1900 and 37,271 in 1905; and the amount
of wages, $5,066,840 in 1900 and $7,701,689 in 1905. The number
of establishments in 1900 was 80, and in 1905, 127; the number of
producing spindles in 1900 was 1,431,349, and in 1905, 2,864,092;
and the number of looms in 1900, 42,663, and in 1905, 72,702.
The use of domestic cotton increased from 485,024 bales in 1900
to 555,467 bales in 1905, and the amount paid for this cotton
increased from $14,909,520 to $30,451,159. In the same period
the amount of foreign cotton used increased from 210 bales in 1900
to 2633 bales in 1905, and the amount paid for it from $20,026 in
1900 to $318,020 in 1905. The principal product of the mills
was plain cloths for printing or converting, of a quality finer than
No. 28 warp, of which there were produced 322,850,981 sq. yds.,
valued at $14,007,496 in 1905, as compared with 97,343,526 sq. yds.,
valued at $3,171,198 in 1900. Other products and their values in
1900 and 1905 were as follows: brown or bleached sheetings and
shirtings, 283,105,383 sq. yds. ($11,553,073) in 1900 and 248,777,474
sq. yds. ($12,035,854) in 1905; yarns for sale, 24,859,616 ft
($3,461,090) in 1900 and 31.645,397 ft ($6,217,795) in 1905;
drills, 116,467,224 sq. yds. ($5,375,017) in 1900 and 88,551,799
sq. yds. ($5,344,146) in 1905; twills and sateens, 11,379 712 sq. yds.
($485,484) in 1900 and 45,220,488 sq. yds. ($2,175,651) in 1905.
The value of the products of other industries in 1900 and 1905
were as follows: Lumber and timber, $4,942,362 in 1900 and
$6,791,451 in 1905; cotton-seed oil and cake, $3,103,425 in 1900
and $5,462,818 in 1905; fertilizers, $4,882,506 in 1900 and $3,637,576
in 1905; lumber and planing-mill products, including sash, doors and
blinds, $1,016,328 in 1900 and $1,478,581 in 1905; hosiery and knit
goods, $392,237 in 1900 and $1,078,682 in 1905; cars and general
shop construction and repairs by steam railway companies,
$691,361 in 1900 and $1,080,990 in 1905.
Forests. The principal lumber resource of South Carolina is
yellow (or " southern ") pine, and there is also a small quantity
of cypress. The stand of yellow pine in the state in 1880 was esti-
mated at 5316 million ft.; and in 1905 it was estimated at 3363
million ft. The value of the lumber product increased from
$1,108,880 in 1850 to $5,207,184 in 1900. Some use is also made
of the forest resources of the state in the manufacture of veneer,
paper pulp, turpentine and other chemicals.
Fisheries. The total yield of the state's fisheries in 1902 was
8,174,463 Ib, valued to the fishermen at $263,023, which is an in-
crease over that of 1897 of 2,894,017 ft and of $52,567 in value.
The number of persons employed in 1902 was 3713, an increase
over 1897 of 1574; the amount of capital invested in 1902 was
$320,723, an increase over 1897 of $146,369. The oyster fishery
represented in 1902 about 45% of the entire value of the state's
fisheries, the catch in that year being 689,700 bush., valued at
$118,460, an increase over 1897 of 474.8oo bush, and $73,100.
The amount and value of other catches in 1902 were as follows:
whiting, 606,300 ft ($30,118); sea bass, 709,545 ft ($27,364);
shad, 434,133 ft ($20,782); clam, 28,133 bush. ($12,940); shrimp,
306,500 ft ($12,452); terrapin, 27,521 ft ($5,580); mullet, 138,000 ft
($3782); jewfish, 79,500 ft ($3738); channel bass, 102,000 ft
($3550); squeteague, 85,700 ft ($3059); shark, 90,000 ft ($1800).
Other fish taken include the sheepshead, drum, grouper, striped
bass and croaker.
Transportation. The chief railway systems of South Carolina
are the Southern, the Seaboard Air line and the Atlantic Coast
line. The railway mileage of the state was 3335-48 m. on the 1st
of January 1909. Inland water communication is furnished by
several navigable rivers. Between 1816 and 1826 the state expended
upon internal improvements $1,712,626, a large part of which was
appropriated for building canals round the rapids of five rivers;
'In this class are included the manufactures of only four cities,
Charleston, Columbia, Greenville and Spartanburg, which in 1900
had populations of 8000 or more.
between 1878 and 1900 the United States government expended
$6,063,692 upon seven rivers and three harbours. The Savannah
River is navigable from Savannah to Augusta, Georgia (202 m.),
where its mean low water depth is 3 ft., and from Augusta to Peters-
burg, Georgia, for flatboats. Other navigable streams are the
Waccamaw, to Bucksville (50 m.) ; the Great Pedee to Smith's
Mills (52 m.); the Cooper, to Strawberry Ferry (30 m.); the
Ashley, to Lambs (13 m.) ; the Edisto, to Guignard Landing (260 m.) ;
the South Edisto, to the North Edisto (11 m.) ; the Beaufort, to
the Coosaw Rivei- (u m.) ; and the Santee, to the confluence of the
Congaree and Wateree rivers, which are navigable for flatboats.
The ports of entry are Charleston, Beaufort and Georgetown.
Population. The population in 1880 was 995,577; in 1890,
1,151,149; in 1900, 1,340,316; and in 1910, 1,515, 400." In
only one other state, Mississippi, in 1900 the negroes exceeded
the whites; in South Carolina 58-4% of the total, or 782,321,
were negroes or of negro descent, and 41-6% were whites; but
there was a slight falling-off in the percentage of negroes, this
having been 59-9% in 1890. Of the total population, 99-6%
were native-born. There were, in 190x5, 552,436 native whites;
5,528 persons of foreign birth, 121 Indians and 67 Chinese.
Of the inhabitants born in the United States, 29,521 were
natives of North Carolina, and 13,544 were natives of Georgia,
and of the foreign-born 2075 were Germans, and 1131 were
natives of Ireland. Of the total population, 17,628 were of
foreign parentage i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-
born and 2503 were of German and 1607 of Irish parentage
on both the father's and the mother's side. In 1906 there were
in the state 655,933 members of different religious denomina-
tions, of whom the Baptist bodies were the strongest with
341,456 communicants; the Methodist bodies had 249,169
members; 35,533 were Presbyterians; 12,652 were Lutherans;
10,317 were Roman Catholics; and 8557 were Protestant
Episcopalians. From 1890 to 1900 the urban population
(i.e. in places with 4000 inhabitants) increased from 84,459 to
157,111; the semi-urban population (i.e. population of in-
corporated places), or the approximate equivalent, having less
than 4000 inhabitants) increased from 93,551 to 104,352;
while the rural population (i.e. population outside of incorporated
places) increased from 973,139 to 1,078,853. The principal
cities are Charleston, Columbia (the capital), Spartanburg,
Greenville, Sumter, Anderson and Rock Hill.
Administration. South Carolina was governed from 1670
to 1719 under the Carolina provincial charter of 1665, from 1719
to 1776 under commissions and instructions from the Crown,
and after 1776 under the constitutions of 1776, 1778, 1790,
1865, 1868 and 1895. An amendment to the constitution
may be proposed by either house of the legislature; if it is
approved by two-thirds of the members elected to each it must
then be submitted to the people to be voted on at the next
general election for members of the state house of representa-
tives, and if it receives a favourable vote of a majority and sub-
sequently a majority vote in each house of the next general
assembly it becomes part of the constitution. A constitutional
convention to revise the constitution may be called by a two-
thirds vote in each house, subsequently ratified by a majority
vote of the electors of the state.
Effective protection against a possible restoration of negro rule
seems to have been aimed at in the suffrage provisions of the new
constitution. Two plans of registration were provided, one tempo-
rary, the other permanent. Up to the 1st of January 1898 all
persons otherwise qualified could register, provided they could
read any section of the constitution or understand and explain
it when read to them by the registration officer, and all persons
so registered were qualified voters for life. The obvious intention
was to disfranchise illiterate negroes, but not illiterate whites.
Under the permanent plan, however, this distinction will gradually
disappear. Those who should apply for registration after the
1st of January 1898 must be able to read and write any section
of the constitution submitted to them by the registration officer,
or must show that they have paid all taxes for the previous year on
property worth $300 or more. Other requirements for voters
2 According to previous censuses the population was as follows:
1790, 249,073; 1800,345,591; 1810, 415,115; 1820,502,741; 1830,
581,185; 1840, 594,398; 1850, 668,507; i860, 703,708; 1870,
705,606.
502
SOUTH CAROLINA
are: residence in the state for two years (except that ministers in
charge of organized churches and teachers of public schools need
have a residence in the state of six months only), in the county
for one year, and in the polling precinct for four months, and the
payment six months before election-time of a poll-tax. Idiots,
insane persons, paupers, convicts and persons convicted of certain
crimes (enumerated in the constitution) and not pardoned by the
governor are disqualified from registering or voting.
Under the constitution of 1895 the governor holds office
for two years and is eligible for re-election. The governor and
the lieutenant-governor must be thirty years old and must
have been citizens of the United States and citizens and
residents of the state for five years. The governor has a veto
power, extending to the separate items in appropriation bills,
which may be overcome by a two-thirds majority in each house
of the General Assembly; three days (excluding Sunday) are
allowed to the governor for vetoing bills or joint resolutions
passed by the General Assembly, or only two days if the General
Assembly adjourn before three days have elapsed. The
lieutenant-governor is the presiding officer of the senate, and
succeeds the governor if the governor is removed from office
by impeachment, death, resignation or otherwise. Other
administrative officers of the state, each elected for two years,
are a secretary of state, a comptroller-general, an attorney-
general, a treasurer, an adjutant and inspector-general, and a
superintendent of education.
The state legislature is officially styled the General Assembly,
and is composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives.
The House of Representatives is composed of 124 members
elected every two years and apportioned among the counties
according to population; the Senate of one member from each
county, elected for a term of four years, the term of one-half of
the senators ending every two years. Annual sessions of the
General Assembly are held, beginning on the second Tuesday
in January. In 1904 the legislature submitted an amendment
providing for biennial sessions and it was ratified by a popular
vote, but inasmuch as the constitution requires a subsequent
ratification by the legislature, the question came up again in
the session of 1905. Attention was then called to the fact that
the new amendment would make other changes in the constitu-
tion necessary, and the matter was referred to a legal com-
mission.
The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court and two
circuit courts, a court of common pleas having civil jurisdiction,
and a court of general sessions having criminal jurisdiction.
The supreme court consists of a chief justice and three associates,
elected by a joint viva voce vote of the General Assembly for a
term of eight years. In each of the eight circuits is a circuit
judge elected in a similar manner for four years. The magis-
trates or justices of the peace are appointed by the governor
a wise provision, because under the constitution of 1868 negroes
were frequently elected who could neither read nor write.
Local Government. The unit of local government in South Caro-
lina is the county, which, the state constitution provides, " shall
be a body politic and corporate." The constitution also provides
for the establishment of a new county, " whenever one-third of
the qualified electors within the area of each section of an old
county proposed to be cut off to form a new county shall petition
the governor for the creation of a new county," whereupon the
governor " shall order an election within a reasonable time there-
after," and if two-thirds of the voters vote "yes," the .General
Assembly at the next session shall establish the new county,
provided that no section of a county shall be cut off without the
consent of two-thirds of those voting in such section; that no new
county "shall contain less than one one hundred and twenty-fourth
part of the whole number of inhabitants of the state, nor shall it
have less assessed taxable property than one and one-half millions
of dollars, nor shall it contain an area of less than four hundred
square miles "; and that " no old county shall be reduced to less
area than five hundred square miles, to less assessed taxable property
than two million dollars, nor to a smaller population than fifteen
thousand inhabitants." The General Assembly may alter county
lines at any time, provided the proposed change is sanctioned by
two-thirds of the voters in the section proposed to be cut off. The
General Assembly may also provide for the consolidation of two
or more counties if a majority of the voters concerned approve,
" but such election shall not be held oftener than once in four years
in the same counties." Counties are divided into townships and
under the constitution each " shall constitute a body politic and
corporate," but in 1910 there were no separate township govern-
ments, the existing division of counties into townships being for the
purpose of convenience in adjusting taxes. Municipal government
machinery is prescribed by_ a general state law which provides for
the acquirement by municipalities of waterworks and lighting-
plants, the levying and collection of taxes and the issuing of
licences, and regulates bonded debts. Cities and towns are per-
mitted to exempt, by ordinance, certain classes of manufactories
from all taxes except for school purposes, provided such ordinances
are ratified by a majority of the electors.
Miscellaneous Laws. The elaborate precautions taken to prevent
lynching are a peculiarity of the constitution of 1895. Any officer
state, county or municipal who, through negligence or connivance,
permits a prisoner to be seized and lynched, forfeits his office and
becomes ineligible to hold any office of trust or profit in the state
unless pardoned by the governor. The county in which the crime
occurs is, without regard to the conduct of the officers, liable in
damages of not less than $2000 to the legal representative of the
person lynched; the county is authorized, however, to recover
this amount from the persons engaged in the lynching A fourth
unusual feature is that South Carolina has applied the principle
of direct primary nominations to all elective officials from governor
down. United States senators are in practice elected by the people,
for the legislature merely registers the result of the primary. Since
an absolute majority of the votes cast is required, it is otten necessary
to hold a second primary in which only the two leading candidates
are considered (see act of the 22nd of December 1888, and ex
parte Sanders, 53 S.C. 478). South Carolina is the only state in
which divorce is not allowed in any circumstances; this is a con-
stitutional provision. Divorces were not permitted before 1868
and the provisions of the constitution of that year and of an act of
1872, permitting divorce (for adultery or for wilful desertions for
two years) were repealed in 1878. A married woman may hold,
acquire and dispose of property as if she were single, and the
descent of the estate of a husband dying intestate is the same as
that of a wife dying intestate, the survivor being entitled to one-
third of the estate if there are one or more children, and to one-hall
of the estate if there are no children or other lineal descendants.
Tenancy by courtesy was abolished in 1883, but the right of dower
still obtains; the widow's acceptance of a distributive share in her
husband's estate, however, bars her dower. A homestead in
lands to the value of $1000, the products of the same, and personal
property to the value of $500 which belong to the head of a family
or to the husband and wife jointly are exempt from attachment,
levy or sale except for taxes, purchase money or debts contracted
in making improvements or repairs. The exemption of the home-
stead continues for the benefit of the widow or for the children
alone, whether minors or not, provided it is occupied by some of
them, and it may be partitioned among the children regardless of
debts. The number of hours' labour for operatives and employes
in cotton and woollen mills is limited to sixty a week and must not
exceed eleven in any one day, except for making up lost time to
the extent of sixty hours in any one year. A prohibition bill intro-
duced in the legislature of 1892 was, through the influence of the
Tillman Reform faction, replaced by a substitute measure, which
established a dispensary system, based upon the Gothenburg
plan. This system went into effect in July 1893 and was in force
tor thirteen years. Under it the state bought liquors, graded them
in accordance with a chemical analysis, and sold them to con-
sumers in packages of not less than one half -pint; the dispensaries
were open from sunrise to sunset, no sales were made to minors
or drunkards, and no liquor was drunk on the premises; there was
a state dispensary commissioner and a state board of control;
and the profits were divided between the state, the counties and
the municipalities, the share of the state being devoted to educa-
tional purposes. The state dispensary was opposed by the old
conservative faction, by the saloon keepers, and by the radical
prohibitionists. The Supreme Court of the state by a vote of two
to one decided in April 1894 that the law was unconstitutional,
but in October a change in the personnel of the court brought
about a reversal. The Supreme Court of the United States held
on the i8th of January 1897 that the provisions of the statute
forbidding the importation of liquor by anyone except certain
state officials were in violation of the interstate commerce clause
of the constitution (Scott v. Donald, 165 U.S. 58). Under the Brice
bill, passed in 1904 and amended in 1905, which gave the people
of each county the choice between dispensary and prohibition,
with the proviso that if they adopt the latter they must pay the
extra taxes necessary to enforce it, several counties adopted pro-
hibition; and in 1907 the state dispensary system was abolished,
all impure liquors were declared contraband, each county was
required to vote to prohibit the sale of liquors or to establish a
dispensary, the sale of intoxicating liquors was forbidden outside
of cities and towns, and sales may be made only through county
dispensaries, which may not sell at night or on Sunday, or to in-
ebriates or minors. The constitution of 1895 forbade a restoration
of the saloon system in its original form. An act of 1909 made it
a misdemeanour to solicit orders for liquor in the state.
SOUTH CAROLINA
503
Education. As early as 1710 public school education was pro-
vided for indigent children. The present free-school system was
established in 1868. The educational system is under the super-
vision of the state superintendent of education, with the assistance
of a board composed of the governor and not exceeding seven
other persons appointed by the governor. The constitution of
1895 ordered a three-mills levy. The present high-school system
dates from an act of 1907; and in 1909-1910 there were 131 high
schools, six of which required a full four-years' course. The
per capita expenditure according to enrolment was $4-98 for
each white pupil and $1-42 for each negro pupil in 1899; in 1909
it was $10-34 for each white pupil and $1-70 for each negro.
The schools are supported by taxation; they formerly received
the profits from the dispensary. The maximum local tax levy
is eight-mills for elementary schools and two-mills for high
schools. In 1908-1909 the total expenditures for 5066 public
schools '(2712 for whites, 2354 for negroes) in the state was
$1,898,886, of which $1,590,733 was for whites. The average
yearly salary in 1908-1909 in white schools was $479-79 for
men and $249-13 for women teachers; in negro schools the
corresponding salaries were $118-17 an d $91-45. The state sup-
ports wholly or in part, the university of South Carolina (before
1906 South Carolina College), established at Columbia in 1801;
the South Carolina Military Academy (locally called " The
Citadel ") established at Charleston in 1845, Clemson Agricultural
College (1889), at Clemson, Oconee county, with departments of
agriculture, chemistry, mechanics and electricity, textiles and
military, and academic and preparatory courses; Winthrop Normal
and Industrial College for Girls (1895) at Rock Hill, and the Coloured
Normal, Industrial, Agricultural and Mechanical College (1896)
at Orangeburg. Among the other higher institutions of learning
are the college of Charleston (1790, non-sectarian), Newberry
College (1858, Lutheran) at Newberry, the Presbyterian College
of South Carolina (1880) at Clinton, Erskine College (1839, Asso-
ciate Reformed Presbyterian) at Due West, Furman University
(1852, Baptist) at Greenville, and Wofford College (1854, Methodist
Episcopal South) at Spartanburg; for women, Converse College
(1890, non-sectarian) at Spartanburg, the College for Women
(1890, Presbyterian) at Columbia, Columbia College (1859, non-
sectarian) near Columbia, Greenville Female College (1854, Baptist)
at Greenville, Lander Female College (1872, until 1903 at Williams-
ton, and until 1904 the Williamston Female College, Methodist
Episcopal South) at Greenwood, and the Due West Female College
(1859, Associate Reformed Presbyterian) at Due West; and for
negroes, Claflin University (1869, Methodist Episcopal) at Orange-
burg, Allen University (1881, African Methodist Episcopal) at
Columbia, and several normal and industrial schools. There are
theological seminaries at Columbia (1828, Presbyterian), at Due
West (1837, Associate Reformed Presbyterian), and at Mount
Pleasant (1898, Lutheran).
Charities, &fc. The state has no board of public charities, and
under the present constitution the county commissioners are over-
seers of the poor, except in Charleston and Columbia whose poor
are provided for by the municipal authorities. The county com-
missioners of each county have charge of the poor-house of the
county, appoint its superintendent, physician and other officials,
and report annually to the judge of the Court of General Sessions,
who submits this report to the grand jury. Each poor-house
must have sufficient tillable land to give employment to all paupers
who are able to work. There is an institution for the deaf, dumb
and blind (1849, since 1857 a state institution) at Cedar Springs,
and a state hospital for the insane, founded in 1821 at Columbia
by Samuel Farrow (1760-1824) and opened in 1828. The state
penitentiary is also at Columbia.
Finance. The revenues of the state are derived mainly from
the general property tax, fees, licences, dispensary profits and
phosphate royalties. At the beginning of the Civil War the public
debt was $3,814,862-91 and the credit of the state was sound.
The obligations contracted in support of the war, amounting to
about $3,000,000 were of course nullified by the Fourteenth Amend-
ment. There were so many irregularities and so much corruption
connected with the bond issues of reconstruction days that it is
impossible to discover their exact amount. Estimates of the total
debt in 1872 vary from $28,000,000 to $33,000,000. The first
step towards repudiation was taken by the " carpet-bag " legislature
of 1873, when it provided for the issue of consolidated bonds to
replace the outstanding obligations at the rate of fifty cents on the
dollar. Nearly six million dollars worth were declared null and
void because issued without authority of law. After the return
of the Democrats to power in 1877 a further investigation was made
and the government finally assumed responsibility for $6,406,606.
The greater part of this was funded under an act of October 1892,
and provision was made for a sinking fund, derived mainly from the
royalty on phosphate beds. In 1909 the funded debt amounted
to $6,526,885. The legislature is forbidden to create any further
debt except for the ordinary current business of the state, unless
the proposition be submitted to the voters of the state and approved
by a two-thirds majority. After the abolition of the state dis-
pensary system in 1907 a State Dispensary Commission was created
for winding up the business of the dispensary and distributing
about $900,000 (of which $100,000 was still due) of dispensary
funds. Two companies brought suit for moneys owed for liquor
sold to the state dispensary; the commission resisted the suit on
the ground that as a court and as a representative of the state it
could not be sued ; the circuit court and the circuit court of appeals
overruled this plea and put the funds into the hands of a receiver;
but in April 1909 this famous cause was closed by the decision of
the Federal Supreme Court, upholding the commission and re-
storing to it the fund. Banks are subject to the supervision of
an examiner and in addition are required to make weekly reports
to the comptroller-general.
History. The history of South Carolina may be divided into
four main periods: the period of discovery and exploration
(1520-1663); the period of proprietary rule (1663-1719); the
period of royal rule (1719-1776); and the period of statehood
(from 1776). The first Europeans to visit the coast were a
party of Spaniards from Cuba in 1520. In 1562 some French
Protestants under Jean Ribaut made an unsuccessful attempt
to establish a colony near the mouth of the Broad river (see
PORT ROYAL). In 1629, Charles I. granted to his attorney-
general, Sir Robert Heath, all the territory lying between the
3ist and the 36th parallels and extending through from sea to
sea, but no settlement was made, and in 1663 the same territory
was granted to the earl of Clarendon (1609-1674), and six other
favourites of Charles II. A second charter in 1665 extended
the limits to 29 and 36 30'. The proprietors were to legislate
for the colony " by and with the advice, assent and approba-
tion of the freemen." They were empowered, though not
required, to grant religious freedom to Dissenters. Land was
held in free and common socage, and the statute quid emptores
was suspended, thus allowing subinfeudation. Concessions or
immigration circulars were issued in 1663 and 1665 offering
most liberal terms to prospective colonists. This policy was
soon abandoned. In the Fundamental Constitution, adopted
by the proprietary board in 1669 John Locke and Lord Ashley
(1621-1683) prepared for the colony an elaborate feudal system
of government which would have been obsolete even in Europe
(see NORTH CAROLINA). Subsequent issues in 1670, 1682
(Jan. 12), 1682 (Aug. 17), and 1698 modified the original plan
to some extent. The constitutions possess more than a
mere antiquarian interest. They helped to arouse that feeling
of discontent among the colonists which culminated in the
overthrow of proprietary rule, and they encouraged the large
plantation system which constituted the foundation of the
slave-holding aristocracy.
The first permanent English settlement was made in April
1670 at Albemarle Point, on the west bank of the Ashley river,
but as the situation proved unfavourable the government and
most of the people moved over in 1680 to the neck between
the Ashley and the Cooper rivers, the site of the present city
of Charleston. The area of settlement was gradually extended
along the coast in both directions, but did not penetrate far
into the interior. The province was soon divided into three
coast counties: Berkeley, extending from the Stono river to
the Sewee and including Charleston; Craven to the north of the
Sewee; and Colleton to the south of the Stono. In addition to
those settlers who came direct from England there were many
Englishmen from Barbadoes and French Protestants, both of
which classes exercised considerable influence upon the history
of the colony. It was largely due to the Barbadian connexion
that South Carolina was for many years more closely associated
with the island than with the continental colonies. Her political
history during the colonial era is the story of a struggle between
popular and prerogative interests, first between the people and
the lords proprietors, later between the people and the Crown.
From 1670 to 1700 the principal questions at issue were the
refusal of the settlers to subscribe to the numerous editions
of the Fundamental Constitutions and disputes over the collec-
tion of quit-rents. Concessions were finally made which brought
the government more directly under popular control. In 1692
the legislature was divided into two houses, and in 1693 the
commons house, elected by the people, secured the privilege of
initiating legislation. The truce was followed by a controversy
SOUTH CAROLINA
between Churchmen and Dissenters. A test act requiring
members of the assembly to conform to the Church of England
and to take the sacrament of the Eucharist according to the
rites and usages of that Church (1704) was defeated only through
the intervention of the Whig House of Lords in England. By
an act of the soth of November 1706, which remained in force
until the War of American Independence, the Church of England
was made the established religion. After a few years of peace
and prosperity there came another attack upon the proprietors
which culminated in the revolution of 1719 and the downfall of
proprietary rule. Acting on the advice of Chief Justice Nicholas
Trott (1663-1740) the proprietors adopted a reactionary policy,
vetoed several popular laws, and refused to afford protection
from the attacks of the Indians. The people rebelled, overthrew
the existing government and elected their leader James Moore
(1667-1723) as governor. The result of the revolution was
accepted in England, and the colony at once came under royal
control, although the rights of the proprietors were not
extinguished by purchase until 1729. Theoretically South
Carolina and North Carolina constituted a single province,
but, as the settlements were far apart, there were always separate
local governments. Until 1691 each had its own governors,
from 1691 to 1712 there was usually a governor at Charleston
and a deputy for the northern settlements, and after 1712 there
were again separate governors. The first attempt to define the
boundary was made in 1732, but the work was not completed
until 1815.
The change from proprietary to royal government scarcely
affected at all the constitutional development of the province.
The popular branch of the assembly continued to encroach
upon the powers of the governor and council. By 1 1760 the
council had almost ceased to exercise any real control over
legislation. They rarely initiated or amended a bill of any
kind, never a "revenue measure. Public officials chosen nomi-
nally by the General Assembly were really the nominees of the
lower house. In the conduct of his executive functions the
governor found himself constantly hampered by committees
of the Assembly. In other words, whether they were conscious
of the fact or not, the South Carolinians throughout the colonial
era were tending towards independence. The demands of the
British government after 1760 were not especially unreasonable
or tyrannical, but they were made upon a people who were too
long accustomed to having their own way. As the spirit of
rebellion developed the sentiment in favour of colonial union
gained in strength. Thomas Lynch (c. 1720-1776), Christopher
Gadsden (1724-1805), and John Rutledge (1739-1800) attended
the Stamp Act Congress of 1765, an intercolonial committee
of correspondence was appointed in 1773, and delegates were
sent to the Continental Congress in 1774 and 1775. A council
of safety appointed by a Provincial Congress practically took
charge of the government in June 1775. The Assembly was
formally dissolved on the isth of September, Governor William
Campbell (d. 1778) fled from the town, and royal government
came to an end. In the conflict with the mother country the
people had the advantage of long experience in fighting. There
had been wars with the Spanish in 1686, 1702-04, 1740, with
the Spanish and French in 1706, with pirates in 1718, with the
Yemassee Indians in 1715 and the Cherokees in 1760-61, and
a slave uprising in 1739. The state suffered severely during
the War of Independence, the numbers and influence of the
Loyalists serving to embitter the conflict. In the summer of
1776 the British, under Sir Henry Clinton and Sir Peter Parker
attempted to capture Charleston and summon the South Caro-
lina Loyalists to their standard, but on the 28th of June the
fleet was repulsed in an assault on Fort Moultrie. Clinton
returned, however, early in 1780, and, as he surrounded the city
on all sides with an overwhelming force, General Benjamin
Lincoln, who was defending it with about 7000 men, surrendered
(May 1 2) to avoid certain destruction. The British thereupon
overran the whole state, and until near the close of the war a
new American army, first under Horatio Gates and later under
Nathanael Greene, was engaged in driving them out. The
principal engagements fought within the state were Camden
(Aug. 16, 1780), King's Mountain (Oct. 7, 1780), Hobkirk's Hill
(April 25, 1781), and Eutaw Springs (Sept. 8, 1781).
The most significant feature in the early history of the state
was the struggle between the Low Country, which centred
about Charleston, and the Up Country, which was settled largely
by Scotch-Irish, who came down the mountain valleys from
North Carolina, Virginia and Pennsylvania. The great planters
of the low country had wealth, the small farmers of the up
country had numbers. Under the first state constitution,
adopted in March 1776, the low country element maintained
the ascendancy which they had possessed during the colonial
period. In 1786 they were forced to consent to the removal
of the seat of government to Columbia (final removal, 1790)
and in 1808 to a reapportionment of the representation, based
partly on wealth and partly on numbers. There was to be one
representative for every sixty-second part of the whole number
of white inhabitants of the state and one for every sixty-second
part of the taxes raised by the legislature. More harmonious
relations were in time established, partly because of improvements
in the methods of transport, but mainly as a result of outside
pressure in the form of criticism of slavery and the adoption by
the national government of an economic policy which favoured
the manufacturers at the expense of the agricultural interests.
In 1832 there was a majority from each section in favour of
Nullification (?..), and the legislature called the famous Nulli-
fication Convention, which met at Charleston the igth of
November, and five days later passed the Ordinance of Nullifica-
tion declaring that certain acts of Congress imposing import
duties " are unauthorized by the Constitution of the United
States and violate the true meaning and intent thereof, and are
null and void and no law, nor binding upon this state, its officers
or citizens." President Jackson was ready to use force against
the state; and the tariff, over which the whole disagreement had
arisen, was changed in such a way as to effect a compromise
with the state. From about 1828 to 1861 South Carolina
superseded Virginia as the leader of the South. She stood for
states' rights and free trade. John C. Calhoun was her political
philosopher and George McDuffie her political economist. Her
secession, on the 29th of December 1860, was followed by the
formation of the Southern Confederacy, the bombardment of Fort
Sumter (April 12, 1861) and the Civil War (1861-65). Although
few battles were fought within her limits, because of the distance
from the frontier, South Carolina made many sacrifices in the
interest of her section. With a white population of 291,300
at the beginning of the conflict, the state put into the field
during the four years 62,838 effective men, with an enrolment,
including reserves, of 71,083, of whom 22% were killed on the
field or died in prison. General W. T. Sherman's march across
the state (February-March, 1865) was accomplished by an
enormous destruction of property by fire and pillage.
All the misfortunes of the war itself are insignificant when
compared with the sufferings of the people during the era of
Reconstruction (1865-1871). In accordance with the liberal
views of President Andrew Johnson, the white people assumed
control of affairs shortly after the close of hostilities, and James
L. Orr (1822-1873) was chosen governor. Congress reversed
this policy (1867), disfranchised the majority of the whites and
transferred political power to negroes, Northern adventurers
and disreputable native whites. There followed an orgy of
crime and corruption. The Assembly Hall was furnished with
clocks costing $600 dollars each, sofas at $200, and other
articles in proportion. A restaurant and bar were kept in the
State House at which the members of the legislature and their
friends could procure refreshments free of cost. The debt of
the state was increased from $5,000,000 in 1868 to more than
$18,000,000 in 1872. Crime among the negroes became so
frequent that the whites were compelled to form a secret organiza-
tion for protection (see Ku KLUX KLAN). In the spring of 1868
the state adopted a new constitution in conformity with the
Reconstruction Acts of Congress, and elected state officers and
congressmen, and on the 25th of June the state was readmitted
SOUTH CAROLINA
505
to the Union. The inauguration of General Wade Hampton
(1818-1902) as governor, and the final withdrawal of United
States troops in 1877, marked the downfall of negro rule.
The political history of the state since 1877 presents some
interesting features. Practically the entire white population is
Democratic, partly for historical reasons and partly because of
a feeling that union is necessary to maintain white supremacy.
The old warfare between the Up Country and the Low Country
has been renewed in a modified form in the conflict between
Reformers and Conservatives. The triumph of the Reformers
culminated in the founding of Clemson Agricultural College
(1889), the establishment of the state dispensary system for the
sale of intoxicating liquors (1893), the election of Benjamin
R. Tillman (b. 1847) to the United States Senate (1894) over
M. C. Butler (1836-1909), and the work of the constitutional
convention of 1895.
GOVERNORS OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Proprietary Period (1670-1719)
William Sayle
Joseph West
Sir John Yeamans
Joseph West
Joseph Morton
Richard Kyrle
Robert Quarry
Joseph West
Joseph Morton
James Colleton
Seth Sothell
Philip Ludwell .
Thomas Smith
{oseph Blake
ahn Archdale
aseph Blake
imes Moore
ir Nathaniel Johnson
Edward Tynte
Robert Gibbes
Charles Craven
Robert Daniel
Robert Johnson .
(chosen by the council)
(chosen by the council)
(chosen by the council)
(chosen by the council)
(chosen by the council)
. (deputy-governor)
James Moore
Sir Francis Nicholson
Arthur Middleton
Royal Period (1719-1776)
(elected by the people)
Robert Johnson .
Thomas Broughton
William Bull
(president of the council and
acting-governor)
(lieutenant-governor)
(lieutenant-governor)
(lieutenant-governor)
(.lieutenant-governor)
(lieutenant-governor)
. (lieutenant-governor)
(president of the council,
lieutenant-governor)
James Glen
William Henry Lyttleton
William Bull, the 2nd
Thomas Boone
William Bull, the 2nd
Lord Charles Greville Montague
William Bull, the 2nd
Lord Charles Greville Montague
William Bull, the 2nd
Lord Charles Greville Montague
William Bull, the 2nd
Lord William Campbell
Henry Laurens (president of the council of safety)
Statehood Period (1776- )
John Rutledge . . (president)
Rawlins Lowndes . (president)
John Rutledge
John Matthewes .
Benjamin Guerard
William Moultrie .
Thomas Pinckney
Charles Pinckney
William Moultrie
Arnoldus Vanderhorst
Charles Pinckney
Edward Rutledge
John Draytpn
lames B. Richardson .
Paul Hamilton
Charles Pinckney
John Drayton
Henry Middleton
Joseph Alston
Democrat-Republican
1670-1671
1671-1672
1672-1674
1674-1682
1682-1684
1684
1684-1685
1685
1685-1686
1686-1690
1690-1692
1692-1693
1693-1694
1694
1694-1696
1696-1700
1700-1702
1702-1710
1710
1710-1711
1711-1716
1716-1717
1717-1719
1719-1721
1721-1729
1724-1729
1729-1735
1735-1737
1737-1743
1743-1756
1756-1760
1760-1761
1761-1764
1764-1766
1766-1768
1768
1768-1769
1769-1771
I77I-I773
1773-1775
1775
1775-1776
1776-1778
1778-1779
1779-1782
1782-1783
1783-1785
1785-1787
1787-1789
1789-1792
1792-1794
1794-1796.
1796-1798
1798-1800
1800-1802
1802-1804
1804-1806
1806-1808
1808-1810
i8ro-i8i2
1812-1814
David R. Williams
Andrew Pickens
John Geddes
Thomas Bennett
John L. Wilson
Richard I. Manning .
John Taylor
Stephen D. Miller
James Hamilton, jun.
Robert Y. Hayne
George McDuffie
Pierce M. Butler
Patrick Noble
B. K. Henegan
John P. Richardson
James H. Hammond .
William Aiken
David Johnson
Whitemarsh B. Seabrook
John H. Means .
John L. Manning
James H. Adams
Robert F. W. Allston
William H. Gist
Francis W. Pickens
Milledge L. Bonham .
Andrew G. McGrath .
Benjamin F. Perry
James L. Orr
Gen. Edward R. S. Canby
Robert K. Scott .
Franklin J. Moses, jun.
Daniel H. Chamberlain
Wade Hampton .
William D. Simpson
Thomas D. Jeter
Johnson Hagood
Hugh S. Thompson
John C. Sheppard
John P. Richardson
Benjamin R. Tillman .
John G. Evans
William H. Ellerbe .
Miles B.McSweeney .
Duncan C. Heyward .
Martin F. Ansel .
Coleman L. Blease
BIBLIOGRAPHY For general description see Michael Tuomey,
Report on the Geology of South Carolina (Columbia, 1848) ; the Hand-
book of South Carolina: Resources, Institutions, and Industries of
the Stale, published by the State Department of Agriculture, Com-
merce and Immigration (Columbia, 1907; 2nded., 1908); the Annual
Reports (1904 seq.) of the same department and its other publica-
tions; and W. G. Simms, Geography of South Carolina (Charleston,
1843). For administration see D. D. Wallace, The Civil Government
of South Carolina (Dallas, 1906) ; E. L. Whitney, Government of the
Colony of South Carolina, in Johns Hopkins University Studies,
vol. xiii. (Baltimore, 1895); B. I. Ramage, Local Government and
Free Schools in South Carolina, in Johns Hopkins University Studies,
vol. i. No. 12 (Baltimore, 1883); Colyer Meriwether, History of
Higher Education in South Carolina (Washington, 1889), in Cir-
culars of Information of the United States Bureau of Education,
No. 3. There is no general history of South Carolina. The stan-
dard work for the colonial period is Edward McCrady's The History
of South Carolina under the Proprietary Government, 1670-1719
(New York, 1897) and his History of South Carolina under the
Royal Government, 1719-1776 (ibid. 1899), which are accurate
and interesting, but neglect the manuscript sources at Columbia.
Older histories are Alexander Hewatt, Historical Account of the
Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia
(London, 1779), freely used by later writers; David Ramsay,
History of South Carolina ( 2 vols., Charleston, 1809), little more
than a reprint, without acknowledgments, of Hewatt ; and William
J. Rivers, Sketch of the History of South Carolina to the Close of the
Proprietary Government, 1719 (Charleston, 1856), which was utilized
by McCrady in his first volume and was the first history of the colony
based on the documents in the Public Records Office. See also
E. L. Whitney, " Bibliography of the Colonial History of South
Carolina," in Annual Report of the American Historical Association
for the Year 1894 (Washington, 1895). _More distinctly legal and
political in character are three doctors' monographs: Edson L.
Whitney, Government of the Colony of South Carolina (Baltimore,
1895), based too exclusively on the statutes; D. D. Wallace, Con-
stitutional History of South Carolina from 1725 to 1775 (Abbeville,
S. C., 1899; new ed., 1908), a very brief summary; and W. Roy
Smith, South Carolina as a Royal Province, 1719-1776 (New York,
1903), based on the manuscript sources at Columbia. The standard
work for the War of Independence is Edward McCrady, The History
Democrat-Republican
1814-1816
H
1816-1818
II
I8I8-I820
it
1820-1822
it
1822-1824
ri
1824-1826
1826-1828
Democrat
1828-1830
>f
1830-1832
H
1832-1834
t
1834-1836
t>
1836-1838
tt
1838-1840
(acting)
1840
If
1840-1842
ft
1842-1844
H
1844-1846
H
1846-1848
H
1848-1850
it
1850-1852
t
1852-1854
tt
1854-1856
it
1856-1858
tl
1858-1860
ft
I860-I862
tt
1862-1864
t
1864-1865
(provi-
sional)
1865
Conservative
1865-1868
(military governor)
1868-
Republican
1868-1872
11
1872-1874
11
1874-1876
Democrat
1876-1879
,, (acting)
1879-1880
(acting)
1880
H
1880-1882
f ,
1882-1886
(acting)
1886
tt
1886-1890
t*
1890-1894
tt
1894-1897
ft
1897-1899
I)
1899-1903
1903-1907
,,
1907-1911
It
igil-
506
SOUTHCOTT SOUTH DAKOTA
of South Carolina in the Revolution, 1776^-1783 (2 vols., New York,
1901-1902). Older books on the subject are David Ramsay,
History of the Revolution of South Carolina from a British Colony to
an Independent State (2 vols., Trenton, 1785); William Moultrie,
Memoirs of the American Revolution, so far as it related to the States
of North and South Carolina and Georgia (2 vols., New York, 1802) ;
John Drayton, Memoirs of the American Revolution relating to the
State of South Carolina (2 vols., Charleston, 1821) ; and R. W. Gibbes,
Documentary History of the American Revolution (3 vols., Columbia,
1853; New York, 1857). Very little has been written on the period
since 1783. David F. Houston, Critical Study of Nullification in
South Carolina (New York, 1896), is a concise, scholarly work.
Hermann von Hoist's John C. Calhoun (Boston, 1892), is written
from the extreme nationalistic and anti-slavery point of view.
For the Civil War and Reconstruction, see James Ford Rhodes,
History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (5 vols.,
New York, 1893-1904); James S. Pike, The Prostrate State; or
South Carolina under Negro Government (New York, 1874); Carl
Schurz, Report on the States of South Carolina, Georgia, &c. (Washing-
ton, 1865, being 39th Congress, 1st session, Sen. Ex. Doc. 2); Hilary
A. Herbert and others, Why the Solid South ? (Baltimore, 1890);
and John P. Hollis, The Early Period of Reconstruction in South
Carolina (Baltimore, 1905), containing an excellent discussion of
the period from 1865 to 1868. For the religious history see Frederick
Dalcho, An Historical Account of the Protestant Episcopal Church
in South Carolina from the first Settlement of the Province to the War
of the Revolution (Charleston, 1820); G. D. Bernheim, History of
the German Settlements and of the Lutheran Church in North and
South Carolina (Philadelphia, 1872). An excellent monograph
on the controversy between the Up Country and the Low Country
is William A. Schaper, Sectionalism and Representation in South
Carolina (Washington, 1901). Among the chief printed sources
are the North Carolina Colonial Records (10 vols., Raleigh, 1886-
1890), useful for the early period; B. R. Carroll, Historical Collections
of South Carolina (2 vols., New York, 1836) ; and the South Carolina
Historical Society Collections (5 vols., Charleston, 1857, 1858, 1859,
1887 and 1897 vol. v. contains the Shaftesbury Papers).
SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA (1750-1814), English religious fanatic,
was .born at Gittisham in Devonshire. Her father was a
farmer and she herself was for a considerable time a domestic
servant. She was originally a Methodist, but about 1792, be-
coming persuaded that she possessed supernatural gifts, she
wrote and dictated prophecies in rhyme, and then announced
herself as the woman spoken of in Rev. xii. Coming to
London at the request of William Sharp (1749-1824), the
engraver, she began to " seal " the 144,000 elect at a charge
varying from twelve shillings to a guinea. When over sixty
she affirmed that she would be delivered of Shiloh on the igth of
October 1814, but Shiloh failed to appear, and it was given
out that she was in a trance. She died of brain disease on the
29th of the same month. Her followers are said to have
numbered over 100,000, and only became extinct at the end
of the 1 9th century.
Among her sixty publications, all equally incoherent in
thought and grammar, may be mentioned: Strange Effects of
Faith (1801-1802), Free Exposition of the Bible (1804), The Book
of Wonders (1813-1814), and Prophecies announcing the Birth
of the Prince of Peace (1814). A lady named Essam left large
sums of money for printing and publishing the Sacred Writings
of Joanna Southcott. The will was disputed by a niece on the
ground that the writings were blasphemous, but the court of
chancery sustained it.
See D. Roberts, Observations on the Divine Mission of Joanna
Southcott (1807) ; R. Reece, Correct Statement of the Circumstances
attending the Death of Joanna Southcott (1815).
SOUTH DAKOTA, one of the North Central states of the
American Union, lying between 42 28' and 45 57' N. Lat,
and 96 26' and 104 3' W. long. It is bounded N. by North
Dakota; E. by Minnesota and Iowa; S. by Nebraska; and W.
by Wyoming and Montana. Lake Traverse and the Big Stone
Lake separate the state in part from Minnesota; the Big Sioux
River forms most of the boundary between South Dakota and
Iowa; and the Missouri river separates the state in part from
Nebraska. South Dakota has an extreme length, east and
west, of 380 m., an extreme width, north and south, of 245 m.,
and a total area of 77,615 sq. m., of which 747 sq. m. are
water-surface.
Topography. With the exception of the Black Hills district in
the south-west, the state is a wide rolling plain, with its eastern
portion a part of the Prairie Plains region, and its western portion
a part of the Great Plains. The surface of this plain, however,
ranges from level river valleys in the east to irregular plateaus
broken by buttes and scored by canons in the west. The lowest
part of the state is the surface of Big Stone Lake, ..bout 970 ft.
above the sea ; the highest point is Harney Peak in the Black Hills,
which rises to a height of 7216 ft. The state as a whole has a mean
elevation of 2200 ft., with 270 sq. m. below 1000 ft. ; 42,300 sq. m.
between 1000 and 2000 ft. ; 23,000 sq. m. between 2000 and 3000 ft. ;
10,700 sq. m. between 3000 and 5000 ft.; and 1380 sq. m. between
5000 and 8000 ft.
In the extreme north-east there is a range of low hills known
as the Coteau des Prairies, which crosses the state in a S.S.E.
direction through Marshall, Roberts, Grant and Deuel counties
and maintains an almost constant altitude of from 1950 to 2050 ft.
It forms the divide between the headwaters of the Minnesota
river on the east and of the James river on the west. To the,
south and west of the Coteau des Prairies lie vast stretches of
plains, including the valleys of the Big Sioux and James rivers.
This region presents no striking topographic features except the
numerous small lakes which occupy the hollows created by the
continental ice-sheet. The greater part of the James River Valley
lies in the bed of the extinct Lake Dakota, which was once a very
narrow body of water extending northward from about the latitude
of the present town of Mitchell for a short distance into what is
now North Dakota. West of the James River Valley lies an elevated
table-land, known as the Coteau du Missouri, which marks the water-
parting between the James and the Missouri rivers, and has a general
elevation of about 1800 ft. Along the west boundary of the state
the general elevation of the Great Plains is about 3500 ft. As the
part east of the river was once covered by the ice-sheet, its hills
have been lowered and its valleys filled through the attrition of
glaciers until the surface has a gently undulating appearance.
West of the Missouri river the sheet of glacial drift is absent, and
the lands everywhere show evidence of extensive stream erosion.
The surface is broken by many clusters of small hills, such as the
Fox Ridge in the central part of the state and the Cave Hills in the
north-west, and in the vicinity of streams it is much cut up by
deep ravines. In the south-west the results of this erosion are seen
in an accentuated form in the region between the White river and
the South Fork of the Cheyenne river, known as the Bad Lands or
terres mauvaises. This area extends from the loist meridian up
the White river for about 120 m. and varies in width from 30 to
50 m. Here the land surface has been carved into forms in infinite
variety. Many slender columns of clay, supporting masses of
sandstone which have protected them from erosion, rise from the
surface like gigantic toadstools. The sides of these ridges and
pinnacles are bare of vegetation and display a variety of colours
in buff, cream, pale green, grey and flesh. The most prominent
features of the landscape rise from 150 to 300 ft. above the valleys;
the latter and the flat tops of the mesas are sometimes covered
with a scanty soil and a sparse growth of grass. These Bad Lands
were once a fairly level plain, but intricate stream erosion produced
the labyrinth of ravines and ridges for which the region is noted.
The Bad Lands of the White river are also noted for their wealth
of animal fossils, which have been found in such quantities as to
cause geologists to believe that the vertebrates perished there in
droves during a severe storm or flood. Other Bad Lands, on a
less impressive scale, are found along the Grand and the Moreau
or Owl rivers. North-west of the Bad Lands of the White river lie
the Black Hills (?..), an irregular dome-shaped uplift, about 125 m.
long and 60 m. wide, lying partly in Wyoming, and with the main
axis trending almost north-west and south-east. The uplift is
completely enclosed by a rim of hog-back ridges from 300 to 600 ft.
above the plain, and between this rim and the hills proper lies the
Red Valley, a tract about 3 m. wide and bordered on the inner
side by the main mass of limestone and crystalline rocks which have
in general a height of 4000 or 5000 ft. above the sea some ridges
and peaks rise higher still. Upon this limestone plateau there is
a central area of high ridges, among them the rough crags of Harney,
Custer and Dodge peaks. Between the ridges of the central area
lie wide valleys and " parks." The streams flowing from the central
area have cut deep gorges and canons, and among the ridges the
granitic rocks have assumed many strange forms. Though rising
from a semi-arid plateau, these mountains have sufficient rainfall
to support an abundant plant growth, and have derived their
name from the fact that their slopes are dark with heavy forests.
Cathedral Park in the southern portion, Spearfish Canon in the
north, and the extensive fossil forest at the foot of Mattie's Peak are
noteworthy; while the Crystal Cave, near Piedmont, and the Wind
Cave, near Hot Springs, are almost unrivalled.
With the exception of the extreme north-east, the state lies within
the drainage system of the Missouri river. This stream enters the
state near the centre of the northern boundary, pursues a winding
south-easterly course, and from its intersection with the 43rd
parallel of N. lat. to its junction with the Big Sioux river separates
South Dakota from Nebraska. The Big Sioux river rises in the
Coteau des Prairies in the north-east and flows almost directly
south for nearly 2OO m., in the lower part of its course forming
-&Rf- a-
SOUTH DAKOTA
57
the boundary between South Dakota and Iowa. To the west
of this stream and almost parallel with it is the James or Dakota
river, which rises in North Dakota and follows a general
course southward until it joins the Missouri river near Yankton.
From the west the Missouri receives the Grand, Moreau or Owl,
Cheyenne and White rivers. Of these the Cheyenne is the most
important, being formed by two branches, the Belle Fourche and
the South Fork, which, after almost completely encircling the
Black Hills, unite at a point nearly 350 m. from their sources.
Many of the smaller streams in the Black Hills lose their waters
in their lower courses through seepage and evaporation. The
Minnesota river has its source in the north-east, and the Big Stone
Lake, a body of water about 25 m. long and 3 m. wide, forms a
connecting link between its headwaters and the rest of the stream.
North of this lake lies Lake Traverse, 27 m. long and 3 m. wide,
whose waters flow north into the Bois de Sioux river, whence they
flow into 'the Red River (of the North). The portion of South
Dakota east of the Missouri river is dotted with numerous lakes,
ranging from small ponds to bodies of water from 10 to 15 m. in
diameter. The plains, except in the south-east corner, are under-
laid by sheets of water-bearing sandstone, which carry a volume
of water under such pressure that in the valleys of the James
river and the Missouri river and its western tributaries a strong
surface flow may be obtained from artesian wells. In 1905 over
a thousand wells had been sunk east of the Missouri, and the flow
was estimated at 7,000,000 gallons per day.
Fauna and Flora. Large game within the state is practically
extinct. The herds of bison, antelope and elk that once roamed
the prairies have vanished, but a few mountain sheep still graze
on the grass-covered mesas in inaccessible portions of the Bad
Lands. There, too, the grey (or timber) wolf and the coyote are
found. The species of small animals do not differ from those found
in other parts of the Middle West.
The total woodland area has been estimated at 2500 sq. m.,
about 3-25% of the land area, and of this amount 2000 sq. m. are
in the Black Hills district. All the higher lands of this area are
covered by forests; but the Red Valley, lying between the outer
ridges and the main uplift, is treeless. Most of the forest consists
of yellow pine, but the spruce, aspen, white birch, bur oak, box
elder, red cedar, white elm and cottonwood are among the other
varieties found. With the exception of narrow strips of woodland
along the courses of the larger streams, the rest of the state consists
of treeless prairie-lands, which are usually covered with valuable
grasses. In the more arid regions the sage-brush and cactus make
their appearance. Two national forests contained (1910) 2022 sq. m.
Climate. The climate of South Dakota is of a continental type.
Owing to the northern latitude, comparatively high altitudes,
and the great distance from the ocean, there are great annual
variations of temperature and a very small amount of rainfall.
The state is coldest in the north-east and warmest in the region
south of the Cheyenne and west of the M issouri river. The isothermal
lines trend from south-east to north-west. The winters are long
and marked by exceedingly low temperatures, but as they are the
driest season of the year, the extremes are not so disagreeable as
they would be in a more humid region. The mean winter tempera-
ture ranges from 13 F. at Aberdeen in the northern part of the
James River Valley to 25 at Rapid City, in the Black Hills district.
The absolute minima at these two places are respectively 46 and
-29; the absolute maxima, III and 106, and the mean annual
temperatures, 42 and 46. At Brookings, in the extreme east,
the mean annual temperature is 43; the mean for the summer
is 68 with an extreme recorded of 104; the mean for the winter
is 15 with an extreme recorded of -41. At Ashcroft, in the ex-
treme north-west, the mean annual temperature is 44; the mean
for the summer 68; and for the winter 20; while the highest and
lowest temperatures ever recorded are respectively 1 14 and 44.
The average annual amount of rainfall for the state is about
20 in., ranging from 13-9 in. at Ashcroft to 25-9 in. at Aberdeen.
It is usually greatest in the valleys of the James and Big Sioux
rivers and least in the extreme north-central and north-western
parts of the state. The averagf amount of rainfall for the spring
is 6 or 7 in. ; for the summer, 8 or 9 in. ; for the autumn, 3 or 4 in. ;
and for the winter, I or 2 in. The snows are generally light, and
cattle may graze on the prairies during ;most of the winter; but
there are occasional severe " blizzards," which are accompanied
by intense cold and high winds.
Soils. The glacial drift east of the Missouri river, unlike that of
the New England states, is remarkably free from boulders and
gravel, except in a few morainic belts. It is often locally enriched
by vegetable mould, and is well adapted for wheat-growing. West
of the Missouri river the drift gives place to a fine soil of sand and
clay, with deposits of alluvium in the vicinity of streams. Though
lacking in vegetable mould, these soils are generally capable of
producing good crops where the water-supply is sufficient. The
larger valleys of the Black Hills district contain fertile alluvial
deposits washed from the neighbouring highlands, but in the plains
adjoining these mountains the soils consist of a stiff gumbo suit-
able only for pasture land. There are throughout the state occasional
tracts in which, owing to deficient drainage, an excess of alkali
has accumulated, and which require special treatment before they
can be made again productive.
Irrigation. South Dakota in 1889 had only 15,717 acres of
irrigated land. Ten years later this area had increased to 43,676
acres. Of the total, 38,453 acres were irrigated by streams and
5,223 acres by wells. The area irrigated by streams was con-
fined largely to the Black Hills region,_ the water being supplied
by the North Fork and the South Fork rivers, which are tributaries
of the Cheyenne. The artesian basin of the east part of the state
is fairly well developed, several wells having a flow of from 2000 to
435 gallons per minute and a pressure of 150 ft to the square inch.
Under the Reclamation Act passed by Congress in 1902 the irriga-
tion of 100,000 acres in the Belle Fourche Valley adjacent to the
Black Hills region was provided for. It provides for a dam
across Owl Creek 6500 ft. long and 20 ft. wide on top, and for two
main canals from this distributing centre, one the north canal
supplying water for the irrigation of 66,857 acres north of the
Belle Fourche river and east of Owl Creek, and the other the south
canal for the irrigation of 28,240 acres south of the Belle Fourche.
Lateral canals are provided from the main canals to each farm.
Agriculture. Agriculture is the leading industry in South Dakota;
in 1900 out of 137,156 persons engaged in occupations, 82,857
followed agricultural pursuits. In 1890 the total acreage devoted
to farming was 11,396,460, which in 1900 had increased to 19,070,616.
The percentage of improved acreage, however, fell during the same
period from 61-1 % in 1890 to 59-2 % in 1900. This was due largely
to the opening up of land which had formerly not been utilized.
The average size of farms (excluding farms under 3 acres with
products valued at less than $500) was 227-2 acres in 1890 and
364-1 acres in 1900. The value of all farm property increased
from 8145,527,556 in 1890 to $297,525,302 in 1900. The average
farm value also rose during these ten years from $2901 to $5654,
and the value per acre advanced from $12-77 to $15-60. Fewer
farms were worked by owners in 1900 than in 1890, the percentage
in the former year being 78-2 and in the latter year 86-6. In 1900
share tenants worked 18-4% of the farms and cash tenants, 3-4%.
The total value of farm products in 1899 was $66,082,419 as against
$22,047,279 in 1889. Of the total product value in 1899, 78-3 %
was represented by cereals, South Dakota ranking sixteenth among
the states in cereal production. Wheat constituted 60-7% of the
total for all cereals, Indian corn 21-1%, oats 11-9% and barley
5-8%. A considerable area was devoted to the cultivation of
apples, plums and cherries. The total acreage of spring wheat,
the state's leading crop, in 1909 was 3,375,ooo with a yield of
47,588,000 bush, valued at $4^2,829,000, South Dakota ranking
third among the states. Next in importance in 1909 came Indian
corn with an acreage of 2,059,000 and a product of 65,270,000
bush. ($32,635,000). Oats had an acreage of 1,450,000 and a
product of 49,600,000 bush. ($14,790,000). Barley was cultivated
on 1,021,000 acres, the product amounting to 19,910,000 bush.
($8,960,000). In the quantity of barley produced the state ranked
fifth. In its output of flax, grown almost entirely for the seed,
the state held second rank with a product of 5,640,000 bush.
($8,516,000). The hay acreage was 536,000 and the production,
804,000 tons. Wheat grows chiefly in the east and north-east
parts of the state, especially in Brown, Spink, Roberts, Day and
Grant counties, the largest crop in 1899 being that of Brown county,
3,320,570 bush., or about one-twelfth of the state's product. Corn
grows throughout the western half of the state, and especially in
the south-western parts, in Lincoln, Clay, Union, Yankton and
Bonhommie counties, the largest crop in 1899 being that of Lincoln
county, 3,914,840 bush., nearly one-eleventh of the state crop.
Oats has a distribution similar to that of corn, the largest crop
in 1899 being that of Minnehaha county, 1,666,110 bush., about
one-nineteenth of the state crop. Barley grows principally in the
eastern and southern parts of the state Minnehaha, Moody,
Lake and Brookings counties the largest crop in 1899 being that
of Minnehaha county, 932,860 bush., more than one-seventh of
the state.
The state is especially well adapted for grazing, and during
1890-1900 there was a large increase in the number offarm animals.
The gain was chiefly confined to cattle, but the number of horses,
sheep and swine also showed substantial increases. The value of
all livestock in 1890 was $29,689,509 and in 1900, $65,173,432.
The number and value respectively of the various farm ani-
mals on the 1st of January 1910 were as follows: horses,
612,000 ($64,260,000), dairy cows, 656,000 ($21,648,000) ; other cattle,
1,341,000 ($28,832,000); swine, 805,000 ($8,936,000); and sheep,
829,000 ($3,316,000).
Mining. The minerals of South Dakota, of which gold is the
most important, are chiefly found in the Black Hills region. This
section covers about 3500 sq. m. in the south-east part of the state
and includes the counties of Lawrence, Custer, Meade, Pennington
and Fall River. Silver follows gold in importance, but the other
minerals met with, including gypsum, mica, petroleum, natural
gas, granite, marble and tin are not found in paying quantities.
Gold was first discovered in French Creek, Custer county, on the
27th of July 1874 by miners who were with Custer's expedition.
Gold was also found later in Lawrence county north of Custer.
5o8
SOUTH DAKOTA
and the Homestake Belt in the former county has ever since been
the chief producer in the state. For ten years after the Black
Hills were thrown open little gold was mined because of the lack
of railway facilities. Cement deposits were discovered in the Black
Hills region in 1876 and in the same year the first quartz mill
was set up in Deadwood. In 1889 a cement plant was built at
Yankton, and it is still worked although the output is small. Mica-
mining was also carried on for- a time but was soon abandoned.
The first natural gas-well in the state was drilled at Pierre in 1892.
The total value of all mineral products in 1902 was $6,769,104,
of which $6,464,258 were represented by gold and silver, $i 10,789
by sandstones and quartzites and $86,605 by limestones and
dolomites; in 1908 the total value was $8,528,234, which was an
increase of more than $3,500,000 over the value in 1907. This
increase was due almost entirely to the gain in the gold output
which advanced in value from $4,138.200 in 1907 to $7,742,200 in
1908. The total amount of gold mined in 1908 was 374,529 fine
ounces, the greater part coming from the Homestake Mine In
1908, 197,300 oz. of silver were obtained, valued at $105,500 as
against $70,400 in 1907 and $101,086 in 1906.
Manufactures. Manufacturing in South Dakota is of little
importance and is confined chiefly to articles for home consumption.
Between 1890 and 1900 the number of establishments increased
from 499 to 1639, the capital invested from $3,207,796 to $7,578,895,
and the value of products from $5,682,748 to $12,231,239. Under
the factory system there were 624 establishments in 1900 and 686
in 1905; the capital invested in 1900 was $6,051,288 and in 1905
$7,585,142; and the value of the products was $9,529,946 in 1900
and $13,085,333 in 1905. Both in 1900 and 1905 flour and grist-
mill products ranked first in value, the figures for 1900 being
$3,208,532 and for 1905 $6,519,364. The second industry was the
manufacture of cheese, butter and condensed milk, and the third,
printing and publishing. Sioux Falls is the principal industrial
centre.
Transportation. The railway mileage of Dakota in 1870 (before
the present states of South and North Dakota were erected) was
only 75 m., and in 1880, 1225 m. In 1890 the mileage of South
Dakota was 2610 m., in 1900, 2961 m., and in 1909, 3776 m. The
principal systems are the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Great
Northern and the North-western. The principal waterway is the
Missouri River, whose channel has an average depth at low water
of about 2j ft. between Sioux City and Fort Benton, Montana, but
the constant shifting of the channel makes navigation uncertain.
Population. The total population of South Dakota in 1890
(the date of the first Federal census taken since its separate
existence as a state) was 328,808, and in 1900 it was 401,570;
the increase from 1890 to 1900 being (exclusive of persons on
Indian reservations) 16-8%. In 1910, according to the U.S.
census, the total was 583,888. Of the population in 1900,
380,714 were whites, 88,508 were foreign-born, 465 were negroes,
and 20,225 were Indians. Of the Indians 9293 were taxed.
The population on Indian reservations in 1890 was 19,792;
in 1900, 17,683. The Indians on reservations and in Indian
schools include members of the Yankton, Yanktonai, Oglala,
Brule, Sisseton, Wahpeton, Flandreau, Sioux, Blackfeet, Mini-
conjou, Sans Arc and Ute tribes, on the Standing Rock and
Cheyenne River reservations in the north of the state, the Lower
Brule and Crow Creek reservations in the central part, and the
Pine Ridge and Rosebud reservations in the south. The figures
for inhabitants born in the United States but not within the state
show a preponderance of immigration from neighbouring states,
there being, in 1900, 31,047 natives of Iowa, 24,995 natives of
Wisconsin, 18,565 of Minnesota and 16,145 of Illinois, out of a
total of 313,062. Of the total foreign-born population of 88,508,
19,788 were Norwegians, 17,873 Germans, 12,365 Russians,
5906 English Canadians, 5038 Danes, 3862 English and 3298
Irish. Of the total population 245,383 were of foreign parentage
i.e. either one or both parents foreign-born and of those having
both father and mother of foreign birth there were 44,516 of
German parentage, 44,119 of Norwegian, 25,113 of Russian
and 11,222 of Irish parentage. From 1890 to 1900, on the basis
of places having 4000 inhabitants or more, the urban population
increased from 10,177 in 1890 to 28,743 i" 19; so that there
was the remarkable increase of 182-4% m urban population
against an increase of 16-8% in the total population. In
1900 there were seven cities having 3000 or more inhabitants:
Sioux Falls with 10,266; Lead, 6210; Yankton, 4125; Aberdeen,
4087; Mitchell, 4055; Deadwood, 3498; and Waterton, 3352. 1
1 In 1905, according to a state census, there were nine cities with
3000 or more inhabitants, showing some changes in order of size:
In 1906 the total number of communicants of different religious
denominations in the state was 161,951, of whom 61,014 were
Roman Catholics, 45,018 Lutherans, 16,143 Methodists, 8599
Congregationalists, 7055 Protestant Episcopalians, 6990 Presby-
terians and 6198 Baptists.
Administration. The state is governed under its original
constitution of 1889, with amendments of 1896, 1898, 1900,
1902, 1904 and 1909. The suffrage is granted to all males 2
resident in an election precinct for ten days, in the county for
thirty days, in the state for six months, in the United States for
one year, and 21 years of age, except those under guardianship
or insane, and those convicted of treason or felony, unless
restored to civil rights. The legislature may propose amend-
ments to the constitution by a majority vote of all members
elected to each of the two houses, or may issue a call for a
constitutional convention by a two-thirds' majority. In either
case the proposition must be ratified by popular vote at the
next general election.
The chief administrative officers are a governor, secretary of
state, auditor, treasurer (not eligible for more than two con-
secutive terms), superintendent of public instruction, attorney-
general, and commissioner of school and public lands, ah 1
elected biennially by direct popular vote. The governor and
lieutenant-governor must be citizens of the United States,
qualified electors of the state, at least thirty years old, and
residents of the state for two years preceding the election.
The governor may remit fines and forfeitures, and grant re-
prieves, commutations and pardons, but in the more serious
cases only on the recommendation of a board of pardons,
composed of the presiding judge, the secretary of state, and the
attorney-general. He has a veto power extending to items in
appropriation bills, which may be overcome by a two-thirds'
vote in each house. A lieutenant-governor, chosen biennially,
presides over the senate.
The legislative department consists of a Senate (with not
fewer than twenty-five and not more than forty-five members)
and a House of Representatives (with not fewer than seventy-
five and not more than 135 members) chosen biennially. Sena-
tors and representatives must be qualified electors, citizens of
the United States, at least twenty-five years old, and residents
of the state for two years next preceding election. The sessions
of the legislature are biennial and are limited to sixty days.
Bills may originate in either house, and either house may amend
the bills of the other house. A constitutional amendment pro-
viding for minority representation in the House of Representa-
tives was rejected in 1889 by a large popular vote. South
Dakota was the first American state to adopt the initiative and
referendum. Under a constitutional amendment, adopted by
popular vote on the 8th of November 1898, 5% of the legal
voters of the state may require the legislature to submit to
popular vote at the next general election measures which they
wish enacted into law, or measures already passed by the legis-
lature which have not yet gone into force. Exceptions to the
referendum are made in the case of laws necessary for the
immediate preservation of the public peace, health, or safety,
or the support of the state government or the various state
institutions. In practice the legislature has interpreted these
exceptions so freely that nearly all important laws are passed
with emergency clauses. The governor's veto does not apply
to measures passed by popular vote.
The judicial department consists of the supreme court,
circuit courts, county courts, justices of the peace, and police
Sioux Falls, 12,283; Lead, 8052; Aberdeen, 5841; Mitchell, 5719;
Watertown, 5164; Deadwood, 4364; Yankton, 4189; Huron, 3783;
Brookings, 3265. Pierre, the capital, had a population of 2794.
1 The constitution provided for the submission to the^ people in
November 1890 of the question whether the word " male " m Article
vii. of the constitution as adopted be omitted, but the popular vote
in 1890 and again in 1898 did not favour this change. In the original
constitution it was provided that any woman having the qualifica-
tions as to age, residence and citizenship might vote at any election
held solely for school purposes and " hold any office in this state
except as otherwise provided in this constitution."
SOUTH DAKOTA
509
magistrates. The supreme court consists of five judges chosen
for six years the term for the first judges elected under the
constitution of 1889 was four years. The state is divided into
five districts and one judge is chosen from each district, although
the election is made by the voters of the state at large. The
court has appellate jurisdiction only, except for the power to
issue writs of mandamus, quo warranto, certiorari, injunction
and other original -and remedial writs. The state is divided
into ten circuits, and one judge is elected by the voters of each
circuit for a period of four years. The legislature may, by a
two-thirds' vote of each house, increase the number of circuits
or the number of judges. The circuit courts have original
jurisdiction of all actions and causes, both at law and in equity
and such appellate jurisdiction as may be conferred by law.
In each county there is a county court with a county judge
who is elected by popular vote for two years. The court has
original jurisdiction in probate cases, in civil cases involving
$1000 or less, and in criminal cases below the grade of felony.
Under an act of 1893 three-fourths of a jury may render
a verdict in lesser civil cases in county and circuit courts.
The jurisdiction of justices of the peace is determined by law,
but it is restricted by the constitution to cases involving
$ i co or less.
For the administration of local government the state is
divided into counties (64 in 1910) and these in turn are sub-
divided into townships and municipal corporations. Although
the township exists throughout the state, in many cases it is
organized only for school purposes and in many others its juris-
diction is so restricted as not to extend to the villages and
boroughs within its limits. The county authority is a board
of commissioners elected on a general ticket, the township
authority a board of supervisors or trustees. For each county
there are a judge, clerk of the court, sheriff, auditor, registrar
of deeds, treasurer, state's attorney, surveyor, coroner and
superintendent of schools, all elected biennially.
Miscellaneous Laws. A primary law enacted in 1905 authorizes
the county convention of any party to provide for the nomination
of candidates for county offices and the state legislature by direct
vote. The state has had a varied experience in dealing with the
liquor problem. A constitutional ordinance forbidding the manufac-
ture, importation and sale of intoxicants was adopted on the 1st
of October 1889 by a vote of 40,234 to 34,510. The decision of the
United States Supreme Court in the case of Leisy v. Hardin in 1890
(see NORTH DAKOTA), and the lax enforcement of the ordinance in
the larger towns soon resulted in an active movement for repeal.
A state dispensary, similar to that of South Carolina (<?..), was
established in 1898 by a vote of 22,170 to 20,557, but it proved
ineffective and was superseded in 1900 by the licence system. An
attempt to introduce county local options was defeated in the election
of 1908.
South Dakota long bore a notorious reputation for the laxity of
its divorce laws. The grounds for action are still numerous. An
act of 1907, ratified by popular vote in the election of 1908, raised
the term of residence under which a person could apply for divorce
from six months to one year, and provided that all cases should be
tried openly at the regular term of court ; and since the passage of
this law Sioux Falls has ceased to be notorious for its divorce colony
from other states. Neither husband nor wife has any interest in
the separate property of the other and the wife may convey her real
estate, other than a homestead, without her husband's consent, but
the husband must support his wife out of his property or by his
labour if he is able, and if he is unable the wife must support him so
far as possible out of her property. The one may enter into contract
with the other respecting property, and they may hold property as
joint tenants. The descent of the estate of a husband dying
intestate is the same as that of a wife dying intestate; if there is
only one child, or the issue of only one child, the surviving spouse is
entitled to one-half of the estate; if more than one child, to one-third
of the estate; and if no children, father, mother, brother or sister,
to the whole of the estate. The homestead of any family in the state
is exempt from attachment, lien or forced sale, except for taxes or
purchase money, provided it has been properly recorded ; but it can
embrace only one dwelling house, cannot include gold or silver
mines, and is limited in value to $5000 to one acre if within a town
plat, to 40 acres if it is in the country and was acquired under the
laws of the United States relating to mineral lands, and to 160 acres
of other land in the country. If the owner is married the homestead
cannot be sold or mortgaged without the concurrence of both
husband and wife. Upon the death of either husband or wife the
exemption may be continued for the benefit of the surviving spouse,
and upon the death of both husband and wife the exemption may be
continued until the youngest child is of age.
Education. At the head of the public-school system is a super-
intendent of public instruction chosen for two years. In each county
there is a county superintendent, ?nd in each school district a board
of directors. When the state was admitted into the union two
sections of land (1280 acres) in each township were set aside for
educational purposes. The permanent school fund amounted to
$4,852,567 on the 1st of July 1907. In 1908 the total expenditures
for public schools were $3,152,006 ($1,633,594 being for teachers'
salaries) and the total receipts were $3,853,695, of which $2,283,038
was from district taxes. In 1910 the total permanent school fund
was $7,725,583 and the estimated value of the unsold lands held
for the common schools and other educational endowments was
$3,068,172. The schools are open to all pupils between the ages of
six and twenty-one, and attendance for twelve weeks each year,
eight of which must be consecutive, is compulsory for those between
the ages of eight and fourteen. In the school year 1907-1908 77%
of all persons of school age were enrolled in the public schools. The
educational institutions of the state are all under the management
of a board of regents of five members, who are appointed by the
governor, with the approval of the senate for terms of six years.
The leading state institutions are the state university (1882) at
Vermilion, the agricultural college (1884) and the agricultural
experiment station at Brookings, the state school of mines (1886) at
Rapid City, and normal schools at Spearfish, Madison, Aberdeen and
Springfield. The state university is under the control of the board
of regents, and is maintained by the state and is the beneficiary of
86,000 acres of land grants from the Federal government. The
city of Vermilion and Clay county and private persons have contri-
buted largely to its support. It has a geological and mineralogical
museum and under its supervision is carried on the state geological
and natural history survey, the state geologist being head of the
department of geology and mineralogy of the university. The uni-
versity includes a college of arts and sciences, a school of commerce,
an art department and colleges of law, music and engineering. The
university (1910) had 51 instructors and 385 students. Denomi-
national colleges are Yankton College (1882) and Redfield College
(1887), both Congregational; Huron College (1883, Presbyterian),
and Dakota Wesleyan University (1885; Methodist Episcopal)
at Mitchell. The Norwegian Lutherans have a normal school at
Sioux Falls, and the Roman Catholics have schools of higher grade
at Sioux Falls, Deadwood and Aberdeen.
Charitable Institutions, &c. The state maintains a school for the
blind at Gary, a school for deaf mutes at Sioux Falls, a tuberculosis
sanatorium at Custer, a general hospital for the insane at Yankton,
a school for the feeble-minded at Redfield, a soldiers' home at Hot
Springs, a reform school at Plankinton, and a penitentiary at Sioux
Falls. All penal and charitable institutions are subject to the
control of a state board of charities and corrections composed of
five members appointed by the governor. A children's home at
Sioux Falls is partly under state control. There is a Federal
hospital for insane Indians at Canton.
Finance. The general property tax is the chief source of revenue
for state, county and local purposes. There is a local board of
assessment and equalization in each county and a general board for
the state at large. Corporations are reached through the general
property tax, but there is a small levy on fire insurance companies
for the support of the local fire departments. An inheritance tax
was adopted in 1905 which progresses in proportion to the distance
of relationship and the amount of the inheritance. 1 Poll taxes are
levied by the counties and townships for school and local purposes.
The current revenues of the state for the year ending on the 1st of
July 1909, including cash on hand at the beginning of the year, were
$4,148,734; for the same year the expenditures were $3,358,847.
There is a small nominal indebtedness, less than the cash surplus in
the treasury. The constitution fixes the debt limit at $100,000 over
and above the share of the territorial debt assumed at the time of
the formation of the state. The first national bank within the
present limits of the state was organized at Yankton in 1872.
History. The first authentic explorations in what is now
South Dakota were made by the Lewis and Clark expedition
in 1804 and 1806. The " Yellowstone," a steamboat sent out
by the American Fur Company, ascended the Missouri to Fort
Pierre in 1831 and to the mouth of the Yellowstone river in
1832. Among the passengers on the second trip was the well-
known painter and ethnologist, George Catlin, who spent
several weeks at Fort Pierre studying the manners and customs
of the Indians. Explorations were also made by Prince Maxi-
milian of Neuwied in 1832, by John C. Fremont in 1838, by
Edward Harris and John J. Audubon in 1843, and by various
others. Fort Pierre, which was founded by the American Fur
Company about 1832, was sold to the United States government
1 The rate for direct heirs and brothers and sisters is non-pro-
gressive.
SOUTHEND-ON-SEA SOUTHERNE
in 1855, and was converted into a military post. A settlement
was made at Sioux Falls in 1856, but was abandoned about six
years afterwards. In the meantime several small colonies had
been established east of the Missouri River, but growth was
much hampered by the Civil War and by Indians. Although
it was not the centre of operations, the south of the territory
suffered considerably in the various uprisings under Spotted
Tail, Red Cloud and Sitting Bull in 1863-65, 1867, and 1875-76
(see NORTH DAKOTA and CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG).
A railway (part of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul system)
was built from Sioux City to Yankton in 1872-1873, and in
1874 General Custer led an exploring expedition into the Black
Hills, which resulted in the discovery of gold and the rapid
settlement of a considerable portion of the west of the territory.
A movement was at once begun to break up the great
Sioux reservation, partly because it cut off this region from
the older settlements east of the Missouri and partly because
it contained a large amount of land which was very valuable
for farming and grazing purposes. In 1876 the Indians ceded
their title to lands in the Black Hills. Under the Dawes Allot-
ment Act of February 1887, and a special statute of March
1889, an agreement was made with some Indians, and about
11,000,000 acres, or about half of the reserve, was thrown open
to settlement on the loth of February 1890. This included,
roughly speaking, all of the land between the Missouri River
and the Black Hills and between the White River and the Big
Cheyenne and a strip extending north from the Black Hills to the
North Dakota line between the toand and iO3rd meridians.
The remainder was divided into six smaller reservations, Stand-
ing Rock, lying partly in North Dakota, and Cheyenne River,
Lower Brule, Crow Creek, Rosebud, and Pine Ridge in South
Dakota. Angered by this sacrifice of their lands and excited
by prophecies of the coming of the Messiah, a considerable
number of the Indians went on the warpath, but after a short
campaign they were defeated by General Nelson A. Miles in the
battle of Wounded Knee on the 2gth of December 1890, and
were compelled to make their submission. Since that time the
whites have steadily encroached on the reservations. About
56,560 acres of Lower Brule lands were opened for settlement
in 1889, about 1,600,000 acres of Sisseton and Wahpeton lands 1
in 1892, 168,000 acres of the Yankton Sioux lands in 1895,
416,000 acres of the Rosebud lands in 1904, and 800,000 acres
in 1908.
The territory included within the present limits of the state
was a part of the district of Louisiana from 1803 to 1805, of
the territory of Louisiana from 1805 to 1812, and of the terri-
tory of Missouri from 1812 to 1820. After the formation of the
state of Missouri in 1820 it remained unorganized, the section
east of the Missouri River until 1834, and the section west
until 1854. The eastern section was successively a part of
the territories of Michigan 1834-1836, Wisconsin 1836-1838,
Iowa 1838-1849 and Minnesota 1840-1858, and the western
section a part of the territory of Nebraska 1854-1861. On the
admission of Minnesota into the Union in 1858, the eastern
section was again left unorganized until the 2nd of March
1861, when the territory of Dakota was created, including the
present Dakotas and portions of Wyoming and Montana.
With the organization of the territory of Idaho in 1863 and the
settlement of the southern boundary in 1870 and 1882, the
Dakotas acquired their present territorial limits (see NORTH
DAKOTA). The inhabitants of the south of the territory held a
convention at Sioux Falls in 1885, adopted a state constitution
on the 3rd of November, and applied for admission into the Union.
A proposition to divide the territory into two states at the forty-
sixth parallel was sanctioned by popular vote in the election of
November 1887. Ip v accordance with the Enabling Act, which
received the President's approval on the 22nd of February
1889, a convention met at Sioux Falls on the 4th of the following
July and re-adopted, with some slight verbal changes, the con-
stitution of 1885. This was ratified at the polls on the ist of
October, together with a separate prohibition clause, which was
1 Part of this tract was situated in North Dakota.
carried by a vote of 40,234 to 34,510 (see Administration).
On the 2nd of November 1889 President Harrison issued a
proclamation declaring South Dakota a state. Subsequently,
notwithstanding a temporary set-back due to the panic of 1893,
there was a rapid increase of population and wealth. The
immigrants came mainly from the northern states and from
Scandinavia. In national politics South Dakota has been
consistently Republican, except in the election of 1896, when,
as a result of the hard times which followed the panic, the
Populists and Democrats were able to form a coalition and carry
the state for William J. Bryan.
GOVERNORS.
Arthur C. Mellette
Charles H. Sheldon
Andrew E. Lee
Charles N. Herreid
Samuel H. Elrod
Coe I. Crawford
Robert S. Vessey
Republican
1889-1893
1893-1897
Populist 1897-1901
Republican 1901-1905
1905-1907
1907-1909
1909-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For physical description see the Bulletins of the
South Dakota Geological Survey (Vermilion, 1894 sqq.) ; N. H. Darton,
Geology and Underground Waters of South Dakota (Washington, 1909),
Water Supply Paper 227 of the U.S. Geological Survey; James
Edward Todd, " The Hydrographic History of South Dakota " in
vol. xiii. of the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America
(Rochester, 1902). And for administration and history see Hagerty,
The Territory of Dakota (Aberdeen, 1889); E. L. Grantham, (ed.)
Statutes of South Dakota (2nd revised ed., 2 vols., 1901); Doane
Robinson, A Brief History of South Dakota (New York, 1905);
J. F. Kelly, Manual of the Township and Road Laws of South Dakota
1907; the state constitution, biennial reports of the auditor,
secretary of state and superintendent of public instruction, and
annual reports of the railway commissioners, insurance department
and treasurer.
SOUTHEND-ON-SEA, a municipal borough and watering-
place in the south-east parliamentary division of Essex, England,
on the estuary of the Thames. Pop. (1901), 28,857. Area,
5172 acres. It is 36 m. E. from London by the London, Tilbury
& Southend railway; and is served also by the Great Eastern
railway, and during the summer by steamers from London.
It first sprang into notice from a visit of Queen Caroline in
1804, and as it is the nearest seaside resort to London it is much
frequented. The bathing is good, but the tide recedes with
great rapidity and for nearly a mile. The pier, which is over
ij m. in length, permits the approach of steamers at all tides.
Westcliff-on-Sea, a western suburb, has a station on the London
and Tilbury line. Westward again is Leigh-on-Sea (an urban
district, pop. 3667); its lofty Perpendicular church tower is
visible from afar. At Hadleigh, 4m. west, there is a Salvation
Army farm colony. The church of Hadleigh is Norman,
with an eastern apse, and later additions. The castle was
built in the I3th century, and two ruined towers and other frag-
ments remain. Thorpe Bay is a residential suburb about mid-
way between Southend and Shoeburyness. Eastwood, Great
Wakering and Little Wakering are parishes in the neighbour-
hood. Southend was incorporated a municipal borough in 1894,
under a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors; in 1910 these
numbers were increased to 8 aldermen and 24 councillors.
SOUTHERNE, THOMAS (1660-1746), English dramatist,
was born at Oxmantown, near Dublin, in 1660, and entered
Trinity College in 1676. Two years later he was entered at
the Middle Temple, London. His first play, The Persian Prince,
or the Loyal Brother (1682), was based on a contemporary
novel. The real interest of the play lay not in the plot, but
in the political significance of the personages. Tachmas, the
" loyal brother," is obviously a flattering portrait of James II.,
and the villain Ismael is generally taken to represent Shaftes-
bury. The poet received an ensign's commission in Princess
Anne's regiment, and rapidly rose to the rank of captain, but
his military career came to an end at the Revolution. He then
gave himself up entirely to dramatic writing. In 1692 he revised
and completed Cleomenes fcr Dryden; and two years later he
scored a great success in the sentimental drama of The Fatal
Marriage, or the Innocent Adultery (1694). The piece is based
on Mrs Aphra Behn's The Nun, with the addition of a comic
SOUTHEY
underplot. It was frequently revived, and in 1757 was altered
by David Garrick and produced at Drury Lane. It was known
later as Isabella, or The Fatal Marriage. The general spirit ot
his comedies is well exemplified bv a line from Sir Anthony
Love (1691) " every day a new mistress and a new quarrel."
This comedy, in which the part of the heroine, disguised as
Sir Anthony Love, was excellently played by Mrs Mountfort,
was his best. He scored another conspicuous success in
Oroonoko, or The Royal Slave (1696). For the plot of this he
was again indebted to the novel by Mrs Behn. In his later
pieces " Honest Tom Southerne " did not secure any great
successes, but he contrived to gain better returns from his plays
than Dryden did, and he remained a favourite with his con-
temporaries and with the next literary generation. He died
on the 22nd of May 1746.
His other plays are : The Disappointment, or the Mother in Fashion
(1684), founded in part on the Curioso Impertinente in Don Quixote;
The Wives' Excuse, or Cuckolds make themselves (1692); The Maid's
Last Prayer; or Any, rather than fail (1692); The Fate of Capua
(1700); The Spartan Dame (1719), taken from Plutarch's Life of
Aegis; and Money the Mistress (1729).
See Plays written by Thomas Southerne, with an Account of the Life
and Writings of the Author (1774).
SOUTHEY, ROBERT (1774-1843), English poet and man of
letters, was born at Bristol on the i2th of August 1774. His
father, Robert Southey, an unsuccessful linendraper, married
a Miss Margaret Hill in 1772. When he was three, Southey
passed into the care of Miss Elizabeth Tyler, his mother's half-
sister, at Bath, where most of his childhood was spent. She
was a whimsical and despotic person, of whose household he
has left an amusing account in the fragment of autobiography
written in a series of letters to his friend John May. Before
Southey was eight years old he had read Shakespeare and Beau-
mont and Fletcher, while his love of romance was fostered by
the reading of Hoole's translations of Tasso and Ariosto, and of
the Faerie Queene. In 1788 he was entered at Westminster
school. After four years there he was privately expelled by Dr
William Vincent (1739-1815), for an essay against flogging which
he contributed to a school magazine called The Flagellant. At
Westminster he made friends with two boys who proved faithful
and helpful to him through life; these were Charles Watkyn
Williams Wynn and Grosvenor Bedford. Southey's uncle, the
Rev. Herbert Hill, chaplain of the British factory at Lisbon, who
had paid for his education at Westminster, determined to send
him to Oxford with a view to his taking holy orders, but the
news of his escapade at Westminster had preceded him, and
he was refused at Christ Church. Finally he was admitted at
Balliol, where he matriculated on the 3rd of November 1792, and
took up his residence in the following January. His father
had died soon after his matriculation.
At Oxford he lived a life apart, and gained little or nothing
from the university, except a liking for swimming and a know-
ledge of Epictetus. In the vacation of 1 793 Southey's enthusiasm
for the French Revolution found vent in the writing of an epic
poem,/oaw of Arc, published in 1796 by Joseph Cottle,the Bristol
bookseller. In 1794 Samuel Taylor Coleridge, then on a visit to
Oxford, was introduced to Southey, and filled his head with
dreams of an American Utopia on the banks of the Susquehanna.
The members of the " pantisocracy " were to earn their living
by tilling the soil, while their wives cared for the house and
children. Coleridge and Southey soon met again at Bristol,
and with Robert Lovell developed the emigration scheme.
Lovell had married Mary Fricker, whose sister Sara married
Coleridge, and Southey now became engaged to a third sister,
Edith. Miss Tyler, however, would have none of " pantiso-
cracy " and " aspheterism,"and drove Southey from her house.
To raise the necessary funds for the enterprise Coleridge and he
turned to lecturing and journalism. Cottle generously gave
Southey 50 for Joan of Arc; and, with Coleridge and Lovell,
Southey had dashed off the drama, printed as the work of
Coleridge, on The Fall of Robespierre. A volume of Poems by R.
Southey and R. Lovell was also published by Cottle in 1795.
Southey's uncle, Mr Hill, now desired him to go with him to
Portugal. Before he started for Corunna he was married
secretly, on the I4th of November 1795, to Edith Fricker. On
his return to England his marriage was acknowledged, and he
and his wife had lodgings for some time at Bristol. He was
urged to undertake a profession, but the Church was closed to
him by the Unitarian views he then held, and medicine was
distasteful to him. He was entered at Gray's Inn in February
1797, and made a serious attempt at legal study, but with small
results. At the end of 1797 his friend Wynn began an allowance
of 160 a year, which was continued until 1806, when Southey
relinquished it on Wynn's marriage. His Letters written during
a Short Residence in Spain and Portugal were printed by Cottle in
1797, and in 1797-1799 appeared two volumes of Minor Poems
from the same press. In 1798 he paid a visit to Norwich, where
he met Frank Sayers and William Taylor, with whose translations
from the German he was already acquainted. He then took a
cottage for himself and his wife at Westbury near Bristol, and
afterwards at Burton in Hampshire. At Burton he was seized
with a nervous fever which had been threatening for some time.
He moved to Bristol, and after preparing for the press his edition
of the works of Thomas Chatterton, undertaken for the relief
of the poet's sister and her child, he sailed in 1800 for Portugal,
where he began to accumulate materials for his history of
Portugal. He also had brought with him the first six books of
Thalaba the Destroyer (1801), and the remaining six were com-
pleted at Cintra. The unrhymed, irregular metre of the poem
was borrowed from Sayers.
In 1801 the Southeys returned to England, and at the invita-
tion of Coleridge, who held out as an inducement the society of
Wordsworth, they visited Keswick. After a short experience
as private secretary to Isaac Corry, chancellor of the exchequer
for Ireland, Southey in 1803 took up his residence at Greta Hall,
Keswick, which he and his family shared thenceforward with
the Coleridges and Mrs Lovell. His love of books filled Greta
Hall with a library of over 14,000 volumes. He possessed many
valuable MSS., and a collection of Portuguese authorities
probably unique in England. After 1809, when Coleridge left
his family, the whole household was dependent on Southey's
exertions. His nervous temperament suffered under the strain,
and he found relief in keeping different kinds of work on hand at
the same time, in turning from the History of Portugal to poetry.
Madoc and Metrical Tales and Other Poems appeared in 1805,
The Curse of Kehama in 1810, Roderick, the last of the Goths, in
1814. This constant application was lightened by a happy
family life. Southey was devoted to his children, and was
hospitable to the many friends and even strangers who found their
way to Keswick. His friendship for Coleridge was qualified by
a natural appreciation of his failings, the results of which fell
heavily on his own shoulders, and he had a great admiration
for Wordsworth, although their relations were never intimate.
He met Walter Savage Landor in 1808, and their mutual
admiration and affection lasted until Southey's death.
From the establishment of the Tory Quarterly Review Southey,
whose revolutionary opinions had changed, was one of its most
regular and useful writers. He supported Church and State,
opposed parliamentary reform, Roman Catholic emancipation,
and free trade. He did not cease, however, to advocate measures
for the immediate amelioration of the condition of the poor.
With William Gifford, his editor, he was never on very good
terms, and would have nothing to do with his harsh criticisms on
living authors. His relations with Gifford's successors, Sir J. T.
Coleridge and Lockhart, were not much better. In 1813 the
laureateship became vacant on the death of Pye. The post was
offered to Scott, who refused it and secured it for Southey. A
government pension of some 160 had been secured for him,
through Wynn, in 1807, increased to 300 in 1835. In 1817 the
unauthorized publication of an early poem on Wat Tyler, full of
his youthful republican enthusiasm, brought many attacks on
Southey. He was also engaged in a bitter controversy with Byron,
whose first attack on the " ballad-monger " Southey in English
Bards and Scotch Reviewers nevertheless did not prevent them
from meeting on friendly terms. Southey makes little reference
SOUTHEY
to Byron in his letters, but Byron asserts (Letters and Journals,
ed. Prothero, iv. 271) that he was responsible for scandal spread
about himself and Shelley. In this frame of mind, due as much
to personal anger as to natural antipathy to Southey's principles,
Byron dedicated Don Juan to the laureate, in what he himself
called " good, simple, savage verse." In the introduction to his
Vision of Judgment (1821) Southey inserted a homily on the
" Satanic School " of poetry, unmistakably directed at Byron,
who replied in the satire of the same name. The unfortunate
controversy was renewed even after Byron's death, in con-
sequence of a passage in Medwin's Conversations of Lord Byron.
Meanwhile the household at Greta Hall was growing smaller.
Southey's eldest son, Herbert, died in 1816, and a favourite
daughter in 1826; Sara Coleridge married in 1829; in 1834 his
eldest (daughter, Edith, also married; and in the same year
Mrs Southey, whose health had long given cause for anxiety,
became insane. She died in 1837, and Southey went abroad the
next year with Henry Crabb Robinson and others. In 1839 he
married his friend Caroline Bowles (see below). But his memory
was failing, and his mental powers gradually left him. He
died on the 2ist of March 1843, and was buried in Crosthwaite
churchyard. A monument to his memory was erected in the
church, with an inscription by Wordsworth.
The amount of Southey's work in literature is enormous. His
collected verse,' with its explanatory notes, fills ten volumes,
his prose occupies about forty. But his greatest enterprises, his
history of Portugal and his account of the monastic orders, were
left uncompleted, and this, in some sense, is typical of Southey's
whole achievement in the world of letters; there is always some-
thing unsatisfying, disappointing, about him. This is most true
of his efforts in verse. In his childhood Southey fell in with
Tasso, Tasso led him to Ariosto, and Ariosto to Spenser. These
luxuriantly imaginative poets captivated the boy; and Southey
mistook his youthful enthusiasm for an abiding inspiration.
His inspiration was not genuinely imaginative; he had too large
an infusion of prosaic commonplace in his nature to be a true
follower of Ariosto and Spenser. Southey, quite early in life,
resolved to write a series of epics on the chief religions of the
world; it is not surprising that the too ambitious poet failed.
His failure is twofold: he was wanting in artistic power and in
poetic sympathy. When his epics are not wildly impossible
they are incurably dull ; and a man is not fit to write epics on the
religions of the world when he can say of the prophet who has
satisfied the gravest races of mankind Mahomet was " far
more remarkable for audacious profligacy than for any intellec-
tual endowments." Southey's age was bounded, and had little
sympathy for anything beyond itself and its own narrow
interests; it was violently Tory, narrowly Protestant, defiantly
English. And in his verse Southey truthfully reflects the feeling
of his age. In the shorter pieces Southey's commonplace asserts
itself, and if that does not meet us we find his bondage to his
generation. This bondage is quite abject in The Vision of Judg-
ment; Southey's heavenly personages are British Philistines
from Old Sarum, magnified but not transformed, engaged in
endless placid adoration of an infinite George III. For this
complaisance he was held up to ridicule by Byron, who wrote
his own Vision of Judgment by way of parody.
Some of Southey's subjects, " The Poet's Pilgrimage " for
instance, he would have treated delightfully in prose; others,
like the " Botany Bay Eclogues," " Songs to American Indians,"
" The Pig," " The Dancing Bear," should never have been
written. Of his ballads and metrical tales many have passed
into familiar use as poems for the young. Among these are
"The Inchcape Rock," "Lord William," "The Battle of
Blenheim," the ballad on Bishop Hatto, and " The Well of
St Keyne."
Southey was not in the highest sense of the word a poet; but
if we turn from his verse to his prose we are in a different world ;
there Southey is a master in his art, who works at ease with grace
and skill. " Southey's prose is perfect," said Byron; and, if we
do not stretch the " perfect," or take it to mean the supreme
perfection of the very greatest masters of style, Byron was right.
In prose the real Southey emerges from his conventionality.
His interest and his curiosity are unbounded as his Common-
Place Book will prove; his stores of learning are at his readers'
service, as in The Doctor, a rambling miscellany, valued by many
readers beyond his other work. For biography he had a real
genius. The Life of Nelson (2 vols., 1813), which has become a
model of the short life, arose out of an article contributed to the
Quarterly Review; he contributed another excellent biography to
his edition of the Works of William Cowper (15 vols., 1833-1837),
and his Life of Wesley; and the Rise and Progress of Methodism
(2 vols., 1820) is only less famous than his Life of Nelson. But
the truest Southey is in his Letters: the loyal, gallant, tender-
hearted, faithful man that he was is revealed in them. Southey's
fame will not rest, as he supposed, on his verse; all his faults are
in that all his own weakness and all the false taste of his age.
But his prose assures him a high place in English literature,
though not a place in the first rank even of prose writers.
Southey's love of romance appears in various volumes: Amadis of
Gaul (4 vols., 1803); Palmerin of England (1807); Chronicle of the
Cid (1808), and The byrth, lyf and actes of King Arthur . . . with an
introduction and notes (1817). His other works are: Specimens of
English Poets (3 vols., 1807); Letters from England by Don Manuel
Espriella (3 vols., 1807), purporting to be a Spaniard's impressions
of England ; an edition of the Remains of Henry Kirke White (2 vols.,
1807) ; Omniana or Horae Otiosiores (2 vols., 1812) ; Odes to . . . the
Prince Regent . . . (1814); Carmen Triumphale . . . and Carmina
Aulica . . . (1814); Minor Poems . . . (1815) ; Lay of the Laureate
(1816), an epithalamium for the Princess Charlotte; The Poet's
Pilgrimage to Waterloo (1816); Wat Tyler: a dramatic poem (1817);
Letter to William Smith Esq., M.P. (1817), on the occasion of stric-
tures made in the House of Commons on Wat Tyler; History of
Brazil (3 vols., 1810, 1817, 1819); Expedition of Orsua and the Crimes
of Aguirre (1821); A Book of the Church (2 vols., 1824); A Tale of
Paraguay (1825); Vindiciae Ecclesiae Anglicanae, Letters to C.
Butler, Esq., comprising essays on the Romish Religion and vindicating
the Book of the Church (1826) ; History of the Peninsular War (3 vols.,
1823, 1824, 1832); " Lives of uneducated Poets," prefixed to verses
by John Jones (1829); All for Love and The Pilgrim to Compostella
(1829) ; Sir Thomas More, or Colloquies on the Progress and Prospects
of Society (2 vols., 1829); Life of John Bunyan, prefixed to an
edition (1830) of the Pilgrim's Progress; Select Works of British Poets
from Chaucer to Jonson, edited with biographical notices . . . (1831)
Essays Moral and Political . . . now first collected (2 vols., 1832);
Lives of the Admirals, with an introductory view of the Naval History
of England, forming 5 vols. (1833-1840) of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclo-
paedia; The Doctor (7 vols., 1834-1847), the last two volumes being
edited by his son-in-law, the Rev. I. Wood Warter; Common-Place
Book (4th series, 1849-1851), edited by the same; Oliver Newman; a
New England Tale (unfinished), with other poetical remains (1845),
edited by the Rev. H. Hill. A collected edition of his Poetical
Works (10 vols., 1837-1838) was followed by a one volume edition in
1847. Southey's letters were edited by his son Charles Cuthbert
Southey as The Life and Correspondence of the late Robert Southey
(6 vols., 1849-1850); further selections were published in Selections
from the Letters of Robert Southey (4 vols., 1856), edited by J. W.
Warter; and The Correspondence of Robert Southey with Caroline
Bowles. To which are added: Correspondence with Shelley, and
Southey's Dreams (1881), was edited, with an introduction, by
Professor E. Dowden. An excellent selection from his whole
correspondence, edited by Mr John Dennis, as Robert Southey, the
story of his life written in his letters (Boston, Massachusetts, 1887),
was reprinted in Bonn's Standard Library (1894). See also Southey
(1879) in the English Men of Letters Series, by Professor E. Dowden,
who also made the selection of Poems by Robert Southey (i895)_in
the Golden Treasury Series. A full account of his relations with
Byron is given in The Letters and Journals of Lord Byron (vol. vi.,
1901, edited R. E. Prothero), in an appendix entitled "Quarrel
between Byron and Southey," pp. 377-399. Southey figures in four
of the Imaginary Conversations of W. S. Landor, two of which are
between Southey and Person, and two between Southey and Landor.
Southey's second wife, CAROLINE ANNE SOUTHEY (1786-1854),
was the daughter of an East Indian captain, Charles Bowles.
She was born at Lymington, Hants, on the 7th of October 1786.
As a girl Caroline Anne Bowles showed a certain literary and
artistic aptitude, the more remarkable perhaps from the loneli-
ness of her early life and the morbidly delicate condition of her
health an aptitude however of no real distinction. When money
difficulties came upon her in middle age she determined to turn
her talents to account in literature. She sent anonymously to
Southey a narrative poem called Ellen Fitzarthur, and this led
to the acquaintanceship and long friendship, which, in 1839,
SOUTHGATE SOUTH MOLTON
culminated in their marriage. Ellen Fitzarthur (1820) may be
taken as typical, in its prosy simplicity, of the rest of its author's
work. Mrs Southey's poems were published in a collected
edition in 1867. Among her prose writings may be mentioned
Chapters on Churchyards (1829), her best work; Tales of the Moors
(1828) ; and Selwyn in Search of a Daughter (1835). It was soon
after her marriage that her husband's mental state became
hopeless, and from this time till his death in 1843, and indeed
till her own, her life was one of much suffering. She was not on
good terms with her stepchildren, and her share in Southey's
life is hardly noticed in Charles Cuthbert Southey's Life and
Correspondence of his father. But with Edith Southey (Mrs
Warter) she was always in friendly relations, and she supplied
the valuable additions to Southey's correspondence published
by J. W. Warter. She is best remembered by her correspon-
dence with Southey, which, neglected in the official biography,
was edited by Professor Dowden in 1881. Mrs Southey died at
Buckland Cottage, Lymington, on the 2oth of July 1854, two
years after the queen had granted her an annual pension of
200.
Besides the works already mentioned, Mrs Southey wrote The
Widow's Tale, and other Poems (1822); Solitary Hours (prose and
verse, 1826); Tales of the Factories (1833); The Birthday (1836); and
Robin Hood, written in conjunction with Southey, at whose death
this metrical production was incomplete.
SOUTHGATE, an urban district in the Enfield parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, 9 m. N. of St Paul's Cathedral,
London, on the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901), 14,993.
It is pleasantly situated in a wooded district, and forms an outer
residential suburb of the metropolis. Christ Church, in Early
English style, is the work of Sir Gilbert Scott, and contains
stained glass windows from the designs of Sir E. Burne- Jones and
D. G. Rossetti. Close to New Southgate station is Colney Hatch
Lunatic Asylum for the county of London, opened in 1851 and
subsequently much enlarged.
SOUTH GEORGIA, an uninhabited British island in the South
Atlantic Ocean, about 900 m. S. by E. of the Falklands, in
54-55 S., 36-38 W.; area 1600 sq. m. It is mountainous,
with snowy peaks 6000 to 8000 ft. high, their slopes furrowed
with deep gorges filled with glaciers. Its geological constitution
gneiss and argillaceous schists, with no trace of fossils shows
that the island is, like the Falklands, a surviving fragment of
some greater land-mass now vanished, most probably indicating
a former extension of the Andean system. At Royal Bay, on
the south-east side, was stationed the German expedition sent
out to observe the transit of Venus in 1882. The island would
be well suited for cattle or sheep farming but for its damp,
foggy climate. The flora is surprisingly rich, and the German
naturalists were able to collect thirteen flowering plants, mostly
common also to the Falklands, but one allied to a form found
in distant New Zealand. South Georgia is politically attached
to the Falklands.
SOUTH HADLEY, a township of Hampshire county, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, about 12 m. N. of
Springfield. Pop. (1900), 4526, of whom 1119 were foreign-
born; (1910 census), 4894. Area, 18-5 sq. m. There are no
steam railways, but an electric line connects South Hadley and
South Hadley Falls with the New York, New Haven & Hartford
and the Boston & Maine railways at Holyoke. The village of
South Hadley, or the Center, lies at the south base of Mount
Holyoke, about 4 m. from Holyoke and about 3 m. from South
Hadley Falls; it is the seat of Mount Holyoke College. South
Hadley Falls are connected with Holyoke by a bridge across the
Connecticut river. The falls of the river afford water-power for
paper mills, cotton and woollen mills, and saw mills. South
Hadley was originally a part of the township of Hadley, but in
1753 the district of South Hadley was established, and in 1775
incorporated as a separate township.
SOUTH HOLLAND, a province of Holland, bounded W. by the
North Sea, N. by North Holland, E. by Utrecht and Gelderland,
S.E. by North Brabant, and S. by Zeeland. It has an area of
1166 sq. m., and a population (1905) of 1,287,363. Its south-
xxv. 17
eastern and southern boundaries are denned by the estuaries
called the New Merwede, the Hollandsch Diep, the Volkerak, the
Krammer, and Grevelingen, and the province includes the delta
islands of Goeree (Goedereede) and Overflakkee, Voorne and
Putten, Rozenburg, Yselmonde, Hoeksche Waard, and Dord-
recht. The natural division into dunes, geest grounds, and clay
and low fen holds for South as well as for North Holland. Noord-
wyk-on-Sea, Katwyk-on-sea, Scheveningen, and Ter Heide are
watering-places and fishing villages. The Hook (Hoek) of
Holland harbour, built at the mouth of the New Waterway (1866-
1872) from Rotterdam, is the chief approach to Central Europe
from Harwich on the east coast of England. At the foot of
the dunes are the old towns and villages of Sassenheim, close to
which are slight remains of the ancient castle of Teilingen (i2th
century), in which the countess Jacoba of Bavaria died in 1433.
Among other places of interest are Rynsburg, the site of a
convent for nobles founded in 1133 and destroyed in the time
of Spanish rule; Voorschoten; Wassenaar, all of which were
formerly minor lordships; Loosduinen, probably the Lugdunum
of the Romans, and the seat of a Cistercian abbey destroyed in
1579; Naaldwyk, an ancient lordship; and 's Gravenzande, which
possessed a palace of the counts of Holland in the i2th century,
when it was a harbour on the Maas. The Hague, situated
in the middle of this line of ancient villages, is the capital of the
province. The market-gardening of the region called the West-
land, between the Hague and the Hook of Holland, is remark-
able, and large quantities of vegetables are exported to
England. On the clay and low fen cattle-rearing and the
making of the Gouda cheeses are the principal occupations.
Flourishing centres of industry are found along the numerous
river arms, including Maasluis, Vlaardingen, Schiedam, Rotter-
dam, Gorinchem, and Dordrecht. Here also are some of the
oldest settlements, such as Vianen on the Lek, Leerdam on
the Linge, and Woudrichem or Woerkum at the junction of the
Maas and Merwede. Woudrichem guards the entrance to
the Merwede in conjunction with Fort Loevestein on the opposite
shore. Vianen is supposed to be the Fanum Dianae of
Ptolemy, and was the seat of an independent lordship which
passed to the family of Brederode in 1418, and later to the
princes of Lippe-Detmold, from whom it was bought by the
states in 1725. There is a fine tomb of Reinoud van Brederode
(d. 1556) and his wife in the Reformed Church. The lordship
of Leerdam arose out of a division of the lordship of van Arkel
and descended to the house of Egmond. It was raised to a
countship in 1492, and passed by marriage to the family of
Orange-Nassau. The Reformed Church contains the tomb of
John, last lord of van Arkel.
SOUTHINGTON, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., about 15 m. S.W. of the city of Hartford. Within the
township is the borough of Southington, served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railroad. Pop. of the township
(1910), 6516, which included that of the borough, 3714. The
area of the township is 35 sq. m. The principal industry is the
manufacture of hardware goods. Between 1809 and 1874 as
many as 236 patents were granted to residents. Southington
was originally a part of the township of Farmington. It was
settled about 1697; in 1724 it became an independent parish
under the name of Panthorn. The township was incorporated
in 1779, the borough in 1889.
See H. R. Timlow's Ecclesiastical and Other Sketches of Southington
(Hartford, 1875).
SOUTH MELBOURNE, a city of Bourke county, Victoria,
Australia, separated from Melbourne in 1855, proclaimed a
city in 1883, and formerly known as Emerald Hill. Pop. (1901),
40,637. It returns three members to parliament and contains
the residence of the governor of the colony. The wharves on
the river Yarra and its numerous manufactures contribute to
the wealth and importance of the city.
SOUTH MOLTON, a market town and municipal borough in
the South Molton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
on the river Mole, 197 m. W. by S. of London, by the Great
Western railway. Pop. ( 1 901 ) , 2848. Besides the parish church
514
SOUTH NORWALK SOUTH ORANGE
of St Mary Magdalene, a fine and massive Perpendicular building
with an ancient pulpit of carved stone, there are a guildhall and
market house. Linen goods are manufactured; fairs are held
twice yearly, and numerous flour mills are worked by the river.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors.
Area, 5910 acres.
South Molton (Sud Montana) was probably the site of a very
early settlement, the remains of a British camp being visible
2 m. south of the town, but its authentic history begins with the
Domesday survey, which relates that the manor had been royal
demesne of Edward the Confessor and now paid 10 a year to
the Conqueror. In the i3th century it was held by Nicholas
Fitz Martin of the earl of Gloucester for the service of finding
a bow with three arrows to attend the earl when he should hunt
in Gower. In 1246 Nicholas obtained a grant of a Saturday
market and a fair at the feast of the Assumption (both maintained
up to the present day), and in 1275 South Molton appears for
the first time as a mesne borough under his overlordship. The
borough subsequently passed to the Audleys, the Hollands, and
in 1487 was granted for life to Margaret, duchess of Richmond,
who in 1490 obtained a grant of a fair (which is still held) at the
nativity of St John the Baptist. It returned two members to
parliament in 1302, but no charter of incorporation was issued
until that of Elizabeth in 1590, instituting a common council
of a mayor and eighteen burgesses, three of whom were to be
elected capital burgesses, with a recorder, steward of the borough
court, two sergeants-at-mace, and a court of record every three
weeks on Monday. A fresh charter was issued by Charles II.
in 1 684. This remained in force until the Municipal Corporations
Act of 1835. The town formerly had a considerable manufacture
of serges and shalloons, or light woollen linings, so called from
Chalons-sur-Marne, France.
SOUTH NORWALK, a city of Fairfield county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., at the mouth of the Norwalk river, on Long Island Sound,
in the township of Norwalk, and 42 m. by rail N.E. of New York.
Pop. (1900) 6591, including 1528 foreign-born (many Hungarians)
and 83 negroes; (1910) 8968. It is served by the main
line and the Danbury division (of which it is a terminus) of
the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by inter-urban
electric lines, and by steamboats to New York. The business
and manufacturing section is close to the river and only a few
feet above it; behind this, along a ridge, is the residential district;
along the Sound are summer cottages and pleasure resorts.
West Avenue is a finely shaded drive. The city has a public
library and a soldiers' monument. South Norwalk is chiefly
a manufacturing and commercial city. It has a good harbour
(in which there are three lighthouses), considerable coastwise
trade, and important oyster fisheries. South Norwalk, long an
unincorporated village called Old Well, was chartered as a city
under its present name in 1870, and its charter was revised
and amended in 1882, 1897 and 1909;
SOUTHOLD, a township of Suffolk county, New York, occupy-
ing the peninsula at the N.E. of Long Island, and including
the islands E.N.E. of this peninsula, Plum Island, on which
defences protect the eastern entrance to Long Island Sound,
Little Gull Island, on which there is a lighthouse, Great
Gull Island, and Fisher's Island. Pop. (1900), 8301; (1910,
U.S. census), 10,577. Excluding the islands to the east, the
township is about 25 m. long and its average width is 2 m.;
the Sound shore is broken only by Mattituck and Goldsmith's
inlets, but the southern shore is broken with bays and necks
of land. The surface is hilly, with occasional glacial boulders.
The Long Island railway serves the principal villages of the
township, Mattituck, Cutchogue, Peconic, Southold and Green-
port (pop. in 1905, 2667), and from Greenport steamers run
to Shelter Island, Sag Harbor, New London and New York.
Beyond Greenport are the villages of East Marion and Orient.
Greenport has some shipping and some oyster fisheries, as-
paragus is grown at Mattituck, and Peconic Bay is noted for
its scallops. Southold is a summer resort, and it is historically
interesting as one of the first English settlements on Long Island.
The first permanent settlement here was made in 1640; land was
bought from the Indians in August (a lease from the proprietor
William Alexander, Lord Stirling, had been secured in 1639), and
on the 2ist of October 1640 a Presbyterian church was organized
under John Youngs, who came from New Haven and had been
connected with a St Margaret's church in Suffolk, England,
probably at Reydon, near Southwold; and it is possible that the
settlement was named from Southwold, though as it was commonly
called " the South Hold " by early writers and a settlement on
Wading River was called West Hold, the name was probably
descriptive. A meeting-house was built in 1642, and biblical
laws were enforced. Southold was originally one of the six
towns under the New Haven jurisdiction, but in 1662 was placed
under Connecticut; in 1664 it objected strongly to the transfer
of Long Island to the duke of York; in 1670 refused to pay taxes
imposed by Governor Francis Lovelace of New York; in 1672
petitioned the king to be under Connecticut or to be a free
corporation; in 1673, when the Dutch got control of New York,
withstood the Dutch commissioners, with the help of Connecti-
cut; and, in 1674, after English supremacy was again estab-
lished in New York, still hoped to be governed from Connecticut.
The township was chartered by Governor Edmund Andros in
1676. Greenport was not settled until the first quarter of the
ipth century, and was incorporated as a village in 1838.
See Epher Whitaker, History of Southold, L.I.: Its First Century
(Southold, 1881); Southold Town Records (2 vols., Southold, 1882-
1884), and an address by C. B. Moore in Celebration of the z^cth
A nniversary of the Formation of the Town and the Church of Southold,
L.I. (Southold, 1890).
SOUTH OMAHA, a city of Douglas county, Nebraska, U.S.A.,
on the high western bluffs of the Missouri, immediately adjoining
Omaha on the south. Pop. (1900), 26,001, of whom 5607 were
foreign-born; (1910, census) 26,259. It is served by the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago Great Western, the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific, the Illinois Central, the Missouri Pacific, the Union
Pacific, the Chicago & North Western, and the short Omaha
Bridge Terminal railways. The principal public buildings are
the Federal building (housing the post office and the bureau
of animal industry), the public library and the live-stock
exchange. Next to Chicago and Kansas City it is the greatest
slaughtering and meat-packing centre in the United States. In
1905 it produced 43-5 % ($67,415,177) of the total value of the
factory product of the state, and of this output 97-2% repre-
sented the slaughtering and packing industry. South Omaha
was chartered as a city of the second class in 1887, and in 1901
became a city of the first class. The present city dates from
1884, when the Union stockyards were established here.
SOUTH ORANGE, a township and a village of Essex county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., in the N.E. of the state, about 15 m. W. of
New York City. Pop. of the village (1900), 4608, of whom 1140
were foreign-born; (1905) 4932; (1910) 6014. Pop. of the town-
ship, excluding the village (1900), 1630; (1905, state census)
1946. The village is served by the Morris & Essex division
of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railroad, and is con-
nected with Orange and with Newark by electric lines. It is
primarily a residential suburb of New York and Newark. On the
Orange mountain is Essex county park, a wild tract with forest
roads. The western part of the township is locally known
as Maplewood, the eastern as Hilton. South Orange has a
public library and a town hall, and is the seat of Seton Hall
College (Roman Catholic), named in honour of Mother Elizabeth
Seton, founded at Madison, N.J., in 1856, and removed to
South Orange in 1860. Among the landmarks of South Orange
are an old stone house of unknown date, but mentioned in
legal documents describing the surrounding property as early
as 1680; the Baldwin House (c. 1717); and the Timothy Ball
House (r743). Settlements were made within the present limits
of the township in the latter part of the 1 7th century by some of
the founders of Newark. The township was created in 1861
from parts of the town of Orange and the township of Clinton.
The citizens secured in 1869 a village charter providing a village
president and a board of trustees; in 1904 the village was entirely
SOUTHPORT SOUTH SEA BUBBLE
5*5
separated from the township, except as regards school govern-
ment. In 1891 a tract of 150 acres, known as Montrose Park
and containing many handsome residences, was annexed to the
village.
See H. Whittemore, The Founders and Builders of the Oranges,
(Newark, 1896).
SOUTHPORT, a municipal and county borough and seaside
resort in the Southport parliamentary division of Lancashire,
England, immediately S. of the embouchure of the Ribble into
the Irish Sea, 185 m. N. by W. of Liverpool. It is served by the
Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North-Western rail-
ways, and by the Southport & Cheshire Lines Extension
system. Pop. (1901), 48,083. Its foreshore consists of a great
expanse of firm, bright sands, and the mildness of its winter
climate is attributed to the radiation of heat from them. Its
proximity to Liverpool and Manchester has drawn to it a large
resident population, and its visitors number many thousands
annually. The promenade along the shore is 2 m. in length;
in its centre is the pier, i m. long, down which tramcars
are drawn by a stationary steam-engine. Other facilities for
outdoor enjoyment are provided in Hesketh Park (presented to
the town by the Rev. Charles Hesketh, formerly rector of North
Meols, and one of the lords of the manor), the Botanic Gardens,
Kew Gardens, South Marine Park, and the Winter Gardens.
The last, laid out at a cost of 130,000, include a large conserva-
tory, a fine enclosed promenade, a theatre and an aquarium.
The principal public buildings are the town hall, the Cambridge
Hall (used for concerts, &c.j, and an extensive range of markets.
There are several infirmaries and hospitals, and a sanatorium for
children. Southport has also a free library and art gallery, a
literary and philosophical institute, and a college (Trinity Hall)
for the daughters of Wesleyan ministers; and a museum and
schools of science and art. An extensive service of electric
tramways is maintained. The first considerable house in S6uth-
port (an inn for the reception of sea-bathers) was built in 1791,
and soon after other houses were erected on the site now known
as Lord Street, but the population in 1809 was only 100. Birk-
dale is a residential district adjacent to Southport on the south.
In 1867 Southport received a charter of incorporation. It be-
came a county borough in 1905. The corporation consists of a
mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 5144 acres.
SOUTH PORTLAND, a city of Cumberland county, Maine,
U.S.A., on Casco Bay, an arm of which separates it from Portland,
with which it is connected by a ferry and four bridges. Pop.
(1900) 6287 (763 foreign-born); (1910) 7471. South Portland
is served by the Boston & Maine railway. It is the seat of the
State (Reform) School for Boys. At Spring Point is Fort
Preble, established in 1808 and now a coast artillery station; and
at Portland Head is Fort Williams. The city has steel-rolling
mills, car shops of the Boston & Maine railway, and ship-build-
ing interests, and manufactures marine hardware and varnish.
South Portland was part of the old town of Cape Elizabeth (pop.
in 1900, 887) until March 1895; the legislature granted it a city
charter in. 1895, which was not accepted by the town until
December 1898.
SOUTHSEA, a seaside resort of Hampshire, England, part
of the municipal and parliamentary borough of Portsmouth,
with a terminal station (East Southsea) on a branch of the
London & South-Western and London, Brighton & South
Coast railways. It forms the southern and residential quarter
of Portsmouth, and overlooks Spithead, the inlet of the English
Channel between the Isle of Wight and the mainland on the
north-east. There are two piers, and a parade along the sea-
wall; and the sea-bathing is good. Southsea Castle was built
by Henry VIII. at the southern extremity of Portsea Island.
(See PORTSMOUTH.)
SOUTH SEA BUBBLE, the name given to a series of financial
projects which originated with the incorporation of the South
Sea Company in 1711, and ended nine years later in general
disaster.
The idea at the root of the parent scheme was that the state
should sell certain trading monopolies to a company in return
for a sum of money to be devoted to the reduction of the national
debt, and in the form which it took in 1711 it possibly owes its
existence to Daniel Defoe, who discussed it frequently with
Edward Harley (1664-1735), brother of Robert Harley, earl of
Oxford. In 1711 the South Sea Company was formed, and was
granted a monopoly of the British trade with South America
and the Pacific Islands, the riches of which were popularly
regarded as illimitable. Itspromoters, mainly wealthy merchants,
took over nearly 10,000,000 of the national debt, on which they
were to receive interest at the rate of 6 % in addition to 8000
a year for the expenses of arrangement. The 600,000 was
secured on certain customs duties. The company prospered,
and in 1713, when the Asiento treaty was signed with Spain, it
received the lucrative monopoly of the slave trade with Spanish
America. It was the special pride of the Tories, who regarded
it as a rival to the Whig institution, the Bank of England. In
1716 it obtained further concessions under the new Asiento
treaty, and in 1717 it advanced a further sum of 2,000,000 to
the government, but its prospects were greatly darkened by
the outbreak of war between England and Spain in 1718.
Yet it continued to thrive, and early in 1718 the king became
its governor.
Towards the end of 1719 the directors of the company put
before the government, the head of which was Charles Spencer,
3rd earl of Sunderland, a more ambitious scheme. In return
for further concessions the company offered to take over the
whole of the national debt and to pay 3,500,000 for this privi-
lege. At this time the amount of the debt was 51,300,000, the
greater part of which consisted of terminable annuities, money
lent to the state in return for a fixed income for life. The
company would receive interest at the rate of 5% until 1727,
when it would be reduced to 4%. The advantage which the
government hoped to obtain from this bargain was obvious; it
would rid itself of the unpopular and burdensome debt. The
advantages hoped for by the company were much greater,
although perhaps not equally obvious. The aim of the directors
was to persuade the annuitants of the state to exchange their
annuities for South Sea stock; the stock would be issued at a high
premium and thus a large amount of annuities would be pur-
chased and extinguished by the issue of a comparatively small
amount of stock. Moreover, when this process had been carried
out the company would still receive from the government a
sum of something like 1,500,000 a year. Seriously alarmed at
the proposals of the South Sea Company, the directors of the
Bank of England offered the government 5,000,000 for the
same privilege, but the company outbid them with an offer of
7,567,000. This was accepted, the necessary act of parliament
being passed in April 1720. It is interesting to note that one
of the most sturdy opponents of the scheme was Sir Robert
Walpole.
The year 1719, when the South Sea scheme was projected,
was remarkably favourable to an undertaking of the kind. It
was the year when France went delirious over John Law and
his Mississippi Company, and the infection spread to England.
But before April 1720, when everything was ready, a terrible
reaction had begun in France, confidence and prosperity giving
way to ruin and disaster. Nevertheless, the directors proceeded
with their plan, and in a few weeks they had persuaded over
one-half of the government annuitants to become shareholders
in the company. Meanwhile the stock of the company had been
appreciating steadily in value, and when the new scheme was
launched the public began to purchase it more eagerly than
before. From 1285 at the beginning of the year the price rose
to 330 in March, and in April the directors sold two and a quarter
millions of stock at 300. In May the price rose to 550, in June to
890, and in July it touched 1000. At this tremendous premium
the directors sold five millions of stock.
By this time the extraordinary success of the South Sea
Company had produced a crowd of imitators, and the result was
a wild mania of speculation, and its inevitable end a crash.
Hundreds of companies were formed, some of them being
fortunate enough to secure the active support of royal and titled
5 i6
SOUTH SHETLAND SOUTH SHIELDS
personages; thus the prince of Wales, afterwards George II.,
became governor of the Welsh Copper Company. Some of
these new companies, like the Royal Exchange and the London
Assurance, were perfectly legitimate and honourable under-
takings, but the great majority put forward the most audacious
and chimerical proposals for extracting money from the public.
One was " for a wheel for perpetual motion "; another was for a
" design which will hereafter be promulgated," and it has been
estimated that the total capital asked for by the promoters
of these schemes amounted to 300,000,000. Profiting by the
sad experience of France, the British government made an
attempt to check this movement, and an act was passed for this
purpose early in 1 7 20. A proclamation of the- 1 1 th of June against
the promoters of illegal companies followed, and the directors of
the South Sea Company persuaded the lords justices, who were
acting as regents during the absence of the king, to abolish 86
companies as illegal.
In August the fall in the price of South Sea stock began, and
in September, just as the " insiders " had sold out, it became
serious. Instead of being a buyer every one became a seller, and
the result was that in a few days the stock of the South Sea
Company fell to 175, while the stocks of many other companies
were unsaleable. In November South Sea stock fell to 135, and
in four months the stock of the Bank of England fell from 263 to
145. Thousands were ruined, and many who were committed
to heavy payments fled from the country. The popular cry was
for speedy and severe vengeance, both on the members of the
government and on the directors of the unfortunate company.
Parliament was called together on the 8th of December 1720,
and at once both houses proceeded to investigate the affairs of
the tompany, the lower house soon entrusting this to a committee
of secrecy. To stem the tide of disaster Sir Robert Walpole
proposed that the Bank of England and the East India Company
should each take over nine millions of South Sea stock, but al-
though this received the assent of parliament it never came into
force. More to the liking of the people was the act of January
1721 which restrained the directors from leaving the kingdom
and compelled them to declare the value of their estates. The
committee of secrecy reported in February 1721, and it proved
that there had been fraud and corruption on a large scale. The
company's books contained entries which were entirely fictitious,
and the favours which the directors had secured from the state
had been purchased by gifts to ministers, some of whom had also
made large sums of money by speculating in the stock. The
chief persons implicated were John Aislabie (1670-1742), chan-
cellor of the exchequer; James Craggs, joint postmaster-general;
his son James Craggs, secretary of state; and to a lesser degree
the earl of Sunderland and Charles Stanhope, a commissioner
of the treasury. Aislabie, who was perhaps the most deeply
implicated, resigned his office in January, and in March he was
found guilty by the House of Commons of the " most notorious,
dangerous and infamous corruption "; he was expelled from the
house and was imprisoned. Both the elder and the younger
Craggs died in March, while owing to the efforts of Walpole both
Sunderland and Stanhope were acquitted, the latter by the nar-
row majority of three. By act of parliament the estates of the
directors were confiscated; these were valued at 2,014,123, of
which 354,600 was returned to them for their maintenance,
the balance being devoted to the relief of the sufferers.
Under the guidance of Walpole parliament then proceeded
to deal with the wreck. 11,000,000 had been lent by the
directors of the South Sea Company on the security of their
own stock, the debtors of the company including 138 members
of the House of Commons. This debt was remitted on payment
of 10% of the sum borrowed, this being afterwards reduced to
5%, and the 7,567,000 due from the company to the govern-
ment was also remitted. More serious, perhaps, was the case of
those persons who had exchanged the substance of a government
annuity for the shadow of a dividend on South Sea stock. They
asked that the state should again guarantee to them their in-
comes, but in the end they only received something like one-half
of what they had enjoyed before the bubble.
The South Sea Company with a capital of nearly 40,000,000
continued to exist, but not to flourish. Various changes were
made in the nature of its capital, and in 1750 it received 100,000
from the Spanish government for the surrender of certain rights.
Its commercial history then ended, but its exclusive privileges
were not taken away until 1807. In 1853 the existing South Sea
annuities were either redeemed or converted into government
stock. The London headquarters of the company were the
South Sea House in Threadneedle Street.
SOUTH SHETLAND, a chain of islands on the border of the
Antarctic region, lying about 500 m. S.E. of Cape Horn, between
61 and 63 to' S. and between 53 and 63 W., and separated by
Bransfield Strait from the region composed of Banco Land,
Palmer Land, Louis Philippe Land, &c. The more considerable
islands from west to east are Smith (or James) , Low (or Jameson) ,
Snow, Deception, Livingstone, Greenwich, Robert, Nelson,
King George I., Elephant, and Clarence. Deception Island is
remarkable as of purely volcanic origin. On the south-east side
an opening 600 ft. wide gives entrance to an internal crater-lake
(Port Forster) nearly circular, with a diameter of about 5 m.
and a depth of 97 fathoms. Voyagers in 1828 and 1842 reported
that steam still issued from numerous vents, but Otto Norden-
skjold (Antarctica, London, 1905) found no exterior evidence
of volcanic activity. Most of the islands are rocky and moun-
tainous, and some of their peaks are between 6000 and 7000 ft.
in height. Covered with snow for the greater part of the year,
and growing nothing but lichens, mosses and some scanty grass,
the South Shetlands are of interest almost solely as a haunt of
seals, albatrosses, penguins and other sea-fowl. It has been
supposed by many that the Dutch navigator Dirk Gerrits dis-
covered the South Shetlands in 1598, but it appears probable
that this story originated through confusion with another
voyage in which Gerrits was not concerned (cf. H. R. Mill, Siege
of the South Pole, p. 34 seq.). In 1819 William Smith of the
English brig "Williams" observed the South Shetland coast
on the igth of February. Revisiting it in October, he landed on
King George I. Island, taking possession for England; he also
gave the whole chain the name it bears. In 1820 the naval
lieutenant Edward Bransfield was sent in the " Williams "
to survey the islands, which attracted the attention of American
and British sealers, and became fairly well known through the
visits of Antarctic explorers. A smaller group Coronation
Island, Laurie Island, &c. lying 200 m. east of the South Shet-
lands, bears the name of South Orkney. It was discovered by
the English captain, Powell, in 1821.
SOUTH SHIELDS, a seaport and municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough of Durham, England; at the mouth of the Tyne
on its right bank, opposite North Shields, on a branch of the
North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 97, 263. It is connected with
North Shields and Tynemouth by steam ferries. The principal
buildings are the church of St Hilda, with a picturesque old
tower; the town hall in the market-place, exchange, custom-
house, mercantile marine offices, public library and museum,
grammar school, marine school, master-mariners' asylum and
seamen's institute. There is a pleasant marine park. The
principal industries are now the manufacture of glass and
chemicals, and ship-building and ship refitting and repairing, for
which there are docks capable of receiving the largest vessels.
The Tyne dock has a water-area of 50 acres, the tidal basin of
10 acres, and the quays and yards about 300 acres. Coal from
the collieries of the vicinity is largely exported. The trade returns
of South Shields are included in the aggregate of the Tyne ports
(see NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE). The South Pier at the mouth
of the river is a massive structure about i m. in length, and the
North Pier protects the river mouth from the Northumberland
bank at North Shields. The parliamentary borough returns
one member. The corporation consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen
and 30 councillors. Area of municipal borough, 2044 acres.
On elevated ground near the harbour are the remains of a
Roman fort guarding the entrance to the Tyne, where numerous
coins, portions of an altar, and several sculptured memorial stones
have been dug up, and testify to its occupation for a considerable
SOUTHWARK SOUTHWELL, R.
period. The site of the old station was afterwards occupied
by a fort of considerable strength, which was captured by the
Scots under Colonel Stewart on the 2oth of March 1644. The
town was founded by the convent of Durham about the middle
of the I3th century, but on account of the complaints of the
burgesses of Newcastle an order was made in 1258, stipulating
that no ships should be laden or unladen at Shields, and that no
" shoars " or quays should be built there. Until the ipth century
it was little more than a fishing station. In 1832 it received
the privilege of returning a member to parliament, and in 1850
a charter of incorporation.
SOUTHWARK, a central metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by Bermondsey,
S.E. by Camberwell and W. by Lambeth. Pop. (1901), 206,180.
It is a poor and crowded district, and a large industrial popu-
lation is employed in the riverside wharves and in potteries,
glassworks and other manufactures. There are also large brew-
eries, and the Hop Exchange is a centre of the hop trade. The
borough is connected with the City of London by Blackfriars,
South wark and London bridges; the thoroughfares leading from
these and the other road-bridges as far up as Lambeth converge at
St George's Circus; another important junction is the " Elephant
and Castle." Southwark is a bishopric of the Church of England
created by act of 1904 (previously a suffragan bishopric in the
diocese of Rochester), and also of the Roman Catholic Church.
The cathedral of St Saviour belonged to the Augustinian priory of
St Mary Overy, or Overies (i.e. St Mary over the river), receiving
its present name after the suppression of the monasteries. It
is cruciform, with a central tower, and has been so restored as
to preserve its ancient beauty. Its style is mainly Early English,
and among those buried here are Gower, Fletcher and Massinger,
the poets, and Edmund, brother of William Shakespeare. The
Roman Catholic cathedral of St George is a Gothic building
by A. W. Pugin, in St George's Road. Near the " Elephant and
Castle " is the Metropolitan Tabernacle, the original building of
which, burnt down in 1898, became famous under the Baptist
preacher, Charles Spurgeon. The principal benevolent institu-
tions are Guy's Hospital, St Thomas's Street, founded in 1721 by
Thomas Guy, with an important medical school; and Bethlehem
Royal Hospital for the Insane, commonly corrupted to Bedlam,
the origin of which is found in a priory of the I3th century
founded within the City, beside the modern Liverpool Street.
Other institutions are the Evelina Children's Hospital, the Royal
Eye Hospital and the Borough Polytechnic Institute. In Newing-
ton Causeway is the Sessions House for the county of London
(south of the Thames). The Robert Browning Settlement was
founded in York Street, Walworth Road, in 1895 and incor-
porated in 1903, and in Nelson Square is the Women's University
Settlement. The municipal borough includes the western and
part of the Bermondsey divisions of the parliamentary borough
of Southwark, and the borough of Newington, divided into the
western and Walworth divisions; each division returning one
member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen
and 60 councillors. Area, 1131-5 acres.
The history of Southwark is intimately connected with that
of the City of London. At an early date it was incorporated, and
its familiar title of " The Borough " still survives. It came, at
least in part, under the jurisdiction of the City in 1327. The
citizens of London having suffered from the depredations of
thieves and felons who escaped into Southwark, petitioned
parliament for protection. Accordingly, Edward III., by letters
patent, granted them for ever the town and borough, a privilege
confirmed by Edward IV. In this connexion was constituted
the Bridge Ward Without, the alderman of which is elected
not by the borough, but by the other aldermen from among
themselves. The authority of the City over the borough is now
merely nominal.
The junction in Southwark of the great roads from the south
of England for the passage of the Thames sufficiently accounted
for the early origin of Southwark. The name is taken from the
southward works or fortifications of London. Numerous Roman
remains have been found. Southwark witnessed various
episodes during the invasions of the Norsemen, and was fortified
by the Danes against the City in the reign of Ethelred the
Unready. Besides the priory of St Mary Overy, there was the
hospital of St Thomas, founded in 1213 from the neighbouring
priory of Bermondsey, and forming the origin of the great
modern hospital of the same name in Lambeth (q.v.) . The many
historical associations of Southwark, contemporary memorials
of which are almost wholly swept away, centre upon the district
bordering the river, and formerly known as Bankside. In this
locality was Winchester House, a seat of the bishops of Winchester
for five centuries from 1107. At Bankside were the Bear and
the Paris Gardens, used for the popular sport of bear and bull
baiting; and the Globe theatre, the scene of the production of
many of Shakespeare's plays for fifteen years after its erection
in 1599. Southwark was further noted for its inns and its
prisons. Among the first, the name of the" Tabard " is well known
from its mention by Chaucer in detailing the company of pilgrims
for Canterbury. Charles Dickens had an early acquaintance
with Southwark, as his father was confined in the Marshalsea,
one of several prisons here. The prison, no longer extant,
and the church of St George the Martyr, where many prisoners,
including Bishop Bonner (d. 1561), were buried, figure in the
novel Little Dorrit. The existing church dates from 1736.
SOUTHWELL, ROBERT (c. 1561-1595), English Jesuit and
poet, son of Richard Southwell of Horsham St Faith's, Nor-
folk, was born in 1560/61. The Southwells were affiliated with
many noble English families, and Robert's grandmother,
Elizabeth Shelley, figures in the genealogy of Shelley the poet.
He was sent very young to the Roman Catholic college at Douai,
and thence to Paris, where he was placed under a Jesuit father,
Thomas Darbyshire. In 1580 he joined the Society of Jesus,
after a two years' novitiate, passed mostly at Tournay. In
spite of his youth he was made prefect of studies in the English
college of the Jesuits at Rome, and was ordained priest in 1 584.
It was in that year that an act was passed, forbidding any
English-born subject of the Queen who had entered into priest's
orders in the Roman Catholic Church since her accession to
remain in England longer than forty days on pain of death. But
Southwell at his own request was sent to England in 1586 as a
Jesuit missionary with Henry Garnett. He went from one
Catholic family to another, administering the rites of his Church,
and in 1589 became domestic chaplain to Ann Howard, whose
husband, the first earl of Arundel, was in prison convicted of
treason. It was to him that Southwell addressed his Epistle
of Comfort. This and other of his religious tracts, A Short Rule
of Good Life, Triumphs over Death, Mary Magdalen's Tears
and a Humble Supplication to Queen Elizabeth, were widely
circulated in manuscript. That they found favour outside
Catholic circles is proved by Thomas Nash's imitation of Mary
Magdalen's Tears in Christ's Tears over Jerusalem. After six
years of successful labour Southwell was arrested. He was in the
habit of visiting the house of Richard Bellamy, who lived near
Harrow and was under suspicion on account of his connexion
with Jerome Bellamy, who had been executed for sharing in
Anthony Babington's plot. One of the daughters, Anne Bellamy,
was arrested and imprisoned in the gatehouse of Holborn. She
revealed Southwell's movements to Richard Topcliffe, who im-
mediately arrested him. He was imprisoned at first in Topcliffe's
house, where he was repeatedly put to the torture in the vain
hope of extracting evidence about other priests. Transferred
to the gatehouse at Westminster, he was so abominably treated
that his father petitioned Elizabeth that he might either be
brought to trial and put to death, if found guilty, or removed
in any case from " that filthy hole." Southwell was then lodged
in the Tower, but he was not brought to trial until February
1595. There is little doubt that much of his poetry, none of
which was published during his lifetime, was written in prison.
On the 2oth of February 1595 he was tried before the court
of King's Bench on the charge of treason, and was hanged at
Tyburn on the following day. On the scaffold he denied any
evil intentions towards the Queen or her government.
St Peter's Complaint with other Poems was published in April
S i8
SOUTHWELL SOUVRE
1595 without the author's name, and was reprinted thirteen
times during the next forty years. A supplementary volume
entitled Maeoniae appeared later in 1595, and A Foure fould
Meditation of the foure last things in 1606. This, which is not
included in Dr A. B. Grosart's reprint (1872) in the Fuller
Worthies Library, was published by Mr Charles Edmonds in
his Isham Reprints (1895). A Hundred Meditations of the Love
of God, in prose, was first printed from a MS. at Stonyhurst
College in 1873. Southwell's poetry is euphuistic in manner.
But his frequent use of antithesis and paradox, the varied and
fanciful imagery by which he realizes religious emotion, though
they are indeed in accordance with the poetical conventions
of his time, are also the unconstrained expression of an ardent
and concentrated imagination. Ben Jonson told Drummond
of Hawthornden that he would willingly have destroyed many
of his own poems to be able to claim as his own Southwell's
" Burning Babe," an extreme but beautiful example of his
fantastic treatment of sacred subjects. His poetry is not, how-
ever, all characterized by this elaboration. Immediately pre-
ceding this very piece in his collected works is a carol written
in terms of the utmost simplicity.
See Dr Grosart's edition already mentioned. Southwell's poems
were also edited by W. B. Turnbull in 1856. A memoir of him was
drawn up soon after his death. Much of the material was incor-
porated by Bishop Challoner in his Memoir of Missionary Priests
(1741), and the MS. is now in the Public Record Office in Brussels.
See also Sidney Lee's account in the Diet. Nat. Biog.; Alexis Possoz,
Vie du Pire R. Southwell (1866) ; and a life in Henry Foley's Records
of the English Province of the Society of Jesus. Historic facts illustra-
tive of the labours and sufferings of its members in the idth and i?th
centuries, 1877 (i. 301-387). Foley's narrative includes copies of
the most important documents connected with his trial, and gives
full information of the original sources.
SOUTHWELL, a cathedral city in the Newark parliamentary
division of Nottinghamshire, England, 16 m. N.E. of Nottingham
by a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), 3161. The
minster church of St Mary became a cathedral on the foundation
of the episcopal see in 1884. The see covers the greater part
of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire, with small portions of
Leicestershire, Lincolnshire and Staffordshire. The foundation
of the earliest church here is attributed to the missionary
Paulinus in the first half of the 7th century. Another followed,
after the devastations of the Northmen, in 960, on the founda-
tion of King Edgar. The building of the present church began
in the reign of Henry I. Henry VIII., after the dissolution of
the monasteries, contemplated the erection of the church into a
cathedral. The cathedral is a magnificent cruciform building,
306 ft. in length, with massive Norman nave (61 ft. wide),
transepts, central and two western towers; and Early English
choir with transepts. There is an octagonal chapter house,
resembling that at York, exhibiting the Decorated style in
highest development. It is connected with the church by a
cloister. The archbishops of York had a palace here dating
from the isth century. The "great chamber "was restored in
1882, and since 1904 the building has been converted into a
residence for the bishops of Southwell.
The erection of the church at Southwell (Sudwelle, Suwell,
Suthwell), probably the cause of the origin of the town, is at-
tributed to the archbishop of York in the 7th century. In 958
land at Southwell was granted to the archbishop by Edwy. A
detailed description of the great manor is given in Domesday.
Southwell remained under the lordship of the see of York until
it was taken over by the ecclesiastical commissioners. It was
called a borough in the i3th century and down to the I7th, but
no charter of incorporation is known. The town never returned
representatives to parliament. In the reign of Edward I. the
archbishop claimed by prescriptive right a five-days' fair at
Pentecost, a three-days' fair at the translation of St Thomas
and a Saturday market. Fairs are now held in April and
December. The market was still held on Saturdays in 1894,
but was then Very small.
SOUTHWOLD, a municipal borough and watering-place in
the Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 12 m.
S. by W. of Lowestoft, the terminus of the Southwold railway,
which connects with the Great Eastern at Halesworth. Pop.
(1901), 2800. The church of St Edmund's is a Perpendicular
flint structure. In 1900 a pier 270 yds. long was constructed,
and serves as a calling-place _for pleasure steamers. A fine com-
mon south of the town is used for golf, lawn-tennis, cricket,
and other sports. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 612 acres.
Southwold (Sudwold, Suwold, Suthwaud) owes its origin and
prosperity to its herring fisheries, which were considerable in
1086, while the importance of its harbour increased with the
decay of Dunwich. In 1461 the men of the town, tenants of
the manor which had been granted by the monks of Bury St
Edmunds to Gilbert, earl of Clare, and had passed to the
Crown with the honour of Clare, claimed exemption from toll,
pontage and similar dues as their prescriptive right. An act
of 1489 incorporated the bailiffs and commonalty of the town
and exempted them from harbour dues. These liberties were
confirmed in 1505 by Henry VII., who also granted the
corporation the town and manor to hold at fee-farm with
certain rights of jurisdiction. Confirmatory chapters were
granted by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Elizabeth, James I. and
Charles II., and the town was governed by a royal charter of
1689 until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. The weekly
market, now the property of the corporation, was granted to
the abbot of St Edmunds as lord of the manor in 1227 together
with a yearly fair on the vigil of the feast of St Philip and St
James. A fair is still held on Trinity Monday. In 1672 South-
wold Bay, usually abbreviated as Solebay, was the scene of a
battle between the English fleet under the duke of York and
the Dutch under Ruyter, the French fleet holding aloof. The
English suffered much, but the Dutch withdrew.
See " Victoria County History " : Suffolk ; T. Gardner, An Historical
account of Dunwich, Blithburgh and Southwold (ed. 1754).
SOUTHWORTH, EMMA DOROTHY ELIZA NEVITTE (1819-
1899), American novelist, was born in Washington, D.C., on the
26th of December 1819. She studied in a school kept by her
stepfather, Joshua L. Henshaw, and in 1840 married Frederick
H. Southworth, of Utica, N.Y. After 1843 she supported herself
by teaching . Her first story," The Irish Refugee, " was published
in the Baltimore Saturday Visitor. Her first novel," Retribution,"
a serial for the National Era, published in book form in 1846,
was so well received that she gave up teaching and became a
regular contributor to various periodicals, especially the New
York Ledger. She lived in Georgetown, D.C., until 1876, then
in Yonkers, N.Y., and again in Georgetown, D.C., where she
died on the 3Oth of June 1899.
Her novels numbered more than sixty; some of them were trans-
lated into German, French and Spanish ; in 1872 an edition of thirty-
five volumes was published in Philadelphia. They include The
Deserted Wife (1850); Mark Sutherland (1853); Hickory Hall (1855);
Unknown (1874); Gloria (1877); The Trail of the Serpent (1879);
Nearest and Dearest (1881); The Mother's Secret (1883); An Exile's
Bride (1887); The Hidden Hand (1888); and Broken Pledges (1891).
SOUVESTRE, EMILE (1806-1854), French novelist, was born
on the isth of April 1806. He was the son of a civil engineer,
a native of Morlaix. He was by turns a bookseller's assistant,
a private schoolmaster, a journalist, and master at the grammar
schools of Brest and of Mulhausen. He settled in Paris in 1836,
where he was made (1848) professor in a school for the instruction
of civil servants. He began his literary career with a drama,
played at the Th6atre francais in 1828, the Siege d"e Missolonghi.
In novel writing he did much better than for the stage, although
he deliberately aimed at making the novel an engine of moral
instruction. His best work is undoubtedly to be found in the
charming Derniers Bretons (4 vols., 1835-1837) and Foyer breton
(1844), where the folk-lore and natural features of his native
province are worked up into story form, and in Un Philosophe
sous les toils, which received in 1851 a well deserved academic
prize. He also wrote a number of other works novels, dramas,
essays and miscellanies. He died in Paris on the 5th of July
1854.
SOUVRB, GILLES DE, MARQUIS DE COTJRTANVAUX, BARON
DE LEZINES (c. 1540-1626), marshal of France, belonged to
SOUZA-BOTELHO SOVEREIGNTY
an old family of the Perche. He accompanied the duke of
Anjou to Poland in 1573, and was appointed master of the ward-
robe and captain of Vincennes when Anjou became Henry III.
He remained in favour, despite the opposition of the queen-
mother, Catherine de Medicis, fought at Coutras, defended Tours
against the Leaguers, was named chevalier de Saint Esprit and
governor of Touraine (1585), and was one of the first to recognize
Henry IV. (1589), who subsequently entrusted him with the
education of the dauphin. Louis XIII. rewarded him with the
title of marshal in 1613. He died in Paris in 1626.
SOUZA-BOTELHO, ADELAIDE FILLEUL, MARQUISE DE
(1761-1836), French writer, was born in Paris on the i4th of
May 1761. Her mother, Marie Irene Catherine de Buisson,
daughter of the seigneur of Longpre, near Falaise, married a
bourgeois of that town named Filleul. It was reported, though
no proof is forthcoming, that Mme Filleul had been the mistress
of Louis XV. Her husband became one of the king's secre-
taries, and Mme Filleul made many friends, among them
Marmontel. Their eldest daughter, Julie, married AbeJ Francois
Poisson, marquis de Marigny (1727-1781); Adelaide married
in 1779 Alexandre Sebastien de Flahaut de la Billarderie, comte
de Flahaut, a soldier of some reputation, who was many years
her senior. In Paris she soon gathered round her a salon, in which
the principal figure was Talleyrand. There are many allusions
to their liaison in the diary of Gouverneur Morris. In 1785 was
born her son Auguste Charles Joseph de Flahaut (q.v.), who
was generally known to be Talleyrand's son. Mme de Flahaut
fled from Paris in 1792 and joined the society of- kmigris at
Mickleham, Surrey, described in Mme d'Arblay's Memoirs.
Her husband remained at Boulogne, where he was arrested on
the 29th of January 1793 and guillotined. Mme de Flahaut
now supported herself by writing novels, of which the first, Adele
de Senange (London, 1794), which is partly autobiographical,
was the most famous. She presently left London for Switzer-
land, where she met Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans. She
travelled in his company to Hamburg, where she lived for two
years, earning her living as a milliner. She returned to Paris
in 1798, and on the i7th of October 1802 she married Jose Maria
de Souza-Botelho Mourao e Vasconcellos (1758-1825), Portu-
guese minister plenipotentiary in Paris. Her husband was
recalled in 1804, and was offered the St Petersburg embassy;
but in the next year he resigned, to settle permanently in Paris,
where he had many friends, among them the historian Sismondi.
He spent his time chiefly in the preparation of a beautiful edition
of the Lusiads of Camoens, which he completed in 1817. Mme
de Souza lost her social power after the fall of the First Empire,
and was deserted even by Talleyrand, although he continued
his patronage of Charles de Flahaut. Her husband died in
1825, and after the accession of Lou : s Philippe she lived in com-
parative retirement till her death on the igth of April 1836.
She brought up her grandson, Charles, due de Morny, her son's
natural son by Queen Hortense. Among her later novels were
La Comtesse de Fargy (1822) and La Duchesse de Guise (1831).
Her complete works were published in 1811-1822.
See Baron A. de Maricourt, Madame de Souza et safamille (1907) ;
Lettres inedites de J. C. L. de Sismondi . . . et de Madame de Souza
(Paris, 1863), ed. St Rene Taillandier; Sainte-Beuve, Portraits de
femmes (1844); and for Mme de Filleul, MM. de Goncourt, Les
Mattresses de Louis XV. (1860) and J. F. Marmontel (1804).
SOVEREIGN, originally an adjective, meaning " supreme,"
especially having supreme or paramount power. The word in
Middle English was soiierain or sovereyn, and was taken through
Old French from Low Latin superanus, chief, principal.
The intrusive " g," which is due to a popular confusion of the
termination of the word with " reign," dates, according to Skeat,
from about 1 570. The form " sovran," borrowed by Milton from
Italian sovrano, soprano, is chiefly found as a poetical usage.
As a substantive " sovereign " is applied to the supreme head of
a state (see SOVEREIGNTY), and to the standard English gold
coin, worth 20 shillings or i (see POUND). The gold sovereign
was first struck in the reign of Henry VII. (1489) ; it was of gold
of the standard fineness (994-8) and weighed 240 grains. It
bore the figure of the king crowned, in royal mantle, seated on
the throne, and holding the sceptre and orb. The sovereign was
coined in successive reigns until that of James I., when the name
" unite " was given to the coin to mark the union of the two
kingdoms. The gold coinage of the kingdom was, until 1816,
a secondary part of the monetary system, but in that year the
silver standard was discontinued and a gold standard adopted.
The sovereign was chosen the new unit of the currency, and the
first issue took place in 1817. Its weight was fixed at 123-274
grains; its fineness at 916-66 or twenty-two carats. These
standards of weight and fineness are those still in force. At the
same time was issued the half-sovereign, of weight in proportion.
The weight of 9343 sovereigns is exactly equivalent to twenty
Troy pounds, and the weight of each individual sovereign is
calculated on this basis. The sovereign is eleven-twelfths pure
gold and one-twelfth alloy, copper being usual. The light colour
of early Australian sovereigns was due to the use of silver instead
of copper. Five-pound pieces were coined in the reigns of Queen
Victoria and Edward VII. They were also authorized in the
reign of George III. (as were two-pound pieces), but the dies were
not completed before the death of that sovereign. Specimens
were, however, subsequently struck. There were also some
pattern pieces struck in the reign of George IV. Two-pound
pieces were issued in the reign of George IV.; they were struck
in the reign of William IV., but not issued for circulation; they
are current coins of the reigns of Victoria and Edward VII.
(See also MINT; MONEY.)
SOVEREIGNTY. The word sovereignty (Fr. souverainete) is
said to be derived from the medieval Latin word supremitas, i.e.
suprema potestas, supreme power. (See Skeat's Etymological
Dictionary as to various forms of the word, and Meyer, Lehrbuch
des deulschen Staatsrechts, 15, as to its derivation.)
Sovereignty may be viewed in three ways: there is the
historical explanation of its origin and growth, its rude beginning
in the savage horde, its completion in the modern state; there is
the analytical or juridical explanation; there is also what (for
want of a better phrase) may be called the organic explanation of
sovereignty.
The following are some of the chief stages in the history
of sovereignty: While society is in a rude state or only tribally
organized there is no distinct sovereignty, no power alft
which all persons habitually obey. Thus there is no
sovereignty among wandering groups of Australian savages:
each family is isolated, each horde is a loose and unstable
collection. When the horde has become a tribe there may exist
no definite sovereign. Distinct in time of war, the power of
the chief may be fluctuating and faint in time of peace; even in
time of war it may be subject to the authority of a council.
Tribes of the same ethnic stock may form a sort of federation,
permanent or temporary. " With the council of the con-
federacy," it has been said, " and, more generally, in the con-
federacy, sovereignty arises and the true political tradition is
evolved " (F. H. Giddings, Principles of Sociology, p. 285).
When the city and the state are conterminous the seat of sove-
reignty becomes defined. Such was the condition of things in
Greece, as considered by Aristotle in his Politics. He discusses
the question what is the supreme power in the state (3. 10), which
he defines as <,n aggregate of citizen (3. i.), and he recognizes
that it may be lodged in one, a few, or many. In his view the
distinctive mark of the state is not so much sovereignty (7. 4)
as self-sufficiency; a state is not a mere aggregate of persons;
it is a union of them sufficient for the purposes of life (7. 8);
sufficiency being " to have all things and to want nothing "
(7. 5. i). The Roman jurists say little, and only incidentally,
as to sovereignty. But in the middle ages, under the influence
of the Roman law, and with the belief in the existence of an
empire entitled to universal sway, an absolutist theory of sove-
reignty was developed in the writings of the jurists who revived
the study of that law: the emperor was sovereign; " quod
principi placuit legis habet vigorem " (Institutes, i. 2. 6).
Those jurists often justified the plenitudo poteslatis conceded to
the emperor by the fact that he stood at the head of Christendom.
520
SOVEREIGNTY
Among the theories prevalent in the middle ages was one that
mankind formed a unity, with the pope and the emperor at
the head of it: the universal Church and the universal emperor
ruled the world (Rehm, Geschichte der Rechtswissenschafl, p. 198.)
Even to Leibnitz, writing in the iyth century, it seemed that
" totam Christianitatem unam velut Rempublicam componere,
in qua Caesari auctoritas aliqua competit " (Opera, 4. 330).
When the power of the emperor was weakened, and the idea of a
universal ruler was gone, a new test of sovereignty was applied
that of external independence; the true sovereign states were
universitates superiorem non recognoscentes. There were times
and countries in the middle ages in which the collective power
of the community was small: many of the great corpora-
tions were virtually autonomous; the central authority was
weak; the matters as to which it could count upon universal
obedience were few. In such circumstances the conception
of sovereignty was imperfect. It has been suggested that the
modern conception of it was evolved from the contest between
three powers: the Church, the Roman Empire, of which the
individual states in Europe were theoretically provinces, and
the great landowners and corporations. Whatever may be the
truth as to this, the modern theory is first clearly stated in Jean
Bodin's book On the Commonwealth (French ed., 1576; Latin
version, 1586), which was the first systematic study of sove-
reignty. Bodin defines the state thus: " Respublica est famili-
arum rerumque inter ipsas communium, summa potestate ac
ratione moderata multitude." His theory, which corresponded
on the whole to the state of things in France in the time of
Louis XI., was a theory of despotism. It may be also described
as a type of the mechanical or juridical theory of sovereignty.
According to Bodin. there is in the state unlimited one power:
" Majestas est summa in cives ac subditos legibusque soluta
potestas " (i. 8). There exists a central force from which are
derived all the powers which make or give effect to laws; a
power which he describes sometimes as " majestas summa
potestas summum imperium." This was the conception ex-
pressed by Bossuet, " Tout 1'etat est en la personne du prince/'
or in Louis XIV. 's saying, " L'etat c'est moi."
One favourite theory was that sovereignty originated in a
social contract. It was assumed that the individual members
of society, by express or implied pact, agree to obey some person
or persons; sometimes it is described as an unqualified handing
over; sometimes it is a transfer subject to qualifications, and
with notice that in certain contingencies this will be withdrawn.
Gierke, in his book Johannes Althusius und die Entwickelung der
naturrechllichen Staatstheorie, shows (p. 76) that the conception of
a treaty or agreement as the basis of the state was in the middle
ages a dogma which passed almost unchallenged, and that this
theory was maintained up to a late period. It is to be found in
the writings of Thomas Aquinas (De Regimine principum, 266),
Marsilius of Padua, Buchanan, J. de Mariana, and F. Suarez.
It is the kernel of the theories of Hobbes, Rousseau, Filmer and
Locke. Among the clearest and most logical exponents of this
theory was Hobbes, who in his Leviathan expounded his notion
of an agreement by which absolute power was irrevocably trans-
ferred to the ruler. Pufendorf , with some variations, states the
same theory. In his view there is a pactum unionis, followed by
a pactum subjcctionis. The best-known exponent of this theory
of the source of sovereignty is Rousseau, who assumes the exist-
ence of a pacte social, the terms of which are: " Chacun de nous
met en commun sa personne et toute sa puissance sous la
supreme direction de la volonte generate; et nous recevons encore
chaque membre comme partie indivisible de tout " (Du Central
social, i. c. 6).
It is convenient for the jurist to assume that in every state is
one determined or determinable authority in which is vested
sovereignty, and from which all other authorities derive their
power. The assumption is not true of some states; the legal
authority is divided among several persons or bodies. It is at best
an unfruitful assumption; and the tendency of students of soci-
ology is to treat discussions as to sovereignty much as modern
physiologists treat discussions as to " vital force " or " vital
principle." Comte, Spencer, Bagehot, Durkheim and Giddings,
for example, refer to it, if at all, only briefly and incidentally;
they conceive society as an organism, or at all events as a
growing whole, no one part or force being the cause of all others,
and all interacting; society is not the product of any agreement
or of force alone, but of a vast variety of interests, desires and
needs. Now the state or government comes at a certain stage
of organization: small groups are drawn together; powerful
corporations fall into line; a national feeling develops; eventu-
ally ths state as we know it is formed. Sovereignty is a resultant
of many forces. It may not exist as to some regions of conduct;
as to others it may be weak and mutable; only in certain
conditions is the sovereign power supreme as to all matters of
conduct.
Among the different senses in which " sovereign " has been
used are the following:
a. " Sovereign " may mean titular sovereign 'the king in the
United Kingdom, the kaiser in Germany.
b. The legal sovereign: the person or persons who, according
to the law of the land, legislate or administer the government.
c. The political or constitutional sovereign: the body of
persons in whom the actual power at any moment or ulti-
mately resides. Sometimes this is designated " the collective
sovereignty."
d. Sovereignty is also used in a wider sense, as the equivalent
of the power, actual or potential, of the whole nation or society
(Gierke, 3. 568).
The distinction between real and nominal sovereignty was
familiar to medieval writers, who recognized a double sovereignty,
and distinguished between (i) the real or practical sovereignty
resident in the people, and (2) the personal sovereignty of the
ruler (Adolf Dock, Der Souveranitatsbegrijf, &c., p. 13). By many
writers sovereignty is regarded as resident not in any one organ,
but in the Gesammtperson of the community (Maitland, Political
Theories of the Middle Ages, xliii.).
Sometimes sovereignty is defined as the organized or general
will of the community (Combothecra, Conception juridique de
I'etat, p. 96). " Sovereignty is the organized will of an organized
independent community. . . . The kings and parliaments who
serve, as its vehicles." " Sovereignty resides in the community "
(Woodrow Wilson, p. 1448). The same theory is often expressed
by saying that the majority in a community, or a particular
group, in fact, rules (Guizot, Representative Government, i. 167).
This was the doctrine of the French Revolution. " Sachez que
vous etes rois et plus des rois," said a revolutionary orator cited
by Taine. It was the language of the founders of the American
constitution and contemporary political writers; the language,
for example, of Paine: " In republics such as there are estab-
lished in America the sovereign power, or the power over which
there is no control and which controls all others, remains where
nature placed it in the people " (Dissertations on Government, i.6) .
The same theory assumes a more subtle form, especially in
the writings of Hegelians. Sovereignty is with them a term
descriptive of the real will of the community, which is not
necessarily that of the majority. " If the sovereign power is to
be understood in this fuller, less abstract sense, if we mean by it
the real determinant of the habitual obedience of the people, we
must look for its sources much more widely and deeply than the
analytical jurists do; it can no longer be said to reside in a deter-
minate person or persons, but in that impalpable congeries of
the hopes and fears of a people bound together by common
interest and sympathy, which we call the common will " (Green's
Works, 2. 404). " Though it may be misleading to speak of the
general will as anywhere, either actually or properly, sovereign
. . . yet it is true that the institutions of political society are an
expression of, and are maintained by, the general will " (2. 409).
Sovereignty is used in a further sense when Plato and Aristotle
speak of the sovereignty of the laws (Laws, 4. 715; Politics, 4. 4;
3. 15). Thus Plato remarks: " I see that the state in which the
law is above the rulers, and the rulers are the inferiors of the law,
has salvation." (See also Gierke, Genossenschaflsrecht, 3. 8.)
Even in medieval writers, such as Bracton, is found the notion
SOVEREIGNTY
that the king is subject to the laws: " Bracton knows of no
sovereign in the Austinian sense, and distinctly denies to the
royal authority the attribute of being incapable of legal limita-
tion " (J. N. Figgis, The Divine Right of Kings, p. 13). We find
the same expressed by many German jurists, i.e. the idea of a
state which exists only in the law and for the law, and whose
life is but by a legal order regulating public and private
relationship (Gierke iii., x.).
Among the definitions of sovereignty may be quoted these:
" That which decides in questions of war and peace, and of
Definitions making or dissolving alliances, and about laws and
of Save- capital punishment, and exiles and fines, and audit
relgnty. Q j accoun ( s anc j examinations of administrators after
their term of office " (Aristotle, Politics, 4. 4. 3). " Suprematum
illi tribuo qui non tantum do mi subditos manu militari regit,
sed et qui exercitum extra fines ducere et armis, foederibus,
legationibus, ac caeteris juris gentium functionibus aliquid
momenti ad rerum Europae generalium summam conferre
potest " (Leibnitz, Opera, 4. 333). " La souverainete est celle qui
sert a exprimer 1'independance d'un etat aussi bien a 1'interieur
qu'a 1'exterieur " (F. de Martens, Traite du droll international,
translated by A. Leo, 1883, i. 378). " L'independance complete
qui peut se manif ester a deux points de vue; 1'un exterieur, 1'autre
interieur " (Frentz Despagnet, Droit international public, 1894,
p. 80). " Sovereignty as applied to states imports the supreme,
absolute, uncontrollable power by which any state is governed "
(T. M. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, p. i). " Social control,
manifesting itself in the authoritative organization of society
as the state, and acting through the organs of government,
is sovereignty " (Giddings, Elements of Sociology, p. 217).
The sovereign is " Absolut unabhangig und nur durch sich
selbst beschrankt und beschrankbar " (Zorn, Volkerrecht, p. 4.
See the collection of definitions in Der Souveranitatsbegriff
im Bodin, &c., by Dr Adolf Dock (1897), p. 6, and in La
Conception juridique de I' etat, by Combo thecra, p. 90). Many of
these definitions describe an ideal state of things rather than
realities. Some of the definitions would apply to the authority
of powerful religious bodies in certain periods of history, or of
illegal associations, such as the Mafia, which have terrorized the
community.
Territorial sovereignty is used in a variety of senses. Often the
phrase is the equivalent of sovereignty. It may mean a state
of things such as existed in the middle ages, in which ownership
and sovereignty were not clearly separated: when he who was
owner had sovereign rights incident thereto, or, as it was some-
times phrased, when sovereignty inhered in the territory, when
the king was the supreme landowner (Maine, Ancient Law, p. 106;
Figgis, pp. n, 14) ; when all political power exhibited proprietary
traits, and was incident to the ownership of land (Maitland,
Township and Borough, p. 31). Territorial sovereignty is thus
defined by Leibnitz: " Superioritatem territorialem in summo
subditos coercendi jure consistere " (Opera, 4. 358. See
Laband, i. c. 8).
Certain propositions are often stated with respect to sove-
reignty. One of them, stated by Rousseau (Du Contrat social, 2.
c. 2), is that it is indivisible: a proposition true in
sense that in regard to the same matters at the
same time there cannot be two sovereigns, but not
true in the sense in which it has often been employed, namely,
that in the last analysis of society there are some persons or
person who control all conduct and are habitually obeyed as to
all matters. Rather we may say with Maine, " Sovereignty is
divisible, but independence is not." To hold sovereignty not to
be divisible is for juridical purposes not a working theory;
states part, permanently or temporarily, with few or many of the
rights and powers comprehended in sovereignty; to speak of it
as undivided in the case of Crete, Egypt or Tibet is to do violence
to facts.
A frequent deduction from the theory of the indivisibility of
sovereignty is that there cannot be double allegiance; in other
words, no one can be the subject of two states. This deduction
is not in fact true. With the existing differences in the laws of
xxv. 17 a
N
modern states as to nationality, persons may be, and are, subjects
of two or more states. In the native states in India there may
be said to be double allegiance. C. L. Tupper, in his Our Indian
Protectorate, refers to " the double allegiance of the subjects of
native states " in India; and he explains that the native rulers
are themselves subject to the Indian government. " For all
purposes of our relation with powers the subjects of Indian native
states must be regarded as subjects of Her Majesty " (Our Indian
Protectorate, 1893, p. 353). Such double allegiance is apt to
exist in times of transition from one sovereignty to another; for
example, in the i8th century, in the British possessions in India,
the Mogul was said to exercise a personal sovereignty. As Sir
William Scott remarked in the Indian Chief, 3 C. Rob. 22, it
hardly existed otherwise than as a phantom : the actual authority
to be obeyed was exercised by the East India Company. The
natives of protected states owe not only allegiance to them, but
also certain duties, ill defined, to the protecting state.
.Another deduction from the same proposition is that any
corporation or private body which appears to exercise sovereign
powers together with the state does so only by delegation. This
theory is thus stated by Burke (Works, 7. 289) with reference to
the East India Company: " The East India Company itself
acts under two very dissimilar sorts of power, derived from two
sources very remote from each other. The first source of its
power is under charters which the Crown of Great Britain was
authorized by act of parliament to grant, the other is from
several charters derived from the emperor of the Moguls ....
As to those of the first description, it is from the British charters
that they derive a capacity by which they are considered as a
public body, or at all capable of any public function. . . . This
being the root and origin of their power, renders them responsible
to the party from whom all their immediate or consequential
powers are derived."
A further proposition often stated with respect to sovereignty
is that it is unlimited: a proposition which is not true of the legal
or political sovereign. In all states are limits, more or less
definite, to such powers, according to the character of the subjects
and the. relations of the state to foreign powers. Even despotism
is tempered by assassination and the liability of revolution
(Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 6th ed., p. 75). A third pro-
position, often expressed with respect to sovereignty, is that it
cannot be alienated: a proposition thus stated by Rousseau:
" Je disque la souverainete, n'etant que 1'exercisede la volonte
generale, ne peut jamais s'aliener " (Du Contrat social, 2. i;
Figgis, p. 89).
According to one view, sovereignty is not the distinctive note
of a state. Many communities usually regarded as true states
do not possess it. There are sovereign and non-sovereign states;
international law recognizing both. In the view of many writers
sovereignty is not a necessary attribute of a state (Laband,
Das Staatsrecht des deulschen Reiches, i. 87; Jellinek, Die Lehre
von den Staatenverbindungen, p. 37; Meyer, Lehrbuch des deutschen
Staatsrechtes, p. 5; Ullmann, Volkerrecht, 29. See the contrary
view presented by Professor Burgess, Political Science or Consti-
tutional Law, i. 52; Political Science Quarterly, 3. 123; Georges
Streit, Revue de droit international, 1900, p. 14). Any division or
classification of states must be imperfect. The fact is that there
may be an indefinite number of what Merignhac (i. 204) terms
political " collectives secondaires "; that the attributes summed
up in sovereignty may be separated and divided in many ways;
that there may be new forms of combinations between states or
parts of states; and that their morphology is subject to no hard
and fast rules.
The phrase half sovereign states was invented by J. J. Moser to
describe states possessing some of the attributes of sovereignty.
Under this class are grouped very diverse communi- Halt
ties. There are states which possess some attributes Sovereign
of sovereignty, but no others; states possessing aa ' e -
internal autonomy, but not externally independent ; states which
are more or less under the influence of others. There are also
states which have certain of the attributes of sovereignty, but
are subject to servitudes or burthens imposed by treaty, usage,
522
SOVEREIGNTY
or force. Feudalism had a phraseology to express the varieties
of fiefs which existed under it; modern international law has no
generally-accepted terminology for the still greater variety of
states which now exist. These varieties tend to multiply, and
it is difficult to reduce them all to a few types. The theory that
states are equal, and possess all the attributes of sovereignty,
was never true. It is still more at variance with the facts in these
days when a few great states predominate, and when the contact
of western states with African and Asiatic states or communities
gives rise to relations of dependence falling short of conquest.
The division into federations, confederations and alliances is
not complete. Jellinek has suggested this classification (Die
Lehre von den Staatenverbindungen, p. 58): (0) Unorganized
associations, including (i) treaties; (2) occupation of the
territory of one state and administration by another, as in
Bosnia and Cyprus; (3) alliances; (4) protectorates, guarantees,
perpetual neutrality; (5) Der Staatenstaat, the feudal state, of
which Jellinek gives the Turkish Empire and the old Holy Roman
Empire as examples, (b) Organized associations, including (i)
international commissions (Internationale Verwaltungsvereine,
such as international postal and telegraph unions, &c.); (2) the
Staatenbund or confederation of states; (3) real unions of states
as distinguished from personal; (4) the Bundesstaat or federal
state. 1 Most of the existing varieties may be conveniently
ranged in the following classes:
1. States which have complete independence, complete
autonomy, external and internal, and which are recognized in
international law as sovereign states.
2. States which have complete external independence, but
are more or less subject permanently to other states as to their
internal affairs. Of this class there are now few examples. Per-
haps, however, such states as permit, permanently or normally,
of interference by others on behalf of certain classes of subjects
may be so described. The general principle is that a treaty does
not detract from sovereignty. As Jellinek expresses it. " Der
Staatenvertrag bindet, aber er unterwirft nicht " (Gesetz und
Verordnung, p. 205); or as Grotius (i. ch. 3, 22, 2) expresses it,
" Nee regi aut populo jus demit summi imperii."
3. States which enjoy complete autonomy as to internal
affairs, but which are more or less subject to other states as to
foreign relations. Some writers would place in this category all
states forming part of a true confederacy. It includes states
which are united temporarily cases of inorganic unity, to use
Jellinek's expression. It includes also permanent alliances or
organic unions. These are some examples :
a. Protectorates and Suzerainties. The status of certain states,
such as Bulgaria and Rumania and the late South African Republic,
were peculiar. Even before the independence of the two first-
named states, they undoubtedly were for many purposes sovereign.
b. The unions between a superior and inferior state, e.g. the re-
lations of the various states to the old Holy Roman Empire; the
relations of the Ottoman Porte to its Christian provinces. In the
middle ages the question was often mooted whether states subject
to feudal superiors, or the states forming the empire, were sove-
reign. According to one common definition they were not : a true
sovereign state was universitas quae non superiorem ^ recognoscit.
" Celui est absolument souverain qui ne rien tient apres Dieu que
de I'espee. S'il tient d'autrui il n'est plus souverain." The prevalent
opinion, however, was that sovereignty was compatible with rights
such as were possessed by the Reich over the princes of Germany;
that there might be fiefs held in full sovereignty; and that vassal
states, when subject only to " nude vassalage," were sovereign.
That was the view of Grotius (i. I. ch. 3, 23. 2), who holds that the
nexus feudalis is consistent with summum imperium.
4. States which have, by treaty or otherwise, parted with
some portion of their sovereignty and formed new political
units: what Herbert Spencer calls " compound political heads,"
or, to use Austin's expression, " composite states." The most
important examples of this class consist of federal or composite
states which by treaty or otherwise have surrendered certain
of their powers, or which have created a new state (Staatenbund).
For many years one of the burning questions in the politics of
1 The distinction between the Staatenbund and the Bundesstaat is
discussed in the articles CONFEDERATION and FEDERAL GOVERN-
MENT.
the United States was the question whether the individual states
of the Union remained sovereign. According to the theory of J. C.
Calhoun, the states had entered into an agreement from which
they might withdraw if its terms were broken, and they were
sovereign. According to the theory expounded in the Federalist,
the individual states did not, after the formation of the constitu-
tion, remain completely sovereign: they were left in possession
of certain attributes of sovereignty, while others were lodged in
the Federal government; while there existed many states, there
was but one sovereign. Even if the origin was a compact or
contract, after the " United States " were formed by a " consti-
tutional act " there no longer existed a mere contractual relation:
there existed a state to which all were subject, and which all
must obey (von Stengel, Staatenbund und Bundesstaat; Jahrbuch
fitr Gesetzgebung, 1898, p. 754; Cooley, Principles of Constitutional
Law, pp. 21, 102). According to Austin: "In the case of a
composite state or a supreme federal government, the several
united governments of the several united societies together with
a government common to these several societies, are jointly
sovereign in each of these several societies and also in the larger
society arising from the federal union, the several governments
of the several united societies are jointly sovereign in each and
all " (sth ed., vol. i. p. 258). In point of fact, there are fields of
action in which A is sovereign, others in which B is sovereign,
and certain others in which A and B are jointly or alternately
sovereign. To take the American constitution, for example, the
states are sovereign as to some matters, the Federal government
as to others.
5. Another division includes anomalous cases, such as Cyprus
or Bosnia, in which one government administers a country
as to which another state retains certain powers, theoretically
large.
6. The territories governed or administered by chartered
companies form a class by themselves. Nominally such com-
panies are the delegates of some states; in reality they act as
if they were true sovereigns.
7. Two other classes may be mentioned: (a) cases of real
union between states, e.g. that between Austria and Hungary;
(b) personal unions, distinguished from the above-named forms
for example, the union of Great Britain and Hanover.
8. A small group consists of instances of condominium or
arrangements similar thereto; for example, the arrangements
as to the Samoa Islands from 1889 to 1899.
According to modern usage the appellation " sovereign state "
belongs only to states of considerable size and population exer-
cising without control the usual powers of a state, e.g. able to
declare peace or war. Leibnitz, discussing this subject in his
Tractatus de jure suprematus (Opera, 4. 362), says: " Itaque
valde etiam dubito, an possit Reipublicae illi Italiae, quam
vocant Sancti Marini oppidum, concedi suprematus, sizeot
tametsi jure liberam esse nemo negat," a remark State.
which would apply also to the republic of Andorra: " Illi
tantum vocantur souverains ou potentats, qui territorium majus
habent, exercitumque educere possunt; atque hoc demum illud
est, quod ego voco suprematum, et Gallos quoque arbitror, cum
de rebus ad jus gentium spectantibus, pace, bello, foederibus
sermo est, et ipsi aliquos vocant souverains, eos non de urbibus
liberis loqui, nee exiguorum territoriorum dominis, quae facile
dives Mercator sibi emere potest, sed de majoribus illis
potestatibus, quae bellum inferre, bellum sustinere, propria
quodammodo vi stare, foedera pangere, rebus aliarum gentium
cum auctoritate intervenire possunt " (4. 359).
With this view may be compared that of a writer in the Law
Magazine (1899) xxv. 30, who argues that the republic of San
Marino is a state in the full sense.
It is sometimes suggested that self-governing colonies are to
be regarded as true states. Undoubtedly some of them can no
longer be regarded as colonies in the old sense. The coj oa if^
self-governing colonies forming part of the " multi-
cellular British state," as F. W. Maitland describes it (Political
Theories of the Middle Ages, p. x.), have an essentially " state-
like character." If Liberia is a state, the same may surely be
SOWAR SOWING
523
said of Canada. It is true the British colonies have not the
power of declaring war or peace, or regulating the foreign policy
of the empire; and the Crown may disallow a measure passed
by the dominion parliament (J. G. Bourinot, Constitution of
Canada, 1888, p. 75; A. H. F. Lefroy, Legislative Power in Canada,
244). Colonial legislatures are said to have delegated powers. It
is more accurate to say that as to certain matters the legislature
of the Canadian Dominion is sovereign, and as to certain others
that it is not (Lefroy, 244; Quick and Garran, Australian Common-
wealth, 328; Dicey, 106) ; and as to some matters they are in fact,
if not in form, univcrsitates superiorem non recognoscentes (Quick
and Garran, 319); or that they are states in process of making.
Occasionally the expression " subject of a colony " is now used
(Low v. Ronlledge, L.R. i Ch. 42; Lefroy, Legislative Power in
Canada, 329). It has been decided by the judicial committee
of the Privy Council that the colonial legislatures are not mere
delegates of the Imperial parliament (A. B. Keith, Responsible
Government in the Colonies, p. 81). At all events, the self-govern-
ing colonies may be classed as " half sovereign states " or " quasi-
sovereign."
Many attempts have been made to enumerate the attributes
of sovereignty, i.e. the regalia, prerogatives, &c., as they were
Attributes called. For example, Bodin gives a list of the
of Save- properties of majestas or sovereignty: (a) " Legem
reigaty. universis, &c., singulis civibus dare posse; (b) bellum
indicere aut pacem inire; (c) to appoint and change magistrates;
(d) power of final appeal; (c) power of pardon; (/) raising revenue;
(g) coining money " (De republica, vol. i. ch. 10). Leibnitz, with
the middle ages in view, divides the attributes or faculties into
two classes: regalia major a and regalia minor a. Hobbes (Levia-
than), analysing these attributes, enumerates twelve attributes.
" These," he says, " are the marks which make the essence of
sovereignty, and which are the marks whereby a man may dis-
cover in what man, or assembly of men, the sovereign power is
placed or resideth." He also describes them as " inseparable
rights." Bluntschli (Allgemeine Staalslehre, i. 575) enumerates
these attributes: (a) right of recognition of majestas;
(b) independence; (c) power to determine constitution; (d) right
of legislation; (e) action through deposed organs; (/) irre-
sponsibility. All of these enumerations are open to the
objection that they merely describe the action of the state
at a particular time, or indicate a theory of what an ideal
state should be.
AUTHORITIES. The literature of the subject is immense; every
book on political science, from Republic of Plato and the Politics of
Aristotle, has dealt with or touched sovereignty. A few of the chief
modern works are: J. C. Bluntschli, Allgemeine Staatslehre (Munich,
1852); Otto Gierke, Das deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht (Berlin, 1863-
1881); J. Austin, Lectures on Jurisprudence (3rd ed., London,
1869); Sir H. Maine, " Minute on the Kathiawar States" (1864;
printed in Life and Speeches, p. 320) and Early History of Institu-
tions (1875); P. Laband, Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches (Freiburg-
im-Breisgau and Tubingen, 1876); R. von Mohl, Encyclopddie der
Staatswissenschaften (2nd ed., Tubingen, 1872); O. Gierke, Johannes
Althusius (Breslau, 1880); G. Jellinek, Die Lehre von den Staatsver-
bindungen (Vienna, 1882); G. Meyer, Lehrbuch des deutschen Staats-
rechts (Leipzig, 1878); H. Rosin, Souveranitdtstaat (1883); K. Gareis,
Allgemeines Staatsrecht (1882); T. M. Cooley, Constitutional Limita-
tions (6th ed., 1890); Jellinek, Ueber Staatsfragmente (1896); J. B.
Westerkamp, Staatenbund und Bundesstaat (Leipzig, 1892); J. R.
Green's Works (London, 1892); W. W. Fowler, City State of the
Greeks and Romans (London, 1893); Salomon, L'Occupation des
territoires sans maitres (Paris, 1896); A. V. Dicey, Law of the
Constitution (6th ed., 1902) ; X. Combothecra, La Conception
juridique de I'etat (1899); H. Rehm, Allgemeine Staatslehre 1899);
Franklin H. Giddings, Principles of Sociology (3rd ed., New York,
1899); J. W. Burgess, Political Science and Constitutional Law (Bos-
ton, 1899) ; C. E. Merriam, History of the Theory of Sovereignty since
Rousseau (New York, 1900) ; J. Bryce, Studies in History and
Jurisprudence (2. Essay x. 1901); K. Bornhak, Einseitige
Abhdngigkeitsverhdltnisse unter den modernen Staaten (1896); W. W.
Willoughby, The Nature of the State (New York, 1896) ; Clauss, Die
Lehre von den Staatsdienstbarkeiten (1894); Bosanquet, The
Philosophical Theory of the State (1899); J. B. Moore, Digest of
International Law (Washington, 1906), i. 18 seq.; "Notes oh
Sovereignty," American Journal of International Law 1907), i. 105;
W. B. Keith, Responsible Government in the Colonies (1909); T.
Baty, International Law (1909). (J. M.)
SOWAR (Hind, and Pers. suwar, a horseman), the name in
Anglo-Indian usage for a horse-soldier belonging to the cavalry
troops of the native armies of British India and the feudatory
states. It is also used more specifically of a mounted orderly,
escort or guard.
SOWERBY, JAMES (1757-1-822), English natural-history
artist, was born in London on the 2ist of March 1757. He
became a student at the Royal Academy, and subsequently
taught drawing, but soon applied his art to the illustration
of botanical and conchological works, and became distinguished
by the publication of his English Botany (36 vols., 1790-1814),
a.r\A British Mineralogy (svols., 1804-1817). He likewise planned
and carried out for a number of years the classic geological work
intended to describe and illustrate the British fossils, and en-
titled The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain (7 vols., 1812-
1846). This was issued in parts, with the assistance first of
his elder son, J. de C. Sowerby, and, after J. Sowerby's death
(Oct. 25, 1822), of his second son, G. B. Sowerby, both the sons
being themselves expert palaeontologists. The Sowerby col-
lection, consisting of about 5000 fossils, was purchased by the
British Museum in 1860.
The elder son, JAMES DE CARLE SOWERBY (1787-1871), was
in 1838 one of the founders of the Royal Botanic Society, and
was its secretary for thirty years. He supplied the plates and
part of the text to the Supplement to English Botany (4 vols.,
1831-1849); but his most important work related to palaeon-
tology, as he identified and in many cases described the
invertebrate fossils for papers by Buckland, Sedgwick, Fitton,
Murchison and others in the Transactions of the Geological
Society of London.
The younger son, GEORGE BRETTINGHAM SOWERBY (1788-1854)
was author of The Genera of Recent and Fossil Shells (1820-1825),
and one of the editors of the Zoological Journal (1825-1826). His
son, G. B. SOWERBY (1812-1884), author of the Conchological
Manual (1839; 4th ed., 1852), and grandson G. B. SOWERBY
(b. 1843), a distinguished student of the Mollusca, inherited the
family talent for natural history.
SOWERBY BRIDGE, an urban district in the Sowerby
parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
3 m. S.W. of Halifax by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway.
It is situated on both sides of the river Calder, at the termination
of the Rochdale canal. Christ Church, dating from 1526, was
rebuilt in 1819. The town is almost entirely a growth of the
second half of the igth century. It possesses worsted and
cotton mills, iron works, dye works and chemical works. The
separate urban district of Sowerby adjoins to the south-west.
Pop. (1901), Sowerby Bridge, n,477; Sowerby, 3653.
SOWING (from " to sow," O. Eng. sawan, cf. Du. zaaijen,
Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. serere, cf. "seed"), in
agriculture, the planting of seed for the raising of crops. The
scattering of seed by hand is the simplest and oldest method
of delivering seed to the earth, and is still preferred by some
farmers and in certain circumstances. The sower carries the
receptacle for the seed, a zinc " seed-lip," seed-sheet or basket,
slung over his shoulder, and walking up and down the ridges
of the field scatters handfuls of grain with a semicircular sweep
of the arm across the body. The " casts " must not overlap
too much, the seed must not fall more thickly at one point of
the cast than at another, and the standard of seeding per acre
must be rigidly adhered to; hence manual-sowing demands con-
siderable skill and experience. It is still preferred in some
districts for the sowing of corn crops; and in some cases the
plough is followed by a furrow-presser, the seed falling into
the hollows made by it, though under ordinary circumstances
the face of the field as left in " seams " by the furrow-slices
from the plough is in a suitable condition for broadcasting.
So well, indeed, is the ploughing done in many countries that
broadcasting gives perfectly good results, and broadcasting
machines reaching up to 15 ft. wide are in common use in place
of hand-sowing, as these get over the ground more quickly
and deposit the seed more regularly than an ordinary work-
man does by hand.
524
SOYER
It was long recognized that the precision which is of the
essence of good sowing could be better attained by mechanical
means, and as early as 1662 a sowing-machine was invented
by Joseph Locatelli in Carinthia. In England the early history
of mechanical sowing is chiefly connected with the name of
Jethro lull, who about 1730 invented the corn-drill. 1 Cooke's
drill brought out in 1783 was the definite precursor of the modern
drill. The drill, besides depositing the seed at a uniform depth,
sows it in parallel rows at equal distances from one another and
thus makes possible the use of the horse hoe and facilitates the
suppression of weeds amongst growing crops, the latter advan-
tage being specially marked in the case of root crops. The
" cup-feed " and the " force- feed " are the commonest and most
generally useful types. The cup-drill consists of a long box
carried upon wheels and divided diagonally into two sections
by a partition. The forward section contains the seed which
drops through apertures, the size of which can be regulated
by slides, to the bottom section. A spindle geared to the ground-
wheels by cogs passes longitudinally through the centre of this
section and carries disks, round the rims of which are fitted
small cups. As the horses pull the drill forward, the spindle
and disks revolve and the cups scoop up the seed and pour it
into the funnels; thence it proceeds down a series of tubes or
" spouts " and drops into shallow furrows traced by small
coulters travelling immediately in front of the streams of seed.
The coulters can be raised or lowered by levers and are kept
down to their work by weights or pressers, which can be regulated
according as deep or shallow sowing is required.
FIG. i. Rear view of Corn and Fertilizer Single Disk Drill.
In the force-feed type of drill the seed falls through apertures in
the bottom of the seed-hopper into funnels, through which extends
a shaft carrying bowl-shaped wheels, one for each (fig. l). These
wheels are either spirally-
grooved inside or else
cogged and serve to feed
the seed regularly into the
tubes. Instead of coulters,
the drill is often fitted with
shoes or revolving disks,
similar in action to those of
the disk-harrow. The tooth
and brush pinion, the per-
forated disk and the chain
feed drills, are other types
differentiated according to
FIG. 2.-Disk Coulter. the . m . eth d f ft hich ^ e
seed is fed from the
hopper and the kind of crop being sown.
Liquid-manure drills distribute chemical manure mixed with
water and are often fitted with a seed-box for root seeds, the manure
and the seed being deposited through the same spout. Drills are
also made in which dry fertilizers may be deposited with the seed in
a similar manner.
The wheelbarrow seeder, a long box pierced with openings and
carried transversely on a skeleton wheelbarrow, is used for sowing
grass seed.
1 The machine devised by Josiah Worlidge about 1669 was
ineffective in practice and differed totally in structure from that of
Tull.
In the United States the maize or Indian-corn crop exceeds all
others in value, and machines used in planting and handling this
crop are of great importance. Corn (maize) is sometimes listed or
planted in a continuous row like wheat, and for this purpose a
machine known as a lister is employed.
In its general construction this machine is a sulky plough, having
a double mould-board, which turns the furrow in both directions.
Immediately behind the plough is a sub-soiler for deepening the
furrow and penetrating to the moist soil below the surface. A seed-
box is mounted on the plough beam, and is provided with a feed-plate
operated by a shaft geared to one of the wheels. The seed is
FIG. 3. Maize Lister.
delivered to the furrow in rear of the mould-boards and covered by
two shovels fixed behind which turn the soil back into the furrow.
It is, however, more common to plant maize in hills, which are
spaced equally from each other and form rows in both directions, so
that a cultivator may be driven between them. This work is done
by a machine called a check-row corn planter.
In using the corn planter, a wire, having buttons attached thereto,
at intervals corresponding to the distance between the hills, is first
stretched across the field and anchored at its ends. This wire is
then placed upon the guide rollers at the side of the machine and
passes between the jaws of a forked lever, which is connected at its
other end with a rock-shaft passing across the machine and serving
to oscillate a feed-plate in the bottom of each seed-hopper. As the
buttons on the check-wire strike the forked lever, the latter is drawn
to the rear and causes the feed-plate to drop the seed through the
tubes into the open space between the plates of the furrowing shoe.
A reel at the rear of the machine is used to take up the check-wire as
the planter progresses.
In another corn planter the check-wire is dispensed with, and the
machine is provided with a shaft carrying two reels, the blades of
which are at a distance apart equal to the distance between the hills
of corn, and thus measure the intervals at which the corn is to be
dropped. A rod, extending from the side of the machine, and
carrying a small wheel, marks the next row and serves as a guide to
the driver.
See J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase, Farm Machinery and Farm
Motors, p. 132 (New York, 1908).
SOYER, ALEXIS BENOIT (1800-1858), French culinary
artist, was born at Meaux-en-Brie, France, in October 1809.
After five years' apprenticeship as a cook near Versailles, he
was engaged by a well-known Paris restaurateur, and soon
became chief cook. Leaving France at the revolution of 1830,
he went to London and joined his brother in the kitchen of
the duke of Cambridge. Subsequently he was cook in several
noblemen's kitchens, and in 1837 was made chef to the Reform
Club, London. In 1847, having written several letters to the
press on the famine in Ireland, he was commissioned by the
government to establish kitchens in Dublin. In 1850 he
resigned his position at the Reform Club, and the following
year opened Gore House, Kensington, as a restaurant, but
this venture did not prove a success. In 1855 he offered, through
the medium of The Times, to proceed at his own expense to the
Crimea and advise on the cooking for the British army there.
His services were accepted by the government. On returning
from the front he lectured at the United Service Institution
on cooking for the services, and reformed the dietary of the
military hospitals, and of the emigration commissioners. He
SOZOMEN SPACE AND TIME
525
died in London on the 5th of August 1858. Soyer was the
inventor of an army cooking wagon, and the author of a variety
of cookery books. His wife, Elizabeth Emma Soyer, achieved
considerable popularity as a painter, chiefly of portraits.
SOZOMEN, the name of a famous sth-century church his-
torian. Hermias Salamanes (Salaminius) Sozomenus (c. 400-
443) came of a wealthy family of Palestine, and it is exceedingly
probable that he himself was born and brought up there in
Gaza or the neighbourhood. What he has to tell us of the
history of South Palestine was derived from oral tradition.
His grandfather, he tells us, lived at Bethel, near Gaza, and
became a Christian, probably under Constantius, through the
influence of Hilarion, who had miraculously healed an ac-
quaintance of the grandfather, one Alaphion. Both men with
their families became zealous Christians. The historian's
grandfather became within his own circle a highly esteemed
interpreter of Scripture, and held fast his profession even in
the time of Julian. The descendants of the wealthy Alaphion
founded churches and convents in the district, and were par-
ticularly active in promoting monasticism. Sozomen himself
had conversed with one of these, a very old man. He tells us
that he was brought up under monkish influences and his history
bears him out. As a man he retained the impressions of his
youth, and his great work was to be also a monument of his
reverence for the monks in general and for the disciples of
Hilarion in particular. After studying law in Beirut he settled
down as an advocate in Constantinople, where he wrote his
EKK\77(naoTiKi7 'loTopto. about the year 440. The nine
books of which it is composed begin with Constantine (323)
and come down to the death of Honorius (423); but according
to his own statement he intended to continue it as far as the
year 439 (see the Dedication of the work). From Sozomen
himself (iv. 17), and statements of his excerptors Nicephorus
and Theophanes, it can be made out that the work did actually
come down to that year, and that consequently it has reached us
only in a mutilated condition, at least half a book being wanting
(Guldenpenning, Theodoras von Kyrrhos, p. 12 seq., holds that
Sozomen himself suppressed the end of his work). A flatter-
ing and bombastic dedication to Theodosius II. is prefixed.
When compared with the history of the ecclesiastical historian
Socrates (q.v.), it is plainly seen to be a plagiarism from that
work, and that on a large scale. Some three-fourths of the
materials, essentially in the same arrangement, have been
appropriated from his predecessor without his being named,
the other sources to which Sozomen was indebted being expressly
cited. But it is to his credit that he has been himself at the
trouble to refer to the principal sources used by Socrates
(Rufinus, Eusebius, Athanasius, Sabinus, the collections of
epistles, Palladius), and has not unfrequently supplemented
Socrates from them; and also that he has used some new
authorities, in particular sources relating to Christianity in
Persia and to the history of Arianism, monkish histories,
the Vita Martini of Sulpicius, and works of Hilarius. The
whole of the ninth book is drawn from Olympiodorus.
It is probable that Sozomen did not approve of Socrates's
freer attitude towards Greek science, and that he wished to
present a picture in which the clergy should be still further
glorified and monasticism brought into still stronger pro-
minence. In Sozomen everything is a shade more ecclesiastical
but only a shade than in Socrates. Perhaps also he wrote
for the monks in Palestine, and could be sure that the work
of his predecessor would not be known.
Sozomen is an inferior Socrates. What in Socrates still betrays
some vestiges of historical sense, his moderation, his reserve in ques-
tions of dogma, his impartiality a'll this is wanting in Sozomen.
In many cases he has repeated the exact words of Socrates, but with
him they have passed almost into mere phrases. The chronological
scrupulosity of the earlier writer has made no impression on his
follower; he has either wholly omitted or inaccurately repeated the
chronological data. He writes more wordily and diffusely. In his
characterizations of persons, borrowed from Socrates, he is more
dull and colourless. After Socrates he has indeed repeated the
caution not to be too rash in discerning the finger of God ; but his
way of looking at things is throughout mean and rustic. Two
souls inhabit his book; one, the better, is borrowed from Socrates;
another, the worse, is his own. Evidence of a boundless credulity
with regard to all sorts of monkish fables is to be met with every-
where. It must, however, be noted that for the period from Theo-
dosius I. onward he has emancipated himself more fully from Socrates
and has followed Olympiodorus in part, partly also oral tradition;
and here his statements possess greater value.
Sozomen also wrote an Epitome of History from the Ascension
of Christ to the defeat of Licinius (323) which is not now extant
(see his History, i. l).
For bibliography see the article on the church historian, SOCRATES.
Most of the editions and discussions named there cover Sozomen as
well (the volume of Hussey's edition containing Sozomen appeared
in 1860). The latest English translation, revised by Hartranft, is
published in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd series, vol. ii.
In addition see Nolte in the Tubing. Quartalschr. (1861), p. 417
sqq.; C. de Boor, " Zur Kenntniss der Handschriften der Griech.
Kirchenhistoriker," in Zeitschrift fur_ Kirchengeschichte, vi. 478
sqq.; Sarrazin, " De Sozomeni historia num Integra sit," in the
Commentationes philologae jenenses, i. 165 sqq.; Rosenstein,
" Krit. Untersuchungen uber d. Verhaltniss zwischen Olympiodor,
Zosimus und Sozomen," in Forsch. z. deutschen Gesch., vol. i. ;
Batiffol, " Sozomene et Sabinos," in Byzant. Zeitschr. vii. 265
sqq. (A. HA.; A. C. McG.)
SPA, a town of Belgium, lying less than 20 m. S.E. of Liege
and in the same province, famous for its mineral springs, which
are reputed to be the oldest known in Europe, having been
first discovered in 1326. They are supposed to have given the
common name of " spa " to such resorts. The town is situated
850 ft. above sea-level and the heights above the valley reach
i ico ft. In the i8th century it was the most fashionable resort
in Europe for the medicinal use of such waters, being visited
by Peter the Great of Russia, Gustavus III. of Sweden, and
Joseph II. of Austria. In 1807 much of the town was burned
down, while the principal buildings, the Casino and the Pouhon,
are quite modern. Spa has not held its own with its many
French and German rivals, but it still attracts about 20,000
visitors annually. Pop. (1904), 7759.
SPACE AND TIME, in philosophy. The metaphysical
problems connected with Space and Time are so similar and have
been so closely conjoined in the history of thought that they
may well be treated together. They are clearly distinguishable
from the psychological, which relate to the modes whereby
our spatial and temporal conceptions have been formed and
to the analysis of the materials of which they are composed
(see PSYCHOLOGY). In an exhaustive treatment of Space
and Time by far the largest share of the work rests with
the psychologist. The business of the metaphysician is to
determine what reality outside our minds corresponds to our
temporal and spatial conceptions.
The first tendency of thought is to treat Space and Time as
having objective existence in the same way as the ordinary things
that compose our world, and this we may call the objective
method. Simple as it appears to be, it discloses formidable
difficulties, which may be illustrated by a consideration of
Newton's famous account of " absolute, true and mathematical
time " as something which " in itself and from its own nature
flows equally " and with no liability to change. Now, if mathe-
matical time as thus described is merely an abstraction used
to facilitate mathematical calculations, no objection can be
taken to it. But if Newton meant to assert that Time is a
flowing stream no less actual than the Thames, his assertion
is open to fatal objections. All admittedly real streams, such
as the Thames, have a definite beginning and an ending. But
where is the source of Time and where is its outlet? Every
real stream has boundaries at its sides. What are the boun-
daries of Time? Every real stream has certain definite quali-
ties: water is rather heavy and translucent, and produces
certain effects upon bodies plunged into it. What are the
specific qualities of Time? How are things hi time affected
by their immersion in time so as to be different from things
not in time? And if it be asserted that time has such specific
qualities, by what senses do we perceive them? We may
fairly assume that none of these questions can be answered
intelligibly by one who holds the Newtonian position. And
thus we are justified in the conclusion that time is not a real
526
SPADE SPAGNA, LO
stream at all, but something which is said to behave like a
stream only in some metaphorical sense. Similar difficulties
arise if we try to attribute a like objective reality to Space.
We can imagine no boundaries to Space; it seems to have no
active specific qualities and we have no sense-organ for per-
ceiving it.
The thinkers of antiquity saw these difficulties without solving
them. Their whole treatment of philosophic problems was objec-
tive; and, so long as Space and Time are treated objectively,
not much can be done with them. Plato has great difficulty
in explaining the relation between Space and his Ideas: Aris-
totle contents himself with defining space as " the first unmoved
limit of the containing body, " a definition which helps us very
little: nor do we get more light from later Greek philosophy.
As to Time, there was always a tendency in Greek thought to
treat it as in some sense unreal. Time was seen to be intimately
connected with change, and it was just their liability to change
that made ordinary mundane things unreal, as contrasted with
the unchanging steadfastness of the Platonic Ideas. And the
pantheistic One-and-All of Plotinus is plainly incompatible
with the reality of Time. In all pantheistic systems Time
belongs to mundane existence and Eternity to the transcendent
Reality.
Modern philosophy is distinguished from ancient mainly
by its greater subjectivity; and thus it was not long after the
rise of modern philosophy that thinkers began to turn to the
subjective method of explaining Space and Time, that is, to
regard them as real only to our minds. Its use begins effectively
with Berkeley, though prepared for to some extent by earlier
writers such as Hobbes. Berkeley's treatment is most definitely
clear in the case of Space; for his attack upon materialism
made it necessary for him to affirm the ideality of Space as
well as of Matter. But he takes a similar line of argument
with Time, declaring it to be nothing but the succession of
ideas. The merit of the subjective method was that it made
men see the importance of psychology. If Space and Time
exist only in the human mind we must analyse the human mind
to explain them. The work of the English psychologists such
as the Mills and Bain attaches itself to subjectivist principles.
A distinct epoch in the history of the subject was made by
the work of Kant, whose solution of the problems may be classed
as transcendental. He argued that Space and Time are not given
by experience, but are rather conditions of all our experience,
being in his terminology a priori, that is, supplied by the mind
from its own inward resources. They do not belong to things-
in-themselves, but to things-as-we-know-them, or phenomena.
Their validity consists in. the fact that all men have them and
that they are absolutely necessary conditions of human in-
telligence. As he expresses it from his peculiar point of view,
Space is the form of outer sense, Time of inner sense.
The prevalence of German philosophy in Great Britain during
the last quarter of the ipth century has given these Kantian
principles a great currency, interrupting the more truly charac-
teristic psychological tendency of British thought. That
prevalence is now passing away. No one now holds the full
Kantian position; which, in the case of Space, is refuted by the
simple consideration that our spatial conceptions depend upon our
sensuous perceptive powers; and that, consequently, the spatial
conceptions of the blind, for example, are quite different
from those of ordinary men. If Kant is right, and Space is
a pure form unaffected by all specific differences of content,
it would follow that a man born with one sense only, say that
of taste, would have the same space-conception as the rest of
us; a conclusion too plainly absurd to need refutation. What
an apriorist can still maintain is that in our conception of Space
and Time there are elements which cannot be explained by
the psychologist as having developed out of anything else, and
must therefore be regarded as innate endowments of the
mind. This is a position not unreasonable in itself, and one,
at least, which -does not interfere with the detailed work of
the psychologist.
The way with these problems which commends itself to the
present writer and seems fully in harmony with the general
tone of contemporary thinking may, if a distinctive catchword
be desired, be termed the humanist method. By this is meant
that the study of the human mind comes first; that we put no
metaphysical questions till we have learnt what the psycholo-
gist has to teach us; and that in our explanations of meta-
physical realities we should be as anthropomorphic as possible.
In the case of Space this leads to a result which is largely nega-
tive. When we ask what objective reality corresponds to our
conception of Space, the answer must be analogous to that
which we give respecting the various sensible qualities of the
external world. We cannot suppose that Colour, for example,
exists objectively as we experience it; evidently it is altogether
relative to the organs of vision which we happen to possess.
But we must believe that the objective world has a quality in
some way correspondent to the quality of Colour. So with
Space. Space as we know it is altogether relative to our tactual,,
muscular and visual powers of perception. But the fact that
our spatial perceptions and conceptions enable us to deal suc-
cessfully with objects requires us to believe that the objective
world has an arrangement of its own corresponding in some way
to spatial arrangement, though we are unable to imagine what
it can be. Space cannot be objectively real, because of the
difficulties disclosed above in the criticism of the " objective "'
method, and we are unable to put anything definite in its place.
With Time the case is somewhat different. Our conception
of Time is based on our experience of Change, combined with
memory and anticipation. Now Change is an experience which
we feel directly in our personal consciousness: consciousness,
is not spatial, but it is mutable. This direct experience is a.
guarantee of the realness of Change, and justifies us in attri-
buting it in some degree to ultimate objective reality.
See S. H. Hodgson, Space and Time; H. Bergson, Essai sur les
donnees immediates de la conscience; J. E. MacTaggart, Studies in
the Hegelian Dialectic. (H. ST.)
SPADE, a tool for digging and loosening the soil; together
with the fork it forms one of the chief implements wielded by
the hand in agriculture and horticulture. Its typical shape
is a broad flat blade of iron with a sharp lower edge, straight
or curved, the upper edge on either side of the handle affording
space for the foot of the digger, which drives it into the ground;
the wooden handle terminates in a cross-piece, usually forming a
kind of loop for the hand. The word in O.Eng. is spaedu, cognate
forms being Du., Swed. and Dan. spade, Ger. Spaten; it is derived
from the Gr. GirbJdii, a broad blade of wood or metal, and so-
used of the blade of an oar or sword. This was latinized as.
spatha, and used of a broad paddle for stirring liquid, of a.
piece of wood used by weavers for driving home the woof, and
particularly of a broad two-edged sword without a point. The
Spanish playing cards had " swords " for the suit which we^
know as " spades," and the suit was called espada (see CARDS,
PLAYING).
SPAGNA, LO (d. -c. 1529), the usual designation (due to his
Spanish origin) of the Italian painter Giovanni di Pietro, one-
of the chief followers of Perugino. The famous " Sposalizio "
marriage of Joseph and Mary in the Caen museum, formerly
attributed to Perugino (q.v.), is now credited to Lo Spagna.
Nothing whatever is known of his early life, or how he became
a member of the Perugian school. There is a marked absence
of individuality about his style, which seems like an imitation
of the earliest manner of Raphael and that of Pinturicchio in
a weaker and less virile form. The chief of his numerous panel
paintings are the " Nativity, "in the Vatican, and the " Adoratian
of the Magi," at Berlin. In 1510 Lo Spagna executed many
frescoes at Todi, and in 1512 several other mural paintings in
and near Trevi. His most important works were frescoes at
Assisi and Spoleto, of which some exist in good preservation.
He received the freedom of the city of Spoleto in 1516, as a.
reward for his work there. Lo Spagna's frescoes reach a much
higher standard of merit than his panel pictures. The museum
of the Capitol in Rome now possesses a very beautiful series
of life-sized fresco figures by him, representing Apollo and the:
SPAHIS SPAIN
527
Nine Muses. Lo Spagna was alive in 1528, but he appears to
have died before 1530, as in that year a pupil of his named
Doni completed a fresco in S. Jacopo, near Spoleto, which Lo
Spagna had begun.
SPAHIS (in Persian Sipari, meaning warriors, and synony-
mous with Sepoy) originally the holders of fiefs in Central Asia
who yielded personal military service to their superior chief.
In time the term came to be applied to the soldiery furnished in
their own stead. A similar institution existed in Turkey, and
the " Spahis " were the light irregular cavalry which from the
time of Sultan Amurath I. (1326) down to the beginning of the
i gth century formed the flower of the Turkish army; at one
period they are estimated to have numbered 130,000. " Spahis "
is the term now applied to certain native cavalry regiments in
Algiers and Tunis, officered by Frenchmen.
SPAIN (Espana), a kingdom in the extreme south-west of
Europe, comprising about eleven-thirteentha of the Iberian
Peninsula, in addition to the Balearic Islands, the Canary
Islands, and the fortified station of Ceuta, on the Moroccan
coast opposite to Gibraltar. Each of the two island groups forms
one of the forty-nine provinces of the kingdom, although only
the first named belongs geographically to Spain. Ceuta is
included in the province of Cadiz. In 1900 the kingdom (ex-
clusive of its colonies) had a population of 18,607,674, and a
total area of 194,700 sq. m. It is thus rather more than twice
the size of Great Britain, nearly 50,000 sq. m. larger than
Japan, and nearly 85,000 sq. m. larger than Italy and Sicily.
Exclusive of the Canaries its area is 191,893 sq. m. On all
sides except that of Portugal the boundaries of continental Spain
are natural, the Peninsula being separated from France by the
Pyrenees and on every other side being surrounded by the sea.
On the side of Portugal a tract of inhospitable country ,led
originally to the separation between the two kingdoms, inasmuch
as it caused the reconquest of the comparatively populous
maritime tracts from the Moors to be carried out independently
of that of the eastern kingdoms, which were also well peopled.
The absence of any such means of intercommunication as navig-
able rivers afford has favoured the continuance of this isolation.
The precise line of the western frontier is formed for a con-
siderable length by portions of the chief rivers or by small
tributaries, and on the north (between Portugal and Galicia)
it is determined to a large extent by small mountain ranges. The
British rock of Gibraltar, in the extreme south of the peninsula,
is separated from Spain by a low isthmus known as the
Neutral Ground.
By the relinquishment of Cuba and the cession of Porto Rico,
the Philippine and Sulu Islands, and Guam, the largest of the
Colonial Ladrones, to the United States, as a consequence
Posses- of the war of 1898, and of the remaining Ladrone
sioos. or Marianne Islands, together with the Caroline
and Pelew Islands, to Germany by a treaty of the 8th of
February 1899, the colonial possessions of Spain were greatly
reduced. Apart from Ceuta, Spain possesses on the Moroccan
seaboard Melilla, Alhucemas, Penon de la Gomera, Ifni, and the
Chaffarinas islets. Besides these isolated posts Spain holds
Rio de Oro, a stretch of the Saharan coast, and its hinterland
lying between Morocco and French West Africa; the Muni
River Settlements or Spanish Guinea, situated between French
Congo and the German colony of Cameroon; Fernando Po,
Annobon, Corisco and other islands in the Gulf of Guinea.
Spain has given to France the right of pre-emption over any of
her West African colonies.
I. GENERAL SURVEY or THE SPANISH KINGDOM
Physical Features. The coast-line on the north and north-
west is everywhere steep and rocky. On the north there are
numerous small indentations, many of which form convenient
harbours, although the current flowing along the coast from
the west often leaves in the stiller water at their mouths
Coast-lines obstruction bars. The best harbours are to be found
' on the rias or fjord-like indentations in the W. and N.
of Galicia, where high tides keep the inlets well scoured;
here occur the fine natural harbours of Pontevedra and Vigo,
Corunna and Ferrol. Less varied in outline but more varied
in character are the Spanish coasts on the south and east.
The seaboard is generally flat from the frontier of Portugal to
the Straits of Gibraltar. Between the mouth of the Rio Tinto
and that of the Guadalquivir the shore is lined by a series of
sand-dunes, known as the Arenas Gordas. Next follows a
marshy tract at the mouth of the Guadalquivir known as Las
Marismas, after which the coast-line becomes more varied, and
includes the fine Bay of Cadiz. From the Straits of Gibraltar
a bold and rocky coast continues almost to Cape Palos, a little
beyond the fine natural harbour of Cartagena. North of Cape
Palos a line of flat coast, beginning with the narrow strip which
cuts off the lagoon called the Mar Menor from the Mediterranean,
bounds half of the province of Alicante, but in its northern half
this province, becoming mountainous, runs out to the lofty
headland of Cape de la Nao. The whole coast of the Bay of
Valencia is low and ill provided with harbours; and along the
east of Catalonia stretches of steep and rocky coast alternate
with others of an opposite character.
The surface of Spain is remarkable at once for its striking contrasts
and its vast expanses of dreary uniformity. There are mountains
rising with alpine grandeur above the snow-line, but
often sheltering rich and magnificent valleys at their Surface.
base. Naked walls of white limestone tower above dark woods of
cork-oak and olive. In other parts, as in the Basque country, in
Galicia, in the Serrania de Cuenca (between the headwaters of the
Tagus and those of the Jiicar), in the Sierra de Albarracin (between
the headwaters of the Tagus and those of the Guadalaviar), there are
extensive tracts of undulating forest -clad hill country, and almost
contiguous to these there are apparently boundless plains, or tracts
of level table-land, some almost uninhabitable, and some streaked
with irrigation canals and richly cultivated like the Requena of
Valencia. While, again, continuous mountain ranges and broad
plains and table-lands give the prevailing character to the scenery,
there are, on the one hand, lofty isolated peaks, such as Monseny,
Montserrat (?.P.) and Mont Sant in Catalonia, the Pena Golosa in
Valencia, Moncayo on the borders of Aragon and Old Castile, and,
on the other hand, small secluded valleys, such as those of Vich
and Olot among the Catalonian Pyrenees.
The greater part of the interior of Spain is composed of a table-land
bounded by the Cantabrian Mountains in the north and the Sierra
Morena in the south, and divided into two by a series ce n t ra i
of mountain ranges stretching on the whole from east -fable-land.
to west. The northern half of the table-land, made up
of the provinces of Leon and Old Castile, has an average elevation
estimated at about 2700 ft., while the southern half, made, up of
Estremadura and New Castile, is slightly lower about 2600 ft. On
all sides the table-land as a whole is remarkably isolated, and hence
the passes on its boundary and the river valleys that lead down from
it to the surrounding plains are geographical features of peculiar
importance. The isolation on the side of Portugal has already been
mentioned. On the north-west the valley of the Sil and a series of
valleys farther south, along both of which military roads have been
carried from an early period, open up communication between Leon
and the hill country of Galicia, which explains why this province was
united to Leon even before the conquest of Portugal from the Moors.
The passes across the Cantabrian Mountains in the north are toler-
ably numerous, and several of them are crossed by railways. The
two most remarkable are the Pass of Pajares, across which winds
the railway from Leon to Oviedo and the seaport of Gijon, and that
of Reinosa leading down to the deep valley of the Besaya, and crossed
by the railway from Valladolid to Santander. In its eastern section
the chain is crossed by the railways from Burgos to Bilbao and San
Sebastian ; the last-named line winds through the wild and romantic
gorge of Pancorbo (in the north-east of the province of Burgos) before
it traverses the Cantabrian chain at Idiazabal.
On the north-east and east, where the edge of the table-land sweeps
round in a wide curve, the surface sinks in broad terraces to the
valley of the Ebro and the Bay of Valencia, and is crowned by more
or less isolated mountains, some of which have been already men-
tioned. On the north-east, by far the most important communica-
tion with the Ebro valley is formed by the valley of the Jalon, which
has thus always formed a military route of the highest consequence,
and is now traversed by the railway from Madrid to Saragossa.
Farther south the mountains clustered on the east of the table-land
(Sierra de Albarracin, Serrania de Cuenca) long rendered direct
communication between Valencia and Madrid extremely difficult,
and the principal communications with the east and south-east are
effected where the southern table-land of La Mancha (q.v.) merges
in the hill country which connects the interior of Spain with the
Sierra Nevada.
In the south the descent from the table-land to the valley of the
Guadalquivir is again comparatively gradual, but even here in the
eastern half of the Sierra Morena the passes are few, the most
528
SPAIN
[GENERAL SURVEY
important being the Puerto de Despenaperros, where the Rio
Magafia, a sub-tributary of the Guadalimar, has cut for itself a deep
gorge through which the railway ascends from Andalusia to Madrid.
Between Andalusia and Estremadura farther west the communica-
tion is freer, the Sierra Morena being broken up into series of small
chains.
Of the mountains belonging to the table-land the most continuous
are those of the Cantabrian chain, which stretches for the most part
. . from east to west, parallel to the Bay of Biscay, but
" ultimately bends round towards the south between
Leon and Galicia (see CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS). A peculiar feature
of this chain, and of the neighbouring parts of the table-land, is the
number of the parameras or isolated plateaus, surrounded by steep
rocky mountains, or even by walls of sheer cliff. The bleak districts
of Sigiienza and Soria, round the headwaters of the Douro, separate
the mountains of the so-called Iberian system on the north-east of
the table-land from the eastern portion of the central mountain chains
of the peninsula. Of these chains, to which Spanish geographers
S've the name Carpetano-Vetonica, the most easterly is the Sierra de
uadarrama, the general trend of which is from south-west to north-
east. It is the Monies Carpetani of the ancients, and a portion of
it (due north of Madrid) still bears the name of Carpetanos. Com-
posed almost entirely of granite, it has an aspect when seen from a
distance highly characteristic of the mountains of the Iberian
Peninsula in general, presenting the appearance of a saw-like ridge
(sierra) broken up into numerous sections. Its mean height is about
5250 ft., and near its centre it has three summits, the highest (named
the Pico de Penalara) rising to a height of 6910 ft. The chief passes
across the Sierra are those of Somosierra (4692 ft.) in the north-east,
Navacerrada (5837 ft.), near Penalara, and Guadarrama (5010 ft.),
a few miles farther south and west; these are crossed by carriage
roads. The railway from Madrid to Segovia passes through a tunnel
close to the Guadarrama Pass ; and the railway from Madrid to Avila
traverses the south-western portion of the range through a remark-
able series of tunnels and cuttings.
A region with a highly irregular surface, filled with hills and
parameras, separates the Sierra de Guadarrama from the Sierra de
Credos farther west. This is the loftiest and grandest sierra in the
whole series. Its culminating point, the Plaza de Almanzor, attains
the height of 8730 ft., not far short of that of the highest Cantabrian
summits. Its general trend is east and west; towards the south it
sinks precipitously, and on the north it descends with a somewhat
more gentle slope towards the longitudinal valleys of the Tormes and
Alberche which separate it from another rugged mountain range,
forming the southern boundary of the paramera of Avila. On the
west another rough and hilly tract, similar to that which divides it
from the Sierra de Guadarrama in the east, separates it from the
Sierra de Gala, the westernmost and the lowest of the Spanish
sierras belonging to the series. These hilly intervals between the
more continuous sierras greatly facilitate the communication between
the northern and southern halves of the Spanish table-land. The
Sierra de Credos has a road across it connecting Avila with Talavera
de la Reina by the Puerto del Pico ; but for the most part there are
only bridle-paths across the Credos and Gata ranges, and no railway
crosses either of them, although the line from Plasencia to Salamanca
skirts the Sierra de Credos on the west. The Serra da Estrella, in
Portugal, is usually regarded as a fourth section in the Carpetano-
Vetonica chain. ,
On the southern half of the table-land a shorter series of sierras,
consisting of the Monies de Toledo in the east (highest elevation
Tejadillas, 4567 ft.) and the sierras of San Pedro, Montanchez and
Guadalupe in the west (highest elevation Cabeza del Moro, 5100 ft.),
separates the basins of the Tagus and Guadiana. The southern
system of mountains bounding ihe Iberian table-land the Sierra
Morena (g.f.) is even less of a continuous chain than ihe two systems
last described. As already intimated, its least continuous portion
is in the west. In the east and middle portion it is composed of a
countless number of irregularly-disposed undulating mounlains all
nearly equal in height.
Even more important than the mountains bounding or crossing
the table-land are those which are connected wilh il only al iheir
exlremities; viz. the Pyrenees (q.v.) in the north-east, the Sierra
Nevada (q.v.) and the coast ranges in the south. The transverse
valleys of the Sierra Nevada open southwards into the mountainous
longitudinal valleys of ihe Alpujarras (q.v.), into which open also on
the other side ihe transverse valleys from the most easterly of ihe
coast sierras, the Sierra Contraviesa and ihe Sierra de Almijara.
These ranges are continued farther west by the Sierra de Alhama and
Sierra de Abdalajiz. Immediately lo the west of ihe lasl-named
sierra is ihe gorge of ihe Guadalhorce, which affords a passage for
Ihe railway from Malaga lo Cordova; and beyond lhal gorge, lo ihe
wesl and soulh-west, the Serrania de Ronda, a mountain group
difficult of access, slretches out its sierras in all directions. To
Spanish geographers ihe coast ranges just mentioned are known
collectively as ihe Sierra Penibelica. Allhough nol comparable
in allilude wilh the Pyrenees (highest summit Aneto, 11,168 ft.) or
the Sierra Nevada (highest summit Mulhacen, 11,421 ft.), ihe coasl
ranges frequenlly allain an elevalion of over 5000 ft., and in some
cases of over 6000 ft. North-easl of the Sierra Nevada two small
ranges, Alcaraz and La Sagra, rise wilh remarkable abruptness from
the plaleau of Murcia, where il merges in lhal of ihe interior.
The only Iwo importanl lowland valleys of Spain are ihose of ihe
Ebro and ihe Guadalquivir. The Ebro valley occupies ihe angle in
ihe norlh-easl belween ihe Pyrenees and the central , .
lable-land, and is divided by ranges of heights proceeding VM **
on the one side from the Pyrenees, on the other from ihe eys '
base of ihe Moncayo, inlo Iwo portions. The uppermosl of ihese, a
plateau of between 1000 and 1300 ft. above sea-level, is only about
one-fourth of ihe size of ihe remaining portion, which is chiefly low-
land, bul is cul off from ihe coasl by a highland Iracl connecling ihe
interior lable-land wilh spurs from ihe Pyrenees. The Guadalquivir
basin is likewise divided by ihe configuration of the ground into a
small upper portion of considerable elevation and a much larger
lower portion mainly lowland, ihe latter composed from Seville
downwards of a perfeclly level and lo a large exlent unhealthy
alluvium (Las Marismas). The division between ihese Iwo seclions
is indicated by the change in the course of the main stream from a
due westerly lo a more soulh-weslerly direclion.
The main waler-parting of the Peninsula is everywhere near the
edge of the table-land on ihe north, east and south, and hence de-
scribes a semicircle with ihe convexily lo the east. . .
There are five greal rivers in ihe Peninsula, the Tagus y v f rs
(Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo), Douro (Spanish
Duero), Ebro, Guadiana and Guadalquivir, all of which rise in Spain.
The Ebro alone flows into the Mediterranean, and ihe Ebro and
Guadalquivir alone belong wholly lo Spain ; ihe lower courses of the
Tagus and Douro are bounded by Portuguese territory ; and the
lower Guadiana flows partly through Portugal, partly along ihe
fronlier. The Tagus rises in ihe Monies Universales on ihe borders
of Teruel, and flows in a westerly direclion unlil il enlers ihe Allanlic
below Lisbon, afler a lolal course of 565 m. The Douro (485 m.)
and ihe Ebro (466 m.) flow respeclively soulh-wesl lo the Atlanlic
al Oporto, and south-east to the Mediterranean at Cape Tortosa,
from iheir sources in ihe great northern watershed. The Guadiana
(510 m.) passes west and south through La Mancha and Andalusia
to fall inlo Cadiz Bay al Ayamonle ; and ihe Guadalquivir (360 m.)
takes a similar direclion from ils headwaters in Jaen to Sanlucar de
Barrameda, where it also enters Cadiz Bay farther south. These
five rivers, as also the smaller Jucar and Segura, which enter the
Mediterranean, are fully described in separate articles. With the
exception of the Guadalquivir, none of them is of greal service for
inland navigalion, so far as ihey lie wilhin the Spanish frontier.
On the olher hand, ihose of ihe easl and soulh are of greal value
for irrigalion, and ihe Jucar and Segura are employed in floaling
limber from ihe Serrania de Cuenca. The only considerable lakes
in Spain are ihree coasl lagoons ihe Albufera (q.v.) de Valencia,
ihe Mar Menor in Murcia and ihe Laguna de la Janda in Cadiz
behind Cape Trafalgar (see MURCIA and CADIZ). Small alpine and
olher lakes are numerous, and small sail lakes are lo be found in
every steppe region.
Geology. Geologically the Spanish Peninsula consists of a great
massif of ancient rock, bordered upon ihe north, easl and soulh by
zones of folding in which the Mesozoic and early Tertiary beds are
involved. The massif is composed of Archean, Palaeozoic and
eruptive rocks, partly concealed by a covering of Tertiary strala,
bul characterized by the absence, excepting on its margins, of any
marine deposits of Mesozoic age. It strelches from Galicia and
Aslurias on ihe north lo ihe valley of ihe Guadalquivir on the
south, and includes ihe mounlains of Caslile, ihe Sierra de Toledo
and ihe Sierra Morena. The rocks which form il are often strongly
folded, but the folding is of ancient date and strikes obliquely across
the massif and has had no influence in determining its outline. The
massif is in fact merely a fragment of the great Hercynian mountain
system which was formed across Europe at the close of ihe Carboni-
ferous period. During ihe Mesozoic era ihis mountain chain was
shattered and large portions of it sank beneath the sea and were
covered by Mesozoic and Tertiary strata. But other fragments still
rose above the waves, and of these the great massif of Portugal and
western Spain was one. Around illhe deposils of Ihe Jurassic and
Crelaceous seas were laid down; and during ihe Tertiary era ihey
were crushed, logether wilh ihe earlier Tertiary beds, against, the
ancient rocks, and thus formed the folded zones of ihe Cordillera
Belica on ihe soulh, ihe hills of southern Aragon on the east and the
Pyrenees on the north. The intervening plains and plateaus are
now for the most part covered by Tertiary deposits, which also
spread over much of the ancienl massif.
Archean rocks are exposed in the north of ihe Peninsula, particu-
larly along ihe greal Pyrenean axis, in Galicia, Eslremadura, ihe
Sierra Morena, ihe Sierra Nevada and Serrania de Ronda. They
consisl of granites, gneisses and mica-schisls, wilh lalc-schisls,
amphibolites and crystalline limestones. The oldest Palaeozoic
strata are referred, from their included fossils, to the Cambrian,
Ordovician and Silurian syslems. They range through a vast
region of Andalusia, Estremadura, Castile, Salamanca, Leon and
Aslurias, and along ihe flanks of ihe Pyrenean and Cantabrian
chain. They consist of slates, greywackes, quartzites and diabafes.
Grits, quartzites, shales and limestones referable lo ihe Devonian
syslem are found in a few scattered areas, the largest and most
GENERAL SURVEY]
SPAIN
529
fossiliferous of these occurring in Asturias. The Lower Carboni-
ferous rocks of Spain consist partly of limestones, and partly of shales,
sandstones and conglomerates like the culm of Devonshire. It is
in the culm of the province of Huelva that the celebrated copper
mines of Rio Tinto are worked. The Upper Carboniferous is formed
to a large extent of sandstones and shales, with seams of coal ; but
beds of massive limestones are often intercalated, and some of these
contain Fusulina and other fossils like those of the Russian Fusulina
limestone. The system is most extensively developed in the north,
covering a considerable space in Asturias, whence it stretches more
or less continuously through the provinces of Leon, Palencia and
Santander. Another tract, about 500 sq. kilometres in extent, runs
I I Quaternary
I Tertiary
I Cretaceous
\ Jurassic
Silun-Cambrian
I Anhaean and
I Metamorphic
\ Plutonic Rocks
I Volcanic Rock*
from the province of Cordova into that of Badajoz. It is in this area
that the important coal deposits of Penarroja are found. There are
other smaller areas containing little or no coal, but showing by the
included plant-remains that the strata undoubtedly belong to the
Carboniferous system.
The Permian is probably represented by some of the red sand-
stones, conglomerates and shales in the Pyrenees, in the Serrania de
Cuenca, and in Andalusia. The Triassic system is well developed
in the north of the peninsula along the Cantabrian chain and east-
wards to the Mediterranean. It is composed of red and variegated
sandstones, dolomites and marls, traversed in some places by
ophitic rocks, and containing deposits of gypsum, aragonite and rock-
salt. It thus resembles the Trias of England and Germany. In the
south-east, however, and at the mouth of the Ebro, limestones are
found containing a fauna similar to that of the alpine Trias. These
strata are overlain by members of the Jurassic series, which are
especially conspicuous in the eastern part of the peninsula between
Castile and Aragon, along the Mediterranean border, in Andalusia,
and likewise along the flanks of the Pyrenees. The Jurassic of
Andalusia belongs to the Mediterranean facies of the system; the
Jurassic of the rest of Spain is more nearly allied to that of north-
western Europe. The Cretaceous system is distributed in four great
districts: the largest of these extends through the kingdoms of
Murcia and Valencia ; a second stretches between the two Castiles; a
third is found in the Basque Provinces and in Asturias; and a
fourth spreads out along the southern slopes of the Pyrenees from
Navarre to the Mediterranean. The lower members of the Creta-
ceous series include an important fresh-water formation (sandstones
and clays), which extends from the Cantabrian coast through the
provinces of Santander, Burgos, Soria and Logrono, and is supposed
to represent the English Wealden series. The higher members
comprise massive hippurite limestones, and in the Pyrenean district
representatives of the upper subdivisions of the system, including
the Danian.
Deposits of Tertiary age cover rather more than a third of Spain.
They are divisible into two great series, according to their mode of
origin in the sea or in fresh-water. The marine Tertiary accumu-
lations commence with those that are referable to the Eocene series,
consisting of nummulitic limestones, marls and siliceous sand-
stones. These strata are developed in the basin of the Ebro, and
in a belt which extends from Valencia through Murcia and Andalusia
to Cadiz. Marine Miocene deposits occupy some small tracts,
especially on the coast of Valencia. But most of the sandy Tertiary
rocks of that district are Pliocene. The Tertiary strata of Andalusia
are specially noteworthy for containing the native silver of Herrerias,
which is found in a Pliocene bed in the form of flukes, needles and
crystals. But the most extensive and interesting Tertiary accumu-
lations are those of the great lakes which in Oligocene and Miocene
time spread over so large an expanse of the table-land. These sheets
of fresh-water covered the centre of the country, including the basins
of the Ebro.Jucar, Guadalaviar, Guadalquivir and Tagus. They
have left behind them thick deposits of clays, marls, gypsum and
limestone, in which numerous remains of the land-animals of the
time have been preserved.
Quaternary deposits spread over about a tenth of the area of the
country. The largest tract of them is to be seen to the south of
the Cantabrian chain; but another, of hardly inferior extent,
flanks the Sierra de Guadarrama, and spreads out over the great
plain from Madrid to Caceres. Some of these alluvial accumula-
tions indicate a former greater extension of the snowfields that are
now so restricted in the Spanish sierras. Remains of the reindeer
are found in caves in the Pyrenees.
Eruptive rocks of many different ages occur in different parts of
Spain. The most important tract covered by them is that which
stretches from Cape Ortegal to Coria in Estremadura and spreads
over a large area of Portugal. They likewise appear in Castile,
forming the sierras of Credos and Guadarrama; farther south they
rise in the mountains of Toledo, in the Sierra Morena, and across
the provinces of Cordova, Seville, Huelva and Badajoz as fai as
Evora in Portugal. Among the minor areas occupied by them
may be especially mentioned those which occur in the Trinssic
districts. Of rocks included in the eruptive series the most abundant
is granite. There occur also quartz-porphyry (Sierra Morena,
Pyrenees, &c.), diorite, porphyrite, diabase (well developed in the
north of Andalusia, where it plays a great part in the structure of
the Sierra Morena), ophite (Pyrenees, Cadiz), serpentine (forming
an enormous mass in the Serrania de Ronda), trachyte, liparite,
andesite, basalt. The last four rocks occur as a volcanic series
distributed in three chief districts that of Cape Gata, including
the south-east of Andalusia and the south of Murcia, that of
Catalonia, and that of La Mancha.
Climate. In accordance with its southerly position and the
variety in its superficial configuration, Spain presents within its
borders examples of every kind of climate to be found on the northern
hemisphere, with the sole exception of that of the torrid zone. As
regards temperature, the heart of the table-land is characterized by
extremes as great as are to be met in almost any part of central
Europe. The northern and north-western maritime provinces, on
the other hand, have a climate as equable, and as moist, as that of
the west of England or Scotland.
Four zones of climate are distinguished. The first zone is that
of the table-land, with the greater part of the Ebro basin. This is the
zone of the greatest extremes of temperature. Even in summer the
nights are often decidedly cold, and on the high parameras it is not a
rare thing to see hoar-frost in the morning. In spring cold, wetting
mists occasionally envelop the land for entire days, while in summer
the sky is often perfectly clear for weeks together. At all seasons
of the year sudden changes of temperature, to the extent of from 30
to 50 F., are not infrequent. The air is extremely dry, which
is all the more keenly felt from the fact .that it is almost constantly
in motion. At Madrid (2150 ft. above sea-level) it freezes so hard
in December and January that skating is carried on on the sheet of
water in the Buen Retiro; and, as winter throughout Spain, except
in the maritime provinces of the north and north-west, is the season
of greatest atmospheric precipitation, snowfalls are frequent, though
the snow seldom lies long except at high elevations. The summers,
on the other hand, are not only extremely warm but almost rainless,
the sea-winds being deprived of their moisture on the edge of the
plateau. In July and August the plains of New Castile and Estre-
madura are sunburnt wastes ; the roads are several inches deep with
dust ; the leaves of the few trees are withered and discoloured ; the
atmosphere is filled with a fine dust, producing a haze known as
calina, which converts the blue of the sky into a dull grey. In the
greater part of the Ebro basin the heat of summer is even more
intense. The treeless mostly steppe-like valley with a bright-
coloured soil acts like a concave mirror in reflecting the sun's rays
and, moreover, the mountains and highlands by which the valley is
enclosed prevent to a large extent the access of winds.
The second zone is that of the Mediterranean provinces, exclusive
of those of the extreme south. In this zone the extremes of tem-
perature are less, though the summers here also are warm, and the
winters decidedly cool, especially in the north-east.
The southern zone, to which the name of African has been given,
embraces the whole of Andalusia as far as the Sierra Morena, the
southern half of Murcia and the province of Alicante. In this zone
there prevails a genuine sub-tropical climate, with extremely warm
and almost rainjess summers and mild winters, the temperature
hardly ever sinking below freezing-point. The hottest part of the
region is not the most southerly district but the bright-coloured
steppes of the coast of Granada, and the plains and hill terraces
of the south-east coast from Almeria to Alicante. Snow and
frost are here hardly known. It is said that at Malaga snow falls
only about once in twenty-five years. The winter, in fact, is the
season of the brightest vegetation: after the long drought of summer
the surface gets covered once more in late autumn with a fresh
green varied with bright-coloured flowers, and so it remains the
530
SPAIN
[GENERAL SURVEY
whole winter through. On the other hand, the eastern part of
this zone is the part of Spain which is liable to be visited from
time to time by the scorching leveche, the name given in Spain to the
sirocco, as well as by the solano, a moist and less noxious east wind.
The fourth zone, that of the north and north-west maritime
provinces, presents a marked contrast to all the others. The
temperature is mild and equable; the rains are abundant all the
year round, but fall chiefly in autumn, as in the west of Europe
generally. Roses bloom in the gardens at Christmas as plentifully
as in summer. The chief drawback of the climate is an excess of
rain in some parts, especially in the west. Santiago de Compostela,
for example, has^one of the highest rainfalls on the mainland of
Europe (see table'below).
The figures given in the following table, 1 although based only on
data of short periods (from 33 to 20 years), will help to illustrate the
preceding general remarks. Greenwich is added for the sake of
comparison.
Station.
Height
in feet.
Mean Temperature, F.
Rain-
fall in
inches.
Jan.
July.
Year.
Table-land zone j *. , ','
2600
2150
O
37
41
73
76
53
56
19
15
c* i \ San rernando
Southern zone j Mala
90
75
52
54
75
79
63
70
Mediterranean ( Murcia .
140
49
79
63
H
zone ( Mahon
52
77
64
27
( Bilbao
5
46
70
5
4 6
Northern mari- j Oviedo .
750
43
66
54
36
time zone ( Santiago .
750
45-5
66
55
66
Greenwich .
39
63
50
25
Flora. The vegetation of Spain exhibits a variety in keeping
with the differences of climate just described. The number of
endemic species is exceptionally large, the number of monotypic
genera in the Peninsula greater than in any other part of the Mediter-
ranean domain. The endemic species are naturally most numerous
in the mountains, and above all in the loftiest ranges, the Pyrenees
and the Sierra Nevada; but it is a peculiarity of the Spanish table-
land, as compared with the plains and table-lands of central Europe,
that it also possesses a considerable number of endemic plants and
plants of extremely restricted range. This fact, however, is also
in harmony with the physical conditions above described, being
explained by the local varieties, not only of climate, but also of
soil. Altogether no other country in Europe of equal extent has
so great a wealth of species as Spain. According to the Prodromus
florae hispanicae of Willkomm and Lange (completed in 1880), the
number of species of vascular plants then ascertained to exist in the
country was 5096.
Spain may be divided botanically into four provinces, correspond-
ing to the four climatic zones.
In the table-land province (including the greater part of the
Ebro valley) the flora is composed chiefly of species characteristic
of the Mediterranean region, and largely of species confined to the
Peninsula. A peculiar character is imparted to the vegetation of
this province by the growth over large tracts of evergreen shrubs
and large herbaceous plants belonging to the Cistineae and Labiatae.
Areas covered by the Cistineae are known to the Spaniards asjarales,
and are particularly extensive in the Mancha Alta and on the slopes
of the Sierra Morena, where the ladanum bush (Cistus ladantferus)
is specially abundant ; those covered by the Labiatae are known as
tomillares (from tomillo, thyme), and occur chiefly in the south,
south-west and east of the table-land of New Castile. In the central
parts of the same table-land huge thistles (such as the Onopordum
nervosum), centaureas, artemisias and other Compositae are scattered
in great profusion. From the level parts of these table-lands trees are
almost entirely absent. On the lofty parameras of Soria and other
parts of Old Castile the vegetation has an almost alpine character.
The southern or African province is distinguished chiefly by the
abundance of plants which have their true home in North Africa
(a fact explained by the geologically recent land connexion of Spain
with that continent), but is also remarkable for the . occurrence
within it of numerous Eastern plants (natives of Syria and Asia
Minor), and plants belonging to South Africa and the Canaries, as
well as natives of tropical America which have become naturalized
here (see A griculture) . I n the maritime parts of Malaga and Granada
the vegetation is of almost tropical richness and beauty, while in
Murcia, Alicante and Almeria the aspect is truly African, fertile
oases appearing in the midst of rocky deserts or barren steppes.
A peculiar vegetation, consisting mainly of low shrubs with fleshy
glaucous leaves (Inula crithmoides, &c.), covers the swamps of the
Guadalquivir and the salt-marshes of the south-west coast. Every-
where on moist sandy ground are to be seen tall thickets of Arundo
donax.
The Mediterranean province is that in which the vegetation
agrees most closely with that of southern France and the lowlands
1 By conversion from Th. Fischer's Klima der Mittelmeer lander.
of the Mediterranean region generally. On the lower slopes of the
mountains and on all the parts left uncultivated the prevailing form
of vegetation consists of a dense growth of shrubs with thick leathery
leaves, such as are known to the French as maquis, to the Italians
as macchie, and to the Spaniards as monte bajo? shrubs which, how-
ever much they resemble each other in external appearance, belong
botanically to a great variety of families.
The northern maritime province, in accordance with its climate,
has a vegetation resembling that of central Europe. Here only
are to be found rich grassy meadows covered with flowers such as
are seen in English fields, and here only do forests of oak, beech and
chestnut cover a large proportion of the area. The extraordinary
abundance of ferns (as in western France) is likewise characteristic.
The forest area of Spain is relatively small. The whole extent
of forests is estimated at little more than 7! million acres, or less
than 6% of the area of the kingdom. Evergreen oaks, chestnuts
and conifers are the prevailing trees. The cork oaks of the southern
provinces and of Catalonia are of immense value, but the groves
have suffered greatly from the reckless way in which the produce
is collected. Among other characteristic trees are the Spanish
pine (Pinus hispanica), the Corsican pine (P. Laricio), the Pinsapo
fir (Abies Pinsapo), and the Quercus Tozza, the last belonging to the
slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Besides the date-palm the dwarf-palm
grows spontaneously in some parts of the south, but it nowhere
makes up a large element of the vegetation.
The Spanish steppes deserve a special notice, since they are not
confined to one of the four botanical provinces, but are found in
all of them except the last. Six considerable steppe regions are
counted : (l) that of Old Castile, situated to the south of Valladolid,
and composed chiefly of hills of gypsum; (2) that of New Castile,
in the south-east (including parts of La Mancha) ; (3) the Aragonese,
occupying the upper part of the basin of the Ebro; (4) the littoral,
stretching along the south-east coast from Alicante to the neighbour-
hood of Almeria; (5) the Granadine, in the east of Upper Andalusia
(the former kingdom of Granada); and (6) the Baetic, in Lower
Andalusia, on both sides of the valley of the Jenil or Genii. All of
these were originally salt-steppes, and, where the soil is still highly
impregnated with salt, have only a sparse covering of shrubs, mostly
members of the Salsolaceae, with thick, greyish green, often downy
leaves. A different aspect is presented by the grass steppes of
Murcia, La Mancha, the plateaus of Guadix and Huescar in the
province of Granada, &c., all of which are covered chiefly with the
valuable esparto grass (Macrochloa tenacissima) .
Fauna. The Iberian Peninsula belongs to the Mediterranean
sub-region of the Palaearctic region of the animal kingdom. The
forms that betray African affinities are naturally to be found chiefly
in the south. Among the mammals that fall under this head are
the common genet (Genetta vulgaris), which extends, however,
pretty far north, and is found also in the south of France, the fallow-
deer, the porcupine (very rare), and a species of ichneumon (Herpestes
Widdringtonii) , which is confined to the Peninsula, and is the only
European species of this African genus. The magot or Barbary ape
(Inuus ecaudatus), the sole species of monkey still found wild in
Europe, is also a native of Spain, but only survives on the rock of
Gibraltar (q.v.). Of the mammals in which Spain shows more affinity
to the fauna of central and northern Europe, some of the most
characteristic are the Spanish lynx (Lynx pardinus), a species confined
to the Peninsula, the Spanish hare (Lepus madritensis) , and the
species mentioned in the article PYRENEES. The birds of Spain
are very numerous, partly because the Peninsula lies in the route
of those birds of passage which cross from Africa to Europe or
Europe to Africa by way of the Straits of Gibraltar. Many species
belonging to central Europe winter in Spain, especially on the south-
eastern coasts and in the valley of the Guadalquivir. Innumerable
snipe are killed in the Guadalquivir valley and brought to the
market of Seville. Among the birds of prey may be mentioned,
besides the cinereous and bearded vultures, the Spanish vulture( Gyps
occidentalis), the African or Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnop-
terus), which is found among all the mountains of the Peninsula,
the Spanish imperial eagle (Aqutia Adalberti), the short-toed eagle
(Circaetus gallicus), the southern eagle-owl (Bubo atheniensis) , and
various kites and falcons. Among gallinaceous birds besides the
red-legged partridge, which is met with everywhere on the steppes,
there are found also the Pterocles alchita and P. arenarius ; and among
the birds of other orders are the southern shrike (Lanius meridion-
alis), the Spanish sparrow (Passer cyaneus), and the blue magpie
(Cyanopica cooki). The last is highly remarkable on account of
its distribution, it being confined to Spain while the species most
closely allied to it (Cyanopica cyanea) belongs to the east of Asia.
The flamingo is found native in the Balearic Islands and on the
southern coasts, and a stray specimen is occasionally seen on
the table-land of New Castile. Other birds peculiar to the south
are two species of quails, the Andalusian hemipode (Turnix sylvatica),
confined to the plains of Andalusia, the southern shearwater (Puffinus
cinereus), and other water-birds. Amphibians and reptiles are
particularly numerous in the southern provinces, and among these
the most remarkable are the large southern or eyed lizard (Lacetta
2 As distinguished from monte alto, the collective name for forest
trees.
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SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
Q.">o l* T T mr nrr
o 10 20
Scale, 1:3,500,000
English Miles ,
120
Boundaries of Prouinces (Spain) and Districts (Portugal).
Capitals of Prouinces and Districts _ . o
Districts in Portugal haue the same name as the Capital town
Boundaries of former Prouinces ~ .
Railways. ...-- Canals ... ., -. Passes . Fortifications ^*"
Co. = Cerro; P. = Pico, Mountain peak; Pto. - Puerto, Pass; ^
Sa.= Serra, Sierra, Mountains Swamps .^ *,
D
E
Meridian O of Greenwich ' Longitude East 2 of Greenwich
4H
Emery Walker ac.
GENERAL SURVEY]
SPAIN
ocettata), which sometimes attains 3 ft. in length and is very abundant:
the Platydactylus saccicularis, the grey amphisbaena (Blanus cinereus),
the European pond-tortoise (Emys europaea), and another species,
Emys Siegrizii. Insect life is remarkably abundant and varied.
More than 350 species of butterflies, many of them endemic, have
been counted in the province of Madrid alone. Besides the ordinary
European scorpion, which is general in southern Europe, there is
another species, the sting of which is said to be still more severe,
found chiefly in the basin of the Ebro. Trout abound in the moun-
tain streams and lakes, barbel and many other species of Cyprinidae
in the rivers of the plains. For the sea fauna, see under Fisheries
below.
Territorial Divisions and Population. For
administrative purposes the kingdom of Spain
has since 1833 been divided into forty-nine
provinces, forty-seven of which belong to the
mainland. Before 1833 the mainland was
divided into thirteen provinces, also enume-
rated below, which took their names from
the ancient kingdoms and principalities out of
which the modern kingdom was built up. All
the continental provinces, ancient and modern,
as also the Balearic Islands, Canary Islands,
Annobon, Ceuta, Corisco, the Chaffarinas,
Fernando Po, the Muni River Settlements and
Rio de Oro are described in separate articles.
It is probable that the population of Spain
attained its height during the early Roman
Empire, when it has been estimated, though
of course on imperfect data, to have numbered
forty or fifty millions. The best evidence of a
dense population in those days is that afforded
by the specific estimates of ancient writers
for some of the larger cities. The population
of Tarraco (Tarragona) was estimated at z\
millions, and those of Nova Carthago (Carta-
gena), Italica (Sevilla la Vieja), and other cities
at several hundreds of thousands. Emerita
Augusta (Merida) had a Roman garrison of
90,000 men, which also implies a large popu-
lation.
The first Spanish census was made in 1594,
but some of the provinces now included in the
kingdom were not embraced in the enumera-
tion, so that the total population assigned to
Spain within its present limits for that date is
obtained by adding the results of enumerations
at different dates in the provinces then ex-
cluded. The total thus arrived at is 8,206,791.
No other census took place till 1787, when
the total was found to be 10,268,150; and
this census was followed by another in 1797,
when the population was returned as 10,541,221.
Various estimates were made within the next
sixty years, but the census of 1857 proved
that some of these estimates must have been
greatly below the truth. The total population
then ascertained to exist in Spain was 15,464,340,
an increase of not much less than 50% since
the census of 1797. Between 1857 and 1877
the population increased to 16,631,869; and by
1897 it had risen to 18,132,475. The annual
rate of increase during this period of forty
years was less than -45%, or lower than that
of any other European state, except France
in the later years of the igth century. The
census of 1900, however, showed that the
annual rate of increase had risen, between 1897
and 1900, to -89%, or nearly double its former
amount. This fact may be explained partly
by the growth of mining and certain other
industries, partly, perhaps, by the recuperative
power which the Spanish people has always
exhibited after war the most notable instance
of which is the above-mentioned net increase of nearly 50%
between 1797 and 1857, despite the Napoleonic invasion
and other disastrous wars. A similar though much smaller
acceleration in the annual rate of increase after the Carlist
Wars of 1874-76 is largely attributable to the prosperity
caused by railway development between 1877 and 1887. It
would be unjustifiable to assume from the inadequate data
available that the Spanish people retains the vitality which
characterized it from 1797 to 1857. It is, however, clear from
the census returns that at the beginning of the 2oth century
Area and Population of the Former and Present Provinces.
Provinces.
Area in
sq. m.
Pop., 1857.
Pop., 1887.
Pop., 1900.
Pop. per
sq. m.,
1900.
Mew Castile.
27.935
1,477,915
1,778,155
1,923.310
60-8
Madrid ....
3. 8 4
475,785
683,484
775,034
25I-3
Guadalajara .
4,676
199,088
205,040
200,186
42-8
Toledo ....
5.919
328,755
356,398
376,814
63-6
Cuenca ....
6,636
229,959
246,091
249,696
37-6
Ciudad Real . . .
7,620
244.328
287,142
321,580
42-2
Old Castile ....
25,372
1,609,948
1,744.301
1,785,403
70-3
Burgos ....
5,48o
333,356
342,988
338,828
61-8
Logrono ....
1,946
173,812
183,430
189,376
97-3
Santander
2,108
214,441
249,116
276,003
130-9
Avila
3,042
164,039
195.321
200,457
65-9
Segovia ....
2,635
146,839
155,927
159,243
60-4
Soria ....
3,983
147,468
157,008
150,462
37-7
Palencia .
3,256
185,970
189,349
192,473
59-1
Valladolid
2,922
244,023
271,162
278,561
95-3
Asturias ....
4,205
524,529
615,844
627,069
149-1
Oviedo ....
4,205
524,529
615,844
627,069
149-1
Leon
14,862
861,434
984,711
982,393
66-1
Salamanca .
4,829
263,516
320,588
320,765
66-4
Zamora ....
4,097
249,162
274,890
275,545
67-2
Leon
5,936
348,756
389,233
386,083
65-0
Estremadura .
16,118
707,H5
808,685
882,410
54-7
Badajoz ....
8,45'
404,981
476,273
520,246
61-6
Caceres .
7,667
302,134
332,412
362,164
47-2
Galicia
11,254
1,776,879
1,967,239
1,980,515
175-8
Corunna (Coruna) .
3,051
55L989
635,327
653,556
214-2
Lugo ....
3,8i4
424,186
438,076
463,386
I22-O
Orense ....
2,694
371,818
415,237
404,3"
I50-I
Pontevedra .
1,695
428,886
478,599
457,262
269-8
Andalusia (Andalusia) .
33,777
2,937,183
3,393,681
3,562,606
105-4
Almeria ....
3.360
315,664
345,929
359,013
106-8
Granada ....
4,928
444,629
482,787
492,460
99-9
Malaga ....
2,812'
451,406
523,915
511.989
182-1
Cordova ....
5,299
351,536
413,883
455.859
85-8
Jaen
5,203
345,879
428,152
474.490
91-2
Cadiz (with Ceuta) .
2,834
390,192
423,261
452,659
159-7
Seville ....
5,428
463,486
535,687
555,256
100-4
Huelva ....
3,913
174,391
240,067
260,880
66-6
Valencia . . . .
8,830
1,246,485
1,461,453
1,587.533
179-7
Castellon de la Plana
2,495
260,919
292,952
310,828
124-5
Valencia ....
4,150
606,608
730,916
806,556
194-3
Alicante ....
2,185
378,958
437,685
470,149
215-1
Murcia
10,190
582,087
720,843
815,864
80-0
Albacete ....
5.737
201,118
231,073
237,877
41-3
Murcia ....
4,453
380,969
489,770
577,987
129-8
Catalonia ....
12,427
1,652,291
1,836,139
1,966,382
158-2
Lcrida ....
4,690
306,994
296,609
274,590
58-5
Gerona . . . .
2,264
310,970
3II.I53
299,287
132-2
Barcelona
2,968
713,734
879,771
1,054,541
355-3
Tarragona
2,505
320,593
348,606
337,964
134-9
Aragon
18,294
880,643
922,554
912,711
49-8
Huesca ....
5,848
257,839
260,585
244,867
41-8
Saragossa ....
6,726
384,176
415,152
421,843
62-7
Teruel ....
5,720
238,628
246,817
246,001
43-o
Navarre (Navarra).
4.055
297,422
307,994
307,669
75-8
Navarre ....
4,055
297,422
307,994
307,669
75-8
Basque Provinces .
2,739
413,470
5io,i94
603,596
220-3
Biscay (Vizcaya)
Guipuzcoa
836
728
160,579
156,493
234,880
181,149
3H,36i
195,850
372-4
269-0
Alava ....
1,175
96,398
94,i65
96,385
82-0
Balearic Islands
1,935
262,893
313,480
3II.649
161-1
Canary Islands
2,807
234,046
301,963
358,564
127-5
Total ....
194,700
15,464.340
17,667,256
18,618,086
95-6
532
SPAIN
[GENERAL SURVEY
the nation was well able to make good the numerical losses
involved by a serious war; that its numbers tend to increase
steadily; and that the rate of increase has hitherto shown a
marked acceleration in periods of commercial expansion.
The estimated area and population of the Spanish possessions
in Africa, exclusive of Ceuta, are shown below:
Area in sq. m.
Pop.
Rio de Oro
Muni River Settlements ....
Fernando Po, Annobon, Corisco, &c.
Melilla, Ifni, &c
70,000
9,800
800
40
130,000
140,000
22,000
15,000
Totals .
80,640
307,000
Its extraordinary lack of population differentiates Spain from
every other country possessed of equal natural advantages and an
historic civilization. Spain occupies an unsurpassed geographical
position; its resources are rich, varied and to some extent un-
exploited ; its inhabitants include the Basques and Catalans, noted
for their commercial enterprise, and the Galicians, noted for their
industry. Nevertheless this country, which appears, more than
2000 years ago, to have supported a population nearly thrice as
numerous as its present inhabitants and larger than that of the
United Kingdom in 1901, is almost as thinly peopled as the most
deserted province of Ireland (Connaught 94-5 inhabitants per sq. m.).
The depopulation of Spain dates certainly from the Moorish con-
quest, possibly from the earlier Visigothic invasion. The Moors
decimated the native population; when they in turn were expelled,
the country lost not only a numerically large section of its inhabitants,
but the section best able to develop its natural wealth. The wars
of the i6th, I7th and l8th centuries, and the vast potentialities of
fortune which drew men to the Spanish colonies in America, caused
a further serious drain upon the population.
As regards the distribution of population between town and
country, Spain contrasts in a marked manner with Italy, Spain
having but few large towns and a relatively large country population.
Communications. The communications in Spain were greatly
improved during the igth century. In 1808 there were little more
than 500 m. of carriage roads; in 1908 the aggregate length of the
state, provincial and municipal roads was about 40,000 m. But there
are still many parts of the country where trade and especially
mining is retarded by the want of good roads. In the mountainous
districts, where there are only narrow paths, frequently rather
steep, it is still not uncommon to meet long trains of pack-mules,
which, with ox-carts for heavier goods, constitute the sole means
of transport in such regions.
Railways have made great advance since the middle of the igth
century. The oldest line is that from Barcelona to Mataro, 17^ m.,
which was opened on the 28th of October 1848. From 1850 onwards
the rate of construction increased apace, and during the last decade
of the igth century about 205 m. were opened to traffic every year.
In January 1910, 9020 m. had been completed, and the whole kingdom
was covered by a network of railways which linked together all the
principal towns. The Spanish railway system at this time com-
municated with the French at Irun and Portbou, west and east
respectively of the Pyrenees; and with the Portuguese at or near
Tuy on the northern frontier of Portugal, and near La Fregeneda,
Ciudad Rodrigo, Valencia de Alcantara and Badajoz on the E. All
the Spanish railways belong to private companies, most of which
have received state subventions, and they will fall in to the govern-
ment mostly at the end of 99 years. In granting a concession for
a new railway the practice is to give it to the company that offers
to construct it with the lowest subvention. For strategical reasons
the Spanish gauge was made different from that of France; and
military considerations long postponed the construction of any
railway across the Pyrenees. The roads which wind through the
Pyrenees in northern Aragon, Navarre and Catalonia had long been
the channels of an important traffic, although great inconvenience
was caused by the snow which blocks the passes in winter. In
1882 the French and Spanish governments proposed to overcome
this obstacle by constructing two railways: one from Huesca to
Oloron, through the Canfranc Pass, and through an international
tunnel which was to be built at Somport ; the other from the Ariege
railway system to the Spanish northern system in the province
of Lenda. The first line was completed on the Spanish side as far
as Jaca, the second was only surveyed; both were opposed by the
ministries of war in the two countries concerned. The matter
was taken up at the beginning of the 2Oth century by M. Delcasse,
the French minister for foreign affairs, and on the 1 8th of August
1904 a convention was signed providing for the construction of
(l) the Huesca-Oloron line, (2) a line from Ax les Thermes in the
Ariege to Ripoll in Catalonia, (3) a line from St Girons in the Ariege
to Sort, and thence to Lerida. The Spanish government agreed
to finish the Lerida-Sort section by 1915, and the Noguera Pallaresa
valley was chosen as the route from Sort to the frontier, where
junction with the French railways would be effected through the
Port de Salau. All three schemes were ratified in 1904 by the Cortes
and the French Chambers. Seventy per cent, of the railways of Spain,
and an even larger proportion of the tramways and narrow-gauge
railways, especially in mining districts, have been constructed and
worked with foreign capital. The postal and telegraphic services
have been placed on the same footing as in other civilized countries.
In 1907 the number of letters and post-cards carried in the inland
service was 133,201,000, in the international service 44,219,000.
The length of state telegraph lines increased from 6665 m. in 1883
to 20,575 m. in 1903. In 1907 there were 84 urban telephone
systems and 71 inter-urban circuits.
Agriculture. Agriculture is by far the most important Spanish
industry. In general it is in a backward condition, and is now much
less productive than in the time of the Romans and again under
the Moors. The expulsion of the latter people in many places
inflicted upon agriculture a blow from which it has not recovered
to this day. Aragon and Estremadura, the two most thinly peopled
of all the old provinces, and the eastern half of Andalusia (above
Seville), have all suffered particularly in this manner, later occupiers
never having been able to rival the Moors in overcoming the sterility
of nature, as in Aragon, or in taking advantage of its fertility, as in
Andalusia and the Tierra de Barros. In some districts the imple-
ments used are still of the rudest description. The plough is merely
a pointed stick shod with iron, crossed by another stick which serves
as a share, scratching the ground to the depth of a few inches. But
the regular importation of agricultural implements betokens an
improvement in this respect. In general there has been consider-
able improvement in the condition of agriculture since the introduc-
tion of railways, and in every province there is a royal commissioner
entrusted with the duty of supervising and encouraging this branch
of industry. Among other institutions for the promotion of agricul-
ture the royal central school at Aranjuez, to which is attached a
model farm, is of special importance. Of the soil of Spain 79-65 % is
classed as productive; 33-8% being devoted to agriculture and
gardens, 20-8 to fruit, 19-7 to grass, 3-7 to vineyards and 1-6 to olives.
The land is subdivided among a very large number of proprietors;
over 3,400,000 farms or estates were assessed for taxation in 1905.
The provinces in which agriculture is most advanced are those
of Valencia and Catalonia, in both of which the river valleys are
thickly seamed with irrigation canals and the hill-slopes carefully
terraced for cultivation. In neither province is the soil naturally
fertile, and nothing but the untiring industry of the inhabitants,
favoured by the rivers which traverse the province from the table-land
of New Castile and the numerous small streams (nacimientos) that
issue from the base of the limestone mountains and by the numerous
torrents from the Pyrenees, has converted them into two of the
most productive regions in Spain. In the Basque Provinces and
in Galicia the cultivable area is quite as fully utilized, but in these
the difficulties are not so great. The least productive tracts, apart
from Aragon and Estremadura, are situated in the south and east
of New Castile, in Murcia, and in Lower Andalusia the marshes
or marismas of the lower Guadalquivir and the arenas gordas between
that river and the Rio Tinto. By far the greater part of the
table-land, however, is anything but fertile, the principal exceptions
being the Tierra de Campos, said to be the chief corn-growing district
in Spain, occupying the greater part of Palencia in the north-west
of Old Castile, and the Tierra de Barros, in the portion of Badajoz
lying to the south of the Guadiana in Estremadura.
Except in Leon and the provinces bordering on the Bay of
Biscay and the Atlantic, irrigation is almost everywhere necessary
for cultivation, at least in the case of certain crops. Almost all
kinds of vegetables a;nd garden-fruits, oranges, rice, hemp and
other products are generally grown solely or mainly on irrigated
land, whereas most kinds of grain, vines and olives are cultivated
chiefly on dry soil. The water used for irrigation is sometimes
derived from springs and rivers in mountain valleys, whence it
is conveyed by long canals (acequias) along the mountain sides
and sometimes by lofty aqueducts to the fields on which it is to
be used. Sometimes the water of entire rivers or vast artificial
reservoirs (pdntanos) is used in feeding a dense network of canals
distributed over plains many square miles in extent. Such plains
in Valencia and Murcia are known by the Spanish name of huertas
(gardens), in Andalusia by the Arabic name of vegas, which has
the same meaning. Many of the old irrigation works such as
those of the plain of Tarragona date from the time of the Romans,
and many others from the Moorish period, while new ones are still
being laid out at the present day. Where no running water is
available for irrigation, water is often obtained from wells by means
of waterwheels (norias) of simple construction. In most cases such
wheels merely have earthenware pitchers attached to their circumfer-
ence by means of wisps of esparto, and are turned by a horse har-
nessed to a long arm fitted to a revolving shaft. In recent years
many artesian wells have been sunk for irrigation. In all, about 9 %
of the entire surface of Spain is artificially watered, but in 1900 the
government adopted plans for the construction of new canals and
reservoirs on a vast scale. The system was designed to bring a
greatly increased area of arid or semi-arid land under irrigation.
The irrigated portions of the Ebro and Tagus valleys yield twelve
times as large. a crop per acre as the unirrigated.
Cereals constitute the principal object of cultivation, and among
these wheat ranks first, the next in importance being barley, the
GENERAL SURVEY]
SPAIN
533
chief fodder of horses and mules. Both of these grains are cultivated
in all parts, but chiefly on the more level districts of the two Castiles
and Leon, and on the plains of the Guadalquivir
" basin. Oats and rye are cultivated only in the higher
parts of the mountains, the former as a substitute for barley in
feeding horses and mules, the latter as a breadstuff. Maize also
is cultivated in all the provinces; nevertheless, its cultivation is
limited, since, being a summer crop, it requires irrigation except
in the Atlantic provinces, and other products generally yield a
more profitable return where irrigation is pursued. Rice is cultivated
on a large scale only in the swampy lowlands of Valencia. Among
cereals of less importance are buckwheat (in the mountainous
regions of the north), millets, including both the common millet
(Panicum miliaceum) and the so-called Indian millet (Sorghum
vulgare, the jodri of India, the durrah of Africa), and even (in La
Mancha) guinea-corn (Penicillaria spicata).
Among the natural products of the soil of Spain, in regard to
quantity, wines come next to cereals, but the only wines which have
Wines. a world-wide reputation are those of the south, those
of Alicante, of Malaga, and more particularly those
which take the name of " sherry," from the town of Jerez, in the
neighbourhood of which they are grown (see WINE). From 1880
to 1890 when the French vineyards suffered so much from various
plagues, and when Spain gave a great impetus to her foreign trade
by numerous treaties of commerce, none of her products showed
such an increase in exports as her wines. The vine-growing districts
had formerly been mostly in the provinces of Cadiz, Malaga, Barce-
lona, Aragon and Navarre. Then the vineyards spread all along the
Ebro valley and in the Mediterranean seaboard provinces, as well
as in New and Old Castile and Estremadura to such an extent that
wine is now produced in all the 49 provinces of the kingdom. The
average result of the vintage was estimated between 440 and 500
million gallons in 1880 to 1884, and it rose to more than double
that amount towards 1890, and amounted in 1898 to 880 million
gallons. In that year the total area under the vine was 3,546,375
acres, in 1908 it was 3,136,470 acres. In the hey-day of the cultiva-
tion of the vine Spain sent the bulk of her wine exports to France.
The imposition of high duties in France on foreign wines in 1891
dealt a severe blow to the export trade in common Spanish wines.
The export of wines of the south Jerez, Malaga and other full-
bodied wines styled generoso did not suffer so much, and England
and France continued to take much the same quantities of such
wines. There is also a large export of grapes and raisins, especially
from Malaga, Valencia, Almeria and Alicante. The Spanish vines
have suffered, like those of France, from mildew and phylloxera.
The latter has done most damage in the provinces of Malaga and
Alicante, in Catalonia, and in some parts of the Ebro valley in
Navarre and Aragon. The vines whose fruit is intended for table
use as grapes or raisins are trained on espaliers or on trees, especially
the nettle-tree (Celtis australis) .
Among fruit-trees the first place belongs to the olive. Its range
in Spain embraces the whole of the southern half of the table-land,
Fruit. tne g reater P art f tne Ebro valley, and a small strip
on the west coast of Galicia. Along the base of the
Sierra Morena from Andiijar to the vicinity of Cordova there run
regular forests of olives, embracing hundreds of square miles.
Cordova is the headquarters of the oil industry, Seville of the cultiva-
tion of olives for table use. In 1908 the yield of oil amounted to
36,337,893 gallons. Oranges and lemons, excluded from the plateau
by the severity of the winter cold, are grown in great quantities on the
plains of Andalusia and all round the Mediterranean coast ; the peel
of the bigarade or bitter orange is exported to Holland for the manu-
facture of curacao; and figs, almonds, pomegranates, carobs and
other southern fruits are also grown abundantly in all the warmer
parts, the first two even in central Spain and the more sheltered
parts of the northern maritime provinces. In these last, however,
the prevailing fruit-trees are those of central Europe, and above
all the apple, which is very extensively cultivated in Asturias, the
Basque Provinces and Navarre. In these provinces large quantities
of cider are brewed. The date-palm is very general in the south-
eastern half of the kingdom, but is cultivated for its fruit only in
the province of Alicante, in which is the celebrated date-grove of
Elche (q.v.). In the southern provinces flourish also various sub-
tropical exotics, such as the banana, the West Indian cherimoya,
and the prickly pear or Indian fig (Opuntia vulgaris), the last fre-
quently grown as a hedge-plant, as in other Mediterranean countries,
and extending even to the southern part of the table-land. It is
specially abundant on the Balearic Islands. The agave or American
aloe is cultivated in a similar manner throughout Andalusia.
Cotton is now cultivated only here and there in the south; but
sugar-cane is, with sugar-beet, becoming more and more of a staple
Sugar. * n tj 16 provinces of Granada, Malaga and Almeria. Its
cultivation was introduced by the Arabs in the 1 2th
century or later, and was of great importance in the kingdom of
Granada at the time of the expulsion of the Moors (1489), but has
since undergone great vicissitudes, first in consequence of the intro-
duction of the cane into America, and afterwards because of the
great development of beet-sugar in central Europe. The industry
received a powerful stimulus from the loss of the Spanish colonies
in 1898, which freed the Spanish growers from the rivalry of their
most successful competitors in the home market. In 1901 the
official statistics showed 22 cane-sugar factories and 47 beet-sugar
factories with an annual output of about 100,000 tons.
In the production of pod-fruits and kitchen vegetables Spain is
ahead of many other countries. The chick-pea forms part of the
daily food of all classes of the inhabitants; and among vegetables
other pod-fruits largely cultivated are various kinds
of beans and peas, lentils (Ervum lens), Spanish lentils (Lathyrus
sativus} and other species of Lathyrus, lupines, &c. The principal
fodder-crops are lucerne (Medicago saliva) and esparcette (a variety
of sainfoin). Clover, particularly crimson clover (Trifolium in-
carnatum), is grown in the northern provinces. Among vegetables
garlic and onions take the chief place, and form an indispensable
part of the diet of all Spaniards ; besides these, tomatoes and Spanish
pepper are the principal garden crops. Among the vegetable
products not yet mentioned the most important are the mulberry,
grown in almost all provinces, but principally in those bordering
on the Mediterranean, and above all in Valencia, the chief seat of
the Spanish silk production and manufacture; tobacco, which is
also imported, hemp and flax, grown chiefly in Galicia and other
northern provinces; among dye-plants, madder, saffron, woad
(Isalis tinctoria), and wild woad or dyer's weed (Reseda luteola);
ground-nuts (Arachis hypogaea), grown for their oil, for the pre-
paration of which the nuts are exported in considerable quantity
to France; liquorice, cummin, colocynth, &c. Esparto, chiefly from
the arid lands of the south-east, is largely exported to Great Britain.
Despite all the efforts of the breeders and of the government,
a decline has gone on not only in horse-rearing, but also in other
classes of livestock since 1865. Among the causes Livestock
assigned for this decay is the fact that horse, sheep,
goat and swine rearing is becoming less remunerative. Heavy
taxation, aggravated by unequal distribution of the burden, owing
to insufficient survey of the assessable property, has also contributed
to the decline of this and other branches of Spanish farming.
The only animals belonging to Spain still noted for their excellence
are mules and asses, which are recognized as among the best to be
found anywhere. Goats are mostly bred in the mountainous
districts all along the Spanish side of the Pyrenees from Biscay to
Catalonia, and in Badajoz, Caceres, Ciudad Real, Granada and
Leon; swine in Badajoz, Lugo, Oviedo, Caceres and Corunna. The
pork and hams of Estremadura are famous; goats' milk and cheese
are important articles of diet. In some districts a single peasant
often owns as many as 3000 head of goats. Besides the cattle
reared for field-labour and (in the northern provinces) for regular
dairy farming, bulls for bull-fighting are specially reared in many
parts of the country, particularly in the forests of Navarre, the
mountains separating the two Castiles, the Sierra Morena, and the
Serrania de Ronda in Granada, and also in separate enclosures on
the islands of the Guadalquivir. Spanish sheep, which once formed
so important a part of the national wealth, are far from having the
same importance at the present day. The most famous breeds
of Spanish sheep are the merinos or migrating sheep, which once
brought immense revenues to the state as well as to the large
proprietors to whom they mostly belonged (see MERINO). These
sheep are pastured in different districts in summer and winter.
Their winter quarters are in the lower parts of Leon and Estremadura,
La Mancha, and the lowlands of Andalusia, their summer quarters
the more mountainous districts to the east and north (Plasencia
in the province of Caceres, Avila, Segovia, Cuenca, Valencia), which
are not so much affected by the summer droughts of the Peninsula.
The mode of the migration and the routes to be followed are pre-
scribed by law. Each flock consists of about 10,000 sheep, under
the command of a mayoral, and is divided into sections containing
about looo each, each section under the charge of an overseer
(capataz), who is assisted by a number of shepherds (pastores) attended
by dogs. The shepherds, rudely clad in a sleeveless sheepskin
jacket, the wool outside, and leather breeches, and loosely wrapped
in a woollen mantle or blanket, are among the most striking objects
in a Spanish landscape, especially on the table-land. The migration
to the summer quarters takes place at the beginning of April, the
return at the end of September. At one time the owners of merino
flocks enjoyed the right of pasturing their sheep during their migra-
tions on a strip of ground about 100 yds. in breadth bordering the
routes along which the migrations took place, but this right (the
tnesta, as it was called) was abolished in 1836 as prejudicial to cul-
tivation. The numbers of the merinos have been greatly reduced,
and they have been replaced by coarse-woolled breeds.
Fisheries. The catching of tunnies, sardines, anchovies and
salmon on the coasts employs large numbers of fishermen (about
67,000 in 1910), and the salting, smoking and packing of the first
three give employment to many others. In 1910 there were about
400 sardine-curing establishments in the kingdom.
Minerals. The mineral resources of Spain are as yet far from
being adequately turned to account. No European country produces
so great a variety of minerals in large amount, and in the production
of copper ore, lead ore and mercury Spain heads the list. In the
production of salt and silver it is excelled only by Austria-Hungary,
and, as regards silver, not always even by it. Iron ore is chiefly
obtained in Biscay and Murcia, the former yielding by far the greater
quantity, but the latter yielding the better quality.
534
SPAIN
[GENERAL SURVEY
All except a small fraction of the copper ore is obtained from the
province of Huelva, in which lie the well-known mines of Tharsis
and Rio Tinto (q.v.). The lead ore is obtained chiefly in Murcia
and Jaen. The famous mines of Linares belong to the latter province.
Argentiferous lead is chiefly produced in Almeria, which also pro-
duces most of the silver ore of other kinds except argentiferous
copper ore, which is entirely obtained from Ciudad Real. The
still more celebrated mercury mines of Almaden (q.v.), the richest
in the world till the discovery of the Californian mines of New
Almaden, belong to Ciudad Real, and this province, together with
that of Oviedo, furnishes the whole of the Spanish production of
this mineral. Spanish salt is partly marine, partly derived from
brine-springs and partly from rock-salt, of which last there is an
entire mountain at Cardona (q.v.) in Barcelona. Coal is chiefly
obtained in Oviedo, Palencia and Cordova. The production is
quite insignificant compared with the extent of the coal-bearing
beds, which are estimated to cover an area of about 3500 sq. m., of
which nearly a third belongs to Oviedo. Among the less important
Spanish minerals are manganese (chiefly in Ciudad Real), antimony,
gold, cobalt, sodic sulphate, sulphate of barium (barytes), phosphorite
(found in Caceres), alum, sulphur, kaolin, lignite, asphalt, besides
a variety of building and ornamental stones. In 1905 the workmen
employed on mines in Spain numbered 105,000, and the total value
of the output was estimated at 7,734,805. By the law of the
6th of July 1859, a large number of important mines, including all
the salt-works and rock-salt mines, were reserved as state property,
but financial necessities compelled the government to surrender one
mine after another, so that at present the state possesses only the
mercury mines and some salt-works. Many of the mines have been
granted to foreign (principally British) companies.
Manufactures. The maritime provinces, being those most favour-
ably situated for the import of coal, and, where necessary, of raw
material, are the chief seats of Spanish manufactures. The principal
manufacture is that of cotton. The exports of Spanish cotton goods
were, until the close of the igth century, hardly worth mentioning
outside the colonial markets, which took an average of two millions
sterling in the decade 1888-1898. This outlet is now almost closed,
as the new masters of Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippines no longer
protect Spanish imports against European and American com-
petitors. But this loss has been to a great extent compensated
by the expansion of the home market for cotton, and the Spanish
manufacturers are unable to meet the wants of the population, large
quantities of cotton goods being imported every year. The cotton
industry was long principally centred in Catalonia, and mainly in
the province and town of Barcelona, famed also for their manu-
factures of lace, woollen and linen goods. The northern provinces,
especially Guipuzcoa and Biscay, Navarre and Oviedo, have
followed in the wake of Catalonia for linen and cotton industries
and for paper-mills. Flax-spinning is confined to Galicia. The
silk industry, though inadequate to meet the home demands, is
active in Valencia, Murcia and Seville. Metal industries, at first
limited to the Basque Provinces, particularly around Bilbao, have
spread to Asturias, Almeria, Galicia, near the great ore beds and
in the vicinity of many coal mines. In the same Asturian districts
the government has its foundries and factories for making arms at
La Trubia and Oviedo, Toledo being only now famous for its blades
and decorative work, while the foundries at Seville and Segovia are
unimportant compared with those of Asturias. The manufacture
of leather, another Spanish industry of old renown, is still extensively
carried on in Catalonia and elsewhere, but the making of cordwain
has long ceased to be a speciality of Cordova, from which it takes
its name. Gloves are made in Seville and Madrid, shoes in the
Balearic Isles, chiefly for Cuba and Porto Rico. The esparto is
twisted into cords and ropes and the staple matting so common on
the floors of Spanish houses of all classes, the estera. Soap, chocolate
and cork manufactures are among the prosperous industries. The
same may be said of charcoal, both for heating and mechanical
purposes. The large furnaces for the distillation of mercury at
Almaden were at one time heated solely with charcoal obtained
from the Cistus ladaniferus. The making of porcelain is chiefly
carried on at Seville. The war of tariffs between France and Spain
after 1891 was an inducement for an extraordinary development in
the making of brandy and liqueurs of every kind, of fruit preserves,
potted meats, etc., in Navarre, the Bascuie Provinces, Catalonia,
and even in Valladolid and Andalusia. Special mention must be
made of the manufacture of tobacco, a royal monopoly, farmed
out to a company, which increased the factories from seven to
twelve and began by paying the treasury 3,400,000 annually.
The decade following the Spanish-American War (1898-1908),
which may be regarded as a period of industrial and commercial
reconstruction, was marked by a very rapid increase in the use of
electricity for lighting, traction and other purposes. Owing to
the abundance of water-power to be obtained in the mountainous
regions, these new undertakings prpved very successful. Spain is,
on the whole, a country whose production falls far short of her own
requirements. With a protected home market, cheap power and
cheap labour available, there is room for much industrial develop-
ment. It is, however, noteworthy that Spanish capitalists are, as
a class, though exclusive of the Catalans, unduly conservative.
Hence the capital for the establishment of electrical industries was
almost exclusively subscribed in Germany, France, Belgium, Switzer-
land and the United States, just as, in the igth century, the railways
and mining industries had been mainly financed by British investors,
and the Valencian silk industry by French. Another feature of
the period of reconstruction was the formation of numerous trusts
or combinations of producing companies designed to take advantage
of the high tariff, and to restrict competition, lower expenses and
raise prices. The paper, sugar, salt petroleum and metallurgical
industries were subjected to this process, but in no case was it possible
to secure a complete monopoly.
Commerce. Possessing varied resources and being favourably
situated for commerce, Spain might be expected to take a leading
place among the trading communities of Europe. This it did at
one time hold, when the treasure acquired by the discovery of
America and the conquest of Mexico and Peru was squandered
in the purchase of various commodities from England, the Nether-
lands and other countries. This period of outward prosperity,
however, was also that in which the seeds of decline were planted.
The expulsion of the Moors from Granada was contemporaneous
with the discovery of the New World. Hundreds of thousands
of Moors were driven out from the country on subsequent occasions,
and in the act Spain lost the best of her agriculturists and handi-
craftsmen. The Spaniards ot that day. excited by the hope of
rapidly acquired wealth and the love of adventure, embarked upon
a career of discovery, and agriculture and manufacturing industry
fell into contempt. The loss of all her possessions on the American
mainland in the early part of the igth century dealt a severe blow
to the foreign commerce of Spain, from which it only recovered
about 1 850, when imports and exports began to increase. After the re-
storation of the Bourbons in 1875, the first cabinet of Alphonso XII. 's
reign stopped the operation olf the tariff law of the Revolution
and reverted to protection. In 1882 a Liberal cabinet revived the
system of a gradual reduction of import duties to a fixed maxi-
mum, and made commercial treaties with France and several other
nations, which were followed by a treaty with Great Britain in 1886.
The foreign commerce of Spain rapidly developed in the decade
1882-1892, Great Britain, France and the United States figuring
at the head of the imports, Great Britain and France at the head
of the exports. The exports of Spanish wines to France alone
amounted to 12,000,000 annually. When France and other
European nations abandoned free trade for protection towards 1890,
a strong movement set in in Spain in favour of protection. In 1890
the Conservative cabinet of Senor Canovas raised the duties on
agricultural products, in 1891 it denounced all the treaties of com-
merce that included most-favoured-nation treatment clauses, and
in 1892 a new tariff law established considerably higher duties than
those of 1882 in fact, duties ranging from 40% to 300%. The
subsequent revision of the tariff, completed in 1906, involved no
serious departure from the economic policy adopted in 1890.
The following table shows the value of Spanish imports and
exports for a number of representative years after 1848:
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
1849
6,360,000
5,240,000
i860
14,833,000
10,982,000
1865
16,262,000
12,864,000
1870
20,876,000
15,982,000
1875
22,812,000
18,081,000
1880
28,482,000
25,999,000
1885
30,590,000
27,920,000
1890
37,646,000
37,510,000
1895
33,540,000
32,198,000
1900
34,496,000
28,955,000
1905
32,320,000
50,012,000
The principal exports include metals and other minerals; wine,,
sugar, fruit and other alimentary substances, cotton and its manu-
factures; animals and their products, including wool and hair;
timber and wrought wood. The principal imports include grain,
dried fish and other food-stuffs; livestock and animal products;
machinery, vehicles and ships; stone, minerals, glass and pottery;
drugs and chemical products; textiles and raw cotton. Great
Britain, France, the United States, Germany and Portugal, named
in the order of their importance, are the chief consumers of Spanish
exports. The chief exporters to Spain (in the same order) are Great
Britain, France, Cuba, Germany and Portugal. The foreign trade
of the country is of course carried on mainly by sea, and of the
land commerce by far the largest proportion is with or through
France. The smallness of the trade with Portugal is partly due to
the similarity of the chief products of the two countries.
Shipping and Navigation. Spain has 21 seaboard provinces, with
more than 120 ports of some importance. The merchant navy
of Spain, far from decaying through the loss of her colonies in 1898,
seems to have been given fresh impetus. Many English and French
steamers have been purchased abroad and nationalized. In 1905,
the mercantile marine comprised 449 steamships of 434,846 tons,
and 541 sailing vessels of 85,583 tons. The sailing vessels are
decreasing in numbers in the exterior trade, but not in the coasting
GENERAL SURVEY]
SPAIN
535
trade, which is decidedly developing and occupying more craft.
It is carried on exclusively under the Spanish nag. The fishing
fleet, chiefly sailing boats, is also important, and is manned by
a hardy and active coast population. In 1905 19,722 ships of
16,595,267 tons entered, and 18,033 f 1 6,442,355 tons cleared.
Banking and Credit. The Bank of Spain (Banco de Espana) has
a charter which has been renewed and enlarged several times since
its foundation after the Restoration, and its privileged note issue
has had to be gradually and very largely increased by legislative
authorizations, especially in 1891 and 1898, as its relations with
the treasuries of Spain and of her colonies increased ; since nothing
in the services rendered by the bank to the public would ever have
justified the growth of the note issue first to thirty millions sterling
in 1891, then by quick strides to fifty and over sixty-one millions
sterling in 1899 and 1900. At the close of the igth century the
remodelled bank charter, which is only to expire in 1921, authorized
a maximum issue of 100,000,000, on condition that the bank keeps
cash in hand, gold and silver in equal quantities, equal to a third
of the notes in circulation up to 60,000,000, and equal to half the
amount issued above that sum. Gold has practically disappeared
from business of every kind since 1881, when the premium began
to rise ; it reached a maximum of 1 20 % during the war with America.
Afterwards it dropped to about 30 in 1900. Bank-notes and silver
coin have been practically the currency for many years.
Currency, Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights
and measures was officially adopted in Spain in 1859 and the decimal
monetary system in 1871. In the case of the weights and measures
the French names were also adopted, with only the necessary
linguistic changes. Certain older standards remain in common use,
notably the quintal (of loivj. Ib avoirdupois), the libra (i'O!4 ft
avoirdupois), the arroba (3^ imperial gallons for wine, 2\ imperial
gallons for oil), thefanega (i J imperial bushels). In the case of the
currency the old Spanish name of peseta was retained for the
unit (the franc, 9id.). The peseta is divided into 100 centesimos.
According to its par value 25-225 pesetas are about equal to i,
but the actual value of the peseta is about 7|d. In law, there is a
double standard of value, silver and gold, in the ratio of 15! to I.
But the only silver coin which is legal tender up to any amount is
the 5-peseta piece, and the coinage of this is restricted. One-
peseta pieces in silver, and 20-, 10- and 5-peseta pieces in gold are
also current. Before the introduction of the decimal monetary
system the peseta was the fifth part of a peso duro, which was equal
to 20 reales de vellon, or rather more than a 5-franc piece. The only
paper money consists of the notes of the Bank of Spain.
Finance. Spanish finance passed through many vicissitudes
during the igth century. In the reigns of Ferdinand VII. and
Isabella II. the creditors of the state had to suffer several suspensions
of payments of their dues, and reductions both of capital and interest.
During the Revolution, from 1868 to 1874, matters culminated in
bankruptcy. Payments of interest were only in part resumed after
the Restoration in 1876, and in 1882 the government of King
Alphonso XII. proposed arrangements to consolidate the floating
and treasury debts of the Peninsula in the shape of 70,000,000
of 4% stock, redeemable in 40 years, and to reduce and consolidate
the old exterior and interior debts, then exceeding 480,000,000, in
the form of 78,840,000 of exterior 4 % debt exempt from taxation
under an agreement to that effect with the council of foreign bond-
holders in London on the 28th of June 1882 and 77,840,000 of
perpetual interior 4%. The colonial debts were not included in
those plans. The debts of Spain were further increased in 1891
by a consolidation of 10,000,000 of floating debt turned into 4%
redeemable stock similar to that of 1882 ; and this did not prevent a
fresh growth of floating debts out of annual deficits averaging two
to three millions sterling during the last quarter of the igth century.
The floating debt in 1900 had swollen to 24,243,300. The govern-
ment of Spain having guaranteed the colonial debts of Cuba and
of the Philippines, when those colonies were lost in 1898, Spain was
further saddled with 46,210,000 of colonial consolidated debts,
and with the expenses of the wars amounting, besides, to 63,257,000.
Consequently, the Spanish government had once more to attempt
to make both ends meet by asking its creditors to assent to the
suppression of all the amortization of imperial and colonial debts,
and to a tax of 20% on the coupons of all the debts, whilst at the
same time the Cortes were asked to authorize a consolidation and
liquidation of the floating and war debts and an annual increase
of 3,200,000 in already heavy taxation. Under these modifications
the Spanish debt at the close of the igth century, exclusive of
44,000,000 of treasury debt, consisted of 41,750,000 of exterior
debt, still temporarily exempted from taxation on the condition
of being held by foreigners, of 270,000,000 of 4% interior consols,
and of 60,000,000 of new 5 % consols, replacing the war and floating
debts. In January 1905 this total outstanding debt of 415,750,000
had been reduced to 381,833,000; the capital sum was thus approxi-
mately equal to 20 8s. per head of the population, and the annual
charge amounted to about 173. 6d. per head. Between 1885 and
1905 the revenue of Spain varied from 30,000,000 to 40,000,000,
and the expenditure was approximately equal ; deficits were common
towards the beginning of this period, surpluses towards the end.
For an analysis of the budget the year 1908 may be taken as typical,
inasmuch as trade had then resumed its normal condition, after
the disturbing influence of tariff revision in 1906 and the failure
of many crops in 1907. The estimates for 1908 showed that the
revenue was derived as follows: Direct taxes on land, houses, mines,
industry and commerce, livestock, registration acts, titles of nobility,
mortgages and salaries paid by the state, 18,020,800; indirect
taxes, including customs, excise, tolls and bridge and ferry dues,
r 4. 748.000; tobacco monopoly, lottery, mint, national property,
balance from public treasury, &c., 8,858,400; total 41,627,200.
The principal items of expenditure were: Public debt, 16,199,300;
ministry of war, 6,301,100; ministry of public works, &c., 3,679,540;
pensions, 2,881,400. The total was 40,926,740.
Constitution and Government. Spain is an hereditary monarchy
the constitution of which was voted by the Cortes and became
the fundamental law of the 3oth of June 1876. This law fixes
the order of succession as follows: should no legitimate descen-
dant of Alphonso XII. survive, the succession devolves first
upon his sisters, next upon his aunt and her legitimate descen-
dants, and finally upon the legitimate descendants of the
brothers of Ferdinand VII. " unless they have been excluded."
Should all lines become extinct, the nation may elect its monarch.
The sovereign becomes of age on completing his or her sixteenth'
year. He is inviolable, but his ministers are responsible to the
Cortes, and none of his decrees is valid unless countersigned
by a minister. The sovereign is grand-master of the eight
Spanish orders of knighthood, the principal of which is that of
the Golden Fleece (Toison de Oro), founded in 1431 by Philip
of Burgundy. The chain of this order surrounds the royal arms,
in which are included, besides the arms of Castile, Leon, Granada,
and the lilies of the royal house of Bourbon, the arms of Austria,
Sicily, Savoy, Brabant and others. The national colours are red
and yellow. The flag is divided into three horizontal stripes,
two red stripes with a yellow one between bearing the royal arms.
The legislative authority is exercised by the sovereign in
conjunction with the Cortes, a body composed of two houses
a senate and a chamber of deputies. The senate is composed
of members of three classes: (i) members by right of birth
or office princes, nobles who possess an annual income of
60,000 pesetas (2,400), and hold the rank of grandee (grandc),
a dignity conferred by the king either for life or as an hereditary
honour, captains-general of the army, admirals of the navy,
the patriarch of the Indies, archbishops, cardinals, the presi-
dents of the council of state or of the Supreme Court, and other
high officials, all of whom must have retained their appoint-
ments for two years; (2) members nominated by the sovereign
for life; and (3) members elected three each by the 49 provinces
of the kingdom, and the remainder by academies, universities,
dioceses and state corporations. The members belonging to
the first two classes must not exceed 180 in number, and there
may be the same number of members of the third class. The
senatorial electors in the provinces are (i) delegates of the
communes and (2) all the members of the provincial council,
presided over by the governor. The lower house of the Cortes
was elected by a very limited franchise from 1877 to 1890, when
the Cortes passed a reform bill which became law on the 2Qth
of June 1890. This law re-established universal male suffrage,
which had existed during the Revolution, from 1869 to 1877.
Under the law of the 2Qth of June 1890 every Spaniard who
is not debarred from his civil and civic rights by any legal
incapacity, and has resided consecutively two years in his
parish, becomes an elector on completing his twenty-fifth year.
Soldiers and sailors in active service cannot vote. All Spaniards
aged 25 who are not clerks in holy orders can be elected. The
same electoral law was extended to the municipal elections.
The executive administration is entrusted to a responsible
ministry, in which the president generally holds no portfolio,
though some prime ministers have also taken charge of one
of the departments. The ministerial departments are: Foreign
affairs, grace and justice, finance, interior, war, education
and fine arts, marine, public works, and agriculture and
commerce. Under the secretary of state for the interior the
civil administration in each province is headed by a governor,
who represents the central power in the provincial council
(diputacion provincial) which is also elected by universal suffrage.
The provincial councils meet yearly, and are permanently
536
SPAIN
[GENERAL SURVEY
represented by a committee (commission provincial), which is
elected annually to safeguard their interests. Every commune
or municipality has its own elected ayuntamiento (q.v.), which
has complete control over municipal administration, with power
to levy and collect taxes. Its members are styled regidores
or concejales, and half their number is elected every two years.
They appoint an alcalde or mayor from among themselves to
act as president, chief executive officer, and justice of the peace.
In the larger towns the alcalde shares his reponsibilities with
several permanent officials called tenientes alcaldes. The
fundamental law of 1876 secures to ayuntamientos, and to the
provincial councils, an autonomy which is complete within its
own limits. Neither the executive nor the Cortes may inter-
fere with provincial and communal administration, except when
the local authorities exceed their legal power to the detriment
of public interests. This provision of the constitution has
not always been strictly observed by the government.
Law and Justice. Spanish law is founded on Roman law, Gothic
common law, and the national code proclaimed at the meeting of
the Cortes at Toro in 1501 (the leyes de Toro).
The present civil code was put into force on the 1st of May 1889
for the whole kingdom. The penal code dates from 1870, and was
modified in 1877. The commercial code was put into force on the
22nd of August 1885, the code of civil procedure on the 1st of April
1 88 1, and the code of criminal procedure on the 22nd of June 1882.
There is a court of first instance in each of the 495 partidosjudiciales,
or legal _districts, into which the kingdom is divided. From this
inferior jurisdiction the appeals go to the 15 audiencias territoriales,
or courts of appeal. There is in Madrid a Supreme Court, which
is modelled upon the French Cour de Cassation, to rule on points
of law when appeals are made from the decisions of inferior courts,
or when conflicts arise between civil and military j urisdiction. When
the law of the 2Oth of April 1888 established trial by jury for most
crimes and delicts, 49 audiencias criminates, one in each province,
were created ; these are a sort of assize held four times a year. The
administration of justice is public. The parties to a suit must be
represented by counsel. The state is always represented in every
court by abogados fiscales, public prosecutors, and counsel who are
nominees of the Crown.
Religion. Roman Catholicism is the established religion, and
the Church -and clergy are maintained by the state at an annual cost
of about 1,600,000. Therelations between Church and state, and
the position of the religious orders, were defined by the concordat
of 1851, remaining practically unchanged until 1910. There are
ten archbishoprics (Toledo, Madrid, Burgos, Granada, Santiago,
Saragpssa, Seville, Tarragona, Valencia and Valladolid) and forty-
five bishoprics. The archbishop of Toledo is primate. The number
of monastic communities is about 3250, including some 600 convents
for men and 2650 for women. Most of the religious orders carry
on active educational or charitable work. The monks number
about 10,000, the nuns 40,000. The immense majority of the people
are professed adherents of the Roman Catholic faith, so that, so
far as numbers go, Spain is still the most " Catholic " country iij
the world, as it has long been styled. With liberty of conscience
during the Revolution, from 1868 to 1877, the Church lost ground,
and anti-clerical ideas prevailed for a while in the centres of repub-
licanism in. Catalonia and Andalusia; but a reaction set in with the
Restoration. The governments of the Restoration showed the Church
much favour, allowed the Jesuits and religious orders of both sexes
to spread to an extent without precedent in the century, and to
take hold of the education of more than half of the youth of both
sexes in all classes of society. This revival of Church and monastic
influence began during the reign of Alphonso XII., 1877-1885, and
considerably increased afterwards under the regency of Queen
Christina, during the long minority of Alphonso XIII., the godson
of Pope Leo XIII. Spanish codes still contain severe penalties
for delicts against the state religion, as writers frequently discover
when they give offence to the ecclesiastical authorities. Blasphemy
is punished by imprisonment. The bishops sit in the superior
council of education, and exercise much influence on public instruc-
tion. Since 1899 all boys have been obliged to attend lectures
on theology and religion during six out of seven years of their
curriculum to obtain the B.A. degree. Canon law and Church
doctrine form an obligatory part of the studies of men qualifying for
the bar and magistracy. By the constitution of 1876 non-Catholics
were only permitted to exercise their form of worship on condition
that they did so in private, without any public demonstration or
announcement of their services. The same rule applies to their
schools, which are, however, numerously attended, in Madrid,
Seville, Barcelona and other towns, by children of Protestant
families and of many Roman Catholics also. A proposal to abolish
these restrictions was made by the government in 1910 (see History,
below).
Education. A law of the I7th of July 1857 made primary educa-
tion free for the poor, and compulsory on all children of school age,
originally fixed at six to nine years. It proved impossible to enforce
this statute, and the majority of Spaniards are still illiterate, though
in decreasing proportion at each census. The primary schools for
both sexes are kept up by the municipalities, at an annual cost of
about 1,000,000, to which the state contributes a small subvention.
The secondary schools, of which there must be at least one in every
province, are styled institutes and are mostly self-supporting, the
fees paid by the pupils usually cover the expenses of such estab-
lishments, which also receive subsidies from some of the provincial
councils. Spain has nine universities: Madrid, the most numerously
attended ; Salamanca, the most ancient ; Granada, Seville, Barcelona,
Valencia, Santiago, Saragossa and Valladolid. There are also a faculty
of medicine at Cadiz and a faculty of law at Oviedo. Most of the
universities are self-supporting from the fees of matriculations and
of degrees. The state also maintains a variety of technical schools,
for agriculture, engineering, architecture, painting, music, &c.
The whole system of pJblic instruction is controlled by the minister
of education and an advisory council. A law passed on the 1st of
July 1902 requires that all private schools must be authorized by
the state, and arranges for their periodical inspection, for the enforce-
ment of proper sanitation and discipline, and for the appointment
of a suitable staff of teachers. Among the institutions affected by
this law are numerous Jesuit and other ecclesiastical schools for
boys, and a Jesuit university at Deusto, near Bilbao, whose pupils
have to pass their final secondary examinations and to take all
degrees in the state establishments as free scholars. The education
of girls has been much developed not only in the state schools but
even more so in the convents, which educate more than half the girls
of the upper and middle classes. Many girls attend the provincial
institutes, and some have successfully gone in for the B.A. degrees
and even higher honours in the universities.
Defence. The Spanish army is recruited by conscription.
Liability to service begins with the first day of the calendar
year in which the twentieth year is completed. Except in
extraordinary circumstances, the war ministers have seldom
called for more than forty to sixty thousand men annually,
and of this contingent all who can afford to do so buy them-
selves off from service at home by payment of 60, and if
drafted for colonial service by payment of 80. The period of
service for all arms is twelve years three with the colours,
three in the first-class reserve, six in the second-class reserve,
which contains the surplus of the annual contingent of recruits,
and is liable to one month's training in every year. The war
ministers can, and frequently do, send on unlimited furlough,
or place in the first-class reserve, men who have not completed
their first three years, and thus a considerable saving is made.
Brothers can take each other's place in the service, and eldest
sons of aged parents, or sons of widows, easily get exempted.
Spain is divided into seven military regions or army corps.
The strength of the regular army for many years varied
between 85,000 and 100,000 in time of peace, and during the
Carlist Wars, 1868 to 1876, Spain had 280,000 under arms, and
nearly 350,000 during her more recent wars. For 1890-1900
the figures were only 80,000. The active army is divided into
56 regiments of the line with 2 battalions each, 20 battalions
of rifles or cazadores, 2 Balearic Islands, i Melilla, 4 African
battalions of light infantry, 2 battalions of rifles in the
Canaries. The cavalry includes a squadron of royal horse
guards, 28 regiments of the line, remount and depot establish-
ments, 4 regional squadrons in Majorca, the Canaries, Ceuta,
Melilla. The artillery comprises 1 2 regiments of field artillery,
i of horse artillery, 3 regiments and an independent division of
mountain guns, and 7 battalions of garrison artillery. The
royal engineers are 4 regiments of sappers and miners, i of
pontooners, i battalion of telegraph engineers, i of railway
engineers with cyclists, i balloon corps, and 4 colonial corps.
Other permanent military forces are 1075 officers, 1604 mounted
and 16,536 foot gendarmes, mostly old soldiers, and 14,156
arabineers, all of them old soldiers. The regular army, at
the close of the wars in 1898, had 26,000 officers and about
400 generals, but a law was afterwards made to reduce their
numbers by filling only one out of two death vacancies, with
a view to reach a peace establishment of 2 marshals, 25
lieutenant-generals, 50 divisional- and 140 brigadier-generals,
and 15,000 officers. The total strength of the field army may
be estimated at 220,000 combatants. The military academies
are Toledo for infantry, Segovia for artillery, Valladolid for
cavalry, Avila for commissariat, Escorial for carabineers, Getafe
HISTORY]
SPAIN
537
for civil guards, besides a staff college styled Escuela Superior
de Guerra at Madrid. Numerous fortresses guard the Portu-
guese frontier and the passes of the Pyrenees, but many of
these are ill-armed and obsolete.
The navy is recruited by conscription in the coast or maritime
districts, which are divided into three naval captaincies-general,
those of Ferrol, Cadiz and Cartagena at the head of each being
a vice-admiral. No attempt was made, during the decade which
followed the Spanish-American War, to replace the squadrons
destroyed at Manila and Santiago de Cuba. When the reconstruc-
tion of the navy was begun, in 1908, Spain possessed i battleship,
2 armoured cruisers, 6 protected cruisers, 5 destroyers and 6
torpedo-boats. All the larger vessels were old and of little value.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following works are mainly topographical
and descriptive: G. H. Borrow, The Bible in Spain (ist ed., London,
1843; with notes and glossary by Ulick R. Burke, London, 1899);
Madoz, Diccionario geogrdfico-historico y estadistico de las provincias
de Espana (16 vols., 1846-1850); F. Coello, Resena geogrdfica,
geologica, y agricola de Espana (Madrid, 1859); W. Webster, Spain
(London, 1882); M. Willkomm, Die pyrendische Halbinsel (3 vols.,
Leipzig, 1884-1886); E. de Amicis, Spagna (Florence, 1885; Eng.
trans. Spain and the Spaniards, New York, 1885); R. del Castillo,
Gran diccionario geogrdfico de Espana (4 vols., Barcelona, 1889
1892); R. Bazin, Terre d'Espagne (Paris, 1895); E. Pardo Bazan,
For la Espana pintoresca (Barcelona, 1895); R. FoulchtS-Delbosc,
Bibliographie des voyages en Espagne (Paris, 1896); H. Gadow, In
Northern Spain (London, 1897); J. Hay, Castilian Days (2nd ed.,
London, 1897); W. J. Root, Spain and its Colonies (London, 1898);
K. L. Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways (London, 1900) ; A. J. C.
Hare, Wanderings in Spain (8th ed., London, 1904) ; R. Thirlmere,
Letters from Catalonia (2 vols., London, 1905). Valuable information
can be obtained from the Boletins of the Madrid Geographical Society.
Espana, sus monumentos y artes, su naturaleza e historia is an
illustrated series of 21 volumes by various writers (Barcelona, 1884-
1891). The " Spanish Series " of monographs on towns and cities,
edited by A. F. Calvert (London, 1906, &c.), is noteworthy for
descriptions of architecture and painting, and for the excellence
of its many illustrations. The best guide-books are H. O'Shea,
Guide to Spain and Portugal (London, 1899); R. Ford, Murray's
Handbook for Spain (2 vols., London, 1906); and C. Baedeker, Spain
and Portugal (Leipzig, 1908). Stieler's Handatlas (Gotha, 1907)
contains the best maps for general use. The Mapa topogrdfica de
Espana, published by the Instituto geografico y estadistico de
Espana in 1080 sheets, is on the scale of 1 : 50,000, or 1-26 in. = I m.
For geology, see the maps and other publications of the Comision
del Mapa Geologico de Espana; L. Mallada, " Explicacion del mapa
geologico de Espana," in Mem. com. mapa geol. Esp. (1895, 1896,
1898 and 1902); C. Barrois, " Recherches sur les terrains anciens
des Asturies et de la Galicie," in Mem. soc. geol. du Nord^, vol. ii.
(Lille, 1882); F. Fouqu6, &c., "Mission d'Andalousie," in Mem.
pres. par divers savants a I'acad. des sciences, ser. 2, vol. xxx. (Paris,
1889).
The chief authorities on flora and fauna are M. Willkomm,
Illustrationes florae hispanicae insularumque Balearium (2 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1881-1892); M. Colmeiro, Enumeracion de las plantas
de la Peninsula (vol. i., Madrid, 1885), G. de la Puerto, Botdnica
descriptiva, &c. (Madrid, 1891); B. Merino, Contribucion a la flora
de Galicia (Tuy, 1897); A. Chapman and W. J. Buck, Wild Spain
(London, 1893); id. Unexplored Spain (London, 1910).
Modern social and political conditions are described by G. Routier,
L' Espagne en 1897 (Paris, 1897); E. Pardo Bazan, La Espana de
ayer y la de hoy (Madrid, 1899); L' Espagne: politique, litterature,
armee, &c., numero special de la Nouvelle Revue Internationale (Paris,
1900) ; J. R. Lowell, Impressions of Spain (London, 1900, written
1-877-1880 when Lowell was American minister to the court of
Spain) ; P.Gotor de Burbaguena, Nuestras costumbres (Madrid, 1900) ;
R. Altamira y Creva Psicologia del pueblo espanol (Madrid, 1902) ;
V. Amirall, El Catalanismo (Barcelona, 1902); J. Alenda y Mira,
Relaciones de solemnidades y fiestas publicas de Espana (Madrid,
1903); Madrazo, El Pueblo espanol ha muerto? (Santander, 1903);
V. Gay, Constitution y vida del pueblo espanol (Madrid, 1905, &c.) ;
H. Havelock Ellis, The Soul of Spain (London, 1908).
A comprehensive account of such matters as population, industry,
commerce, finance, mining, shipping, public works, post and tele-
graphs, railways, education, constitution, law and justice, public
health, &c.,may be found in the following works; all those of which
the place and date of issue are not specified are published annually
in Madrid : Censo de la poblacion de Espana: ipoo (Madrid, 1902, &c.) ;
Movimiento de la poblacion de Espana; British Foreign Office
Reports (annual series and miscellaneous series, London) ; Estad-
istica general de comercio exterior de Espana con sus provincias de
ultramar y potencias extrangeras, formada par la direccion general de
Aduanas', Annual Reports of the Council of the Corporation of
Foreign Bondholders (London); Estadistica mineral de Espana;
Memoria sobre las obras publicas; Anuario oficial de correos y tele-
grafos de Espana; Situacion de los ferro-carriles; Anuario de la
primera ensenanza; H. Gmelin, Studien zur spanischen Verfassungs-
geschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1905); R. de
Oloriz, La Constitucion espanola comparada con las de Inglaterra,
Eslados-Vnidos, Francia y Alemania (Valencia, 1904); T. Gomez
Herrero, Diccionario-guia legislative espanol (5 vols., Madrid, 1901-
1903); Estadistica de la administracion de justicia en lo criminal
durante; Boletin mensual de estadistica demogrdfica-sanitaria de la
peninsula y islas adjacentes (Madrid, monthly); Estado general
de la armada para el ano; C. Fernandez Duro, Armada espanola
desde la union de los reinos de Castilla y de Leon (9 vols., Madrid,
1895-1903) ; Boletin oficial del ministerio de marina. (K. G. J.)
HISTORY
A. Ancient lo A.D. 406.
Primitive Inhabitants. The origin and character of the early
inhabitants of the Peninsula are unknown; recent conjectures
on the subject, which have been many, are more bold than
probable, and we must await the result of further excavations
of prehistoric sites and further inquiries into the native inscrip-
tions before we can hope for much certainty. The Romans,
whose acquaintance with the country began in the 3rd century
B.C., mention three races: Iberians (in the east, north and
south), Celts (north-west) and Celtiberians (centre), but the
classification does not help us far. The use to-day of the
strange and ancient Basque tongue on the western slopes of
the Pyrenees and in Vizcaya (Biscay) a tongue which is
utterly unlike Celtic or Italian or any " Indo-Germanic "
language suggests that the Iberians may have been an older
people than the Celts and alien from them in race, though
the attempts hitherto made to connect Basque with ancient
traces of strange tongues in the Basque lands have not
yielded clear results. On the other hand, numerous place-
names show that parts of the Peninsula were once held by
Celtic-speaking peoples, and it is, of course, possible that
Celts and Iberians may have formed a mixed race in certain
regions. Of other ancient races little trace can be detected.
The Phoenicians were here traders and not settlers; the Greeks,
though they planted early colonies on the Gulf of Lyons, occupied
hardly any site south of the Pyrenees, and the seeming likeness
in name of Saguntum (q.v.) and the Greek island Zacynthus is
mere coincidence. It is possible, however, that after the Roman
conquest Italians drifted in, and it is fairly certain that after
the Roman Empire fell German conquerors brought German
settlers, though in what numbers no wise man will guess.
Earliest Historic Period. Phoenician traders probably reached
Spain long before our historical knowledge of the Peninsula
begins, possibly as early as the nth century B.C. Thephoem
One of their earlier settlements, Gades (now n ici aas .
Cadiz), has been called the oldest town in the world
(or in Europe) which has kept a continuity of life and name
from its first origin. But the Phoenician exploitation of Spain
dates principally from after the rise of Carthage (q.v.), the great
Phoenician city of North Africa. Carthaginian " factories "
were planted on many Spanish coasts: a Nova Carthago (New
Carthage, mod. Cartagena) formed a Carthaginian fortress
with the best harbour of south-eastern Spain. The expansion
is attributed chiefly to the second half of the 3rd century B.C.,
and to the genius of the Carthaginian statesman, Hamilcar
Barca, who, seeing his country deprived by Rome of her trading
dominion in Sicily and Sardinia, used Spain, not only as a
source of commercial wealth, but as an inexhaustible supply
of warlike troops to serve in the Carthaginian armies. But
Rome had already her eyes on the Spanish men and mines, and,
in the. second Punic War, drove Carthage finally and completely
out of the Peninsula (201 B.C.).
Roman Spain. The Romans divided Spain into two " spheres
of administration " (provinciae), Hither or Citerior, that is the
northern districts which were nearer to Italy, and Republican
Further or Ulterior, the south. To each " province " Period,
was sent yearly a governor, often with the title 200-27B.C.
proconsul. The commands were full of military activity. The
south, indeed, and in particular the fertile valley of Anda-
lusia, the region of the Guadalquivir (Baetis), then called
Baetica, was from the first fairly peaceful. Settlements of
Italian veterans or of Spanish soldiers who had served for
Rome were made at Hispalis (Seville) and at Carteia near
538
SPAIN
[HISTORY
Gibraltar, and a beginning was made of a Romanized provincial
population, though in a somewhat half-hearted way. But
in the north, on the high plateau and amidst the hills, there was
incessant fighting throughout the greater part of the 2nd century
B.C., and indeed in some quarters right down to the establish-
ment of the empire. The Carthaginians had extended their
influence no great distance from the eastern coast and their
Roman successors had all the work to do. In the long struggle
many Roman armies were defeated, many commanders dis-
graced, many Spanish leaders won undying fame as patriot
chiefs (see NUMANTIA). Even where one Roman succeeded,
the incapacity or the perfidy of his successor too often lost the
fruits of success. But though its instruments were weak the
Republic was still strong, and the struggle itself, a struggle
quite as much for a peaceful frontier as for aggrandizement
and annexation of fresh land, could not be given up without
risk to the lands already won. So the war went on to its
inevitable issue. Numantia, the centre of the fiercest resistance,
fell in 133 B.C. before the science of Scipio Aemilianus (see
SCIPIO), and even northern Spain began to accept Roman rule
and Roman civilization. When in the decade 80-70 B.C. the
Roman Sertorius (q.v.) attempted to make head in Spain against
his political enemies in Rome, the Spaniards who supported
him were already half Romanized. There remained only
some disturbed and unconquered tribes in the northern hills
and on the western coast. Some of these were dealt with by
Julius Caesar, governor here in 61 B.C., who is said also to have
made his way, by his lieutenant Crassus, to the tin mines of the
north-west in Galicia. Others, especially the hill tribes of the
Basque and Asturian mountains fringing the north coast,
were still unquiet under Augustus, and we find a large Roman
garrison maintained throughout the empire at Leon (Legio)
to overawe these tribes. But behind all this long fighting,
pacification and culture had spread steadily. The republican
administration of Spain was wise. The Spanish subjects were
allowed to collect themselves the taxes and tribute due to
Rome, and, though the mineral wealth doubtless fell into the
hands of Roman capitalists, the natives were free from the
tithes and tithe system which caused such misery and revolt
in the Roman province of Sicily. On the other hand, every
facility was given them to Romanize themselves; there was
no competing influence of Hellenic or Punic culture and the
uncivilized Spaniards accepted Roman ways gladly. By the
days of Cicero and Caesar (70-44 B.C.) the southern districts,
at least, had become practically Roman: their speech, their
literature, their gods were wholly or almost wholly Italian,
as Cicero and Strabo and other writers of these and the next
few years unanimously testify. Gades, once Phoenician,
gained, by Caesar's favour and the intercession of Balbus, a
Roman municipal charter as municipium: that is, its citizens
were regarded as sufficiently Romanized to be granted both the
Roman personal franchise and the Roman city-rights. It
was the first city outside of ' Italy which obtained such a
municipal charter, without the usual implantation of Roman
citizens (either poor men needing land or discharged veteran
soldiers) from Italy.
Augustus (or Tiberius possibly) reorganized the administra-
tion of Roman Spain. Henceforward there were three pro-
TYieEmpfre.vinces: (a) the north and north-west, the central
27B.C,- table-land and the east coast as far south as New
A.D. 406. Carthage, that is, all the thinly-populated and un-
quiet hill country, formed the province of Tarraconensis with
a capital at Tarraco (Tarragona) under a legatus Augusti pro
praelore with a legion (VII. Gemina) at Leon and some other
troops at his disposal; (6) the fertile and peaceful west formed
the province of Lusitania, very roughly the modern Portugal,
also under a legatus Augusti pro praetor -e, but with very few
troops; (c) the fertile and peaceful south formed the province
of Baetica, called after its chief river, the Baetis, under a pro-
consul nominated by the senate, with no troops. These divi-
sions (it will be observed) exactly coincide with the geographical
features of the Peninsula. Substantially, they remained till
the end of the empire, though Tarraconensis was broken up at
different dates into smaller and more manageable areas. Augus-
tus also accelerated the Romanization of the land by planting
in it many municipalities (coloniae) of discharged soldiers, such
for example as Augusta Emerita (mod. Merida), which declares
by its name its connexion with time-expired veterans and still
possesses extensive Roman ruins. Either now, too, or soon
after, imperial finance agents (procurators) were appointed to
control the revenues and also to look after the mines, which
now became Imperial property, while a special praefeclus
administered the Balearic Islands. The two principal features
of the whole country during the imperial period are its great
prosperity and its contributions to Roman literature. Shut
off from foreign enemies (though occasionally vexed by pirates
from Africa) , secluded from the wars of the empire, it developed
its natural resources to an extent unequalled before or since.
Its iron and copper and silver and lead were well known: it
was also (according to the elder Pliny) the chief source whence
the Roman world obtained its tin and quite outdistanced in
this period the more famous mines of Cornwall. But such com-
mercial prosperity characterized many districts of the empire
during the first two centuries of our era. Spain can boast that
she supplied Rome with almost her whole literature in the silver
age. The Augustan writers had been Italians. When they
passed away there arose in their places such writers as the
younger Seneca, the epic poet Lucan, the epigrammatist Martial,
the literary critic Quintilian, besides a host of lesser names.
But the impulse of the opening empire died away and successful
commerce drove out literary interests. With the 2nd century
the great Roman-Spanish literature ceased: it was left to other
regions which felt later than Spain the stimulus of Romaniza-
tion to enter into the literary tradition. Of statesmen the
Peninsula was less prolific. The emperor Trajan, indeed, and
his relative and successor Hadrian, were born in Spain, but
they were both of Roman stock and Roman training. The
3rd and 4th centuries saw a decline in the prosperity of Roman
Spain. The confiscations of Septimus Severus and the ravages
of barbarians in the middle of the 3rd century have both been
adduced as causes for such a decline. But while we need not
doubt that the decline occurred, we can hardly determine
either its date or its intensity without careful examination of
the Roman remains of Spain. Many of the best Roman ruins
such as the aqueduct of Segovia or the bridge of Alcantara
no doubt date from before A.D. 200. Others are probably
later, and indicate that prosperity continued here, as it did on
the other side of the Pyrenees in Gaul, till the later days of the
4th century perhaps indeed not till the fatal winter's night in
406-7 when the barbarians burst the Rhine frontier and flooded
Gaul and even Spain with a deluge from which there was no
recovery. (F. J. H.)
B. From A.D. 406 to the Mahommedan Conquest.
The Barbarian Invasion and the Visigothic Kingdom. With
the irruption of the Vandals, the Suebi and the Alans, the
history of Spain enters on a long period of division and confusion
which did not end even with the union of the chief kingdoms
by the marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand at the close of the 1 5th
century. The function of the barbarians everywhere was
to cut the communications of commerce, and the nerves of the
imperial administration, thereby throwing the invaded country
back into a fragmentary condition from which a new order was
to arise in the course of centuries.
This function was effectually discharged in Spain by the
Vandals and their associates, who plundered far and wide,
and then by the Visigoths, who appeared as the
foederati," or duly commissioned defenders of
the Romans. The first-comers cannot be said to
have conquered the country in the sense that they established
a rule of their own. They were not numerous enough for the
execution of such a task, even if they had possessed the capacity.
When in 428 Gaiseric, king of the Vandals (q.v.), accepted the
invitation of Bonifacius, the count of Africa, and passed out
HISTORY]
SPAIN
539
of Spain to found the Vandal kingdom of Carthage, his whole
horde numbered only 80,000 persons, including old men, women
and children, and runaway slaves who had joined him. The
Suebi, who remained, were certainly not more numerous.
Such small bodies could not have occupied so extensive a terri-
tory, even if they had scattered themselves in driblets all over
its surface. What they did was to rove about in hordes, plunder-
ing or levying blackmail. The cowed inhabitants had been
trained out of all habit of acting for themselves by the imperial
despotism, and could only flee or submit. There is probably
some truth in the assertion of Salvian that many of the subjects
of the empire preferred poverty among the barbarians to the
tyranny of the imperial tax collectors. This would be pre-
eminently the case with the smaller landowners who formed the
" curiales," and who were in reality serfs of the fisc, for on them
fell the main weight of taxation, and they were confined to
their position by oppressive laws. The great landowners who
formed the " ordo senatorius " had almost as much to fear from
the agrarian insurgents known as bagaudae, who are indeed found
acting with the Suebi, as from the barbarians. In time some
of them took to " living barbarously " that is to say, they
fortified their villas, collected an armed following and fought
for their lives, families and property. In some districts the
inhabitants reverted to a state of tribal independence. This
undoubtedly was the case in the north, where the Asturians and
Basques, the least Romanized part of the population, appear
from the beginning of the age of barbarization as acting for
themselves. In the mountain country of Cuenca, Albacete,
and the Sierra Nevada the natives known as the Orospedans
were entirely independent in the middle of the 6th century.
But if there lay in this revival of energy and character the germs
of a vigorous national life, for the time being Spain was thrown
back into the state of division from which it had been drawn
by the Romans with the vital difference that the race now
possessed the tradition of the Roman law, the municipalities,
and one great common organization in the Christian Church.
No help was to be expected from the empire. Unable to aid
itself it had recourse to the Visigoths (see GOTHS). Ataulphus
visi title ('") l ^ e successor f Alaric, and the husband of
Occupation. Placidia, daughter of the emperor Theodosius, whom
he had married against the wish of her brother
Honorius, entered Spain in 412, as the ally of the empire. He
was murdered in 41 5, but after the speedily ensuing murder of his
murderer and successor Sigeric, Wallia (415-419), who was elected
to the kingdom, continued his work. He destroyed the Alans,
and drove the Vandals and Suebi into the north-west. Then he
handed Spain back to the imperial officials, that is to say, to
weakness and corruption, and marched with all his people into
the Second Aquitaine, the south-west of modern France, which
had been assigned to them by Honorius as a home and a reward.
From this date till the very end of the reign of Amalaric (511-
531), the seat of the Visigothic kings was at Bordeaux, or
Toulouse or Narbonne, and their main interests were in Gaul.
They continued to intervene in Spain and to extend their influ-
ence over it. But for an interval of more than twenty-five years
they stood apart. Southern Spain was overrun and plundered
by the Vandals before their departure for Africa. In 456
Theodoric II. (453-466) entered Spain as ally of Avitus, whom
he had himself raised to the empire in Gaul. He defeated the
Roman senators of the Tarraconensis and the Suebi, putting
their king to death, and advanced as far as Merida. But he was
recalled to Gaul, and his return was accompanied by outrages
against the Roman cities. Majorian (457-461), the last capable
emperor of the West, proposed to make Spain the basis of his
attack on the Vandals at Carthage till his fleet was destroyed
by them in the harbour of Carthagena. The fratricidal murderer
and successor of Theodoric, Euric (466-485) followed his brother's
policy in Spain. With the extinction of the Western Empire
(476 or 479) the kings of the Visigoths became more and more
the representatives of authority, which they exercised on Roman
lines, and with an implied or formal deference to the distant
emperor at Constantinople. But the continued existence of the
obscure Suevic kingdom in the north-west, the effective inde-
pendence of several districts, and the rule of others by the Roman
senators, proves that the regions actually under Visigothic rule
were not extensive. After the defeat and death of Alaric II.
(485-507) at Vouille the shattered Visigoth power was preserved
from destruction at the hands of the Frankish king Clovis (q.v.)
by Theodoric, the Gothic king of Italy. But on his death the
advance of the Franks began again. Amalaric (507-531) fled
from Narbonne, to meet the usual violent end of a Visigothic
king at Barcelona.
The line of the Visigothic kings of Spain begins, strictly speak-
ing, with his successor Theudis (531-548), an Ostrogoth appointed
by Theodoric to act as guardian of Amalaric. He character ot
had acquired great possessions in the valley of the Visigothic
Ebro by marriage with a Roman lady. It was a Kingdom.
government, and not a people, which was established in Spain
with Theudis. The Visigoths had been much Romanized during
their establishment in Gaul, and we hear of no exodus as having
accompanied Amalaric. The example of Theudis is enough to
show that the law of the Theodosian code which forbade the
marriage of Romans and barbarians was not regarded by the
Goths. It remained indeed unrepealed, as many laws have done
since, long after it had become a mere dead letter. The govern-
ment which came with Theudis, and fell to ruin with Roderic,
may be described as having been at once Roman and bad.
In so far as it was affected by the Visigoths it was influenced
for the worse. Their monarchy was elective. Until the death
of Amalaric the choice was confined to one family, but he was
the last of his line. The kings tried to make the crown here-
ditary, and the nobles, Visigothic seniores, and Roman senatores
seized every opportunity to keep it elective. Spain presented
a forecast of the anarchy of Poland. Of the twenty-three kings
between Theudis and Roderic five were certainly murdered, one
was deposed, and three were tonsured by tricks or open force.
Of the others some were passing phantoms, and the records of
the later times of the kingdom are so obscure that we cannot be
sure of knowing the names of all who perished by violence.
The administration which these kings of unstable authority
had to direct was essentially the Roman system. The great
owners, whether nominally Visigoth or nominally Roman
seniores or senatores continued to enjoy all the privileges and
exemptions of the ordo senatorius in the last days of the empire.
They lived surrounded by multitudes of semi-servile coloni, or
farmers, bound to the soil, of actual slaves, and of buccelarei,
who were free swordsmen to whom they gave rations (buccclatum,
soldiers' bread, or buccella, a portion). The curiales remained as
before the victims of the fisc. How far the fact that Theudis and
the four next sovereigns were Arians affected their govern-
ment is not very clear. It prevented them from enjoying the
active support of the Catholic clergy. But it is very doubtful
whether Christianity had spread much beyond the cities. We
hear of the conversion of pagans down to the last days of the
Visigothic kingdom. The spread of Mahommedanism was so
rapid in the first years after the conquest that it is impossible
to believe that the country had been thoroughly christianized.
Theudis, who made his headquarters at Seville, endeavoured
to complete his mastery of the diocese of Spain by occupying
Mauritania Tingitana, but he was defeated by the The
imperial officers at Ceuta. He was in due course Visigothic
murdered at Seville by Theudigisel (548-549) who ags '
was himself promptly slain. The reigns of his two successors,
Agila (549-554) and Athanagild (554-567), coincided with the
reign of Justinian and the temporary revival of the Eastern
Empire. Athanagild called on the imperial officers to help him
against Agila, and paid for their assistance by the surrender of
the province of Baetica. On his death there was an obscure
interregnum of five months, which ended by the election of
Liuva (567-572), the governor of Narbonne, the surviving
remnant of the Visigoth power to the north of the Pyrenees.
Liuva did not come to Spain, but associated his brother Leovigild
(567-586) with him. The reigns of Leovigild and of his son
Reccared are the greatest in the list of the Visigoth kingdom in
540
SPAIN
[HISTORY
Spain. The father was manifestly a man of great energy who
cowed his unruly nobles by murder, forced the Orospedans to
recognize his superiority, swept away the Suevic kingdom which
had lingered in the north-west, and checked the raids of the
Basques. To secure the succession in his family he associated
his sons Hermenegild and Reccared with himself. He was the
first Visigothic king who wore the crown, and it would appear
that he threw off all pretence of allegiance to the empire. The
series of the Visigothic gold coins begins with him, and it is to be
noted that while the earliest are struck in the name of the emperor
Justinian, the imperial superscription disappears in the later.
Leovigild drove the imperial officers from Seville and Cordova,
though they still retained control of the coast. His son Hermene-
gild, to whom he entrusted the government of Baetica, was
married to a Prankish princess. Intermarriages had not been
uncommon between Frank and Visigoth, but they had rarely
led to any. other result than to subject the Arian ladies who were
sent from Spain, or the Catholic ladies who came from France,
to blows and murder by their husbands and their husbands'
families. Ingunda the Prankish wife of Hermenegild, with the
help of Leandro, archbishop of Seville, the brother and pre-
decessor of the more famous Isidore (q.v.), persuaded her husband
to renounce Arianism. He revolted against his father, was
reduced to submission and executed in prison.
The reign of Reccared (586-601) is famous in Spanish history
for the establishment of Catholicism as the religion of the state.
Reccared must have seen from the example of the Franks that
the support of the Church was a great element of strength for
the Crown. He made the change at the Third Council of Toledo.
If Reccared hoped to secure the perpetuance of his dynasty he
was mistaken. His son Liuva the second (601-603) was murdered
by an Arian reaction headed by Witteric (603-610). The
Catholics regained power by his overthrow, but they could not
give stability to the state. A succession of obscure " priests'
kings," who are but names, followed: Gunthemar (610-612),
Sisebut (612-620), Reccared II. (620-621), Swintella, associated
with his son Reccimer (621-631), Sisinand (631-636), Chintila
(636-640), Tulga (640-641), Chindaswinth(64i-65 2), Recceswinth
(649-672). The growing weakness of the Merovingians saved
them from serious attack, though not from occasional invasion on
the north. The prostration of the empire in the East by Avar
and Persian invasions enabled them to drive the imperial officers
from the coast towns. But the kingdom was growing internally
weaker. The nobles were strong enough to prevent the monarchy
from becoming hereditary. The Church seemed to exert great
power, but it had itself become barbarized by contact with kings
and nobles. Violent persecutions of heretics and of the numerous
Jews brought in new elements of discord. Wamba (672-680) is
credited with an attempt to reform the state, but he was tonsured
while unconscious from illness or poison, and disappeared into a
religious house. His successors again are but names, Euric
(680-687) and Egica (687-701). Witiza (697-710) has more
substance. He was in aftertimes denounced as a monster of
vice, whose sins accounted for the Mahommedan conquest.
Contemporaries speak of him with respect, and he appears to
have been a well-meaning man who endeavoured to check the
corruption of the clergy and the persecution of the Jews, and who
resisted the dictation of the pope. His reign ended in turmoil,
and perhaps by murder. With Roderic, whose " tumultuous "
election was the work of Witiza 's enemies, the line of the Visigoth
kings is considered to have ended.
The Visigoth kingdom presents an appearance of coherence
which was very far from corresponding to the reality. At the
Organiza- ^ ea( ^ was the king, surrounded by his household of
tionofthe leudes, and aided by the palatines, great officers of
visigothk state imitated from the imperial model. At the head
Kingdom. o f t he provinces, eight in number, were dukes, and
the cities were governed by counts. Both were, at least in
theory, officers named by the king and removable by him. The
king was advised by councils, made up by a combination of
a senate of the great men, and of the ecclesiastical councils
which had met under the Roman rule and that of the tolerant
Arian kings. The formation of the council was not complete
until the establishment of Catholicism as the state religion.
But from the reign of Reccared till the Arab invasion they met
sixteen times in all, generally at Toledo in the church of Santa
Leocadia. Purely ecclesiastical matters were first discussed by
the clergy alone. Then the great men, Visigoth and Roman,
joined with the clergy, and the affairs of the kingdom were
debated. The Leges Wisigothorum were elaborated in these
councils (see GERMANIC LAW). But there was more show than
reality in this parade of government by free discussion and by
law. There was no effective administration to enforce the law.
The Mahommedan Conquest. How utterly weak it was can
be seen from the fact that it was shattered by the feeble Moslem
invasion of 711. The danger from Africa had been Moslem
patent for half a century. During the reign of invasion,
Witiza the Moslem masters of northern Africa had 7tl '
pressed the town of Ceuta, the last remnant of the Byzantine
possessions, very closely, and it had been relieved by supplies
from Spain. Only the want of ships had prevented the Mahom-
medans from mastering the town, and crossing the straits, and
now this deficiency was supplied by the Christians themselves.
It seems to be certain that Julian, the imperial count or governor
of Ceuta, acting in concert with the family and faction of Witiza,
who sought his help against Roderic, provided vessels to trans-
port the Berber Tarik (Tariq) across the straits. Tarik, the
general of the caliph's governor in northern Africa, Musa b.
Nosair, was invited as an ally by the conspirators, who hoped to
make use of him and then send him back. He came with a small
force, but with the certainty of finding allies, and on being joined
by another detachment of Berbers marched inland. On the
igth of July 711 he met Roderic near the Lago de la Janda
between Medina Sidonia and Vejer de la Frontera. He had
perhaps already been joined by Spanish allies. It is at least
certain that in the battle the enemies of Roderic passed over to
the invader. The Visigoth king was routed and disappears from
authentic history. There is some probability that he did not
perish in the battle, but escaped to fall two years later, at
Seguyjuela near Salamanca, in action with Merwan the son
of Musa. A single blow delivered as much by Christian
as by Moslem hands, sufficed to cut the bond which seemed to
hold the kingdom together, and to scatter its fragments all
over the soil of the Peninsula. Through these frag- The Ma-
ments Tarik marched without a single check of im- bommedan
portance. Before the end of 711 he had advanced as Cot "i aest -
far north as Alcala. Cordova fell to a detachment of his army. In
712 Musa joined his lieutenant, and the conquest of the south was
completed. M6rida was the only town which offered an honour-
able resistance. During 713 and 714 the north was subdued
to the foot of the mountains, and when Musa and Tarik were
recalled to Damascus by the caliph the progress of the Moslems
was not delayed. In 718 they crossed the Pyrenees, and con-
tinued their invasions of Gaul till they met the solid power of the
Austrasian Franks at Poitiers 732 (see CHARLES MARTEL and
CALIPHATE, B. 6, 10). The rush of the Mahommedan flood
sent terror all over Europe, but the little opposition it encountered
south of the Pyrenees is to be easily explained, and the victory,
though genuine, was more specious than substantial. That the
lieutenants of the caliph at Damascus should take the place of
the Visigoth kings, their dukes and counts seemed to many no
loss and to a still greater number a gain. The great landowners,
to whom patriotism was unknown and whose religious faith was
tepid, were as ready to pay tribute to the caliph as to render
service to one of their own body who had become king by violence
or intrigue. On the part of the Arabs, who, though a small
minority of the invaders, were the ruling element, there was a
marked absence of proselytizing zeal. They treated the occupa-
tion of Spain as a financial speculation more than as a war for
the faith. The Arab, though he produced Mahommedanism,
was the least fanatical of the followers of the Prophet,
.... 11* 11 Charactcrot
and was not only willing but desirous to leave to all Arab Kule
men who would pay tribute the free exercise of their
religion. He cynically avowed a greater liking for the poll tax
HISTORY]
SPAIN
paid by the Christian than for his conversion. The Spanish
Roman and the Visigoth, so-called, of that epoch of poorness of
spirit, accustomed as he was to compound with one master after
another, saw nothing dishonourable in making such an arrange-
ment. That it was made is matter of record. In Murcia the
duke whom the Arabs knew as Tadmir became a tributary prince,
and his family retained the principality for generations. He no
doubt contrived to induce the Arabs to recognize him as the
owner of what had been public domain, and made an excellent
bargain. The family of Witiza did obtain possession of an
immense stretch of the land of the state in Andalusia on condition
of paying tribute. One of them, by name Ardabast, was deprived
of his holding at a later date on the ground that he held more
land than could be safely left in the hands of a Christian. Every-
where landowners made the bargain, and the monasteries and
the cities followed their example. Nor was submission and pay-
ment of tribute all that they were prepared to give. Many pro-
fessed themselves converts to Mahommedanism. In the north
one great Visigoth family not only accepted Islam, but founded
a dynasty, with its capital at Saragossa, which played a stirring
part in the 8th and gih centuries, the Beni-Casi, or Beni-Lope.
To the mass of the population the conquest was, for the present,
a pure gain. The Jews, escaped from brutal persecution, were
the eager allies of the Arabs. As the conquerors swept away the
Roman fiscal system, which the Visigoths had retained, and re-
placed it by a poll tax (which was not levied on old men, women,
children, cripples or the very poor) and a land tax, the gain to
the downtrodden serfs of the rise was immense. They acquired
personal freedom. Add to this that a slave who professed Islam
could secure his freedom, at least from slavery to a Christian
master, that Arianism had not been quite rooted out, that the
country districts were still largely pagan, and it will not appear
wonderful that within a generation Mahommedan Spain was full
of renegades who formed in all probability a majority of its
population and a most important social and political element.
The Arabs at first were content to take a fifth of the land to
constitute the public domain, or khoms, out of which fiefs held
on military tenure were provided for the chiefs of the conquering
army.
If this moderate policy had been or could have been steadily
pursued, the invaders would in all probability have founded a
lasting state. But it could not be pursued, since it required for
its application a consistency, and a power to act on a definite
political principle, of which the Mahommedan conquerors were
absolutely destitute. Nor had Spain been conquered by a single
race. The invaders were a coalition of Arabs, Syrians and
Berbers. The Arab was incurably anarchical, and was a noble who
had no political idea except the tribal one. That their personal
dignity must be asserted and recognized was the first article
in the creed of these descendants of the heroes of the desert.
They looked down on the Syrian, they thought the Berber a lout
and a plebeian, they scorned the renegade, and called him a slave
and son of a slave. They fought out the old tribal rivalries of
Arabia on the banks of the Guadalquivir and on the Vega of
Granada. They planted the Berber down on the bleak, ill-
watered, and wind-swept central plateau. He revolted, and they
strove to subdue him by the sword. He deserted his poor share
of the conquered land, and in many cases returned to Africa.
The conflict for the caliphate (q.v.) between Omayyad and
Abbasid removed all shadow of control by the head of the
Mahommedan world, and Spain was given up to mere anarchy.
The treaties made with the Christians were soon violated, and it
seemed as if Islam would destroy itself. From that fate it was
preserved by the arrival in Spain of Abdurrahman (Abdarrah-
man b. Moawiya) the Omayyad (758), one of the few princes of
his house who escaped massacre at the hands of the Abbasides.
With the help of his clansmen among the Arabs, and to a large
extent of the renegades who counted as his clients, by craft, by
the sword, by keeping down the fanatical Berber element, and
by forming a mercenary army of African negroes, and after thirty
years of blood and battle, Abdurrahman founded the independent
amirate, which in the loth century became the caliphate of
Cordova. It was an Oriental monarchy like another, strong when
the amir was a strong man, weak when he was not, but exception-
ally rich in able men. Its rulers had to fight the Arab nobles as
much as the Christians, and the real basis of their power was their
slave army of negroes, or of Christian slaves, largely Slavonians
sold by their German captors to the Jew slave traders of Verdun,
and by them brought to Spain. These janissaries at first
gave them victory, and then destroyed them.
Such a kingdom as this needed only attack from a more
solidly organized power to be shattered. The Christian enemies
of the Mahommedans were for long weak and no less Christian
anarchical than themselves, but they were never States of
altogether wanting, and they had, what the Arab ^e North.
and Berber had not, a tradition of law and a capacity for form-
ing an organized polity and a state. They are to be sought for
along the line of the mountains of the north. In the centre were
the Basques, dwelling on both sides of the Pyrenees, who kept
against the Mahommedan the independence they had vindicated
against the Visigoth. On the east of the Basques, along the line
of the Pyrenees, were others of kindred blood, who also kept a
rude freedom on the slopes and in the valleys of the mountains.
The Arab passed through them, going and returning to and from
Gaul, but he never fully conquered them. The names of their
leaders Garci Jeminez and Inigo Arista are altogether legendary.
But here were the roots of the kingdom of Navarre, of Sobrarbe
and Aragon. In the earliest times their most pressing foe was
not the Arab or Berber so much as the Carolingian. It was at
their hands that Charlemagne (q.v), while returning from his
expedition to Saragossa, suffered that disaster to his rearguard
at Roncesvalles which is more famous in poetry than important
in history. With the aid of the Spanish Moslem Beni-Casi the
Basques drove off the counts and wardens of the marches of
the Carolingians. On the eastern extremity of the Pyrenees
the Franks found no native free population. Here, mainly
under the leadership of Louis the Pious, they formed the
Marca Hispanica, where Frankish counts and wardens of the
marches gradually gained ground. By the reign of Charles
the Fat a principality had been founded. Wilfred the Hairy
the Comes Vellosus, so called because his countship was poor
and covered with scrub wood, and not because the palms of
his hands were covered with hair as the legend has it became
the founder of the counts of Barcelona.
The greatest destiny was preserved for the Christian remnant
which stood out to the west of the Basques, in the mountains of
Asturias. Pelayo, whom they chose for king, and his victory of
Covadonga, are well nigh as legendary, and are quite as obscure
as Garci Jimenes and Inigo Arista. Yet it is certain that in this
region were planted the seeds of the kingdom of Castile and Leon,
the dominant power of the Spain of the future. The total silence
of the contemporary chronicle, called by the name of Isidore of
Beja, shows that in the south of Spain, where the writer lived,
nothing was known of the resistance made in the north. The
next Christian authorities belong to the latter part of the gth
century. It is therefore with the warning that the dates can
only be given as probably correct that the three first Christian
kings can be said to have reigned from 718 to 757. Pelayo (718-
737), his brother Favila (737-739) of whom we only know that
he is said to have been killed by a bear while hunting and
Alphonso I., the Catholic (739-757), stand as little more than
names. While the invasion of Gaul was still going on Manuza,
the chief of the Berbers settled in north-western Spain, had
revolted against the caliph's lieutenants. In 740 came the great
general revolt of the Berbers. In 7 50 plague, following on drought
and famine, swept away thousands of conquered and conquerors
alike. Amid the general desolation Alphonso I. duke of Canta-
bria and son-in-law of Pelayo, constituted the king-
dom which the Arabs called Gallicia. It answered
closely to the old Roman province of the same name
extending from the Bay of Biscay to the line of the Duero, from
the ocean to the foot of the mountains of Navarre. Internally it
was divided into two belts. Along the shores of the bay, and in the
valleys of the mountains to the north and west it was inhabited ;
542
SPAIN
[HISTORY
but a great belt of desolation separated it from the regions in
which the Moslem were fighting out their own quarrels. Alphonso
swept all through that region, already more than half depopu-
lated, slaying the lingering remnants of the Berbers, and carrying
back the surviving Christians to the north. Behind that shield
of waste the Christian kingdom developed; from the death of
Alphonso I. to the reign of Ramiro II. (931-950) it was subject to
no serious attack, though raids on the frontier never ceased.
Norse pirates appeared on the coast in the gth century, but made
no permanent settlements. As the population grew, it pushed
down to the plain of Leon and Castile. The advance is marked
by the removals of the capital forward from Cangas de Ona to
Oviedo, from Oviedo to Leon, and by the settlement of adven-
turous frontier men in the ancient Bardulia, which from their
" peels," and towers of strength, gained the name of Castilla
the castles. Burgos became its centre. The Montana (hill
country) of Burgos, and in particular the district called the Alfoz
of Lara, was the cradle of the heroes of the Castilian share in the
reconquest the count Porcellos, and the judge of the people,
Lain Calvo, the infantes of Lara, the bastard Mudarra, and
Ruy Diaz of Bivar, in whose lives legend and history are mingled
beyond disentanglement, and of whom some are pure figures of
romance. By a process which was going on elsewhere in Europe
the frontier settled into a new political organism. As the Marca
Hispanica on the east became the county of Barcelona, so the
chiefs of Bardulia became the counts of Castile, then the count
of Castile, the rival of the king at Leon, and in time the king of
Castile, and head of Christian Spain.
There is much in the internal history of that kingdom which
stands apart from the general development of western Europe,
from which it was shut out. In all the long period from Pelayo to
Ramiro II. only one event occurred which had much tendency
to bring the Christians of the north-west into close relations
with their neighbours of the same faith north of the Pyrenees.
This was the discovery, or, in strict ecclesiastical language, the
" invention " of the body of St James the Apostle in the reign
of Alphonso II. the Chaste (780-842). The shrine at Santiago
in Gallicia was accepted in an age when evidence and criticism
were words of no meaning, and it attracted pilgrims, who brought
trade. But, apart from this opening for foreign influence, the
Christians were left to develop their order untouched by alien
examples, and they developed from the Visigoth monarchy.
The men who raised Pelayo on the shield believed themselves
to be electing a successor to Roderic, and indeed they were.
They continued for a time to call themselves Goths, and to
-claim Gothic descent, which had become for them very much
what descent from the companions of the conqueror was to
Englishmen of the i4th or i5th centuries and later another
name for nobility of blood. There was the same king possessing
theoretically almost absolute power, both administrative and
legislative; the same nobles who limited his effective power by
rebellion, their constant effort to keep the crown elective, and
his no less steady, and by the loth century victorious, effort to
make it hereditary; the same distinction between the few free,
who are also the rich owners of land, and the many serfs, who are
partial bondsmen, or the slaves pure and simple. But the fact
that every arm was needed for the raids on the frontier, and to
provide settlers who should also be garrison for the regained
lands, worked for freedom. The serf, who was also a soldier,
revolted against bondage. The chief who had to " people " a new
and exposed township had to tempt men by freedom and secure
rights to follow his banner. The influences which by the i3th
century had abolished serfdom in western Spain were all at
work before the reign of Ramiro II. In spite of revolts and
of fratricidal struggles a state was formed. To the east of it,
the Navarrese, having rid themselves of the Carolingian counts
and marchers, had made a kingdom in their mountains, and
beyond them the little free territories of the central Pyrenees
were advancing, in subordination to the Navarrese king at
Pamplona. The Arab called them the Christians of Al Frank,
and distinguished them from the Gallicians.
The loth century and the first years of the nth saw a great
set-back of the Christian revival. Dissensions among them-
selves coincided with an energetic rally of the Moslem power.
From the foundation of the amirate by Abdur- Th ..
rahman I. (758-790) to the beginning of the reign of hommedaa
Abdurrahman III. (912-961) Mahommedan Spain had Amirate.
shared the usual fortunes of an Oriental monarchy.
A strong amir, such as Abdurrahman I. or his
grandson Hakam I. (796-822), could enforce obedience by arms,
or by murder, but it was the rule of the most pugnacious and the
hardest hitter. Even with him it was often only apparent.
On the upper frontier, which is now Aragon, the " Visigoth "
Beni-Casi ruled, doing homage and paying tribute intermittently,
supported by a loyal population of native Mahommedans, whose
Christian or nominally Christian fathers had been their fol-
lowers before the conquest. The " Moors," so called, who
afterwards filled the kingdom of Aragon were of native blood.
Toledo, relying on the immense military strength of its position,
was more often in rebellion than in subordination. The mas-
sacre which Hakam I. effected by a lavish use of fraud cowed
it only for a time. Abdurrahman III. found it independent
again when he came to the throne, and had to besiege it for
two years before it yielded. The renegades grew in numbers,
and in faith. Under the influence of orthodox Berber teachers
their fanaticism was turned against the amir himself. Hakam,
a winebibber much suspected of heterodoxy, had to expel
thousands from his capital. Part went to people the town of
Fez, newly founded in the Morocco, by the Idrisites. Part
wandered eastward to found a Mahommedan state in Crete.
Under the stimulus of Berber fanaticism the toleration first
shown to the Christians was turned to persecution. A counter
fanaticism was aroused in them, and for years the " Martyrs of
Cordoba " continued to force the often reluctant cadis to behead
them, by blaspheming the Prophet. The relations of the amir
to the Christian bishops were very much those of the Ottoman
sultan to the Greek patriarch. There were Spaniards who,
like the Greeks of the Phanar, were the servile instruments of
their Moslem master. Under Abdurrahman II. (822-852), who
spent his life listening to a favourite and highly accomplished
Persian tenor and in the company of dancing girls, and under
Mahommed I. (852-886), the niggardly Mondhir (886-888),
whose time was short, and Abdalla (888-912), who was feeble,
the amirate was torn to fragments.
From this state of anarchy the amirate was saved by Abdur-
rahman III. (912-961), the Akbar of his race. He came to the
throne when half a century of war and murder had # ev /v a /
produced exhaustion. The country was swarming under Ab-
with brigands, and the communications were so
dangerous that seven years had been known to pass
during which no caravan travelled from Cordova to Saragossa.
There was a disposition on all hands, save among the irrecon-
cilable Christians of the Sierra de Ronda, to accept peace under a
capable master. The Arabs were beaten down, and the renegades
had gained most of what they fought for when the aristocracy
was cowed. Abdurrahman III., an Oriental ruler of the great
stamp, industrious, resolute, capable of justice, magnificent,
and free handed without profusion, was eminently qualified to
give all that his people wanted. The splendour of his reign is a
commonplace. He restored order even in the Ronda, and then
he took the field against the Christians. He obeyed the rule
which has called upon all the intelligent governors of Spain to
make sure of the African coast by occupying it. He saw the
Christian princes of the north become his vassals and submit
to his judgment in their quarrels. But within a period not so
long as his own life his dynasty was extinct and his kingdom
in fragments.
Hakam II. (961-976), Abdurrahman's son, ascended the
throne in mature years, and continued his father's policy. A
lover of books, he gave protection to writers and thinkers who
were not strictly orthodox. From his Christian neighbours he
had nothing to fear. The anarchy which broke out in the north-
west, the kingdom now called Leon, on the death of Ramiro II.
whose sons fought among themselves and the endless
'
HISTORY]
SPAIN
543
conflicts between Leon and Castile, rendered the only formidable
Christian kingdom powerless. Even on Hakam's death the
power of the caliphate was exercised for some thirty years with
great vigour. In his old age, one of his wives Sobh (the Day-
break), a Basque, bore him the first son born in his harem. To
this son Hisham II. (976- ?) he left the crown. The rule
went to the sultana, and her trusted agent Ibn Abi 'Amir
Mahommed ben Abdallah an Arab of noble descent, who in
his early life was a scribe, and who rose by making himself useful
first to the ministers and to the favourite wife. By them he was
promoted, and in time he brought their ruin. By her he was
made hajib lord chamberlain, prime minister, great domestic,
alter ego, in short, of the puppet caliph for Hisham II. in
Adminls- all his long life was nothing else and in due time
trafwn ut he reduced the sultana to insignificance. The
Mansur. administration of Mahommed ben Abdallah, who
took the royal name al-Mansur Billah (" the victorious
through God ") and is generally known as Mansur (<?..), is
also counted among the glories of the caliphate of Cordova.
It was the rule of a strong man who made, and kept under
his own control, a janissary army of slaves from all nations,
Christian mercenaries from the north, Berbers and negroes
from Africa. With that host he made fifty invasions into the
Christian territory. A more statesmanlike conqueror leading
a people capable of real civilization would have made five,
and his work would have lasted. Mansur made raids, and left
his enemies in a position to regain all they had lost. It mattered
little that he desolated the shrine of St James at Compostella,
the monastery of Cardefia in Castile, took Leon, Pamplona and
Barcelona, if at the end he left the roots of the Christian states
firm in the soil, and to his son and successor as hajib only a
mercenary army without patriotism or loyalty. In later times
Christian ecclesiastical writers, finding it difficult to justify
the unbroken prosperity of the wicked to an age which believed
in the judgment of God and trial by combat, invented a final
defeat for Mansur at Calatanaxor. He died in 1002 undefeated,
but racked by anxiety for the permanence of the prosperity of
his house. His son Mozaffar, kept the authority as hajib, always
in the name of Hisham II., who was hidden away in a second
palace suburb of Cordova, Zahira. But Mozaffar lasted for a
short time, and then died, poisoned, as it was said, by his brother
Abdurrahman, called Sanchol, the son of Mansur by one of
the Christian ladies whom he extorted for his harem from the
fears of the Christian princes. Abdurrahman Sanchol was vain
and feather-headed. He extorted from the feeble caliph the
Abdur- t'^ 6 ^ successor, thereby deeply offending the
rahmaa princes of the Omayyad house and the populace
Sanchol. of Cordova. He lost his hold on his slaves and mer-
Eadotthe cenaries, whose chiefs had begun to think it would
Empire of be more to their interest to divide the country among
rahrnaniH th emse Lv es - A palace revolution, headed by Mahom-
med, of the Omayyad family, who called himself
Al Mahdi Billah (guided by God), and a street riot, upset
the power of the hajib at Cordova while he was absent on a
raid against Castile. His soldiers deserted him, and he was
speedily slaughtered. Then in the twinkling of an eye the whole
edifice went into ruin. The end of Hisham II. is unknown,
and the other princes perished in a frantic scramble for the
throne in which they were the puppets of military adventurers.
A score of shifting principalities, each ready to help the
Christians to destroy the others, took the place of the caliphate.
The fundamental difference between the Moslem, who know
only the despot and the Koran, and a Christian people who have
Development 1 ^ Church, a body of law and a Latin speech, was
of the well seen in the contrast between the end of the
Christian greatness of Mansur, and the end of the weakness
*" of his Christian contemporaries. The first left no
trace. The second attained, after much fratricidal strife, to
the foundation of a kingdom and of institutions. The interval
between the death of Ramiro II. in 950 and the establishment
of the kingdom of Castile by Fernando I. in 1037 is on the sur-
face as anarchical as the Mahommedan confusion of any time.
The personages are not anywise heroic, even when like
Alphonso V. (999-1027) they were loyal to their duty. Sancho
the Fat, and Bermudo II. the Gouty, with their shameless feuds
in the presence of the common enemy, and their appeals to the
caliph, were miserable enough. But the emancipation of the
serfs made progress. Charters began to be given to the towns,
and a class of burghers, endowed with rights and armed to
defend them, was formed; while the council of the magnates
was beginning to develop into a Cortes. The council over
which Alphonso V. of Leon and his wife Geloria (i.e. Elvira)
presided in 1020, conferred the great model charter of Leon,
and passed laws for the whole kingdom. The monarchy became
thoroughly hereditary, and one main source of anarchy was
closed. By the beginning of the nth century the leading place
among the Christian kings had been taken by sancho the
Sancho El Mayor (the Great) of Navarre. He was Great of
married to a sister of Garcia, the last count of Navarre -
Castile. Garcia was murdered by the sons of Count Vela of
Alava whom he had despoiled, and Sancho took possession of
Castile, giving the government of it to his son Fernando,
(Ferdinand I.), with the title of king, and taking the name
of " king of the Spains " for himself. It was the beginning
of attempts, which continued to be made till far
, , ,..,,., Ferdinand I.
into the 1 2th century, to obtain the unity of the O f Castile,
Christians by setting up an emperor, or king of "Emperor
kings, to whom the lesser crowns should be subject. ~ th . e
Fernando was married to a daughter of Alphonso V.
of Leon. Her brother Bermudo, the last of his line, could
not live in peace with the new king, and lost his life in the
battle of Tamaron, in a war which he had himself provoked.
Fernando now united all the north-west of Spain into the
kingdom of Castile and Leon with Gallicia. Navarre was left by
Sancho to another son, Garcia, while the small Christian states
of the central Pyrenees, Aragon and Sobrarbe with the Ribagorza
went to his other sons, Ramiro Sanchez and Gonzalo.
Fernando, as the elder, called himself emperor, and asserted a
general superiority over his brothers. That he took his position
of king of kings seriously would seem to be proved by the fact
that when his brother Garcia attacked him in 1054, and was
defeated and slain at Atapuerca, he did not annex Navarre, but
left his nephew, Garcia's son, on the throne as vassal. The Council
of Coyanza, now Valencia de Don Juan (1050), at councilor
which he confirmed the charters of Alphonso V., Coysnza,
is a leading date in the constitutional history of loso '
Spain. When he had united his kingdom, he took the
field against the Mahommedans; and the period of the great
reconquest began. So far the Christians had not gone much
beyond the limits of the territory left to them at the end of the
8th century. They had only developed and organized Beginning
within it. Under Fernando, they advanced to otthe
the banks of theTagus in the south, and into Valencia Christian
on the south-east. They began to close round R
Toledo, the shield of Andalusia. The feeble Andalusian princes
were terrified into paying tribute, and Fernando advanced
to the very gates of Seville without finding an enemy to meet
him in the field. His death in 1065 brought about a pause for
a time. He left his three kingdoms to his three sons Sancho,
Alphonso and Garcia. Alphonso, to whom Leon had fallen as
his share, remained master after the murder of Sancho at Zamora,
which he was endeavouring to take from his sister, and the
imprisonment of Garcia of Gallicia. The reign of Alphonso VI.,
which lasted till 1109, is one of the fullest in the Alphonso
annals of Spain. He took up the work of his vi.,
father, with less of the crusading spirit than was in I0o ^"0.
Fernando, but with conspicuous ability. His marriage with
Constance, daughter of Robert, duke of Burgundy, brought
a powerful foreign influence into play in Castile. Constance
favoured the monks of Cluny, and obtained her husband's favour
for them. Under their leadership measures were taken
to reform the Church, from which hitherto little
had been expected save that it should be zealous and
martial. The adoption of the Roman instead of the Gothic
544
SPAIN
[HISTORY
ritual of Saint Isidore has been lamented, but it marked the
assumption by Castile of a place in the community of the
western European kingdoms. The Frenchmen, both monks
and knights, who accompanied Constance brought to bear
on Spain the ecclesiastical, architectural, literary and military
influence of France, then the intellectual centre of Europe, as
fully as it ever was exercised in later times. Castile ceased to
be an isolated kingdom, and became an advance guard of
Europe in not the least vital part of the crusades. Alphonso,
who during his exile owed some good services to the Mahom-
medan king of Toledo, spared that city while his friend lived.
Alphonso But ne carried the war forward elsewhere. He
overruns extorted tribute, and double and treble tribute
Mabomme- f rom the princes of Andalusia. In 1082 he swept
dan Spain. aU througn t h e va u ey o f tne Guadalquivir to
Tarifa, where he rode his horse into the sea and claimed
possession of the " last land in Spain." In 1084, his friend
being dead, he made himself master of Toledo. The fall of the
city resounded throughout Islam, and shocked the Mahommedan
princes of Andalusia into gravity and a sense of their position.
Their peoples began to look to Africa, where Yusuf ben Techufin
was ruling the newly founded empire of the Almoravides. The
princes had cause to dread him; for Yusuf, the leader of a
religious movement still in its first zeal, was known to have no
friendly feeling for their religious indifference and elegant,
dissipated habits. It was likely that, if he came as ally, he
invasion of would remain as master. But the case was ex-
tAe/Umoni-cellently put by al-Motamid, amir of Seville, a
vides. brilliant cavalier, an accomplished Arab poet, and
one of the most amiably spendthrift of princes. When the
peril of appealing to Yusuf was put before him at durbar
by his son, he acknowledged the danger, but added that he
did not wish to be cursed throughout Islam as the case of the
loss of Spain and that, if choose he must, he thought it better
to lead camels in Africa than to tend pigs in Castile. Yusuf
came, and in 1086 inflicted a terrible defeat on Alphonso VI.
at Zalaca near Badajoz. The immediate results of the stricken
field were, however, but small. Yusuf was called back to
Africa, and in his absence the Christians resumed the advance.
When he returned he was chiefly employed in suppressing the
Mahommedan princes. Alphonso was compelled to withdraw a
garrison he had placed in Murcia, and Valencia was, by his
decision, given up by the widow of the Cid (<?..). But he kept
his hold on Toledo, and though his last days were darkened by the
death of his only son in the lost battle of Ucles (1108), he died
in 1109 with the security that his work would last.
The Almoravides went round the fatal circle of Asiatic and
African monarchy with exceptional rapidity. One generation
of military efficiency and of comparative honesty
- in administration was followed by sloth and cor-
medan ruption as bad as that of the Arabs. To this the
Power under Almoravides, who were Berbers and were largely
m i n gl e d with pure negroes, added a dull bigotry
and a hatred of thought and knowledge from
which the Arab, anarchical and politically incapable as he
was, was free. In Aragon the successors of Ramiro Sanchez
had begun to press close on Saragossa when the Almoravide
invasion took place. The battle of Zalaca gave pause to the
Aragonese, as it did for a short space to the Castilians. The
interval of advance in the reconquest would have been shorter
than it was but for the results of a most unfortunate attempt
on the part of Alphonso VI. to unite the crowns of Aragon and
Castile by the marriage of Alphonso I. ( 1 104-1 134) of Aragon with
his daughter Urraca. Urraca (the name is a form of Maria)
was dissolute and Alphonso was arbitrary. There
Alphonso I. was notn j n g j n t he manners of the i2th century
i04-'n34.' to make a husband hesitate to beat his wife, and
Urraca was beaten, and in the presence of witnesses.
The marriage, too, was declared null by the pope, as the
parties were within the prohibited degrees. Alphonso and
Urraca came to open war, in which he claimed to be king of
Castile by right of his marriage and his election by the nobles.
The confusion was increased by the fact that Alphonso, Urraca's
son by her first marriage with Raymond of Burgundy, was
recognized as king in Gallicia, was bred up there by the able
bishop Diego Gelmirez, and took an active part in the feuds
of his mother and step-father. The death of Urraca in 1126
allowed her son to reunite the dominions of his grandfather.
In the meantime his quarrels with Urraca had not deterred
Alphonso, who is surnamed the Battler in Aragonese history,
from taking Saragossa in 1118, and from defeating the Almora-
vides at the decisive battle of Cutanda in 1120. In 1125 he
carried out a great raid through Mahommedan Spain, camping
in its midst for months, and returning with many thousands
of the Christian rayahs, who, under the name of Mozarabes, had
hitherto continued to live under Moslem rule. They now fled
from the bigotry and negro brutality of the Almoravides. The
failure of Alphonso's attempt to take Braga in 1 134 was speedily
followed by his death. He left his kingdom by will to the
Knights of the Temple and the Hospital, but the barons of
Aragon paid no attention to his wish, and drew his brother
Ramiro, a monk, from his cell to continue the royal line.
Ramiro, having been first ex-claustrated by the pope, married
Agnes of Aquitaine, and on the birth of his daughter Petronilla
affianced her to Ramon Berenguer (Raymond Berenger), count of
Barcelona, and then retired to his cell at Narbonne. 1 union of
This marriage united Aragon and Catalonia for ever, Aragon and
and marks a great step forward in the constitution Cata] onia.
of a national unity in Spain. Navarre, indeed, which had been
united with Aragon since the fratricidal murder of its king
Sancho in 1076, preferred to remain independent
under a new ruler of its choice. It was henceforth /va^rreT
a small state lying across the Pyrenees, dependent
on France, and doomed inevitably to be partitioned between
its great neighbours to north and south.
Alphonso VII., the son of Urraca, was, during the twenty
years between his mother's death and his own in 1157, the
dominating sovereign of Spain. In 1135 he was A j paonso
crowned at Leon, in the presence of the new king vn.,
of Navarre, of the counts of Barcelona and Toulouse, "Emperor
and of other princes, Christian and Mahommedan, iaS P ala -"
" Emperor in Spain, and king of the men of the two religions."
In his character of emperor and king of the men of the two
religions Alphonso VII. seems to have aimed not at expelling,
but at reducing the Moors to subjection as vassal communities.
He took Cordova and conquered as far as Almeria,
TJ. End ot the
but left vassal Moslem princes in possession. His,, mp/rei ,,
death was followed by another and, happily, a last
division of Castile and Leon. Sancho, his eldest son, took the first
and Fernando the second. The dream of the empire was speedily
dissipated by the death of Sancho of Castile a year after his father;
Portugal had already become a semi-independent state.
The complicated story of the Christian kingdoms of Spain
during the next two generations can be best made intelligible
by taking the king of Castile as the centre of the Alfonso vm.
turmoil. His boyhood was filled by all the miseries of Castile,
which rarely failed to descend in the middle &ges 11S8 ~ 1214 '
on the people whose king was a child. Alphonso VIII. married
Leonora, daughter of Henry II. of England, who, as duke of
Aquitaine, by right of his marriage with the duchess Eleanor, had
a strong direct interest in Spanish politics. Castile, by its geo-
graphical position as the centre of Spain from Cantabria to the
Sierra Morena, was the forefront of the struggle with the Moors.
In Andalusia the downfall of the Almoravides had war with
opened the way to the Almohades, or followers of theAimo-
the Mahdi, an even more bigoted religious sect than aades "
the other. Alphonso had conquered Cuenca, in the hill country
between Castile and Valencia, in 1177, with the help of the king
of Aragon, also an Alphonso, the son of Petronilla and of Ramon
Berenguer of Barcelona. With eminent good sense he rewarded
his ally by resigning all claim to feudal superiority over Aragon.
1 Raymond du Puy, grand master of the Hospitallers, came to
terms with Count Raymond in the matter of the bequest. (See
SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF.)
HISTORY]
SPAIN
545
At a later period the two kingdoms defined their respective
spheres of influence by a treaty. Aragon was left free to
Hl conquer the Balearic Islands and Valencia, while
of the lade- Murcia and Andalusia were to fall to Castile. The
peadence of Almohades took the field against Alphonso in force,
Aragon. an( j as n j s f e ]] ow Christian sovereigns failed him in
the hour of need, he was defeated at Alarcos. But this wave of
the ebbing Moslem tide had less force than the Almoravide, and
fell back both sooner and farther than its predecessor. Alphonso
na< ^ l e ' sure to P umsn his brother kings for deserting
him, and to look to the organization of his kingdom.
Kingdom. It was a great epoch of the granting of charters,
The mm- an( } o { (.jjg ac i vanc e of the towns. To this age also
tary ere. jj e j on g s tne formation of the great monastic military
orders of Calatrava, Santiago and Alcantara. They supplied
the Crown with a strong force of well-disciplined and well-
appointed cavalry. To tighten the bond with Leon, Alphonso
of Castile married his daughter Berengaria to its king Alphonso
(1188-1230), the son of his uncle Fernando. The marriage was
dissolved by the pope as being within the prohibited degrees,
but the son born of it was recognized as legitimate. Berengaria,
a woman of very noble character and eminent ability, deserved
a better husband than her cousin of Leon, who was nicknamed
El Baboso the Slobberer and who appears to have been
epileptic. In 1212 the king of Castile reaped the reward of long
years of patience. The Almohades threatened an invasion in force,
and he organized a crusade against them. Aragon was repre-
sented by its king Peter II., Navarre by its king Sancho, and
Portugal by a strong contingent of Templars and other knights.
Overthrow At the Navas de Tolosa, just south of the Sierra
of the Morena, the Almohades received the final overthrow
/t/mo/isdes. which laid Mahommedan Spain at the feet of the
Christians. Alphonso died in 1214. His son Enrique (Henry)
was killed by the fall of a tile three years later; and Beren-
garia, to whom the crown came, sent to Leon for her son
Fernando, and abdicated in his favour.
Fernando (Ferdinand III.) who was in all ways worthy of his
mother, took up the crusading duty of a king of Castile, and
Ferdinand continued the advance into Andalusia. The Almo-
/;/., 1217- hades were in swifter decline than the Almoravides.
12S2. Q ne o f them, al-Mamun, even sought Fernando's
help to regain his throne in Morocco, and ceded a suburb of the
city to his Christian allies. In 1230 the death of Alphonso
of Leon opened the way to a final union of the crowns.
The " Baboso " had, indeed, left his kingdom by will to
his daughters by Teresa of Portugal, but Fernando was saved
from the necessity of enforcing his rights by his mother. She
persuaded Teresa and the infantas to resign their claims in
Final Union return for pensions and lordships. Castile and
of Castile Leon were united, never to be divided again. The
and Leon. wor k o f t ^ e reconquest was now completed with
swift steps. In 1236 Cordova was conquered, and Seville
fell in 1248 with the help of a fleet from the Basque coast and
of the Moorish king of Granada, who was Fernando's vassal,
paying tribute and attending Cortes when summoned. Fernando
died in May 1252. It will avoid repetition to note here that
the Aragonese share of the reconquest was completed by James
the Conqueror (1213-1276), the son of that king Peter who fought
in the Navas de Tolosa. He conquered the Balearic Islands in
1229 and Valencia in 1238. In 1265 he entered Murcia, which,
Reconquesi however, he agreed to occupy in the name of Castile.
of Spain, Mahommedan Spain was reduced to Granada and
except a ij ne o f ports round to Cadiz. The Christian
1 "' population had disappeared in Granada and Moslem
refugees had peopled it closely. Its king was a vassal, and
of itself it was no longer a danger.
The close of the period of the great reconquest, five centuries
of struggle, left Spain divided between two states of different
Spain after character. On the west of the Iberian range and
the Recon- south of the Guadarrama was the kingdom called,
for short, Castile and Leon. In fact its sovereign
was also king of Gallicia, Asturias, Estremadura, Jaen, Cordova
xxv. 18
and Seville. This multiplicity of titles was more than a mere
formula of the royal chancery. It was the official recogni-
tion of a substantial political fact namely, that
the kingdom of Castile and Leon had been made up
by the agglutination of separate political entities.
The real bond between them lay in the common crown, the
common creed. They were one only as subjects of the same
lords and members of the same Church. But their territorial
patriotism was local. The peoples were not Spaniards, save as a
general term, but Gallicians, Asturians, Castilians, Andalusians.
The great foreign question for them was the possibility, and
from time to time the imminence, of renewed invasion from
Africa. That peril did not cease till the defeat of the last for-
midable African invader at the battle of the Rio Salado in
1340. It is characteristic of the loose construction of the
kingdom that the Cortes of Leon and of Castile continued, after
the final union, to meet apart on some occasions until
1301.
On the eastern slope of the Iberian hills and the great central
table-land was the kingdom called, again for short, Aragon.
Its king was also a ruler of many titles king in . oa
Aragon, in Valencia, and the Balearic Isles (with one
interval of separation), count of Barcelona, and in Provence.
Marriage and inheritance had given him territorial rights in the
south-east of France. Thus he came in contact with the
crusaders of Simon de Montfort and the expansion of the French
monarchy. Another marriage, that of Peter, the son and suc-
cessor of James the Conqueror, with Costanza, the daughter
of Manfred of Beneventum, gave him claims on the Neapolitan
and Sicilian inheritance of the Hohenstaufen. From the date
of the Sicilian Vespers (1283) Aragon is found mixed in the
politics of Italy. The commercial activity of Barcelona brought
it into collision with Genoa and alliance with Venice. The
curious double position of the king of Aragon is fully illustrated
by the career of that king Peter who was the father of James the
Conqueror. He fought as a crusader at the Navas de Tolosa,
he went to Rome to be crowned, and did voluntary homage to
the pope. Yet his interests as a prince of southern France
compelled him to draw the sword in defence of the Albigenses,
and, orthodox as he was in creed, he fell fighting for them at
Muret in 1213. If the fortunes of Aragon were to be followed
in an outline of Spanish history, it would be necessary to wander
as far as Athens and Constantinople.
The difference of the relations of these two states towards the
comity of nations had corresponding internal distinctions. It
has been already noted that eastern Spain was feudal. Therefore
the distinction of classes was far sharper in Aragon than in non-
feudal Castile and Leon. Predial slavery, which had disappeared
in Castile and Leon in the i3th century, existed unmodified in
Aragon, and in its worst form, down to the Bourbon dynasty.
When we are told of the freedom of Aragon, it is well to remember
that it was enjoyed only by the small minority who were per-
sonally free and also privileged: by the citizens of the towns
which had charters called in Aragon the Universidades the
nobles, the gentry and the Church. The Catalans attained
emancipation from feudal subjection by a succession of savage
peasant revolts in the i5th and i6th centuries. In Valencia
emancipation was finally brought by a measure which in itself
was cruel the expulsion of the Moriscoes in the i7th century.
The landlords were compelled to replace them by free tenants.
The prevalence of predial slavery in Aragon and Valencia
can be largely explained by the number of Mudejares, that is
Mahommedans living under Christian rule, and of Moriscoes
converted Mohammedans.
If now we look at the internal history of Spain from the conclusion
of the period of the reconquest, which may be put in the middle
of the 1 3th century, down to the union of the crowns of
Castile and of Aragon by the marriage of Ferdinand
and Isabel in 1469, it will be found to be occupied
with two great processes. These two processes are
firstly, the christianization of Spain, a very different thing from its
reconquest from Moslem masters and, secondly, not its unifica-
tion, for that is hardly attained even now, but its progress towards
unification.
54 6
SPAIN
[HISTORY
When Fernando (Ferdinand III.), the conqueror of Andalusia,
died in 1252, he was indeed the king of the two, or even the three,
religions. The Jews and the Mahommedans formed a
-M verv large part of his subjects. We have no means of
aadMa - es timating their numbers, but there is much probability
rat-dans. t ^ a( . to g et her they formed not much less than a half of
the population. The Jews, who had suffered cruelly from the
brutal fanaticism of the Almohades, had done a great deal to forward
the conquest of Andalusia. They were repaid by the confidence of
the king, and the period which includes the reign of Fernando and
lasts till the end of the I4th century was the golden age of
their history in Spain. In 1391 the preaching of a priest of
Seville, Fernando Martinez, led to the first general massacre of
the Jews, who were envied for their prosperity and hated
because they were the king's tax collectors. But the history of
the persecution and expulsion of the Jews is the same every-
where except in date. The story of the Mudejares and Moris-
coes is peculiarly Spanish. In the Christian advance they were
from the beginning first subjected and then incorporated. As far
north as Astorga there is still a population known as the Maragatos,
and familiar to all Spain as carters and muleteers. This marked
type of the Leonese of modern times represents a Berber colony
cut off among the Christians, and christianized at an early date,
who went on using Arab and Berber names long after their conver-
sion. They are only the most conspicuous example of a process
which was common to all the Peninsula. As the Christians worked
down to the south they found an existing Mahommedan population.
To reduce them to pure slavery would, in the case of Castile at
least, have been dangerous, and would also have been offensive
to the Christians, who were themselves fighting for emancipation.
To expel them would have been to have the soil unfilled. Therefore
the king, the nobles, the Church and the military orders combined
to give them protection. For them, as for the Jews, the I3th and
I4th centuries were a golden age. By the end of the I4th the
persecutions began. Forced conversion prepared the way for
expulsion, which came in the reign of Philip III. (1598-1621). But
Expulsion before the end was reached all had been persuaded or
ofthe forced into Christianity, had ceased to be Mudejares,
Moriscoes.
become Moriscoes. In the majority of cases
the conversion had occurred so long ago that the
memory of the time when they were Mahommedans was lost,
and multitudes of the children of Mudejares remained. The
Mozarabes again the Christians who had always lived under
The Mahommedan rule were an element of importance
Mozarabes. m me< iieval Spain. They had learnt to write in
'Arabic, and used Arabic letters even when writing
Latin, or the corrupt dialect of Latin which they spoke. The
conquest of Toledo by Alphonso VI. first brought the Christians
into contact with a large body of these Arabized Spaniards, and their
influence was considerable. By Alphonso they were favoured. He
stamped his name on his coins in Arabic letters. It is said with
probability that one of the early kings of Aragon, Peter I., could
write no other letters than the Arabic. The Mozarabes were treated
under the kings of the reconquest as separate bodies with their own
judges and law, which they had been allowed to keep by the Moslem
rulers. That code was the forum judicum of the Visigoths, the
fuero juzgo, as it was called in the " romance " of later times
and in Castilian. The Mozarabes brought in the large Arabic
element, which is one of the features of the Castilian language. A
part of the work of christianizing the Spain of the I3th century,
and not the least part, was done by the monks of Cluny introduced
by the French wife of Alphonso VI. To them was due the impulse
given to the reform of the church, and to education. The foundation
of the stadium generate of Palencia in 1212 by Alphonso IX.
was an outcome of the movement. It fell in the troubles following
his death, but Fernando III. revived it by the foundation of the
university of Salamanca, which dates from 1245. The church and
the university were the great promoters of the effort to secure
religious unity which began in the I4th and produced its full effects
in the I7th century. How far the character, habits and morality
of the Christian Spaniards were affected by Oriental influences is
not a question which it is easy to answer. To some extent they no
doubt were coloured. Such a social institution as the form of
marriage known by the name of barragania shows visible traces
of Eastern influence. In so far as it was a mere agreement of a man
and woman to live together as husband and wife, it had precedents
both Roman and Teutonic. There was also Roman and Teutonic
example for recognizing the children of such a union as having
rights of inheritance. On the other hand the name is Arabic, and
so is the term applied to the children, hijos de ganancia, sons of the
strange woman. Moreover the Oriental character of this union,
be its origin what it may, is visible from the fact that it was poly-
gamous. The only insuperable barrier to a barragania was the
previous marriage " with the blessing," the full religious marriage,
of the woman to another man. A married man might be united in
barragania to a woman other than his lawful wife, and the children
of that connexion, though not fully legitimate, were not bastards.
The most signal example among many which could be quoted is
that of Peter the Cruel (1350-1367), who, though married to Blanche
of Bourbon, was abarraganado to Maria de Padilla. He left his
kingdom to the daughters she bore him, and their quasi legitimacy
was recognized not only by the Cortes during King Peter's life,
but abroad. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, married the elder
of the daughters of Maria de Padilla, and claimed the crown of
Castile by right of his wife. The clergy, who were debarred from
the religious marriage by the discipline of the church, were commonly
abarraganado all through the middle ages. The sumptuary laws,
which required the barraganas of priests to wear a red border to
their dresses, recognized them as a known and tolerated class.
The work of political unification was essentially more difficult
than the christianization of Spain. The great common institution
of the church, common enthusiasms, prejudices and
envies, were available for the second. The first had T*' e "| /"
to contend with deeply rooted differences of national'! 1 "
character and of class. The Gallician who spoke, and e""/
still speaks, a language of his own, was profoundly *
separated from the Andalusian. The Basque, who till much
later times practically included the Navarrese, was a man of
another nationality and another speech from the Castilian.
And what is true of Castile and Leon applies equally to
Aragon. Aragonese, Catalans and Valencians were j
as different as Galicians, Basques, Castilians and
Andalusians. Aragon spoke a dialect of Castilian.
Catalonia and Valencia, together with the Balearic Islands,
spoke, and speak, dialects of the southern French, the so-called
Limose, though it was not the language of the Limousin.
And the causes of division did not end here. The word " com-
monwealth " had no meaning either east or west of the Iberian
range. Every one of the kingdoms grouped round the two
sovereigns who shared modern Spain was itself a loose con-
glomeration of classes. Mention has already been made of the
Jew and the Mudcjar. These were more or less forcibly absorbed
or brutally expelled. But the distinctions between class DIs-
noble and not noble, between town and country, were Unctions.
in the very fibre of all the Spanish peoples. Expulsion
was impossible and combination only attainable by mutual agree-
ment, and that was never secured. High mountain barriers
and deep river courses had separated the Spaniards locally. They
were more subtly and incurably separated by traditional and legal
status. Speaking generally, and with the proviso that though
names might differ from region to region, the facts did not; it
may be said that Spain could be classified as follows: Under the
crown of Castile all the territory was either abodengo, realingo,
salariego, behetria, or it belonged to some town, big or little, which
had its carta pueblo or town charter, its own fuero g ys ( ems /
(forum) or law. Abadengo was land of the church, j^and
realingo domain of the crown, salariego land of the Tenure.
nobles. Behetria is less easy to translate. The word
is the romance form of benefactoria. Behetrias, called " plebeian
lordships," were districts and townships of peasants who were
bound to have a lord, and to make him payments in money
or in kind, but who had a varying freedom of choice in electing
their lord. Some were described as " from sea to sea, and
seven times a day," that is to say they could take him anywhere
in the king's dominions from the Bay of Biscay to the Straits-
of Gibraltar, and change him as often as they pleased. Others
were de linage, that is to say, bound to take their lord from
certain lineages. Their origin must probably be sought in the
action of communities of Mozarabes, Christians living under
Moslem rule as rayahs, who put themselves under _ _
Christian chiefs of the early days of the reconquest for
the benefice of their protection. They were mainly in old Castile.
By the end of the middle ages they had disappeared. The
chartered towns, in Spain east and west, were practically republics
living under their own carta pueblo with their own fuero or law.
All charters were not granted by the king. Many of them
were given by nobles or ecclesiastics, but required the confirmation
of the king. And in this country, where all was local law
usage and privilege, where uniformity was unknown, all charters
were not held by towns. In many cases the serfs in the course
of their struggle for freedom extorted charters and fueros. The
greater chartered towns had their surrounding comarcas, answer-
ing to the " county " of an Italian city, over which they exercised
jurisdiction. In time the villages dependent on a chartered city,
as they grew to be towns themselves, fought for, and in many cases
won, emancipation, which they then sought to have confirmed
by the king and proceeded to symbolize by setting up their own
gallows in the market-place. The church had won exemption
from the payment of taxes by no general law, but by The clergy
particular privilege to this or that chapter, bishopric an< ff/, e
or monastery. The nobles claimed, and were allowed, /f j/ es .
exemption from taxation. Church and nobles alike
were for ever extending their borders by purchase, or trying to do
so by force. They conferred their exemptions on the land they
acquired, thus throwing the burden of taxation on the towns and the
non-nobles with increasing weight. But in this land, where nothing
was consistent, there was in reality no sharp division except in the
smaller and feudal portion called Aragon for convenience and
save as between Christian and non-Christian, noble and non-noble. The
necessities of the reconquest made it obligatory that all the dwellers
HISTORY]
SPAIN
547
on the frontier should be garrison. Hence they were not only
encouraged but required to possess arms. Those of them who
could provide themselves with a charger, a mail
. * . *" shirt, a spear and sword were ranked as milites
'and the miles was a caballero. Alphonso VII. especially
authorized all men who could arm themselves, mount themselves,
and serve " cavalierly " to live as and count themselves " cavaliers."
Hence the formation of the class of caballeros de fuero, non-nobles
living " nobly " with a right to wear the sword. The privilege
survived the epoch of the reconquest, and was often extended to
gilds which the king wished to encourage. Hence came the practice
which caused so much surprise and amusement to French and
German travellers of the i6th and i/th centuries the wearing
of the gentlemanly sword by the artisans of towns.
No general law controlled these local usages and fueros. The
juero juzgo (forum judicum) was accepted by the Mozarabes, and
Local Laws ac ^ authority everywhere in cases not provided for
by the charters, or where no privilege had been
granted by the king. But it was subject to innumerable exceptions,
and particular jurisdictions. There was no common tribunal.
Nor was any material change introduced after the epoch of the
reconquest. Alphonso X., El Sabio or Learned, made a fuero
real, which was formed by combining the best parts of existing
charters. It was accepted by towns and districts not already
_ . chartered, but by them only. The famous siete partidas
P rtldas ( tne seven divisions), drawn up about 1260, is often
spoken of as a code of laws. It was never so treated
till it was promulgated at the Cortes of Alcala in 1338, in the reign
of his great grandson, Alphonso XI. Even then it was subject to
the restriction that it was not to prevail against any fuero, or the
fuero real. The Cortes might have been expected to forward the
work of unification. But without going into details on a subject
which requires particular treatment, it may be noted that the
Th c rt Cortes was no more coherent, or fixed in constitution or
s ' working, and was no more national, than any other of
the institutions of the country. The crown of Castile and Leon
had indeed a common Cortes after 1301. Aragon never advanced
so far. It, Catalonia and Valencia had each their Cortes, which
never united. When King Philip IV. (1621-1665) wished to
secure grants of money from these parts of his dominions he had to
summon three separate Cortes, which sat in different frontier towns,
and he had to negotiate simultaneously with all three. Then the
Spaniards, in their carelessness of form and regularity, never fixed
any rule as to the constitution of a Cortes. The third estate secured
representation in the Cortes of Leon (1188), and then in Castile and
the Common Cortes. In the kingdom of Aragon the right was
secured about the same time. It was decided that no new tax could
be imposed save with the consent of the commons, and that therefore
they must be represented. But no rule was ever made as to whom
the king was bound to summon, nor even that the presence of the
clergy and the nobles was necessary to constitute a true Cortes.
It was never claimed by the Cortes that its consent was necessary
to the making of laws. The Roman maxim that what the " prince "
wills has the force of law was not disputed nor did the Spaniard
doubt that the king acting by himself was " the prince." The check
which the justiza, or chief justice, of Aragon imposed on the king
was supported by the force of nobles and cities, but it was an excep-
tion in Spain. The representatives of the commons were the
personeros and procuradores, i.e. attorneys of the cities. There was
no knight of the shire in any Spanish Cortes. The great cities in
Castile and Leon succeeded finally in reducing the right of representa-
tion to a privilege of eighteen among them, with the good will of
the king, who found it easier to coerce or bribe the procurators of
eighteen towns than the representatives of a hundred and fifty.
The legislative work of such bodies was necessarily small. Their
practical power might be great when the king was weak and
necessitous, but only then.
It ought to have been easy for kings whose authority was
confessedly so great to have made themselves effectively despotic
amid all this division and weakness. Nor would
fe 8 tnev nave failed so to do if the sovereigns of Castile
had not been either incapable or short-lived, and if
there had not been an extraordinary succession of long
minorities; while the kings of Aragon were tempted to neglect
their Spanish possessions because they were in pursuit of
their claims and ambitions in Italy. Alphonso X. of Castile
(1252-1284) was an admirable writer, and a man of
/2 "/""*" k gen intelligent interest in science and law. As
a ruler he was at once weak, unstable and obstinate.
He wasted much time and great sums of money in endeavouring
to secure his election as emperor not in Spain, but in the Holy
Roman Empire. He did indeed add the town of Cadiz to his
possessions with the help of his vassal, the Moorish king of
Granada, but his reign is filled with quarrels between himself
and his nobles. The nobles of Castile and Leon were not feudal
vassals, but great landowners claiming and exercising rights or
jurisdiction on their estates. Their name of ricos hombres,
which first appears in written documents of the I2th The Nobles.
century, has been credited with a Teutonic origin, Rkos
but it was in all probability nothing but a " romance " Homar **-
or Castilian translation of the seniores and senatores, potentiores
and possessores of the Visigoth councils and code. They repre-
sented a nobility of wealth and not of blood. In the earlier
times their possessions were divided among their sons. It was
only at the end of the I3th century and later that they began to
form mayorazgos or entails, to preserve their name and family.
It was then that segundones, or younger sons, began to be known
in the social life of Spain. But whatever their position may
have been legally, they were as grasping as any feudal nobility
in Europe, and they were singularly destitute of any capacity
for combined political action. In Aragon, indeed, the nobles
did extort a promise from the king that they should not be put
to death or deprived of their estates by his mere decision. In
Castile they never went beyond begging or extorting grants of
the crown lands, or pensions charged on the royal revenue.
Alphonso X. ended his life in a civil war with his son Sancho,
who claimed the succession in preference to the children of his
elder brother, Fernando de la Cerda, and in virtue of a doctrine
of which much was heard in the middle ages elsewhere than in
Spain. He maintained that the younger son, being nearer to
the father than the grandson, had a right to succeed in pre-
ference to the children of an elder brother who had died before
the succession was open. Alphonso, after first accepting
Sancho's claim, repudiated it, and made a will by which he
not only left the crown of Castile to the eldest son of Fernando
de la Cerda, but cut vassal kingdoms out of the southern parts
of Spain for Sancho's younger brothers. The reign of
Sancho IV., surnamed El Bravo, or the Fierce (1284- 1234-1296.'
1296), was one constant struggle with the very
nobles who had helped him against his father, with his younger
brothers, and with the sons of Fernando de la Cerda. Ferdinand
Murder and massacre were his familiar methods. IV., 1296-
He was succeeded by his infant son Fernando (Fer- 1313 '
dinand IV.), whose long minority was an anarchy, tempered
by the courage and the tact of his mother, Maria de Molina.
Fernando, ungrateful to his mother and incapable as a king,
died in 1312, leaving a son of less than a year old, Alphonso XI.
(1312-1350). After another minority of confusion, Alphonso,
surnamed " of the Rio Salado," from the great Alphonso
victory he won over an invading host from Africa, XL, 1312-
ruled with energy and real political capacity. He
was indeed ferocious, but such actions as the murder of his great-
uncle, Don Juan El Tuerto the distorted in body and mind
did not seem to his subjects more than the exercise by " the
prince " of that right to act for the good of the state legibus
solutus which is inherent in sovereignty. But Alphonso
did not use his freedom to act legibus solutus except against such
hoary and incorrigible intriguers as Don Juan el Tuerto or the
Caballero Diego Gil, whom he beheaded with seventeen of his
men after promising them security for their lives. He did some-
thing to found the judicial and administrative unity of the
country. His death at the age of thirty-eight, during the great
plague, and while he was besieging Gibraltar, was a misfortune
to Spain. His successor, Peter, surnamed the Cruel (1350-
1368) was destined to show the Castilians exactly Peterihe
what the constant use by " the prince " of the Cruel,
reserved rights of the sovereign authority could be 13S - 1368 -
made to mean, when they were exercised by a passionate man
maddened by suspicion of all about him. Administering the civil
side of his government through Jewish tax-gatherers and
farmers of the taxes, and surrounded by the Mudejar guard, who
were the executors of his justice, his path is marked by one
long succession of murders. With all his appearance of energy, he
shrank from action at the critical moment of his wars out of
utter want of trust in all about him. His expulsion by his
brother, Henry of Trastamara, the eldest son of Leonora de
Guzman, his restoration by the Black Prince (q.v.), his treachery
SPAIN
[HISTORY
to him, and his final defeat and murder at Montiel, are famous
episodes. Henry of Trastamara, the beginner of the " new
Henry at kings" (1368-1379), reigned by election. The
Trastamara, nobles and the cities to whom he owed his crown
1368-1379. k ac j proportionate power. In his reign and those of
his immediate successors the Cortes flourished, although it
failed to establish checks on the absolute power of the king.
Henry was on the whole a successful ruler. He forced his
neighbours of Portugal to make peace, his fleet defeated an
English squadron off Rochelle, and he restored internal order.
The civic hermandodes, or brotherhoods, enforced respect from
John l ' ^ e n D ' es ' J nn I- ( I 379- I 39)> Henry's son and
1379-1390. successor, had to contend with John of Gaunt, son
of Edward III. of England, who had married the
eldest daughter of Peter the Cruel, and claimed the crown of
Castile in her name. John averted the danger by arranging a
marriage between his son Henry and Constance, the eldest
daughter of John of Gaunt, an alliance which united the two
equally illegitimate lines representing Alphonso XI., and so
closed the dispute as to the succession. He was less fortunate
in his efforts to vindicate the rights of his wife Beatrix to the
throne of Portugal. The defeat of the Castilians at the battle
of Aljubarrota (1385) compelled the king to renounce his pre-
tensions. The minority of his son, Henry III. (1390-1406) was
long, and his effective reign short, but in the brief
1390^1406. s P ace allowed him the king, a weakly man surnamed
El Doliente (the sufferer) did something to estab-
lish order. He recovered all the immense grants of crown
lands and rents, impounded by the nobles during his minority.
The first years of the minority of his infant son, John II. (1406-
1454), were by a rare exception peaceful. The young
406-14S4. king's uncle Ferdinand (called " of Antequera "
because he was besieging that town, which he took
from the Moors, when he heard in 1412 that he had been declared
heir to the crown of Aragon by the Cortes of Caspe) acted as
regent. Ferdinand was able and honest. His succession to
the throne of Aragon is an event of capital importance in the
history of the Peninsula.
The kings of Aragon from the death of James the Conqueror
in 1276 to the death of Martin I. in 1410 were so largely con-
cerned in the struggle with the Angevin party in
Naples and Sicily, that their history belongs rather
to Italy than to their Peninsular kingdom. They
were six in number; Peter III. (1276-1285), Alphonso III.
(1285-1291), James II. (1291-1327), Alphonso IV. (1327-
1336), Peter IV. (1336-1387), John I. (1387-1395), and
Martin I. (1395-1410). In so far as their influence was felt
in the internal affairs of their Spanish kingdoms, they had a
double task to perform. The first was to reunite the Balearic
Islands and Roussillon, which James the Conqueror had left by
will to a younger son, to the crown of Aragon. This was finally
achieved, after a hideous story of fratricidal hatred and murder
by poison, by Peter IV. Their second task was to reduce their
turbulent barons, in Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia alike, to
the position of obedient subjects. In this task also it was
Peter IV. who achieved success. The barons of Aragon and
Valencia had extorted from his weak father the charter known
Peteriv. as the Union, which not only recognized their just
and the right not to be punished in life or property, except
"Union." by process of law, but explicitly authorized them
to elect the justiza or .the chief justice, whose decisions
were to be independent of royal confirmation, and to take up
arms whenever they considered themselves aggrieved. Such
an instrument was of course incompatible with the monarchical
or any other form of government. The object of the life of
Peter IV. was to force the barons to surrender their charter.
After years of struggle and preliminary failures, Peter IV.
defeated the " Union " utterly at the decisive battle of Epila
(1348). He was a typical king of the isth century, immeasurably
false, and unspeakably ferocious, but he was not a mere blood-
thirsty sultan like his enemy, Peter the Cruel of Castile. When
he won he took indeed a brutal vengeance on individuals, and
he extorted the surrender of the charter and destroyed it with
his dagger in the presence of the Cortes at Saragossa. He cut his
hand in his eagerness, and declared that the blood of a king
was well shed in securing the destruction of such an instrument
whence his popular nickname of Peter of the Dagger (del Pune-
jalet). But his use of the victory was statesmanlike. He fully
confirmed the right of the nobles to trial by law and security
against arbitrary punishment; he left the franchises of the city
untouched, and respected the independence of the justiza.
The result of his victory was to give Aragon and his other
dominions a measure of internal peace unknown in Castile. The
reigns of his sons and successors, John and Martin, were insignifi-
cant and tranquil. The death of Martin without children in
1410 left the succession open. The two years of discussion which
followed are interesting as a proof that Aragon had TheSuc-
reached a higher political level than Castile. The cession in
Cortes was able to administer in peace, and the Ara i a -
question of the succession was debated as if it had been
in a suit between private persons. The judges finally decided in
favour of Ferdinand, on the ground that his mother, Eleanor,
was the daughter of Peter IV., and that though a woman
could not reign as a " proprietary queen " in Aragon, she
could convey the right to her husband or transmit it to her
son. On their own principles they ought to have given the
crown to John of Castile as the son of Ferdinand's elder brother.
But the countries were not ripe for union. Nevertheless the
choice of Ferdinand was a step forward towards union.
From 1412 to 1479 Ihe separation lasted with a growing ap-
proximation of the two states whose interests touched one another
so closely. In Castile John II. (1406-1454), a man Castile.
of amiable but indolent character and of literary John //.,
tastes, was governed by his favourite, Alvaro de IM 6 -^ 4 '
Luna, and harassed by his nobles. His reign is full' of
contentions which were not wars for a principle, but were scuffles
for the control of the spigot of taxation. At the end of his life
he sacrificed his favourite at the instigation of his second wife, an
act which, it is said, justly embittered his last days. Of his son,
Henry IV. (1454-1474) it is enough to say that he
was called " the Impotent, " and that there is every 1454^1414.
reason to believe that he deserved the description in
all the senses of the word. His reign was an inferior copy of his
father's. As the legitimacy of his alleged daughter Juana was
disputed, his sister Isabella claimed the succession, and married
her cousin, Ferdinand of Aragon, son of John I., in 1469 in
defiance of her brother. In Aragon, Ferdinand I. " of Antequera "
(1412-1416) was succeeded by Alphonso V. (1416- Afg og
1458) the Magnanimous, whose brilliant life belongs
to Italy. In Aragon he was represented by his brother John,
who administered as lieutenant-general, and who reigned in his
own right (1458-1479) when Alphonso V. died without legitimate
heirs, leaving Naples by will to a bastard son.
John I., a man of indomitable energy and consider- 1458-1479
able capacity, spent most of his life in endeavouring
to enforce his claims to the kingdom of Navarre as the husband
and heir of its queen Blanche. His conflict with his son by his
first marriage, Charles, prince of Viana, was settled in his favour
by the death of the prince. Then he had to contend with a
national revolt in Catalonia, which endeavoured to make itself
independent under three successive foreign pririces. In the end
the pertinacity of John triumphed. At the age of over eighty,
blind and unconquerable, he transmitted his kingdom to Ferdi-
nand, his son by his second marriage, with Juana Enriquez, of
the family of the hereditary admirals of Castile. Navarre went
to a daughter ,<and Roussillon was somewhat fraudulently retained
by Louis XI. as security for a debt. Ferdinand conquered the
Spanish half of Navarre later, and recovered Roussillon from
Charles VIII., the successor of Louis XI.
With the death of John II. of Aragon in 1479 the history of
Spain enters on an entirely new period. Hitherto it has been
the story of a national development. The process did not
cease, but, during the reign of Isabella the Catholic (1474-1504)
until the death of her husband Ferdinand in 1516, was carried,
HISTORY]
SPAIN
549
not to completion, but to the stopping place at which it was
destined to rest for two centuries. The voyage of Columbus
Spanish in 1492, and the intervention of Ferdinand in the
History great conflict of France, the empire and the papacy
after 1479. f or predominance in Italy, had, simultaneously, the
effect of opening to her the world of conquest and adventure in
America, and of committing her to incessant wars in the Italian
Peninsula. The death of John, the only son of Ferdinand and
Isabella, the worst misfortune which ever happened to Spain,
opened the succession to all the crowns and coronets worn by
the Catholic sovereigns to Charles of Habsburg the emperor
Charles V. From that day Spain became a part the leader,
then the paymaster, then the dupe of the international mon-
archical confederation called " the illustrious House of Austria."
The Spaniard became the swordsman and executioner of the
counter- Reformation, because the power of the House of Austria
depended on the imposition of religious unity in Europe. The
decision of Charles V., king of Spain and emperor, to leave the
Netherlands to his sen Philip II., committed the Spaniards to
conflict on the sea with England, and to the insane attempt to
secure a safe road for their armies across Europe from the snores
of the Mediterranean to the North Sea. Thereby they threat-
ened the very national existence of France. The arrangement
was made possible only by the hopeless divisions of Germany,
the blind pride of Spain, and the utter political incapacity of
both. It forced every patriotic ruler of England to oppose Spain
on the sea, and every statesmanlike master of France to ruin
her power on the land. Meanwhile the Spaniards were endeav-
ouring to check the advance of the Turks in the Mediterranean,
and to exclude all Europe from the waters of the New World.
In the intensity of their struggle with the Reformation they
subjected education to a censorship which, in order to exclude
all risk of heresy, stifled thought and reduced knowledge
to the repetition of safe formulas. With their eyes on the ends
of the earth, and a ring of enemies from Constantinople to the
Antilles, the Spaniards fought, with steadily diminishing
material resources, with a character and intellect which shrivelled
by swift degrees. When nearly bled to death for the illustrious
House of Austria, they were transferred to the House of
Bourbon, which in its turn dragged them into conflict with
Austria in Italy and England on the sea. At the beginning
of the i gth century they had fallen into such a state of weak-
ness that Napoleon could, with some considerable measure of
excuse, look upon their country as a species of no-man's-land
into which his troops had only to march on police duty to
secure immediate obedience. The history of the igth century
is the liquidation of an enormous bankruptcy, and the com-
pletion of the circle which confines the Spaniard once more
to the soil of the Peninsula.
Ferdinand and Isabella were proclaimed king and queen of
Castile together, although the crown was hers alone, and although
she never consented to part with her sovereign
a^d Isabella, authority. In the purely internal affairs of Castile
'it was always she who decided on questions of
administration. Some opposition was offered by a faction of
the nobles who took up the claims of Henry's supposed daughter,
commonly called Juana la Beltraneja, because her father was
alleged -to have been Don Beltran de la Cueva, who, however,
fought for Isabella. Juana's party had the support of the king
of Portugal, who arranged a marriage between her and his
son. The defeat of the Portuguese at Toro made an early end
of the war. The new sovereigns immediately began the work
of establishing order and obedience in their dominions. The
line of policy followed by the Catholic sovereigns 1 was to keep
the old forms, but draw the substance of power to themselves.
Thus, for instance, they organized a police to clear the country
of brigands, and attached a special jurisdiction to it, but they
gave it the old name of Hermandad and the very superficial
appearance of a voluntary association of the cities and the gentry.
It consisted of a force of well-appointed horsemen, in the pro-
1 The name was not formally given to them by the pope till later,
but it is convenient to use it at once.
portion of one to every hundred families. Its merits as a police
have perhaps been exaggerated, and in the war with Granada
its bands were employed as soldiers. But an end was at least
put to the existence of penas bravas in the dominions of the
crown of Castile. And this was the uniform model of their
policy. The masterships x>f the military orders of Calatrava,
St lago and Alcantara were one by one annexed to the Crown.
Their commandaries were used to pay, or pension, the servants
of the sovereigns. No attack was made on the charters of the
towns, but in Castile and Aragon alike royal officers were
appointed to adjudicate on disputes within the corporations
themselves, or between corporation and corporation. By them
the old councils were rapidly reduced to a state of atrophy.
The same course was followed with the Cortes. It continued to
be summoned by the Catholic sovereigns and their successors
of the Habsburg line, but it was needed only to grant money.
The nobles and the clergy, who as exempt from taxation had no
vote, became purely ornamental parts of the Cortes. The
representatives of the third estate were confined by the indiffer-
ence of the Castilians to eighteen towns, whose procurators
were named by the councils either from among themselves in
rotation, or from particular families. Moreover, they received
pay from the Crown while the Cortes sat. For the work of legis-
lation the Cortes was not needed, and never had been. It was
not even summoned during the whole of the war with Granada.
The Catholic sovereigns provided themselves with a revenue
by the customary wholesale resumptions of grants Q 0ve rnmeat
made during the reigns of John II. and Henry IV., of the
and by the suppression or reduction of the pensions "Catholic
they had granted with profusion. The nobles, Sove ~ jf
having been brought to obedience by a frown, were re * s
left in possession of their estates, their social rank and the obli-
gation to render military service. They were summoned to the
royal council, but only as ornamental members, the real authority
and the exclusive right to vote being confined to the letrados,
or lawyers, chosen by the Crown from the class of the burghers.
Encouragement of industry was not wanting; the state under-
took to develop the herds of merino sheep, by issuing pro-
hibitions against inclosures, which proved the ruin of agriculture,
and gave premiums for large merchant ships, which ruined the
owners of small ' vessels and reduced the merchant navy of
Spain to a handful of galleons. Tasas, fixed prices, were placed
on everything. The weaver, the fuller, the armourer, the
potter, the shoemaker were told exactly how to do their own
work. All this did not bear its full fruit during the reign
of the Catholic sovereigns, but by the end of the i6th century
it had reduced Spain to a state of Byzantine regulation in which
every kind of work had to be done under the eye and subject
to the interference of a vast swarm of government officials, all
ill paid, and often not paid, all therefore necessitous and corrupt.
When the New World was opened, commerce with it was limited
to Seville in order that the supervision of the state might be
more easily exercised. The great resource of the treasury was
the alcabalas or excises taxes (farmed by contractors) of 5 or
10% on an article every time it was sold on the ox when
sold to the butcher, on the hide when sold to the tanner, on the
dressed hide sold to the shoemaker and on his shoes. All this
also did not bear its full fruit till later times, but by the i7th
century it had made Spain one of the two " most beggarly
nations in Europe " the other being Portugal.
The policy of the Catholic sovereigns towards the Church
was of essentially the same character as their treatment of the
nobles or the cities. They aimed at using it as an instrument
of government. One of the first measures adopted by them
in Castile, before the union with Aragon, waste stop the nomina-
tion of foreigners to Spanish benefices by the pope. But the
most characteristic part of their ecclesiastical policy was the
establishment of the Spanish Inquisition (<?..).
By the bull of Sixtus IV. of 1578 they obtained
authority to appoint three inquisitors, whom they
were empowered to remove or replace, and who were indepen-
dent of, and superior to, the inquisitorial courts of the bishops.
550
SPAIN
[HISTORY
The Spanish Inquisition was a department of the royal govern-
ment, employed to enforce religious unity and obedience, because
they were held to be indispensable in order to obtain national unity
and to enforce the authority of the Crown. The Inquisition was at
first established (in 1480) in the dominions of Castile only, but it
was extended in 1486 to Catalonia and in 1487 to Aragon, in spite
of strong protests. The first duties of the Inquisition were to deal
with the converted Jews and Mahommedans, respectively known as
Marranos and Moriscoes, and with those who still professed their
religions. The latter were dealt with by expulsion, which in the
case of the Jews was enforced in 1492, and in the case of the
subject Mahommedans or Mudejares in 1502. Both were
industrious classes, and the loss of their services was disaster
to Spain the first of a long series of similar measures which
culminated in the final expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1610. The con-
verted Jews and Mahommedans presented greater difficulties to the
Inquisition. Many of the higher ecclesiastics and of the nobility
were of Jewish, or partially Jewish, descent. The landlords who found
the Moriscoes useful tenants, and the commercial authorities of
towns like Barcelona, who knew the value of the converted Jews,
endeavoured to moderate the zeal of the inquisitors. But they were
supported by the Crown, and there can be no question that the Holy
Office was popular with the mass of the nation. It produced a
wholesale flight of the converted Jews to France. -.
In social life the religious zeal favoured by the I nquisition led to such
things as those public processions of flagellants which went on in
Spain till the end of the i8th century. It aimed at preserving
orthodoxy and developing sainthood on the medieval model. Of
ordinary immorality it took little notice, and the triumph of its
cause in the i6th and l/th centuries, while producing such types of
ecstatic piety as St Theresa (q.v.), the Sor Mariade Jesus (Maria
Agreda), (g.v.) and the Venerable Virgin Luisa de Carvajal (q.v.),
was accompanied by an extraordinary development of moral
laxity. The Holy Office showed equal zeal in extending its jurisdic-
tion, and by the end of the I7th century had provoked a strong
reaction. The most honourable passage in its history is the part
it took in forwarding the great, though temporary, reform of
the monastic orders, which was a favourite object with Queen Isabella.
Between 1481 and 1492 the Catholic sovereigns completed
the work of the reconquest by subjugating the one surviving
Conquest of Mahommedan state of Granada. Their task was
Granada, materially facilitated by dissensions among the
Moors, whose princes intrigued against one another,
and were to the last ready to aid the Christians in the hope of
obtaining a small fragment of territory for themselves. The
surrender of Granada on the 2nd of January 1492 was partly
secured by promises of toleration, which were soon violated.
A revolt had to be suppressed in 1501. Having secured the
unity of their territory in the Peninsula, the Catholic sovereigns
were free to begin the work of expansion. In 1492 Columbus
(q.v.) sailed on his first voyage to the west. In 1493
*' Ferdinand secured the restoration of Roussillon from
Charles VIII. of France by the fallacious treaty in
which he undertook to remain neutral during the king's
expedition to Italy. The voyage of Columbus had unforeseen
consequences which led to diplomatic difficulties with Portugal,
and the treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which defined the respec-
tive spheres of influence of the two powers in the New World
and in Asia. In 1497 Ferdinand, with the support of his wife,
Foreign entered on those wars of Italy in which the Spanish
Policy of regular soldiers first gained their reputation, and
Ferdinand w hich made Spain for a time the dominant power
and Isabella. ^ n ^ j ta u an peninsula (see CORDOBA, GONZALO
F. DE). They endeavoured to strengthen themselves against
France by marriages with the royal family of England
(see CATHERINE OF ARAGON) and the Habsburgs. The
marriage of Juana, called the Mad, with Philip of Habs-
burg, son of the emperor Maximilian (q.v.) brought a new
dynasty to Spain. On the death of the queen in 1504
her son-in-law claimed the regency, and was supported by the
Castilian nobles. His death in 1506 and the in-
Fe'dfaaDA /sanit y of his widow left tne Castilians no choice
but to restore Ferdinand as regent. During the
next ten years Ferdinand governed with the very able assistance
of the archbishop of Toledo, Jimenes de Cisneros (q.v.). He
annexed the southern part of Navarre, which was held by the
representatives of his half-sister. The archbishop organized
and directed the expedition which conquered Oran, Tripoli and
other points on the African coast. Here beyond all doubt lay
the proper field for the expansion of Spain. She was drawn
from it on the death of Ferdinand in 1516. He was succeeded
by his grandson Charles of Habsburg, and when Charles was
elected to the empire in 1519 Spain was dragged into the wars
and politics of central Europe.
Only the smaller part of the reign of Charles was spent in
Spain. He came to it from Flanders, where he had received his
education, unable to speak the language and sur- Charles I. of
rounded by Flemish favourites. To him and them Spain, v. as
the country was only a source of supply from which Bmperor.
money was to be obtained in order to bribe the German electors.
The disregard which both showed for the interests of Spain
and its constitutional rights led to the outbreak of the revolt
of the cities the Comuneros which plunged Castile into
confusion in 1519 and 1520 after the departure Revolt of the
of Charles for Flanders. The rising of the Comuneros,
Comuneros has often been spoken of as a ISI9 - 20 -
struggle for freedom. But it has a very dubious right
to the name. In many places the movement was simply
an excuse for a revival of private wars between wealthy noble
families. In others it was a struggle to enforce the claims of
particular towns. It hardly extended as a political movement
beyond the two Castiles. If its leaders had acted together, in
combination with the nobles, the Comuneros could have imposed
their own terms, for there was no royal army to oppose them.
But they drifted into hostility with the nobles, and were defeated
by them at Villalar. The movement then rapidly collapsed.
Charles had no part in the suppression of the revolt. Through-
out his reign he respected the claim of the Cortes that no new
taxation should be raised without its consent, but as he had to
deal only with the representatives of eighteen cities, who could
generally be bribed, he rarely failed to secure what he demanded.
The outbreak of the Comuneros in Castile coincided with
the social and agrarian revolt in Valencia known as the
Germania or brotherhood, from the name of the directing
committee appointed by the insurgents. It was in no sense
a movement for political rights, but an attack by Rising of the
the sailors, the workmen of the towns, and the German/a la
Christian peasants on the landowners and their Valencla -
Mudejar and Morisco serfs. It was accompanied by murder
and massacre and by forced conversions of the Mudejares.
After desolating Valencia for some three years it was put down
by the help of troops from Castile. The conquest of Mexico
by Hernan Cortes (q.v.) and of Peru by Francisco Saa]n and
Pizarro (q.v.) belong to this reign, but were imme- the Euro-
diately due to the adventurers in America. These P fan Poiky
conquests and the incessant wars into which Spain ofcharles v -
was drawn by the Aragonese claims in Italy, and its connexion
with the empire, gave to the nation a great European position
and to the Spanish soldiers of the time many opportunities
to win renown. The capture of the French king at Pavia and
his imprisonment at Madrid gratified the pride of the Spaniards,
and did much to reconcile them to the sacrifices which the policy
of the emperor imposed on them. Except, however, in the case
of the successful attack on Tunis in 1535, and the attempt to
take Algiers in 1541, his actions were not inspired by any regard
for the interests of his Spanish kingdoms. He treated them
simply as instruments to promote the grandeur of his house.
His indifference to their good, or his utter inability to see "where
it lay, was conspicuously shown when, on his abdication in 1556,
he left his hereditary Flemish possessions to his son Philip,
and not to his brother Ferdinand.
The reign of Philip II. (1556-1598) was a prolongation of
the reign of his father, both in domestic and in foreign policy.
In it the vices of this policy were displayed to the pftffl H
fullest extent. Philip's marriage with Mary Tudor 1556-1598.
(q.v.) in 1554 having proved barren, and her death in
1558 having placed Elizabeth on the throne of England, he was
left without the support against France which this union was
meant to secure. At the same time his inheritance of the
Netherlands brought him into collision with their inhabitants,
who feared his absolutist tendencies, and with the Reformation.
HISTORY]
SPAIN
The revolt in the Low Countries was inevitably favoured by
both France and England. Philip was consequently drawn
Spain and i nto intervention in the religious wars of France
the Neiher- (q.v.) and into war with England, which culminated
lands, in the great Armada (q.v.) of 1588. His relations
France and w ; tn ng i anc j were further complicated by the exten-
sion of English maritime enterprise to the New World
(see HAWKINS JOHN; andDRAKE, FRANCIS). In the Mediterranean
he was equally forced by his position to take a part in resisting
the Turks (see MALTA: History; and LEPANTO, BATTLE or).
But the key to his whole policy must be sought in his relations
to his Flemish subjects. With his absolutist tendencies he was
bound to wish to govern them as he did Castibj and the prin-
ciple of religious toleration, which was not understood by any
prince in Europe with the exception of the prince of Orange,
William the Silent (q.v.), was peculiarly impossible for him.
His reign was therefore one long struggle with forces which he
was unable to master.
The burden of the struggle fell with crushing effect on his
Spanish dominions and peculiarly on Castile. Aragon, which
was poor and tenacious of its rights, would give little; Catalonia
and Valencia afforded small help. The Flemish revenue was
destroyed by the revolt. The Italian states barely paid their
expenses. Resources for the incessant wars of the reign had been
sought in the taxation of Castile and the revenue from the
mines of America. They were wholly inadequate, and the
result of the attempt to dominate all western Europe was to
Character of produce bankruptcy and exhaustion. In his internal
Philip's government Philip was fully despotic. He made no
Covernmen<.p retence o f consulting the Cortes on legislation,
and though he summoned them to vote new taxes he
established the rule that the old were to be considered as granted
for ever, and as constituting the fixed revenue of the Crown.
The nobles were excluded from all share in the administration,
which was in the hands of boards (juntas) of lawyers and men
of the middle class. All business was conducted by corre-
spondence, and with a final reference to the king, and the result
was naturally endless delay.
The first years of the reign of Philip II. were occupied in
concluding the last of his father's wars with France, to which
Foreign was added a very unwelcome quarrel with the pope,
Policy of arising out of his position as duke of Milan. He
Philip. was unable to avoid sending an army under Alva
against Paul IV., and was glad to avail himself of the services
of Venice to patch up a peace. On the Flemish frontier, with
the help of an English contingent and by the good generalship
of Philibert of Savoy he defeated a French army at St Quentin
on the loth of August 1557, and again at Gravelines on the I3th
of July 1558. But he did not follow up his successes, and the
war was ended by the signing of the peace of Cateau Cambresis
on the 2nd of April 1559. The exhaustion of his resources
made peace necessary to him, and it was no less desirable to
the French government. Philip's marriage with Elizabeth, the
daughter of Henry II. and of Catherine de Medici, together
with their common fear of the Reformation, bound him for a
time to the French royal house. In August 1559 he returned
to Spain, which he never left for the rest of his life. The outcry
of the Cortes, whether of Castile or of the other states, for relief
from taxation was loud. In some cases the king went so far as to
levy taxes in what he acknowledged was an illegal manner
and excused under the plea of necessity. By 1567 the revolt
in the Netherlands was flagrant, and the duke of Alva was sent
with a picked army, and at the expense of Spain, to put it down.
In the following year the tyranny of the Inquisition, encouraged
by the king who desired to purge his kingdom of all taint of
heterodoxy, led to the revolt of the Moriscoes, which desolated
Granada from 1568 to 1570, and ruined the province completely.
The Moriscoes had looked for help from the Turks, who were
engaged in conquering Cyprus from Venice. The danger to
Spain and to the Spanish possessions in Italy stimulated the
king to join in the Holy League formed by the pope and Venice
against the Turks; and Spanish ships and soldiers had a great
share in the splendid victory at Lepanto. But the penury of
the treasury made it impossible to maintain a permanent
naval force to protect the coast against the Barbary pirates
(q.v.). Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia and the Balearic
Islands were subject to their raids throughout the whole of the
i6th and i7th centuries. In 1581 Philip annexed Portugal,
as heir to King Henry, the aged successor of Dom Sebastian.
Philip endeavoured to placate the Portuguese by the fullest
recognition of their constitutional rights, and in particular by
favouring the fidalgos or gentry. The duke of Braganza,
whose claims were better than Philip's, was bought off by
immense grants. Spain seemed now to have reached a com-
manding height of power. But she was internally exhausted.
Her real weakness, and the incompetence of her
government, were shown when open war began with /spa/n D
England in 1585. While a vast armament was being
slowly collected for the invasion of England, Drake swept the
West Indies, and in 1587 burnt a number of Spanish ships in their
own harbour of Cadiz. The ruinous failure of the great Armada
in 1588 demonstrated the incapacity of Spain to maintain her
pretensions. In 1591 the support given by the Aragonese
to Antonio Perez (q.v.) led to the invasion of their country by a
Castilian army. The constitutional rights of Aragon were not
entirely suppressed, but they were diminished, and the kingdom
was reduced to a greater measure of submission. In his later
years Philip added to all his other burdens a costly interven-
tion in France to support the league and resist the succession
of Henry IV. to the throne. He was compelled to acknowledge
himself beaten in France before his death on the i3th of
September 1598. He left the war with England and with the
Netherlands as an inheritance to his son.
The period of one hundred and two years covered by the
reigns of Philip III. ^598-1621), Philip IV. (1621-1665) and
Charles II. (1665-1700), was one of decadence, end-
ing in intellectual, moral and material degradation.
The dynasty continued to make the maintenance of
the rights and interests of the House of Austria its main object.
Spain had the misfortune to be saved from timely defeat by
the weakness of its neighbours. The policy of James I. of
England (q.v.), the civil wars of Charles I. (q.v.), the assassination
of Henry IV. of France, the troubles of the minority and reign
of Louis XIII. (q.v.) and the Fronde (q.v.), preserved her from
concerted and persistent foreign attack. After a futile attempt
to injure England by giving support to the earl of Tyrone in
Ireland (see TYRONE, EARLS OF) peace was made between the
powers in 1604. In 1609 a twelve years' truce was made with
the Dutch. But the temporary cessation of foreign wars
brought no real peace to Spain. In 1610 fears of the help which
the Moriscoes might give to a Mahommedan attack from Africa
combined with religious bigotry to cause their expulsion. The
measure was thoroughly popular with the nation, but it was
industrially more injurious than a foreign invasion need have
been. The king was idle and pleasure-loving. He resigned
the control of his government to the duke of Lerma (q.v), one
of the most worthless of all royal favourites. The expenses of the
royal household increased fourfold, and most of the increase
was absorbed by the favourite and his agents. The nobles,
who had been kept at a distance by Philip II., swarmed round
the new king, and began to secure pensions in the old style.
The pillage was so shameless that public opinion was stirred to
revolt. Some of the lesser sinners were forced to restitution,
and in 1618 Lerma fell from power, but only because he was
supplanted by his son, the duke of Uceda, a man as worthless
as himself. In that year was taken the step which was
destined to consummate the ruin of Spain. The Thirty
Years' War began in Germany, and Spain was called upon to
support the House of Austria.
The death of Philip III. on the 2ist of March 1621 brought no
real change. His son, Philip IV., was an abler man, and even
gave indications of a wish to qualify himself to discharge his
duties as king. But he was young, pleasure-loving, and wanted
the strength of will to make his good intentions effective
552
SPAIN
[HISTORY
For twenty years the administration was really directed by
his favourite the count of Olivares (q.v.) and duke of San
Lucar, known as the " Conde Duque," the count-
*ib2i-i665. duke. Olivares was far more able and honest than
Lerma. But he could only keep his place by supplying
his master with the means of dissipation and by conforming to
his dynastic sentiments. The truce concluded in 1609 with
Holland ended in 1621, and was not renewed. The commercial
classes, particularly in Portugal, complained that it subjected
them to Dutch competition. War was renewed, and the Dutch
invaded Brazil. As their fleets made it dangerous to send troops
by sea to Flanders, Spain had to secure a safe road overland.
Therefore she endeavoured to obtain full control of the Valtel-
lina, the valley leading from Lombardy to Tirol, and from thence
to the German ecclesiastical states, which allowed a free passage
to the Spanish troops. War with France ensued. The failure
of the treaty of marriage with England (see CHARLES I. and
BUCKINGHAM, FIRST DUKE or) led to war, for the English court
was offended by the Spanish refusal to aid in the restoration of the
count palatine, son-in-law of James I., to his dominions. In
Flanders the town of Breda was taken after a famous siege.
The French conducted their campaign badly. The Dutch were
expelled from Bahia in Brazil, which they had seized. An
English attack on Cadiz in 1625 was repulsed. His flatterers
called the king Philip the Great. A 'few years later it began to
be a standing jest that he was great in the sense that
a pit is great: the more that is taken from it the greater it
grows. By 1640 the feebleness of the monarchy was so notorious
that it began to fall to pieces. In that year Portugal fell away
without needing to strike a blow. Then followed the revolt
of Naples (see MASANIELLO) and of the Catalans, who were
bitterly angered by the excesses of the troops sent to operate
against the French in Roussillon. They called in the French, and
the Spanish government was compelled to neglect Portugal.
Olivares, who was denounced by the nation as the cause of all its
misfortunes, was dismissed, and the king made a brief effort
to rule for himself. But he soon fell back under the control of
less capable favourites than Olivares. In 1643 the prestige
of the Spanish infantry was ruined by the battle of Rocroy.
At the peace of Munster, which ended the Thirty Years' War in
1648, Spain was cynically thrown over by the German Habsburgs
for whom she had sacrificed so much. Aided by the disorders
of the minority of Louis XIV., she struggled on till the peace of
the Pyrenees in 1659, by which Roussillon was ceded to France.
An attempt was now made to subdue Portugal, but the battle
of Montesclaros in 1665 proved the futility of the effort. The
news of the disaster was followed by the death of the king on the
I7th of September 1665. Catalonia was saved by the reaction
produced in it by the excesses of the French troops, and in
Naples the revolt had collapsed. But Portugal was lost for
ever, and the final judgment on the time may be passed in the
words of Olivares, who complained that he could find " no
men " in Spain. He meant no men fit for high command. The
intellect and character of the nation had been rendered childish.
During the whole of the reign of Charles II. (1665-
!66S-i70o'.' I 7)> t ne son of the second marriage of Philip IV.
with his niece Mariana of Austria, the Spanish
monarchy was an inert mass, which Louis XIV. treated as
raw material to be cut into at his discretion, and was saved
from dismemberment only by the intervention of England
and Holland. The wars of 1667-68, ended by the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, those of 1672-78, ended by the peace of
Nijmwegen, those of 1683-84, ended by the peace of Ratisbon,
and the war of the League of Augsburg, 1680-96, were some
of them fought wholly, and all of them partly, because the
French king wished to obtain one or another portion of the
dominions of the Spanish Habsburgs. But Spain took a
subordinate and often a merely passive part in these wars.
The king was imbecile. During his minority the government
was directed by his mother and her successive favourites,
the German Jesuit Nithard and the Granadine adventurer
Fernando de Valenzuela. In 1677 the king's bastard brother,
the younger Don John of Austria, defeated the queen's faction,
which was entirely Austrian in sentiment, and obtained power
for a short time. By him the king was married in 1679 to Marie
Louise of Orleans, in the interest of France. When she died in
1689, he was married by the Austrian party to Mariana of Neu-
burg. At last the French party, which hoped to save their
monarchy from partition by securing the support of France,
persuaded the dying king to leave his kingdom by will to the
duke of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV., and of Maria Teresa,
daughter of Philip IV. by his first marriage. On the death of
Charles II., on the ist of November 1700, the duke of Anjou was
proclaimed king.
The Bourbon Dynasty. The decision of Louis XIV. to accept
the inheritance left to his grandson by Charles II. led to a final
struggle between him and the other powers of western \v aro f
Europe (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR or '\\\\.), Spanish
which was terminated in 1713 by the peace of Succession,
Utrecht. The part taken by Spain in the actual tTO -' 3 -
struggle was mainly a passive one, and it ended for her with the
loss of Gibraltar and the island of Minorca, which remained in
the hands of England, and of all her dominions in Italy and
Flanders. Another and a very serious consequence was that
England secured the Asiento (q.v.), or contract, which gave her
the monopoly of the slave trade with the Spanish colonies, as
well as the right to establish " factories " that is to say com-
mercial agencies in several Central and South American ports,
and to send one cargo of manufactured goods yearly in a ship
of 500 tons to New Carthagena. In internal affairs the years
of the war were of capital importance in Spanish
history. The general political and administrative mo^/fie.
nullity of the Spaniards of this generation led to
the assumption of all real power by the French or Italian
servants and advisers of the king. Under their direction
important financial and administrative reforms were begun.
The opposition which these innovations produced encouraged
the separatist tendencies of the eastern portion of the
Peninsula. Philip V. was forced to reduce Aragon, Catalonia
and Valencia by arms. Barcelona was only taken in 1714,
the year after the signing of the treaty of Utrecht. The
local privileges of these once independent kingdoms, which had
with rare exceptions been respected by the Austrian kings, were
swept away. Their disappearance greatly promoted the work
of national unification, and was a gain, since they had long
ceased to serve any really useful purpose. The removal of
internal custom-houses, and the opening of the trade with
America, hitherto confined to Seville and to the dominions of the
crown of Castile, to all Spaniards, were considerable boons. The
main agents in introducing and promoting these changes were
the French ambassadors, a very able French treasury official
Jean Orry, seigneur de Vignory (1652-1719) and the lady
known as the princess des Ursins (q.v.), the chief lady-in-waiting.
Her maiden name was Anne Marie de la Tremoille, and she was
the widow of Flavio Orsini, duke of Bracciano. Until 1714 she
was the power behind the throne in Spain. On the death of
Philip V.'s first wife Maria Louisa Gabriella of Savoy, in 1714,
the king was married at once to Elizabeth Farnese of Parma, who
expelled Mme des Ursins, obtained complete control ($,&
over her husband, and used her whole influence to Elizabeth
drag Spain into a series of adventures in order to ^f" ese f*"'
obtain Italian dominions for her sons. Her first agent
was the Italian priest Alberoni (q.v.), whose favour lasted from
1714 to 1719. Alberoni could not, and perhaps did not, sincerely
wish to prevent the queen and king from plunging into an attempt
to recover Sardinia and Sicily, which provoked the armed inter-
vention of France and England and led to the destruction of
the rising Spanish navy off Cape Passaro (see TORRINGTON,
GEORGE BYNG, VISCOUNT). In 1731 Elizabeth secured the
succession of her eldest son, Charles, afterwards Charles III.
of Spain, to the duchy of Parma, by arrangement with England
and the Empire. Apart from the Italian intrigues, the most
important foreign affairs of the reign were connected with the
relations of Spain with England. A feeble attempt to regain
HISTORY]
SPAIN
553
Gibraltar was made in 1733, and a serious war was only averted
by the resolute peace policy of Sir Robert Walpole. But in
1739 trade difficulties, which had arisen out of the Asicnto in
America, led to a great war with England, which became merged
in the War of the Austrian Succession (q.v.). The king, who had
become almost entirely mad at the end of his life, died on the
9th of July 1746. His successor, Ferdinand VI., the second son
of his first marriage, whose reign lasted till the icth of August
Ferdinand 1759, was a retiring and modest man, who adopted
vi.,i74&- a policy of peace with England. His ministers, of
1759. whom the most notable were Zenon de Somadevila,
marquis of Ensenada, and Richard Wall, an Irish Jacobite,
carried on the work of financial and administrative reform.
The advance of the country in material prosperity was consider-
able. Foreign influences in thought and literature began to
modify the opinions of Spaniards profoundly. The party known
as the Regalistas, the lawyers who wished to vindicate the
regalities, or rights of the Crown, against the encroachments of
the pope and the Inquisition, gained the upper hand.
The new sovereign was one of the most sincere, and the most
successful, of the " enlightened despots " of the i8th century.
He had had a long apprenticeship in Naples, and was
1759-1788." a man f forty-three when he came to Spain in 1759.
Until his death on the i4th of December 1788 he was
engaged in internal politics, in endeavouring to advance the
material prosperity of Spain. His foreign policy was less wise.
He had a deep dislike of England, and a strong desire to recover
Minorca and Gibraltar, which she held. He had also a strong
family feeling, which induced him to enter into the " Family Com-
pact " with his French cousins. He made war on England in 1761,
with disastrous results to Spain, which for the time lost both
Havana and Manila. In 1770 he came to the verge of war
with England over the Falkland Islands. In 1778 he joined
France in supporting the insurgent English colonists in America.
The most statesmanlike of his foreign enterprises, the attempt
to take the piratical city of Algiers in 1775 (see BARBARY
PIRATES), was made with insufficient forces, was ill executed,
and ended in defeat. Yet he was able to recover Minorca and
Florida in the War of American Independence, and he finally
extorted a treaty with Algiers which put a stop to piratical raids
on the Spanish coast. The worst result for Spain of his
foreign policy was that the example set by the United States
excited a desire for independence in the Spanish colonies, and
was the direct incitement to the rebellions at the beginning of
the i gth century. The king's domestic policy, on the contrary,
was almost wholly fruitful of good. Under his direction many
useful public works were carried out roads, bridges and large
schemes of drainage. The first reforms undertaken had provoked
a disturbance in Madrid directed against the king's favourite
minister, the Sicilian marquis of Squillacci. Charles, who
believed that the Jesuits had promoted the outbreak, and also
that they had organized a murder plot against him, allowed his
minister Aranda (q.v.), the correspondent of Voltaire, to expel the
order in 1766, and he exerted his whole influence to secure its
entire suppression. The new spirit was otherwise shown by the
restrictions imposed on the numbers of the religious orders and
on the Inquisition, which was reduced to practical subjection
to the lay courts of law. Many of the king's industrial enter-
prises, such as the Bavarian colony, established by him on the
southern slope of the Sierra Morena, passed away without leaving
much trace. On the other hand the shipping and the industry
of Spain increased greatly. The population made a considerable
advance, and the dense cloud of sloth and ignorance which
had settled on the country in the I7th century was lifted. In
this work Charles III. was assisted, in addition to Squillacci
and Aranda, by Campomanes (q.v.), who succeeded Aranda as
minister of finance in 1787, and by Floridablanca (q.v.), who
ruled the country in the spirit of enlightened bureaucracy.
Charles III. was succeeded in 1788 by his son Charles IV. The
father, though " enlightened," had been a thorough despot; the
son was sluggish and stupid to the verge of imbecility, but the
despotism remained. The new king was much under the
xxv. 1 8 a
influence of his wife, Maria Louisa of Parma, a coarse, passionate
and narrow-minded woman; but he continued to repose confi-
dence in his father's ministers. Floridablanca was,
however, unable to continue his earlier policy,
in view of the .contemporaneous outbreak of the
Revolution in France. The revival of Spain depended on
the restoration of her colonial and naval ascendancy at the
expense of Great Britain, and for this the support of France
was needed. But the " Family Compact," on which the
French alliance depended, ceased to exist when Louis XVI.
was deprived of power by his subjects. Of this conclusive
evidence was given in 1791. Some English merchants had
violated the shadowy claim of Spain to the whole west coast
of America by founding a settlement at Nootka Sound. The
Spanish government lodged a vigorous protest, but the French
National Assembly refused to lend any assistance, and Florida-
blanca was forced to conclude a humiliating treaty and give up
all hope of opposing the progress of Great Britain. This failure
was attributed by the minister to the Revolution, spaiaand
of which he became the uncompromising opponent, the French
The reforms of Charles IIl.'s reign were abandoned t evolutloa -
and all liberal tendencies in Spain were suppressed. But
Floridablanca was not content with suppressing liberalism in
Spain; he was eager to avenge his disappointment by crushing
the Revolution in France. He opened negotiations with the
emigres, urged the European powers to a crusade on behalf of
legitimacy, and paraded the devotion of Charles IV. to the head
of his family. This bellicose policy, however, brought him into
collision with the queen, who feared that the outbreak of war
would diminish the revenues which she squandered in self-
indulgence. She had already removed from the ministry Campo-
manes and other supporters of Floridablanca, and had compelled
the latter to restrict himself to the single department of foreign
affairs. Early in 1792 she completed her task by inducing
Charles IV. to banish Floridablanca to Murcia, and his place was
entrusted to the veteran Aranda, who speedily found that he held
office only by favour of the queen, and that this had to be
purchased by a disgraceful servility to her paramour, Emanuel
Godoy. Spain withdrew from the projected coalition against
France, and sought to maintain an attitude of neutrality, which
alienated the other powers, while it failed to conciliate the Re-
public. The repressive measures of Floridablanca were with-
drawn; society and the press regained their freedom; and no
opposition was offered to the propaganda of French ideas.
Aranda's policy might have been successful if it had been adopted
earlier, but the time for temporizing was now past, and it was
necessary to choose one side or the other. In November 1792
the queen felt herself strong enough to carry out the scheme which
she had been long maturing. Aranda was dismissed, Qodo
and the office of first minister was entrusted to
Godoy, who had recently received the title of duke of Alcudia.
Godoy, who was at once the queen's lover and the personal
favourite of the king, had no experience of the routine of office,
and no settled policy. Fortunately for him, the course now to
be pursued was decided for him. The execution of Louis XVI.
(Jan. 21, 1793) made a profound impression in a country where
loyalty was a superstition. Charles IV. was roused to demand
vengeance for the insult to his family, and Spain became an
enthusiastic member of the first coalition against France.
The number of volunteers who offered their services rendered
conscription unnecessary; and the southern provinces of
France welcomed the Spaniards as deliverers. These
advantages, however, were nullified by the shameful incom-
petence and carelessness of the government. The troops
were left without supplies; no plan of combined action was
imposed upon the commanders; and the two campaigns of 1793
and 1794 were one long catalogue of failures. Instead of
reducing the southern provinces of France, the Spaniards were
driven from the strong fortresses that guarded the Pyrenees,
and the French advanced almost to the Ebro; and at the same
time the British were utilizing the war to extend their colonial
power and were establishing more firmly that maritime
554
SPAIN
[HISTORY
supremacy which the Spanish government had been struggling for
almost a century to overthrow. Under the circumstances the
queen and Godoy hastened to follow the example set by Prussia,
and concluded the treaty of Basel with France (1795). The terms
were unexpectedly favourable, and so great was the joy excited
in Madrid that popular acclamation greeted the bestowal upon
Godoy of the title of " Prince of the Peace." But the modera-
tion of the treaty was only a flimsy disguise of the disgrace
that it involved. Spain found herself tied hand and foot to
the French republic. Godoy had to satisfy his allies by the
encouragement of reforms which both he and his mistress
loathed, and in 1796 the veil was removed by the conclusion
of the treaty of San Ildefonso. This was a virtual renewal
of the " Family Compact " of 1761, but with terms far more
disadvantageous to Spain. Each power was pledged to
assist the other in case of war with twenty-five ships, 18,000
infantry and 6000 cavalry. The real object of the treaty, which
was to involve Spain in the war against Great Britain, was
cynically avowed in the i8th article, by which, during the present
war, the Spanish obligations were only to apply to the quarrel
between Great Britain and France. A scheme was prepared for
a joint attack on the English coast, but it was foiled by the battle
of St Vincent (q.v.), in which Jervis and Nelson forced the Spanish
fleet to retire to Cadiz. This defeat was the more disastrous
because it deprived Spain of the revenues derived from her
colonies. Great Britain seized the opportunity to punish Spain
for its conduct in the American War by encouraging discontent
in the Spanish colonies, and in the Peninsula itself both nobles
and people were bitterly hostile to the queen and her favourite.
It was in vain that Godoy sought to secure the friendship of
the reforming party by giving office to two of its most prominent
members, Jovellanos and Saavedra. Spanish pride and bigotry
were offended by the French occupation of Rome and the erection
of a republic in the place of the papal government. The treat-
ment of the duke of Parma by the Directory was keenly resented
by the queen. Godoy found himself between two parties, the
Liberals and the Ultramontanes, who agreed only in hatred of
himself. At the same time the Directory, whose mistrust was
excited by his attitude in the question of Parma, insisted upon
his dismissal. Charles IV. could not venture to refuse; the queen
was alienated by Godoy 's notorious infidelities; and in March
1798 he was compelled to resign his office.
Godoy's office was entrusted to Saavedra, but the reformers
did not obtain the advantages which they expected from the
change. Jovellanos was compelled in August to retire on account
of ill health the result, it was rumoured of attempts on the
part of his opponents to poison him. His place was taken by
Caballero, an ardent opponent of reform, who restored all the
abuses of the old bureaucratic administration and pandered to
the bigoted prejudices of the clergy and the court. The only
advantage which Spain enjoyed at this period was comparative
independence of France. The military plans of the Directory
were unsuccessful during the absence of their greatest general in
Egypt, and the second coalition gained successes in 1799 which
had seemed impossible since 1793. But the return of Bonaparte,
followed as it was by the fall of the Directory and the establishment
of the Consulate, commenced a new epoch for Spain. As soon as
the First Consul had time to turn his attention to the Peninsula,
he determined to restore Godoy, who had already
regained the affection of the queen, and to make him
the tool of his policy. Maria Louisa was easily gained
over by playing on her devotion to the house of Parma, and on
the ist of October 1800 a secret treaty was concluded at San
Ildefonso. Spain undertook to cede Louisiana and to aid France
in all her wars, while Bonaparte promised to raise the duke of
Parma to the rank of king and to increase his territories by the
addition either of Tuscany or of the Roman legations. This was
followed by Godoy's return to power, though he left the depart-
ment of foreign affairs to a subordinate. Spain was now more
servile to France than ever, and in 1801 was compelled to attack
Portugal in the French interests. The Spanish invasion,
.commanded by Godoy in person, met with no resistance, and the
prince ventured to conclude a peace on his own authority by
which Portugal promised to observe a strict neutrality on condi-
tion that its territories were left undiminished. But Bonaparte
resented this show of independence, and compelled Charles IV.
to refuse his ratification of the treaty. Portugal had to submit
to far harsher terms, and could only purchase peace by the cession
of territory in Guiana, by a disadvantageous treaty of commerce,
and by payment of twenty-five million francs. In the pre-
liminary treaty with Great Britain he ceded the Spanish colony of
Trinidad without even consulting the court of Madrid, while he
,old Louisiana to the United States in spite of his promise not
to alienate it except to Spain.
Godoy, since his return, had abandoned all connexion with the
reforming party. The Spanish Church was once more placed
in strict subjection to the Roman see, from which for a short
time it had been freed. As soon as Bonaparte saw himself
involved in a new war with England, he turned to Spain for
assistance and extorted a new treaty (Oct. 9, 1803), which
was still more burdensome than that of 1796. Spain had to pay
a monthly subsidy of six million francs, and to enforce strict
neutrality upon Portugal, this involving war with England.
The last remnants of its maritime power were shattered in the
battles of Cape Finisterre and Trafalgar, and the English seized
Buenos Aires. The popular hatred of Godoy was roused to
passion by these disasters, and Spain seemed to stand on the brink
of revolution. At the head of the opposition was Ferdinand,
the heir to the throne, as insignificant as his rival, but endowed
with all good qualities by the credulous favour of the people.
Napoleon was at this time eager to humble Great Britain by
excluding it from all trade with Europe. The only country which
had not accepted his " continental system " was Portugal, and
he determined to reduce that kingdom by force. It was not
difficult to bribe Godoy, who was conscious that his position
could not be maintained after the death of Charles IV. In
October 1807 Spain accepted the treaty of Fontainebleau. (See
PORTUGAL: History.) The treaty was hardly concluded when a
French army under Junot marched through Spain to Portugal,
and the royal family of that country fled to Brazil. Ferdinand,
whose wife had died in 1806, determined to imitate his rival by
bidding for French support. He entered into secret relations
with Eugene Beauharnais, Napoleon's envoy at Madrid, and
went so far as to demand the hand of a Bonaparte princess.
Godoy, who discovered the intrigue, induced Charles IV. to order
his son's arrest (Oct. 27, 1807), on the charge of plotting
to dethrone his father and to murder his mother and Godoy.
The prince indeed was soon released and solemnly pardoned; but,
meanwhile, Napoleon had seized the opportunity afforded by the
effect of this public scandal in lowering the prestige of the royal
family to pour his troops into Spain, under pretext of reinforcing
Junot's corps in Portugal. Even this excuse was soon dropped,
and by January and February 1808 the French invasion had
become clearly revealed as one of conquest. Charles IV. and his
minister determined on flight. The news of this intention, how-
ever, excited a popular rising at Aranjuez, whither the king and
queen had gone from Madrid. A raging mob surrounded the
palace, clamouring for Godoy's head; and the favourite's life
was only saved by Charles IV. 's announcement of his abdication
in favour of Ferdinand (March 17). Murat, however, who
commanded the French, refused to be turned aside by this change
of circumstances. He obtained from Charles IV. a declaration
that his abdication had been involuntary, and occu- Napoleon
pied Madrid (March 23, 1808). Meanwhile Napoleon attacks
had advanced to Bayonne on the frontier, whither, at s P aln -
his orders, Murat despatched the old king and queen and their
favourite Godoy. The emperor had already made up his mind
to place one of his brothers on the Spanish throne; but in order
to achieve this it was necessary to cajole the young king
Ferdinand VII. and get him into his power. Ferdinand, instead
of retiring to Andalusia and making himself the rallying point
of national resistance, had gone to Madrid, where he was at the
mercy of Murat's troops and whence he wrote grovelling letters
to Napoleon. It was no difficult matter for the emperor's
HISTORY]
SPAIN
555
envoy, General Savary, to lure him by specious promises to the
frontier, and across it to Bayonne, where he was confronted with
his parents and Godoy in a scene of pitiful degradation. Struck
and otherwise insulted, he was forced to restore the crown to his
father, who laid it at the feet of Napoleon. The old king and
queen, pensioned by the French government, retired to Rome;
Abdication Ferdinand was kept for six years under strict military
of Charles guard at Talleyrand's chateau of Valencay (see
IV - FERDINAND VII., King of Spain). On the 13th of
May Murat announced to an improvised " junta of regency "
at Madrid that Napoleon desired them to accept Joseph
Bonaparte as their king.
But Spanish loyalty was too profound to be daunted even by
the awe-inspiring power of the French emperor. For the first
Joseph t ' me Napoleon found himself confronted, not by
Bonaparte terrified and selfish rulers, but by an infuriated
proclaimed people. The rising in Spain began the popular move-
Klag ' ment which ultimately proved fatal to his power.
At first he treated the novel phenomenon with contempt, and
thought it sufficient to send his less prominent generals against
the rebels. Madrid was easily taken, but the Spaniards
showed great capacity for the guerrilla warfare in the provinces.
The French were repulsed from Valencia; and Dupont, who had
advanced into the heart of Andalusia, was compelled to retreat
and ultimately to capitulate with all his forces at Baylen (July
10). The Spaniards now advanced upon Madrid and drove
Joseph from the capital, which he had just entered. Unfortun-
ately the insurgents displayed less political ability than military
courage. Godoy's agents, the ministers, were swept aside by
the popular revolt, and their place was taken by local juntas,
or committees, and then by a central junta formed from among
them, which ruled despotically in the name of the captive king.
In a country divided by sectional jealousies it was impossible to
expect a committee of thirty-four members to impose unity of
action even in a common cause; and the Spanish rising, the first
fierceness of which had carried all before it, lacked the organizing
force which alone would have given it permanent success. As it
was, Napoleon's arrival in Spain was enough to restore victory to
the French. In less than a week the Spanish army was broken
through and scattered, and Napoleon restored his brother in
Madrid. Sir John Moore, who had advanced with an English
army to the relief of the capital, retired when he found he was
too late, and an obstinate battle, in which the gallant general lost
his life, had to be fought before the troops could secure their em-
barcation at Corunna. Napoleon, thinking the work accom-
plished, had quitted the Peninsula, and Soult and Victor were left
to complete the reduction of the provinces. The capture of Seville
resulted in the dissolution of the central junta, and the Peninsula
was only saved from final submission by the obstinate resistance
of Wellington in Portugal and by dissensions among the French.
The marshals were jealous of each other, and Napoleon's plans
were not approved by his brother. Joseph wished to restore
peace and order among his subjects in the hope of ruling an
independent nation, while Napoleon was determined to annex
Spain to his own overgrown empire. So far did these disputes go
that Joseph resigned his crown, and was with difficulty induced
to resume it. Meanwhile, the dissolution of the central junta
had given free play to the extremer reforming parties; on the 24th
of September these met at Cadiz, which became the capital of
what was left of independent Spain.
The Spanish Cortes had never been so entirely suspended as
the states-general of France. Philip V., after suppressing the
local institutions of the crown of Aragon, had given
representation to some of the eastern cities in the
general Cortes of Spain. This body had been
summoned at the beginning of reigns to swear homage to
the new king and his heir, or to confirm regulations made
as to the succession. It sat in one house, and was composed
of the nobles and churchmen who formed the great majority
of procurators chosen by the town councils of a limited
though varying number of towns, and of representatives
of " kingdoms." The Cortes of 1810 was constructed on
* 3
these lines, but with a very important difference in the pro-
portion of its elements. The third estate of the commons
secured 184 representatives, who were sufficient to swamp the
nobles and the clergy. No intelligent scheme under which the
representatives were to be elected had been fixed. In theory the
members of the third estate had been chosen by a process of
double election. In fact, however, since much of the country was
held by the French, they were often returned by such natives of
the regions so occupied as happened to be present in Cadiz at
the time. The real power fell to those of the delegates who were
influenced by the new ideas. Unhappily, they had no experience
of affairs; and they were perfectly ready to make a constitution
for Spain on Jacobin lines, without the slightest regard to the real
beliefs and interests of Spaniards. Out of these materials nothing
could be expected to come except such a democratic constitution
as might have been made by a Jacobin club in Paris. In a
country noted for its fanatical loyalty to the Crown and the
Church, the kingship was to be deprived of all power and
influence, and the clergy to be excluded as such fromspan/sh
all share in legislation. As though to deprive the Constitution
constitution of any chance of being made effective, "*'^'
the worst expedients dictated by the suspicious temper of the
French convention of 1790 were adopted. Ministers were
excluded from the chamber, thus rendering impossible any
effective co-operation between the legislature and the executive;
and, worst of all, a provision was introduced making members
of the Cortes ineligible for re-election, an effective bar to the
creation of a class of politicians possessing experience of affairs.
The Spaniards were so broken to obedience, and the manlier
part of them so intent on fighting the French, that the Cortes
was not at the time resisted. The suppression of the Inquisition
and the secularization of the church lands measures which
had already been taken by the government of the intruding
French king Joseph at Madrid passed together with much
else. But even before the new constitution was published and
sworn, on the ipth of March 1812, large numbers of Spaniards
had made up their minds that after the invaders were driven
out the Cortes must be suppressed.
The liberation of Spain could hardly have been accomplished
without the assistance of Great Britain. The story of 'the
struggle, from the military point of view, is told in the article
PENINSULAR WAR. In 1812 Wellington determined on a
great effort. He secured his base of operations by the capture
of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, and at Salamanca he com-
pletely routed the opposing army of Marmont. This victory
enabled the English general to enter Madrid (Aug. 12), and
Joseph retreated to Valencia. But further advance was pre-
vented by the concentration of the French forces in the east,
and Wellington found it advisable to retire for the third time
to winter quarters on the Portuguese frontier. It was during
this winter that Napoleon suffered his first and greatest reverse
in the retreat from Moscow and the destruction of his grand
army. This was the signal for the outbreak of the " war of
liberation " in Germany, and French troops had to be withdrawn
from Spain to central Europe. For the first time Wellington
found himself opposed by fairly equal forces. In the spring
of 1813 he advanced from Ciudad Rodrigo and defeated Jourdan
at Vittoria, the battle which finally decided the Peninsular
War. Joseph retired altogether from his kingdom, and Welling-
ton, eager to take his part in the great European contest, fought
his way through the Pyrenees into France. Napoleon, who had
suffered a crushing defeat at Leipzig, hastened to recognize
the impossibility of retaining Spain by releasing Ferdinand VII.,
who returned to Madrid in March 1814.
Before entering Spain Ferdinand had undertaken to maintain
the constitution of 1812, and when on the 22nd of March 1814
he reached Figueras, he was met by a demand on Restoratloa
the part of the Cortes that he must accept all theo/Ferdi-
terms of the constitution as a condition of his recog- "ana vn.,
nition as king. But Ferdinand had convincing 18U '
proof of the true temper of the nation. He now refused
to recognize the constitution, and was supported in his refusal
556
SPAIN
[HISTORY
not only "by the army and the Church, but by the masses.
There can be no doubt that Ferdinand VII. could have ruled
despotically if he had been able to govern well. But, although
possessed of some sardonic humour and a large measure
of cunning, he was base, and had no real capacity. He
changed his ministers incessantly, and on mere caprice.
Governed by a camarilla of low favourites, he was by nature
cruel as well as cowardly. The government under him was
thoroughly bad, and the persecution of the "Jacobins," that
is of all those suspected of Liberal sentiment, ferocious.
Partial revolts took place, but were easily crushed. The revolt
which overpowered him in 1820 was a military mutiny. During
the war the American colonies had rebelled, and soldiers had
been sent to suppress them. No progress had been made, the
service was dreadfully costly in life, and it became intensely
unpopular among the troops. Meanwhile the brutality of the
king and his ministers had begun to produce a reaction. Not
a few of the officers held Liberal opinions, and this was especially
Revolution tne case w ' tn those who had been prisoners in
on820. " F rance during the war and had been inoculated with
foreign doctrines. These men, of whom the most
conspicuous was Colonel Rafael Riego (q.v.), worked on the dis-
content of the soldiers, and in January 1820 brought about a
mutiny at Cadiz, which became a revolution. Until 1823 the
king was a prisoner in the hands of a section of his subjects,
who restored the constitution of 1812 and had the support of
the army. The history of these three miserable years cannot
be told except at impossible length. It was a mere anarchy.
The Liberals were divided into sub-sections, distinguished from
one another by a rising scale of violence. Any sign of moder-
ation on the part of the ministers chosen from one of them
was enough to secure him the name of " Servile " from the others.
The " Serviles " proper took up arms in the north. At last this
state of affairs became intolerable to the French government of
Louis XVIII. As early as 1820 the emperor Alexander I. of
Russia had suggested a joint intervention of the powers of
the Grand Alliance to restore order in the Peninsula, and had
offered to place his own army at their disposal for the purpose.
The Con- The project had come to nothing owing to the oppo-
gressof sition of the British government and the strenuous
3"% Md objection of Prince Metternich to a course which
would have involved the march of a powerful
Russian force through the Austrian dominions. In 1822 the
question was again raised as the main subject of discussion
at the congress assembled at Verona (see VERONA, CONGRESS
OF). The French government now asked to be allowed to march
into Spain, as Austria had marched into Naples, as the man-
datory of the powers, for the purpose of putting a stop to a
state of things perilous alike to herself and to all Europe. In
spite of the vigorous protest of Great Britain, which saw in
this demand only a pretext for reviving the traditional Bourbon
ambitions in the Peninsula, the mandate was granted by the
majority of the powers; and on the 7th of April 1823 the duke of
Preach la- Angouleme, at the head of a powerful army, crossed
ten-nation, the Bidassoa. The result was a startling proof of
1823. tne flj ms y structure of Spanish Liberalism. What
the genius of Napoleon had failed to accomplish through
years of titanic effort, Angouleme seemed to have achieved
in a few weeks. But the difference of their task was
fundamental. Napoleon had sought to impose upon Spain
an alien dynasty; Angouleme came to restore the Spanish king
" to his own." The power of Napoleon had been wrecked on
the resistance of the Spanish people; Angouleme had the active
support of some Spaniards and the tacit co-operation of the
majority. The Cortes, carrying the king with it, fled to Cadiz,
and after a siege, surrendered with no conditions save that of an
amnesty, to which Ferdinand solemnly swore before he was
sent over into the French lines. As was to be expected, an
oath taken " under compulsion " by such a man was little
binding; and the French troops were compelled to witness,
with helpless indignation, the orgy of cruel reaction which
immediately began under the protection of their bayonets.
The events of the three years from 1820-1823 were the begin-
ning of a series of convulsions which lasted till 1874. On the
one hand were the Spaniards who desired to assimilate their
country to western Europe, and on the other those of them who
adhered to the old order. The first won because the general trend
of the world was in their favour, and because their opponents
were blind, contumacious, and divided among themselves.
If anything could have recalled the distracted country to
harmony and order, it would have been the object-lesson pre-
sented by the loss of all its colonies on the continent
of America. These had already become de facto colon?''
independent during the death-struggle of the Spanish
monarchy with Napoleon, and the recognition of their inde-
pendence de jure was, for Great Britain at least, merely a
question of time. A lively trade had grown up between Great
Britain and the revolted colonies; but since this commerce,
under the colonial laws of Spain, was technically illegitimate,
it was at the mercy of the pirates, who preyed upon it under
the aegis of the Spanish flag, without there being any possibility
of claiming redress from the Spanish government. The de-
cision of the powers at the congress of Verona to give a free
hand to France in the matter of intervention in Spain, gave
the British government its opportunity. When the invasion of
Spain was seen to be inevitable, Canning had informed the
French government that Great Britain would not tolerate the
subjugation of the Spanish colonies by foreign force. A dis-
position of the powers of the Grand Alliance to come to the
aid of Spain in this matter was countered by the famous message
of President Monroe (Dec. 2, 1823), laying the veto of the
United States on any interference of concerted Europe in the
affairs of the American continent. The empire of Brazil and
the republics of Mexico and Colombia were recognized by Great
Britain in the following year; the recognition of the other states
was only postponed until they should have given proof of their
stability. In announcing these facts to the House of Commons,
George Canning, in a phrase that became famous, declared
that he had " called a new world into existence to redress the
balance of the old " and that " if France had Spain, it should
at least be Spain without her colonies."
In Spain itself, tutored by misfortune, the efforts of the king's
ministers, in the latter part of his reign, were directed to re-
storing order in the finances and reviving agriculture Reactionary
and industry in the country. The king's chief Elements in
difficulties lay in the attitude of the extreme mon- s P" ln -
archists (Apostolicos), who found leaders in the king's brother
Don Carlos and his wife Maria Francisca of Braganza. Any
tendency to listen to liberal counsels was denounced by them
as weakness and met by demands for the restoration of the
Inquisition and by the organization of absolutist demon-
strations, and even revolts, such as that which broke out in
Catalonia in 1828, organized by the " supreme junta " set up
at Manresa, with the object of freeing the king from " the dis-
guised Liberals who swayed him." Yet the absolute monarchy
would probably have lasted for long if a dispute as to the suc-
cession had not thrown one of the monarchical parties on the
support of the Liberals. The king had no surviving Q uest i oa ot
children by his first three marriages. By his theSucces-
fourth marriage, on the nth of December 1829, sion. The
with Maria Christina of Naples he had two daughters. Pr w na ' fc
A j- i i i /i -AM Sanction.
According to the ancient law of Castile and Leon
women could rule in their own right, as is shown by the
examples of Urraca, Berengaria, and Isabella the Catholic. In
Aragon they could transmit the right to a husband or son.
Philip V. had introduced the Salic Law, which confined the
succession to males. But his law had been revoked in the Cortes
summoned in 1789 by Charles IV. The revocation had not
however been promulgated. Under the influence of Maria
Christina Ferdinand VII. formally promulgated it Isabella n.,
at the close of his life, after some hesitation, and Queen,
amid many intrigues. When he died on the 29th of l833 '
September 1833, his daughter Isabella II. was proclaimed
queen, with her mother Maria Christina as regent.
HISTORY]
SPAIN
557
The immediate result of the dead king's decision was to throw
Spain back into a period of squalid anarchy. Maria Christina
would have ruled despotically if she could, and began by an-
nouncing that material changes would not be made in the method
of government. But the Conservatives preferred to support
the late king's brother Don Carlos, and they had the active aid
of the Basques, who feared for their local franchises, and of the
mountaineers of Navarre, Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia, who
were either quite clerical, or who had become attached, during
the French invasion and the troubles of the reign of Ferdinand,
to a life of guerrillero adventure. Maria Christina
Christina.' nad the support of the army, and the control of
the machinery of government; while the mass of the
people passively submitted to the powers that were, while as
far as possible eluding their orders. The regent soon found
that this was not enough to enable her to resist the active
hostility of the Carlists and the intrigues of their clerical allies.
She was eventually driven by the necessities of her position
to submit to the establishment of parliamentary institutions.
She advanced only when forced, first by the need for buying
support, and then with the bayonet at her back. First the
historic Cortes was summoned. Then in April 1834, under the
influence of the minister Martinez de La Rosa, a charter (Estatudo
Real) was issued establishing a Cortes in two Eslamentos or
Estates, one of senators (prdceres) and one of deputies, but with
no rights save that of petition, and absolutely dependent on the
Crown. This constitution was far from satisfying the advanced
Liberals, and the supporters of Christina known as Crislinos
broke into two sections, the Moderados, or Moderates, and
Progressistas or Exaltados, the Progressists or Hot-heads.
In August 1836 a military revolt at the palace of La Granja
in the hills above Segovia drove the regent by sheer
^""^"""""violence to accept a democratic constitution, based
on that of 1812, which was issued in 1837. Mean-
while Cristinos and Carlistas, the successors of the " Liberates "
and " Serviles," were fighting out their quarrel. In 1835
a violent outbreak against the monastic orders took place.
In some cities, notably in Barcelona, it was accompanied by
cruel massacres. Though the measure was in itself repugnant
to Maria Christina, the pressing needs of her government com-
pelled her to consent when Juan Alvarez y Mendizabal (1790-
1853), a minister of Jewish descent, forced on her by Liberals,
secularized the monastic lands and used them for a financial
operation which brought some relief to the treasury.
The Carlist War lasted from the beginning of Isabella's reign
till 1840. At first the Carlists were feeble, but they gathered
strength during the disputes among the Cristinos.
lZ* r ' M Their leaders, Tomas Zumalacarregui in Biscay and
Navarre, and Ramon Cabrera in Valencia, were the
ablest Spaniards of their time. The war was essentially
a guerrilleros struggle in which the mountaineers held
their ground among the hills against the insufficient, ill-
appointed, and mostly very ill-led armies of the government,
but were unable to take the fortresses, or to establish themselves
in central Spain south of the Ebro; though they made raids as
far as Andalusia. At last, in August 1839, exhaustion brought
the Basques to recognize the government of Queen Isabella
by the convention of Vergara in return for the confirmation of
their privileges. The government was then able to expel
Cabrera from Valencia and Catalonia. Great Britain and France
gave some help to the young queen, and their intervention
availed to bring a degree of humanity into the struggle.
Maria Christina, who detested the parliamentary institu-
tions which she had been forced to accept, was always ready
Kevoitand to nullify them by intrigue, and she was helped
Regency of by the Moderados. In 1841 the regent and the
Espartero. Moderados made a law which deprived the towns of
the right of electing their councils. It was resented by the
Liberals and provoked a military rising, headed by the most
popular of the Cristino generals, Baldomero Espartero. The
queen regent having been compelled to sign a decree illegally
revoking the law, resigned and left for France. Espartero was
n
declared regent. He held office till 1843, during an agitated
period, in which the Carlists reappeared in the north, muti-
nies were common, and a barbarous attempt was made to
kidnap the young queen in her palace on the night of the 7th
of October 1841. It was only defeated by the hard fighting
of eighteen of the palace guards at the head of the main stair-
case. In 1843 Espartero, a man of much personal courage and
of fitful energy, but of no political capacity, was expelled by
a military rising, promoted by a combination of discontented
Liberals and the Moderates. The queen, though only thirteen
years old, was declared of age.
The reign of Queen Isabella, from 1843 till her expulsion in
1868, was a prolongation of that of her mother's regency. It
was a confused conflict between the constant attempt
of the court to rule despotically, with a mere i" a ,
pretence of a Cortes, and the growing wish of the
Spaniards to possess a parliamentary government, or at least
the honest and capable government which they hoped that a
parliament would give them. In 1845 the Moderates having
deceived their Liberal allies, revised the constitution of 1837
and limited the freedom it gave. Their chief leader, General
Ramon Narvaez, had for his guiding principle that government
must be conducted by the stick and by hard hitting. In
1846 Europe was scandalized by the ignominious intrigues
connected with the young queen's marriage. Louis Philippe,
king of the French, saw in the marriage of the The
young queen a chance of reviving the family alliance "Spanish
which had, in the i8th century, bound Bourbon Marriages."
Spain to Bourbon France. The court of Madrid was rent by
the intrigues of the French and the English factions; the former
planning an alliance with a son of the French king, the latter
favouring a prince of the house of Coburg. The episode of the
Spanish marriages forms an important incident in the history
of Europe; for it broke the entente cordiale between the two
western Liberal powers and accelerated the downfall of the
July monarchy in France. There can be no doubt, in spite of
the apology for his action published by Guizot in his memoirs,
that Louis Philippe made a deliberate attempt to overreach
the British government; and, if the attempt issued in disaster
to himself, this was due, not to the failure of his statecraft so
much as to his neglect of the obvious factor of human nature.
Palmerston, on behalf of Great Britain, had agreed to the
principle that the queen should be married to one of her Bourbon
cousins of the Spanish line, and that the younger sister should
marry the duke of Montpensier, son of Louis Philippe, but
not till the birth of an heir to the throne should have obviated
the danger of a French prince wearing the crown of Spain.
Louis Philippe, with the aid of the queen-mother, succeeded in
forcing Isabella to accept the hand of Don Francisco d'Assisi,
her cousin, who was notoriously incapable of having heirs; and
on the same day the younger sister was married to the duke of
Montpensier. The queen's marriage was miserable; and she
consoled herself in a way which at once made her court the
scandal of Europe, and upset the French king's plans by pro-
viding the throne of Spain with healthy heirs of genuine Spanish
blood. But incidentally the scandals of the palace had a large
and unsavoury part in the political troubles of Spain. Narvaez
brought Spain through the troubled revolutionary years 1848
and 1849' without serious disturbance, but his own unstable
temper, the incessant intrigues of the palace, and the inability
of the Spaniards to form lasting, political parties made good
government impossible. The leaders on all sides were of
small capacity. In 1854 another series of outbreaks began
which almost ended in a revolution. Liberals and discontented
Moderates, supported as usual by troops led into mutiny
by officers whose chief object was promotion, imposed some
restraint on the queen. Another revision of the constitution was
undertaken, though not carried out, and Espartero
was brought from retirement to head a new govern-
ment. But the coalition soon broke up. Espartero
was overthrown by General Leopold O'Donnell, who in 1858
formed the Union-Liberal ministry which did at last give Spain
SPAIN
[HISTORY
five years of fairly good government. A successful war in
Morocco in 1859 flattered the pride of the Spaniards, and the
country began to make real progress towards prosperity.
In 1863 the old scene of confusion was renewed. O'Donnell
was dismissed. For the next five years the political history
of Spain was the story of a blind attempt on the part of the
queen to rule despotically, by the help of reckless adventurers
. of mean capacity, and by brute violence. The
Misrule at , J ', , J c . ...
Isabella. opposition took the form of successive military
outbreaks accompanied by murder, and suppressed
by massacre. In 1868 the government of Queen Isabella
collapsed by its own rottenness. She had even lost the mob
popularity which she had once gained by her jovial manners.
All men of political influence were either in open opposition
or, when they belonged to the Conservative parties, were holding
aloof in disgust at the predominance of the queen's favourites,
Gonzales Brabo, a mere ruffian, and Marfori, her steward, whose
position in the palace was perfectly well known.
In September 1868 the squadron at Cadiz under the command
of Admiral Topete mutinied, and its action was the signal for a
Revolution general secession. One gallant fight was made for
oi 1868. the queen at the bridge of Alcolea in Andalusia by
Deposition General Pavia, who was horribly wounded, but it
of Isabella. was an exce p^j on Gonzales Brabo deserted her in
a panic. She went into exile, and her reign ended. The
Revolution of 1868 was the first openly and avowedly directed
against the dynasty. It became a familiar saying that the
" spurious race of Bourbon " had disappeared for ever, and
the country was called upon to make a new and a better govern-
ment. But the history of the six years from September 1868
to December 1874 proved that the political incapacity of the
Spaniards had not been cured. There was no definite idea any-
where as to how a substitute was to be found. A Republican party
had been formed led by a few professors and coffee-house
politicians, with the mob of the towns for its support, and having
as its mouthpiece Don Emilio Castelar, an honest man of
Republican incredible fluency. The mass of the Spaniards,
and however, were not prepared for a republic. Be-
Monarchical s [fe s them were the various monarchical parties:
Parties. ^ Alfonsistas,viho wished for the restoration of the
queen's son with a regency, the partisans -of the widower king
consort of Portugal; those of the duke of Montpensier; the
Carlists; and a few purely fantastic dreamers who would have
given the crown to the aged Espartero. The real power was
in the hands of the military politicians, Francisco Serrano (q.v.)
and Juan Prim (q. .), who kept order by means of the army. A
constituent Cortes was assembled in 1869, and decided in favour
of a monarchy. Serrano was declared regent until a king
could be found, and it proved no easy task to find
Serrano one - Ferdinand of Portugal declined. Montpensier
was supposed to be unwelcome to Napoleon,
and was opposed by Prim, who had also committed himself
to the prophecy that the Bourbons would never return
to Spain. Attempts to find a candidate in the Italian family
failed at first. So did the first steps taken to find a king in
the house of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. When the desired
ruler was again sought in this family in 1870, the acceptance
of the offer by Prince Leopold proved the immediate cause
of the Franco-German War, in which Spain had a narrow
Amadeo of escape of being entangled. At last, in August of
Savoy 1870, Prince Amadeo of Savoy, second son of Victor
accepts the Emmanuel II., consented to become candidate. He
Crown. was e j ecte( j on t jj e ^rd of November. On the 27th
of December 1870, on the very day on which the new king
reached Carthagena, Prim was murdered by assassins who
were never discovered.
The nominal reign of Amadeo lasted till February 1873.
It was a scandalous episode. The Italian prince had put him-
self into a thoroughly false position, in which the nearest
approach to friends he could find were intriguing politicians
who sought to use him as a tool, and where every man of honest
principles, royalist or republican, looked upon him as an in-
truder. The Carlists began to colkct in the mountains. Repub-
lican agitations went on in the towns. At last a dispute in
regard to the officering of the artillery gave the
king an honourable excuse for resigning a throne
on which both he and his wife had been treated
with the utmost insolence.
The Republicans entered the place he left vacant simply
because there was nobody to oppose them. Until January
of the following year the country was given up
to anarchy. The Republicans had undertaken
abolish the conscription, and many of the soldiers,
taking them at their word, disbanded. The Carlists increased
rapidly in numbers, and were joined by many Royalists,
who looked upon them as the last resource. Bands of ruffians
calling themselves " volunteers of liberty " were found to defend
the Republic, and to terrorize society. A new Cortes was
collected and proved a mere collection of hysterical ranters.
Three presidents succeeded one another within a year, Pi y
Margall, Salmeron and Castelar. Ministries changed every few
days. As the Republic was to be federal when finally organized
many parts of Spain proceeded to act independently. One
party went beyond federalism and proposed to split Spain
into cantons. The Cantonalists, who were largely galley
slaves and deserters, seized the important harbour of Cartha-
gena and the ships in it. The ships were taken out of their
hands by the British and German squadrons. The spectacle
of anarchy, and the stoppage in payment of taxes frightened
the Republican deputies into some approach to sanity. Stl-
meron allowed General Pavia to restore order in Andalusia.
When he gave place to Castelar, the eloquent Republican
deputy, who was left unchecked by the recess, Casielar , s
threw all his most eagerly avowed principles to the p res u en cy.
wind, raised a great conscription, and provided
the means of reducing Carthagena and pushing the war against
the Carlists with vigour. When the Cortes met again in January
1874, the extreme parties voted against Castelar on the 3rd
of the month. Hereupon General Pavia, the governor of
Madrid, turned the Cortes into the streets, to the relief of all
sane men in the country. Serrano was appointed as head of
the executive, and was mainly employed during the year in
efforts to save Bilbao from falling into the hands of the Carlists.
It had now become clear that the restoration of the Bourbons
in the person of Don Alphonso, Isabella's son, was the only
way of securing a final settlement. His civilian Alphonso
agents would have preferred to see him brought in XII. King,
by a Cortes. But on the 29th of December 1874 1874 '
General Martinez Campos caused him to be proclaimed king
at Murviedro by a brigade of troops, and the example there
set was followed everywhere. Don Alphonso XII. landed in
Barcelona on the loth of January 1875.
The Restored Monarchy, 1814-1900. The first act of Alphonso
was a royal decree confirming the appointment of Canovas del
Castillo as prime minister. A strong Conservative administra-
tion was formed, to which Canovas admitted some men of the
old parties of Queen Isabella's reign side by side with men
who had played a part in the Revolution before they became
his active auxiliaries in the Alphonsist propaganda in 1872
and 1873. This cabinet gave its chief attention for fifteen
months to the pacification of the Peninsula, adopting a Con-
servative and Catholic policy which contributed quite as much
as the great display of military resources to make the Pretender
lose adherents and prestige from the moment that his cousin
reached Madrid. The Church, the nobility and the middle
classes soon pronounced for the new state of things. The
Alphonsist armies, led by Marshals Campos and Jovellar,
swept the Carlist bands from the right bank of the Ebro to the
Pyrenees, and took their last strongholds in the eastern pro-
vinces, Cantavieja and Seo de Urgel. Not a few of the Carlist
leaders accepted bribes to go abroad, and others put their
swords at the disposal of the government for employment
against the Cuban rebels. Then all the forces of King Alphonso
under Marshal Quesada gradually closed round the remainder
HISTORY]
SPAIN
559
Internal
Changes
of the Carlist army in Navarre and in the Basque Provinces
at the beginning of 1876. The young king himself was present
at the close of the campaign, which sent his rival a fugitive
across the French frontier, with the few thousand followers
who had clung to his cause to the very end.
Directly the Carlist War was over, the government used part
of the large army at its disposal to reinforce the troops which
The Cuban had been fighting the Cuban insurgents since 1869.
insurrec- Marshal Jovellar was sent out to Havana as governor-
**" general, with Marshal Martinez Campos as com-
mander-in-chief of the forces. In about eighteen months
they managed to drive the rebels into the eastern districts
of the island, Puerto Principe and Santiago de Cuba, and
induced all but a few irreconcilable chiefs to accept a con-
vention that became famous under the name of the peace
treaty of Zanjon. Marshal Campos, who very soon succeeded
Jovellar as governor-general of Cuba, for the first time held
out to the loyalists of the island the prospect of reforms, fairer
treatment at the hands of the mother country, a more liberal
tariff to promote their trade, and self-government as the
crowning stage of the new policy. He also agreed to respect
the freedom of the maroons who had fled from their masters
to join the Cubans during the ten years' war, and this led to
Spain's very soon granting gradual emancipation to the re-
mainder of the slaves who had stood by their owners. Marshal
Campos was not allowed to carry out his liberal and concili-
atory policy, which the reactionary party in the colony, el
partido espanol, resented as much as their allies in the Peninsula.
Though much of his time and energies had been devoted to
the re-establishment of peace at home and in the colonies
from 1875 to 1880, Senor Canovas had displayed
considerable activity and resolution in the re-
organization of the monarchy. Until he felt sure
of the early termination of the struggle with the pretender, he
ruled in a dictatorial manner without the assistance of parlia-
ment. Royal decrees simply set aside most of the legislation
and reforms of the Spanish Revolution. Universal suffrage
alone was respected for a while and used as the means to call
into existence the first Cortes of the Restoration in 1876. The
electors proved, as usual, so docile, and they were so well
handled by the authorities, that Canovas obtained a parliament
with great majorities in both houses which voted a limited
franchise to take the place of universal suffrage. Immedi-
ately afterwards they voted the constitution of 1876, which
was virtually a sort of compromise between the constitution
of 1845 in the reign of Isabella and the principles of the demo-
cratic constitution of the Revolution in 1869. For instance,
liberty of conscience, established for the first time in 1869,
was reduced to a minimum of toleration for Protestant worship,
schools and cemeteries, but with a strict prohibition of propa-
ganda and outward signs of faith. Trial by jury was abolished,
on the plea that it had not worked properly. Liberty of
associations and all public meetings and demonstrations were
kept within narrow limits and under very close surveillance
of the authorities. The municipal and provincial councils
were kept in leash by intricate laws and regulations, much
resembling those of France under the Second Empire. The
political as well as the administrative life of the country was
absolutely in the hands of the wire-pullers in Madrid; and their
local agents, the governors, the mayors and the electoral
potentates styled los Caciques, were all creatures of the minister
of the interior at the head of Castilian centralization. The
constitution of 1876 had created a new senate, of which half
the members were either nominees of the Crown or sat by
right of office or birth, and the other half were elected by the
provinces of the Peninsula and the colonies, the clergy,
the universities and the learned societies and academies. The
House of Deputies, composed of 456 members, was elected by
the limited franchise system in Spain and by an even more
restricted franchise in the colonies, five-sixths of the colonists
being deprived of representation. From the beginning of the
Restoration the great statesman, who was nicknamed at the
time the Richelieu of Alphonso XII. 's reign, established a system
of government which lasted for a quarter of a century. He
encouraged the men of the Revolution who wanted to bow to
accomplished facts and make the best of the restricted amount
of liberty remaining, to start afresh in national politics as a
Dynastic Liberal party. From the moment that such former
revolutionists as Sagasta, Ulloa, Leon y Castillo, Camacho,
Alonzo Martinez and the marquis de la Vega de Armijo de-
clared that they adhered to the Restoration, Canovas did not
object to their saying in the same breath that they would
enter the Cortes to defend as much as possible what they had
achieved during the Revolution, and to protest and agitate,
legally and pacifically, until they succeeded in re-establishing
some day all that the first cabinet of Alphonso XII. had altered
in the Constitution of 1869. The premier not only approved
Sagasta's efforts to gather round him as many Liberals and
Democrats as possible, but did not even oppose the return
of Emilio Castelar and a few Republicans. He also counte-
nanced the presence in the Cortes for the first time of 1 5 senators
and 42 deputies to represent Cuba and Porto Rico, including
a couple of home rulers. Thus Canovas meant to keep up
the appearance of a constitutional and parliamentary govern-
ment with what most Spaniards considered a fair proportional
representation of existing parties, except the Carlists and the
most advanced Republicans, who only crept into the House of
Deputies in some later parliaments. Canovas ruled his own
coalition of Conservatives and Catholics with an iron hand,
managing the affairs of Spain for six years with only two short
interruptions, when he stood aside for a few months, just long
enough to convince the king that the Conservative party
could not retain its cohesion, even under such men as
Marshals Jovellar and Campos, if he did not choose to support
them.
In the early years of the Restoration the king and Canovas
acted in concert in two most delicate matters. Alphonso XII.
agreed with his chief counsellor as to the expediency of
keeping military men away from active politics. Canovas
boldly declared in the Cortes that the era of military pro-
nunciamientos had been for ever closed by the Restoration,
and the king reminded the generals more than once that he in-
tended to be the head of the army. The king and his prime
minister were equally agreed about the necessity of showing
the Vatican and the Church sufficient favour to induce them to
cease coquetting with the pretender Don Carlos, but not so
much as to allow the pope and the clergy to expect that they
would tolerate any excessive Ultramontane influence in the policy
of the Restoration. In regard to foreign policy, the king and
Canovas both inclined to assist national aspirations in Morocco,
and jealously watched the relations of that empire with other
European powers. This desire to exercise a preponderant
influence in the affairs of Morocco culminated in the Madrid
conference of 1880. Preponderant influence was not attained,
but the conference led to a treaty which regulated the consular
protection extended to the subjects of Morocco.
In 1878, in spite of the well-known hostility of his mother
to the Montpensiers, and in spite of his ministers' preferences
for an Austrian match, King Alphonso insisted marriage of
upon marrying the third daughter of the duke of Alphonso
Montpensier, Dona Mercedes, who only survived xu -
her marriage five months. Barely seventeen months after
the death of his first wife, the king listened to the advice
of Canovas and married, in November r879, the Austrian
archduchess Maria Christina of Habsburg. In general matters
the king allowed his ministers much liberty of action. From
1875 to 1881, when not too much engrossed in more pressing
affairs, his governments turned their attention to the re-
organization of the finances, the resumption of payment of
part of the debt coupon, and the consolidation of the colonial
and imperial floating debts. They swerved from the mild
free trade policy which was inaugurated by Senor Figuerola
and by Prim at the beginning of the Revolution, and to which
was due the remarkable progress of the foreign trade. This
560
SPAIN
[HISTORY
went on almost continuously as long as the regime of moderate
tariffs and commercial treatises lasted, i.e. until i8qo.
In 1881 the Dynastic Liberals began to show impatience at
being kept too long in the cold shade of opposition. Their
Liberal chief, Sagasta, had found allies in several Con-
Adminis- servative and Liberal generals Campos, Jovellar,
trations. L O p ez .E) orn j n g uez and Serrano who had taken
offence at the 'idea that Canovas wanted to monopolize
power for civil politicians. These allies were said to be the
dynastic and monarchical ballast, and in some sort the
dynastic guarantees of liberalism in the eyes of the court.
Canovas came to the conclusion that it was expedient for the
Restoration to give a fair trial to the quondam revolutionists
who coalesced under Sagasta in such conditions. He arranged
with the king to moot a series of financial projects the accept-
ance of which by His Majesty would have implied a long tenure
of office for the Conservatives, and so Alphonso XII. found a
pretext to dissent from the views of his premier, who resigned
on the spot, recommending the king to send for Sagasta. The
Liberal administration which that statesman formed lasted
two years and some months. The policy of Sagasta in domestic
affairs resembled that of Canovas. The Liberals had to act
cautiously and slowly, because they perceived that any pre-
mature move towards reform or democratic legislation would
not be welcome at court, and jnight displease the generals.
Sagasta and his colleagues therefore devoted their attention
chiefly to the material interests of the country. They made
several treaties of commerce with European and Spanish-
American governments. They reformed the tariff in harmony
with the treaties, and with a view to the reduction of the import
duties by quinquennial stages to a fiscal maximum of 15%
ad valorem. They undertook to carry out a general conversion
of the consolidated external and internal debts by a considerable
reduction of capital and interest, to which the bondholders
assented. They consolidated the floating debt proper in the
shape of a 4% stock redeemable in 40 years, of which 70,000,000
was issued in 1882 by Senor Camacho, the greatest Spanish
financier of the century. Sagasta was not so fortunate in his
dealings with the anti-dynastic parties, and the Republicans
gave him much trouble in August 1883. The most irrecon-
cilable Republicans knew that they could not expect much
from popular risings in great towns or from the disaffected
and anarchist peasantry in Andalusia, so they resorted to the
old practice of barrack conspiracies, courting especially the
non-commissioned officers and some ambititms subalterns.
The chief of the exiles, Don Manuel Ruiz Zorilla, who had
retired to Paris since the Restoration, organized a military
conspiracy, which was sprung upon the Madrid government
at Badajoz, at Seo de Urgel, and at Santo Domingo in the
Ebro valley. This revolutionary outbreak was swiftly and
severely repressed. It served, however, to weaken the prestige
of Sagasta's administration just when a Dynastic Left was
being formed by some discontented Liberals, headed by Marshal
Serrano and his nephew, General Lopez-Dominguez. They
were joined by many Democrats and Radicals, who seized this
opportunity to break off all relations with Ruiz Zorilla and to
adhere to the monarchy. After a while Sagasta resigned in
order to let the king show the Dynastic Left that he had no
objection to their attempting a mildly democratic policy, on
condition that the Cortes should not be dissolved and that
Sagasta and his Liberal majorities in both houses should grant
their support to the cabinet presided over by Senor Posada
Herrera, a former Conservative, of which the principal members
were General Lopez-Dominguez and Senores Moret, Montero
Rios and Becerra. The support of Sagasta did not last long,
and he managed with skill to elbow the Dynastic Left out
of office, and to convince all dissentients and free lances
that there was neither room nor prospect for third parties
in the state between the two great coalitions of Liberals and
Conservatives under Sagasta and Canovas. When Posada
Herrera resigned, the Liberals and Sagasta did not seem much
displeased at the advent to power of Canovas in 1884, and soon
almost all the members of the Dynastic Left joined the Liberal
party.
From 1 88 1 to 1883, under the two Liberal administrations
of Sagasta and Posada Herrera, the foreign policy of Spain
was much like that of Canovas, who likewise had
had to bow to the king's very evident inclination policy"
for closer relations with Germany, Austria and
Italy than with any other European powers. Alphonso XII.
found a very willing minister for foreign affairs in the person
of the marquis de la Vega de Armijo, who cordially detested
France and cared as little for Great Britain. The Red-books
revealed very plainly the aims of the king and his minister.
Spanish diplomacy endeavoured to obtain the patronage of
Italy and Germany with a view to secure the admission of
Spain into the European concert, and into international con-
ferences whenever Mediterranean and North African questions
should be mooted. It prepared the way for raising the rank
of the representatives of Spain in Berlin, Vienna, Rome, St
Petersburg and London to that of ambassadors. In Paris the
country had been represented by ambassadors since 1760.
The Madrid foreign office welcomed most readily a clever
move of Prince Bismarck's to estrange Spain from France
and to flatter the young king of Spain. Alphonso XII. was
induced to pay a visit to the old emperor William in Germany,
and during his stay there, in September 1883, he was made
honorary colonel of a Uhlan regiment quartered at Strassburg.
The French people resented the act, and the Madrid government
was sorely embarrassed, as the king had announced his inten-
tion of visiting Paris on his way back from Germany. Nothing
daunted by the ominous attacks of the French people and
press, King Alphonso went to Paris. He behaved with much
coolness and self-possession when he was met in the streets
by a noisy and disgraceful demonstration. The president of
the Republic and his ministers had to call in person on their
guest to tender an apology, which was coldly received by
Alphonso and his minister for foreign affairs. After the king's
return, the German emperor sent his son the crown prince
Frederick, with a brilliant suite, to the Spanish capftal, where
they were the guests of the king for several days. Until the end
of his reign Alphonso XII. kept up his friendly relations with
the German Imperial family and with the German government.
The close of the reign of Alphonso XII. was marked by much
trouble in domestic politics, and by some great national calami-
ties and foreign complications, while the declining health of
the monarch himself cast a gloom over the court and govern-
ing classes. The last Conservative cabinet of this reign was
neither popular nor successful. When the cholera appeared
in France, quarantine was so rigorously enforced in the Peninsula
that the external trade and railway traffic were grievously
affected. On Christmas night, 1884, an earthquake caused
much damage and loss of life in the provinces of Granada and
Malaga. Many villages in the mountains which separate those
provinces were nearly destroyed. At Alhama, in Granada,
more than 1000 persons were killed and injured, several churches
and convents destroyed, and 300 houses laid in ruins. King
Alphonso went down to visit the district, and distributed relief
to the distressed inhabitants, despite his visibly failing health.
He held on gallantly through the greater part of 1885 under
great difficulties. In the Cortes the tension in the relations
between the government and the opposition was growing
daily more serious. Outside, the Republicans and Carlists
were getting troublesome, and the tone of their press vied with
that of the Liberals in their attacks on the Conservative cabinet.
Then, to make matters worse, an outbreak of cholera occurred
in the eastern provinces of the kingdom. The epidemic spread
rapidly over the Peninsula, causing great havoc in important
cities like Granada, Saragossa and Valencia. The authorities
confessed that ros.ooo persons died of cholera in the summer
and autumn of 1885, being on an average from 41 to 56% of
those attacked.
In September a conflict arose between Spain and Germany
which had an adverse effect upon his health. Prince Bismarck
HISTORY]
SPAIN
561
looked upon the rights of Spain over the Caroline Islands in
the Pacific as so shadowy that he sent some German war-ships
to take possession of a port in the largest island of the group.
The action of Germany caused great indignation in Spain, which
led, in Madrid, to imposing demonstrations. The government
got alarmed when the mob one night attacked the German
embassy, tore the arms of the empire from the door of the
consulate, and dragged the escutcheon to the Puerto del Sol,
where it was burnt amid much uproar. The troops had to be
called out to restore order. Alphonso alone remained cool, and
would not listen to those who clamoured for a rupture with
Germany. He elected to trust to diplomacy; and Spain made
out such a good case for arbitration, on the ground of her
ancient rights of discovery and early colonization, tha^t the
German emperor, who had no desire to imperil the dynasty
and monarchy in Spain, agreed to submit the whole affair to
the pope, who gave judgment in favour of Spain.
After his return to Madrid the king showed himself in public
less than usual, but it was clear to all who came in contact
Death of with him that he was dying. Nevertheless, in
Alphonso Madrid, Canovas would not allow the press to say
XIIm a word. Indeed, in the ten months before the
death of Alphonso XII. the Conservative cabinet displayed
unprecedented rigour against the newspapers of every shade.
The Dynastic, Liberal and Independent press, the illustrated
papers and the satirical weeklies fared no better than the
Republicans, Socialists and Carlists, and in 60 days 1260
prosecutions were ordered against Madrid and provincial
papers. At last, on the 24th of November 1885, the truth
had to be admitted and on the morning of the 2$th the end
came.
It was no wonder that the death of a king who had shown so
much capacity for rule, so much unselfish energy and courage,
Regency of and so many amiable personal qualities, should
Queen have made Spaniards and foreigners extremely
Christina, anxious about the prospects of the monarchy.
Alphonso XII. left no male issue. He had two daughters,
the princess of the Asturias, born in 1880, and the Infanta
Maria Theresa, born in 1882. At the time of his death it
had not been officially intimated that the queen was enceinte.
The Official Gazette did not announce that fact until three months
after the demise of the sovereign. On the iyth of May 1886,
six months after the death of Alphonso XII., his posthumous
son, Alphonso XIII., was born at the palace of Madrid.
Six months before this event definitely settled the question of
the succession to the throne, the royal family and its councillors
assembled to take very important decisions. There could be no
doubt that under the constitution of 1876 the widowed queen
was entitled to the regency. Dona Maria Christina calmly
presided over this solemn council, listening to the advice of
Marshal Campos, always consulted in every great crisis; of
Captain-General Pavia, who answered for the loyalty of the
capital and of its garrison; of the duke de Sexto, the chief of
the household; of Marshal Blanco, the chief of the military
household; and of all the members of the cabinet and the
presidents of the Senate and Congress assembled in the presence
of the queen, the ex-queen Isabella, and the Infanta Isabella.
All looked chiefly to Marshal Campos and Canovas del Castillo
for statesmanlike and disinterested advice. The question was
whether it would be expedient to continue the policy of the
late king and of his last cabinet. Canovas assured the queen-
regent that he was ready to undertake the task of protecting
the new state of things if it was thought wise to continue the
Conservative policy of the late king, but in the circumstances
created by his death, he must frankly say that he considered it
advisable to send for Senor Sagasta and ask him to take the reins
of government, with a view to inaugurate the regency under
progressive and conciliatory policy.
Sagasta was summoned to El Pardo, and the result of his inter-
view with the queen-regent, Canovas and the generals, was the
understanding ever afterwards known as the pact of El Pardo,
the corner-stone of the whole policy of the regency, and of the
two great statesmen who so long led the great dynastic parties
and the governments of Dona Christina. It was agreed that
during the first years of the regency, Canovas and Sagasta would
assist each other in defending the institutions and the dynasty.
Sagasta made no secret of the fact that it was his intention to
alter the laws and the constitution of the monarchy so as to make
them very much resemble the constitution of the Revolution of
1868, but he undertook to carry out his reform policy by stages,
and without making too many concessions to radicalism and
democracy, so that Canovas and his Conservative and Catholic
followers might bow to the necessities of modern times after a
respectable show of criticism and resistance. The generals
assured the queen-regent and the leaders of the dynastic parties
that the army might be counted upon to stand by any govern-
ment which was sincerely determined to uphold the Restoration
against Republicans and Carlists. Sagasta left the palace to form
the first of several cabinets over which he presided contiriuously
for five years. He took for colleagues some of the strongest
and most popular statesmen of the Liberal party, virtually
representing the three important groups of men of the Revolution
united under his leadership veteran Liberals like Camacho and
Venancio Gonzalez; Moderates like Alonzo Martinez, Gamazo
and Marshal Jovellar; and Democrats like Moret, Montero Rios
and Admiral Beranger. The new cabinet convoked the Cortes
elected under the administration .of Canovas in 1884, and the
Conservative majorities of both houses, at the request of
Canovas, behaved very loyally, voting supplies and other bills
necessary to enable the government to be carried on until
another parliament could be elected in the following year,
1886.
Pending the dissolution and general election, Sagasta and
his colleagues paid most attention to public peace and foreign
affairs. A sharp look-out was kept on the doings Republican
of the Republicans, whose arch-agitator, Ruiz and Cariist
Zorilla, in Paris displayed unusual activity in his iitr/gues.
endeavours to persuade the Federals, the Intransigeants, and
even the Opportunists of Democracy that the times were ripe
for a venture. Ruiz Zorilla found no response from the
Republican masses, who looked to Pi y Margall for their
watchword, nor from the Republican middle classes, who shared
the views of Salmeron, Azcarate and Pedregal as to the inex-
pediency of revolutionary methods. Castelar, too, raised
his eloquent protest against popular risings and barrack
conspiracies. The Carlists showed equal activity in propaganda
and intrigues. Sagasta derived much benefit from the divisions
which made democracy powerless; and he was able to cope
with Carlism chiefly because the efforts of the pretender himself
abroad, and of his partisans in Spain, were first restrained and
then decisively paralysed by the influence of foreign courts
and governments, above all by the direct interference of the
Vatican in favour of the Spanish regency and of the successor
of Alphonso XII. The young and most impatient adherents of
Carlism vainly pleaded that such an opportunity would not
soon be found again, and threatened to take the law into their
own hands and unfurl the flag of Dios, Patria, y Rey in northern
and central Spain. Don Carlos once more showed his well-
known lack of decision and dash, and the Cariist scare passed
away. Pope Leo XIII. went even further in his patronage,
for he consented to be the godfather of the posthumous son of
Alphonso XII., and he never afterwards wavered in the steady
sympathy he showed to Alphonso XIII. He was too well
acquainted with the domestic politics of the Peninsula to
suppose that Carlism could ever do more than disturb for a while
the tranquillity of Spain. He did not wish to stake the interests
of the Church on a cause which could only revive against her
the old animosities of Spanish liberalism and democracy, so
roughly displayed in tha years 1836 and 1868. Dona Christina,
apart from the dictates of gratitude towards the head of her
Church for the kindness shown to her son and government, was
a zealous Catholic. She proved all through her regency that
she not only relied upon the support of the Vatican and of the
prelates, but that she was determined to favour the Church
562
SPAIN
[HISTORY
and the religious foundations in every possible way. Her
purse was always open to assist convents, monasteries, and
religious works and societies of all kinds, as long as they were
under the management of the Church. She became regent when
Spain had felt the consequences of the expulsion of the Jesuits
and other religious orders from France after the famous Jules
Ferry laws, which aimed at placing these orders more under
state control, to which they declined to submit. They selected
Spain as an excellent field of enterprise; and it must be said
that all the governments of the regency showed so much indulg-
ence towards the Catholic revival thus started, that in less than
a decade the kingdom was studded with more convents, monas-
teries, Jesuit colleges, Catholic schools, and foundations than
had existed in the palmy days of the houses of Austria and
Bourbon in the iyth and i8th centuries. A wave of Clericalism
and ultra-Catholic influences swept over the land, affecting
the middle classes, the universities and learned societies, and
making itself very perceptible also among the governing classes
and both dynastic parties, Liberals and Conservatives.
Next in importance to papal protection was the favour-
able attitude of all the European governments towards the
Europe queen-regent and, later, towards her son. The
and the court and government of Germany vied with, the
Regency. Austrian and Italian royal families and govern-
ments in showing sympathy to the widow of Alphonso XII.
Republican France and the tsar made as cordial demon-
strations as Queen Victoria and her government, and
Switzerland, Belgium, Holland and others followed suit. The
Spanish foreign office received every assurance that friendly
governments would watch the Carlists and Republicans, to pre-
vent them from using their territories as a basis for conspiracies
against the peace of Spain. The statesmen of both dynastic
parties, from the beginning of the regency, agreed to observe
strict neutrality in European affairs, in order to avoid complica-
tions fraught with evil consequences for the monarchy and the
dynasty in the unsettled state of the country. This neutrality
was maintained until the close of the ipth century.
Sagasta conducted the first general election in 1886 much
after the usual precedents. The Long Parliament of the regency
was composed of considerable Liberal majorities
Sagasa ' ln both houses, though Sagasta had allowed a
larger share than Canovas was wont to do to the
minorities, so much so that on the opposition benches the
Republicans of various shades were represented by their
most eminent leaders, the Carlists had a respectable group, and
the Conservatives a strong muster, flanked by a group of dis-
sentients. The first Cortes of the regency in five sessions did
really good and substantial work. A civil code was carefully
drawn up by Senor Alonzo Martinez, in order to consolidate
the very heterogeneous ancient legislation of the monarchy
and the local laws of many provinces, especially Catalonia,
Aragon, Valencia, Navarre, and the Basque territory. Trial
by jury was re-established for most crimes and offences. The
laws regulating the rights of association and public meeting,
the liberty of the press, and other rights of the subject were
reformed on liberal and more tolerant lines. Finance and trade
received attention. Some commercial treaties and agreements
were made, including one with Great Britain, which proved
highly beneficial to home trade, and the tariff was altered, in
spite of much resistance on the part of the Protectionists. In his
progressive policy Sagasta was actively and usefully supported
by the chief of the moderate Republicans, Emilio Castelar, who
recommended his partisans to vote with the Liberal party,
because he confessed that bitter experience had taught him
that liberties and rights were better attained and made stable
by pacific evolution than by revolution. He laid most stress
upon this axiom when, in September i886> Ruiz Zorilla suddenly
sprang upon Sagasta a military and revolutionary movement
in the streets and barracks of Madrid. The military authorities
acted with promptitude, the rebels being pursued, dispersed
and arrested. General Marina and several other officers were
condemned to death by court martial, but Queen Christina
commuted the sentence into penal servitude, and the ministers
of war and marine retired from the cabinet in consequence.
Very shortly afterwards, another war minister, General Castillo,
attempted to strike at the root of military insubordination, and
simultaneously in every garrison of the kingdom the senior
sergeants, more than 1000 in all, were given their discharge
and ordered to start for their homes on the spot. The lesson
produced a good result, as no trace of revolutionary work
revealed itself among the non-commissioned officers after 1886.
As time wore on, Sagasta found it difficult to maintain discipline
in the ranks of the Liberal party. He was obliged to reconstruct
the cabinet several times in order to get rid of troublesome
colleagues like General Cassola, who wanted to make himself
a sort of military dictator, and Camacho, whose financial reforms
and taxation schemes made him unpopular He had more often
to reorganize the government in order to find seats in the cabinet
for ambitious and impatient worthies of the Liberal party
not always with success, as Senor Martos, president of the
Congress, and the Democrats almost brought about a political
crisis in 1889. Sagasta cleverly affected to resign and stand
aside, so that Senor Alonzo Martinez might vainly attempt
to form an intermediary cabinet. Canovas, who was consulted
by the queen when Alonzo Martinez failed, faithfully carried
out the pact of El Pardo and advised Her Majesty to send for
Sagasta again, as he alone could carry out what remained to
be done of the Liberal programme. Sagasta reconstructed his
ministry for the last time, and announced his intention to make
the re-establishment of universal suffrage the crowning act of
the Liberal policy, knowing very well that he would thus rally
round him all the Liberals, Democrats and Republicans in the
last session of the Long Parliament. The Suffrage Bill was
carried through the Senate and Congress in the spring of 1890
after protracted debates, in which the Conservatives and many
military politicians who had previously been regarded as the allies
of Sagasta did their best to obstruct the measure. Marshals
Campos, Jovellar and Novaliches, and Generals Pavia, Primo
de Rivera, Daban and others, were'angry with Sagasta and the
Liberals not only because they deemed their policy too demo-
cratic, but because they ventured to curb the insubordinate
attitude of general officers, who shielded themselves behind
the immunities of their senatorial position to write insolent
letters to the war minister on purely professional questions.
Spanish generals of pronunciamiento fame thought it perfectly
logical and natural that sergeants and subalterns should be shot
or sent to penal servitude for acts of indiscipline, but if an in-
subordinate general was sent to a fortress under arrest for two
months they publicly demonstrated their sympathy with the
offender, made angry speeches against their hierarchical chief,
the war minister, in the Senate, and dared to call upon the
queen-regent to make representations, which unfortunately
were listened to, according to the worst precedents of the
Spanish monarchy. The increasing violence of the Conservative
press and opposition, the divisions developing in the ranks of
liberalism, and the restlessness of the agricultural protectionists
led by Senor Gamazo, did not weigh so much in the balance
at court against Sagasta as the aggressive attitude of the military
politicians. Sagasta held on as long as was necessary to secure
the promulgation of the universal suffrage law, but he noticed
that the queen-regent, when he waited upon her for the despatch
of public business, showed almost daily more impatience for a
change of policy, until at last, in July 1890, she peremptorily
told him that she considered the time had come for calling the
Conservatives and their military patrons to her councils. Sagasta
loyally furnished the queen with a constitutional pretext for
carrying out her desire, and tendered the resignation of the
whole cabinet, so that Her Majesty might consult, as usual,
the party leaders and generals on the grave question of the
expediency of entrusting to new ministers or to the Liberals
the mission of testing the new electoral system. Queen Christina
on this occasion acted exactly as she henceforth did in all
ministerial crises. She slowly consulted the magnates of all
i parties with apparent impartiality, and finally adopted the course
HISTORY]
SPAIN
5 6 3
which it was an open secret she had decided upon in pectore
beforehand.
Canovas gathered round him most of the prominent Conserva-
tive and Catholic statesmen. The first step of the new cabinet
A Protec- was calculated to satisfy the protectionist aspirations
tionist which had spread in the kingdom about the same
Regime. t j me t jj at mos t Continental countries were remodel-
ling and raising their tariffs. The Madrid government used
an authorization which Sagasta had allowed his Long Parlia-
ment to vote, to please Senor Gamazo and the Liberal repre-
sentatives of agricultural interests, empowering the government
to revise and increase all tariff duties not covered by the then
existing treaties of commerce. This was the case with most
of the products of agriculture and with live stock, so Canovas
and his finance minister made, by royal decree, an enormous
increase in the duties on these classes of imports, and particu-
larly on breadstuffs. Then, in 1891, they denounced all the
treaties of commerce which contained clauses stipulating most-
favoured-nation treatment, and they prepared and put in force
in February 1892 a protectionist tariff which completely
reversed the moderate free-trade policy which had been so
beneficial to the foreign commerce of Spain from 1868 to
1892. Not a few nations retaliated with higher duties upon
Spanish exports, and France raised her wine duties to such an.
extent that the exports of wines to that country dropped from
12,500,000 before 1892 to 2,400,000 in 1893 and the following
years. The effects of a protectionist policy verging upon
prohibition were soon sharply felt in Spain. Foreign exchanges
rose, exports decreased, the railway traffic declined, and the
commercial classes and consumers of foreign goods and products
were loud in their protests. Industrial interests alone benefited,
and imported more raw materials, chemicals, and coal and coke,
which naturally influenced the exchanges adversely. Spain
only attempted to make new treaties of commerce with Hol-
land, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. The Great
Powers contented themselves with securing by agreements the
same treatment for their commerce in Spain as that granted
by those five treaties. The Protectionists in 1893 wrecked a
treaty of commerce with Germany in the Senate; and Spain
subsequently persevered in her protectionist policy. During
his two and a half years' stay in office Canovas had not so much
trouble with the opposition as with the divisions which sprang
up in the Conservative ranks, though he fancied that he had
managed the general election in 1891 so as to secure the customary
docile majorities. The split in the Conservative camp originated
in the rivalry between the two principal lieutenants of Canovas,
Romero Robledo and Francisco Silvela. The latter and a strong
and influential body of Conservatives, chiefly young politicians,
dissented from the easy-going views of Romero Robledo and of
Canovas on the expediency of reforms to correct the notorious
and old-standing abuses and corruption of the municipalities,
especially of Madrid. When Canovas found himself deserted
on so delicate a matter by a numerous section of his party,
he resigned, and advised the queen to send for Sagasta and
the Liberals.
Sagasta took office very reluctantly, as he considered a change
of policy premature. He conducted the general election with
Difficulty much regard for the wishes of the opposition, and
out of 456 seats in the Lower House allowed them
xo ' to have more than r7O, the Conservatives get-
ting nearly 100 and the Republicans 30. He had to settle
some knotty questions, foremost a conflict with Morocco, which
was the consequence of the aggression of the unruly Riff tribes
upon the Spanish outposts around Melilla. Reinforcements were
tardily sent out; and in a second attack by the Arabs the Spanish
forces lost heavily, and their commander, General Margallo,
was killed. Public opinion was instantly fired, and the press
called so loudly for revenge that the government sent to Melilla
no less a personage than Marshal Campos, at the head of 29
generals and 25,000 men. The sultan of Morocco lost no time
in censuring the behaviour of the Riff tribes, and in promising
that he would chastise them. Marshal Campos was sent to
Fez to make a treaty, in which he obtained ample redress and
the promise of an indemnity of 800,000, which Morocco
punctually paid.
Colonial affairs gave Sagasta much to do. He had given
seats in his cabinet to Senor Antonio Maura as colonial secretary
and to Senor Gamazo, his brother-in-law, as finance
minister. These two moderate Liberals acted in Q u l st " a."
concert to grapple with colonial questions, which in
1894 had assumed a very serious aspect; Spain had received
many ominous warnings. Marshal Campos, on returning from
Cuba in 1879, had advocated some concessions to satisfy the
legitimate aspirations of the majority of the colonists. In 1886,
in the first parliament of the regency, Cuban autonomist depu-
ties divided the house on a motion in favour of home rule and
of an extension of the franchise in Cuba. This motion was
negatived by all the Conservatives, by most of the Dynastic
Liberals and by some of the Republicans. The majority of Span-
iards were kept by the government and the press quite in the
dark about the growth of disaffection in Cuba, so that they
were loath to listen to the few men, soldiers and civilians, cour-
ageous enough to raise the note of alarm during the ten years
before the final catastrophe. For no other reason did -the
minister for the colonies, Senor Maura, in 1894 fail to convince
the Cortes, and even the Liberal party, that his very moderate
Cuban Home Rule Bill was an indispensable and wise, though
tardy, attempt to avert a conflict which many plain symptoms
showed to be imminent in the West Indies. Maura was warmly
supported in Congress by the Cuban home rulers and by some
far-sighted Liberals and Republicans. Nevertheless, his bill
did not find favour with the Conservatives or the majority of
the Liberals, and Sagasta, trimming according to his inveterate
habit, found a pretext to get rid of Maura and Gamazo. In the
place of Maura he found a more pliant minister for the colonies,
Senor Abarzuza, who framed a Cuban Reform Bill so much short
of what his predecessor had thought an irreducible minimum
of concessions, that it was censured in Havana by all the colonial
Liberals and home rulers, and by their representatives in
Madrid. The latter at the last moment recorded their votes
in favour of the Abarzuza Bill when they perceived that a
strange sort of eleventh-hour presentiment was about to make
all the Spanish parties vote this insufficient reform. Before it
could be promulgated, the tidings came of a separatist rising in
the old haunts of Creole disaffection near Santiago de Cuba.
Sagasta sent about 12,000 men to reinforce the 15,000 soldiers
in Cuba under General Callaga, and was preparing more when a
characteristically Spanish ministerial crisis arose. The subal-
terns of the Madrid garrison took offence at some articles pub-
lished by Radical newspapers, and they attacked the editorial
offices. Neither the war minister nor the commanders of the
garrison chose to punish the offenders, and sooner than endorse
such want of discipline, Sagasta and the Liberal party once more
made way for Canovas. A very few days after he assumed office
Canovas received information concerning the spread of the
rising in Cuba which induced him to send out Marshal Campos
with 30,000 men. He allowed Marshal Campos much liberty
of action, but dissented from his views on the expediency of
allowing him to offer the loyalists of Cuba as much home rule
as would not clash with the supremacy of Spain. The prime
minister declared that the Cubans must submit first, and then
the mother country would be generous.
Before a year had passed, in view of the signal failure of Marshal
Campos, the Madrid government decided to send out General
Weyler, who had made himself famous in the Philippines and at
Barcelona for his stern and cruel procedure against disaffection
of every kind. He showed the same merciless spirit in dealing
with the Cubans; and he certainly cleared two-thirds of the
island of Creole bands, and stamped out disaffection by vigorous
military operations and by obliging all the non- Genera/
combatants who sympathized with the rebels in Weyier's
arms to elect between joining them in the bush, Cam P al a a -
La Manigua, or residing within the Spanish lines. This system
might probably have succeeded if the United States had not
564
SPAIN
[HISTORY
countenanced the sending of supplies of every kind to the rebels,
and if American diplomacy had not again and again made
representations against Weyler's ruthless policy. Canovas so
fully comprehended the necessity of averting American interven-
tion that he listened to the pressing demands of secretary Olney
and of the American minister in Madrid, Hannis Taylor, and
laid before the Cortes a bill introducing home rule in Cuba on
a more liberal scale than Maura, Abarzuza and Sagasta had
dared to suggest two years before. Canovas did not live to see
his scheme put into practice, as he was assassinated by an
anarchist at the baths of Santa Agueda, in the Basque Provinces,
on the 9th of August 1897. The queen-regent appointed General
Azcarraga, the war minister, as successor to Canovas; and a
few weeks later President McKinley sent General Woodford as
representative of the United States at the court of Madrid. At
the end of September 1897 the American minister placed on
record, in a note handed by him at San Sebastian to the minister
for foreign affairs, the duke of Tetuan, a strongly-worded protest
against the state of things in Cuba, and demanded in substance
that a stop should be put to Weyler's proceedings, and some
measures taken to pacify the island and prevent the prolongation
of disturbances that grievously affected American interests.
Less than a fortnight after this note had been delivered, the
Conservative cabinet resigned, and the queen-regent asked
Sagasta to form a new administration. The Liberal government
recalled Weyler, and sent out, as governor-general of Cuba,
Marshal Blanco, a conciliatory and prudent officer, who agreed
to carry out the home-rule policy which was concerted by Senor
Moret and by Sagasta, with a view to obtain the goodwill of
the president of the United States. If things had not already
gone too far in Cuba, and if public opinion in the United States
had not exercised irresistible pressure on both Congress and
president, the Moret home-rule project would probably have
sufficed to give the Cubans a fair amount of self-government.
All through the winter of 1897-1898 the Madrid government
took steps to propitiate the president and his government, even
offering them a treaty of commerce which would have allowed
American commerce to compete on equal terms with Spanish
imports in the West Indies and defeat all European competition.
But the blowing up of the American cruiser " Maine " in the port
of Havana added fuel to the agitation in the United States
against Spanish rule in Cuba. When Congress met in Washington
the final crisis was hurried on. Spain appealed in vain to
European mediation, to the pope, to courts and governments.
All, with the exception of Great Britain, showed sympathy for
the queen-regent and her government, but none were disposed
to go beyond purely platonic representations in Washington.
At last, on the aoth of April 1898, when the Spanish govern-
ment learned that the United States minister, General Woodford,
WarwHh had been instructed by telegraph to present an
the United ultimatum demanding the cessation of hostilities
states. j n c u b aj with a view to prepare for the evacuation
of the island by the Spanish forces, Sagasta decided to give
General Woodford his passports and to break off official
relations with the United States. It was an open secret that
this grave decision was not taken at the cabinet council presided
over by the queen without a solemn protest by Senor Moret
and the ministers of war and marine that the resources of Spain
were totally inadequate for a struggle with the United States.
These protests were overruled by the majority of the ministers,
who invoked dynastic and monarchical considerations in favour
of a desperate stand, however hopeless, in defence of the last
remnants of the colonial empire of Spain. Reckless as was
the course adopted, it was in touch with the feelings of the
majority of a nation which had been to the very end deceived
by the government and by the press not only in regard to its
own resources, but also in regard to those of the United States
and of the colonists in arms in Cuba and in the Philippine Islands.
The sequel is soon told. The Spanish fleet in the Far East
was defeated in Manila Bay by Admiral Dewey. Admiral
Cervera's squadron was destroyed outside the Bay of Santiago
de Cuba by the American fleet under Admirals Sampson and
Schley. All communication between Spain and her colonies
was thus cut off. An American expedition landed near Santiago,
and the Spanish garrison surrendered after a fortnight's show
of resistance. Very shortly afterwards, at the end of July,
Spain sued for peace through the mediation of French diplomacy,
which did not obtain much from President McKinley. It was
agreed that hostilities should cease on sea and land, but that
Spain should evacuate Cuba and Porto Rico pending the negotia-
tions for a peace treaty which were to begin in Paris at the end
of September 1898. In the meantime Manila and its garrison
had surrendered to the Americans. The agreement of the 9th
of August, signed by M. Cambon, the French ambassador in
Washington, in the name of Spain, clearly stipulated that her
rule in the New World must be considered at an end, and that
the fate of the Philippines would be settled at the Paris nego-
tiations. Unfortunately, Spain indulged in the illusion that
America would perhaps respect her rights of sovereignty in
the Philippine Islands,, or pay a considerable sum for their
cession and recognize the debts of Cuba and of the Philippines.
The American commission, presided over by secretary Day
in Paris, absolutely refused to admit the Spanish contention
that the United States or the new administration in Cuba and
the Philippines should be saddled with several hundred million
dollars of debts, contracted by the colonial treasuries, and
guaranteed by Spain, almost entirely to maintain Spanish rule
against the will of the Cubans and Filipinos. Spain could not
help assenting to a treaty by which she renounced unconditionally
all her rights of sovereignty over Cuba and Porto Rico and ceded
the Philippine and Sulu Islands and the largest of the Marianne
Islands in consideration of the payment of four millions sterling
by America. Thus ended a struggle which only left Spain
the Carolines and a few other islands in the Pacific, which she
sold to Germany in 1899 for 800,000, and a couple of islands
which were left out in the delimitation made by the Paris peace
treaty of the i2th of December 1898, and for which America
paid 20,000 in 1900.
The consequences of the war and of the loss of the colonies
were very serious for Spanish finance. The national debt, which
consisted before the war of 234,866,500 of external Financial
and internal consols and redeemable debts, and and Political
24,250,000 of home floating debt, was increased Reorgaaiza-
by 46,210,000 of Cuban and Philippine debts, which a n '
the Cortes had guaranteed, and by 60,000,000 of debts con-
tracted at a high rate of interest, and with the national guarantee,
to meet the expenses of the struggle with the colonies and of the
war with the United States. These additional burdens rendered
it necessary that taxation and the budget should be thoroughly
reorganized. Sagasta and the Liberal party would gladly
have undertaken the reorganization of Spain and her finances,
but the issue of the war and the unavoidable peace treaty had
so evidently damaged their popularity in the country and their
credit at court, that the government seized the pretext of an
adverse division in the Senate to resign. The Liberals left office
after having done all that was morally and materially possible,
considering the extremely difficult, indeed inextricable, situation
in which they found the country in October 1897. The task
of reorganization was confided by the queen-regent to Senor
Silvela, who had been universally recognized as the leader of
the Conservatives and Catholics after the death of Canovas del
Castillo. Silvela endeavoured to unite in what he styled a
Modern Conservative party the bulk of the followers of Canovas;
the Ultramontanes, who were headed by General Polavieja and
Senor Pidal; the Catalan Regionalists, whose leader, Duran y
Bas, became a cabinet minister; and his own personal following,
of whom the most prominent were the home secretary, Senor
Dato, and the talented and energetic finance minister, Senor
Villaverde, upon whose shoulders rested the heaviest part of
the task of the new cabinet. Silvela lacked the energy and
decision which had been the characteristics of Canovas. He
behaved constantly like a wary and cautious trimmer, avoiding
all extreme measures, shaking off compromising allies like the
Ultramontanes and the Regionalists, elbowing out of the cabinet
HISTORY]
SPAIN
565
General Polavieja when he asked for too large credits for the
army, taking charge of the ministry of marine to carry out
reforms that no admiral would have ventured to make for fear
of his own comrades, and at last dispensing with the services
of the ablest man in the cabinet, the finance minister, Senor
Villaverde, when the sweeping reforms and measures of taxation
which he introduced raised a troublesome agitation among the
taxpayers of all classes. Villaverde, however, had succeeded
in less than eighteen months in giving a decisive and vigorous
impulse to the reorganization of the budget, of taxation and of
the home and colonial debts. He resolutely reformed all existing
taxation, as well as the system of assessment and collection, and
before he left office he was able to place on record an increase
of close upon three millions sterling in the ordinary sources of
revenue. His reorganization of the national debt was very
complete; in fact, he exacted even more sacrifices from the bond-
holders than from other taxpayers. The amortization of the
home and colonial debts was suppressed, and the redeemable
debts of both classes were converted into 4 % internal consols.
The interest on all colonial debts ceased to be paid in gold, and
was paid only in pesetas, like the rest of the internal debts, and
like the external debt held by Spaniards. Alone, the external
debt held by foreigners continued to enjoy exemption from
taxation, under the agreement made on the 28th of June 1882
between the Spanish government and the council of foreign bond-
holders, and its coupons were paid in gold. The Cortes authorized
the government to negotiate with the foreign bondholders
with a view to cancelling that agreement. This, however, they
declined to do, only assenting to a conversion of the 4 %
external debt into a 3!% stock redeemable in sixty-one years.
After parting with Villaverde, Silvela met with many difficul-
ties, and had much trouble in maintaining discipline in the
heterogeneous ranks of the Conservative party. He had to
proclaim not only such important provinces as Barcelona,
Valencia and Bilbao, but even the capital of Spain itself, in
order to check a widespread agitation which had assumed
formidable proportions under the direction of the chambers of
commerce, industry, navigation and agriculture, combined with
about 300 middle-class corporations and associations, and
supported by the majority of the gilds and syndicates of tax-
payers in Madrid and the large towns. The drastic measures
taken by the government against the National Union of Tax-
payers, and against the newspapers which assisted it in
advocating resistance to taxation until sweeping and proper
retrenchment had been effected in the national expenditure,
checked this campaign in favour of reform and retrenchment
for a while. Silvela's position in the country had been much
damaged by the very fact of his policy having fallen so much
short of what the nation expected in the shape of reform and
retrenchment. At the eleventh hour he attempted to retrieve
his mistake by vague promises of amendment, chiefly because
all the opposition groups, above all Sagasta and the Liberals,
announced their intention of adopting much the same pro-
gramme as the National Union. The attempt was unsuccessful,
and on the 6th of March 1901 a Liberal government, under the
veteran Sagasta, was once more in office. (A. E. H.)
Parties and Conflicts, igoo-igio. The loss of nearly all that
remained of her colonial empire, though in appearance a crowning
disaster, in fact relieved Spain of a perennial source
. weakness and trouble, and left her free to set her
own house in order. In this the task that faced the
government at the outset of the 2oth century was sufficiently
formidable. Within the country the traditional antagonisms,
regional, political, religious, still lived on, tending even to become
more pronounced and to be complicated by the introduction
of fresh elements of discord. The old separatist tendencies
were increased by the widening gulf between the interests of
the industrial north and those of the agricultural south. The
growing disposition of the bourgeois and artisan classes, not in
the large towns only, to imitate the " intellectuals " in desiring
to live in closer touch with the rest of Europe as regards social,
economic, scientific and political progress, embittered the
struggle between the forces of Liberalism and those of Catho-
licism, powerfully entrenched in the affections of the women and
the illiterate masses of the peasantry. To these causes of division
were added others from without: the revolutionary forces of
Socialism and Anarchism, here, as elsewhere, so far as the
masses were concerned, less doctrines and ideals than rallying-
cries of a proletariat in revolt against intolerable conditions.
Finally, as though to render the task of patriotic Spaniards
wellnigh hopeless, there was little evidence of any cessation
of that purely factious spirit which in Spanish politics has ever
rendered stable party government impossible. A sketch of
the political history of a country is necessarily concerned with
the externals of politics the shifting balance of parties, changes
of ministries, the elaboration of political programmes; and these
have their importance. It must, however, not be
f , i . . . . Spanish
forgotten that in a country in which, as in Spain, Politics.
the constitutional consciousness of the mass of the
people is very little developed, all these things reflect only very
imperfectly the great underlying forces by which the life of the
nation is being moulded and its destiny determined. For a
century politics in Spain had been a game, played by profes-
sionals, between the " ins " and " outs "; victory or defeat at
the polls depended less on any intelligent popular judgment
on the questions at issue than on the passing interests of
the " wire-pullers " and " bosses " (Caciques) who worked the
electoral machinery.
Silvela's Conservative cabinet was succeeded in March 1901
by a Liberal government under the veteran Sagasta, who
remained in office save for two short interludes until the 3rd
of December 1902. He was at once faced with two problems,
very opposite in their nature, which were destined to play a
very conspicuous part in Spanish politics. The first was that
presented by the growth of the religious orders and congregations,
the second that arising out of the spread of Socialism and indus-
trial unrest. Under the concordat of the 2oth of March 1851,
by which the relations of Spain and the Vatican are Question of
still governed, the law under which since 1836 the the Reiigi-
religious congregations had been banished from ous Onlers -
Spain was so far relaxed as to permit the re-establish-
ment of the orders of St Vincent de Paul, St Philip Neri and " one
other among those approved by the Holy See," so that through-
out the country the bishops "might have at their disposal a
sufficient number of ministers and preachers for the purpose
of missions in the villages of their dioceses, &c." In practice
the phrase " one other " was interpreted by the bishops, not as
one for the whole of Spain, but as one in each diocese, and at
the request of the bishops congregations of all kinds established
themselves fn Spain, the number greatly increasing after the
loss of the colonies and as a result of the measures of seculariza-
tion in France. 1 The result was what is usual in such cases.
The regular clergy were fashionable and attracted the money
of the pious rich, until their wealth stood in scandalous contrast
with the poverty of the secular clergy. They also all of them
claimed, under the concordat, exemption from taxes; and,
since many of them indulged in commercial and industrial
pursuits, they competed unfairly with other traders and manu-
facturers, and tended to depress the labour market. The Law
of Associations of the 3oth of June 1887 had attempted to modify
the evil by compelling all congregations to register their members,
and all, except the three already recognized under the concordat,
to apply for authorization. This law the congregations, hot-
beds of reactionary tendencies, had ignored; and on the igth of
July 1901, the queen-regent issued a decree, countersigned
by Sagasta, for enforcing its provisions.
Meanwhile, however, more pressing perils distracted the atten-
tion of the government. The industrial unrest, fomented by
Socialist agitation, culminated in January 1902 in / D( j os<r / a ;
serious riots at Barcelona and Saragossa, and on u tin-stand
the 1 6th of February in the proclamation of a general Socialist
strike in the former city. The government senf 4 **'
General Weyler, of Cuban notoriety, to deal with the
1 See " Church and State in Spain." The Times, July 15, 1910.
5 66
SPAIN
[HISTORY
situation; and order was restored. The methods by which
this result had been achieved were the subject of violent attacks
on the government in the Cortes, and on the i3th of March
Sagasta resigned, but only to resume office five days later. He
now returned to the question of the religious orders, and on the
9th of April issued a decree proclaiming his intention of enforcing
that of the ipth of July 1901. The attitude of the Church was
practically one of defiance. The nuncio, indeed, announced
that the papacy would be prepared to discuss the question of
authorization, but only on condition that all demands for such
authorization should be granted. To avoid a crisis at the time
when the young king was about to come of age, the government
yielded; and on the icth of May Sagasta announced that a
modus vivendi with the Vatican had been established.
King Alphonso XIII., whose enthronement took place with
all the antique ceremonial on the lyth of May, was himself at
enthrone- the outset under clerical and reactionary influences,
meat of and his contemptuous treatment of ministers who
at t ^ le cer cmonial functions were placed wholly in
' the background seemed to argue an intention of
ruling personally under the advice of the court camarilla)- This
impression, due doubtless to the king's extreme youth and
inexperience, was belied in the event; but it served to discredit
the Liberal government still further at the time. Senor Antonio
Resignation Maura y Montanes, who proved himself later a
ana Death statesman of exceptional character, seceded to the
of Sagasta. Conservatives. On the 7th of November Sagasta
himself resigned, resumed office temporarily on the i4th,
and handed in his final resignation on the 3rd of December.
On the 6th of December a Conservative cabinet was formed
under Senor Silvela, Senor Villaverde, pledged to a policy of
retrenchment, taking the portfolio of finance.
The death of Sagasta, on the 5th of January 1903, temporarily
broke up"' the Liberal party, which could not agree on a leader;
its counsels were directed for the time by a committee, consisting
of Senors Montero Rios and Moret, the marquis de la Vega
de Armijo, Senor Salvador and Count Romanones. The Re-
_ publicans, under Salmeron, also had their troubles,
Break-up of , . . ,, , . , .
Parties ^ ue ' ^ ne g rowln g influence of Socialism ; and, finally,
the Conservatives were distracted by the rivalries
between Silvela, Villaverde and Maura. In the country,
meanwhile, the unrest continued. At Barcelona the university
had to be closed to stop the revolutionary agitation of the
students; in April there were serious riots at Salamanca, Barcelona
and Madrid. The result of the new elections to the Cortes,
declared on the 26th of April, revealed tendencies unfavourable
to the government and even to the dynasty; the large towns
returned 34 Republicans. A ministerial crisis followed; Maura
resigned; and though the elections to the senate resulted in a
large Conservative majority, and though in the lower house
a vote of confidence was carried by 183 to 81, Silvela himself
resigned shortly afterwards. Senor Villaverde was now called
viiiaverde upon to form a cabinet. His government, however,
Ministry, accomplished little but the suppression of renewed
l904 - troubles at Barcelona. His programme included
drastic proposals for financial reform, which necessarily
precluded an adventurous policy abroad or any additional
expenditure on armaments, principles which necessarily brought
him into conflict with the military and naval interests. On
the 3rd of December Villaverde was forced to resign, his successor
being Senor Maura. Meanwhile, on the 24th of November,
the Liberal party had been reconstructed, as the Democratic
party, under Senor Montero Rios.
Senor Maura, as was to be proved by his second administra-
tion, represented the spirit of compromise and of conservative
First Maura reform. His position now was one of singular diffi-
Ministry, culty. Though a Catholic, he had to struggle
against the clerical coterie that surrounded the king,
and had not influence enough to prevent the appointment
of Monsignor Nozaleda, formerly archbishop of Manila and
a prelate of notoriously reactionary views, to the important
l Ann. Register (1902), p. 347.
see of Valencia. His concessions to the demands of the ministers
of war and marine for additional estimates for the army and navy
exposed him to the attacks of Villaverde in the Cortes; and still
fiercer criticism was provoked by the measure, laid by him before
the Cortes on the 23rd of June, for the revision of the concordat
with Rome, and more especially by the proposal to raise a loan
at 4 % to indemnify the religious orders for their estates con-
fiscated during the Revolution. Violent scenes greeted the
attempt of the government to procure the suspension of the
parliamentary immunities of 140 deputies, accused or suspected
of more or less treasonable practices, and when, on the 4th of
October, the Cortes reopened after the summer recess, Senor
Romero Robledo, the president of the lower house, opened
an attack on the ministry for their attempted breach of its
privileges. Furious debates followed on this, and on the subject
of Maura's financial proposals, which were attacked by the
Conservative Villaverde and the Liberal Moret
with impartial heat. On the I4th of December
Maura resigned an impossible task and King
Alphonso made General Azcarraga head of a narrowly Clerical-
Conservative cabinet.
The new ministry, confronted by a rapidly spreading revolu-
tionary agitation and by a rising provoked by a crop failure
and famine in Andalusia, survived scarcely a month, vniaverde
On the 26th of January 1905 Azcarraga resigned, Ministry,
and two days later Senor Villaverde once more 190S '
became prime minister. He was in no hurry to summon the
Cortes, partly because the elections to the provincial councils
were due in March, and these had to be manipulated so as to
ensure the return of a Senate of the right colour, partly because
the convocation of the Cortes seemed at best a necessary evil.
Already the discredit of parliamentary government was being
evidenced in the increased personal power of the young king.
Alphonso was now shaking himself loose from the deadening
influence of the reactionary court, and was beginning to display
a disconcerting interest in affairs, information about which he
was apt to seek at first hand. The resignation of the see of
Valencia by Archbishop Nozaleda was a symptom of the new
spirit. This was none the less distasteful to the Republicans,
who thundered against personal government, and to the Liberals,
who clamoured for the Cortes and the budget. The Cortes met
at last on the i4th of June, and the upshot justified Villaverde's
reluctance to meet it. Attacked by Maura and Moret alike,
the prime minister (June 20) accused his former colleague of
acting through personal pique; on a motion of confidence,
however, he was defeated by 204 votes to 54, and resigned.
He died on the isth of July following, within a few weeks of
his former leader and colleague Silvela.
The Liberals now once more came into power under Senor
E. Montero Rios, Senor Moret having refused the premiership.
The government programme, announced with a /nontero
view to influencing the impending elections, included Rios
financial reform, reform of the customs, modifica- Ministry,
tion of the octroi, and the question of the concordat
with Rome. The result of the elections was a substantial
Liberal majority in both houses. The government was none
the less weak. Quarrels broke out in the cabinet between Senor
Jose Echeray, the distinguished banker and famous dramatist,
who as minister of finance was intent on retrenchment, and
General Weyler, who as minister of war objected to any starving
of the army. On the 27th of October, scarcely a fortnight after
the opening of the session, the government resigned. At the
instance of the king, who was going abroad, Senor Montero
Rios consented indeed to resume office; but his difficulties only
increased. The price of corn rose, owing to the reimposition
by the government, before the elections, of the import duties
on corn and flour; and in November there was serious rioting
in Seville, Granada, Oviedo, Bilbao and Valencia, Mgnt
while in Catalonia the Separatist movement gathered Ministry.
such force that on the 2gth martial law was
proclaimed throughout the province. The same day the
government finally resigned. Senor Moret now accepted the
HISTORY]
SPAIN
premiership; he took over Senor Echeray's budget, while General
Weyler was replaced at the war office by General Luque.
The great constitutional parties had broken up into quarrelling
groups just at the time when, as it seemed, the parties of reaction
were concentrating their forces. Not the least ominous symptom
was the attitude of the officers, who, irritated by newspaper
attacks on their conduct in Catalonia more especially, demanded
that all crimes against the army should be tried by the councils
of war. The prolonged controversies to which this gave rise
were settled on the i8th of March by a compromise passed by
the Cortes; under this act all cases of press attacks on officers
were to be tried by the courts martial, while those against the
army generally and the national flag were still to be reserved
for the civil courts. The singular weakness of the govern-
ment revealed by this abdication of part of the essential
functions of the civil power would have led to its speedy
downfall, but for the truce cried during the festivities con-
nected with the marriage of the king with Princess Victoria
Eugenie Ena of Battenberg, which took place on the 3ist of
May.
The king's marriage was in many respects significant. In spite
of the young queen's " conversion " and the singular distinction
conferred on her by the papal gift of the golden rose,
the p rotestant alliance marked a further stage
in Alphonso XIII. 's emancipation from the tutelage
of the Clerical-Conservative court. He was, indeed, increasingly
displaying a tendency to think and act for himself which, though
never over-stepping the bounds of the constitution, was some-
what disconcerting to all parties. His personal popularity,
too, due partly to his youth and genial manners, was at this
time greatly increased by the cool courage he had shown after
the dastardly bomb attack made upon him and his young wife,
during the wedding procession at Madrid, by the anarchist
Matteo Morales. 1 Whatever his qualities, the growing entangle-
ment of parliamentary affairs was soon to put them to the test.
For the coronation was hardly over when Senor Moret resigned,
Lopez- an d on tne 6th of July Captain-General Lopez-
Domiaguez Dominguez became head of a cabinet with a frankly
Ministry, anti-clerical programme, including complete liberty
1906. Q wors hjp ) the secularization of education, and the
drastic regulation of the right of association. The signature
by the king of an ordinance giving legal validity to the civil
Civtt marriages of Catholics aroused a furious agitation
Marriage among the clergy, to which bounds were only set
Question, ^y t he threat of the government to prosecute the
bishop of Tuy and the chapter of Cordova. In the session 1906-
1907 the most burning subject of debate was the new Associa-
tions Law, drawn up by Senor Davila. Even in the Liberal
ranks the question aroused furious differences of opinion; Senor
Montero Rios, the president of the senate, denounced the
" infamous attacks on the church "; the government itself
showed a wavering temper in entering on long and futile negotia-
tions with the Vatican; while in January 1907 the cardinal
archbishop of Toledo presented a united protest of the Spanish
episcopate against the proposed law. This and other issues
produced complete disunion in the Liberal party. Already, on
the 27th of November, Lopez-Dominguez had resigned; his
Vegade successor, Moret, had at once suffered defeat in the
Armtjo house and been succeeded in his turn, on the 4th of
Ministry, December, by marquis de la Vega de Armijo. The
' 7 ' question was now mooted in the cabinet of dropping
the Associations Law; but on the zist of January Senor Canalejas,
president of the lower house, who was credited with having
inspired the bill, publicly declared that in that event he would
cease to support the government. By the 24th the cabinet
had resigned, and a Conservative government was in office
under Senor Maura as premier.
The administration of Senor Maura, which lasted till the 2ist
of October 1900 marks an important epoch in the history of
1 The king's reckless daring was destined later to impair his
popularity, for in an enthusiastic motorist blind courage is a quality
apt to be exercised at the expense of others.
modern Spain. .The new premier was no mere party politician,
but a statesman who saw the need of his country, on the one
hand for effective government, on the other hand for second
education, so as to enable it ultimately to govern Maura
itself. Though a sincere Catholic, he was no Clerical, **"****
as was proved by his refusal to withdraw the tl0 "' l907 '
ordinance on civil marriage. The main objects that he set
before himself were, firstly, the maintenance of order; secondly,
the reform of local government, so as to destroy the power of
the Caciques and educate the people in their privileges and
responsibilities. The dissolution of the Cortes produced a cer-
tain rearrangement of parties. The Liberal groups, as usual
when in opposition, coalesced. The Republicans, on tlie other
hand, split into sections; in Barcelona, Tarragona and Gerona
they were Separatists, while a new party appeared under the
name of Solidarists, consisting of Separatists, Carlists and Social-
ists. The elections in April resulted in a sweeping Conservative
victory the government secured a majority in the lower house
of 88 over all other groups combined. As for the " dynastic
opposition," it was reduced to a rump of 66 members, a result
so unsatisfactory from the point of view of the monarchy that
the government offered to quash certain Conservative returns
in order to provide it with more seats. The dynastic opposition,
however, considered that it had been unfairly dealt with in
the conduct of the elections; and though, out of consideration
for the dynasty (an heir to the throne having been born on the
loth of May), they attended the opening of the Cortes on the
1 3th of May, the Liberals refused to take part in the session that
followed, which lasted till the 29th of, July. When, Local
however, the Cortes reopened on the loth of October, Admtaistra-
the dynastic opposition was once more in its Ho" Reform.
place. It was now that Senor Maura brought in his Local
Administration Bill, a measure containing 429 clauses, the main
features of which were that it largely increased the responsibility
of the local elected bodies, made it compulsory for every elector
to vote, and did away with official interference at the polls.
The bill met with strenuous opposition, and on the 23rd of
December 1907 the Cortes adjourned without its having been
advanced.
At the close of the year an Anarchist outrage gave the excuse
for the proclamation of martial law in Barcelona, and after
the opening of the new session of the Cortes (January 23, 1908)
a bill was introduced into the senate giving to the government
the most drastic powers for the suppression of Anarchism.
Its provisions practically amounted to a complete suspension
of the guarantees for civil liberty, it met with the most strenuous
opposition, and its final passing by the Senate (May 9) was fol-
lowed by a serious crisis. Two months before (March 10-13)
King Alphonso, with characteristic courage, had paid a surprise
visit to Barcelona, and the general enthusiasm of his reception
seemed to prove that the disaffection was less widespread or
deep than had been supposed. In the circumstances, Senor
Maura dropped the Suppression Bill, and the king issued an
ordinance re-establishing constitutional guarantees in Catalonia.
This good feeling was unfortunately not destined to be of
long duration; and in the following year the struggle between
the antagonistic forces in Spain once more produced a perilous
crisis. The Local Administration Bill, after being debated for
two sessions, passed the lower house on the i3th of February
1909, having at the last moment received the support of the
Liberal Senor Moret, though the Radicals as a whole opposed it
as gratifying to Senor Cambo, the Regionalist leader, and there-
fore as tending to disintegration. Though ruling in the spirit
of an enlightened despotism rather than in that of a constitu-
tional government, Senor Maura had succeeded in doing a notable
work for Spain. It was inevitable that in doing so he should
incur unpopularity in many quarters. His efforts to recon-
struct the Spanish navy were attacked both by the apostles of
retrenchment and by those who saw in the shipbuilding con-
tracts an undue favouring of the foreigner; the Marine Industries
Protection Act was denounced as favouring the large ship-
owners and exporters at the expense of the smaller men; the
568
SPAIN
[HISTORY
Compulsory Education Act as " a criminal assault on the rights
of the family." His ecclesiastical policy also exposed him to the
fate of those who take the middle way; the Liberals denounced
the minister of education, Don F. Rodriguez San Pedro, for
making concessions to the teaching orders, while the archbishops
of Burgos and Santiago de Compostella fulminated against the
government for daring to tax the congregations. In his reform-
ing work Senor Maura had an active and efficient lieutenant
in the minister of the interior, Senor La Cierva. Under his
auspices laws were passed reforming and strengthening the police
force, instituting industrial tribunals, regulating the work of
women and children, introducing Sunday rest, early closing, and
other reforms. In short, the government, whatever criticism
might be levelled at its methods, had accomplished a notable
work, and when on the 6th of June 1909 the Cortes adjourned,
its position seemed to be assured.
Its downfall was ultimately due to the development of the
crisis in Morocco. This is described elsewhere (see MOROCCO:
Morocco History) ; here it is only proposed to outline the effects
Crisis. o f its reaction upon the internal affairs of Spain.
The trouble, long brewing, broke out in July, with the attack
by the Riff tribesmen upon the workmen engaged on the rail-
way being built to connect Melilla with the mines in the hills,
held by Spanish concessionaires. The necessity for strengthen-
ing the Spanish forces in Africa had for some time been apparent ;
but Senor Maura had not dared to face the Cortes with a demand
for the necessary estimates, for which, now that the crisis had
become acute, he had to rely on the authorization of the council
of state. The spark was put to the powder by the action of
the war minister, General Linares, in proposing to organize a
new field force by calling out the Catalan reserves. This sum-
moned up too vivid memories of the useless miseries of former
over-sea expeditions. On the 26th of July a general strike
was proclaimed at Barcelona, and a movement directed at first
against the " conscription " rapidly developed into a revolu-
tionary attack on the established order in church and state.
Barcelona The city, a colluvies gentium, was seething with
Rising of dangerous elements, its native proletariat being
July 1909. reinforced by emigrants returned embittered from
failure in South America and a cosmopolitan company of refu-
gees from justice in other lands. The mob, directed by the revo-
lutionary elements, attacked more especially the convents
and churches. From the city the revolutionary movement
spread to the whole province. In Barcelona the rising was
suppressed after three days' street fighting (July 27-29).
On the 28th martial law was proclaimed throughout Spain;
and now began a military reign of terror, which lasted until the
end of September. In the fortress of Monjuich in Barcelona
were collected, not only rioters caught red-handed, but many
others notably journalists whose opinions were obnoxious.
The greatest sensation was caused by the arrest, on the 315! of
August, of Senor Ferrer, a theoretical anarchist well known in
many countries for his anti-clerical educational work and in
Spain especially as the founder of the " lay schools." He was
accused of being the chief instigator of the Barcelona rising,
was tried by court martial (Oct. 11-13), and shot. This
tragedy, which rightly or wrongly aroused the most wide-
spread indignation throughout Europe, produced a ministerial
crisis in Spain. The opening of the October session of the
Cortes was signalized by a furious attack by Senor Moret on
Sefiores Maura and La Cierva, who were accused of having
Fall of sacrificed Ferrer to the resentment of their clerical
Maura. task-masters. The government had been already
weakened by the news of Marshal Marina's reverse in Morocco
(Sept. 30); to this new attack it succumbed, Senor Maura
resigning on the 2ist of October 1909.
On the 22nd the formation of a new cabinet under Senor
Moret was announced. It was from the first in a position of
Moret singular weakness, without a homogeneous majority
Ministry, in the Cortes, and depending for its very existence
1909-1910. on (.jj e uncer t a i n support of the extreme Left and
the Republicans. For three months it existed without daring
to put forward a programme. It sent General Weyler to keep
Barcelona in order, caused the release of most of the prisoners
in Monjuich, reduced the forces in Morocco, reopened negotia-
tions with Rome for a modification of the concordat, and on the
3ist of December, the end of the financial year, was responsible
for the issue of a royal decree stating that the budget would
remain in force until the Cortes could pass a new one. But,
meanwhile, the municipal elections, under the new Local
Administration Law, had resulted in a triumph of the Liberals
(Dec. 12). Senor Moret now considered the time ripe for
a dissolution; the king, however, refused to consent, and on
the gth of February 1910 the ministry resigned. The new
cabinet, with Senor Canalejas as president of the council, in-
cluded members of the various Liberal and Radical Canaieias
groups: Garcia Prieto (foreign affairs), Count Ministry,
Sagasta (interior), General Aznar (war), the Demo- 19IO-
crat Arias Miranda (navy), Cobian, a strong Catholic though a
Liberal (finance), Ruiz Valarino, a Democrat (justice), Calbeton
(public works) and Count Romanones, who advocated a liberal
settlement with the Church (education).
Though at once denounced by Senor Moret as " a democratic
flag being used to cover reactionary merchandise," 1 the name
of Canalejas was in itself a guarantee that the burn- Quarrel
ing question of the relations of the state to Rome with the
and the religious orders would at last be taken in ^itlcaa.
hand, while the presence of so many moderate elements in his
cabinet showed that it would be approached in a conciliatory
spirit. A beginning was made with the issue of a circular by
the minister of finance (March 18), ordering the collection of
taxes from all religious bodies carrying on commercial and
industrial enterprises. What more could be done would depend
on the result of the elections necessitated by the dissolution of
the Cortes on the i5th of April. Count Romanones, desiring
to educate the electors, had been busy establishing schools; but
the sweeping victory of the Liberals at the polls 2 was prob-
ably far more due to the fact that this was the first election
held under Senor Maura's Local Administration Act, and that
the ignorant electors, indignant at being forced to vote
under penalty of a fine, where they did not spoil their ballot
papers, voted against the Conservatives as the authors of their
grievance.
The government was thus in a position vigorously to pursue
its religious policy. On the 3ist of May the official Gaceta
published a decree setting forth the rules to which the religious
associations would have to submit. It was pointed out that,
in conformity with the decree of the 9th of April 1902, it had
become necessary to coerce those congregations and associa-
tions which had not fulfilled the formalities prescribed by the
law of 1887, and also those engaged in commerce and industry
which had not taken out patents with a view to their taxation.
It further ordered that all foreign members of congregations
were to register themselves at their respective consulates, in
accordance with the decrees of 1901 and 1902. On the nth of
June a further and still more significant step was taken. A
royal ordinance was issued repealing that signed by Canovas
del Castillo (Oct. 23, 1876), immediately after the promul-
gation of the constitution of 1876, interpreting the nth
article of the constitution, by which the free exercise of all
cults was guaranteed in Spain. The article in question forbade
" external signs or public manifestations of all religious con-
fessions with the exception of that of the state," which was
defined by Canovas del Castillo as meaning " any emblem,
attribute or lettering which would appear on the exterior walls
of dissident places of worship." 3 In the speech from the throne
at the opening of the new Cortes (June 16) the king declared
that his government would " strive to give expression to the
1 The Times (Feb. 18, 1910).
2 The composition of the new parliament was as follows Senate :
Ministerialists, 103 ; Conservatives, 42 ; Regionalists, 5 ; Republicans,
4; Carlists, 3; miscellaneous groups, n. Lower House: Ministeri-
alists, 227_ ; Conservatives, 105 ; Republicans, 42 ; Carlists, 9 ; Catalans,
7; Integrists, 2; Independents, 9; unattached, 3.
3 The Times (June 13, 1910).
HISTORY]
SPAIN
5 6 9
public aspirations for the reduction and control of the excessive
number of orders and religious orders, without impairing their
independence in spiritual matters," and in introducing a bill
for the amendment of the law of 1887 Senor Canalejas declared
that the government, " inspired by the universal spirit of liberty
of conscience," had given to article xi. of the constitution
" the full sense of its text." 1
"Liberty of conscience," a principle condemned by the
Syllabus of 1864 and sneered at in the encyclical Pascendi gregis
of 1905, was hardly a phrase calculated to conciliate the Spanish
clergy, still less the Vatican. A cry went up that to allow
dissident churches to announce their presence was to insult and
persecute the Catholic Church ; 2 at Rome the decree was attacked
as unconstitutional, and a breach of diplomatic propriety all
the more reprehensible as negotiations for a revision of the con-
cordat were actually pending. A violent clerical agitation,
encouraged by the Vatican, was started, 72 Spanish archbishops
and bishops presenting a joint protest to the government. Fuel
was added to the fire by the introduction of a bill known as
the Cadenas bill forbidding the settlement of further congre-
gations in Spain until the negotiations with the Vatican should
have been completed. This was denounced at Rome as a uni-
lateral assertion on the part of the Spanish government of an
authority which, under the concordat, belonged to the Holy See
as well. As a preliminary to negotiation, the government
was required to rescind all the obnoxious measures. This
demand broke the patience of the prime minister, and on the
30th of July Senor de Ojeda, Spanish ambassador at the
Vatican, was instructed to hand in his papers. In Vatican
circles dark hints began to be dropped of a possible rapproche-
ment with Don Jaime, who had succeeded his father Don
Carlos, on the i8th of July 1909, as the representative of
Spanish legitimacy and Catholic orthodoxy. The pretender,
indeed, disclaimed any intention of stirring up civil war in
Spain; his mission would be to restore order when the country
should have wearied of the republican regime whose speedy
advent he foresaw. The fulfilment of the first part of this
prophecy seemed to some to be brought a step nearer by the
overthrow of the monarchy in Portugal on the 5th of October
1910. For Spain its immediate effect was to threaten a great
increase of the difficulties of the government, by the immi-
gration of the whole mass of religious congregations expelled
from Portugal by one of the first acts of the new regime.
(W. A. P.)
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OF CHRISTIAN DYNASTIES IN SPAIN.
Kings of the Visigoths, having relations with Spain, but not
established within it:
Ataulf .
Sigeric .
Wallia . .
Theodoric I.
Thorismund
Theodoric II.
Euric . ' .
Alaric II. .
Gesalic .
Amalaric
410-415
415
415-419
419-451
451-453
453-466
466-485
485-507
507-5"
507-531
Entered the north-east of Spain,
murdered at Barcelona.
His murderer, promptly mur-
dered in turn.
Elected king, was the ally (foe-
deratus) of the empire. De-
feated the Vandals and Alans.
Migrated to south-west of
France with all his people.
Made inroads into Spain, as ally
of the empire. Killed in the
battle with Attila.
All these kings had the seat of
their government north of the
Pyrenees. They made inroads
in Spain and had a stronghold
on the north-east. Alaric was
killed by the Frankish king,
Clovis, at Vouilld, 507.
Bastard son of Alaric, was mur-
dered.
Reigned in south and south-east
of France under protection of
Theodoric, the Ostrogothic
king in Italy. Fled before
Franks to Barcelona at end of
reign, and was murdered at
Barcelona.
Kings of the Visigoths established in Spain :
Theudis
Theudigisel
Agila . ,
Athanagild .
Liuva I.
Leovigild
Reccared
Liuva II.
Witteric. .
Gunthemar .
Sisebut .
Reccared II.
Swintella
Reccimer
Sisinand
Chintila.
Tulga . _ .
Chindaswinth
Recceswinth
Wamba .
Erwic
Egica
Witiza
Roderic
531-548
548-549
549-554
554-567
567-572
567-586
586-601
601-603
603-610
610-612
612-620
620-621
621-631
621-631
631-636
636-640
640-641
641-652
649-672
672-680
680-687
687-701
697-710
710-711
An Ostrogoth, general of Theodo-
ric. Murdered Amalaric, and
was murdered in turn at
Seville by Theudigesil.
Murdered by Agila.
Murdered at M6rida.
Rebelled against Agila, evacuated
Andalusia to secure aid of
Imperial officers. Established
the capital at Toledo.
Elected at Narbonne.' Associated
his brother Leovigild with him-
self.
The first Visigoth king who as-
sumed the diadem and purple,
struck coins in his own name,
and enforced recognition of
his supremacy in all parts of
Spain, except the south coast.
Son. Associated with his father.
The first Visigoth king who was
a Catholic.
Son. Soon murdered.
Leader of Arian reaction.
Obscure kings.
Associated his family with him on
the throne. They were all de-
posed by the nobles.
These kings were mainly sup-
ported by the clergy, and were
engaged in endeavouring to
make the crown hereditary, by
associating their kinsmen with
themselves.
Unrelated to his predecessor and
elected by the nobles was de-
posed and tonsured.
The most obscure of the Visigoth
kings. Egica and Witiza ap-
pear to have continued the
struggle with the nobles, by
whom Roderic was tumultu-
ously elected, in opposition to
Witiza's son Actula.
Early kings of the Christian north-west of Spain, of uncertain
chronology and relationship :
Pelayo . .
718-737
Elected as " king of the Goths."
Favila
737-739
Brother of Pelayo.
Alphonso I. . .
739-757
Son-in-law of Pelayo.
Froila
757-768
Son of Alphonso I. Murdered by
his brother.
Aurelio .
768-774
Brother or cousin.
Silon
774-785
Brother-in-law of Aurelio.
Maurecat
785-789
Bastard son of Alphonso I.
Bermudo
789-792
Called the Deacon, descendant of
Alphonso I., reigned for a very
short time, and retired to a
'
religious house.
Alphonso II.
792-842
Called the Chaste, son of Froila.
Was perhaps chosen in opposi-
tion to Bermudo,
Ramiro I. .
842-850
Son of Bermudo the Deacon.
Ordono I.
850-866
Son of Ramiro.
Alphonso III. .
866-914
Son of Ordono.
SPAIN
[HISTORY
Period of the small kingdoms, unions, separations and reunions;
the sons of Alphonso III. having rebelled, and forced a division of
the kingdom near the close of the king's reign :
Garcia .
Ordono II. .
Fruela .
Alphonso IV. .
Ramiro II. .
Ordono III. .
Sancho I., " The
Fat."
Ramiro III.
Bermudo II.,
" The Goutv "
Alphonso V.
Bermudo III.
Fernando I., or
Ferdinand.
910-913
913-923
923-924
924-931
931-950
950-955
955-967
967-982
982-999
999-1027
1027-1037
1027-1065
Took Leon, which then included
Bardulia, or Castile, as the
eldest son.
Second son; became king in
Gallicia which included north-
ern Portugal and acquired
Leon on the death of his
brother Garcia.
Third brother; held Asturias, and
was king of all north-west for
a short time after death of
Ordono.
Son of Ordono ; became a monk at
Sahagun, and was succeeded
by his brother Ramiro.
In his reign Castile broke away
from Leon, under the count
Fernan Gonzales.
Son of Ramiro.
Half brother of Ordono III. and
son of Ramiro II. by his second
marriage with a daughter of
Sancho Abarca of Navarre.
Was driven out by his nobles,
in alliance with Fernan Gon-
zales, count of Castile, and
restored by the caliph. The
rebels put Ordono, son of
Alphonso IV., on the throne for
a time.
Son of Sancho. Succeeded as a
boy. His reign was a period of
anarchy.
Son of Ordono III., was supported
against his cousin Ramiro III.
by the nobles, and was placed
on the throne by the Hajib
Mansur.
Son of Bermudo. Began the
restoration of the kingdom after
the period of anarchy, and
subjection to the caliphate.
Killed at siege of Viseu.
Son of Alphonso V.; was killed
in battle at Tamaron with
his brother-in-law Ferdinand,
count and then first king of
Castile.
Son of Sancho el Mayor of
Navarre, king of Castile by
right of his mother, and of
Leon and Gallicia by the sword.
COUNTS OF CASTILE
The counts of Castile began, as a body, and not as a line of chiefs,
in the reign of Alphonso the Chaste (789-842). They strove for
independence from the first, and when one count had replaced several
they achieved it.
Fernan Gonzales
Garcia Fernandez
Sancho Garcia .
Garcia .
923-968
968-1006
1006-1028
1028
Made himself independent of
Leon. One of his daughters
married Ordono III. of Leon.
By a second marriage with a
daughter of Sancho Abarca of
Navarre he had a -son and
successor.
Son.
Son.
Murdered. Castile then passed
to Garcia's sister, the wife
of Sancho el Mayor of
Navarre.
EARLY KINGS OF NAVARRE
The early history of Navarre has been overlaid with fable, and with
pure falsification, largely the work of the Benedictines of San Juan
de la Pena near Huesca. Their object was to prove the foundation
of their house by a king of Navarre, Aragon and Sobrarbe, in the 9th
century. They were helped by the patriotism of the Aragonese, who
wished to give their kingdom an antiquity equal to that of Leon.
Hence much pure invention, bolstered up by forgery of charters,
falsification of genuine ones, and construction of imaginary pedigrees.
Sancho Abarca,
i.e. Brogues
Garcia Sanchez
Sancho Garcia
Garcia Sanchez
"TheTrembler"
Sancho el Mayor
Garcia III. .
Sancho IV.
906-926
926-966
966-993
993-1000
1000-1035
1035-1054
1054-1076
Made himself independent king
at Pamplona. He fought with
the Carolingian counts of the
marches, and in alliance with
theSpanish Mahommedan Beni
Casi of Saragossa.
Very obscure. The most un-
doubted personality of the
time is Tota (Theuda), widow
of Sancho Abarca, who gov-
erned for her son and whose
daughters were married to the
kings of Leon and counts of
Castile.
Son of " The Trembler." He
married a daughter of Sancho
Garcia, count of Castile. On
the murder of Garcia, the last
count, he took Castile by right
of his wife. He inherited, or
acquired, superiority over the
central Pyrenean regions of
Aragon and Sobrarbe. He di-
vided his various dominions
Navarre to Garcia, Castile to
Fernando,Sobrarbeto Gonzalo,
and Aragon to Ramiro San-
chez, a natural son.
Killed in battle with his brother
Fernando of Castile and Leon
at Atapuerca.
Son. Murdered by his natural
brother Ramon at Penalen.
The Navarrese then chose
Sancho Ramirez of Aragon as
king. The kingdoms remained
united till 1134.
Historic kingdom of Aragon :
Ramiro Sanchez
Sancho I.
Pedro I. . . .
Alphonso I. "The
Battler."
Ramiro II.
Petronilla
1035-1067
1067-1094
1094-1102
1102-1134
II34-II37
1137-1164
Natural son of Sancho el Mayor
of Navarre, who on the death
of his legitimate brother Gon-
zalo, annexed Sobrarbe. The
kingdom of Sobrarbe lasted
only during the life of Gonzalo.
Son of Ramiro. Was killed
while besieging Huesca.
Son of Sancho.
Second son of Sancho. He took
Saragossa from the Moors, and
was married to Urraca, queen
of Castile and Leon.
Third son of Sancho. A monk,
who was exclaustrated after
the death of Alphonso, but re-
turned to the cloister on the
birth of his daughter Petronilla.
Married to Ramon Berenguer,
count of Barcelona, who be-
came king by right of his wife.
THE EARLY COUNTS OF BARCELONA
In the last years of the 8th and beginning of the gth century,
Charlemagne and Louis the Pius began conquering the north-east
of Spain, which the Arabs had occupied as early as 713. By 811
the Franks had conquered as far as Tortosa and Tarragona. The
territory gained was called the Marca Hispanica, and was governed
by counts of Roussillon, Ampurias, Besaltu, Barcelona, Cerdena,
Pallars and Urgell. They became independent during the decadence
of the Carolingians. The supremacy was acquired gradually by the
HISTORY]
SPAIN
counts of Barcelona who became independent with Wilfred I. by
874. He and his immediate descendants gradually subdued the
other counts. They suffered much from the inroads of Mansur in
the loth century, but on the decline of the caliphate, they took part
in the general advance.
Berenjuer Ramon I.
Ramon Berenguer,
" The Old.
Ramon Berenguer II.
and
Berenguer Ramon II.
Ramon Berenguer .
Ramon Berenguer
1018-1035
1035-1076
1076-1082
1076-1082 |
1082-1131
1131-1162
Held Barcelona, Vich and
Manresa with land con-
quered from the Moors to
the south.
Son. His father had divided
his possessions between
his widow and all his sons,
but Ramon Berenguer
reunited them by force.
He left his dominion to be
held in common by his
two sons.
Ramon Berenguer II. Cap
d'estops (" Tow Pow ")
was murdered by Beren-
guer Ramon II., whose
end is unknown.
Son of Ramon Berenguer II.
By his marriage with
Aldonza or Douce of Pro-
vence he acquired territory
in south-eastern France.
He inherited or subdued
all the other countships of
Catalonia, except Peralada
Son. Inherited the Spanish
possessions of his father,
the French going to a
brother. Was betrothed
to Petronilla of Aragon,
and married her in 1150,
becoming king of Aragon.
Second period of the union, disunion and reunion of Castile and
Leon from Fernando I. to Fernando III. Fernando I. divided his
dominions among his three sons: to Sancho, the eldest, Castile;
to Alfonso, the second son, Leon ; to Garcia, the third son, Gallicia.
Sancho II.
Alphonso VI.
Urraca .
Alphonso VII.
Sancho III. .
Fernando II.
Alphonso VIII.
Alphonso IX.
Henry I.
Berengaria .
Fernando III.
1065-1072
1065-1109
1109-1126
1126-1157
1157-1158
1157-1188
1158-1214
1188-1230
1214-1217
1217-
1217-1252
He expelled Alphonso and Garcia,
reuniting the three kingdoms.
Murdered at Zamora.
Returned from exile, obtained all
the three kingdoms, and im-
prisoned Garcia for life.
Daughter of Alphonso VI., and
widow of Raymond of Bur-
gundy.
Son. Recognized as king in
Gallicia during his mother's
life. Divided his kingdoms
between his sons; to the elder
Sancho, Castile, to the younger,
Fernando, Leon.
In Castile.
In Leon.
Castile. Son of Sancho III.
Leon. Son of Fernando II. Is
numbered IX. because he was
junior to the cousin Alphonso
of Castile.
Castile. Son of Alphonso VIII.
Daughter of Alphonso VIII.
Married to Alphonso IX. of
Leon, but the marriage was
declared uncanonical by the
pope. The children were de-
clared legitimate. Berengaria
resigned the crown of Castile
to her son Fernando by the
uncanonical marriage with
Alphonso IX. of Leon.
Inherited Leon on the death of
his father Alphonso IX., and
united the crowns for the last
time, in 1230.
CASTILE AND LEON TILL THE UNION WITH ARAGON.
Fernando III. was king of Castile and Leon from 1230 to 1252.
Alphonso X.
Sancho IV. .
Ferdinand IV. .
Alphonso XI. .
Peter "The Cruel'
Henry II. . .
John I. .
Henry III.
John II.
Henry IV.
Isabella .
1252-1284
1284-1295
1295-1312
13*2-1350
1350-1369
1369-1379
I379-I390
1390-1406
1406-1454
1454-1474
1474-1504
Eldest son of Fernando III.
Second son of Alphonso X. Was
preferred to the sons of his
elder brother Ferdinand de la
Cerda, who died in Alphonso's
lifetime.
Son of Sancho.
Son of Ferdinand IV.
Son of Alphonso XI.
Natural son of Alphonso IX.
He deposed and murdered
Peter, and founded the line of
the new kings.
Son of Henry II.
Son of John I.
Son of Henry III.
Son. The legitimacy of the
daughter of his second marriage
was not recognized, and the
crown of Castile passed to his
sister, who married Ferdinand
of Aragon. The marriage
united the crowns in 1479.
Aragon, from the union with the county of Barcelona, to the union
with Castile:
Alphonso II.
Peter II.
James I., " The
Conqueror."
Peter III.
Alphonso III.
James II.
Alphonso IV.
Peter IV. .
John I. . .
Martin .
Ferdinand I.
Alphonso V.
John II.
Ferdinand II.
1162-1196
1196-1213
1213-1276
1276-1285
1285-1291
1291-1327
I327-I336
1336-1387
1387-1395
1395-Hio
1412-1416
1416-1458
1458-1479
1479-1516
Son and successor of Petronilla
and Ramon Berenguer IV.
Recovered the Provencal pos-
sessions of Ramon Berenguer II.
Son. Killed at Muret.
Son. Conquered the Balearic
Islands and Valencia. Left the
islands to his son James, from
whom the title passed in succes-
sion to Sancho (d. 1324), his
eldest son, to Sancho's nephew
James (d. 1349), and to another
James, his son (d. 1375); but
the actual possession was re-
covered by the elder line before
the extinction of the younger
branch.
Eldest son. Conquered Sicily,
claimed by right of his wife
Constance, daughter of Man-
fred of Beneventum.
Eldest son. Succeeded to Spanish
possessions.
Second son of Peter III. He had
succeeded to Sicily, but re-
signed his rights, which were
then assumed by his brother
Frederick, who founded the
Aragonese line of kings of
Sicily.
Son of James II.
Finally reannexed the Balearic
Islands.
Son by the marriage of Peter IV.
with his cousin Eleanor of the
Sicilian line.
Younger brother of John I. His
son Martin was chosen king of
Sicily, but died in 1409. The
male line of the kings of Aragon
of the House of Barcelona ended
with Martin.
Second son of Eleanor, sister of
Martin, and wife of John I. of
Castile. Succeeded by choice
of the Cortes.
Son. Spent most of his life in
Italy, where he was king of
Naples and Sicily.
Brother of Alphonso V., whom he
succeeded in the Spanish pos-
sessions, and Sicily, but not in
Naples.
Son. His marriage with Isabella
united the crowns.
572
Navarre till the conquest of Ferdinand the Catholic :
SPAIN
[HISTORY
Garcia IV.
Sancho VI., called
" The Wise "
Sancho VII.
Theobald I.
Theobald II. .
Henry I.
Jeanne I.
Jeanne II.
Charles II., called
" The Bad "
Charles III.,"The
Noble "
John I. of Aragon
Francis Phoebus
Catherine
1134-1150
1150-1:94
1194-1234
1234-1253
1253-1270
1270-1274
1274-1305
1328-1349
1349-1387 C
1387-1425 "1
1425-1479
I479-H83
1483-1514
A descendant of Sancho el
Mayor. Elected by the Navar-
rese on the death of Alphonso
of Aragon without issue.
Son. Father of Berengaria, wife
of Richard Coeur de Lion.
Son. Died without issue.
Husband of Blanche, daughter
of Sancho " The Wise."
Son. Died without issue.
Brother.
Daughter, wife of Philip IV. of
France. Navarre was now
absorbed in France, and so
remained till 1328, when on
the death of Charles IV. of
France, the last of the house
of Hugh Capet, it passed to
his niece Jeanne, daughter of
Louis X., and wife of Philip,
count of Evreux.
Son. These two kings were much
concerned with France, and
little with Spain.
King of Navarre by right of his
wife Blanche, daughter of
Charles III. On his death
Navarre passed to his daugh-
ter by Blanche, Eleanor,
widow of Gaston IV., count
of Foix. She died in the
same year as her father, and
Navarre passed to her grand-
son, Francis Phoebus.
Died without issue, and was
succeeded by his sister, the
wife of Jean D'Albret. The
Spanish part of Navarre was
conquered by Ferdinand the
Catholic in 1512.
KINGS OF UNITED SPAIN
Joan, "The Mad'
Charles I. in
Spain
Philip II. .
Philip III. .
Philip IV. .
Charles II. .
Philip V. .
Ferdinand VI. .
Charles III. . .
Charles IV. .
1504-1520
I5I6-I556
1556-1598
1598-1621
1621-1665
1665-1700
1700-1746
1746-1759
1759-1788
1788-1808
Daughter of Isabella, whom she
succeeded in Castile, with her
husband Philip I., of Habsburg
After his death, her father
Ferdinand was guardian and
regent.
Son of Joan. Was recognized as
king with his mother; elected
to the empire as Charles V.
Son. Succeeded on abdication of
Charles V.
Son.
Son.
Son. Died without issue.
Succeeded by the will of Charles
II., as grandson of Maria Tere-
sa, daughter of Philip IV., and
of Louis XIV., king of France.
With him began the line of the
Spanish Bourbons. He abdi-
cated for a few months in 1 724-
1725 in favour of his son Louis,
but resumed the crown when
Louis died.
Son by Philip V.'s first marriage
witn Maria Louisa of Savoy.
Died without issue.
Brother. Son of Philip V. by his
second marriage with Elizabeth
Farnese.
Son. He abdicated under pres-
sure in 1808 in favour of his
son Ferdinand, and then re-
signed his rights to Napoleon.
KINGS OF UNITED SPAIN (continued)
Ferdinand VII.
Isabella II. .
Alphonso XII.
Alphonso XIII.
1808-1833
1833-1868
1875-1885
1886-
Was proclaimed king on the
forced abdication of his father.
Remained a prisoner in France
during the Peninsular War. He
repealed the Salic Law estab-
lished by Philip V.
Daughter. Her succession was
resisted by her uncle Don
Carlos, and the Carlist Wars
ensued. Deposed.
Son. His mother abdicated in
his favour and he was re-
stored.
Born after his father's death.
(D. H.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) Sources: There are several published collec-
tions of sources for Spanish history. Of these the oldest is R.
Belus, Rerum hispanicarum scriptores aliquot in bibliotheca Roberti
Belt ... 3 vols. fol. (Frankfort, 1579-1581). In 1740-1752 was pub-
lished at Madrid J. A. de Creu y Bertodano's Coleccion de los
tratados de paz, alianza, neutralidad, garanzia, proteccion, treguia y
mediation, &c., que han hecho los reyes de Espana con los pueblos,
republicans y demas potencias y otras partes del mondp, in 12 vols.
folio. A Coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de Espagna,
by Pidal and others, was published in 65 vols. (Madrid 1842-1876).
In 1851 the Royal Academy of History of Madrid began the pub-
lication of its Memorial historica espanol, a collection of documents,
&c. See also Dionisio Hidalgo, Diccionario general de bibliografia
espanola, 7 vols. (Madrid, 1862-1881).
(2) Works: The standard general history of Spain written by
a Spaniard is that of Don Modesto Lafuente in 30 volumes
(1850-1867; new ed., by Valera, 22 vols., Barcelona, 1888). It was
written before the medieval period had been properly investigated,
is wordy, and largely spoilt by displays of national vanity. A later
and more critical writer of nearly the same name, Don Vicente de
la Fuente, has published valuable Estudios criticos sabre la historia
y el derecho de Aragon (1884-1886). No satisfactory general history
of Spain has been written by a foreigner. The best is that of M.
Romey, Histpire d'Espagne (1843). Don Rafael Altamira has pub-
lished an Historia de Espana y de la civilizacion espanola (2 vols.,
Barcelona, 1900-1902), in which he sums up the results of later
research. Among older writers Juan de Mariana, who ends with the
Catholic sovereigns, professedly took Liyy as a model, and wrote a
fine example of a rhetorical history published in Latin (1592-1609),
and then in Spanish translated and largely re-written by himself.
It was continued to 1600 by Minana. An English translation, with
supplements, was published by Captain J. Stephens in 1699. The
Anales de Aragon of Geronimo Zurita (1610) are very far superior
to the history of Mariana in criticism and research. The great school
of Spanish historians died out with the other glories 01 the nation
in the 1 7th century. The later periods have been indifferently
treated by them, but Don Antonio Canpvas del Castillo published
some valuable studies on the later Austrian dynasty under the title
Estudios del reinado de Felipe IV. (1889). The reader may also
consult for the earlier period Florian de Ocampo and Ambrosio
de Morales, whose combined works are known as the Cronica general
de Espana (fol. editions, 1543-1586, republished in 10 small volumes at
Madrid, 1791-1792). This was continued by Prudencio de Sandoval,
bishop of Tuy and afterwards of Pampeluna, under the title of
Hist, de los reyes de Castilla y de Leon: Fernando I.-Alonso VII.
Both ancient and later times are dealt with in the Historia general
de Espana, escrita par individuos de la real academia de la historia
(Madrid, 1892 sqq.) a series of studies by different hands; that on
the reign of Charles III., by Senor Manuel Danvila, is very valuable
for the later l8th century. An account of the troubled years of the
igth century has been written by Don Antonia Pirala, Historia
contempordnea (1871-1879). The latest general history of Spain is
Don Rafael Altamira y Crevea's Historia de Espana y de la civilizacion
espanola, 3 vols(Barcelona 1902-1906). The standard authority for the
Mahommedan side of Spanish history 'is the Histoire des Musulmans
d'Espagne, 711-1110, by R. P. A. Dozy (4 vols., Leiden, 1861). It
requires to be supplemented by Don Pascual de Gayongos's transla-
tion of Al Makkari's History of the Mahommedan Dynasties in Spain
(1840-1843) and by Senor Francisco Codera's Decadencia y desapari-
cion de los Almoravides en Espana (Saragossa, 1899) and Estudios
criticos de hist, arabe espanola (ibid., 1003). See also Stanley Lane
Poolft, The Moors in Spain (" Story of the Nations " Series, 1887)
and S. P. Scott, Hist, of the Moorish Empire in Europe (3 vols.,
Philadelphia and London, 1904). Other English works, on general
Spanish history, are Martin A. S. Hume's Spain, its Greatness and
Decay, ^ 1479-1788 (Cambridge, 1898) and Modern Spain, 1788-
1898 ("Story of the Nations" Series, 1899), and Butler Clarke's
Modern Spain, 1815-1898 (Cambridge, 1906). Excellent summaries
of Spanish history year by year are published in the Annual
Register.
LANGUAGE]
SPAIN
573
THE SPANISH LANGUAGE
The Iberian Peninsula is not a linguistic unit. Not to speak
of the Basque, which still forms an island of some importance in
the north-west, three Romance languages share this extensive
territory: (i) Portuguese-Galician, spoken in Portugal, Galicia,
and a small portion of the province of Leon'; (2) Castilian,
covering about two-thirds of the Peninsula in the north, centre,
and south; (3) Catalan, occupying a long strip of territory to the
east and south-east.
These three varieties of the Romano, rustica are marked off
from one another more distinctly than is the case with, say
the Romance dialects of Italy; they do not interpenetrate one
another, but where the one ends the other begins. It has only
been possible to establish at the points of junction of two
linguistic regions the existence of certain mixed jargons in which
certain forms of each language are intermingled; but these
jargons, called into existence for the necessities of social relations
by bilinguists, have an essentially individualistic and artificial
character. The special development of the vulgar Latin tongue
in Spain, and the formation of the three linguistic types just
enumerated, were promoted by political circumstances. From
the gth century onwards Spain was slowly recaptured from the
Mahommedans, and the Latin spoken by the Christians who had
taken refuge on the slopes of the Pyrenees was gradually carried
back to the centre and ultimately to the south of the Peninsula,
whence it had been driven by the Arab invasion. Medieval
Spain divides itself into three conquistas that of Castile (much
the most considerable), that of Portugal, and that of Aragon.
If a given province now speaks Catalan rather than Castilian,
the explanation is to be sought simply and solely in the fact
that it was conquered by a king of Aragon and peopled by his
Catalan subjects.
i. Catalan. This domain now embraces, on the mainland,
the Spanish provinces of Gerona, Barcelona, Tarragona and
Lerida (the old principality of Catalonia), and of Castellon de la
Plana, Valencia and Alicante (the old kingdom of Valencia),
and, in the Mediterranean, that of the Balearic Islands (the old
kingdom of Majorca). Catalan, by its most characteristic
features, belongs to the Romance of southern France and not to
that of Spain; it is legitimate, therefore, to regard it as imported
into Spain by those Hispani whom the Arab conquest had driven
back beyond the mountains into Languedoc, and who in the
gth century regained the country of their origin; this conclusion
is confirmed by the fact that the dialect is also that of two
French provinces on the north of the Pyrenees Roussillon and
Cerdagne. From the gth to the i2th century Catalan spread
farther and farther within the limits of Catalonia, properly so
called; in 1229 it was brought to Majorca by Jaime el Con-
quistador, and in 1238 the same sovereign carried it to Valencia
also. Even Murcia was peopled by Catalans in 1266, but this
province really is part of the Castilian conquest, and accordingly
the Castilian element took the upper hand and absorbed the
dialect of the earlier colonists. The river Segura, which falls
into the Mediterranean in the neighbourhood of Orihuela, a
little to the north of Murcia, is as nearly as possible the southern
boundary of the Catalan domain; westward the boundary coin-
cides pretty exactly with the political frontier, the provinces
of New Castile and Aragon not being at all encroached on.
Catalan, which by the reunion of Aragon and the countship
of Barcelona in 1137 became the official language of the
Aragonese monarchy although the kingdom of Aragon, consist-
ing of the present provinces of Saragossa, Huesca and Teruel, has
always been Castilian in speech established a footing in Italy
also, in all parts where the domination of the kings of Aragon
extended, viz. in Sicily, Naples, Corsica and Sardinia, but it
has not maintained itself here except in a single district of the
last-named island (Alghero); everywhere else in Italy, where it
was not spoken except by the conquerors, nor written except in
the royal chancery, it has disappeared without leaving a
trace.
In the i3th century the name given to the vulgar tongue of
eastern Spain was Catalanesch (Catalaniscus) or Catala (Cata-
lanus) the idiom of the Catalans. 1 By Catalanesch or Catala
was understood, essentially, the spoken language and the lan-
guage of prose, while that of poetry, with a large admixture of
Provencal forms, was early called Lemosi, Limosi or language
of Limousin Catalan grammarians, and particularly the most
celebrated of them, Ramon Vidal de Besalu, having adopted
Lemosi as the generic name of the language of the troubadours.
These grammarians carefully distinguish the vulgar speech, or
pla Calald, from the refined trobar idiom, which originally is
a modified form of Provencal. Afterwards, and especially in
these parts of the Catalan domain outside of Catalonia which
did not acknowledge that they derived their language from that
province, Lemosi received a more extensive signification, so
as to mean the literary language in general, whether of verse
or of prose. To this hour, particularly in Valencia and the
Balearics, Lemosi is employed to designate on the one hand the
old Catalan and on the other the very artificial and somewhat
archaizing idiom which is current in the jochs florals; while the
spoken dialect is called, according to the localities, Valencid
(in Valencia), Majorqul and Menorqui (in Majorca and Minorca),
or Catald (in Catalonia); the form Catalanesch is obsolete.
The principal features which connect Catalan with the Romance
of France and separate it from that .of Spain are the following:
(i) To take first its treatment of the final vowels Catalan,
like French and Provencal, having only oxytones and paroxy-
tones, does not admit more than one syllable after the tonic
accent: thus anima gives arma, camera gives cambra. All the
proparoxytones of modern Catalan are of recent introduction
and due to Castilian influence. Further, the only post-tonic
Latin vowel preserved by the Catalan is, as in Gallo-Roman,
a : mare gives mar, gratu (s) gives grat, but anima gives arma;
and, when the word terminates in a group of consonants requir-
ing a supporting vowel, that vowel is represented by an e :
arb(o)rem, Cat. abre (Prov. and Fr. arbre, but Cast, drbof);
pop(u)l(us), Cat. poble (Prov. poble, Fr. peuple, but Cast, pueblo);
sometimes, when it is inserted between the two consonants
instead of being made to follow them, the supporting vowel is
represented by an o : escdndol (scandalum), frevol (f r i v o 1 u s) ,
clrcol (circulus). In some cases a post-tonic vowel other than
a is preserved in Catalan, as, for example, when that vowel
forms a diphthong with the tonic (Dew, Deus; E6n'M,Hebreus);
or, again, it sometimes happens, when the tonic is followed by an
in hiatus, that the i persists (diltivi, diluvium; servici, ser-
vicium; Idbi, labium; ciri, cere us); but in many cases these
ought to be regarded as learned forms, as is shown by the exist-
ence of parallel ones, such as seniey, where the atonic i has been
attracted by the tonic and forms a diphthong with it (servici,
servii, seniey). What has just been said as to the treatment
of the final vowels in Catalan must be understood as applying
only to pure Catalan, unaltered by the predominance of the
Castilian, for the actual language is no longer faithful to the
principle we have laid down; it allows the final o atonic in a
number of substantives and adjectives, and in the verb it now
conjugates canto, temo, sento a thing unknown in the ancient
language. (2) As regards conjugation only two points need
be noted here: (a) it employs the form known as the inchoative,
that is to say, the lengthening of the radical of the present in
verbs of the third conjugation by means of the syllable ex or ix,
a proceeding common to Italian, Walachian, Provencal and
French, but altogether unknown in Hispanic Romance; (b)
the formation of a great number of past participles in which the
termination is added, as in Provencal, not to the radical of the
verb, but to that of the perfect: tingut from tinch, pogut from
poclt, conegut from conech, while in Castilian tenido (formerly
also tenudo), podido, conocido, are participles formed from the
infinitive.
As for features common to Catalan and Hispanic (Castilian
and Portuguese) Romance, on the other hand, and which are
unknown to French Romance, only one is of importance; the
conservation, namely, of the Latin u with its original sound,
while the same vowel has assumed in French and Provencal,
1 The origin of the name Catalanus is unknown.
574
SPAIN
[LANGUAGE
from a very early period earlier doubtless than the oldest
existing monuments of those languages a labio-palatal pro-
nunciation (u). It is not to be supposed that the separation of
Catalan from the Gallo-Roman family occurred before the
transformation had taken place; there is good reason to believe
that Catalan possessed the u at one time, but afterwards lost
it in its contact with the Spanish dialects.
Catalan being a variety of the langue d'oc, it will be con-
venient to note the peculiarities of its phonetics and inflexion
as compared with ordinary Provencal.
Tonic Vowels. With regard to a, which is pronounced alike in
open and close syllables (amar, a ma re; abre, arbor), there is
nothing to remark. The Latin e, which is treated like J, gives e,
sometimes close, sometimes open. On this point Catalan is more
hesitating than Provencal; it does not distinguish so clearly the
pronunciation of e according to its origin ; while e (i) is capable of
yielding an open e, the e is often pronounced close, and the poets
have no difficulty in making words in e close and in e open rhyme
together, which is not the case in Provencal. The Latin e never
yields ie in Catalan as it does in French and occasionally in Pro-
vencal ; s e d e t becomes sen (where represents the final d) ,
p e d e m makes pen, and e g o eu ; in some words where the tonic e
is followed by a syllable in which an i occurs, it may become i (ir,
h e r i; mig, m e d i u s; mils, m e 1 i u s) ; and the same holds good
for e in a .similar situation (ciri, c S r i u s, c e r e u s; fira, t e r i a),
and for e in a close syllable before a nasal (eximpli, e x e m p 1 u m ;
mintre for mentire, gint for gent). I tonic long andt short, when in
hiatus with another vowel, produce i (amich, a m i c u s; via, v i a).
O tonic long and o short are represented by o close and o open
(amor, a m o r e m ; poble, p o p u 1 u s). short is never diphthong-
ized into uo or tie ; such a treatment is as foreign to Catalan as the
diphthongization of e into ie. Just as e before a syllable in which
an i occurs is changed into i, so in the same circumstances o becomes
u (full, folium; vull, v o 1 i o for v o 1 e o) and also when the ac-
cented vowel precedes a group of consonants like cl, pi, and the like
(ull, o c ' 1 u s; escull, s c o p ' 1 u s). Latin u persists with the Latin
pronunciation, and, as already said, does not take the Franco-
Provencal pronunciation u. Latin an becomes o (cosa, c a u s a ; ; or,
a u r u m) ; Old Catalan has kept the diphthong better, but possibly
we should attribute the examples of au which are met with in texts
of the I3th and I4th centuries to the literary influence of Provence.
Latin ua tends to become o (cor, q u a r e).
Atonic Vowels. As for the Latin post-tonic vowels already spoken
of, it remains to be noted that a is often represented in writing by
e, especially before s; in old Catalan, the substantives, adjectives
and participles readily form their singular in a and their plural in
es : arma, armes (a n i m a, a n i m a s) ; bona, bones (b o n a, b o n a s) ;
amada, amades (a m a t a, am a t a s). This e is neither open nor
close, but a surd e the pronunciation of which comes very near a. In
the same way the supporting vowel, which is regularly an e in Cata-
lan, is often written a, especially after r (abra, a r b o r e m; astra,
a s t r u m ; para, p a t r e m) ; one may say that in the actual state
of the language post-tonic e and a become indistinguishable in a
surd sound intermediate between the French a and mute e. Before
the tonic the same change between a and e constantly takes place ;
one finds in manuscripts enar, emor for anar, amor (the same extends
even to the case of the tonic syllable, ten and sent from t a n t u m
and sanctum being far from rare), and, on the other hand, antre,
arrar, for entre, errar. I atonic is often represented by e even when
it is long (vehi, v i c i n u s). atonic close, which in genuine
Catalan exists only before the tonic, has become u; at the present
day truvar, cuntradir is the real pronunciation of the words spelt
trovar, contradir, and in the final syllables, verbal or other, where
under Castilian influence an o has come to be added to the normal
Catalan form, this o has the value of a M: trovo (genuine Catalan,
trap) is pronounced trovu; bravo (genuine Catalan, brau) is pronounced
bravu. U atonic keeps its ground.
The only strong diphthongs of the spoken language are di, du
(rather rare), ei, eu, iu, 6i, 6u, ui, uu. At produced by a+i or by
a +a palatal consonant has for the greater part of the time become
an e in the modern language; factum has yielded fait, feit, and then
fet, the last being the actual form ; arius has given er alongside of
aire, ari, which are learned or semi-learned forms. Of the two weak
diphthongs io and ud, the latter, as has been seen, tends to become
o close in the atonic syllable, and is pronounced u: quaranta has
become coranla, then curanta. After the tonic ua often becomes a
in the Catalan of the mainland (ay fa, aqua, llenga, lingua),
while in Majorca it becomes o (aygo, llengo).
Consonants. Final t readily disappears after n or I (tan, t a n t u m ;
aman, venin, partin, for amant, venint, &c. ; mol, m u 1 1 u m; ocul,
o c u 1 1 u m) ; the t reappears in composition before a vowel (fan,
f o n t e m, but Font-alba). On the other hand, a t without etymo-
logical origin is frequently added to words ending in r (cart for car,
quare; mart for mar, mare; amart, ohirt, infinitive for amar, ohir),
and even to some words terminating in a vowel (genit, i n g e n i u m ;
premit, p r e m i u m), or the addition of the / has taken place by
assimilation to past participles in it. The phenomenon occurs also
in Provengal (see Romania, vii. 107, viii. no). Median intervocal
d, represented by s (z) in the first stage of the language, has dis-
appeared : f i d e 1 i s gave fesel, then feel, and finally fel ; v i d e t i s
became vezets, then veets, vets and veu. Final d after a vowel has
produced u (peu, p e d e m ; niu, n i d u m ; mou, m o d u m) ; but
when the d, in consequence of the disappearance of the preceding
vowel, rests upon a consonant, it remains and passes into the
corresponding surd ; f r i g i d u s gives fred (pronounced fret). The
group dr, when produced by the disappearance of the intermediate
vowel, becomes ur (creure, credere; ociure, occidere; veure,
v i d 6 r e ; seure, s e d 6 r e). Final n, if originally it stood between
two vowels, drops away (bo, b o n u m ; vi, v i n u m), but not when
it answers to mn (thus d o n u m makes do, but d o m n u m don ;
s o n u m makes so, but s o m n u m son). Nd is reduced to n (de-
manar, comanar for demandar, comandar). Assibilated c before e, i is
treated like d ; within a word it disappears after having been repre-
sented for a while by i (1 u c e r e gives llusir, lluhir ; r e c i p e r e gives
rezebre, reebre, rebre) ; at the end of a word it is replaced by u (veu,
y i c e m ; feu, fecit). The group c'r gives ur, just like d r (jaure,
j a c e r e ; naure, n o c e r e ; plaure, placere; but facere,
dicer e, ducere, make far (fer), dir, dur. Initial / has been
preserved only in certain monosyllables (the article lo, los); every-
where else it has been replaced by / mouillte (Prov. Ih), which in the
present orthography is written // as in Castilian, but formerly used
to be represented by ly or yl (lletra, 1 i t e r a , llengua, lingua). P
readily disappears after m, like t after n (cam, c a m p u m ; terns,
t e m p u s). B is replaced by the surd p at the end of a word (trobar
in the infinitive, but trap in the present tense) ; so also in the interior
of a word when it precedes a consonant (supyenir, subvenire,
sopte, sub' to). Median intervocalic / gives v (Esteve, S t e-
p h a n u s) ; it has disappeared from profundus, which yielded
the form preon, then pregon (g being introduced to obviate the hiatus).
V, wherever it has been preserved, has the same pronunciation as b;
at the end of a word and between vowels it becomes vocalized into u
(suau, s u a v i s; viure, v i v e r e). C guttural, written qu before e
and i, keeps its ground as a central and as a final letter; in the
latter position it is generally written ch (amich, a m I c u m ; joch,
j o c u m). G guttural is replaced as a final letter by surd c (longa,
but lone; triear, but trtch). Tj after a consonant gives ss (cassar,
c a p t i a r e) ; between vowels, after having been represented by
soft s, it has disappeared (r a t i o n e m gave razo, rayso, then raho) ;
at the end of every word it behaves like ts, that is to say, changes into
u (preu, p r e t i u m) ; instead of ts the second person plural of the
verb a t (i)s, e t(i)s, it(i)s now has au, eu, iu after having had ats, ets
its. Dj gives g between vowels (verger, y i r i d i a r u m), and c as a.
terminal (written either ig or tx : goig, gaudium mig, mitx,
m e d i u m). Stj and sc before e and i, as well as x and ps, yield the
sound sh, represented in Catalan by x (angoxa, a n g u s t i a ;
coneixer, cognoscere; dix, dixit; matetx. metipse). /
almost everywhere has taken the sound of the French j (jutge, &c.).
Lj and U give / mouilUSe (U in the present orthography -fill, f i 1 i u m ;
consett, c o n s i 1 i u m ; null, n u 1 1 u m). In the larger portion of
the Catalan domain this I mouil!6e has become y. almost everywhere
fiy is pronounced for fill, consey for consett. Nj and nn give n
mouillee (ny in both old and modern spelling : senyor. s e n i o r e m ;
any, annum). Sometimes the ny becomes reduced to y; one
occasionally meets in manuscripts with seyor, ay, for senyor, any, but
this pronunciation has not become general, as has been the case with
the y having its origin in U. Lingual r at the end of a word has a
tendency to disappear when preceded by a vowel : thus the infinitives
amare, temere, *legire are pronounced amd, teme, llegi.
It is never preserved except when protected by the non-etymological
t already spoken of (llegirt or llegi, but never ueglr) ; the r reappears,
nevertheless, whenever the infinitive is followed by a pronoun
(donarme, dirho). Rs is reduced to s (cos for cars, corpus). H is
merely an orthographic sign ; it is used to indicate that two consecu-
tive vowels do not form a diphthong (vehi raho), and, added to c,
it denotes the pronunciation of the guttural c at the end of a word
(amich).
Inflexion. Catalan, unlike Old Provencal and Old French, has
never had declensions. It is true that in certain texts (especially
metrical texts) certain traces of case-endings are to be met with, as
for example Deus and Deu, amors and amor, clars and clar, forts
and fort, tuyt and tots, obduy and abdos, senyer and senyor, emperaire
and emperador; but, since these forms are used convertibfy, the
nominative form when the word is in the objective, and the accusative
form when the word is the subject, we can only recognize in these
cases a confused recollection of the Provencal rules known only to
the literate but of which the transcribers of manuscripts took no
account. Catalan, then, makes no distinctions save in the gender
and the number of its nouns. As regards the formation of the plural
only two observations are necessary, (i) Words which have their
radical termination in n but which in the singular drop that n, resume
it in the plural before i: homin-em makes ome in the singular and
omens in the plural ; asin-um makes ase and asens. (2) Words termi-
nating in s surd or sonant and in x anciently formed their plural
by adding to the singular the syllable es (bras, brasses; pres, preses;
mateix, matrixes), but subsequently, from about the isth century.
LANGUAGE]
SPAIN
575
the Castilian influence substituted os, so that one now hears brasses,
presos, mateixos. The words in tx, sc, st have been assimilated to
words in s (x) ; from bosch we originally had the plural bosches,_ but
now boscos; from trist, tristes, but now tristos. For these last in st
there exists a plural formation which is more in accordance with the
genius of the language, and consists in the suppression of the s before
the I; from aquest, tor example, we have now side by side the two
plurals aquestos, in the Castilian manner, and aquets. The article
is lo, los (pronounced lu, lus in a portion of the domain), fern, la, les
(las). Some instances of li occur in the ancient tongue, applying
indifferently to the nominative and the objective case; el applying
to the singular is also not wholly unknown. On the north-western
border of Catalonia, and in the island of Majorca, the article is not
a derivative from ille but from ipse (sing. masc. es or so, fern, so,;
pi. masc. es, and also ets, which appears to come from istos ets for
ests, like aquets for aquests fem. sas). Compare the corresponding
Sardinian forms su, sa, pi. sos, sas. On the pronouns it has only
to be remarked that the modern language has borrowed from
Castilian the composite forms nosaltres and vosaltres (pronounced also
nosaltros and nosatrus), as also the form voste, vuste (Castilian usted
for vuestra merced).
Conjugation. Catalan, and especially modern Catalan, has
greatly narrowed the domain of the 2nd conjugation in g r e; a large
number of verbs of this conjugation have been treated as if they
belonged to the 3rd in ere; debere makes deure, v i d e r e, mure,
and alongside of haber, which answers to h a b 6 r e, there is a form
heure which points to h a b g r e. A curious fact, and one which has
arisen since the I5th century, is the addition of a paragogic r to
those infinitives which are accented on the radical; in a portion of
the Catalan domain one hears creurer, veurer. Some verbs originally
belonging to the conjugation in e r e have passed over into that
in ir; for example t e n e r e gives tenir alongside of tindre, r e m a-
n e r e romanir and romandre. In the gerundive and in the present
participle Catalan differs from Provencal in still distinguishing
the conjugation in ir from that in er, re saying, for example,
sentint. As in Provengal, the past participle of a large number of
verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations is formed, not from the
infinitive, but from the perfect (pogut, volgut, tingut suggest the
perfects poch, volch, tinch, and not the infinitives poder, voter, tenir).
In the present indicative and subjunctive many verbs in ir take the
inchoative form already described, by lengthening the radical in
the three persons of the singular and in the third person of the plural
by means of the syllable esc (isc). agrahir has the present indicative
agraesch, agraheixes, agraheix, agraheixen, the present subjunctive
agraesca, -as, -a, -an (or more usually now agraesqui, -is, -i, -in).
The old perfect of the conjugation in ar had e (also ) in the 1st pers.
sing, and -ain the 3rd ; alongside of the -a, which is proper to Catalan
exclusively, we also find, in the first period of the language, -el as in
Provencal. Subsequently the perfect of the three conjugations has
admitted forms in -r (amdres, amdrem, amareu, amdren), derived
from the ancient pluperfect amara, &c., which has held its ground
down to the present day, with the meaning of a conditional in some
verbs (one still hears /era, haguera). But the simple perfect is no
longer employed in the spoken language, which has substituted for
it a periphrastic perfect, composed of the infinitive of the verb and
the present of the auxiliary anar: vaig pendre, for example, does not
mean " I am going to take," but " I have taken." The earliest
example of this periphrastic perfect carries us back to the 1 5th cen-
tury. The most usual form of the subj. pres. in spoken Catalan is
that in -i for all the three conjugations (ami, -is, -i, -em, -eu -in;
temi, -is, &c. ; senti, -is_, &c.) ; it appears to be an abbreviation from
-io, and in effect certain subjunctives, such as cdntia, temia, tinguia,
oinguia (for cante, tema, tinga, vingia), evidently formed upon sia
(subj. of esser), have been and still are used. The same i of the pre-
sent subjunctive, whatever may be its origin, is still found in the
imperfect : ames, -essis, -cs, -essium, &c.
Catalan Dialect of Alghero (Sardinia). As compared with that of
the mainland, the Catalan of Alghero, introduced into this portion
of Sardinia by the Aragonese conquerors and colonists, does not
present any very important differences; some of them, such as
they are, are explicable by the influence of the indigenous dialects
of Sassari and Logudoro. In phonetics one observes (i ) the change
of Ij into y as an initial before i (yitx, yigis; lego, leeis), a change
which does not take place in the Catalan of the mainland except in
the interior, or at the end of the word; (2) the frequent change of
I between vowels and of / after c, g, f,porb into r (taura tabula;
candera, candela; sangrot, singultum; frama, flama). In conjugation
there are some notable peculiarities. The 1st pers. sing, does not
take the o which continental Catalan has borrowed from Castilian
(cant, not canto, &c.) ; the imp. ind. of verbs of the 2nd and 3rd
conjugations has eva, iva instead of ia, a form which also occurs in
the conditional (cantariva, drumiriva) ; the simple perfect, of which
some types are still preserved in the actual language (e.g. anighe,
aghe), has likewise served for the formation not only of the past
participle but also of the infinitive (agher, habere,_ can only be ex-
plained by ach, 3rd person of the perfect) ; the infinitives with r
paragogic (viurer, seurer, plourer) are not used (viure, seure, ploure
instead) ; in the conjugation of the present of the verb essar or esser,
the 2nd pers. sing, ses formed upon the persons of the plural, while
continental Catalan says ets (anciently est), as also, in the plural,
sem, seu, instead of som, sou, are to be noted ; tenere has passed over
to the conjugation in re (trenda = tendre) , but it is at the same time
true that in ordinary Catalan also we have tindrer alongside of tenir
the habitual form; dicere gives not dir but diure, which is more
regular.
2. Castilian. This name is the most convenient desig-
nation to apply to the linguistic domain which comprises the
whole of central Spain and the vast regions of America and
Asia colonized from the i6th century onwards by the Spaniards.
We might also indeed call it the Spanish domain, narrowing
the essentially geographical meaning of the word Espanol
(derived, like the other old form Espanon, -from Hispania),
and using it in a purely political sense. But the first expression
is to be preferred, all the more because it has been long in use,
and even the inhabitants of the domain outside the two Castiles
fully accept it and are indeed the first to call their idiom Castel-
lano. It is agreed on all hands that Castilian is one of the two
branches of the vulgar Latin of Spain, Portuguese-Galician
being the other; both idioms, now separated by very marked
differences, can be traced back directly to one common source
the Hispanic Romance. One and the same vulgar tongue,
diversely modified in the lapse of time, has produced Castilian
and Portuguese as two varieties, while Catalan, the third lan-
guage of the Peninsula, connects itself, as has already been
pointed out, with the Gallo-Roman.
Within the Castilian domain, thus embracing all in Spain that
is neither Portuguese nor Catalan, there exist linguistic varieties
which it would perhaps be an exaggeration to call dialects,
considering the meaning ordinarily attached to that word, but
which are none the less worthy of attention. Generally speaking,
from various circumstances, and especially that of the recon-
quest, by which the already-formed idiom of the Christian
conquerors and colonists was gradually conveyed from north to
south, Castilian has maintained a uniformity of which the
Romance languages afford no other example. We shall pro-
ceed in the first instance to examine the most salient features
of the normal Castilian, spoken in the provinces more or less
closely corresponding to the old limits of Old and New Castile,
so as to be able afterwards to note the peculiarities of what,
for want of a better expression, we must call the Castilian
dialects.
In some respects Castilian is hardly further removed from
classical Latin than is Italian; in others it has approximately
reached the same stage as Provencal. As regards the tonic,
accent and the treatment of the vowels which come after it,
Castilian may be said to be essentially a paroxytonic language,
though it does not altogether refuse proparoxy tonic accentua-
tion and it would be a mistake to regard vocables like lampara,
Idgrima, rdpido, &c., as learned words. In this feature, and in
its almost universal conservation of the final vowels e, i, u (o),
Castilian comes very near Italian, while it separates from it
and approaches the Gallo-Roman by its modification of~ the
consonants.
Vowels. Normal Castilian faithfully preserves the vowels e, i,
o, u; the comparatively infrequent instances in which e and o are
treated like e and o must be attributed to the working of analogy.
It diphthongizes e in ie, o in ue, which may be regarded as a weaken-
ing of uo (seeRomania, iv. 30). Sometimes ie and ue in the modern
language are changed into i and e: silla from sell a (Old Cast.
siella), vispera from vespera (Old Cast, viespera), castiUo from
c a s t e 1 1 u m (Old Cast, castiello) , frente from f r o n t e m (Old Cast.
fruente), fleco from floccus (Old Cast, flueco). The words in
which & and o have kept their ground are either learned words like
medico, merito, or have been borrowed from dialects which do not
suffer diphthongization. In many cases the old language is more
rigorous; thus, while modern Castilian has given the preference to
mente, como, modo, we find in old texts miente, cuemo, muedo.
Lat. a u makes o in all words of popular origin (cosa, oro, &c.).
Consonants. On the liquids /, m, n, r there is little to be remarked,
except that the last-named letter has two pronunciations one
soft (voiced), as in amor, burla, the other hard (voiceless), as in
rendir, tierra (Old Cast, in this case goes so far as to double the
initial consonant : rrendir) and that n is often inserted before i and
d: ensayo, mensage, rendir (redd ere). L mouillee (written U)
represents not only the Latin /, II, Ij, but also, at the beginning of
words, the combinations cl, gl, pi, bl, fl: llama (f 1 a m m a), Have
SPAIN
[LANGUAGE
(c 1 a v i s), ttorar (p 1 o r a r e) ; the tendency of the modern language
is, as in Catalan, to reduce II to y, thus one readily hears yeno
(p 1 e n u m). N mpuillee (n) corresponds to the Lat. nn, mn, nj,
and sometimes to initial n : ano (annum), dano (d a m n u m), nudo
(n o d u m). Passing to the dentals, except as an initial, t in words
that are popularly current and belong to the old stock of the language,
can only be derived from Lat. U, pt, and sometimes ct, as in meter
(mitt ere), catar (cap tare), punlo (p u n c t u m) ; but it is
to be observed that the habitual mode of representing ct in normal
Castilian is by ch (pron. tch), as in derecho (d i rectum), pecho
(pec t us), so that we may take those words in which t alone
represents ct as secondary forms of learned words; thus we have
bendito, otubre, santo as secondary forms of the learned words
bendicto, octubre, sancto, alongside of the old popular forms bendicho,
ochubre, sancho. D corresponds in Castilian to Latin t between
vowels, or t before r: amado (a m a t u s), padre (p a t r e m). At the
present day the d of the suffixes ado, ido is no longer pronounced
throughout the whole extent of the domain, and the same holds
good also of the final d : salu, pone, for salud, poned (from s a 1 u t e m,
p o n i t e). Sometimes d takes the interdental sound of z (English
th), or is changed into /; witness the two pronunciations of the
name of the capital Madriz and Madril (adj. Madrileno). The
study of the spirants, c, z, s; g, j is made a very delicate one by the
circumstance that the interdental pronunciation of c, z on the one
hand, and the guttural pronunciation of g, j on the other, are of
comparatively recent date, and convey no notion of the value of
these letters before the 17th century. It is admitted, not without
reason, that the spirants c, z, which at present represent but one
interdental sound (a lisped s, or a sound between i and Eng. th in
thing), had down till about the middle of the i6th century the
voiceless sound ts and the voiced sound dz respectively, and that
in like manner the palatal spirants g, j, x, before assuming the
uniform pronunciation of the guttural spirant ( = Germ, ch in
Buck), had previously represented the voiced sound of z (Fr. j)
and the voiceless sound of (Fr. ch), which are still found in Portu-
guese and in the Castilian dialects of the north-west. The substitu-
tion of these interdental and guttural sounds for the surd and sonant
spirants respectively did certainly not take place simultaneously,
but the vacillations of the old orthography, and afterwards the
decision of the Spanish Academy, which suppressed x (=$', x was
retained for cs) and allows only c and g before e and i, z and j before
a, o, u, make it impossible for us to follow, with the help of the written
texts, the course of the transformation. S now has the voiceless
sound even between vowels: casa (pronounced cassa); final i readily
falls away, especially before liquids: todo los for todos los, vamono
for vamos nos. The principal sources of j (g) are Lat. j and g
before e and i (juego, j o c u m ; genie, g e n t e m) ; Lat. initial
i (jabon, s a p o n e m) ; Lat. x (cojo, c o x u m) ; Ij, cl (consejo, c o n-
s i 1 i u m ; ojo, o c'l u m). The sources of z (c) are Lat. ce, cj, tj, s
(cielo, c a e 1 u m ; calza, c a 1 c e a ; razon, rationem; zampona,
s y nip h o h i a). As regards the spirants / and f, It is to be ob-
served that at the beginning of a word / has in many instances been
replaced by the aspirated h (afterwards silent), while in others no
less current among the people the transformation has not taken
place; thus we have hijo (f i 1 i u m) alongside of fiesta (f e s t a). In
some cases the/ has been preserved in order to avoid confusion that
might arise from identity of sound : the/ in /ie/ (f i d e 1 i s) has been
kept for the sake of distinction from hiel (f e 1). As for v, it has a
marked tendency to become confounded, especially as an initial
letter, with the sonant explosive b; Joseph Scaliger's pun bibere
est vivere is applicable to the Castilians as well as to the Gascons.
H is now 'nothing more than a graphic sign, except in Andalusia,
where the aspirate sound represented by it comes very near j.
Words beginning in hue, where the h, not etymologically derived,
marks the inseparable aspiration of the initial diphthong ue, are
readily pronounced gue throughout almost the whole extent of the
domain: giiele for huele (o 1 e t) ; gueso for hueso (o s). This giie
extends also to words beginning with hue : gtieno for bueno (b o n u m).
Inflexion. There is no trace of declension either in Castilian or
in Portuguese. Some nominative forms Dios (anciently Dios, and
in the Castilian of the Jews Dio), Carlos, Marcos, saslre (s a r t o r)
have been adopted instead of forms derived from the accusative, but
the vulgar Latin of the Peninsula in no instance presents two forms
(subjective and objective case) of the same substantive. The article
is derived from i 1 1 e, as it is almost everywhere throughout the
Romance regions: el, la, and a neuter lo\ los, las. The plural of
the first and second personal pronoun has in the modern language
taken a composite iorm-^-nosotros, vosotros which has been imitated
in Catalan. Quien, the interrogative pronoun which has taken the
place of the old qui, seems to come from q u e m.
Conjugation. The conjugation of Castilian (and Portuguese)
derives a peculiar interest from the archaic features which it retains.
The vulgar Latin of Spain has kept the pluperfect indicative, still
in current use as a secondary form of the conditional (cantdra, ven-
diera, partiera), and, what is more remarkable still, as not occurring
anywhere else, the future perfect (cantdre, vendiere, partiere, formerly
cantdro, vendiero, partiero). The Latin future has been replaced,
as everywhere, by the perirphasis (cantare habeo), but it
is worth noticing that in certain old texts of the i$th century, and
in the popular songs of a comparatively ancient date which have been
preserved in Asturias, the auxiliary can still precede the infinitive
(habeo cantare), as with the Latin writers of the decadence:
" Mucho de mayor pregio a seer el tu man to Que non sera el nuestro "
(Berceo, 5. Laur., str. 70), where a seer (habet seder e) corre-
sponds exactly to serd (s e d e r e habet). The vulgar Latin of the
Peninsula, moreover, has preserved the 2nd pers. pi. of the impera-
tive (cantad, vended, partid), which has disappeared from all the
other Romance languages. Another special feature of Castilian-
Portuguese is the complete absence of the form of conjugation known
as inchoative (intercalation, in the present tense, of the syllable isc
or esc between the radical and the inflexion), although in all the other
tenses, except the present, Spanish shows a tendency to lay the accent
upon the same syllable in all the six persons, which was the object
aimed at by the inchoative form. Castilian displaces the accent on
the 1st and 2nd pers. pi. of the imperfect (cantdbamos, cantdbais),
of the pluperfect indicative (cantdramos, cantdrais), and of the
imperfect subjunctive (cantdsemos , cantdseis) ; possibly the impulse
to this was given by the forms of future perfect cantdremos, cantdreis
(cantanmus, cantaritis) . The 2nd persons plural were formerly
(except in the perfect) -odes, -edes, -ides; it was only in the course
ot the l6th century that they got reduced, by the falling away of
d, to ais, eis and is. The verb e s s e r e has been mixed, not as in
the other Romance languages with stare, but with s e d e r e, as is
proved by older forms seer, siedes, sieden, seyendo, obviously derived
from s e d e r e, and which have in the texts sometimes the meaning
of " to be seated," sometimes that of " to be," and sometimes both.
In old Latin charters also sedere is frequently met with in the
sense of esse: e.g. " sedeat istum meum donativum quietum et
securum " (anno 1134), where sedeat sit. The 2nd pers. sing, of
the present of ser is eres, which is best explained as borrowed from
the imperfect (eras), this tense being often used in Old Spanish
with the meaning of the present; alongside of eres one finds (but
only in old documents or in dialects) sos, formed like sois (2nd pers.
pi.) upon somos. The accentuation in the inflexion of perfects in the
conjugation called strong, like hubieron hizieron, which correspond
to habuerunt, fecerunt (while in the other Romance
languages the Latin type is 6 runt: Fr. eurent, firent), may be
regarded as truly etymological, or rather as a result of the assimila-
tion of these perfects to the perfects known as weak (amdron), for
there are dialectic forms having the accent on the radical, such as
dixon, hizon. The past participle of verbs in er was formerly udo
(u t u s) in most cases ; at present ido serves for all verbs in er and
ir, except some ten or twelve in which the participle has retained the
Latin form accented on the radical : dicho, hecho, visto, &c. It ought
to be added that the past participle in normal Castilian derives its
theme not from the perfect, but from the infinitive: habido, sabido,
from haber, saber, not from hubo, supo.
CASTILIAN DIALECTS. To discover the features by which these
are distinguished from normal Castilian we must turn to old charters
and to certain modern compositions in which the provincial forms of
speech have been reproduced more or less faithfully.
Asturian. The Asturian idiom, called by the natives bable, is
differentiated from the Castilian by the following characters. le
occurs, as in Old Castilian, in words formed with the suffix ellum
(castiellu, portiellu), while modern Castilian has reduced ie to i.
E, i, u, post-tonic for a, e, o: penes (penas), grades (gracias), esti
(este), frenti (f rente) , llechi (leche) , nucchi (noche) , unu (uno) , primeru
(primero). There is no guttural spirant, _;', but, according to circum-
stances, y or x (S) ; thus Lat. cl, Ij gives y : veyu (*v e c 1 u s), espeyu
(spec'lum), conseyu (consi'.ium); and after an i this y is
hardly perceptible, to judge by the forms fin (f ilium),' escoidps
(Cast, escogidos), Casiia (Castillo); Lat. g before e and i, Lat. initial
j, and Lat. ss, x, give x (S) xiente (g e n t e m), xudiu (J u d a e u s),
baxu (b a s s u s), coxu (c o x u s), floxu (f 1 u x u s). Lat. initial /
has. kept its ground, at least in part of the province: fiu,fueya(Cast.
hijo, hoja). A very marked feature is the habitual " mouillure " of
/ and n as initial letters : Heche, lleer, lluna, Hutu ; non, nunca, nueve,
nube. With respect to inflexion the following forms may be noted :
personal pronouns: * (tilt), yos (illos); possessive pronouns: mio, pi.
mios; to, tos; so, sos for both masc. and fern.; verbs: 3rd pers. pi.
imp. of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations in in for ien (Cast, ian) ; train,
tenin, facin (f rom facer) , fiin (from/er), and even some instances of
the 2nd pers. sing, (abis; Cast, habias); instances of pres. subj. in ia
for a (sirvia, metia, sepia). The verb ser gives yes (sometimes yeres)
in the 2nd pers. sing., ye in the 3rd. F a c e r e appears under two
forms facer and fer and to the abridged form correspond feis,
fiendo, fiin, &c. Ire often appears under the form dir (antes de
diros = antes de iros), which it is not necessary to explain by de-ire
(see H. Schuchardt, Ztschr.f. rom. Philol., v. 312).
Navarrese-Aragonese. In its treatment of the post-tonic vowels
this dialect parts company with normal Castilian and comes nearer
Catalan, in so far as it drops the final e, especially after nt, rt (mont,
plazient, muert, fuert, parents, gents) ; and, when the atonic e has
dropped after a v, this v becomes a vowel breu (b r e v e m) ,
rieu (*g r e y e m), nueu (n p v e m). Navarrese-Aragonese has the
iphthongs ie, ue from tonic e and 6, and adheres more strictly
to them than normal Castilian does cuende (c 6 m i t e m), huey
(h6die), pueyo (podium), yes (est), yeran (erant), while
LANGUAGE]
SPAIN
Castilian says conde, hoy, poyo, es, eran. The initial combinations
d, pl,.fl, have withstood the transformation into // better than in
Castilian: piano, plena, plega, clamado, flama are current in ok
documents^ and at the present day, although the / has come to be
" mouillee," the first consonant has not disappeared (plluma, pllord
pllano pronounced pljuma, &c.). Lat. ct gives it, not ch as in
Castilian: nueyt (n o c t e m), destruito (destructum), proveito
(provectum), dito for ditto (dictum). D between vowels
kept its ground longer than in Castilian: documents of the 1 4th
century supply such forms as vidieron, vido, hudio, provedir, redemir,
prodeza, Benedit, vidiendo, &c. ; but afterwards y came to be substi-
tuted iordordj : veyere (v i d e r e), seyer (seder e), seya (s e d e a t),
goyo (g a u d i u m), enueyo (i n o d i u m). Initial / does not change
into h : fillo, feito. Navarrese-Aragonese does not possess the
guttural spirant (i) of Castilian, which is here rendered according to
circumstances either by g (Fr. j) or by // (/ mouillee), but never by
the Asturian x. Certain forms of the conjugation of the verb differ
from the Castilian: dar, estar, haver, saber, poner readily form their
imperfects and imperfect subjunctives like the regular verbs in ar
and er havieron (Cast. hiibieron), estaron (Cast, estubieron), sabio
(Cast, sitpo), dasen (Cast, diesen), poniese (Cast, pusiese) ; on the other
hand, past participles and gerundives formed from the perfect are
to be met with /merado for faciendo (peri.fiso), tuviendo and tuvido
for teniendo, lenido (perf. tuvo). In the region bordering on Catalonia
the simple perfect has given way before the periphrastic form proper
to Catalan: voy cayer (I fell), vafe (he has done), vamos ir (we went),
&c. ; the imperfects of verbs in er, ir, moreover, are found in eba,
iba (comeba, subiba, for comia, subia), and some presents also occur
where the Catalan influence makes itself felt: estigo (Cat. estich),
vaigo (Cat. vaig), veigo (Cat. veig). Navarrese-Aragonese makes use
of the adverb en as a pronoun: no les en daren pas, no'n hi ha.
Andalusian. The word " dialect " is still more appropriately
applied to Andalusian than either to Asturian or Navarrese-Ara-
gonese. Many peculiarities of pronunciation, however, are com-
monly called Andalusian which are far from being confined to
Andalusia proper, but are met with in the vulgar speech of many
parts of the Castilian domain, both in Europe and in America. Of
these but a few occur only there, or at least have not yet been
observed elsewhere than in that great province of southern Spain.
They are the following: L, n, r, d between vowels or at the end
of a word disappear: sd (sal), so (sol), vice (viene), tiee (tiene), paa
and pa (para), mia (mira), naa and na (nada), too and to (todo).
Z> is dropped even from the beginning of a word: e (de), inero
(dinero), on (don). Before an explosive, I, r, d are often represented
by i: saiga (saiga), vaiga (valga), laigo (largo), maire (madre), paire
(padre). Lat. / is more rigorously represented by h than in normal
Castilian, and this h here preserves the aspirate sound which it has
lost elsewhere; babld, horma (forma), hoder, are pronounced with a
very strong aspiration, almost identical with that of j. The Anda-
lusians also very readily write these words jabld, jorma, joder. This
aspirate, expressed by j, often has no etymological origin; for
example, Jdndalo, a nickname applied to Andalusians, is simply
the word Andaluz pronounced with the strong aspiration character-
istic of the inhabitants of the province. C, z are seldom pronounced
like i ; but a feature more peculiar to the Andalusians is the inverse
process, the softened and interdental pronunciation of the i (the
so-called ceceo) : zenor (senor), &c. Before a consonant and at the
end of a word i becomes a simple aspiration: mihmo (mismo), Dioh
(Dios), do reales (dos reales). In the inflexion of the verb there is
nothing special to note, except some instances of 2nd pers. sing, of
the perfect in tes for te: estuvistes, estuvites, for estuviste evidently
a formation by analogy from the 2nd pers. of the other tenses, which
all have s.
It is with the Andalusian dialect that we can most readily asso-
ciate the varieties of Castilian which are spoken in South America.
Here some of the most characteristic features of the language of the
extreme south of Spain are reproduced either because the Cas-
tilian of America has spontaneously passed through the same
phonetic transformations or because the Andalusian element, very
strongly represented in colonization, succeeded in transporting its
local habits of speech to the New World.
Leonese. Proceeding on inadequate indications, the existence of
a Leonese dialect has been imprudently admitted in some quarters
but the old kingdom of Leon cannot in any way be considered as
constituting a linguistic domain with an individuality of its own
The fact that a poem of the I3th century (the Alexandra), and
certain redactions of the oldest Spanish code, the Fuero Juzgo, have
a Leonese origin has been made top much of, and has led to a ten-
dency to localize excessively certain features common to the whole
western zone where the transition takes place from Castilian to
Galician-Portuguese.
3. PORTUGUESE. Portuguese-Galician constitutes the second
branch of the Latin of Spain. In it we must distinguish
(1) Portuguese (Portuguez, perhaps a contraction from the
old P0rtMga/ez = Portugalensis), the language of the kingdom
of Portugal and its colonies in Africa, Asia and America (Brazil);
(2) Galician (College), or the language of the old kingdom of
xxv. 19
577
Galicia (the modern provinces of Pontevedra, La Coruna,
Orense, and Lugo) and of a portion of the old kingdom of Leon
(the territory of Vierzo in the province of Leon). Portuguese,
like Castilian, is a literary language, which for ages has served
as the vehicle of the literature of the Portuguese nation con-
stituted in the beginning of the i2th century. Galician, on the
other hand, which began a literary life early in the middle ages
for it was employed by Alfonso the Learned in his Cantigas in
honour of the Virgin decayed in proportion as the monarchy
of Castile and Leon, to which Galicia had been annexed, gathered
force and unity in its southward conquest. At the present
day Gallego, which is simply Portuguese variously modified
and with a development in some respects arrested, is much less
important than Catalan, not only because the Spaniards who
speak it (1,800,000) are fewer than the Catalans (3,500,000), but
also because, its literary culture having been early abandoned
in favour of Castilian, it fell into the vegetative condition of a
provincial patois. Speaking generally, Portuguese is further
removed than Castilian from Latin; its development has gone
further, and its actual forms are more worn out than those of
the sister language, and hence it has, not without reason, been
compared to French, with which it has some very notable
analogies. But, on the other hand, Portuguese has remained
more exclusively Latin in its vocabulary, and, particularly
in its conjugation, it has managed to preserve several features
which give it, as compared with Castilian, a highly archaic air.
Old Portuguese, and more especially the poetic language of the
i3th century, received from the language of the troubadours,
in whose poetry the earlier Portuguese poets found much of
their inspiration, certain words and certain turns of expression
which have left upon it indelible traces.
Vowels. Lat. e, o with the accent have not been diphthongized
into ic, uo, ue: pe (p e d e m), dez (d e c e m), bom (b o n u s), pode
(p o t e t). On the other hand, Portuguese has a large number of
strong diphthongs produced by the attraction of an i in hiatus or
the resolution of an explosive into i : raiba (r a b i a), feira (f e r i a),
feito (f a c t u m), seixo (s a x u m), oito (o c t o). A quite peculiar
feature of the language occurs in the " nasal vowels," which are
formed by the Latin accented vowels followed by m, n, or nt, nd-
be (b e n e), gra (g r a n d e m), bo (b o n u m). These nasal vowels'
enter into combination with a final atonic vowel : irmao (g e r m a-
n u s) ; also amao (a m a n t), sermao (s e r m o n e m), where the o is
a degenerated representative of the Latin final vowel. In Old
Portuguese the nasal vowel or diphthong was not as now marked by
the hi (~), but was expressed indifferently and without regard to the
etymology by m or n: bem (bene), tan (t a n t u m), disserom
(d i x e r u n t), sermom (s e r m o n e m). The Latin diphthong an
is rendered in Portuguese by ou (ouro, a u r u m; pouco, p a u c u m),
also pronounced oi. With regard to the atonic vowels, there is a
tendency to reduce a into a vowel resembling the Fr. e " muet," to
pronounce o as u, and to drop e after a group of consonants (dent for
dente).
Consonants. Here the most remarkable feature, and that which
most distinctly marks the wear and tear through which the language
has passed, is the disappearance of the median consonants / and n
coroa (c o r o n a), lua (1 u n a), par formerly peer (p o n e r e), conego
(c a n o n i c u s), vir (v e n i r e), dor, formerly door (do 1 o r e m)
pafo (p a 1 a t i u m), saude (s a 1 u t e m), pego (p e 1 a g u s). Lat.
b passes regularly into v : cavallo (c a b a 1 1 u s), fava (fab a), arvore
(a r b o r e m) ; but, on the other hand, Lat. initial v readily tends
to become 6: bexiga (vesica), bodo (votum). Lat. initial /
never becomes h : fazer (f a c e r e), filo (f i 1 u m). Lat. c before e
and i is represented either by the hard sibilant s or by the soft z
Lat. g between vowels is dropped before e and i: ler for leer (1 e-
g e re), dedo (d i g i t u m) ; the same is the case with d, of course, in
similar circumstances: remir (re di mere), rir (rid ere). Lat
] has assumed the sound of the French j. The Latin combinations
a, fl, pi at the beginning of words are transformed in two ways in
words of popular origin. Either the initial consonant is retained
while the / is changed into r : cravo (c 1 a v u m), prazer (p 1 a c e r e),
fror(i 1 o re m) ; or the group is changed in ch (-Fr. ch, Catal x)
through the intermediate sounds kj, fj, pj: chamar (clamare),
chao (p 1 a n u s), chamma (f 1 a m m a). Within the word the same
group and other groups also in which the second consonant is an I
produce / mouil!6e (written Ih, just as n mouillee is written nh as
n I rovencal) : ovelha (o v i c' 1 a), velho (*v e c 1 u s) ; and sometimes
Of.facho (f a c 1 u m), ancho (a m p 1 u m). Lat. ss or sc before e
and t gives x (Fr. ch) : baixo (b a s s u s),faxa (fascia). The group
ct is reduced to it : leito (I e c t u m), peito (p e c t u s), noite (n o c-
t e m); sometimes to ut: douto (d o c t u s). Such words as fruto,
reto, aileto are modern derivatives from the learned forms fructo.
57 8
SPAIN
[LANGUAGE
recto, dilecto. Lat. cs becomes is: seis (sex); or isc, x ( = Fr. ich,
ch) : seixo (s a x u m), Ittxo (1 u x u m) ; or even ss: disse (d i x i).
Inflexion. The Portuguese article, now reduced to the vocalic
form o, a, os, as, was lo (exceptionally also el, which still survives
in the expression El-Rei), la, los, las in the old language. Words
ending in / in the singular lose the / in the plural (because it then
becomes median, and so is dropped) : sol (sole m), but soes (soles);
those having ao in the sing, form the plural either in aes or in des
according to the etymology : thus coo (c a n e m) makes ca.es, but
rac,ao makes rac_oes. As regards the pronoun, mention must be made
of the non-etymological forms of the personal mint and of the
feminine possessive minha, where the second n has been brought in
by the initial nasal. Portuguese conjugation has more that is
interesting. In the personal suffixes the forms of the 2nd pers. pi.
in odes, edes, ides lost the d in the I5th century, and have now become
ais, eis, is, through the intermediate forms aes, ees, eis. < The form in
des has persisted only in those verbs where it was protected by the
consonants n or r preceding it: pondes, tendes, vindes, amardes, and
also no doubt in some forms of tne present of the imperative, where
the theme has been reduced to an extraordinary degree by the
disappearance of a consonant and the contraction of vowels: ides,
credes, ledes, <&c. Portuguese is the only Romance language which
possesses a personal or conjugated infinitive: amar, amar-es, amar,
amar-mos, amar-des, amar-em; e.g. antes de sair-mos, " before we go
out." Again, Portuguese alone has preserved the pluperfect in its
original meaning, so that, for example, amara (a m a v e r a m)
signifies not merely as elsewhere " I would love," but also " I had
. loved." The future perfect, retained as in Castilian, has lost its
vowel of inflexion in the 1st and 3rd pers. sing, and consequently
becomes liable to be confounded with the infinitive (amar, render,
partir). Portuguese, though less frequently than Castilian, employs
ter (t e n e r e) as an auxiliary, alongside of aver; and it also supple-
ments the use of e s s e r e with s e d e r e, which furnished the subj.
seja, the imperative se, sede, the gerundive sendo, the participle sido,
and some other tenses in the old language. Among the peculiarities
of Portuguese conjugation may be mentioned (i) the assimilation
of the 3rd pers. sing, to the 1st in strong perfects (houve, pude, quiz,
fez), while Castilian has hube and hubo; (2) the imperfects punha,
tinha, vinha (from par, ter and vir), which are accented on the
radical in order to avoid the loss of the n (ponia would have made
poia), and which substitute u and * for o and e in order to distinguish
from the present subjunctive (ppnha, tenha, venha).
Galician. Almost all the phonetic features which distinguish
Portuguese from Castilian are possessed by Gallego also. Portu-
guese and Galician even now are practically one language, and still
more was this the case formerly: the identity of the two idioms
would become still more obvious if the orthography employed by
the Galicians were more strictly phonetic, and if certain transcrip-
tions of sounds borrowed from the grammar of the official language
(Castilian) did not veil the true pronunciation of the dialect. It is
stated, for example, that Gallego does not possess nasal diphthongs;
still it may be conceded once for all that such a word as p 1 a n u s,
which in Galician is written sometimes chau and sometimes chan,
cannot be very remote from the Portuguese nasal pronunciation
chao. One of the most notable differences between normal Portu-
guese and Galician is the substitution of the surd spirant in place of
the sonant spirant for the Lat..; before all vowels and e before e and i :
xuez (j u d i c e m), Port, juiz; xunto (j u n c t u m), Port, junto;
xente (g e n t e m), Port, genie. In conjugation the peculiarities
of Gallego are more marked ; some find their explanation within the
dialect itself, others seem to be due to Castilian influence. The 2nd
persons plural have stili their old form odes, edes, ides, so that in this
instance it would seem as if Gallego had been arrested in its progress
while Portuguese had gone on progressing; but it is to be observed
that with these full forms the grammarians admit contracted forms
as well: ds (Port, ais), 6s (Port, eis), is (Port. is). The 1st pers. sing.
of the perfect of conj ugations in er and ir has come to be complicated
by a nasal resonance similar to that which we find in the Portuguese
mim ; we have vendin, partin, instead of vendi, parti, and by analogy
this form in in has extended itself also to the perfect of the conjuga-
tion in ar, and falin, gardin, for falei, gardei are found. The second
persons of the same tense take the ending che, ches in the singular
and chedes in the plural: falache or falaches (f a b u 1 a s t i), fala-
chedes as well as faldstcdes (fabulastis), bateche or batiche, pi.
batestes or batechedes, &c. Ti (t i b i) having given che in Galician,
We see that falasti has become falache by a phonetic process. The
3rd pers. sing, of strong perfect is not in e as in Portuguese (houve,
pode), but in o (houbo, puido, soubo, coubo, &c.); Castilian influence
may be traceable here. If a contemporary grammarian, Saco Arce,
is to be trusted, Gallego would form an absolute exception to the
law of Spanish accentuation in the imperfect and pluperfect indica-
tive: falab'dmos, falabddes; batidmos, batiddes; pididmos, pididdes;
and falardmos, falarddes ; baterdmos, baterddes ; ptdirdmos,^ pidirddes.
The future perfect indicative and the imperfect subjunctive, on the
other hand, would seem to be accented regularly : faldremos.fald-
semos. The important question is worth further study in detail.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. On the general subject the most important
works are F. Diez, Grammalik der romanischen Sprachen (5th ed.,
Bonn, 1882) and Etymologisches Worterbuc h der romanischen Sprachen
(4th ed., Bonn, 1878) ; W. Meyer-Lubke, Grammatik der romanischen
Sprachen (Leipzig, 1890-1894); G. Korting, Lateinisch-romanisches
Worterbuch (Paderborn, 1890-1891). See also A. Carnoy, Le Latin
d'Espagne d'apres les inscriptions (2nd ed., Brussels, 1906). (i)
CATALAN. A. Morel-Fatio, " Das Catalanische," in G. Grober's
Grundriss der romanischen Philologie (1888); E. Vogel, " Neucatalan-
ische Studien," in G. Korting's Neuphilologische Studien (Heft 5,
1886) ; M. Mila y Fontanals, De los Trovadores en Espana (Barcelona,
1861), and Estudios^ de lengua catalana (Barcelona, 1875); A.
Mussafia's introduction to Die catalanische metrische Version der
sieben weisen Meister (Vienna, 1876); A. Nonell y Mas, Andlisis de
la llenga catalana antiga comparada ab la moderna (Manresa, 1895) ;
J. P. Ballot y Torres, Gramatica y apologia de la llengua cathalana
(Barcelona, 1815); A. de Bofarull, Estudios, sislema gramaticaly
crestomatia de la lengua catalana (Barcelona, 1864); P. Fabra,
Contribucio a la gramatica de la llengua catalana (Barcelona, 1898).
For the Catalan dialect of Sardinia see G. Morosi, " 1'Odiernp dialetto
catalano di Alghero in Sardegna," in the Miscellanea di filologia
dedicata alia memoria dei Prof. Caix e Canello (Florence, 1885), and
F. Romoni, Sardismi (Sassan, 1887). (2) CASTILIAN. Conde de la
Vinaza, Biblioteca historica de la filologia castellana (Madrid, 1893);
A. Bello, Gramatica. de la lengua Castellana (7th ed., with notes by
R. J. Cuervo, Paris, 1902); R. J. 'Cuervo, Apuntaciones ritica ssobre
el lenguaje bogotano (5th ed., Paris, 1907); G. Baist, " Die spanische
Sprache," in G. Grober's Grundriss der romanischen Philologie;
P. Forster, Spaniscke Sprachlehre (Berlin, 1880); E. Gorra, Lingua e
letteratura spagnuola delle origini (Milan, 1898); R. Men6ndez Pidal,
Manual elemental de gramatica historica espanola (Madrid, 1905);
F. M. Josselyn, Etudes de phpnetique cspagnole (Paris, 1907); C.
Michaelis, Studien zur romanischen Wortschopfung (Leipzig, 1876);
A. Keller, Historische Formenlehre der spanischen Sprache (Murrhardt,
1894) ; P. de Mugica, Gramatica del castettano antiguo (Berlin, 1891) ;
S. Padilla, Gramatica historica de la lengua castellana (Madrid, 1903) ;
J. D. M. Ford, " The Old Spanish Sibilants " in Studies and Notes in
Philology (Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., 1900). For
Asturian, see A. de Rato y HeVia, Vocabulario de las palabras yfrases
que se hablan en Asturias (Madrid, 1891), and the Coleccion de poesias
en dialecto asturiano (Oviedo, 1839); for Navarrese-Aragonese, see
J. Borao, Diccionario de voces aragonesas (2nd ed., Saragossa, 1885);
for Andalusian, the searching study of H. Schuchardt in the Zeit-
schriftfur romanische Philologie, vol. v. ; and for Leonese, R. Mendn-
dez Pidal, " ( El Dialecto leonfo," in the Revista de archives, bibliotecas,
y museos (Madrid, 1906). R. J. Cuervo's Apuntaciones (noted above)
is the leading authority on American Spanish. The following publi-
cations may be consulted, but with caution: L. Abeille, Idioma
nacional de los Argentines (Paris, 1900); D. Granada, Vocabulario
rioplatense razonado (Montevideo, 1890); J. Fernandez Ferraz,
Nahuatlismos de Costa Rica (San Jos<5, 1892) and C. Gagini, Diccion-
ario de barbarismos de Costa Rica (San Jose, 1893); A. Membrefio,
Hondurenismos (Tegucigalpa, 1897). See also C. C. Marden, The
Phonology of the Spanish Dialect of Mexico City (Baltimore, 1896);
J. Sanchez Somoano, Modismos, locuciones y terminos mexicanos
(Madrid, 1892), and F. Ramos i Duarte, Diccionario de mejicanismos
(Mexico, 1895) ; J. de Arona, Diccionario de peruanismos (Lima,
1883); J. Calcano, El Castellano en Venezuela (Caracas, 1897). (3)
PORTUGUESE. J. Cornu, " Die portugiesische Sprache," in G.
Grober's Grundriss der romanischen Philologie; F. A. Coelho, Theoria
da conjuga$ao em latim e portuguez (Lisbon, 1871), and Questoes
da lingua porlugueza (Oporto, 1874). For Galician, see A. Fernan-
dez y Morales's Ensayos poeticos de berceiano (Leon, 1861) ; M. R.
Rodriguez, Apuntes gramaiicales sobre el romance gallego de la
cronica troyana (La Coruna, 1898), and Sacp Arce, Gramatica
gallega (Lugo, 1868); for other dialectical varieties, see I. J. da
Fonseca, Nofoes de philologia accomodadas & lingoa brasiliana (Rio
de Janeiro, 1885) ; J. Leite de Vasconellos, Dialectos beires (Oporto,
1884), and Sur h dialecte portugais de Macao (Lisbon, 1892).
Important articles by many of the above writers, and by other
philologists of note, will be found in Romania, the Zeitschrift fur
romanische Philologie, the Revue des langues romanes, the Revista
lusitana, the Revue hispanique, the Bulletin hispanique, Cultura
espanola and the Archiv fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen.
(A. M.-FA.; J. F.-K.)
SPANISH LITERATURE
The name Spanish in connexion with literature is now
generally restricted to works in the Castilian tongue. In the
present article it is taken' in the wider sense as embracing
the literary productions of the whole Iberian Peninsula, with the
exceptions of Portugal and of Galicia, the latter of which, as
regards language and literature, belongs to the Portuguese
domain. Spanish literature thus considered falls into two
divisions Castilian and Catalan.
I. Castilian Literature. Of the Castilian texts now extant
none is of earlier date than the I2th century, and very probably
none goes farther back than 1150. The text generally accepted
as the oldest the Mystery of the Magian Kings, as it is rather
inappropriately designated by most historians of literature
is a fragment of a short semi-liturgical play meant to be acted
LITERATURE]
SPAIN
579
Heroic
Poetiy
in the church of Toledo on the feast of Epiphany. Manifestly
an imitation of the Latin ludi represented in France during the
early years of the i2th century, the Spanish piece cannot have
been composed much before 1150.
The national hero Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar (d. 1099), better
known in history by the Arabic surname of the Cid, was cele-
brated in the vulgar tongue in two poems, neither
of which has come down to us in its entirety. The
more ancient cantor, usually entitled Poema del
Cid, since it was originally edited (1779) by Tomas Antonio
Sanchez, relates in its first part the valiant deeds (gesta) of the
Cid subsequent to his quarrel with Alphonso VI.; in the second
the capture of Valencia, the reconciliation of the hero with the
king and the marriage of his daughters with the infantes of
Carrion; and in the third the treason of the infantes, the ven-
geance of the Cid, and the second marriage of his daughters
with the infantes of Navarre and Aragon. The narrative of the
last years of the Cid, which closes the epic, is much curtailed.
Whilst in the Poema the Cid appears as the loyal vassal, de-
ploring the necessity of separating from his king, the Cid of the
second poem, Crdnica rimada del Cid, is almost a rebel and at
least a refractory vassal who dares treat his sovereign as an
equal. The portion of the Crdnica which has been preserved
deals in the main with the youth of Rodrigo; it contains the
primitive version of his quarrel with the Count Gomez de Gormaz
and the marriage of the slayer with Ximena, the Count's daughter,
and also a series of fabulous episodes, such as the Cid's journey
to France to fight with the twelve peers of Charlemagne, &c.
The Poema, which survives in a 14th-century manuscript, be-
longs to about the middle of the I2th century; the form under
which the Crdnica text has reached us is at kast two centuries
later; but, on the other hand, several traditions collected by
the author bear an incontestable stamp of antiquity. The
versification of both poems is irregular. Normally this epic
measure may be divided into two hemistichs of seven or eight
syllables each; but here the lines sometimes fall short of this
number and sometimes exceed it; the strophes follow the model
of the laisses of the French chansons de geste that is, they have
a single assonance and vary greatly in extent.
A fragment of an epic poem on the infantes de Lara has been
reconstituted from the Crdnica general by Ramon Menendez
Pidal (1896); if similar poems existed on real personages like
Roderick, or mythical heroes like Bernardo del Carpio, they
have not survived. Still the frequent allusions in the chronicles
to the narratives of the juglares suggest that Castilian heroic
poetry was richer than the scarcity of the monuments now
extant would lead us to believe. Fernan Gonzalez, first in-
dependent count of Castile (loth century), has alone been
celebrated in a poem composed (about 1250 or later) in single-
rhyme quatrains.
With the heroic poetry which takes its themes from the national
history and legends, there grew up in the i3th century a school
Poems of f religious and didactic poetry, the most eminent
13th Ceo- representative of which is Gonzalo de Berceo (1180?-
1246?). This poet, born at Berceo (Logrono),
composed several lives of Spanish saints, and other devotional
poems, such as the Miracles and the Praises of the Virgin.
Berceo calls his poems prosa, decir, dictado, indicating thereby
that he intended them to be read and recited, not sung like the
cantares. They are written in single-rhyme quatrains and in
verses of twelve to fourteen syllables, according as the ending
of each hemistich is masculine or feminine. In the same metre
were composed, also in the I3th century, two long poems one
on Alexander the Great, the other on Apollonius of Tyre
after Latin and French sources. The author of the first of these
poems contrasts his system of versification, which he calls
mester de derecia, with the mester de joglaria used in heroic
poetry, and intended to be sung; and he declares that this
single-rhyme quatrain (curso rimado par la quaderna via) consists
of counted syllables. The composer of Apolonio calls this same
versification nueva mestrla. The single-rhyme quatrain, in-
troduced in imitation of the French poetry of the i2th century,
became from the time of Berceo and the Alixandre and Apolonio
the regular form in Castilian narrative and didactic poetry,
and prevailed down to the close of the i4th century.
To the 1 3th century are assigned a Life of St Mary the Egyp-
tian, translated from the French, perhaps through a Provencal
version, and an Adoration of the Three Kings, inverses of eight
or nine syllables rhyming in pairs (aa, bb, cc, &c.), as well as a
fragment of a Debate between Soul and Body, in verses of six
or seven syllables, evidently an imitation of one of the medieval
Latin poems, entitled Rixa animi et carports. The oldest
lyric in Castilian, La Razdn feila d'amor, belongs to the same
period and probably derives from a French source; it bears
the name of Lope de Moros, who, however, seems to have been
merely the copyist. Mention may here also be made of the
cantigas (songs) of Alphonso the Learned in honour of the
Virgin, although, being in the Galician dialect, these properly
belong to the history of Portuguese literature.
The i4th century saw the birth of the most original medieval
Spanish poet. Juan Ruiz, archpriest of Hita (near Guadala-
jara), has left us a poem of irregular composition, poetryoi
in which, while reproducing apologues and dits !4thCea-
from foreign sources, he frequently trusts to his '"O"
own inspiration. Ruiz celebrates love and woman; his book
is of buen amor, that is, he shows by his own experience and
the example of those whom he follows how a man may become
a successful lover. By way of precaution, the poet represents
himself as one who has survived his illusions, and maintains
that carnal love (loco amor) must finally give place to divine
love; but this mask of devotion cannot disguise the real char-
acter of the work. The Rimado de palacio of Pero Lopez de
Ayala, chancellor of Castile at the end of the i4th century,
does not refer exclusively to court life; the author satirizes
with great severity the vices of all classes of laymen and church-
men. Akin to this Rimado de palacio are the proverbios mor-
ales of the Jew Sem Tob of Carrion, dedicated to Peter the
Cruel (1350 to 1369). The Poema de Alfonso Onceno, by
Rodrigo Yafiez, is a far-off echo of the epical poems, the laisses
being superseded by octo-syllabic lines with alternate rhymes.
The General Dance of Death and a new version of the Debate
between Soul and Body, both in eight-line strophes of arte mayor
(verses of twelve syllables), and both imitated from French
originals, are usually referred to this period; they both belong,
however, to the isth century.
The word " romance " not only signifies in Spain, as in other
Romanic countries, the vulgar tongue, but also bears the special
meaning of a short epic narrative poem (historic
ballad) or, at a later date, a sffort lyric poem. As
regards the form, the " romance " (Spanish el romance, in con-
trast to French, &c., la romance) is a composition in long verses
of sixteen syllables ending with one assonance; these verses
are often wrongly divided into two short lines, the first of which,
naturally, is rhymeless. This being the form of the romance
verse, the Crdnica rimada del Cid, and even the Poema (though
in this case the influence of the French alexandrines is per-
ceptible), might be considered as a series of romances; and in
fact several of the old romances of the Cid, which form each an
independent whole and were printed as separate poems in the
i6th century, are partly to be found in the Crdnica. Other
romances, notably those dealing with the heroes of the Carolin-
gian epic, so popular in Spain, or with the legendary figures
which Spanish patriotism opposed to the French paladins as,
for example, Bernardo del Carpio, the rival and the conqueror
of Roland in Castilian tradition seem to be detached frag-
ments of the cantares de gesta mentioned by Alphonso X. At
the close of the isth century, and especially during the i6th,
the romances, which had previously passed from mouth to
mouth, began to be written down, and afterwards to be printed,
at first on broadsheets (pliegos sueltos) and subsequently in
collections (romancer os); these are either general collections,
in which romances of very different date, character and
subject are gathered together, or are collections restricted to
a single episode or personage (for example, the Romancero
5 8o
SPAIN
[LITERATURE
del Cid). In such romancer os the epic verse is usually
regarded as octosyllabic and is printed as such; occasionally
certain editions divide the romance into strophes of four verses
(cuartetas).
King Alphonso X. (d. 1284), under whose patronage were
published the code entitled Las Siete partidas and several great
Prose scientific compilations (such as the Libras de astro-
Chronicies, nomia and the Lapidario), was also the founder of
I3th-i6th Spanish historiography in the vulgar tongue. The
Cr6nica general, composed under his direction, consists
of two distinct parts: the one treats of universal history from the
creation of the world to the first centuries of the Christian era
(La General e grant historic,); the other deals exclusively with
the national, history (La Cronica 6 Historia de Espana) down
to tht death of Ferdinand III. (1252), father of Alphonso. The
main sources of the Crdnica general are two Spanish ecclesiastical
chroniclers of the i3th century Lucas of Tuy and Rodrigo of
Toledo; both wrote in Latin, but their works were early trans-
lated into the vernacular. In the Historia de Espana, printed
in its true form for the first time in 1906, are collected many
legends and occasional references to the songs of the juglares
(for the purpose, however, of refuting them), the narrative
relating to the Cid being partly based on an Arabic text. This
portion, as recast in the Cronica de Castitta compiled by order
of Alphonso XI., was published apart by Juan de Velorado
under the title of the Cronica del Cid (1512), and has often been
reprinted. Alphonso's example bore fruit. In the i4th cen-
tury we find another Cronica general de Espana or de Caslilla,
constructed on the model of the first and embracing the years
1030-1312; next, the Grant crdnica de Espana and the Grant
Crdnica de los conqueridores, compiled by command of the grand
master of the order of St John of Jerusalem, Juan Fernandez
de Heredia (1310-1396), about 1390. Special chronicles of
each king of Castile were soon written. Our information
is defective regarding the authorship of the chronicles of
Alphonso X., Sancho IV., Ferdinand IV. and Alphonso XL;
but the four following reigns those of Pedro I., Henry II.,
John I. and Henry III. were dealt with by Pero Lopez de
Ayala; here we recognize the man of literary culture who had
acquired some knowledge of ancient history, for the form of the
narrative becomes freer and more personal, and the style rises
with the thought. Alvar Garcia de Santa Maria and other
writers whose names are not recorded probably compiled the
chronicle of John II.; the events of Henry IV.'s disastrous
reign were related by Diego Enriquez del Castillo and Alfonso
Fernandez de Palencia; the triumphs of the Catholic sovereigns
Ferdinand and Isabella by Fernando del Pulgar and Andres
Bernaldez. With these royal chronicles should be mentioned
some biographies of important persons. Thus in the 15th
century the chronicle of Pedro Nino, count of Buelna (1375-
Biographfes J 44^) by Gutierre Diez de Games; that of Alvaro
de Luna, constable of Castile (d. 1453); and a
curious book of travels, the narrative of the embassy sent by
Henry III. of Castile to Timur in 1403, written by the head of
the mission, Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo.
The other productions of Castilian prose in the I3th and
I4th centuries are for the most part didactic and sententious
_,. _ compositions, which, however, contain illustrations
Other Prose ' . . _."
Works of or tales of Eastern origin. The Spanish translation
13th and of Kolila and Dimna, made direct from an Arabic
I4tl> ri text> dates f rom tne m iddle of the i3th century,
es ' and the romance of the Seven Sages (Sindibad),
translated under the title of Libra de los enganos e asaya-
mientos de las mugeres, is referred to 1253. From the second
half of the I3th century the collections of aphorisms, dits,
apologues and moral tales become very numerous: first of
all, versions of the Secretum secretorum, attributed in the middle
ages to Aristotle, one of which is entitled Poridat de las poridades,
next the Proverbios buenos, the Bocados de oro or Libra de
bonium, Rey de Persia and the Libra de los gatos, which is
derived from the Narrationes of Odo of Cheriton. During the
first half of the I4th century the nephew of Alphonso X., the
infante Juan Manuel, wrote the various works which place him
in the first rank of medieval Spanish prose writers. The best
known is the collection of tales, many of them borrowed from
Oriental sources, entitled El Conde Lucanor; but, besides this
contribution to literature, he wrote graver and still more didactic
treatises. The knowledge of antiquity, previously so vague,
made remarkable progress in the I4th century. Curiosity was
awakened concerning certain episodes of ancient history, such
as the War of Troy, and Benoit de Sainte-More's poem and the
Latin narrative of Guide delle Colonne were both translated.
Lopez de Ayala translated, or caused to be translated, Pierre
Bersuire's French version of Livy, Boetius and various writings
of Isidore of Seville and Boccaccio.
While the Carolingian cycle is mainly represented in Spain
by assonanced romances, of which the oldest seem to be frag-
ments of lost poems by the juglares, the British cycle
(Lancelot, Tristram, Merlin, &c.) is represented
almost exclusively by works in prose (see ROMANCE).
Those narratives are known only in i5th and i6th century
editions, and these have been more or less modified to suit
the taste of the time; but it is impossible not [to recognize
that books such as El Baladro del sabio Merlin (1498) and La
Demanda del sancto grial (1515) presuppose a considerable
antecedent literature of which they are only the afterglow.
The principal French romances of the Round Table were trans-
lated and imitated in Spain and in Portugal as early as the first
half of the I4th century at least; of that there is no doubt.
And, even if there were not satisfactory testimony on this point,
the prodigious development in Spanish literature of the cabal-
lerias, or " books of chivalry," incontrovertibly derived from
fictions of Breton origin, would be proof enough that at an early
date the Spaniards were familiar with these romantic tales
derived from France. The oldest work of the kind is El Cabal-
lero Cifar, composed at the beginning of the I4th century,
but the first book of real importance in the series of strictly
Spanish caballerias is the Amadis de Gaula. Certain considera-
tions lead one to seek for the unknown author of the first Amadis
in Portugal, where the romances of the Round Table were more
highly appreciated than in Spain, and where they have exer-
cised a deeper influence on the national literature. To Garci
Rodriguez de Montalvo, however, falls the honour of having
preserved the book by printing it; he made the mistake of
diluting the original text and of adding a continuation, Las
Sergas de Esplandidn. Allied to Montalvo's Amadis with its
supplementary Esplandidn (1510) are the Don Florisando
(1510) and the Lisuarte de Grecia (1514), the Amadis de
Grecia (1514), the Don Florisel de' Niquea (1532-1551), &c.,
which form what Cervantes called the " Amadis sect." Parallel
with the Amadises are the Palmerines, the most celebrated of
which are Palmerin de Oliva (1511), Primaleon (1512), and
Palmerln de Inglaterre,-which was first written in Portuguese by
Moraes Cabral. None of those caballerias inspired by the
Amadis were printed or even written before the i6th century,
and they bear the stamp of that period; but they cannot be
separated from their medieval model, the spirit of which they
have preserved. Among the caballerias we may also class
some narratives derived from the Carolingian epic the Historia
del emperador Carlomagno y de los dace pares, a very popular
version still reprinted of the French romance of Fierabras, the
Espejo de caballerias, into which has passed a large part
of Boiardo's Orlando innamoralo, the Historia de la reina
Sibitta, &c.
The first half of the isth century, or what comes almost to
the same thing, the reign of John II. of Castile (1407-1454),
is characterized as regards his literature (i) by the Poetry at
development of a court poetry, artificial and pre- w*
tentious; (2) by the influence of Italian literature Cealur y-
on Castilian prose and poetry, the imitation of Boccaccio
and Dante, especially of the latter, which introduced into
Spain a liking for allegory; and (3) by more assiduous
intercourse with antiquity. After the example of the Pro-
vencal troubadours whose literary doctrines had made their
LITERATURE!
SPAIN
way into Castile through Portugal and Catalonia, poetry was
now styled the arte de trobar. The arte de trobar is strictly
" court " poetry, which consists of short pieces in complicated
measures love plaints, debates, questions and repartees,
motes with their glosas, burlesque and satirical songs verse
wholly " occasional " and deficient in charm when separated
from its natural environment. In order to understand and
appreciate these pieces they must be read in the collections made
by the poets of the time, where each poem throws light on the
others. The most celebrated Cancionero of the ijjth century
is that compiled for the amusement of his sovereign by Juan
Alfonso de Baena; it is, so to say, the official collection of the
poetic court of John II., although it also contains pieces by poets
of earlier dates. After Baena's collection may be mentioned
the Cancionero de Stuniga, which contains the Castilian poems
of the trobadores who followed Alphonso V. of Aragon to Naples.
These cancioneros, consisting of the productions of a special
group, were succeeded by collections of a more miscellaneous char-
acter in which versifiers of very different periods and localities
are brought together, the pieces being classed simply according
to their type. The earliest genuine Cancionero general (though
it does not bear the title) is that compiled by Juan Fer-
nandez de Constantina, which appears to have been issued
from the Valencia press at the beginning of the i6th century;
the second, much better known, was published for the first
time at Valencia in 1511 by Hernando del Castillo. The other
poetic school of the isth century, which claims to be specially
related to the Italians, had as its leaders Juan de Mena, author
of the Coronacidn and the Laberinto de fortuna, and the marquis
of Santillana, Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, who in his sonnets was,
perhaps, the first to imitate the structure of the Italian hendeca-
syllabics. With those two chiefs, who may be designated
poetas as distinguished from the decidores and the trobadores of
the cancioneros, must be ranked Francisco Imperial, a Genoese
by descent, who at a somewhat earlier date helped to acclimatize
in Spain the forms of Italian poetry. The marquis of Santillana
occupies a considerable place in the literature of the isth
century not only by reason of his poems, but through the sup-
port he afforded to all the writers ol his time, and the impulse
he gave to the study of antiquity and to the labours of trans-
lators. In the next generation the most prominent figures are
Gomez Manrique and Jorge Manrique, the latter of whom has
produced a short poem which is a masterpiece.
With the exception of the chronicles and some caballerias
the prose of the isth century contains little that is striking.
Prose at The translation of Virgil by Enrique de Villena
isthCea- is ponderous and shows no advance on the versions
*'"'' of Latin authors made in the previous century.
A curious and amusing book, full of details about Spanish
manners, is the Corbacho (1438) of the archpriest of Talavera,
Alfonso Martinez de Toledo, chaplain to King John II.; the
Corbacho belongs to the numerous family of satires against
women, and this title, by which it is commonly known
borrowed from a work of Boccaccio's, with which it has
otherwise nothing in common indicates that he has not
spared them.
The ancient liturgical Spanish theatre is known to us only
by fragments of the play of the Magian Kings, already
mentioned; but certain regulations given in the
Literature Siete partidas (compiled between 1252 and 1257)
prove that such a theatre existed, and that at
the great festivals, such as Christmas, Epiphany and Easter,
dramatic representations were given in church. These repre-
sentations, originally a simple commentary on the liturgy, were
gradually adulterated with buffoonery, which frequently
brought down the censure of the clergy. Alphonso X. even
thought it necessary to forbid the " clerks " playing juegos de
escarnios, and permitted in the sanctuary only dramas destined
to commemorate the principal episodes of the life of Christ.
Of all the Church festivals, the most popular in Spain was that
of Corpus Christi, instituted by Urban IV. in 1264. At an early
date the celebration of this festival was accompanied with
dramatic performances intended to explain to the faithful the
eucharistic mystery. These dramas, called autos sacramentales,
acquired more and more importance; in the i7th century, with
Calderon, they become grand allegorical pieces, regular theo-
logical dissertations in the form of dramas. To the auto sacra-
mental corresponds the auto al nacimiento, or drama of the
Nativity. In Spain, as elsewhere, the secular theatre is a
product of the religious theatre. Expelled from the Church,
the juegos de escarnios took possession of the public squares and
there attained free development; ceasing to be a mere travesty
of dogma, they developed into a drama whose movement is no
longer determined by the liturgy, and whose actors are borrowed
from real life in Spanish society. This new theatre begins
towards the close of the I5th century, with the pastoral pieces
of Juan del Encina, which, after Virgil's example, he calls
eglogas. Genuine shepherds are the interlocutors of these
bucolics, into which are also sometimes introduced students,
and Lucas Fernandez, a contemporary and pupil of Encina's,
introduces gentlemen and soldiers. A book which, strictly
speaking, does not belong to the theatre, the Tragicomedia de
Calixto y Melibea, much better known as La Celestina, caused
the new theatre, still rudimentary in the attempts of the school
of Encina, to make a step onwards. This astonishing novel
taught the Spaniards the art of dialogue, and for the first time
exhibited persons of all classes of society (particularly the
lowest) speaking in harmony with their natural surroundings.
The progress caused by the Celestina may be estimated by means
of the Propaladia of Bartolome de Torres Naharro, a collection
of pieces represented at Rome in presence of Leo X. Torres
Naharro is thought to have borrowed from France the division
of the play into " days" (jornadas); shortly after Naharro we
find the comedy of manners in Lope de Rueda, whose dramatic
work is composed of regular comedies constructed on the model
of Italian authors of the beginning of the i6th century, and also
of little pieces intended for performance in the intervals between
the larger plays (eniremeses and pasos), some of which are models
of sprightly wit. Some of Naharro's, and especially of Rueda's,
pieces foreshadow the comedy of intrigue, which is emphatically
the type of the classic stage. But to reach Lope de Vega, the
Spanish stage had to be enlarged in relation to national history.
A poet of Seville, Juan de la Cueva, first brought on the boards
subjects such as the exploits of the Cid, Bernardo del Carpio,
and others, which had previously been treated of only in the
romances. To a poet called Berrio, of whose work nothing has
been preserved, are attributed the comedias of Moors and
Christians, in which were represented famous episodes of the
age-long struggle' against the infidel. And it was at this period
(1585) that Cervantes experimented in the drama; in his
Tratos de Argel he gives us a picture of galley-life, recollections
of his long captivity in Algiers. There is no need to linger over
the attempts at tragedy of the ancient type by Jeronimo Ber-
mudez, Cristobal de Virues, Lupercio Leonardo de Argensola,
&c., the only successful specimen of which is the Numancia of
Cervantes; these works, mere exercises in style and versification,
remained without influence on the development of the Spanish
stage. The pre-classic period of this stage is, as regards dramatic
form, one of indecision. Some write in prose, like Rueda;
others, like Naharro, show a preference for the redondillas of
popular poetry; and there are those again who, to elevate
the style of the stage, versify in hendecasyllabics. Hesitation
is also evident as to the mode of dividing the drama. At first a
division into five acts, after the manner of the ancients, is adopted,
and this is followed by Cervantes in his early pieces; then
Juan de la Cueva reduced the five acts to four, and in this he is
imitated by most poets till the close of the i6th century (Lope
de Vega himself in his youth composed pieces in four acts).
Francisco de Avendano divided his Florisea into three acts as
early as 1551, but his example was not followed till about forty
years later, when this division was generally adopted in all
dramatic works with the exception of short pieces like the
loa (prologue), the entremes, the paso, the baile (different kinds
of entr'acte).
582
SPAIN
[LITERATURE
The golden age of Spanish literature belongs to the i6th and
I7th centuries, extending approximately from 1550 to 1650.
Classic Age, P rev i us to the reign of the Catholic sovereigns
16th and 'there exists, strictly sp'eaking, only a Castilian
17th Cea- literature, largely influenced by imitation first of
turies. France and then of Italy; the- union of the two
crowns of Aragon and Castile, and afterwards the advent
of the house of Austria and the king of Spain's election
as emperor, achieved the political unity of Spain and the
unity of Spanish literature. After the death of Philip IV.
(1665) the light went out; the nation, exhausted by wars
and bad administration, produced nothing; its literary genius
sank in the general decline, and Spain was destined ere long
to fall again under the influence of France, to which she had
submitted during the first period of the middle ages. In the
i6th and tyth centuries the literature was eminently national.
Yet in certain kinds of literature the Spaniards continued to
seek models abroad.
Lyric poetry, especially that of the more ambitious order,
is always inspired by the Italian masters. An irresistible
tendency leads the Spanish poets to rhyme in
hendecasyllabics as the marquis of Santillana had
formerly done, though his attempts had fallen
into oblivion and to group their verses in tercets, octaves,
sonnets and candones (canzoni). Juan Boscan, Garcilaso de la
Vega and Diego Hurtado de Mendoza are the recognized chiefs
of the school al itdlico modo, and to them belongs the honour
of having successfully transplanted to Spain these different
forms of verse, and of having enriched the poetic language of
their country. The defects of Boscan and Mendoza (such as
certain faults of rhythmic accentuation) were corrected by their
disciples Gutierre de Cetina, Gregorio Silvestre, Hernando de
Acuna, by the poets of the so-called school of Seville, headed
by Fernando de Herrera and also by those of the rival school
of Salamanca, rendered famous mainly by the inspired poetry
of Luis Ponce de Leon. Against these innovators the poets,
faithful to the old Castilian manner, the rhymers of redondillas
and romances, held their own; under the direction of Cristobal de
Castillejo, they carried on a fierce war against the " Petrarch-
ists." But by the last third of the i6th century the triumph
of the new Italian school was assured, and no one any longer
thought of reproaching it for its exotic flavour. Still at this
period there was a schism between the higher poetry and the
other varieties: in the former only the hendecasyllabic and the
heptasyllabic (quebrado) were employed, while the popular
poets, or those who affected a more familiar tone, preserved
the national metres. Almost all the poets, however, of the i6th
and i yth centuries tried their powers in both kinds of versifica-
tion, using them in turn according to the nature of their sub-
jects. Thus Lope de Vega, first of all, who wrote La Dragontea
(1598), La Hermoswa de Angelica (1602), La Jerusalem con-
quistada (1609), in Italian verses and in octaves, composed his
long narrative poem on Isidore, the patron of Madrid (1599), in
quintillas of octosyllabic verse, not to mention a great number
of romances. As regards this last form, previously disdained
by artistic poets, Lope de Vega gave it a prestige that brought
it into favour at court. A host of poets were pleased to recast
the old romances or to compose new ones. The lyth century,
it may be said, is characterized by a superabundance of lyric
poetry, to which the establishment of various literary academies
contributed. Of this enormous mass of verses of all sorts little
still survives; the names of most of the versifiers must be
omitted, and in addition to those already cited it will be suffi-
cient to mention Gongora and Quevedo. Gongora is especially
famous as the founder of the " cultist " school, as the introducer
into Castilian poetry of a periphrastic style, characterized by
sonorous diction and artificial arrangements of phrase. The
Spaniards have given the name of culto to this eccentric style,
with its system of inversions based on Latin syntax; but Gongora,
a poet of really great powers, had begun better, and as often as
he is contented with romances he finds true poetic accents,
ingenious ideas and felicitous expressions. Quevedo, much
greater in prose than in verse, displays real power only in satire,
epigram and parody. There is in some of his serious pieces the
stuff of a Juvenal, and his satiric and burlesque romances, of
which several are written in slang (germania), are in their way
little masterpieces. Another commonplace of Spanish poetry
at this period was epic poetry after the style of Tasso's Geru-
salemme. These interminable and prosaic compositions in octavos
reales do not approach their model; none of them can even be
compared in style, elevation of thought and beauty of imagery,
to Camoens's Lusiadas. They are in reality rhymed chronicles,
and consequently, when the author happens to have taken
part in the events he narrates, they have a genuine historical
interest. Such is the case with Alonso de Ercilla's Araucana,
of which it may be said that it was written less with a pen than
with a pike. In burlesque poetry the Spaniards have been
more successful: La Gatomaquia of Lope de Vega, and La
Moschea of Villaviciosa (d. 1658) are agreeable examples of
witty invention.
The departments of imaginative literature in which the
genius of the new Spanish nation revealed itself with most
vigour and originality are the novela and the Fka
drama. By novela must be understood the novel of
manners, called picaresca (from picaro, a rogue or " picaroon ")
because of the social status of the heroes of those fictions; and
this type of novel is a Spanish invention. The pastoral romance,
on the other hand the best-known examples of which are the
Diana of Jorge de Montemayor, continued by Alonso Perez
and Caspar Gil Polo, the Galatea of Cervantes, and the Arcadia
of Lope de Vega as well as the novel of adventure begun by
Cervantes in his Novelas exemplares, and cultivated after him
by a host of writers, is directly derived from Italy. The Arcadia
of Sannazaro is the source of the Diana and of all its imitations,
just as the Italian novellieri are the masters of most Spanish
novelistas of the i7th century. The picaresque novel starts in
the middle of the i6th century with the Vida de Lazarillo de
Tormes, sus fortunas y adversidades; the impetus was given,
and the success of Lazarillo was so great that imitators soon
appeared. In 1599 Mateo Aleman published the first part of
the adventures of another picaroon, Guzman de Alfarache;
before he could issue the sequel (1604) he was anticipated (1602)
by an unscrupulous rival, whose continuation was on a lower
plane. Quite unlike that of the Lazarillo, the style of Mateo
Aleman is eloquent, full, with long and learned periods, some-
times diffuse. Nothing could be more extravagant and more
obscure than the history of Justina the beggar woman (La
Picara Justina) by Francisco Lopez de Ubeda (1605), which is
generally (but perhaps wrongly) said to be a name assumed by
the Dominican Andres Perez. A long series of similar tales
continued to be published by writers of considerable merit (see
PICARESQUE NOVEL).
By degrees the picaresque romance was combined with the
novel of Italian origin and gave rise to a new type half novel
of manners, half romance of adventure of which the character-
istic example appears to be the Marcos de Obregdn (1618)
of Vicente Martinez Espinel, one of the best written works of
the 1 7th century. To the same class belong almost all the novels
of Alonso Jeronimo de Salas Barbadillo, Luiz Velex de Guevara
and Francisco Santos's popular pictures of life in Madrid, Dia
y noche de Madrid (1663), Periquillo, el de las gallineras, &c.
On the other hand, the novels of Tirso de Molina (Los Cigarrales
de Toledo, 1624), Perez de Montalban (Para todos, 1632),
Maria de Zayas (Novelas, 1635-1647), are more in the manner of
the Novelas exemplares of Cervantes, and consequently of the
Italian type. Among the so-called historical romances one only
deserves to be mentioned the Guerras civiles de Granada
(1595-1604) by Gines Perez de Hita, which deals with the last
years of the kingdom of Granada and the insurrection of the
Moors of the Alpujarras in the time of Philip II. Don Quixote
(1605-1615), the masterpiece of Cervantes, is too great a work to
be treated with others; and, moreover, it does not fall strictly
within the limits of any of the classes just mentioned. If it has
to be defined, it may be described as the social romance of
LITERATURE]
SPAIN
583
1 6th and lyth century Spain. Cervantes undoubtedly owed
much to his predecessors, notably to the few picaresque romancers
who came before him, but he considerably enlarged the scope
of the type and strengthened the framework of the story by a
lofty moral idea. His main purpose ,was not so much to ridicule
the books of chivalry, which were already out of fashion by his
time, but to show by an example pushed to absurdity the danger
of those prejudices of pure blood and nobler race with which
three-fourths of the nation were imbued, and which, by the
scorn of all useful labour which they involved, were destined to
bring Spain to ruin. The lesson is all the more effective, 'as
Cervantes's hidalgo, although ridiculous, was not put beyond
the pale of the reader's sympathy, and the author condemns
only the exaggeration of the chivalrous spirit, and not true
courage and devotion when these virtues have a serious object.
What happened to Guzman de Alfarache happened to Don
Quixote. In 1614 a sourious second part of the adventures of
Don Quixote made its appearance; Cervantes was thus roused
from inactivity, and the following year gave to the world the
true second part, which instantly eclipsed Avellaneda's imitation.
The stage in the i7th century in some measure took the
place of the romances of the previous age; it is, as it were, the
Drama of medium of all the memories, all the passions,
17th and ail the aspirations of the Spanish people. Its
Century, style, being that of the popular poetry, made . it
accessible to the most illiterate classes, and gave it an im-
mense range of subject. The Bible, the lives of t the martyrs,
national traditions, the chronicles of Castile and Aragon,
foreign histories and novels, even the daily incidents of con-
temporary Spanish life, the escapades and nightly brawls of
students, the gallantries of the Calle Mayor and the Prado of
Madrid, balcony escalades, sword-thrusts and dagger-stabs,
duels and murders, fathers befooled, jealous ladies, pilfering
and cowardly valets, inquisitive and sprightly waiting-maids,
sly and tricky peasants, fresh country girls all are turned to
dramatic account. The enormous mass of plays with which
the literature of this period is inundated may be divided into two
great classes secular and religious; the latter may be sub-
divided into (i) the liturgical play, i.e. the auto either sacra-
mental or al nacimiento, and (2) the comedia dimna or the
comedia de santos, which has no liturgical element, and differs
from a secular play only in the fact that the subject is religious
and frequently, as one of the names indicates, derived from the
biography of a saint. In the secular drama, classification might
be carried almost to any extent if the nature of the subject be
taken as the criterion. It will be sufficient to distinguish the
comedia (i.e. any tragic or comic piece in three acts) according
to the social types brought on the stage, the equipment of the
actors, and the artifices resorted to in the representation. We
have (i) the comedia de capa y espada, which represents everyday
incident, the actors belonging to the middle class, simple cabal-
leros, and consequently wearing the garb of ordinary town life, of
which the chief items were the cloak and the sword; and (2) the
comedia de teatro or de ruido,or again, de tramoya or de aparencias
(i.e. the theatrical, spectacular or scenic play), which has kings
and princes for its dramatis personae and makes a great display
of mechanical devices and decorations. Besides the comedia,
the classic stage has also a series of little pieces subsidiary to the
play proper: the loa, or prologue; the entremSs, a kind of inter-
lude which afterwards developed into the sainele; the baile, or
ballet accompanied with singing; and the zarzuela, a sort of
operetta thus named after the royal residence of La Zarzuela,
where the kings of Spain had a theatre. As to the dramatic
poets of the golden age, even more numerous than the lyric poets
and the romancers, it is difficult to group them. All are more
or less pupils or imitators of the great chief of the new school,
Lope Felix de Vega Carpio; everything has ultimately to be
brought back to him whom the Spaniards call the " monster of
Nature." Among Lope's contemporaries only a few poets of
Valencia Caspar Honorat de Aguilar (1561-1623), Francisco
Tarrega, Guillen de Castro, the author of the Mocedadcs del Cid
(from which Corneille derived his inspiration) formed a small
school, as it were, somewhat less subject to the master than
that of Madrid, which could only win the applause of the public
by copying as exactly as possible the manner of the great
initiator. Lope left his mark on all varieties of the comedia,
but did not attain equal excellence in all. He was especially
successful in the comedy of intrigue (enredo), of the capa y
espada class, and in dramas whose subjects are derived from
national history. His most incontestable merit is to have
given the Spanish stage a range and scope of which it had
not been previously thought capable, and of having taught
his contemporaries to invent dramatic situations and to carry
on a plot. It is true he produced little that is perfect: his pro-
digious fecundity and facility allowed him no time to mature
his work; he wrote negligently, considered the stage an inferior
department, good for the wdgo, and consequently did not judge
it worthy of the same esteem as lyric or narrative poetry modelled
on the Italians. Lope's first pupils exaggerated some of his
defects, but, at the same time, each, according to his own taste,
widened the scope of the comedia. Antonio Mira de Amescua
and Luis Velez de Guevara were successful, especially in tragic
histories and comedias divinas. Gabriel Tellez, better known
under the pseudonym of Tirso de Molina, one of the most flexible,
ingenious and inventive of the dramatists, displayed no less
talent in the comedy of contemporary manners than in historical
drama. El Burlador de Sevitta (Don Juan} is reckoned his
masterpiece; but he showed himself a much greater poet in
El Vergonzoso en palacio, Don Gil de las Colzas Verdes and
Maria la Piadosa. Finally Juan Ruiz de Alarcon the most
serious and most observant of Spanish dramatic poets, success-
fully achieved the comedy of character in La Verdad sospechosa,
closely followed by Corneille in his Menteur. Most of the
remaining play-writers did little but increase the number of
comedias', they added nothing to the real elements of the
drama. The second epoch of the classical drama is represented
mainly by Pedro Calderon de la Barca, the Spanish dramatist
who has obtained most celebrity abroad, where his pieces have
been much studied and admired (perhaps extravagantly). It is
Calderon who first made honour, or more correctly the point of
honour, an essential motive in the conduct of his personages (e.g.
El Medico de su honra) ; it is he also who made the comedia de capa
y espada uniform even to monotony, and gave the comic " part "
of the gracioso (confidential valet of the caballero) a rigidity
which it never previously possessed. There is depth and poetry
in Calderon, but also vagueness and bad taste. His most
philosophic drama, La Vida es sueno, is a bold and sublime
idea, but indistinct and feebly worked out; his autos sacra-
mentales give evidence of extensive theological knowledge and
dexterity in dramatizing abstractions. Calderon was imitated,
as Lope had been, by exaggerating his manner and perverting
his excellences. Two contemporaries deserve to be cited
along with him Francisco de Rojas Zorilla, author of the fine
historic play Del Rey abajo ninguno, and Augustin Moreto,
author of some pleasant comedies. Among those who worked
in a less ambitious vein, mention must be made of Luis Quinones
de Benavente, a skilful writer of entremeses.
A new manner of writing appears with the revival of learning;
the purely objective style of the old chroniclers, accumulating
one fact after another, without showing the logical History
connexion or expressing any opinion on men or
things, began to be thought puerile. An attempt was made
to treat the history of Spain in the manner of Livy, Sallust,
and Tacitus, whose methods of narration were directly adopted.
The i6th century, however, still presents certain chroniclers
of the medieval type, with more erudition, precision and the
promise of a critical faculty. La Crdnica general de Espana,
by Ambrosio de Morales; the Compendia hislorial of Esteban
de Garibay ; and the Historia general de las Indias occidentales,
by Antonio de Herrera, are, so far as style is concerned, con-
tinuations of the last chronicles of Castile. Jeronimo de Zurita
is emphatically a scholar; no one in the i6th century knew
as he did how to turn to account documents and records for
the purpose of completing and correcting the narratives of the
SPAIN
[LITERATURE
ancient chronicles; his Anales de la corona de Aragdn is a book
of great value, though written in a laboured style. With Juan
de Mariana history ceases to be a mere compilation of facts or
a work of pure erudition, and becomes a work of art. The
Historia de Espana by the celebrated Jesuit, first written in
Latin (1592) in the interest especially of foreigners, was after-
wards rendered by its author into excellent Castilian ; as a general
survey of its history, well planned, well written and well thought
out, Spain possesses nothing that can be compared with it.
Various works of less extent accounts of more or less important
episodes in the history of Spain may take their place beside
Mariana's great monument : for example, the Guerra de Granada,
by Diego Hurtado de Mendoza (a history of the revolt of the
Moors of the Alpujarras under Philip II.), written about 1572,
immediately after the events, but not published till 1627;
the narrative of the expedition of the Catalans in the Morea in
the i4th century, by Francisco de Moncada (d. 1635); that of
the revolt of the same Catalans during the reign of Philip IV.,
by Francisco Manuel de Mello, a Portuguese by birth; and that
of the conquest of Mexico by Antonio de Soils. Each of these
writers was more or less inspired by some Latin author, one
preferring Livy, another Sallust, &c. Most of these imitations
are somewhat stilted, and their artificiality in the long run
proves as fatiguing as the heaviness of the medieval chroniclers.
On the other hand, the historians of the wars of Flanders, such
as Carlos Coloma, Bernardino de Mendoza, Alonso Vazquez
and Francisco Verdugo, are less refined, and for that very reason
are more vivid and more capable of interesting us in the struggle
of two races so foreign to each other and of such different genius.
As for the accounts of the transatlantic discoveries and con-
quests, they are of two kinds either (i) memoirs of the actors
or witnesses of those great dramas, as, e.g. the Historia verdadera
de la conquista de la nueva Espana, by Bernal Diaz del Castillo
(1492-1581), one of the companions of Cortes, and the Historia
de las Indias, by Bartolome de las Casas, the apostle of the
Indians; or (2) works by professional writers, such as Francisco
Lopez de Gomara, official historiographers who wrote in Spain
on information sent to them from the newly-discovered lands.
Letter writers, a rather numerous body in Spanish literature,
are nearly related to the historians; in fact, letters written to
be read by others than the persons addressed, or
in any case revised afterwards, are only a method
of writing history in a familiar style. Fernando
del Pulgar appended to his Claras varones a series of letters
on the affairs of his time; and in the i6th century Antonio
de Guevara (d. 1544) collected, under the title of Epistolas
familiares, his correspondence with his contemporaries, which
throws a great light on the early part of the reign of
Charles V., although it must be used with caution because
of the numerous recasts it has undergone. A celebrated victim
of Philip II., Antonio Perez (d. 1611), revenged himself on his
master by relating in innumerable letters, addressed during his
exile to his friends and protectors, all the incidents of his
disgrace, and by selling to the ministers of France and England
the secrets of the Spanish policy in which he had a hand;
some of these letters are perfect specimens of urbane
gallantry.
Philosophy is rather poorly represented in the i6th and i7th
centuries in the literature of the vernacular. The greater
number of the Spanish thinkers of this epoch,
tsophy - whatever the school to which they belonged
scholastic, Platonic, Aristotelian or independent wrote in
Latin. Ascetic and mystical authors alone made use of
the vulgar tongue for the readier diffusion of their doctrine
among the illiterate, from whose ranks many of
Mystifism. t jj e j r di sc ipl e s were recruited. Luis de Granada
(1504-1588), Luis Ponce de Le6n (1528-1598), Teresa de
Jesus (1515-1582), Pedro Malon de Chaide and St John of
the Cross are the brighter lights of this class of writers.
Some of their books, like the Guia de pecadores of Luis de
Granada, the autobiography of St Theresa, and Malonde Chaide's
Conversion of the Magdalen (1588), have obtained a lasting
Letter
Writers.
success beyond the limits of the Peninsula, and have influenced
the development of mysticism in France. The Spanish mystics
are not only remarkable for the depth or subtlety of their
thoughts and the intensity of the divine love with which they
are inspired; many of them are masters of style, and some,
like St John of the Cross, have composed verses which rank
with the most sublime in the language. A notable fact is that
those who are regarded as illuminati profess the most practical
ideas in the matter of morality. Nothing is more
sensible, nothing less ecstatic, than the manual of
domestic economy by Luis de Leon La Perfecta casada. Lay
moralists are numerous in the i6th and i7th centuries.
Some write long and heavy treatises on the art of governing,
the education of princes, the duties of subjects, &c. Pedro
Fernandez de Navarrete's Consenacidn de monarquias, Diego
de Saavedra Fajardo's Idea de un principe cristiano, Quevedo's
La Politka de Dios y gobierno de Cristo, give a correct
idea of the ability which the Spaniards have displayed in this
kind of didactic literature ability of no high order, for the
Spaniard, when he means to expound a doctrine, loses himself
in distinctions and easily becomes diffuse, pedantic and obscure.
But there is a kind of morality in which he indubitably excels,
namely, in social satire, which, under all its forms dialogue
and dream in the style of Lucian, epistle after the manner of
Juvenal, or pamphlet has produced several masterpieces and
a host of ingenious, caustic and amusing compositions. Juan
de Valdes (d. 1541), the most celebrated of the Spanish Protes-
tants, led the way with his Di&logo de Murcurio y Car6n, where
the great political and religious questions of the first half of the
1 6th century are discussed with admirable vigour and freedom.
The most eminent author in the department of social satire,
as in those of literary and political satire, is Quevedo. Nothing
escapes his scrutinizing spirit and pitiless irony. All the vices
of contemporary society are remorselessly pilloried and cruelly
dissected in his Suenos and other short works. While this great
satirist, in philosophy a disciple of Seneca, imitates his master
even in his diction, he is none the less one of the most vigorous
and original writers of the I7th century. The only serious
defect in his style is that it is too full, not of figures and epithets,
but of thoughts. His phrases are of set purpose charged with
a double meaning, and we are never sure on reading whether
we have grasped all that the author meant to convey. Con-
ceptism is the name that has been given to this refinement of
thought, which was doomed in time to fall into ambiguity; it
must not be confounded with the ctdtism of Gongora, the artifice
of which lies solely in the choice and arrangement of words.
This new school, of which Quevedo may be regarded as the
founder, had its Boileau in the person of Baltasar Gracian, who
published his Agudeza y arte de ingenio (1642), in which all the
subtleties of conceptism are reduced to an exact code.
Gracian, who had the gift of sententious moralizing rather than
of satire, produced in his Criticdn animated pictures of the
society of his own day, while he also displayed much ingenuity
in collections of political and moral aphorisms which have won
him a great reputation abroad.
Spanish thought as well as public spirit and all other forms
of national activity began to decline towards the close of the
1 7th century. The advent of the house of Bourbon, Jgth
and the increasing invasion of French influence in century.
the domain of politics as well as in literature and
science, frustrated the efforts of a few writers who had
remained faithful to the pure Spanish tradition. In the
hands of the second-rate imitators of Calderon the stage sank
lower and lower; lyric poetry, already compromised by the
affected diction of Gongora, was abandoned to rhymesters who
tried to make up by extravagance of style for poverty of thought.
The first symptoms, not of a revival, but of a certain resumption
of intellectual production, appear in the department of linguistic
study. In 1714 there was created, on the model of the French
academies, La Real Academia Espanola, intended to maintain
the purity of the language and to correct its abuses. This
academy set itself at once to work, and in 1726 began the
LITERATURE]
SPAIN
585
publication of its dictionary in six folio volumes, the best title
of this association to the gratitude of men of letters. The
Gramatica de la lengua castellana, drawn up by the academy,
did not appear till 1771. For the new ideas which were intro-
duced into Spain as the result of more intimate relations with
France, and which were in many cases repugnant to a nation
for two centuries accustomed to live a self-contained life, it was
necessary that authoritative sanction should be found. Ignacio
de Luzan, well read in the literatures of Italy and France, a
disciple of Boileau and the French rhetoricians, yet not without
seme originality of his own, undertook in his Poetica (1737) to
expound to his fellow countrymen the rules of the new school,
and, above all, the principle of the famous " unities " accepted
by the French stage from Corneille's day onward. What Luzan
had done for letters, Benito Feyjoo, a Benedictine of good
sense and great learning, did for the sciences. His Teatro
critico and Cartas eruditas y curiosas, collections of dissertations
in almost every department of human knowledge, introduced
the Spaniards to the leading scientific discoveries of foreign
countries, and helped to deliver them from many superstitions
and absurd prejudices. The study of the ancient classics and
the department of learned research in the domain of national
histories and literatures had an eminent representative in
Gregorio Mayans y Siscar (1699-1781), who worthily carried
on the great traditions of the Renaissance; besides publishing
good editions of old Spanish authors, he gave to the world in
1757 a Retorica which is still worth consulting, and a number of
learned memoirs. What may be called the litterature d'agrement
did not recover much lost ground; it would seem as if the vein
had been exhausted. Something of the old picaresque novel
came to life again in the Fray Gerundio of the Jesuit Isla, a
biographical romance which is also and above all
to the detriment, it is true, of the interest of the
narrative a satire on the follies of the preachers of the day.
The lyric poetry of this period is colourless when compared with
its variegated splendour in the preceding century. Nevertheless
one or two poets can be named who possessed
refinement of taste, and whose collections of verse
at least show respect for the language. At the head of the new
school is Menendez Valdes, and with him are associated Diego
Gonzalez (1733-1794), Jose Iglesias de la Casa (1748-1791),
known by his letrillas, Cienfuegos, and some others. Among
the verse writers of the i8th century who produced odes
and didactic poetry it is only necessary to mention Leandro
Fernandez de Moratin and Quintana, but the latter belongs
rather to the igth century, during the early part of which he
published his most important works. The poverty of the period
in lyric poetry is even exceeded by that of the stage. No
kind of comedy or tragical drama arose to take the place of the
ancient comedia, whose platitudes and absurdities of thought
and expression had ended by disgusting even the least exact-
ing portion of the public. The attempt was indeed made to
introduce the comedy and the tragedy of France, but the stiff
and pedantic adaptations of such writers as the elder Moratin,
Agustin de Montiano y Luyando (1697-1764), Tomas de Iriarte,
Garcia de la Huerta and the well-known economist Caspar de
Jovellanos failed to interest the great mass of playgoers. The
only dramatist who was really successful in composing on the
French pattern some pleasant comedies, which owe much of their
charm to the great purity of the language in which they are
written, is Leandro Fernandez de Moratin. It has to be added
that the sainete was cultivated in the i8th century by one writer
of genuine talent, Ramon de la Cruz; nothing helps us better
to an acquaintance with the curious Spanish society of the
reign of Charles IV. than the interludes of this genial and light-
hearted author, who was succeeded by Juan Ignacio Gonzalez
del Castillo.
The struggle of the War of Independence (1808-14), which
was destined to have such important consequences in the
19th world of politics, exerted no immediate influence on
Century. ^he literature of Spain. One might have expected
as a consequence of the rising of the whole nation against
Napoleon that Spanish writers would no longer seek their
inspiration from France, and would resume the national tradi-
tions which had been broken at the end of the i7th century.
But nothing of the sort occurred. Not only the afrancesados (as
those were called who had accepted the new regime), but also
the most ardent partisans of the patriotic cause, continued in
literature to be the submissive'tiisciples of France. Quintana, who
in his odes preached to his compatriots the duty of resistance,
has nothing of the innovator about him; by his education and
by his literary doctrines he remains a man of the i8th century.
The same may be said of Martinez de la Rosa, who, though less
powerful and impressive, had a greater independence of spirit
and a more highly trained and classical taste. And when roman-
ticism begins to find its way into Spain and to enter into con-
flict with the spirit and habits of the i8th century, it is still to
France that the poets and prose writers of the new school turn,
much more than to England or to Germany. The first decidedly
romantic poet of the generation which flourished about 1830
was the duke of Rivas; no one succeeded better in reconciling
the genius of Spain and the tendencies of modern poetry; his
poem El Moro expdsito and his drama of Don Alvaro 6 la fuerza
del sino belong as much to the old romances and old theatre
of Spain as to the romantic spirit of 1830. On the other hand,
Espronceda, who has sometimes been called the Spanish Musset,
savours much less of the soil than the duke of Rivas; he is a
cosmopolitan romantic of the school of Byron and the French
imitators of Byron; an exclusively lyric poet, he did not live
long enough to give full proof of his genius, but what he has
left is often exquisite. Zorilla has a more flexible and exuberant,
but much more unequal, talent than Espronceda, and if the
latter has written too little it cannot but be regretted that the
former should have produced too much; nevertheless, among a
multitude of hasty performances, brought out before they had
been matured, his Don Juan Tenorio, a new and fantastic
version of the legend treated by Tirso de Molina and Moliere,
will remain as one of the most curious specimens of Spanish
romanticism. In the dramatic literature of this period it is
noticeable that the tragedy more than the comedy is modelled
on the examples furnished by the French drama of the Restora-
tion; thus, if we leave out of account the play by Garcia Guti-
errez, entitled El Trovador, which inspired Verdi's well-known
opera, and Los Amantes de Teruel, by Hartzenbusch, and a few
others, all the dramatic work belonging to this date recalls
more or less the manner of the professional playwrights of the
boulevard theatres, while on the other hand the comedy of
manners still preserves a certain originality and a genuine local
colour. Breton de los Herreros, who wrote a hundred comedies
or more, some of them of the first order in their kind, apart
from the fact that their diction is of remarkable excellence,
adheres with great fidelity to the tradition of the I7th century;
he is the last of the dramatists who preserved the feeling of the
ancient comedia. Mariano Jose de Larra, a prose writer of the
highest talent, must be placed beside spronceda, with whom
he has several features in common. Caustic in temper, of a
keenly observant spirit, remarkably sober and clear as a writer,
he was specially successful in the political pamphlet, the article
d'aclualile, in which he ridicules without pity the vices and
oddities of his contemporaries; his reputation is much more
largely due to these letters than either to his plays or his novel
El Doncel de Don Enrique el Doliente. With Larra must be
associated two other humoristic writers. The first of these is
Mesonero Romanes, whose Escenas matritenses, although of
less literary value than Larra's articles, give pleasure by their
good-natured gaiety and by the curious details they furnish
with regard to the contemporary society of Madrid. The other
is Estebanez Calderon, who in his Escenas andaluzas sought to
revive the manner of the satirical and picaresque writers of the
1 7th century; in a uselessly archaic language of his own, tesse-
lated with fragments taken from Cervantes, Quevedo and others,
he has delineated with a somewhat artificial grace various
piquant scenes of Andalusian or Madrid life. The most promi-
nent literary critics belonging to the first generation of the
586
SPAIN
[LITERATURE
century were Alberto Lista (1775-1848), whose critical doctrine
may be described as a compromise between the ideas of French
classicism and those of the romantic school, and Agustin Duran,
who made it his special task to restore to honour the old
literature of Castile, particularly its romances, which he had
studied with ardour, and of which he published highly esteemed
collections.
If the struggle between classicists and romanticists continued
even after 1830, and continued to divide the literary world
into two opposing camps, the new generation that which
occupied the scene from 1840 till about 1868 had other pre-
occupations. The triumph of the new ideas was assured; what
was now being aimed at was the creation of a new literature
which should be truly national and no longer a mere echo of
that beyond the Pyrenees. To the question whether modern
Spain has succeeded in calling into existence such a literature,
we may well hesitate to give an affirmative answer. It is true
that in every species of composition, the gravest as well as the
lightest, it can show works of genuine talent; but many of them
are strikingly deficient in originality; all of them either bear
unmistakable traces of imitation of foreign models, or show
(more or less happily) the imprint of the older literature of the
I7th century, to which the historical criticism of Duran and the
labours of various other scholars had given a flavour of novelty.
Foreign influence is most clearly marked in the work of
Ventura de la Vega (1807-1865), whose relationship to the
younger Moratin, and therefore to Moliere, is
unmistakable in El Hombre de mundo (1845), a piece
written after a long apprenticeship spent in translating French
plays. Among those who endeavoured to revive the dramatic
system established by Lope de Vega were Aureliano Fernandez-
Guerra y Orbe (1816-1894) and Francisco Sanchez de Castro (d.
1878) ; the former in Alonso Cano, and the latter in Hermenegildo,
produced examples of ingenious reconstruction, which testified
to their scholarship but failed to interest the public permanently.
A fusion of early and later methods is discernible in the plays
of Adelardo Lopez de Ayala and Tamayo y Baus. Campoamor
wrote dramas which, though curious as expressions of a subtle
intelligence cast in the form of dialogue, do not lend themselves
to presentation, and were probably not intended for the stage.
Nunez de Arce in El Haz de lena produced an impressive drama,
as well as several plays written in collaboration with Antonio
de Hurtado, before he found his true vocation as a lyric poet.
The successor of Tamayo y Baus in popular esteem must be
sought in Jose Echegaray, whose earlier plays such as La
Esposa del vengador and En el puno de la espada are in the
romantic style; in his later works he attempts the solution of
social problems or the symbolic drama. Such pieces as El Gran
Galesto, El Hijo de Don Juan and El Loco dios indicate a careful
study of the younger Dumas and Ibsen. Duing the last few
years his popularity has shown signs of waning, and the copious
dramatist has translated from the Catalan at least one play by
Angel Guimera (b. 1847). To Echegaray's school belong Eugenio
Selles (b. 1844), author of El Nudo gordiano, El Cielo 6 el suelo
and La Mujer de Loth, and Leopoldo Cano y Masas (b. 1844),
whose best productions are La Mariposa, Gloria and La Pasion-
aria, an admirable example of concise and pointed dialogue.
Mention must also be made of Jose Feliu y Codina (1843-1897),
a Catalan who wrote two vigorous plays entitled La Dolores
and Moria del Carmen; Joaquin Dicenta (b. 1860), whose Juan
Jos& showed daring talent; and especially Jacinto Benavente
(b. 1866), a dramatist whose mordant vigour and knowledge of
stage-effect is manifest in La Comida de las fieras and Rosas de
otono. In a lighter vein much success has attended the efforts
of Miguel Echegaray (b. 1848), whose buoyant humour is in
quaint contrast with his brother's sepulchral gloom, and Vital
Aza (b. 1851) and Ricardo de la Vega (b. 1858) deserve the
popularity which they have won, the first by El Senor Cura
and the second by Pepa la frescachona, excellent specimens of
humorous contrivance. But the most promising writers for
the Spanish stage at the present time are Serafin Alvarez
Quintero (b. 1871) and his brother Joaqufor (b. 1873), to
whose collaboration are due El Ojito derecho and Abanicos y
panderetes, scenes of brilliant fantasy which continue the
tradition of witty observation begun by Lope de Rueda.
Rivas, Espronceda and Zorrilla owe more to foreign models
than either Campoamor or Nunez de Arce. It is true that
Campoamor has been described, most frequently
by foreign critics, as a disciple of Heine, and un-
doubtedly Campoamor suggests to cosmopolitan readers some-
thing of Heine's concentrated pathos; but he has nothing
of Heine's acrimony, and in fact continued in his own
semi-philosophic fashion a national tradition of immemorial
antiquity the tradition of expressing lyrical emotion in four
or eight lines which finds its most homely manifestation
in the five volumes of Cantos populares espanoles edited by
Francisco Rodriguez Marin. No less national a poet was
Nunez de Arce, in whose verses, though the sentiment and
reflection are often commonplace, the workmanship is of
irreproachable finish. His best performance is Gritos del combate
(1875), a series of impassioned exhortations to concord issued
during the civil war which preceded the restoration of the
Bourbon dynasty. An ineffectual politician, Nunez de Arce
failed in oratory, but produced a permanent political impression
with a small volume of songs. He wrote much in the ensuing
years, and though he never failed to show himself a true poet he
never succeeded in repeating his first great triumph perhaps
because it needed a great national crisis to call forth his powers.
He found an accomplished follower in Emilio Perez Ferrari
(b. 1853), whose Pedro Abelardo and Dos cetros y dos almas re-
call the dignity but not the impeccability of his model. Another
pupil in the same school was Jose Velarde (d. 1892), whose best
work is collected in Voces del alma, some numbers of which are
indications of a dainty and interesting, if not virile, talent.
Absorbed by commerce, Vicente Wenceslao Querol (d. 1889)
could not afford to improvise in the exuberant manner of his
countrymen, and is represented by a single volume of poems as
remarkable for their self-restraint as for a^eep tenderness which
finds expression in the Cartas & Maria and in the poignant
stanzas A la muerte de mi hermana Adela. The temptation to
sound the pathetic note so thrillingly audible in Querol's subdued
harmonies proved irresistible to Federico Balart (1831-1905)^
critic and humorist of repute who late in life astonished and
moved the public with a volume of verse entitled Dolores, a
sequence of elegiacs which bear a slight formal resemblance to
In Memoriam; but the writer's sincerity was doubtful, and in
Horizontes the absence of genuine feeling degenerated into
fluent fancy and agreeable prettiness. A more powerful and
interesting personality was Joaquin Maria Bartrina (1850-
1880), who endeavoured to transplant the pessimistic spirit of
Leconte de Lisle to Spanish soil. Bartrina's crude materialism
is antipathetic; he is wholly wanting in the stately impassability
of his exemplar, and his form is defective; but he has force,
sincerity and courage, and the best verses in Algo (1876) are
not easily forgotten. The Andantes y allegros and Cromos y
acuarelas of Manuel Reina (1856-1905) have a delightful Anda-
lusian effusiveness and metrical elegance, which compensate
for some monotony and shallowness of thought. Manuel del
Palacio (1832-1907) combined imagination and wit with a
technical skill equal to that of the French Parnassians; but he
frittered away his various gifts, so that but a few sonnets survive
out of his innumerable poems. More akin to the English
"Lake poets" was Amos de Escalante y Prieto (1831-1902),
better known by his pseudonym of " Juan Garcia," whose
faculty of poetic description, revealed only to the few who had
read his verses in the edition privately circulated in 1890, is
now generally recognized. The vein of religious sentiment
which runs through Escalante's most characteristic lyrics was
also worked by Luis Ramirez Martinez y Guertero (d. 1874),
who, under the pseudonym of " Larmig," wrote verses impreg-
nated with Christian devotion as well as with a sinister melan-
choly which finally led him to commit suicide. The most
interesting of the younger poets are provincials by sympathy
or residence, if not by birth. Salvador Rueda (b. 1857), in his
LITERATURE]
SPAIN
587
Aires espanoles, represents the vivid colouring and resonant
emphasis of Andalusia; Ramon Domingo Peres (b. 1863), a
Cuban by birth but domiciled at Barcelona, strikes a Catalan
note in Musgo (1902), and substitutes restraint and simplicity
for the Castilian sonority and pomp; Vicente Medina (b. 1866)
in Aires murcianos and La Cancidn de la huerta reproduces with
vivid intensity the atmosphere of the Murcian orchard-country;
Juan Alcover and Miguel Costa, both natives of Majorca, cele-
brate their island scenery with luminous picturesqueness of
phrase. The roll of Spanish poets may close with the name of
Jose Maria Gabriel y Galan (d. 1905), whose reputation depends
chiefly on the verses entitled " El Ama " in Caslellanas; Gabriel y
Galan was extremely unequal, and his range of subjects was
limited, but in El Ama he produced a poem which is unsurpassed
in modern Spanish poetry. The facility with which verses of a
kind can be written in Spanish has made Spain a nest of singing-
birds; but the chief names have been already mentioned, and
no others need be recorded here.
Since 1850 there has been a notable renaissance of the Spanish
novel. Fernan Caballero is entitled to an honourable place in
literary history as perhaps the first to revive the native
""' realism which was temporarily checked by the romantic
movement. In all that concerns truth and art she is superior
to the once popular Manuel Fernandez y Gonzalez (d. 1888),
of whom it has been said that Spain should erect a statue to him
and should burn his novels at the foot of it. A Spanish Dumas,
he equals the French author in fecundity, invention and resource,
and some of his tales such as El Cocinero de su majestad, Los
Minfies de las Alpujarras and Martin Gil are written with an
irresistible brio; but he was the victim of his own facility, grew
more and more reckless in his methods of composition, and at
last sank to the level of his imitators. Antonio de Trueba
followed Fernan Caballero in observing local customs and in
poetizing them with a sentimental grace of his own, which
attracted local patriots and uncritical readers generally. He had
no gift of delineating character, and his plots are feeble; but he was
not wanting in literary charm, and went his road of incorrigible
optimism amid the applause of the crowd. His contemporary,
*Pedro Antonio de Alarcon, is remembered chiefly as the author
of El Sombrero de tres picas, a peculiarly Spanish tale of picaresque
malice. Neither Trueba nor Alarcon could have developed
into great artists; the first is too falsetto, the second is too
rhetorical, and both are too haphazard in execution. Idealizing
country life into a pale arcadian idyll, Trueba frowned upon
one of his neighbours whose methods were eminently realistic.
Jose Maria de Pereda is the founder of the modern school of
realistic fiction in Spain, and the boldness of his experiment
startled a generation of readers accustomed to Fernan Caballero's
feminine reticence and Trueba's deliberate conventionality.
Moreover, Pereda's reactionary political views too frequently
obtruded in his imaginative work alienated from him the
sympathies of the growing Liberal element in the country; but
the power which stamps his Escenas montanesas was at once
appreciated in the northern provinces, and by slow degrees he
imposed himself upon the academic critics of Madrid. So long
as Pereda deals with country folk, sailors, fishermen, aspects
of sea and land, he deserves the highest praise, for he under-
stands the poor, hits upon the mean between conventional
portraiture and caricature, and had the keenest appreciation
of natural beauty. His hand was far less certain in describing
townsmen; yet it is a mistake to class him as merely a successful
landscape painter, for he created character, and continually
revealed points of novelty in his descriptions of the common
things of life. Pereda is realistic, and he is real. His rival,
Juan Valera, is not, in the restricted sense of the word, realistic,
but he is no less real in his own wider province; he has neither
Pereda's energy nor austerity of purpose, but has a more in-
fallible tact, a larger experience of men and women, and his
sceptical raillery is as effective a moral commentary as Pereda's
Christian pessimism. In Valera's Pepita Jimenez and Dona
Luz, and in Pereda's Sotileza, we have a trio of Spanish heroines
who deserve their fame: Pereda's is the more vigorous, full-
blooded talent, as Valera's is the more seductive and patrician;
yet, much as they differ, both are essentially native in the quality
of their genius, system and phrasing. Benito Prez Galdos
gave a new life to the historical novel in his huge series entitled
Episodios nacionales, a name perhaps suggested by the Romans
nationaux of Erckmann-Chatrian; but the subjects and senti-
ment of these forty volumes are intensely local. The colouring
of the Episodios nacionales is so brilliant, their incident is so
varied and so full of interest, their spirit so stirring and patriotic,
that the born Spaniard easily forgives their frequent prolixity,
their insistence on minute details, their loose construction and
their uneven style. Their appeal is irresistible; there is no such
unanimous approbation of the politico-religious novels such as
Dona Perfecta, Gloria and Leon Roch, each of which may be re-
garded as a rotnan a these. The quick response of Perez Galdos
to any external stimulus, his sensitiveness to every change in
the literary atmosphere, made it inevitable that he should eome
under the influence of French naturalism, as he does in Lo
Prohibido and in Realidad; but his conversion was temporary, and
two forcible novels dealing with contemporary life Fortunata
y Jacinta and Angel Gwemz mark the third place in the develop-
ment of a susceptible talent. The true leader of the naturalistic
school in Spain is Armando Palacio Valdes, whose faculty
of artistic selection was first displayed in El Senorito Octavio.
Two subsequent works Marta y Maria and La Hermana San
Sulpicio raised hopes that Spain had, in Palacio Valdes, a
novelist of the first order to succeed Pereda and Valera; but in
La Espuma and La Fe, two social studies which caused all the
more sensation because they contained caricatures of well-
known personages, the author followed the French current,
ceased to be national and did not become cosmopolitan. His
latest books are more original and interesting, though they
scarcely fulfil his early promise. Another novelist who for a
time divided honours with Palacio Valdes was the lady who
publishes under her maiden name of Emilia Pardo Bazan. The
powerful, repellent pictures of peasant life and the ethical daring
of Los Pazos de Ulloa and La Madre Naturaleza are set off by
graphic passages of description; in later works the author chose
less questionable subjects, and the local patriotism which inspires
Insolacion and De mi tierra is expressed in a style which secures
Emilia Pardo Bazan a high place among her contemporaries.
Leopoldo Alas (1851-1901), who used the pseudonym of
" Clarin, " was better known as a ruthless critic than as a novelist ;
the interest of his shorter stories has evaporated, but his ambi-
tious novel, La Regenta, lives as an original study of the relation
between mysticism and passion. Jacinto Octavio Picon
(b. 1852), who has deserted novel writing for criticism, displayed
much insight in Lazaro, the story of a priest who finds himself
forced to lay down his orders; this work was naturally denounced
by the clerical party, and orthodoxy declared equally against
El Enemigo and Duke y sabrosa; more impartial critics agree
in admiring Picon's power of awakening sympathy and interest,
his gift of minute psychological analysis and his exquisite diction.
No suspicion of heterodoxy attaches to Manuel Polo y Peyrolon,
the author of that charming story La Tia Levitico, nor to the
Jesuit-Luis Coloma (b. 1851), who obtained a fleeting triumph
with Pequeneces, in which the writer satirized the fashionable
society of which he had been an ornament before his conversion.
Juan Ochoa (d. 1899) showed promise of the highest order in
his two short stories, El Amado disclpulo and Un alma de Dios
and Angel Ganivet (d. 1898) produced in Los Trabajos del in-
fatigable creador Pio Cid, a singular philosophical romance, rich
in ideas and felicitous in expression, though lacking in narrative
interest. With him may be mentioned Ricardo Macias Picavea
(d. 1899), author of La Tierra de campos, who died prematurely
before his undoubted talent had reached maturity. Of the
younger novelists the most notable in reputation and achieve-
ment is Vicente Blasco Ibanez (b. 1866) who began with
pictures of Valencian provincial life in Flor de mayo, made
romance the vehicle of revolutionary propaganda in La Catedral
and La Horda, and shows the influence of Zola in one of his
latest books, La Maja desnuda. Blasco Ibanez lacks taste and
5 88
SPAIN
[LITERATURE
judgment, and occasional provincialisms disfigure his style;
but his power is undeniable, and even his shorter tales are
remarkable examples of truthful impressionism. Ramon del
Valle-Inclan (b. 1869) tends to preciosity in Corte de amor and
Flor de santidad, but excels in finesse and patient observation;
J. Martinez Ruiz (b. 1876) is wittier and weightier in Las Confes-
iones de un pequeno fildsofo and the other stories which he pub-
lishes under the pseudonym of " Azorin," but he lacks much of
Valle-Inclan's picturesque and perceptive faculty; Pio Baroja's
restless and picaresque talent finds vigorous but incoherent
expression in El Camino de perfeccidn and Aurora roja, and
Gregorio Martinez Sierra (b. 1882) has shown considerable
mastery of the difficulties of the short story in Pascua florida
and Sol de la tarde.
The tendency of Spanish historical students is rather to collect
the raw material of history than to write history. Antonio
Canovas del Castillo was absorbed by politics to
^ e ^ oss ^ literature, for his Ensayo sobre la casa de
Austria en Espana is ample in information and
impartial in judgment; the composition is hasty and the style
is often ponderous, but many passages denote a genuine literary
faculty, which the author was prevented from developing. The
Historia de los Visigodos, in which Aureliano Fernandez-Guerra y
Orbe collaborated with Eduardo de Hinojosa, illuminates an
obscure but important period. Francisco Cardenas (1816-
1898) in his Historia de la propriedad territorial en Espana did
for Spain much that Maine did for England. Eduardo Perez
Pujol (b. 1830) in his Historia de las instituciones de la Espana
goda (1896) supplements the work of Fernandez-Guerra and
Hinojosa, the latter of whom has published a standard treatise
entitled Historia del derecho romano. Joaquin Costa's Estudios
ibericos (1891) and Colectivismo agrario en Espana (1898) have
been praised by experts for their minute research and exact
erudition; but his Poesia popular espanola y mitologia y liter a-
tura celto-hispanas, in which a most ingenious attempt is made
to reconstitute the literary history of a remote period, appeals
to a wider circle of educated readers. The monographs of
Francisco Codera y Zaidin (b. 1836), of Cesareo Fernandez Duro
(1830-1907), of Francisco Fernandez y Gonzalez (b. 1833), of
Gumersindo Azcarate (b. 1840), and of many others, such as the
Jesuit epigraphist Fidel Fita y Calome, are valuable contribu-
tions to the still unwritten history of Spain, but are addressed
chiefly to specialists. Many of the results of these investigators
are embodied by Rafael Altamira y Crevea (b. 1866) in his
Historia de Espana y de la civilizacidn espanola, now in progress.
Literary criticism in Spain, even more than elsewhere, is too
often infected by intolerant party spirit. It was difficult for
Leopoldo Alas (" Clarin ") to recognize any merit in the work of
a reactionary writer, but his prejudice was too manifest to
mislead, and his intelligent insight frequently led him to do
justice in spite of his prepossessions. In the opposite camp
Antonio Valbuena, a humorist of the mordant type, has still
more difficulty in doing justice to any writer who is an acade-
mician, an American or a Liberal. Pascual de Gayangos y
Arce and Manuel Mila y Fontanals escaped from the quarrels of
contemporary schools by confining their studies to the past, and
Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo has earned a European reputation
in the same province of historical criticism. Among his followers
who have attained distinction it must suffice to mention Ram6n
Menendez Pidal (b. 1869), author of La Leyenda de los infantes
de Lara (1897), a brilliant piece of scientific, reconstructive
criticism; Francisco Rodriguez Marin (b. 1855), who has pub-
lished valuable studies on i6th and i7th century authors, and
adds to his gifts as an investigator the charm of an alembicated,
archaic style; Emilio Cotarelo y Mori (b. 1858), who, besides
interesting contributions to the history of the theatre, has
written substantial monographs on Enrique de Villena, Villa-
mediana, Tirso de Molina, Iriarte and Ramon de la Cruz; and
Adolfo Bonilla y San Martin (b. 1875), whose elaborate bio-
graphy of Juan Luis Vives, which is a capital chapter on the
history of Spanish humanism, gives him a foremost place among
the scholars of the younger generation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The basis of study is Nicolas Antonio's Biblio-
theca hispana vetus and Bibliotheca hispana nova, in the revised
edition of Francisco P<5rez Bayer (4 vols., Madrid, 1788). Supple-
mentary to this are Bartolom6 Jose 1 Gallardo's Ensayo de una biblio-
teca espanola de libros raros y curiosos (4 vols., Madrid, 1863-1889),
edited by M. R. Zarco del Valle and Jos6 Sancho Rayon; Pedro
Salva y MalleVs Catdlogo de la biblioteca de Salvd (2 vols., Valencia,
!872) ; James Lyman Whitney's Catalogue of the Spanish Library and
of the Portuguese Books bequeathed by George Ticknor to the Boston
Public Library (Boston, 1879) ; Domingo Garcia Peres, Catdlogo de
los autores Portugueses que escribieron en castellano (Madrid, 1890).
For incunables the best authority is Conradp Haebler, Bibliografia
Mrica del siglo xv. (the Hague and Leipzig, 1904). Of general
histories the most extensive is George Ticknor's History of Spanish
Literature (3 vols., New York, 1849, and 6th ed., 3 vols., Boston,
1872), which is particularly valuable as regards bibliography;
additional information is embodied in the German translation of
this work by N. H. Julius (2 vols., Leipzig, 1852) and the supple-
ment by F. J. Wolf (1867); and the Spanish translation by Pascual
de Gayangos and Enrique de Vedia (4 vols., Madrid, 1851-1856) may
be consulted with profit. On a smaller scale are G. Baist, Die
spanische Litteratur (Strasburg, 1897) in the second volume of the
Grundriss der romanischen Philologie (pt. ii.), H. Butler Clarke,
Spanish Literature (London, 1893); Rudolph Beer, Spanische
Literaturgeschichte (Leipzig, 1903); Philipp August Becker, Ge-
schichte der spanischen Literatur (Strasburg, 1904). The three last-
named include modern authors, as do E. IVKirime'e, Precis d'histoire
de la litterature espagnole (Paris, 1908) and J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly,
History of Spanish Literature (London, 1898; Spanish translation,
Madrid, 1901, and French translation, with a revised text and ser-
viceable bibliography). For the middle ages the best works are
F. J. Wolf, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen und portugiesischen
Nationallileratur (Berlin, 1859), and M. Mili y Fontanals, De la
Poesia heroico-popular castillana (Barcelona, 1874). Jos6 Amador
de los Rios, Historia critica de la literatura espanola (7 vols., Madrid,
18611865), is diffusive and inaccurate, but gives useful information
concerning the period before the i6th century. On the drama the
most solid works are Cayetano Alberto de la Barrera y Leirado,
Catdlogo bibliogrdfico y biogrdfico del teatro antiguo espanol (Madrid,
1860) ; A. Paz y Mlia, Catdlogo de las piezas de teatro que se conservan
en el departamento de manuscritos de la biblioteca nacional (Madrid,
1899) ; C. PeVez Pastor, Nuevos dates acerca del histrionismo espanol
en los siglos xvi. y xvii. (Madrid, 1901); Jos6 Sanchez-Arjona,
Noticias referentes a los anales del teatro en Sevilla (Seville, 1898);
Antonio Restori, " La Collezione della biblioteca palatina-par-
mense," in StudJ di filologia romanza, fasc. 15 (Rome, 1891); E.
Cotarelo y Mori, Controversias sobre la licitud del teatro en Espana
(Madrid, 1904). Adolf Friedrich von Schack, Geschichte der drama-
tischen Literatur und Kunst in Spanien (Frankfort-on-Main, 1846-
1854), a valuable work when published and still to be read with
pleasure, is now out of date, and is not improved in the Spanish trans-
lation by Eduardo de Mier; it is in course of being superseded by
Wilhelm Creizenach's Geschichte des neueren Dramas, of which three
volumes have already appeared (Halle, 1893-1903). Two fluent and
agreeable works on the subject are Adolf Schaeffer, Geschichte des
spanischen Nationaldramas (2 vols., Leipzig, 1890), and Louis de
Viel Castel, Essai sur le the&tre espagnol (2 vols., Paris, 1882). Julius
Leopold Klein's extravagant prejudices detract greatly from the
value of Das spanische Drama (Leipzig, 1871-1875), which forms part
of his Geschichte des Dramas; but his acumen and learning are by no
means contemptible. Other works on the Spanish drama are
indicated by A. Morel-Fatio and L. Rouanet in their critical biblio-
graphy, Le The&tre espagnol (Paris, 1900). The prefaces by M.
Men6ndez y Pelayo in the Antologia de poetas hricos castellanos
desde la formacion del idioma hasta nuestros dias (12 vols. already
published, Madrid, 1890-1906) form a substantial history of Spanish
poetry. The same writer's Origenes de la nmela (Madrid, 1905-1907)
and unfinished Historia critica de las ideas esteticas en Espana (9 vols.,
Madrid, 1884-1891), are highly instructive. For the 1 8th century the
student is referred to the Historia critica de la poesia castellana en el
siglo xviii. (3rd ed., 3 vols., Madrid, 1893) by Leopoldo Augusto de
Cueto, marque's de Valmar; Francisco Blanco Garcia, La Literatura
espanola en el siglo xix. (3 vols., Madrid, 1891-1894), is useful and
informing, but must be consulted with caution, owing to the writer's
party spirit. Similar prejudices are present in the much more
suggestive and acute volumes of Leopoldo Alas. The history of
modern criticism is traced by Francisco Fernandez y Gonzalez,
Historia de la critica literaria en Espana desde Luzdn hasta nuestros
dins (Madrid, 1870). Among miscellaneous monographs and essays
the most recommendable are Count Theodore de Puymaigre, Les
vieux auteurs castittans (Paris 1861-1862 ; 2nd ed., incomplete, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1889-1890), and La Com litteraire de don Juan II. roide Castille
(2 vols., Paris, 1893) ; A. Morel-Fatio, VEspagne au xvi"" et au xvii""
siecle (Heilbronn, 1878), and Etudes sur I'Espagne (3 vols., Paris,
1888-1904); Enrique Pineyro, El Romanticismo en Espana (Paris,
1904) ; J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Chapters on Spanish Literature (London,
1908). The Revue hispanique (Paris) and the Bulletin hispanique
(Bordeaux) are specially dedicated to studies on the literary history
of Spain, and articles on the subject appear from time to time in
LITERATURE]
SPAIN
589
Romania, the Zeitschrift fur romanische Philologie and Romanische
Forschungen, as also in Modern Language Notes (Baltimore) and the
Modern Language Review (Cambridge).
2. Catalan Literature. Although the Catalan language is
simply a branch of the southern Gallo-Roman, the literature,
Poetry of in its origin at least, should be considered as supple-
mentary to that of Provence. Indeed, until about
the second half of the I3th century there existed
in the Catalan districts no other literature than the Provencal,
and the poets of north-eastern Spain used no other language than
that of the troubadours. Guillem de Bergadan, Uc de Mataplana,
Ramon Vidal de Besalu, Guillem de Cervera, Serveri de Gerona
and other verse writers of still more recent date were all genuine
Provencal poets, in the same sense as are those of Limousin,
Quercy or Auvergne, since they wrote in the langue d'oc and made
use of all the forms of poetry cultivated by the troubadours
north of the Pyrenees. Ramon Vidal (end of the I2th century
and beginning of i3th) was a grammarian as well as a poet; his
Rasos de trobar became the code for the Catalan poetry written
in Provencal, which he called Lemosi, a name still kept up in
Spain to designate, not the literary idiom of the troubadours
only, but also the local idiom Catalan which the Spaniards
chose to consider as derived from the former. The influence of
R. Vidal and other grammarians of his school, as well as that
of the troubadours we have named, was enduring; and even
after Catalan prose an exact reflection of the spoken language
of the south-east of the Pyrenees had given evidence of its
vitality in some considerable works, Catalan poetry remained
faithful to the Provencal tradition. From the combination
of spoken Catalan with the literary language of the troubadours
there arose a sort of composite idiom, which has some analogy
with the Franco-Italian current in certain parts of Italy in the
middle ages, although in the one case the elements of the mixture
are more distinctly apparent than are the romance of France
and the romance of Italy in the other. The poetical works of
Raymond Lully or Ramon Lull are among the oldest examples
of this Provencalised Catalan; one has only to read the fine piece
entitled Lo Desconort (" Despair "), or some of his stanzas on
religious subjects, to apprehend at once the eminently composite
nature of that language. Muntaner in like manner, whose
prose is exactly that spoken by his contemporaries, becomes a
troubadour when he writes in verse; his Sermd on the conquest of
Sardinia and Corsica (1323), introduced into his Chronicle of the
kings of Aragon, exhibits linguistically the same mixed character
as is found in Lully, or, we may venture to say, in all Catalan
verse writers of the i/).th century. These are not very numerous,
nor are their works of any great merit. The majority of their
compositions consist of what were called noves rimades, that is,
stories in octosyllabic verse in rhymed couplets. There exist
poems of this class by Pere March, by a certain Torrella,
by Bernat Metge (an author more celebrated for his prose),
and by others whose names we do not know; among the works
belonging to this last category special mention ought to be made
of a version of the romance of the Seven Sages, a translation of
a book on good breeding entitled Facetus, and certain tales where,
by the choice of subjects, by various borrowings, and even
occasionally by the wholesale introduction of pieces of French
poetry, it is clearly evident that the writers of Catalonia under-
stood and read the langue d'oui. Closely allied to the noves
rimades is another analogous form of versification that of the
codolada, consisting of a series of verses of eight and four syllables,
rhyming in pairs, still made use of in one portion of the Catalan
domain (Majorca).
The i sth century is the golden age of Catalan poetry. At the
instigation and under the auspices of John I. (1387-1395), Martin
I. (1395-1410), and Ferdinand I. (1410-1416), kings of
Century. Aragon, there was founded at Barcelona a consistory
of the " Gay Saber," on the model of that of Toulouse,
and this official protection accorded to poetry was the beginning
of a new style much more emancipated from Provencal influence.
It cannot be denied, indeed, that its forms are of foreign importa-
tion, that the Catalan verse writers accept the prescriptions of
the Leys d'amor of Guillaume Molinier, and that the names
which they gave to their cobles (stanzas) are all borrowed from
the same art de trobar of the Toulouse school; but their language
begins to rid itself more and more of Provencalisms and tends
to become the same as that of prose and of ordinary conversa-
tion. With Pere and Jaume March, Jordi de Sant Jordi,
Johan de Masdovelles, Francesch Ferrer, Pere Torroella, Pau
de Bellviure, Antoni Vallmanya, and, above all, the Valencian
Auzias March, there developed a new school, which flourished
till the end of the isth century, and which, as regards the
form of its versification, is distinguished by its almost
exclusive employment of eight-verse cobles of ten syllables,
each with " crossed " or " chained " rhymes (cobla crohada or
encadenad a) , each composition ending with a tornada of four
verses, in the first of which the " device " (dims or senyal) of
the poet is given out. Many of these poems are still unedited
or have only recently been extracted from the can$oners, where
they had been collected in the i5th century. Auzias March
alone, the most inspired, the most profound, but also the most
obscure of the whole group, was printed in the i6th century;
his cants d'amor and cants de mart contain the finest verses
ever written in Catalan, but the poet fails to keep up to
his own high level, and by his studied obscurity occasionally
becomes unintelligible to such a degree that one of his editors
accuses him of having written in Basque. Of a wholly
different class, and in quite another spirit, is the Libre de les
dones of Jaume Roig (d. 1478), a Valencian also, like March; this
long poem is a nova rimada, only comediada, that is to say, it
is in quadrisyllable instead of octosyllabic verse. A bitter and
caustic satire upon women, it purports to be a true history the
history of the poet himself and of his three unhappy marriages
in particular. Notwithstanding its author's allegations, how-
ever, the Libre de les dones is mostly fiction; but it derives a
very piquant interest from its really authentic element, its
vivid picture of the Valencia of the i5th century and the details
of contemporary manners. After this bright period of efflores-
cence Catalan poetry rapidly faded, a decline due more to the
force of circumstances than to any fault of the poets. The
union of Aragon with Castile, and the resulting predominance
of Castilian throughout Spain, inflicted a death-blow on Catalan
literature, especially on its artistic poetry, a kind of composition
more ready than any other to avail itself of the triumphant
idiom which soon came to be regarded by men of letters as the
only noble one, and alone fit to be the vehicle of elevated or
refined thoughts. The fact that a Catalan, Juan Boscan,
inaugurates in the Castilian language a new kind of poetry,
and that the Castilians themselves regard him as the head of a
school, is important and characteristic; the date of the publica-
tion of the works of Boscan (1543) marks the end of Catalan
poetry.
The earliest prose works in Catalan are later than the poems
of the oldest Catalan troubadours of the Provencal school;
these prose writings date no further back than the Proseof
close of the 13th century, but they have the advan- isth-isth
tage of being entirely original. Their language is Centuries.
the very language of the soil which we see appearing in charters
from about the time of the accession of James I. (1213). This
is true especially of the chronicles, a little less so of the other
writings, which, like the poetry, do not escape the influence of
the more polished dialect of the country tc the north of the
Pyrenees. Its chronicles are the best ornament of medieval
Catalan prose. Four of them that of James I., apparently
reduced to writing a little after his death (1276) with the help
of memoirs dictated by himself during his lifetime ; that of Bernat
Desclot, which deals chiefly with the reign of Pedro III. of Aragon
(1276-1286); that of Ramon Muntaner (first half of the i4th
century), relating at length the expedition of the Catalan com-
pany to the Morea and the conquest of Sardinia by James II.;
finally that of Pedro IV., the Ceremonious (1335-1387), genuine
commentaries of that astute monarch, arranged by certain
officials of his court, notably by Bernat Descoll these four
works are distinguished alike by the artistic skill of their
59
SPAIN
[LITERATURE
narration and by the quality of their language; it would not be too
much to liken these Catalan chroniclers, and Muntaner especially,
to Villehardouin, Joinville and Froissart. The Doctor Illumi-
natus, Raymond Lully, whose acquaintance with Latin was
very poor his philosophical works were done into that language
by his disciples wrote in a somewhat Provengalized Catalan
various moral and propagandist works the romance Blanquerna
in praise of the solitary life, the Libre de les maravelles, into
which is introduced a " bestiary " taken by the author from
Kalilah and Dimnah, and the Libre del orde de cavatteria, a
manual of the perfect knight, besides a variety of other treatises
and opuscula of minor importance. The majority of the
writings of Lully exist in two versions one in the vernacular,
which is his own, the other in Latin, originating with his disciples,
who desired to give currency throughout Christendom to their
master's teachings. Lully who was very popular in the lay
world, although the clergy had a low opinion of him and in the
1 5th century even set themselves to obtain a condemnation
of his works by the Inquisition had a rival in the person of
Francesch Ximenez or Eximeniz, a Franciscan, born at Gerona
some time after 1350. His Crestid (printed in 1483) is a vast
encyclopaedia of theology, morals and politics for the use of the
laity, supplemented in various aspects by his three other works
Vida de Jesucrist, Libre del angels, and Libre de les dones; the
last named, which is at once a book of devotion and a manual
of domestic economy, contains a number of curious details
as to a Catalan woman's manner of life and the luxury of the
period. Lully and Eximeniz are the only Catalan authors of
the 1 4th century whose works written in a vulgar tongue had
the honour of being translated into French shortly after their
appearance. '
We have chiefly translators and historians in the isth century.
Antoni Canals, a Dominican, who belongs also to the previous
century, translates into Catalan Valerius Maximus and a treatise
of St Bernard; Bernat Metge, himself well versed in Italian
literature, presents some of its great masters to his countrymen
by translating the Griselidis of Petrarch, and also by composing
Lo Sompni (" The Dream "), in which the influence of Dante,
of Boccaccio, and, generally speaking, of the Italy of the i3th
and 1 4th centuries is very perceptible. The Feyls d'armes de
Catalunya of Bernat Boades (d. 1444), a knightly chronicle
brought to a close in 1420, reveals a spirit of research and a con-
scientiousness in the selection of materials which are truly
remarkable for the age in which it was written. On the other
hand, Pere Tomich, in his Histories e conquestes del reyalme
d'Aragd (1448), carries us back too much to the manner of the
medieval chroniclers; his credulity knows no bounds, while his
style has altogether lost the naive charm of that of Muntaner.
To the list of authors who represent the leading tendencies of
the literature of the isth century we must add the name of
Johanot Martorell, a Valencian author of three-fourths of the
celebrated romance, Tirant lo blanch (finished in 1460 and
printed in 1490), which the reader has nowadays some difficulty
in regarding as that " treasury of content " which Cervantes
will have it to be.
With the loss of political was bound to coincide that of literary
independence in the Catalonian countries. Catalan fell to
the rank of a patois and was written less and
less ; lettered persons ceased to cultivate it, and
. .. . , 7 .
the upper classes, especially m Valencia, owing to the
proximity of Castile, soon affected to make no further use of the
local speech except in familiar conversation. The i6th century,
in fact, furnishes literary history with hardly more than a single
poet at all worthy of the name Pere Serafi, some of whose pieces,
in the style of Auzias March, but less obscure, are graceful enough
and deserve to live; his poems were printed at Barcelona in
1563. Prose is somewhat better represented, but scholars alone
persisted in writing in Catalan antiquaries and historians like
Miquel Carbonell (d. 1 51 7) , compiler of the Chroniques de Espanya
(printed in 1547), Francesch Tarafa, author of the Cronica de
cavaliers Catalans, Anton Beuter and some others not so well
known. In the I7th and i8th centuries the decadence became
Centuries.
still more marked. A few scattered attempts to restore to
Catalan, now more and more neglected by men of letters, some
of its old life and brilliance failed miserably. Neither Hieronim
Pujades, author of an unfinished Coronica universal del principal
de Catalunya (Barcelona, 1609), nor even Vicent Garcia, rector
of Vallfogona (1582-1623), a verse-writer by no means destitute
of verve or humour, whose works were published in 1700 under
the quaint title of La Armonia del Parnds, mes numerosa en las
poesias varias del allant del eel poetic lo Dr Vicent Garcia, and whose
literary talent and originality have been greatly exaggerated by
the Catalans of the present day, could induce his countrymen to
cultivate the local idiom once more. Sermons, lives of saints,
a few works of devotion, didactic treatises and the like are all
that was written henceforth in Catalan till the beginning of the
1 9th century. Writers who were Catalan by birth had so
completely unlearned their mother-tongue that it would have
seemed to them quite inappropriate, and even ridiculous, to
make use of it in serious works, so profoundly had Castilian
struck its roots in the eastern provinces of Spain, and so
thoroughly had the work of assimilation been carried out to
the advantage of the official language of the court and of the
government.
In 1814 appeared the Gramdtica y apologia de la llengua
Cathalana of Joseph Pau Ballot y Torres, which may be con-
sidered as marking the origin of a genuine renaissance Revtval ot
of the grammatical and literary study of Catalan. Catalan
Although the author avows no object beyond the Language
purely practical one of giving to strangers visiting aa<l
Barcelona for commercial purposes some knowledge
of the language, the enthusiasm with which he sings the praises
of his mother-tongue, and his appended catalogue of works which
have appeared in it since the time of James L, show that this
was not his only aim. In point of fact the book, which is entitled
to high consideration as being the first systematic Catalan
grammar, written, too, in the despised idiom itself, had a great
influence on the authors and literary men of -the principality.
Under the influence of the new doctrines of romanticism twenty
years had not passed before a number of attempts in the way
of restoring the old language had made their appearance, in the
shape of various poetical works of very unequal merit. The
Oda d la patria (1833) of Buenaventura Carlos Aribau is among
the earliest if not actually the very first of these, and it is also
one of the best; the modern Catalan school has produced few
poems more inspired or more correct. Following in the steps
of Aribau, Joaquin Rubio y Ors {Lo Gayter del Llobregaf),
Antonio de Bofarull (Lo Coblejador de Moncada), and soon
afterwards a number of other versifiers took up the lyre which
it might have been feared was never to sound again since it fell
into the hands of Auzias March. The movement spread from
Catalonia into other provinces of the ancient kingdom of Aragon;
the appeal of the Catalans of the principality was responded to
at Valencia and in the Balearic Isles. Later, the example of
Provence, of the felibrilge of the south of France, accelerated
still further this renaissance movement, which received official
recognition in 1859 by the creation of the jocks florals, in which
prizes are given to the best competitors in poetry, of whom
some succeed in obtaining the diploma of mestre en gay saber.
It is of course impossible to foresee the future of this new Catalan
literature whether it is indeed destined for that brilliant career
which the Catalans themselves anticipate. In spite of the
unquestionable talent of poets like Mariano Aguilo (Majorca),
Teodoro Llorente (b. 1836; Valencia), and more especially
Jacinto Verdaguer (1845-1902), author of an epic poem Atldn-
lida and of the very fascinating Cants mistichs, it is by no means
certain that this renaissance of a provincial literature will be
permanent now that the general tendency throughout Europe
is towards unity and centralization in the matter of language.
At all events it would be well if the language were some-
what more fixed, and if its writers no longer hesitated
between a pretentious archaism and the incorrectness of vulgar
colloquialism. Some improvement in this respect is discernible
in the poems of Joan Maragall (b. 1860), the lyrical verse of
SPALATIN SPALATO
59 1
Apeles Mestre (b. 1854), the fiction of Narcis Oiler and Santiago
Rusinol, as also in the dramas of Angel Guimera, and if the
process be continued there may be a future, as well as a past,
for Catalan literature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Jose 1 Rodriguez, Biblioteca valentina (Valencia,
1747); Vicente Ximeno, Escritores del reyno de Valencia (2 vols.,
Valencia, 1747-1749); Justo Pastor Fuster, Biblioteca valenciana
(2 vols., Valencia, 1827-1830); Felix Torres Amat, Memoiras para
ayudar a formar un diccionario critico de los escritores catalanes
(Barcelona, 1836), with a supplement by J. Corminas (Burgos, 1849) ;
F. R. Camboulin, Essai sur I'histoire de la litterature Catalans (Paris,
1858) ; M. Mila y Fpntanals, De los Trovadores en Espana (Barcelona
1861), and studies included in his Obras completas; E. Cardona, De
la Antica literatura catalana (Naples, 1880); A. Morel-Fatio,
" Katalanische Litteratur," in the second volume of the Grundriss
der romanischen Philologie, pt. ii., and Catalogue des manuscrils
espagnols et portugais de la bibliotheque nationale (Paris, 1881-1892);
V. M. O. Denk, Einfuhrung in die Geschichte der altcalalanischen
Litteralur (Munich, 1893) ; J. Masso Torrents, Manuscrits Catalans
de la biblioteca nacional de Madrid (Barcelona, 1896). For
the modern period see Joaquin Rubio y Ors, Breve resena del
actual renacimiento de la lengua y literatura catalanas (2 vols.,
Barcelona, 1880),; F. M. Tubino, Historia del renacimienlo
contempordneo en Cataluna, Baleares y Valencia (Madrid, 1880);
A. de Molins, Diccionario bipgrafico y bibliogrdfico de escritores
y arlistas catalanes del siglo xix. (Barcelona, 1891-1896);
E. Toda, La Poesia catalana a Sardenya (Barcelona, 1888).
Important articles by P. Meyer, A. Thomas, A. Pagfes, J. Masso
Torrents, A. Morel-Fatio and others appear from time to time
in Romania, the Revue des langues romanes, the Revue hispanique,
the Revista catalana and other special periodicals.
(J. F.-K.; A. M.-FA.)
SPALATIN, GEORGE, the name taken by George Burkhardt
(1484-1545), an important figure in the history of the Reforma-
tion, who was born on the I7th of January 1484, at Spalt
(whence he assumed the name Spalatinus), near Nuremberg,
where his father was a tanner. He went to Nuremberg for his
education when he was thirteen years of age, and soon afterwards
to the university of Erfurt, where he took his bachelor's degree
in 1499. There he attracted the notice of Nikolaus Marschalk, the
most influential professor, who made Spalatin his amanuensis
and took him to the new university of Wittenberg in 1502. In
1505 Spalatin returned to Erfurt to study jurisprudence, was
recommended to Conrad Mutianus, and was welcomed by the
little band of German humanists of whom Mutianus was chief.
His friend got him a post as teacher in the monastery at
Georgenthal, and in 1508 he was ordained priest by Bishop
Johann von Laasphe, who had ordained Luther. In 1509
Mutianus recommended him to Frederick III. the Wise, the
elector of Saxony, who employed him to act as tutor to his
nephew, the future elector, John Frederick. Spalatin speedily
gained the confidence of the elector, who sent him to Wittenberg
in 1511 to act as tutor to his nephews, and procured for him a
c.anon's stall in Altenburg. In 1512 the elector made him his
librarian. He was promoted to be court chaplain and secretary,
and took charge of all the elector's private and public corre-
spondence. His solid scholarship, and especially his unusual
mastery of Greek, made him indispensable to the Saxon court.
Spalatin had never cared for theology, and, although a priest
and a preacher, had been a mere humanist. How he first
became acquainted with Luther it is impossible to say pro-
bably at Wittenberg; but the reformer from the first exercised
a great power over him, and became his chief counsellor in all
moral and religious matters. His letters to Luther have been
lost, but Luther's answers remain, and are extremely interesting.
There is scarcely any fact in the opening history of the Re-
formation which is not connected in some way with Spalatin's
name. He read Luther's writings to the elector, and translated
for his benefit those in Latin into German. He accompanied
Frederick to the Diet of Augsburg in 1518, and shared in the
negotiations with the papal legates, Cardinal Cajetan and Karl
von Miltitz. He was with the elector when Charles was chosen
emperor and when he was crowned. He was with his master
at the Diet of Worms. In short, he stood beside Frederick
as his confidential adviser in all the troubled diplomacy of
the earlier years of the Reformation. Spalatin would have
dissuaded Luther again and again from publishing books or
engaging in overt acts against the Papacy, but when the thing
was done none was so ready to translate the book or to justify
the act.
On the death of Frederick the Wise in 1525 Spalatin no longer
lived at the Saxon court. But he attended the imperial diets, and
was the constant and valued adviser of the electors, John and
John Frederick. He went into residence as canon at Altenburg,
and incited the chapter to institute reforms somewhat unsuccess-
fully. He married in the same year. During the later portion
of his life, from 1526 onwards, he was chiefly engaged in the
visitation of churches and schools in electoral Saxony, reporting
on the confiscation and application of ecclesiastical revenues,
and he was asked to undertake the same work for Albertine
Saxony. He was also permanent visitor of Wittenberg Univer-
sity. Shortly before his death he fell into a state of profound
melancholy, and died on the i6th o.f January 1545, at Altenburg.
Spalatin left behind him a large number of literary remains,
both published and unpublished. His original writings are almost
all historical. Perhaps the most important of them are: Annales
reformationis, edited by E. S. Cyprian, (Leipzig, 1718); and " Das
Leben und die Zeitgeschichte Friedrichs des Weisen," published in
Georg Spalatins Historischer Nachlass und Briefe, edited by C. G.
Neudecker and L. Preller (Jena, 1851). A list of them may be found
in A. Seelheim's George Spalatin als sacks. Historiographer (1876).
There is no good life of Spalatin, nor can there be until his letters
have been collected and edited, a work still to be done. There is
an excellent article on Spalatin, howevar, by T. Kolde, in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopadij, Bd. xviii. (1906).
SPALATO, or SPALATRO (Serbo-Croatian Spljet or Split),
an episcopal city, and the centre of an administrative
district, in Dalmatia, Austria, and on the Adriatic Sea.
Pop. (1900), of town and commune, 27,198; chiefly Serbo-
Croatian, and almost exclusively Roman Catholic. Spalato
is situated on the seaward side of a peninsula between
the Gulf of Brazza and the Gulf of Salona. Though not
the capital, it is commercially the most important city in
Dalmatia and carries on an extensive trade in wine and oil.
It is a port of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and communi-
cates by rail with Sebenico, Knin and Sinj. Spalato has a
striking sea-front, in which the leading feature is the ruined
facade of the great palace of Diocletian, to which the city owes
its origin. A large part of Spalato is actually within the limit
of the palace; and many modern houses are built against its
ancient walls and incorporate parts of them, not only on the
inner but also on the outer side. This palace was erected between
A.D. 290 and 310. In ground plan it is almost a square, with a
quadrangular tower at each of the four comers. It covers 9^
acres. There were originally four principal gates, with four
streets meeting in the middle of the quadrangle, after the style
of a Roman camp. The eastern gate, or Porta Aenea, is
destroyed, but, though the side towers are gone, the western
gate, or Porta Ferrea, and the main entrance of the building,
the beautiful Porta Aurea, in the north front, are still in fairly
good preservation. The streets are lined with massive arcades.
The vestibule now forms the Piazza del Duomo or cathedral
square; to the north-east of this lies the temple of Jupiter,
or perhaps the mausoleum. This has long been the cathedral
of St Doimo or Domnius, small and dark, but noteworthy for
its finely carved choir stalls. To the south-east is the
temple of Aesculapius, which served originally as a kind
of court chapel, and has long been transformed into a bap-
tistery. A beautiful Romanesque campanile was added to
the baptistery in the I4th and isth centuries. Architecturally
the most important of the many striking features of the palace
is the arrangement in the vestibule by which the supporting
arches spring directly from the capitals of the large granite
Corinthian columns. This, as far as the known remains of
ancient art are concerned, is the first instance of such a method.
The ruins of Salona or Salonae, lying about 4 m. north-east of
the palace, were chiefly exhumed during a series of excavations
undertaken after the visit of the emperor Francis I. in 1818.
Research was carried on regularly from 1821 to 1827, and again
from 1842 to 1850. It was afterwards resumed at intervals
592
SPALDING, W. SPALLANZANI
until 1877, when the excavation committee was granted an
annual subsidy by the Austrian government. Many discoveries
were made, including the ruins of a theatre, amphitheatre, city
walls and gates, baths, aqueducts, pagan and Christian cemeteries,
basilicas and many fragments of houses and arches. Professor
F. Bulic, who had charge of the work and of the museum at
Spalato, reported in 1894 that the collection of minor objects
comprised " 2034 inscriptions, 387 sculptures, 176 architectural
pieces, 1548 fragments or objects of terra-cotta and vases,
1243 objects of glass, 3184 of metal, 929 of bone, 1229 gems,
128 objects from prehistoric times, and 15,000 coins" (Munro,
p. 244). These are preserved in the museum. One vase, of
Corinthian workmanship, dates from the 6th century B.C. ; and
many of the early Christian relics are of unusual interest. The
so-called " cyclopean " walls, mortarless, but constructed of
neatly squared and fitted blocks, are probably of Roman work-
manship. Jackson suggests that perhaps, like the long walls
at Athens, they were intended to unite the city with its port.
Salona under the early Roman emperors was one of the chief
ports of the Adriatic, on one of the most central sites in the
Roman world. Made a Roman colony after its second capture
by the Romans (78 B.C.), it appears as Colonia Martia Julia and
Colonia Claudia Augusta Pia Veteranorum, and bears at different
periods the titles of respuUica, conventus, metropolis, praefectura
and praetorium. Diocletian died in 313; and before long the
city became an episcopal see, with St Doimo as its first bishop.
The palace was transformed into an imperial cloth factory, and,
as most of the workers were women, it became known as the
gynaecium* Salona was several times taken and retaken by the
Goths and Huns before 639, when it was sacked and nearly
destroyed by the Avars. Its inhabitants fled to the Dalmatian
islands, but returned shortly afterwards to found a new city
within the walls of the palace. Salona itself was not entirely
deserted until the close of the i2th century. In 650 the papal
legate, John of Ravenna, was created bishop of Spalato, as the
new city was named. " Spalato," or " Spalatro " (a very old
spelling), was long regarded as a corruption of Salonae Palatium;
but its true origin is doubtful. The most ancient form is
Aspalathum, used in the loth century by Constantine Porphyro-
genitus. Spalathum, Spalathrum and Spalatrum are early
variants. In a few years Spalato became an archbishopric,
and its holders were metropolitans of all Dalmatia until 1033.
In 1105 Spalato became a vassal state of Hungary; in 1327 it
revolted to Venice; in 1357 it returned to its allegiance. It
was ruled by the Bosnian king ; Tvrtko, from 1390 to 1391; and
in 1402 the famous and powerful Bosnian prince, Hrvoje or
Harvoye, received the dukedom of Spalato from Ladislaus of
Naples, the claimant to the Hungarian throne. In 1413, after
the overthrow of Ladislaus by the emperor Sigismund, Hrvoje
was banished; but a large octagonal tower, the Torre d'Harvoye,
still bears his name. Spalato received a Venetian garrison in
1420, and ceased to have an independent history. The castle
and city walls, erected by the Venetians between 1645 and 1670.
were dismantled after 1807.
See T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria (Oxford,
1887) ; and E. A. Freeman, Subject and Neighbour Lands of Venice
(London, 1881), for a general description of Spalato, its antiquities
and history. A valuable account of the researches at Salona is
given in R. Munro, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia (London,
1900). There are two magnificently illustrated volumes which
deal with Diocletian's palace: R. Adam, Ruins of the Palace of
the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro, in Dalmatia (London, 1764),
engravings by Bartolozzi ; and L. J. Cassas and J. Lavall6e, Voyage
pittoresque et historique de I'Istrie (Paris, 1802). The Dalmatian
chronicles, reproduced by G. Lucio in his De regno Dalmatiae et
Croatiae (Amsterdam, 1666), include several which deal specially
with Salona and Spalato. The most important is the Historia
salonitanorum pontificum et spalatensium, by Thomas, archdeacon
of Spalato (1200-1268).
SPALDING, WILLIAM (1800-1859), British author, was
born in Aberdeen on the 22nd of May 1809. He was educated
at the grammar school there and at Marischal College, and he
went in 1830 to Edinburgh, where he was called to the bar in
1833. In that year he published a Letter on Shakespeare's
Authorship of the two Noble Kinsmen (reprinted for the New
Shakspere Society in 1876), which attracted the notice of
Jeffrey, who invited Spalding to contribute to the Edinburgh
Review. He also spent some time in Italy, and in 1841 pub-
lished Italy and the Italian Islands from the Earliest Ages to the
Present Time. He occupied the chair of rhetoric in Edinburgh
University from 1840 to 1845, when he was appointed professor
of logic in the university of St Andrews, a post which he held till
his death on the i6th of November 1859.
Besides contributions to the Edinburgh Review, Slack-wood's
Magazine and the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
he was the author of a concise History of English Literature (1853).
SPALDING, a market town in the Holland or Spalding parlia-
mentary division of Lincolnshire, England, on the river Welland,
and on the Great Northern and Great Eastern railways, 93 "m.
N. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901), 9385. Thetown
is the centre of a rich agricultural district. The parish church of
St Mary and St Nicholas was built in 1 284 and is of peculiar con-
struction, having four aisles to the nave. It is mainly Decorated
in style. The adjoining lady chapel (St Mary and St Thomas
a Becket) was built in 1315; in 1588 it was appropriated for
the grammar school endowed in 1568 by John Blanke and again
in 1588 by John Gamlyn. A new grammar school was erected
in 1881. Theft are several modern churches and chapels, a corn
exchange, a Christian association and literary institute, and the
Johnson hospital (1881, endowed). The existing high bridge
over the Welland, constructed in 1838, took the place of a
wooden erection dating from the end of the I7th century; this
last was built on the site of a Roman bridge of two arches,
the foundations of the centre pier of which were disclosed when
the wooden bridge was constructed. Trade is principally agricul-
tural, and there is considerable water-traffic on the Welland.
Although there are no traces of settlement at Spalding
(Spaltnige) before late Saxon times there was probably a village
here before Thorold the sheriff founded his cell of Crowland
Abbey in 1051. In Domesday Book the manor is said to belong
to Ivo de Taillebois, who possessed a market there worth 403.,
six fisheries and rent from salt-pans. The manor was afterwards
granted to Angers, and later belonged to Spalding Priory, which
retained it until at the suppression it passed to the Crown.
Stephen made Spalding Priory free of toll, while John gave the
monks forest rights. The town was governed by the prior's
manorial court, and never became a parliamentary or municipal
borough. The prior obtained the grant of the Friday market
in 1242, and in the reign of Edward I. claimed from of old fairs
on the feast of St Nicholas and fifteen days following, and on the
vigil and octave of St Cross. In more modern times Spalding
was well known for the club known as the " Gentleman's
Society," founded in 1710 by Maurice Johnson, which met once
a week at a coffee-house in the town for the discussion of literary
and antiquarian subjects, and numbered among its members
Newton, Bentley, Addison, Pope and Gay.
SPALLANZANI, LAZARO (1720-1799), Italian man of science,
was born at Scandiano in Modena on the loth of January 1729,
and was at first educated by his father, who was an advocate. At
the age of fifteen he was sent to the Jesuit college at Reggio di
Modena, and was pressed to enter that body. He went, how-
ever, to the university of Bologna, where his famous kinswoman,
Laura Bassi, was professor of physics, and it is to her influence
that his scientific impulse has been usually attributed. With
her he studied natural philosophy and mathematics, and gave
also great attention to languages, both ancient and modern, but
soon abandoned the study of law, and afterwards took orders.
His reputation soon widened, and in 1754 he became professor
of logic, metaphysics and Greek in the university of Reggio,
and in 1760 was translated to Modena, where he continued to
teach with great assiduity and success, but devoted his whole
leisure to natural science. He declined many offers from other
Italian universities and from St Petersburg until 1768, when he
accepted the invitation of Maria Theresa to the chair of natural
history in the university of Pavia, which was then being reorgan-
ized. He also became director of the museum, which he greatly
SPAN SPANGENBERG
593
enriched by the collections of his many journeys along the shores
of the Mediterranean. In 1785 he was invited to Padua, but
to retain his services his sovereign doubled his salary and allowed
him leave of absence for a visit to Turkey, where he remained
nearly a year, and made many observations, among which may
be noted those of a copper mine in Chalki and of an iron mine at
Principi. His return home was almost a triumphal progress: at
Vienna he was cordially received by Joseph II., and on reaching
Pavia he was met with acclamations outside the city gates by
the students of the university. During the following year his
students exceeded five hundred. His integrity in the manage-
ment of the museum was called in question, but a judicial investi-
gation speedily cleared his honour, to the satisfaction even of
his accusers. In 1788 he visited Vesuvius and the volcanoes
of the Lipari Islands and Sicily, and embodied the results of his
researches in a large work (Viaggi alle due Sicilie ed in alcune
parti dell' Apennino), published four years later. He died from
an apoplectic seizure on the i2th of February 1799, at Pavia.
His indefatigable exertions as a traveller, his skill and good
fortune as a collector, his brilliance as a teacher and expositor, and
his keenness as a controversialist no doubt aid largely in accounting
for Spallanzani's exceptional fame among his contemporaries; yet
greater qualities were by no means lacking. His life was one of
incessant eager questioning of nature on all sides, and his many
and varied works all bear the stamp of a fresh and original genius,
capable of stating and solving problems in all departments of
science at one time finding the true explanation of " ducks and
drakes " (formerly attributed to the elasticity of water) and at
another helping to lay the foundations of our modern vulcanology
and meteorology. His main discoveries, however, were in the field
of physiology : he wrote valuable and suggestive papers on respira-
tion, on the senses of bats, &c., while he made experiments (1768)
to disprove the occurrence of spontaneous generation, showing in
opposition to J. H. Needham (1713-1781) that animalcules did not
develop in vegetable infusions which had been boiled and were
kept in properly closed vessels. His great work, however, is the
Dissertationi de fisica animale e vegetale (2 vols., 1780). Here he
first interpreted the process of digestion, which he proved to be
no mere mechanical process of trituration, but one of actual solution,
taking place primarily in the stomach, by the action of the gastric
juice. He also carried out important researches on fertilization in
animals (1780).
SPAN (from O. Eng. spannan, to bind, connect together; the
word is of general occurrence in Teutonic languages, the ultimate
origin being the root spa-, to extend, stretch out, cf. Gr. (rirav,
to draw out, Lat. spatium, space), a distance stretched, the
space between terminal points. The word was formerly used
as a measure of length= 10-368 in., taken from the stretch of
the fully opened hand from thumb to little finger. The term
is used in architecture for the width or opening of an arch or
arched opening, and also the width of a roof between the wall
plates. A " span roof " is a roof having two sides inclining to
a centre or ridge, in contradistinction to a " shed roof " (see
SHED).
SPANDAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, at the confluence of the Havel and Spree, 8 m.
N.W. of Berlin, of which it is practically a suburb, on the main
lines of railway to Hanover and Hamburg respectively. Pop.
(1885), 31,463; (1895), SS,8i3; (1905), 70,295 (including a garri-
son of about 5000). The town has of recent years made marked
progress, its trade being enhanced by an excellent railway service
with Berlin and improved navigation on the Havel. The
fortifications, which were strengthened after the war, 1870-71,
for the protection of the arsenal, have been razed on the northern
and eastern sides, and of its former defences none remain except
the citadel and a line of works along a ridge of hills to the south
of the town. The Julius tower in the citadel, which is surrounded
by water, contains the Imperial war treasure (Reichskriegsschatz) ,
a sum of 6,000,000 in gold, kept in readiness for any warlike
emergency, and reserved from the indemnity paid by France
after the war of 1870-71. Spandau contains four Protestant
churches, a Roman Catholic church, a gymnasium and a school
of musketry. Besides numerous barracks, there are various
military establishments appropriate to an important garrison
town; and its chief industries are connected with the prepara-
tion of munitions of war. The government factories for the
manufacture of small arms, artillery, gunpowder, &c., cover
upwards of 200 acres, and employ about 6000 workmen. The
other industries are not very important; they comprise
miscellaneous manufactures, fishing, boat-building, and some
shipping on the Havel.
Spandau is one of the oldest places in the Altmark, and
received civic rights in 1232. It afterwards became a favourite
residence of the Hohenzollern electors of Brandenburg, and
was fortified in 1577-1583. In 1635 it surrendered to the
Swedes, and in 1806 to the French. A short investment in
1813 restored it to Prussia.
See Zech and Giinther, Geschichtliche Beschreibungder Stadt und
Festung Spandau (Spandau, 1847), and Kuntzemiiller, Urkundliche
Geschichte der Stadt und Festung Spandau (Spandau, 1881). '
SPANDRIL, or SPANDREL (formerly splaundrel, a word of
unknown origin), in architecture, the space between any arch
or curved brace and the level label, beams, &c., over the same.
The spandrils over doorways in Perpendicular work are generally
richly decorated. At Magdalen College, Oxford, is one which
is perforated, and has a most beautiful effect. The spandril of
doors is sometimes ornamented in the Decorated period, but
seldom forms part of the composition of the doorway itself,
being generally over the label.
SPANGENBERG, AUGUST GOTTLIEB (1704-1792), Count
Zinzendorf's successor, and bishop of the Moravian Brethren,
was born on the i5th of July 1704 at Klettenberg, on the south
of the Harz Mountains, where his father, Georg Spangenberg,
was court preacher and ecclesiastical inspector of the countship
of Hohenstein. Left an orphan at the early age of thirteen, he
was sent to the gymnasium at Ilefeld, and passed thence (1722),
in poorest circumstances, to the university of Jena to study law.
Professor Johann Franz Buddeus (1667-1729) received him into
his family, and a " stipendium " was procured for him. He soon
abandoned law for theology: took his degree in 1726, and began
to give free lectures on theology. He also took an active part
in a religious union of students, in the support of the free schools
for poor children established by them in the suburbs of Jena,
and in the training of teachers. In 1728 Count Zinzendorf
visited Jena, and Spangenberg made his acquaintance; in 1730
he visited the Moravian colony at Herrnhut. A " collegium
pastorale practicum " for the care of the sick and poor was in
consequence founded by him at Jena, which the authorities
at once broke up as a " Zinzendorfian institution." But
Spangenberg's relations with the Moravians were confirmed by
several visits to the colony, and the accident of an unfavourable
appeal to the lot alone prevented his appointment as chief
elder of the community, March 1733. Meanwhile his free
lectures in Jena met with much acceptance, and led to an
invitation from Gotthilf Francke to the post of assistant pro-
fessor of theology and superintendent of schools connected
with his orphanage at Halle. He accepted the invitation,
and entered on his duties in September 1732. But differences
between the Pietists of Halle and himself soon became apparent.
He found their religious life too formal, external and worldly ;
and they could not sanction his comparative indifference to
doctrinal correctness and his incurable tendency to separatism
in church life. Spangenberg's participation in private observ-
ances of the Lord's Supper and his intimate connexion with
Count Zinzendorf brought matters to a crisis. He was offered
by the senate of the theological faculty of Halle the alternative
of doing penance before God, submitting to his superiors, and
separating himself from Zinzendorf, or leaving the matter to
the decision of the king, unless he preferred to " leave Halle
quietly." The case came before the king, and, on the 8th of
April 1733, Spangenberg was conducted by the military outside
the gates of Halle. At first he went to Jena, but Zinzendorf at
once sought to secure him as a fellow labourer, though the count
wished to obtain from him a declaration which would remove
from the Pietists of Halle all blame with regard to the disruption.
Spangenberg went to Herrnhut and found amongst the Moravians
his life-work, having joined them at a moment when the stability
of the society was threatened. He became its theologian, its
SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR OF 1898
594
apologist, its statesman and corrector, through sixty long years
of incessant labour.
For the first thirty years (1733-1762) his work was mainly
devoted to the superintendence and organization of the extensive
missionary enterprises of the body in Germany, England,
Denmark, Holland, Surinam, Georgia and elsewhere. It was
on an island off Savannah that Spangenberg startled John Wesley
with his questions and profoundly influenced his future career.
One special endeavour of Spangenberg in Pennsylvania was to
bring over the scattered Schwenkfeldians to his faith. In
1741-1742 he was in England collecting for his mission and
obtaining the sanction of the archbishop of Canterbury. During
the second half of this missionary period of his life he super-
intended as bishop the churches of Pennsylvania, defended the
Moravian colonies against the Indians at the time of war between
France and England, became the apologist of his body against
the attacks of the Lutherans and the Pietists, and did much to
moderate the mystical extravagances of Zinzendorf, with which
his simple, practical and healthy nature was out of sympathy.
The second thirty years of his work (1762-1792) were devoted
to the consolidation of the German Moravian Church. Zinzen-
dorf's death (1760) had left room and need for his labours at
home. At Herrnhut there were conflicting tendencies, doctrinal
and practical extravagances, and the organization of the brethren
was very defective. In 1777 Spangenberg was commissioned
to draw up an idea fidei fratrunt, or compendium of the Christian
faith of the United Brethren, which became the accepted
declaration of the Moravian belief. As compared with Zinzen-
dorf's own writings, this book exhibits the finer balance and
greater moderation of Spangenberg's nature, while those offen-
sive descriptions of the relation of the sinner to Christ in which
the Moravians at first indulged are almost absent from it. In his
last years Spangenberg devoted special attention to the education
of the young, in which the Moravians have since been so success-
ful. He died at Berthelsdorf, on the i8th of September 1792.
In addition to the Idea fidei fratrunt, Spangenberg wrote,
besides other apologetic books, a Declaration iiber die seither
gegen uns ausgegangenen Beschuldigungen sonderlich die Person
unseres Ordinarius (Zinzendorf) betrefend (Leipzig, 1751), an
Apologeilsche Schlvssschrift (1752), Leben des Grafen Zinzendorf
(1772-1775); and his hymns are well known beyond the Moravian
circle.
In addition to his autobiography (Selbstbiographie) , see J. Risler,
Leben Spangenbergs (Barby, 1794); K. F. Ledderhose, Das Leben
Spangenbergs (Heidelberg, 1846); Otto Frick, Beitrdge zur Lebens-
geschichte A. G. Spangenbergs (Halle, 1884); Gerhard Reichel's
article in Herzog-Hauck'sRealencyklopadie (ed. 1906), s.v. " Spangen-
berg"; the article by Ledderhose, in the Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie; also MORAVIAN BRETHREN.
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898. For the causes leading
up to the war see CUBA and UNITED STATES: History. On the
iSth of February 1898 the U.S. battleship " Maine," which
had been sent to Havana on the 25th of January, was destroyed
in Havana harbour by an explosion, with a loss of 266 lives.
An American board of inquiry, of which Captain W. T. Sampson
was president, made an extensive examination of the wreck,
and reported to the navy department on the 2ist of March that
the explosion was caused by an exterior mine, the principal
reason for this decision being the upheaval of the ship's bottom. 1
On the 20th of April President McKinley approved a resolution
demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba and setting noon
of the 23rd of April as the latest date for a reply to the demand.
Before this could be delivered by the American minister in
Madrid, the Spanish government sent him his passports. On the
22nd the president declared a blockade of Cuban ports; on
the 24th the Spanish government declared war; and on the
1 The Spanish authorities made an examination, but did not
inspect the interior, the chief diver reporting that " the bilge and
keel of the vessel throughout its entire extent were buried in the
mud, but did not appear to have suffered any damage." It has
been suggested that the explosion was the work of Cuban sym-
pathizers who thus planned to secure American assistance against
Spain. It was not until 1910 that Congress made an appropriation
(and an inadequate one then) for raising'the " Maine."
25th the United States Congress declared that war had existed
since the 2ist.
The American government had begun to prepare for war as
early as January: ships on several foreign stations had been
drawn nearer home, and those hi Chinese waters were collected at
Hong-Kong; the North Atlantic squadron, the only powerful one,
had been sent from Hampton Roads into the waters of Florida
for manoeuvres; after the destruction of the " Maine " the chief
part of the ships in the Atlantic were concentrated at Key West;
the battleship " Oregon " was ordered east from the Pacific;
;o,ooo,ooo was voted (March 9) " for the national defence ";
steps were taken to purchase auxiliary cruisers, yachts and tugs,
which were rapidly equipped; large supplies of ammunition were
ordered, and Key West became an active base of preparation;
Captain Sampson, senior officer of the North Atlantic squadron,
was appointed its commander-in-chief with rank of acting rear-
admiral; and a " flying squadron " composed of the armoured
cruiser " Brooklyn " (flag), the battleships " Texas " and
" Massachusetts," and the fast cruisers " Minneapolis " and
" Columbia," with Commodore W. S. Schley in command, was
stationed at Hampton Roads.
There was a great preponderance of large ships on the side of
the United States; only in torpedo craft and small gunboats was
Spain superior. The American ships were highly efficient; in
Spain everything was unready; Admiral Cervera felt that to
send a Spanish squadron across the Atlantic was to send it to
destruction, and when he had collected his squadron (including
two cruisers from Havana) at the Cape Verde Islands in March,
he renewed his expostulations, in which he was supported by a
council of war. But on the 24th of April he was peremptorily
ordered to leave for Porto Rico, without definite instructions or
plan of campaign.
The American flying squadron was held at Hampton Roads,
so great was the fear of attack by Spanish ships; and armed
auxiliaries and fast cruisers were employed in patrolling the coast
east of New York; these could have rendered good service else-
where, but would have been of no use in repelling an attack by
Cervera 's squadron had it come that way.
The joint resolution of Congress of the 2oth of April had
declared that the relinquishment by Spain of authority in Cuba
was the object of American action; the struggle thus naturally
centred about the island. All operations were thus near at
hand, Havana, the real objective in Cuba, being only about
100 m. from Key West. A political reason for confining action
to the western Atlantic was that an immediate attack upon the
coasts of Spain might have aroused the strongly pro-Spanish
sympathy of continental Europe into greater activity. The
regular United States army, the only available force until war
was declared and a volunteer force was authorized, had been
assembled at Tampa, Florida, New Orleans and Chickamauga,
Georgia, but until the control of the sea was decided, the army
could not prudently be moved across the Strait of Florida.
Cervera's fleet was thus the real objective of the navy, and
had to be settled with before any military action could be
undertaken.
Rear- Admiral Sampson left Key West early on the 22nd, and
began the blockade of Havana and the north coast of Cuba as far
as Cardenas, 80 m. east, and Bahia Honda, 50 m. west. His
North Atlantic squadron of 28 vessels of all kinds, of which the
armoured cruiser " New York " (flag), the battleships " Iowa "
and " Indiana," and the monitors " Puritan," " Terror " and
" Amphitrite," were the most important, and which included six
torpedo-boats, was increased to 124 vessels by the ist of July,
chiefly by the addition of extemporized cruisers, converted
yachts, &c.
In the Pacific, the American squadron the protected cruisers
"Olympia" (flagship of Commodore George Dewey), "Balti-
more," " Raleigh " and " Boston," the small unprotected cruiser
" Concord," the gunboat " Petrel," the armed revenue cutter
" Hugh M'Culloch," with a purchased collier " Nanshan " and
a purchased supply ship " Zafiro "left Hong-Kong at the
request of the governor and went to Mirs Bay, some miles east
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898
595
on the Chinese coast. Ordered (April 25) to begin opera-
tions, particularly against the Spanish fleet, which he was
directed to capture or destroy, Dewey left Mirs Bay on the 27th,
and arrived off Luzon, in the Philippines, on the 3oth of April.
The Spanish admiral Montojo anchored to the eastward of the
spit on which are the village and arsenal of Cavite, in a general
east and west line, keeping his broadside to the northward. His
force consisted of the " Reina Cristina," the " Castilla " (an old
wooden steamer which had to be towed) ; the " Isla de Cuba "
and "Isla de Luzon" (protected cruisers of 1050 tons); the
"Don Juan de Austria" and the "Don Antonio de Ulloa "
(gunboats of about 1150 tons), and the " Marques del Duero "
(of 500 tons). There were six guns (3 breech-loaders) in battery
at or near Cavite.
Dewey stood on during the night, and passed into the Boca
Grande (about 5 m. broad), paying no attention to rumours of
torpedoes in a channel so broad and deep, and at
MaaUa." midnight passed El Fraile (a large rock, 13 m.
from the south side), from which two shots were
fired at him, and he was also fired at by the " Cavite "
and one of the city batteries. When he sighted the Spanish
squadron to the southward he ordered his transports and
the revenue cutter " Hugh M'Culloch " out into the bay, and
stood down in column with the " Olympia," " Baltimore,"
" Raleigh," " Petrel," " Concord " and " Boston " at 4oo-yd.
intervals. When .within 5000 yds. he ported his helm, and at
5.41 a.m. opened fire. He stood westwards along the Spanish
line, using his port batteries, turned to starboard and stood
back, gradually decreasing his distance to 2000 yds. At 7 o'clock
the Spanish flagship attempted to come out and engage at short
range, but was driven back by the American fire. The Spanish
squadron was now in very bad plight, but the seriousness of its
condition was not fully known to the American commander.
At 7.35 Dewey withdrew, gave his men breakfast, and had a
consultation of commanding officers. Before he re-engaged at
ii. 16 the " Cristina " and " Castilla " had broken into flames, so
that the remainder of the action consisted in silencing the Cavite
batteries and completing the destruction and demoralization of
the smaller Spanish ships, which the " Petrel " was ordered in to
burn. The victory was complete. All the Spanish ships 1 were
sunk or destroyed. The injury done the American ships was
practically nil. The Spanish lost 167 killed and 214 wounded,
out of a total of 1875. The Americans had 7 slightly wounded
out of 1748 men in action. Dewey took possession of Cavite,
paroled its garrison, and awaited the arrival of a land force to
capture Manila.
The blockade of Havana had progressed without incident,
beyond the capture of a number of Spanish steamers and sailing
vessels, 2 and the shelling of some new earthworks
Blockade." at Matanzas on the 27th of April; but on the nth of
May a small action was fought at Cardenas, in which
the Americans were repulsed and Ensign Worth Bagley, the first
American officer to lose his life in the war, was killed. On the
same day a partially successful attempt was made, under a heavy
fire from the shore, to cut the cable between Cienfuegos and
Havana.
Cervera had left the Cape Verde Islands on the 20,th of April
with four armoured cruisers, the " Almirante Oquendo," " In-
fanta Maria Theresa " and " Vizcaya " (sister ships of 7000 tons)
and the " Cristobal Colon " (same size; differently equipped) and
three torpedo-boat destroyers a type not then represented in
the American navy" Furor," " Terror " and " Pluton." On
hearing (May i) of Cervera's departure, Sampson went east
1000 m. to San Juan, Porto Rico, with the armoured cruiser
"New York," the battleships "Iowa" and "Indiana," the
cruisers " Montgomery " and " Detroit," and one torpedo-boat.
In going east he calculated on using a speed of 10 knots, on getting
to San Juan on the 8th, about the time the Spaniards would reach
1 Three of the best were afterwards raised and repaired by
American engineers.
The " Buenaventura," the first prize of the war, was taken by
the gunboat " Nashville " off Key West on the 23rd of April.
its longitude, and if they were not there, on returning off Havana
before they could get to Havana harbour. He wished to prevent
Cervera's refitting at San Juan, from which place the American
coast would be within easy reach, New York being only about
1400 m. away. But the speed of the American squadron fell short
of Sampson's expectation; he reached San Juan on the i2th, stood
in to see if Cervera was in the harbour, and opened fire upon
the fortifications. He did not press the attack since Cervera was
not present, and at once started back for Havana without news
of Cervera, who was then in fact off Martinique, with orders to
go to San Juan. When he heard that Sampson was at San Juan,
he steamed to Curacao, where he arrived on the i4th of May and
where the authorities allowed him to coal. He reached Santiago de
Cuba early on the igth without being sighted en route by any of the
American scouts, though several were in the vicinity. Sampson
thought the Spanish squadron might have returned to Spain. 3
But he learned that the enemy had not turned back, on the night
of the isth, when a telegram from the navy department directed
him to proceed with all despatch to Key West. He got there
on the afternoon of the i8th, and found the flying The Search
squadron ("Brooklyn" (flag), " Massachusetts," for Cervera's
" Texas," and " Scorpion "), which left on the next Squadron.
morning (igth) for Cienfuegos, then regarded by the -navy
department as the certain objective of the Spanish squadron.
The battleship " Iowa," the gunboat " Castine," the torpedo-
boat " Dupont " and the collier " Merrimac " ' sailed to join
Schley on the 2oth, and gave him a force sufficient to meet
Cervera. Sampson was advised by the department (on the 2oth)
to " send by the ' Iowa ' to Schley to proceed off Santiago de
Cuba with his whole command, leaving one small vessel off
Cienfuegos," but he directed Schley in an order of the 2ist if he
was satisfied that Cervera was not at Cienfuegos, to proceed with
all despatch to Santiago, and if the Spanish squadron was there,
to blockade it.
Commodore Schley arrived off Cienfuegos on the 22nd, and
held to the opinion that Cervera was there until the 24th, when
Commodore M'Calla of the " Marblehead " communicated with
the insurgents some miles westwards, and learned the truth.
Schley started that evening for Santiago, 300 m. distant, but
on the afternoon of the 26th was 20 m. south of the port. Early
on the 27th Schley received a despatch from the navy depart-
ment suggesting that the Spanish squadron was in Santiago and
bidding him see " that the enemy, if therein, does not leave
without a decisive action." Schley replied "... cannot remain
off Santiago present state squadron coal account . . . much to
be regretted cannot obey orders of department. . . forced to
proceed for coal to Key West by way of Yucatan Passage ";
in the controversy that arose out of these events Schley's critics
insisted that the " Iowa " and the " Massachusetts " had at this
time enough coal to carry them three times the distance from
Santiago to Key West.
Sampson with the " New York " had arrived early on the
28th of May off Key West. When Schley's telegram, which
had much disturbed the Washington officials, was forwarded to
Sampson, he secured permission to go at once to Santiago with
the " New York " and " Oregon " (which had arrived at Key
West on the 26th of May in excellent condition after her voyage
of nearly 16,000 m. from the Pacific) to turn back Schley's heavier
ships. Before he started he received a telegram from Schley
stating that he would remain off Santiago. It is now known
from the documents published by Admiral Cervera that the
Spanish squadron, in the interval preceding the ?8th, when
Schley arrived in sight of the port, was on the point of leaving
Santiago. On the morning of the 2Qth two Spanish cruisers
were seen a short distance within the entrance, and on the 3ist
Schley, with the " Massachusetts," " Iowa " and " New Orleans,"
stood in and made an attack upon these and the batteries at long
range (8500-11,000 yds.). On the 3oth Sampson, leaving a
squadron on the north side under Commodore Watson, stood for
3 A telegram (not received by Cervera) had been sent to
Martinique on the izth of May, authorizing the squadron's
return.
59 6
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898
Santiago at a speed of 13 knots. He arrived early on the ist of
June and work was at once begun on the preparations for sinking
the collier " Merrimac " in the entrance channel, which was less
than 200 ft. broad in parts available for ships. The preparations
for a quick sinking were chiefly carried out by naval constructor
Richmond P. Hobson, who went in, in the early morning of the
3rd of June, with a crew of seven men. The steering-gear was
disabled by a shell, and the ship drifted too far with the tide
and was sunk in a broad part of the channel where it did not
block the egress of Cervera's squadron. Cervera sent word to
Sampson that Hobson and his men, who had been captured, were
unhurt. They were exchanged on the 7th of July.
On the 6th of June the batteries at the entrance were bom-
barded and their weakness was ascertained. Sampson there-
The United u P on placed, every evening, a battleship (relieved
states Fleet every two and a half hours) close in, with a search-
before light turned on the channel, making it impossible, as
Santiago, Cervera afterwards said, for the Spanish squadron
to escape by night. The port of Guantanamo, 40 m. east of
Santiago, was occupied by the " Marblehead " and " Yankee "
on the 7th, a battalion of marines from the transport " Panther "
landed there on the loth, and the port was used thereafter as a
base-and coaling station. On the i4th the Spanish land forces
retired before an expedition of the American marines, who
remained in occupation until the 5th of August.
A blockade of San Juan, Porto Rico, by one or two fast ships
was kept up on account of the presence there of the destroyer
" Terror," but this vessel, coming out (June 22) with a gun-
boat to attack the auxiliary cruiser " St Paul," suffered so
severely that she could hardly return to port, and was thereafter
unserviceable.
When war was declared the total military forces of the United
States consisted of 27,822 regulars and 114,602 militia. An act
of the 22nd of April had authorized the president to call upon the
states and Territories for men in proportion to their population,
the regimental and company officers to be named by the governors
of the states, the general and staff officers by the president. A
first call was made for 125,000 men, and a month later a second
call for 75,000. On the 26th of April large additions to the
regular army were sanctioned for the war. The quotas were
filled with extraordinary rapidity, and in May 124,776 had
volunteered. The troops were concentrated chiefly at Chicka-
mauga, Georgia, at Camp Alger, Virginia, and at Tampa, Florida,
Preparations which was selected as the point for the embarcation
tor a Land o f tjj e expeditionary force for Cuba, and where
Campaign. Major-General W. R. Shafter was in command.
With the exception of unimportant small expeditions, every-
thing was delayed until control of the sea was assured, though
some thirty large steamers were held in readiness near Tampa.
After the arrival of Cervera at Santiago, the blockade of his
squadron and the request (June 7) of Admiral Sampson
to send a land force for co-operation, the troops embarked on
the 7th and 8th of June, but a start was not made until the i4th,
owing to a false report that Spanish war-ships were in Nicholas
Channel. On the 2pth the fleet of 32 transports, under convoy,
arrived off Santiago. The whole force consisted of about 17,000
officers and men, 16 light field-guns, a train of heavier pieces,
and some 200 vehicles. General Shafter selected Daiquiri,
about 18 m. east of Santiago, for the point of landing, and the
harbour entrance (preferred by Sampson) was disregarded. The
fleet furnished all its available boats, and on the 22nd-25th the
army was landed on a rough coast with scarcely any shelter from
the sea; after the first day Siboney, 7 m. nearer Santiago, was
used as well as Daiquiri. With the exception of three volunteer
regiments (the ist Volunteer Cavalry, known as the Rough Riders,
of which Theodore Roosevelt was lieutenant-colonel; the 2nd
Massachusetts and the 7 ist New York Volunteers), these troops
were composed almost wholly of regulars, most of whom had
served on the plains against the Indians. Soon afterwards more
volunteers arrived.
No opposition was made to the landing and the small Spanish
contingents at Daiquiri and Siboney were withdrawn without doing
any damage to the equipment of the railway which ran from
Santiago to the iron mines at these points. The American troops
(commanded by Major-General Joseph Wheeler until the zgth,
when General Shafter landed) pushed forward, a soon as they
landed, and found a small Spanish rearguard which was covering
the concentration of outlying detachments on Santiago and which
was entrenched i\ m. beyond Siboney, at Las Guasimas. Briga-
dier-General S.B.M. Young with 964 dismounted cavalry engaged
(June 24), and after a sharp action, in which he lost 16 killed
and 52 wounded, drove back the enemy, of whom n were killed
out of some 500 engaged. The advance was slow and a week
elapsed before Shafter was ready to fight a battle in front of
Santiago. Here the defenders, under General Arsenic Linares,
held two positions, the hill of San Juan, barring the direct road
to Santiago, and the village of El Caney, to the northward of the
American position at El Pozo. The plan of attack on the ist of
July was Shafter's, but owing to the illness of Shafter the actual
command was exercised by the subordinate generals, Joseph
Wheeler, H. W. Lawton and J. F. Kent. General Lawton's
division was to attack and capture El Caney, and thence move
against the flank and rear of the defenders of San Juan, which
would then be attacked in front by Kent and Wheeler from El
Pozo. But Lawton for nine hours was checked by the garrison
of El Caney, in spite of his great superiority in numbers (4500 to
520); at 3 p.m. the final assault on El Caney was successfully
delivered by General A. R. Chaffee's brigade. Only about 100
of the Spanish garrison escaped to Santiago; about 320 were
killed or wounded, including General Vara del Rey, who, with a
brother and two sons, was killed. In the meantime Wheeler
and Kent had an equally stubborn contest opposite San Juan hill,
where, in the absence of the assistance of Lawton, the battle soon
became a purely frontal-fire fight, and the rifles of the firing line
had to prepare the attack unaided. The strong position of the
Spaniards, gallantly defended by about 700 men, held out until
12.30, when the whole line of the assailants suddenly advanced,
without orders from or direction by superior authority, and
carried the crest of the Spanish position. A notable part in the
attack was taken by the ist Volunteer Cavalry or " Rough
Riders," commanded by Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieut.-Colonel
Theodore Roosevelt. The Spaniards had no closed reserves, and
their retreat was made under a devastating fire from the Ameri-
cans on the captured hills. On the American side over 1500
men out of 15,000 engaged, including several of the senior
officers, were killed or wounded; and in one of Kent's brigades
three successive commanders were killed or wounded. On the
Spanish side, out of the small numbers engaged, over 50% were
out of action. Linares himself was severely wounded, and
handed over the command to General Jose Toral. The Cubans
on the American right failed to prevent General Escario from
entering Santiago with reinforcements from the interior, and
at the beginning of the investment General Toral's forces
numbered about 10,000 men of the army and a naval contingent
from the fleet.
Though victorious, the American army was in danger: after
great fatigue under a tropical sun by day, the time spared at
night from digging trenches was spent on a rain- i aves tmeat
soaked ground covered with thick vegetation; the of Santiago
soldiers' blankets and heavy clothing had been cast on the Land
aside in the attack; and there was insufficient food, Slde '
because it was difficult to haul supplies over the one poor road
from the base of supplies at Siboney. There was even discussion
of retiring to a point nearer Siboney. Brisk firing was continued
on the 2nd and 3rd of July, with a considerable number of
casualties to the Americans. On the morning of the 3rd a demand
was sent to the Spanish commander to surrender, with the alter-
native of a bombardment of the city to begin on the 4th. This
in effect had already begun on the ist, when Admiral Sampson
fired a number of 8-in. shells fron^a point 3 m. east of the harbour
entrance over the hills into the city, using a range of about 45
land miles. The result of this and the threat of General Shafter
was an exodus of many thousands of civilians towards El Caney,
where the American supplies were heavily taxed to support them.
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898
On the morning of the 3rd of July Sampson, in his flagship the
" New York," left the fleet to confer with General Shafter at
Naval Siboney with regard to combined operations at the
Battle of harbour entrance. 1 At 9.31, when he had gone about
Santiago. 5 m., the "Maria Teresa" was seen coming out. The
ships in front of the port were the yacht " Gloucester," the battle-
ships " Indiana,"" Oregon," "Iowa," and "Texas," the armoured
cruiser " Brooklyn " and yacht " Vixen," in the order named
from east to west, making a semicircle about 8 m. in length.
The " Massachusetts " and " Suwanee " were coaling at Guan-
tanamo. The " Iowa " hoisted the signal " Enemy coming
out." All at once stood in toward the Spanish ships, which were
standing westwards along shore, and began a heavy fire. The
" Maria Teresa " (flagship) was followed at 8oo-yd. intervals
by the " Vizcaya," " Colon " and " Oquendo." They were
firing vigorously, but most of their projectiles went far beyond
the American ships. The " Brooklyn " (flag of Commodore
Schley, the senior officer present) made a turn to starboard,
which seems to have caused the " Texas " to stop and back, and
to have given the " Colon " the opportunity of passing almost
unscathed. The " Maria Teresa " and " Oquendo " had taken
fire almost at once, and, as their water mains (outside the protec-
tive deck) were cut, they were unable to extinguish the flames:
they were run ashore at 10.15 an d 10.20 respectively, about
6j m. west of Santiago, burning fiercely. The " Vizcaya " and
" Colon " were still standing westwards. Cervera's destroyers,
the " Pluton " and " Furor," had come out last, some distance
behind the " Oquendo," and were received with a heavy fire
from the " Indiana " and from the unarmoured " Gloucester,"
which engaged them at close quarters. They attempted to
close, but were cut to pieces. The " New York," Sampson's
flagship, had passed, and stood on signalling the " Iowa " and
" Indiana " to go back and watch the port, lest an attack be
made on the American transports. The torpedo-boat " Erics-
son " was ordered to rescue the men from the two Spanish
ships ashore, and the flagship, with all the others, stood on in
pursuit of the " Vizcaya " and " Colon." The " Vizcaya "
hauled down her colours off Aserraderos, 15 nautical miles west
of Santiago, and was there run ashore burning about 11.15 a - m -
The " Iowa " was ordered to stop and rescue her men. and the
" Oregon," " Brooklyn " and " Texas " (and behind them the
flagship) settled down to the chase of the " Colon," some 6 m.
ahead of the nearest American ship. She was, however, slacking
her speed, and at 12.40 the " Oregon " opened with her i3-in.
guns at a range of 9000 yds., as did also the " Brooklyn," with
her 8-in. When the " Oregon " had fired five shells, the
" Colon " hauled down her colours, and was beached at the mouth
of the Rio Turquino, where in spite of endeavours to recover
her, she became a total wreck. The whole Spanish fleet was
destroyed; Admiral Cervera was taken prisoner; Captain Villamil,
commanding the torpedo flotilla, went down with his ship; and
Captain Lazaga of the " Oquendo " was drowned. Over 500
Spaniards were killed or wounded, and the survivors (except a
few who escaped to Santiago) were prisoners. On the American
side only one man was killed and ten were wounded, and no
ship received serious injury.
After the naval victory combined operations were arranged
for attacking the batteries of the harbour, but little more
fighting occurred, and eventually a preliminary agreement was
signed on the i5th, and the besiegers entered Santiago on the
1 7th. In accordance with the terms of the capitulation, all the
Spanish forces in the division of Santiago de Cuba surrendered
and were conveyed to Spain. The total number amounted to
about 23,500, of whom some 10,500 were in the city of Santiago.
The exposure of the campaign had begun to tell in the sickness
of the Americans: yellow fever had broken out to some extent;
and no less that 50% were attacked by the milder forms of
1 Shafter had urged that the squadron should enter the harbour
and take the city. Sampson (and the Navy department) was
unwilling to risk losing a ship in the well-mined harbour and wanted
the army to move on the forts and give the American squadron
an opportunity to drag the harbour for mines.
597
malarial fever. The army, indeed, was so weakened by illness
that the general officers united in urging its removal from Cuba.
Major-General Nelson A. Miles, the general-in-chief , had arrived
with reinforcements on the i2th of July, but the majority of
these men were retained on board ship.
The fleet and the army gathered in Guantanamo Bay; and a
new flying squadron, the " eastern squadron," was organized
under Commodore John C. Watson, to proceed by way of the
Mediterranean to the Philippines, threatening the Spanish
coast, in order to meet a Spanish " reserve squadron," which
had been formed towards the end of May, and which was to
be sent on to the eastern coast of the United States, and thence
to Cuba, but which was diverted toward the Philippines, and left
Cadiz, on the i6th of June, for the East. This squadron turned
back on the 8th of July after hearing the news of the Spanish
defeat at Santiago.
On the 7th of May a telegram had been received from Dewey
at Manila: " I control bay completely, and can take city at any
time, but I have not sufficient men to hold." The cruiser
" Charleston " and the steamer " Peking," with ammunition,
supplies and troops, were sent to him at once. Major-General
Wesley Merritt, to whom was assigned the command of the
troops for the Philippines, first requested a force of 14,000, and
afterwards asked for 20,000 men. On the 25th of May the first
troops, 2491 in number, under Brigadier-General T. M. Anderson,
sailed in three transports from San Francisco, touched at Hono-
lulu, and were convoyed thence by the " Charleston." On the
2oth of June possession was taken of the island of Guam, and
on the 3oth of June the ships arrived in Manila Bay. A second
detachment of troops, 3586 in number, under Brigadier-General
F. V. Greene arrived on the I7th of July; on the 25th of July
General Merritt, who had been appointed governor-general,
arrived; and on the 3ist the five transports with which he had
left San Francisco arrived with 4847 men, making nearly 11,000
men at Manila, with 5000 more on the way. General Merritt
moved his forces from Cavite, and established an entrenched
line within a thousand yards of the Spanish position at Manila,
from which, on the night of the 3ist of July, a heavy fire of
musketry and artillery was opened, causing a loss to the
Americans of 10 killed and 43 wounded, and for the next few
days night-firing was frequent from the Spanish lines. On the
7th of August, a joint note from Dewey and Merritt, announcing
that bombardment might begin at any time after
, . , , , , ft 1. f ^1 Capture of
forty-eight hours, and affording opportunity for the Manila
removal of non-combatants, was sent to the Spanish
captain-general, Fermin Jaudenes, who replied that he was
surrounded by the insurgents, 2 and that there was no place of
refuge for the sick and for the women and children. A second
joint note demanding surrender was declined by the Spanish
commander, who offered to refer it to Madrid. This was refused,
and preparations were made for an attack. There were 13,000
troops within the city fortifications, but with the strong fleet in
front, and with the beleaguering force of Americans and insur-
gents ashore, resistance was hopeless. When the combined
assault of army and navy was made on the I3th there was no
great resistance, and a white flag was hoisted at n o'clock,
within one and a half hours after the fleet opened fire, a formal
capitulation being signed the next day, the I4th of August.
The total loss of the Americans during the whole campaign
was 20 killed, 105 wounded.
Immediately after the surrender of Santiago (July 17),
preparations were made for the invasion of Porto Rico with
3500 troops which had been sent as reinforcements Operations
to Santiago, but had not landed. They were largely I" Porto
reinforced and left Guantanamo, under General Klco -
Miles, on the 2ist of July, convoyed by a strong squadron.
2 On the igth of May, Emilio Aguinaldo, who had been at Hong-
Kong, had landed from one of the American vessels at Cavite, and
on the 1st of July, when the American troops landed, had proclaimed
himself president of the Philippine Republic. The political attitude
which he assumed was not sanctioned by the American authorities.
At the head of the insurgents he had instituted a close siege of
Manila.
59 8
SPANISH BROOM SPANISH REFORMED CHURCH
Fajardo, at the extreme north-eastern end of the island, was
given out as the objective point of the expedition, but after
sailing the plans were changed, and the towns on the south side
were occupied, practically without resistance. The attitude of
the population was exceedingly friendly, and opposition was not
met until advance was begun northward. The troops were
divided into four columns, advancing from Guanica around the
western end of the island to Mayaguez: from Arroyo at the eastern
end to meet the San Juan road at Cayey; from Ponce by the
fine military road, 70 m., to San Juan; and the fourth column
by way of Adjuntas and Utuado, midway of the island. The
various movements involved several skirmishes, the chief op-
position being met by the western column on the icth of August,
and by the column from Ponce on the gih, when the Americans
lost i killed and 2 2 wounded ; the Spanish, 126 killed and wounded,
and over 200 prisoners. A further advance on the San Juan
highway would probably have developed greater resistance, but
news of the suspension of hostilities intervened. The total
American loss had been 3 killed and 40 wounded. On the
1 2th of August operations were begun by the " Newark " and
other vessels against Manzanillo. But during the night news
arrived of the signing of the peace protocol on the I2th, and
of an armistice, of which the Americans were informed by the
Spanish commander under a flag of truce.
The total American loss was in the navy, i officer, 17 men
killed; in the army, 29 officers, 440 men. The health of the
American fleet was kept remarkably. Its average
strength during the "4 days of hostilities was
26,102; the deaths from disease during this time
were 56, or at the rate of 7 per 1000 per year. As nearly the
whole of the service was in the tropics, and in the summer or
wet season, this is a convincing proof of the efficiency in sani-
tary administration. The army did not fare so well, losing by
disease during May, June, July and August, 67 officers and 1872
men out of an average total of 227,494. Its larger proportion of
illness must of course be ascribed, in part, to its greater hardships.
The war department was accused of gross maladministration;
but the charges were not upheld by an investigating committee.
The lack of proper preparation by the war department and the
ignorance and thoughtlessness of the volunteers were the
principal reasons for the high death-rate in the army.
For the terms of the peace and the results of the war see
UNITED STATES; PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; CUBA; PORTO Rico.
The literature of the Spanish-American War is voluminous:
amongst the principal sources of information may be mentioned;
The annual reports of various departments for 1898, especially
the War Notes of the Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington,
which include Spanish translations, and the appendix to the report
of the Bureau of Navigation; R. H. Titherington, A History of the
Spanish-American War (New York, 1900); H. C. Lodge, Story of
the Spanish War (New York, 1899); H. W. Wilson, The Downfall
of Spain (London, 1900) ; W. A. M. Goode, With Sampson through
the War (London, 1899); J. Wheeler, Santiago Campaign (Phila-
delphia, 1899); Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (New York,
1899); C. D. Sigsbee, Personal Narratives of the Battleship Maine
(New York, 1899); R. A. Alger, Spanish-American War (New
York, 1900); Gomez Nunez, La Guerra hispano-americana
(Madrid, 1900); H. Kunz, Taktische Beispiele aus den Kriegen der
Neuesten Zeit II. (Berlin, 1901); Admiral Pliiddemann, Der Krieg
um Cuba 1898 (Berlin) ; John D. Long, The New American Navy
(2. vols., New York, 1903) ; John R. Spears, Our Navy in the War
with Spain (ibid., 1898); Bujac, Precis de quelques campagnes con-
teinporaines, IV. (Paris, 1899) ; and the Century and Scribner's
magazines for 1898 and 1899 passim.
SPANISH BROOM, a handsome shrub with long switch-like
green few-leaved or leafless branches and large yellow sweet-
scented papilionaceous flowers. It is a member of the Pea
family (Leguminosae), and known botanically as Spartium
junceum. It is a native of the Mediterranean region and the
Canary Islands, and is often cultivated. The whole plant, but
especially the flower shoots and seeds (herba et semen genistae
hispanicae veljunceae), have a bitter taste and tonic and diuretic
properties, and were formerly used medicinally. The fibres
of the young stems were used in making nets, carpets, mats,
baskets, &c.
SPANISH REFORMED CHURCH (Iglesia espanola refor-
mada), a small community of Protestants in Spain organized
on the model of the Anglican Church. This body of Spanish
Episcopalians had its origin in a congregation which met for the
first time, in June 1871, in the secularized church of San Basilio
at Seville, under the leadership of Francisco Palomares, a priest
who had left the Roman communion. Before long it was joined
by numbers of lay people and several clergymen, including
Juan Cabrera, an ex-Roman priest, who had for some time been a
Presbyterian minister. In July 1878 a memorial was presented
to the Lambeth Conference by nine congregations in Spain
and Portugal (see below) asking for the episcopate. The reply
expressed the sympathy of the bishops, but only suggested that
Dr Riley,recently consecrated by the Protestant Episcopal Church
of the United States to minister to the reformed congregations
in Mexico, should be invited to visit them and ordain and confirm
for them. Archbishop Tait wrote a formal letter to Bishop
Riley to this effect, and the request was complied with. A second
petition for the episcopate was sent to the Irish bishops in 1879,
and early in 1881, at their request, Lord Plunket paid his first
visit to the Spanish Reformed Church, though nothing immedi-
ately resulted from it. In 1880 the first " synod-"' of the Church
was held, under the presidency of Bishop Riley; the principles
of the Church were laid down, Senor Cabrera was chosen bishop-
elect, the preparation of a liturgy was begun, and the Thirty-
nine Articles of Religion of the Church cf England, with certain
modifications, were formally adopted as a standard of doctrine.
Archbishop Plunket continued his efforts on their behalf; and
at length the Irish bishops, having again received from
them a petition for a bishop, brought the matter before the
Lambeth Conference of 1888. The conference deprecated
" any action that does not regard primitive and established
principles of jurisdiction and the interests of the whole Anglican
communion." The archbishop interpreted this as a modified
consent; but the Irish bishops understood it otherwise, and again
declined to consecrate a bishop for them. Meanwhile the
movement prospered, being largely helped with money from
friends in England. The foundation-stone of a new church was
laid in Madrid in 1891, on the site of the Quemadero, where the
autos de fe were formerly held ; and after considerable legal and
other difficulties, religious toleration in Spain being still imper-
fect, it was dedicated and opened for service. At length, at the
meeting of the Irish House of Bishops on the 2ist of February
1894, a letter was read from the archbishop of Dublin and the
bishops of Clogher (C. M. Stack) and Down (C. Welland), in
which they declared their intention, unless a formal protest were
made by the bishops, or by the general synod, to consecrate
bishops for the Reformed churches in Spain and Portugal,
subject to certain conditions being fulfilled by those churches.
The bishops resolved, nemine contradicente, although the bishops
of Derry (W. Alexander, subsequently primate of Armagh) and
Cork did not vote, that they would not regard such action as
" an indefensible exercise of the powers entrusted to the episco-
pate "; and the general synod passed a resolution leaving the
matter in the hands of the bishops. Accordingly, on the 23rd of
September 1894, the three bishops laid hands on Senor Cabrera.
The matter occasioned no little stir in the English Church, more
especially as the Old Catholic bishops (see OLD CATHOLICS) had
recently refused to take any part in the matter. It called forth a
letter of protest and repudiation from Lord Halifax, as president
of the English Church Union, to Cardinal Monescillo, archbishop
of Toledo; and this in turn evoked a letter from Cardinal
Vaughan, which was widely circulated in Spain.
The consecration of Bishop Cabrera certainly produced, from
the point of view of Anglican churchmen, a somewhat anomalous
state of things, and the action, or inaction, of the Irish bishops
laid them open to criticism from many who were not unfriendly
to such movements (see e.g. Bishop John Wordsworth, Ministry
of Grace, pp. 176-177, London, 1901). Objection was made to
the act as contrary to church order, and as unjustifiable in view
of the nature of the Spanish Reformed Church itself. As regards
the latter, it is true that the Prayer-book of the body (first
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
599
made in 1881 and published in a revised form ; n 1889) cannot
really justify the claim made on its behalf as a " revised Mozarabic
rite": it contains indeed many beautiful prayers from the
Mozarabic and other offices, but its doctrinal teaching is more
unambiguously " Protestant " than that of the English Prayer-
book. The Church possessed in 1906 ten congregations with
some dozen clergy.
Lusitanian Church. A similar movement began in Lisbon
in 1867, owing to the work of a Spanish priest there, Sefior Mora;
and at first its success was even greater than the movement
in Spain, in spite of the fact that Portuguese priests who left
the Roman communion had either to leave Portugal or to become
subjects of another power. In 1875 the adherents of this move-
ment threw in their lot with their Spanish brethren, and when
Bishop Riley visited them in 1878 the Portuguese members
organized themselves as the " Lusitanian Church," and the
Rev. T. Godfrey Pope, D.D. (d. 1902), the English chaplain at
Lisbon, was subsequently chosen by them as president of the
synod. A request made to the Irish bishops in 1897 for the
consecration of Canon Pope as their bishop led to an examination
of the Lusitanian Prayer-book, which was found to be even more
defective from the Anglican point of view than that of the Spanish
Reformed Church. Consequently no action was taken. In
1 906 the Church had only some 500 adherents with five clergy.
AUTHORITIES. H. E. Noyes, Church Reform in Spain and Portugal
(London, 1897) ; F. D. How.Life of ArchbishopPlunket(London,igoo) ;
A. C. Benson, Life of Archbishop Benson, vol. ii. (London, 1899);
Officios divinos, &c. en la iglesia espanola reformada (Madrid,
1898; Eng. trans., Dublin, 1889; new ed., 1894); Divine Offices and
other Formularies of the Reformed Episcopal Churches of Spain and
Portugal (London, 1882); Church Quarterly Review, xxxviii. 283
(July 1894), art. "The Proposed Episcopate for Spanish Protestants."
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE, the name given to
the general European war which began in 1701 and ended with
the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt in 1713-14. The war in
its ensemble is the typical " war with limited aim," carried out
by professional armies in the interests of sovereigns and their
cabinets and (except in the last stages of the war in northern
France) enlisting no more than the platonic sympathies of the
various peoples whose rulers were at war. Nevertheless, its
monotonous round of marches and sieges is now and then
quickened by the genius of three great soldiers, Marlborough,
Eugene and Villars, and Peterborough and Galway, Catinat
and Vendome, though less highly gifted, were men of unusual
and conspicuous ability. As usual in these wars, manoeuvres,
threats and feints played the principal part in field warfare.
The soldiers of those days were too costly to be squandered on
indecisive battles, and few generals of the time either knew
how to make a battle a means of definitively settling the quarrel
or had the influence and force of character to extort from their
sovereigns permission to play for high stakes. The tangible
assets, at the conclusion of peace, were fortresses and provinces;
and the effective seizure of fortresses and provinces, " here
a little, there a little," was in most cases the principal object
with which kings and princes made war. Nevertheless, at the
time of the Spanish Succession War the generals had not yet
wholly reconciled themselves to their new position of superior
chess-players. Moreover, the object of the war, at least in the
case of England and Holland, was less to add a few cities and
districts to their own domains than to cripple the power of
Louis XIV. The ambition of the Graiul Monarqiie had stepped
beyond these narrow limits, and by placing on the throne of
Spain his grandson Philip he had brought into politics the fear
not merely of a disturbance but of an entire overthrow of the
" balance of power." Thus the instrument of his ambition,
his magnificent army, was (above all for England) an object in
itself and not merely an obstacle to the attainment of other
objects. Many of the allies, however, had good reason to fear
for their own possessions, and others entered the alliance with
at least the hope of acquiring a few material gains at small
expense. On the side of the allies therefore, throughout the
war, there was a perpetual struggle between offensive activity
and defensive passivity, and within the category of " activity "
two very different forms of offensive alternately prevailed, the
decision of the main question by the sword and the seizure of a
minor object by stratagem. Were it not for the existence of
this struggle, indeed, the war would be devoid of interest. Later
in the i8th century there was, as a rule, no such struggle, for
the grander form of offensive died out completely, and the
feebler form was easily reconciled with the requirements of
passive defence. But in 1700 the true spirit of war in a leader
of the greatness of Marlborough at least was not yet entirely
smothered by chicane.
The action of Louis XIV. in the matter of the Spanish succes-
sion was foreseen, and William III. of England had devoted his
last years to providing against the emergency by the formation
of a coalition to deal with it, and the production of "a claimant
for the Spanish throne, the archduke Charles. The coalition
naturally grew out of the Grand Alliance (see GRAND ALLIANCE,
WAR OF THE), and consisted of Austria, some of the German
states, Great Britain, Holland, Denmark and Portugal. On
the other side Louis XIV. was supported by Spain where Philip,
.recognized as heir by the dying Charles II., had been promptly
installed Bavaria and Cologne. A doubtful ally was the duke
of Savoy, whose policy was to secure and aggrandise himself by
adhering at each moment to the stronger party. The alliance
of Louis with the discontented prince of Hungary and Transyl-
vania Rakocsy was rather an impediment to his enemy than a
direct assistance to himself.
The war began, to all intents and purposes, with the handing
over of the fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands to the French
in March 1701. England and Holland at once began their
preparations, but neither state was able to put an army in the
field in the year England because her peace-time army was
absolutely insignificant, and HoDand because she dared not act
alone. In Italy, however, the emperor took the initiative,
and an Austrian army under Prince Eugene, intended to overrun
the Spanish possessions in the Peninsula, assembled in Tirol
in the early summer, while the opposing army (French, Spaniards
and Piedmontese) , commanded by Marshal Catinat, was slowly
drawing together between the Chiese and the Adige. But
supply difficulties hampered Eugene, and the French were able
to occupy the strong positions of the Rivoli defile above Verona.
There Catinat thought himself secure, as all the country to the
east was Venetian and neutral. But Eugene, while making
ostentatious preparations to enter Italy by the Adige or Lake
Garda or the Biescia road, secretly reconnoitred passages oventhe
mountains between Roveredo and the Vicenza district. On the
27th of May, taking infinite precautions as to secrecy,
and requesting the Venetian authorities to off
no opposition so long as his troops behaved well,
Eugene began his march by paths that no army had used since
Charles V.'s time, and on the 28th his army was on the plains.
His first object was to cross the Adige without fighting, and also
by ravaging the duke of Mantua's private estates (sparing the
possessions of the common people) to induce that prince to change
sides. Catinat was completely surprised, for he had counted upon
Venetian neutrality, and when in the search for a passage over
the lower Adige, Eugene's army spread to Legnago and beyond,
he made the mistake of supposing that the Austrians intended
to invade the Spanish possessions south of the Po. His first
dispositions had, of course, been for the defence of the Rivoli ap-
proaches, but he now thinned out his line until it reached to the
Po, and after five weeks' cautious manoeuvring on both sides,
Eugene found an unguarded spot. With the usual precautions
of secrecy (deceiving even his own army), he crossed the lower
Adige in the night of the Sth-gth of July, and overpowered the
small cavalry corps that alone was encountered at Carpi (July 9).
Catinat at once concentrated his scattered army backwards on
the Mincio, while Eugene turned northward and regained touch
with his old line of supply, Roveredo-Rivoli. For some time
Eugene was in great difficulties for supplies, as the Venetians
would not allow his barges to descend the Adige. At last,
however, he made his preparations to cross the Mincio close to
Peschiera and well beyond Catinat's left, with the intention
6oo
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
of finding a new supply area about Brescia. This was executed
on the 28th of July, Catinat's cavalry, though coming within
sight of Eugene's bridges, offering no opposition. It seems that
the marshal was well content to find that his opponent had no
intention of attacking the Spanish possessions in the Peninsula,
at any rate Catinat fell back quietly to the Oglio. But his army
resented his retreat before the much smaller force of the Austrians
and, early in August, his rival Tesse reported this to Paris, where-
upon Marshal Villeroy, a favourite of Louis, was sent to take com-
mand. The new commander was perhaps the least competent of
all the French senior officers, and ere long he attacked Eugene in a
well entrenched position at Chiari (Sept. i), and was thoroughly
defeated, with a loss, it is said, of 3000 to the Austrians' 150.
Both armies then stood fast until the exhaustion of supplies
compelled them to move, when Villeroy retreated to the Adda.
Both Villeroy and Catinat (who had remained with him as second-
in-command), warned the king of the duplicity of the duke of
Savoy, who, for all the reckless bravery that he had displayed
in attempting to storm his cousin's entrenchments, was in reality
already intending to change sides.
As yet there was no declaration of war by either party.
Preparations were made by both sides during the year, most
vigorously of all by Louis, who set on foot no less than 450,000
regulars and embodied militia, and had always prided himself
on being first in the field. But the debut was disheartening, and
in the winter a fresh mishap befell the French. Eugene, who
had taken up his winter quarters in such a way as to play upon
Villeroy's fears of an invasion of Naples, surprised Cremona on
the night of the ist of February 1702, and, after a confused fight,
drew off, taking with him Villeroy as a prisoner. The brave
but incapable marshal was however little loss, and the French
troops, many of them surprised in their beds, had yet managed
to expel Eugene's men. The rest of the French army, instead
of marching to the guns in the igth-century manner, retreated
in the iSth-century manner, while Eugene quietly resumed his
winter quarters and his blockade of Mantua.
With the year 1702 the real struggle began. Villars and one
or two others of Louis's best counsellors urged the king to
concentrate his attention on the Rhine and the Danube, where,
they pointed out, was the centre of gravity of the coalition.
This advice was disregarded, and with political aims, which it is
hard to imagine, the largest French army was employed on the
side of the Meuse, while the Rhine front was entrusted to smaller
forces acting on the defensive. In Italy the balance of power
remained unchanged, except that one of Louis's best generals,
Vend5me, was sent to replace the captured Villeroy. In the
Low Countries, Ginckell, earl of Athlone, the interim commander
of the allies (English, Dutch and minor German states), was
at the outset outmanceuvred by the French (Boufflers), and
although, in fact, the material advantage was with the allies,
who captured Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, the momentary threat
of a French invasion had a lasting effect on the Dutch authorities,
whose timidity thereafter repeatedly ruined the best-laid schemes
of Marlborough, who was obliged to submit to their obstruction
and their veto. This handicap, moreover, was not the only one
Marl- under which Marlborough suffered. Unless it is
borough's realized and borne in mind that the great captain
First W as struggling against factiousness and intrigue in
Campaign. E n gi anc j am j from jealousies, faint-heartedness and
disagreements amongst the states who lent their contingents to
his miscellaneous army, the measure of his achievements in ten
years seems small. But in fact it was marvellous. Under i8th-
century conditions of warfare, and with an army so composed
that probably no other man in Europe could have held it together
at all, obstructed and thwarted at every turn, he yet brought
Louis XIV. and France to the very edge of ruin.
In this theatre of war the French, in concert with the garrisons
of the Spanish Netherlands, had fortified a line of defence more
than 70 m. long from Antwerp to Huy, as well as another line,
longer but of only potential importance, from Antwerp along the
Scheldt-Lys to Aire in France. Besides the " lines of Brabant "
Boufflers held all the Meuse fortresses'below Huy except Maes-
tricht. Marlborough concentrated 60,000 men (of whom 12,000
only were British) about Nijmegen in June, and early in July,
having made his preparations, he advanced directly by Hamont
on Diest. Boufflers, who had drawn together his field army in
Gelderland for the relief of Kaiserswerth and the late attack on
the earl of Athlone, hastily fell back, in order to regain touch with
the Brabant lines. Marlborough, with the positive object of
bringing his opponent to battle at a disadvantage, won the
race and awaited the arrival of Boufflers' tired army to strike
it a paralysing blow. But at the critical moment the Dutch
deputies forbade the battle, content to see the army that had
threatened Holland with invasion driven off to a safe distance
without bloodshed (July 22). Ten days later Boufflers, thus
easily let go, again advanced from Diest, was trapped by Marl-
borough and released by the Dutch. This time it was a dis-
obedient general, not the civilian commissioners at headquarters,
who did the mischief, but after this second experience Marl-
borough thought it prudent to pacify the Dutch by besieging the
Meuse fortresses, several of which fell in rapid succession (Sep-
tember-October). His return to the Meuse led Boufflers to
suppose that the enemy had a Rhine campaign in view and he at
once sent off a corps under 'Tallard towards Cologne, standing
on the defensive himself at Tongres, where for the third time in
the campaign he was outmanceuvred by Marlborough and saved
by the deputies at Marlborough's headquarters. Boufflers
hurriedly fell back within the defended area of the lines of
Brabant, and the campaign closed with the capture of Liege by
the allies (Oct. 12). Marlborough was created a duke on his
return to England in November. He had checked the main
enterprise, or at least (for an enterprise commensurate with the
force employed had scarcely been imagined) the main army, of
the French. Every man in the army knew, moreover, that but
for the Dutch deputies the enemy would have been destroyed.
On the Rhine the campaign was, except for two disconnected
episodes, quite uneventful. The Imperialists under a methodical
general, the margrave Louis of Baden, gathered in the Neckar
country and crossed the Rhine above Spire. Catinat, now old
and worn out, was sent to Strassburg to oppose the threatened
invasion of Alsace, and, like MacMahon in 1870, he dared not
assemble his whole force either on the Lauter or on the 111. The
margrave invested Landau (July 29) and with a covering army
occupied the lines of the Lauter about Weissenburg, which Catinat
did not attack. Hence Landau, valiantly defended by Melac,
had to be surrendered on the i2th of September. But at the
same time the elector of Bavaria took the side of France, surprised
Ulm, and declared a local war on the house of Austria and the
" circles " of Swabia and Franconia. The margrave then, in
order to defend his own country, prevent the junction of Cati-
nat's forces with the elector, and win back the latter to the
Austrian side, recrossed the Rhine and hurried to Kehl with the
greater part of his army, leaving a garrison in Landau and a
corps of observation on the Lauter. To co-operate with the
elector, Catinat had made up a corps out of every available
battalion and squadron (keeping for himself not more than a
personal escort) and placed it under Lieut.-General Villars.
This corps drew away into Upper Alsace and the margrave
followed suit until the two armies faced one another on opposite
sides of the Rhine near Huningen. But the corps that Frfed//D
the elector on his part was to send to meet Villars
halted east of the Black Forest, and although, on the I4th of
October 1702, after a series of skilful manceuvres, Villars crossed
the Rhine and won the first victory of his brilliant career at
Friedlingen (opposite Huningen), it was profitless. Soon after-
wards Villars placed his army in winter quarters in Alsace, and
Louis of Baden disposed his troops in two entrenched camps
opposite Breisach and Strassburg respectively. In Italy Ven-
ddme, superior in numbers but handicapped by instructions
from Versailles and by the necessity of looking to the Italian
interests of King Philip, gained a few minor successes over
Eugene. A very hard-fought and indecisive battle took place
at Luzzara on the Po on the isth of August.
In the next two years Bavaria was the centre of gravity of the
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
601
French operations, and only campaigns of the methodical and
non-committal kind were planned for Italy 1 and the Low
Countries. Villeroy and Boufflers commanded the French in
the Low Countries, Tallard in Lorraine, Villars in Alsace, and
Vendome in Italy.
In the Netherlands the French field army was behind the
lines of Brabant, the Spanish troops in the lines of Flanders
( Antwerp-Ghent- Aire). Together the two considerably out-
numbered Marlborough (90.000 against 50,000), but the duke
managed to be first in the field. As early as February Rhein-
berg had been taken, and in May he followed up this success
by the capture of Bonn, returning to the Meuse before Villeroy
had assembled his army at Diest. Marlborough's plan was
to break the immensely long line of defence of the French and
Spaniards by the capture of Antwerp. One Dutch corps under
Coehoorn was to assemble in the Sluys-Hulst region, and another
under Opdam at Bergen-op-Zoom and Marlborough, after
manoeuvring Villeroy's field army out of the way, was to join
them before the fortress. Marlborough executed his own share
of the movement with his usual skill, he pushed back Villeroy
towards the Mehaigne and at the right moment, giving them the
slip, marched for Antwerp via Hasselt. Villeroy, soon discover-
ing this, hastened thither as fast as possible, and the Dutch
generals enabled him to emerge from the manoeuvre with a
handsome victory, for Coehoorn (in order to fill his own pockets,
it has been suggested) had departed on a raid into West Flanders
and Opdam was left alone at Eeckeren in front of Antwerp, where
Boufflers and the Spanish general Bedmar surprised him (June
30) and put his corps to flight before Marlborough could come
to his assistance. In disgust the great captain then resigned
himself to a war of small sieges on the Meuse. The campaign
closed with the capture of Huy (Aug. 25) and Limbourg
(Sept. 27). On the Rhine great projects were entertained
by the French, nothing less than the capture of Vienna by a
combined Franco-Bavarian-Hungarian army being intended.
Villars began by capturing Kehl (March 10) under the very eyes
of the margrave, who dared not risk a battle lest the Bavarians
coming up in his rear should destroy his weakened army. The
Bavarians had in fact no such intention. The elector, while
carrying on a trifling war with a small imperial army under
Count Styrum, insisted that Villars should cross the Black Forest
and join him, which Villars was unwilling to do thus early in the
year, as two-thirds of his officers were as usual on leave or
detached on recruiting duties. Courtier though he was, the
marshal would not stir even in spite of the king's orders until he
was ready. At the end of April, leaving Tallard alone to defend
Alsace and Lorraine against the margrave, Villars plunged into
the defiles of the Black Forest and on the 8th of May joined the
elector at Ebingen. All seemed favourable for the advance on
Vienna, but at the last moment the elector half repented of his
alliance with the enemies of Germany and proposed instead a
junction with Vendome by way of Tirol. This proposal came
to nothing, the Tirolese were soon roused to revolt by the mis-
conduct of the ill-disciplined Bavarians, and Vendome, who, like
Luxembourg, was a giant in battle and a sluggard in camp, would
not stir. The active Villars meantime was reduced to impotence
and faced Styrum in an entrenched camp at Dillingen on the
Danube, neither side offering battle.
Villars had posted a protective force at Ulm to contain the
margrave's army should it turn back upon him, and this, after
an engagement at Munderkingen (July 31) induced the cautious
Louis to return to the Rhine. Five weeks later, however, the
margrave returned in full force, and moving by the right bank
of the Danube reached Augsburg on the 6th of September.
The elector, returning from his futile Tirol expedition, had already
rejoined Villars at Dillingen, and the marshal persuaded him to
attack Styrum before the two imperial generals could join
1 In this year began the Camisard insurrection, in the Cevennes,
which necessitated the detachment of a considerable body of troops
from Vend&me's army in Italy. Similarly both in 1702 and 1703
the Hungarian insurrection compelled the Viennese government
to keep back the reinforcements of which Eugene stood in need.
forces. The result was the battle of Hochstett 2 (Sept. 20) in
which the elector and Villars won a great victory, at a loss of
only looo men to Styrum's u,ooo. Rarely indeed had an i8th-
century general so great an opportunity of finishing a war at one
blow. But even Villars saw no better use for the Hochstett,
victory than the unimpeded junction of his own army tro3 '
and Tallard's and winter quarters in Wiirttemberg, and the
elector on the other hand was principally anxious to evict the
margrave's army from his dominions. The question was referred
to Versailles, and another month passed away in inactivity.
Tallard remained on the Rhine, and Villars in disgust applied
to be recalled. The margrave, entrenched as usual, kept the
field for another month and then retired to the Lake of Constance,
where, in a still unexhausted district, he spent the winter. The
elector wintered in the Iller with the combined army. Tallard
meanwhile invested Landau and defeated a detachment sent from
Marlborough's distant army to relieve the place in the battle
of Spire (Nov. 10), which was almost as costly to the allies
as Hochstett. Landau surrendered on the i2th of November.
Old Breisach, besieged by Vauban, capitulated on the 6th of
September. Thus in Germany, though the grand advance on
Vienna had come to nothing, the French had -won two important
victories and established an army in Bavaria. More than
this, under the prevailing conditions of warfare, it was impossible
to expect. In Italy, on the other hand, Vendome, although no
longer opposed by Eugene, achieved nothing. After a raid
towards Trieste he was brought back hurriedly by the news
that Victor Amadeus of Savoy had changed sides, and though
he was victorious in a few skirmishes and re-established touch
with France by capturing Asti, he failed to prevent the Imperial-
ists, under Guide Starhemberg, from slipping past his position
in Lombardy and joining the duke of Savoy in Piedmont.
The campaign of 1704, though in the Low Countries and in
Italy practically nothing was done, is memorable for what was
probably the greatest strategical operation in the i8th century,
Marlborough's march to the Danube. At the outset the elector
and Marsin (Villars' successor) were on the Iller, between Ulm
and Memmingen, Tallard between Strassburg and Landau,
Villeroy as usual between the Brabant lines and the Meuse.
Between Villeroy and Tallard there was a small force on the
Moselle, intended to reinforce either. On the other side the
Margrave Louis was in the Stockach-Engen region, with his own
army and the relic of Styrum's, but being responsible for guarding
the whole of the Middle Rhine as well as for opposing the elector
he was weak everywhere, and his defence of the Rhine was
practically limited to holding the " lines of Stollhofen," a
defensive position near Buhl in Baden. With Breisach and Kehl
in their own hands, the French were more or less closely in touch
with their comrades in Bavaria, and Tallard convoyed a large
body of recruits for Marsin's army through the Black Forest
defiles. But in doing so he lost most of them by desertion, the
margrave's army dogged his march, and in fact no fi/ne and
regular line of communication was established. Thus Danube
the five armies (Marlborough's, Eugene's, Tallard's, Campaign
Marsin's and the margrave's) engaged in this theatre ofl704 -
of war, were moving and facing in all directions in turn in a most
bewildering fashion. Marlborough's purpose at any rate was
quite definite to transfer a large corps from the Low Countries
to Bavaria and there in concert with the allies in that quarter
to crush the elector decisively. He took no one into his confi-
dence. The timid Dutch were brought, not without difficulty,
to assent to a Lower Rhine and Moselle campaign, of much the
same sort as the Bonn expedition of 1703, but rather than be
burdened with Dutch counsellors he forwent the assistance of
the Dutch troops. These were left under Overkirk to defend
the Meuse, and English and English-paid troops alone took part
in the great venture. Meanwhile Tallard and Marsin, united
at the moment of handing over the recruits, had promptly
separated again. Tallard, Villeroy and the Versailles strategists,
2 Fought on the same battlefield as was Blenheim next year;
the latter is consequently called by some the " second battle of
Hochstett."
602
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
well aware that Marlborough was ascending the Rhine, thought
that a diversion on the Moselle was intended, and the feeble
warnings of Marsin, who half suspected the real purpose, were
disregarded. Villeroy remained in Brabant for fear that
Overkirk would take a few towns in his absence.
Marlborough calculated that as he progressed up the Rhine
the French would collect to prevent his crossing, instead of them-
selves passing over to join the elector and Marsin. Thus the
expedition would reach the Neckar mouth, without its true
purpose being suspected, and once there Marlborough would
vanish from the ken of the defenders of the Rhine, to reappear on
the Danube where he was least expected. On the I2th of May
the army crossed the Meuse at Ruremond, on the 23rd it reached
Bonn, on the 2Qth Mainz. On the ist of June the puzzled French
noted preparations for bridging the Rhine at Philipsburg. But
two days later the English had turned to their left into the valley
of the Neckar. On the icth of June Prince Eugene and on the
I3th the margrave appeared at the duke's headquarters to concert
operations. It was arranged that the margrave was to join
Marlborough and that Eugene should command the Stollhofen
Mar i. and other forces on the Rhine, for Tallard, it seemed,
borough's was about to be joined by Villeroy l and Marlborough
March to the knew that these marshals must be kept west of the
Danube. Rhine for the six weeks he allowed himself for the
Bavarian enterprise. The margrave's army duly joined Marl-
borough's on the 22nd of June at Ursprung, 12 m. north of Ulm,
where the elector and Marsin were encamped. The endurance of
Marlborough's corps, as displayed in the long march from Rure-
mond, was not the least extraordinary feature of the operation.
For iSth-century troops such performances were generally provo-
cative of desertion, and involved the ruin of the army that at-
tempted it. But Prince Eugene, we are told, was astonished at
the fine condition of the army. On the French side meantime all
was perplexity, and it was not until a week after the margrave
and Marlborough had united that a decision was arrived at by
Louis XIV., in whose eyes the feeble corps of Eugene sheltered
in the lines of Stollhofen constituted a grave menace for Alsace
and Lorraine. Villeroy's main body from the Meuse had after
its first hesitations followed up Marlborough, in readiness for the
supposed Rhine and Moselle campaign, and was now about
Landau. Tallard with the smaller half of the united armies
was to advance by Breisach and to " try to capture Villingen."
Villeroy was to watch Eugene's corps, or rather the Stollhof en-
Buhl position, and the small Moselle corps was to remain west
of the Rhine. This meant conceding both the initiative and the
superiority in numbers to Marlborough.
The duke had now manoeuvred himself with brilliant success
from one theatre of war to another, and had secured every
advantage to himself. His method of utilizing the advantage
showed his mastery of the rules of the strict game that, with the
instinct of a great captain, he had just set at nought. From
before Ulm he sidled gradually along the north side of the
Danube in the hope of finding an unguarded passage. He and
the margrave exercised the general command on alternate days,
and wnen on his own day he arrived opposite Donauworth,
knowing Louis's caution, he thought that direct attack was better
than another two days' extension to the east. Moreover he needed
a walled town to serve as a magazine instead of Nordlingen, which
he had used of late but which could not serve him for operations
over the river. In the late afternoon of the 2ist the army was
flung, regardless of losses, against the entrenched hill of the
Schellenberg at Donauworth, where the elector had posted a
Campaign oo strong detachment. The attack cost 6000 men, but
the Danube, it was successful, and of the 12,000 Bavarians on
IJO *. j-jjg hill only 3000 returned to their main body, which
had now moved from Ulm to Lauingen. Passing the river, the
allies besieged and took the small fortress of Rain, and thence
moved to the neighbourhood of Augsburg, thoroughly and
deliberately devastating the countryside so as to force the elector
to make terms. The best that can be said of this barbarous
1 Even Villeroy it appears rose to the situation thus far, but the
king only allowed him to send 25,000 men to Tallard.
device, more or less legitimate in the days when the quarrel
was the people's as much as the prince's, is that Louis XIV.
had several times practised it. Its most effective condem-
nation is that military devastations, in these purely political
contests, were entirely unprofitable. Louis had already found
them so, and had given up the practice. In the present case the
acts of the allies only confirmed the elector in his French sym-
pathies, while at the same time Marlborough's own supplies ran
short, his convoys were harassed and his reconnaissances
impeded. The movements of the two armies were but trifling.
Marlborough, though superior, was not decisively superior, and
his opponents, well entrenched near Augsburg, waited for
Tallard and (in vain) for Villeroy. Marlborough marked time
until Eugene should join him.
There were now five armies in the field, two allied and three
French. The centre of gravity was therefore in Villeroy's camp.
If that marshal followed Tallard, even Eugene's junction with
Marlborough would not give the latter enough force. If Tallard
alone joined the elector and Eugene Marlborough, the game was
in the hands of the allies. But none of the possible combinations
of two armies against one were attempted by either side. Eugene
did not venture to leave Villeroy's front to attack Tallard, who
was marching by Kehl-Villingen-Ulm on Augsburg, but when he
knew that Tallard was on the move he slipped away from
Villeroy to join Marlborough. In turn, Tallard and the elector,
aware of Eugene's march, could have left Marlborough to his
sieges and combined against Eugene, but they were well content
to join forces peaceably at Augsburg. Worst of all, Villeroy, in
whose hands was the key of the situation, was the nearest to
Versailles and the least capable of solving the knotty problem
for himself. When the king bade him follow Tallard to Villingen
he hesitated, and when he had made up his mind to try, Louis
had changed his and ordered him to detain Eugene (who was
already far away) in the Stollhofen lines. The last stage of the
campaign was brief. Marlborough and Eugene had in mind a
battle, Tallard and Marsin a war of manceuvre to occupy the
few weeks now to be spun out before winter quarters were due.
The two allied armies met in the Danube valley on the 6th of
August. If the enemy remained on the south side Eugene was to
cross, if they recrossed to the north bank Marlborough was to
follow suit. The margrave Louis of Baden had been sent off to
besiege Ingolstadt as soon as Eugene had come within a safe
distance. The iSth-century general relied far more on himself
than on the small surplus of force that his army, in the con-
ditions of that time, could hope to have over its opponent.
When therefore the French and Bavarians were reported opposite
Eugene on the north side, Marlborough crossed at once, and
without waiting for the margrave the two great soldiers went
forward. On the 2nd of August (see BLENHEIM) they attacked
and practically destroyed the armies of Tallard, Marsin and the
elector.
The campaign of 1705 was uneventful and of little profit to
either side. Marlborough's army had returned to the Low
Countries, engaging en route in a small campaign in the Luxem-
burg and Thionville region, which was defended with skill and
success by Villars. Villeroy had also returned to Brabant and
retaken Huy. With him was the now exiled elector of Bavaria.
On the 1 8th of July, after a series of skilful manceuvres, Marl-
borough forced the lines of Brabant at Elissem near Tirlemont,
but not even the glory of Blenheim could induce the Dutch
deputies to give him a free hand or the Dutch generals to fall in
with his schemes. King Louis was thus able to rein-
force Villeroy betimes from Villars's Lorraine army,
and the campaign closed with no better work than the
razing of the captured French entrenchments. On the Rhine
Villars, with a force reduced to impotence by the losses of Blen-
heim and the detachments sent to Villeroy, carried on a spiritless
campaign about Hagenau and Weissenburg against the margrave
Louis. In Italy alone was there any serious encounter. Here
Vendome's army and a fresh corps from France were engaged in
the attempt to subdue Victor Amadeus and his new Austrian
allies (Starhemberg's, originally Eugene's army), and they were
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
603
so far successful that the duke implored the emperor to send a
fresh army. Eugene commanded this army, opposed to which
was a force under Vendome's brother Philippe, called the Grand
Prior. This man, a lazy dilettante, let himself be surprised by
Eugene's fierce attack on the line of the Adda. The day was
restored however, and the Austrians beaten off, thanks to Ven-
dome's opportune arrival and dauntless courage (battle of Cas-
sano, August 16). Nevertheless, the subjugation of Piedmont
was put off until next year, by Louis's orders.
1706 was a bad year for the French. At the very outset of
the campaign in the Netherlands, Villeroy, hearing that some
of the allied contingents that composed Marlborough's army had
refused to join, went forward from his new defensive lines along
the Dyle and offered battle. Marlborough would probably have
fought in any case, but being joined in time by the belated allied
contingents, he was able (May 12) not only to win but also to
profit by the glorious victory of Ramillies (q.v.) on the xath of
May. This was one of the few cases of thoroughly efficient and
successful pursuit in the military history of the I7th and i8th
centuries. The whole of Flanders and Brabant, except a few
minor fortresses, fell into his hands within two
weeks. These too fell one after the other in August
and September, and the British cavalry crossed the
French frontier itself. But on the Rhine the inactivity of
Louis of Baden had allowed Villars to transfer the bulk of
his army to the Netherlands. Vendome, too, was sent to suc-
ceed Villeroy, and Marlborough made no further advance.
Louis's two most brilliant commanders devoted themselves to
organizing the defence of the French frontier, and did not
venture to interrupt Marlborough's sieges.
In Italy the campaign had, as before, two branches, the con-
test for Piedmont and the contest between the French forces
in Lombardy and the Austrian second army that sought to join
Victor Amadeus and Starhemberg. The latter, repulsed by
Ramillies,
1706.
Vendome at Cassano, had retired to Brescia and Lake Garda,
Vendome follpwing up and wintering about Castiglione and
Mantua, and in April 1706, profiting by Eugene's temporary
absence, Vendome attacked the Imperialists' camp of Monte-
chiaro-Calcinato. His intention was by a night march to
surprise the post of Ponte San Marco on their extreme left, but
when day came he noticed that he could give battle to the
enemy's left wing at Calcinato before their right from caidnato
Montechiaro could intervene. His onset broke up
the defence completely (battle of Calcinato, April 19), and he
hustled the fragments of the Imperialist army back into the
mountains, where Eugene had the greatest difficulty in rallying
them. Until the middle of June Vend6me completely baffled
all attempts of Eugene to slip past him into Piedmont. He was
then, however, recalled to supersede Villeroy in Belgium, and
his feeble successors entirely failed to rise to the occasion.
Philip of Orleans, with Marsin and the due de la Feuillade as
his advisers, was besieging Turin, trying in vain to remedy the
errors of the engineers and the constant repulse of small storming
parties by a savage bombardment of the town itself. As soon
as he knew of Vendome's departure Prince Eugene emerged
afresh from the mountains, and, outmanoeuvring the French in
Lombardy without the least difficulty, hurried towards Turin.
Victor Amadeus, leaving the defence to the Austrian and Pied-
montese infantry, escaped through the besiegers' lines and
joined his cousin with a large force of cavalry. On
the 7th of September they attacked the French lines Turin.
round Turin. Owing to the disagreements of their
generals, the various corps of the defenders, though superior in
total numbers, were beaten in detail by the well-concerted attacks
of Eugene, Victor Amadeus and the Turin garrison. Marsin was
killed, many of the boldest officers in the army lost heart, and
Philip retreated ignominiously to Pinerolo. Although in the same
week Lieut. -General Medavy-Grancey inflicted a severe defeat on
CAMPAIGNS
169O -1794
in the
NETHERLANDS
604
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
the Austrians who were still left in Lombardy (Castiglione,
Sept. 9) the battle of Turin practically ended the war in Italy.
Both in the north and in the south the tide had now receded
to the frontiers of France itself. Louis could now hope to gain
Changing the objects of the war only partially and by sheer
Conditions endurance. But it is from this very point that the
of the War. p renc ij ooerations cease (though only gradually
it is true) to be the ill-defined and badly-joined patchwork of
forays and cordons that they had hitherto been. In the place
of Tallards, Marsins and Villeroys Louis made up his mind to put
his Villars, Vendomes and Berwicks, and above all the approach
of the allied armies roused in the French nation itself a spirit of
national defence which bears at least a faint resemblance to the
great uprisings of 1792 and 1870, and under the prevailing
dynastic and professional conditions of warfare was indeed a
startling phenomenon. For the gathering of this unexpected
moral force 1 707 afforded a year of respite. The emperor, desiring
to occupy Naples and Lombardy with the least possible trouble,
agreed to permit Medavy-Grancey to bring off all the Italian
garrisons, and with these and the militia battalions of the Midi
Marshal Tesse formed a strong army for the defence of the
Alpine frontier. In Spain the campaign opened with the brilliant
success of Berwick at Almanza. In Germany Villars not only
pricked the bubble reputation of the lines of Stollhofen, 1 but
raided into Bavaria, penetrating as far as Blenheim battle-
field before he gave up the attempt to rouse the Bavarians
again. The Imperialists and Piedmontese in the south succeeded
in turning the Alpine barrier, but they were brought to a complete
standstill by Tesse's gallant defence of Toulon (August) and
having, like their predecessors in 1692, roused the peasantry
against them they retired over the mountains. In Belgium
the elector of Bavaria, who was viceroy there for King Philip,
and was seconded by Vendome, remained quiescent about Mons
and Gembloux, while Marlborough, paralysed more completely
than ever before by the Dutch, spent the summer inactive in
camp on the Gheete.
The respite of 1 707 had enabled Louis to gather his strength
in Flanders. Henceforward operations on the Rhine and in
Dauphine are of quite secondary importance, so much so that
Eugene and the main Austrian army are always found in the
Low Countries fighting side by side with the Anglo-allied army
of Marlborough.
In 1708 Eugene foresaw this shift of the centre of gravity and
arranged with Marlborough to transfer the army which was
Campaign ostensibly destined for the Rhine campaign to
of 1708. Brabant, repaying thus the debt of 1704. Indeed
the main army of the French was markedly superior in numbers
to Marlborough's and hardly inferior to Marlborough's and
Eugene's combined. Placing the elector of Bavaria, with Ber-
wick to advise him, at the head of the small army of Alsace, he
put his young grandson and heir, the duke of Burgundy, at the
head of the great army which assembled at Valenciennes, and
gave him Vendome as mentor. But the prince was pious, mild-
mannered, unambitious of military glory and also obstinate,
and to unite him with the fiery, loose-living and daring Vendome,
was, as Saint-Simon says, " mixing fire and water." At the
end of May operations began. Vend6me advanced to engage
Marlborough before Eugene, whose purpose had become known,
should join him. As the French came on towards Brussels,
Marlborough, who had concentrated at Hal,[fell back by a forced
march to Louvain. Vendome having thus won the first move,
there was a pause and then the French suddenly swung round to
the west, and began to overrun Flanders, where their agents had
already won over many of the officials who had been installed
by the allies since 1706. Ghent and Bruges surrendered at once,
and to regain for King Philip all the country west of the Scheldt
it only remained to take Oudenarde. On the day of the sur-
render of Ghent Marlborough was in pursuit, and one long forced
1 The Margrave Louis of Baden had died during the winter of
1706-1707. He was succeeded by the incompetent margrave of
Bayreuth, who was soon displaced. This general's successor
was the elector of Hanover, afterwards King George I. of England.
march brought his army almost within striking distance of the
receding enemy. But though Eugene himself had joined him,
Eugene's army was still far behind, and the duke was stopped by
demands for protection from the officials of Brussels. Vend6me
soon moved on Oudenarde. But scarcely had he begun this
investment when Marlborough was upon him. The duke dis-
cussed the situation with Eugene, who had placed himself under
his friend's orders. Marlborough was half inclined- another
general would have been resolved to wait for Eugene's troops
before giving battle, for he knew that Vendome was no ordinary
opponent, but Eugene counselled immediate action lest the
French should escape, and relying on his own skill and on the
well-known disunion in the French headquarters, Marlborough
went forward. As he approached, the French gave up the siege
of Oudenarde and took up a position at Gavre, 7 m.
lower down the Scheldt, so as to be able to act
towards either Ghent or Oudenarde. Marlborough's advanced
guard, boldly handled by Cadogan, slipped in between Gavre and
Oudenarde. At once the dissensions in the French headquarters
became flagrant. Vend6me began to place part of the army in
position along the river while the duke of Burgundy was posting
the rest much farther back as another line of defence. Cadogan
was thus able to destroy the few isolated troops on the river.
Thereupon Vendome proposed to the duke to advance and to
destroy Cadogan before the main body of the allies came up, but
the young prince's hesitations allowed the chance to pass. He
then proposed a retreat on Ghent. " It is too late," replied
Vendome, and formed up the army for battle as best he could.
The allied main body, marching with all speed, crossed the
Scheldt at all hazards and joined Cadogan. In the encounter-
battle which followed (see OUDENARDE) Marlborough separated,
cut off and destroyed the French right wing. The French re-
treated in disorder on Ghent (July n) with a loss of 15,000 men.
Nevertheless Oudenarde was in no way decisive, and for the rest
of the campaign tbe two armies wandered to and fro in the usual
way. Berwick, recalled from Alsace, manoeuvred about Douay,
while Vendome remained near Ghent, and between siege of
them Marlborough's and Eugene's armies devoted Lille.
themselves to the siege of Lille. In this town, one of Vauban's
masterpieces of fortification, the old Marshal Boufflers had under-
taken the defence, and it offered a long and unusually gallant
resistance to Eugene's army. Marlborough covered the siege.
Vendome manoeuvred gradually round and joined Berwick,
but though 90,000 and later 1 20,000 strong, they did not attack
him. Berwick was a new element of dissension in the distracted
headquarters, and they limited their efforts first to attempting
to intercept a hugh convoy of artillery and stores that the allies
brought up from Brussels for the siege, 2 and secondly to destroy
another convoy that was brought up from Ostend by the General
Webb known to readers of Esmond. The futile attack upon the
second convoy is known as the action of Wynendael (Sept.
28). The only other incident of the campaign in the open was
an unsuccessful raid on Brussels by a small corps under the
elector of Bavaria from the Moselle via Namur.
On the 8th of December the brave old marshal surrendered,
Eugene complimenting him by allowing him to dictate the terms
of capitulation. Ghent and Bruges were retaken by the allies
without difficulty, and, to add to the disasters of Oudenarde and
Lille, a terrible winter almost completed the ruin of France.
In despair Louis negotiated for peace, but the coalition offered
such humiliating terms that not only the king, but what in the
1 8th century was a rare and memorable thing his people also,
resolved to fight to the end. The ruinous winter gave force to
the spirit of defence, for fear of starvation, inducing something
akin to the courage of despair, brought tens of thousands of
recruits to the colours.
Of the three invasions of France attempted in this memorable
year two were insignificant. On the Rhine the elector of
2 An excellent illustration of i8th century views on war is afforded
by the fact that the completely successful defence of this convoy
was regarded by his contemporaries as Marlborough's greatest
triumph.
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
605
Hanover (King George I.) was held in check by the due
d'Harcourt on the Lauter and finally retired to the lines of Stoll-
hof en, while a smaller allied corps under the imperialist
general Count Mercy was defeated with heavy loss
by Harcourt's second in command, Du Bourg, at
Rumersheim in Upper Alsace (Aug. 26). On the Alpine frontier
Berwick, abandoning the fashionable method of " lines," pre-
pared a remarkable system of mobile defence pivoted on
Briancon, on which Victor Amadeus's feeble attacks made no
impression. These affairs were little more than diversions. The
main, indeed the only, attack was Marlborough's and Eugene's,
and the Malplaquet campaign is one of the few episodes of i8th
century warfare that retain a living and passionate interest.
Long before this Marlborough had proposed to dash straight
forward into France, masking the fortresses, but this scheme was
too bold even for Eugene, who preferred to reduce the strong
places before going on. Lille having been successfully besieged,
Tournai was the next objective, and while Villars and his
lieutenants Montesquiou and Albergotti lay inactive in their
entrenchments at Bethune, Douai and Denain on the Scheldt,
training their thousands of recruits and suffering severely from
the famine that followed upon this bad winter the allies ^sud-
denly and secretly left their camps before Lille as if for an attack
on the.Douai lines (June 26-27). But before noon on the 27th
they had invested Tournai. A few days afterwards their siege guns
came up from Menin by water (down the Lys and up the Scheldt)
and the siege was pressed with intense vigour. But it was the
3rd of September before the citadel capitulated. Then Marl-
borough, free to move again, transferred his army secretly and
by degrees to the river Haine, beyond Villars's right. East of St
Ghislain Villars's long lines of earthworks were but thinly held,
and after a march of 50 m. in 56 hours through rain-sodden
country, the allied advanced guard passed through them un-
opposed (Sept. 6th). Mons, too, was weakly held, and Marl-
borough hoped by the rapidity of his operations to take it before
Villars could interrupt him. Based on Mons and Brussels, he
could then, leaving the maze of fortresses in the Arras- Valen-
ciennes region to his right, push on (as eighty years afterwards
Coburg attempted to push on) straight to the heart of France.
But Villars also moved quickly, and his eager army was roused
to enthusiasm by the arrival of Marshal Boufflers, who, senior
as he was to Villars, had come forward again at the moment of
danger to serve as his second hi command. Thinking that the
allies were somewhat farther to the east than they were in fact,
the French marshal marched secretly, screened by the broken
and wooded ground to the south of the fortress, and occupied
the gap of Aulnois-Malplaquet (Sept. 9), one of the two 1
practicable passages, where he set to work feverishly to
entrench himself. Marlborough at once realized what had
happened, and giving up the siege of Mons brought his army to
the south-east of the place. Preparing, as at Oudenarde, to
attack as rapidly as his brigades came on the scene, he cannon-
aded the French working parties and drew the return fire of all
Villars's guns. At this crisis the duke submitted the question
of battle unwillingly, as one may imagine to a council of war,
and Eugene himself was opposed to fighting an improvised battle
when so much was at stake. Others thought the capture of the
little fortress of St Ghislain was the best solution of the problem,
and it was not until the nth that the allies delivered their attack
Malplaquet on l ^ e now thoroughly entrenched position of the
French. The battle of Malplaquet (q.v.) was by far
the most desperately contested of the war. In the end Boufflers,
who took command when Villars was wounded, acknowledged
defeat and drew off in good order, the left to Valenciennes, the
right to Bavay and Le Quesnoy. Eugene was wounded, and
Marlborough, after the most terrible experience in any soldier's
lifetime, had only enough energy remaining to take Mons before
he retired into winter quarters. The loss of the French is given
variously as 7000 and 12,000. The allies sacrificed no less,
probably more, than 20,000 men, and if the English and Austrian
survivors could count themselves the bravest soldiers alive, one
'The other, scarcely less celebrated, is that of Jemappes.
considerable part of the allied army at least, the Dutch contin-
gent, was ruined for ever. Even at Fontenoy, thirty-six years
later, the memory of Malplaquet made them faint-hearted.
From his bed the wounded Villars wrote triumphantly to Louis:
" If God gives us another defeat like this, your majesty's
enemies will be destroyed."
In 1710 Villars lay entrenched behind a new series of lines,
which he called Ne plus ultra and which extended from Valen-
ciennes to the sea. Marlborough made no attempt
to invade France from the side of Mons, for Villars at
the head of the army which had been through the
ordeal of Malplaquet was too terrible an opponent to pass by
with impunity. In England, too, the anti-Marlborough party
was gaining the upper hand in the queen's council. So Marl-
borough took no risks, and returning to the Lille side, captured
Douai (June 26) and Bethune (Aug. 26). No attack was
attempted upon the lines. In Dauphine, Berwick again
repulsed the Austrians and Piedmontese.
1711 was Marlborough's last campaign, and it was remarkable
for the capture of the Ne plus ultra lines by manoeuvres that must
be recorded as being the ne plus ultra of the iSth-century way of
making war by stratagem. In May the sudden death of the
emperor completely altered the political outlook, for his successor
Charles was the coalition's claimant to the throne of Spain, and
those who were fighting for the " balance of power " could no
more tolerate a new Charles V. than they could see Louis XIV.
become a Charlemagne. Before the allies could agree upon any
concerted action, Eugene's army had departed for Germany,
and Marlborough alone was left to face Villars's great army. But
in pursuance of the policy of passive endurance the marshal
remained on the defensive behind the lines, and Marlborough
determined to dislodge him. What force could not achieve, the
duke trusted to obtain by ruse. The lines extended from the
sea along the Canche, thence to Arras, and along the Sensee to
Bouchain on the Scheldt. Marlborough held Lille, Tournai,
Bethune and, in front of these places, Douai, while Villars's strong
places, other than those in the lines, were Valenciennes, Conde,
Le Quesnoy. &c. As the western part of the lines,
.j , . , ,, The Ne Plus
besides being strong, were worthless from the vltra LineSf
invaders' point of view because their capture could
not lead to anything, Marlborough determined to pass the barrier
between Arras and Bouchain. Here the front was difficult of
access, because of the inundations and swamps of the Sensee
valley, but two causeways crossed this valle'y at Arleux and
Aubanchoeil-au-Bac respectively. On the 6th of July Marl-
borough, who had encamped in the plain of Lens, sent a detach-
ment to capture Arleux. He then marched away to the west
as if to attack the lines between Arras and the headwaters of
the Canche. Villars followed suit, but left a corps behind, as
Marlborough had expected and desired, to retake Arleux. The
commander of the garrison then sent urgent messages to say that
he could not hold out, and Marlborough sent off Cadogan to
relieve him. Cadogan, the only officer in the army in the duke's
confidence, moved slowly, and the garrison had to surrender
(July 22). Villars razed the defences of Arleux. The plot
of the comedy now thickened. Marlborough lost his usual
serenity, and behaved in so eccentric a manner that his own army
thought him mad. He sent off one part of his forces to Bethune,
another back to Douai, and ordered the small remainder to
attack the lines between the Canche and Arras, where, as
every one knew, Villars's whole army was massed. Marl-
On the 24th of August he personally reconnoitred borough's
the lines with a large staff, and calmly gave his Manoeuvre.
generals instructions for the lines to be stormed. But Cadogan
was hastening to give the duke's real orders to the corps at
Bethune and Douai. In the night of the 4th-5th of August
the main army set out for Aubanchoeil-au-Bac, at the highest
possible speed. The Scarpe was crossed, the Bethune column
came in punctually, 'and the word was passed down the ranks
that Cadogan had crossed the lines at Arleux. Thereupon the
pace was increased, though thousands of the infantry fell out and
scores died from exhaustion. Five hours ahead of the French
6o6
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
army and level in the race with Villars and the cavalry, the red-
coats crossed the rivers at Arleux, while Marlborough and the
horse hurried on to Aubanchoeil-au-Bac, crossed there and
turned back along the Sensee to meet the French squadrons. The
army reassembled between Aubanchoeil-au-Bac and Cambrai,
and its leader, declining Villars's offer of a battle in front of Cam-
brai, manoeuvred still farther to the east and invested Bouchain.
The siege, covered by a strong " line of circumvallation " which
Villars did not attempt to attack, ended with the surrender of
the place on the I3th of September, and so terminated a series
of manoeuvres which to the modern mind is so extraordinary as
to be almost incredible. In December of this year, his party
opponents in England being now triumphant, the man who was
so consummate a master both of the 18th-century and the
Ramillies-Oudenarde methods of making war was dismissed the
service in disgrace. In June 1712 the British contingent, under
the duke of Ormonde, withdrew from the Low Countries, the dis-
content of the men at Marlborough's disgrace breaking out in
open mutiny, and thus ignominiously ended the career of the
army of Blenheim and Malplaquet. The coalition practically
dissolved.
But Holland and Austria determined to make one last effort
to impose their own terms on Louis. Eugene's army, which had
been used in 1711 to influence the imperial election instead of to
beat Villars, was brought back to the Low Countries. Reading
the meaning of Marlborough's fall, he quietly made preparations
to take over the various allied contingents into Imperial or Dutch
pay. Thus when England seceded, Ormonde only marched away
with some 12,000 sullen men, and over 100,000 remained with the
prjnce.
Misfortunes at Versailles helped Eugene in his first operations,
for three members of Louis's family died within a week and all
was in confusion, not to speak of the terrible misery that prevailed
in the country. But the old king's courage rose with the danger
and he told Villars that if the army were beaten he would himself
join it and share in its fate. Villars, though suffering still from
his Malplaquet wound, took command on the 2oth of April, and
spun out time on the defensive until the end of May, when
Ormonde's contingent withdrew. Eugene, apparently with the
intention of regaining the Mons line of operations, as the defec-
tion of England had made further operations near the sea
unprofitable, neglected to besiege, not only Arras, but Valen-
ciennes and Conde as well, and, based temporarily on Douai and
Marchiennes and Bouchain he took Le Quesnoy (July 4) and
moved thence on to Landrecies, which was closely invested.
Then followed the last serious fight of the war, the battle of
Denain, which saved the French monarch and completed the
disintegration of the coalition.
In order to protect his camps around Landrecies, Prince
Eugene constructed the usual lines of circumvallation with such
speed that Villars, on coming up, found that they were too
formidable to attack. Next, in order to guard the movements
of his convoys between Marchiennes-on-Scarpe and the front
against attacks from Cambrai or Valenciennes, he hedged in
the route on both sides with continuous lines of breastworks,
to the defence of which he assigned his Dutch corps. Villars
anxiously looked out for an opportunity of breaking these
modern " long walls." At Denain, the besiegers' route crossed
the Scheldt. From this point to the front, streams and other
obstacles reinforced the defence, but the marshal
was told by a country priest that the lines were
assailable north of Denain, and resolved to attack them there.
The enterprise, like Marlborough's forcing of the Ne plus ultra
lines, involved an extraordinary combination of resolution and
skill i.e. force and fraud for the point of attack was far away
and the opposing army almost within cannon-shot. Some days
were spent by Villars in deceiving Eugene and his own army as
well, as to his real intentions, and by various feints Eugene was
induced to mass his main body about Landrecies and Le Quesnoy
on the south side of the Scheldt. Then on the night of the 23rd
of July the French army moved off silently, with its bridging
train in the vanguard and cavalry posted everywhere along its
Deaain.
right flank to conceal the march. By 9 a.m. on the 24th
Villars's army had completely deployed on the north bank of the
Scheldt. Eugene himself saw them and galloped away to bring
up his army from Landrecies. But, long before it arrived,
Villars's troops, without wasting precious moments in formal
preparations, stormed the lines. The Dutch spiritless since
Malplaquet were huddled into the narrow avenue between the
two entrenchments and forced back on Denain. Their generals
were taken. The broken mob of fugitives proved too heavy a
load for the bridges at Denain, and many were drowned, while
the rest, pinned against the bank of the now impassable river,
tamely surrendered. Eugene arrived on the other bank with
some brigades of the imperial infantry, but after losing heavily
gave up the attempt to reopen the passage. Villars followed
up his victory at once. Montesquiou captured Marchiennes and
Albergotti St Amand, and in these places all Eugene's reserve
stores, pontoons and guns fell into the hands of the French.
On the 2nd of August Eugene broke up the siege of Landrecies
and retreated by a roundabout route to Mons, while Villars's
lieutenants retook Douai and Bouchain (September-October).
Before the next campaign opened the treaty of Utrecht had been
signed, and although the emperor continued the struggle alone
for another year, the enfeebled combatants were content to
accept Villars's captures of Landau (July 22, 1713) and
Freiburg (Nov. 21) as decisive. The treaty of Rastatt,
between Austria and France, was signed on the 7th of March
1714, Eugene and Villars being the negotiators.
See J. W. Fortescue, Hist. British Army, vol. i. (London, 1899);
lives of Marlborough; the Austrian official Feldziige des Prinzen
Eugen (Vienna, 1871-1892); Roder v. Diersburg's M arkgraf Ludwig
von Baden (Karlsruhe, 1850); Arneth's Prinz 'Eugen; Mkmoires
militaires relatifs cl la succession d'Espagne (1835; ed. De Vault);
detailed histories of the French army, and monographs in the
French general staff's Revue d'histoire. (C. F. A.)
NAVAL OPERATIONS, AND MILITARY OPERATIONS IN SPAIN
The war of the Spanish succession affected all the nations of
western, northern and central Europe in a greater or less degree,
but that part of it which was fought out on the soil of Spain
lay aside from the campaigns in Flanders, Germany and Italy.
The purely Spanish campaigns had a close connexion with the
movements of the fleets, and the two may be conveniently taken
together. The naval war was superficially somewhat wanting
in interest. Louis XIV., having to support armies of unprece-
dented size to contend with the forces of the Grand Alliance,
and having also to meet the immense cost of the support of his
court and the construction of palaces, was compelled to neglect
his navy. Except therefore in 1704 he made no attempt to
oppose the fleets of the allies with equal forces at sea. The
honour of the French flag was chiefly maintained by the priva-
teers who showed high courage and much skill. Some of their
enterprises were undertaken with well-appointed squadrons, and
attained to the dignity of regular operations of war.
When the Grand Alliance was formed on the 7th of September
1701 a French naval force under M. de Chateaurenault was in
the West Indies. Its avowed purpose was to cover the arrival
in Europe of the Spanish treasure ships. The secret intention
of King Louis XIV. was that the treasure should be brought into
a French port, and used by him for the general advantage of the
house of Bourbon. On the 1 2th of September a British squadron
of 10 ships commanded by Admiral Benbow was sent to the
West Indies to intercept Chateaurenault, and carry out other
attacks on the French and Spaniards. Benbow, who was
reinforced in the West Indies, did not intercept Chateaurenault,
and his cruise was rendered of no effect by the gross misconduct
of most of his captains, who refused to support him in an action
with a French squadron under M. Du Casse near St Martha
on the 2oth of August 1702 and subsequent days. He was
himself mortally wounded, but lived long enough to bring his
captains to court martial. Two of them were shot for cowardice.
The treasure fleet sailed for Europe only to fall into the hands of
the allies at Vigo. On the ist of July 1702 a powerful combined
fleet of 30 British sail-of-the-line under Sir George Rooke, and
SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE
607
20 Dutch under Admiral Allemonde sailed from Spithead carrying
5000 troops. The general command was given to the duke of
Ormonde. The purpose of this expedition was to occupy Cadiz
and encourage a rising in Andalusia on behalf of the Habsburg
candidate. It reached Cadiz on the 22nd of August, but the
inhabitants and the garrison remained loyal. The leaders of the
expedition quarrelled with one another and the soldiers aroused
the bitter indignation of the inhabitants by plundering the small
towns of Santa Maria and Rota. On the 3oth of September
the expedition sailed away. Information sent by the British
minister at Lisbon that Chateaurenault had put into Vigo reached
them at Lagos. The duke of Ormonde and his colleagues decided
to attack the treasure fleet. On the 22nd of October they forced
the boom laid by the enemy between the inner and outer harbours
of Vigo, and the treasure fleet was destroyed, but the bullion had
been landed.
During 1703 the "grand fleet " of the allies, i.e. their main
force in European waters, entered the Mediterranean to carry
help to the insurgent Protestants in the Cevennes, but effected
nothing of importance. Portugal having now joined the Alliance,
it was decided to make a serious effort in Spain. A combined
fleet carrying 4000 Dutch and 8000 British troops, and conveying
the archduke Charles, claimant of the Spanish throne, sailed from
Spithead on the nth of February 1704. Portugal undertook
to provide 30,000 troops to co-operate with the British and Dutch
who were landed at Lisbon on the 8th of March. The operations
on land were for the most part languid. The duke of Berwick
who commanded the Bourbon forces on the Spanish frontier
formed a vigorous plan for the invasion of Portugal. One
Spanish force under Don Francisco Ronquillo was to threaten
Beira Alta at Almeida. He himself entered Beira Baixa by
the north bank of the Tagus. The prince of Tzerclaes was to
have advanced from the south to meet Berwick at Villa Velha.
But though Berwick achieved some success, and though both the
Dutch general Fagel wh6 operated on the north of the Tagus, and
the British general, the duke of Scbomberg, who was stationed
on the south, proved indolent and incapable, the invasion failed.
Ronquillo and Tzerclaes failed to support Berwick, and the newly
levied Spanish troops proved unsteady. Fagel was surprised
and taken prisoner with 2000 men at Sobreira Fermosa, and some
of the frontier posts remained in Berwick's hands when the heat
from which the British and Dutch soldiers suffered severely
suspended operations. At sea, however, a material success was
gained. Sir George Rooke went on from Lisbon accompanied
by Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, to Barcelona. The
prince who had been governor of Catalonia, believed that he
could bring about a rising in the province in favour of the
Habsburg cause. As the fleet carried no considerable body of
troops, Rooke and Hesse-Darmstadt failed to persuade the
Catalans to act. They were embarrassed by the knowledge
that the count of Toulouse, a natural son of Louis XIV., the
admiral of France, who had sailed from Brest on the 6th of
May with 23 sail-of-the-line had entered the Mediterranean,
and had reached Toulon in June. In expectation of an attack
by the united fleets of Brest and Toulon, the allies fell back
to the straits. Having obtained information that Gibraltar
(g.v.) was not sufficiently garrisoned, they attacked and took
it on the 3rd of August. On the 24th the count of Toulouse,
came to the relief of the fortress with 50 sail-of-the-line, and 24
galleys. He engaged the allies, 62 British and Dutch line of
battleships in all, off Malaga. The engagement was a cannonade
accompanied with great loss of life, but without manoeuvring
on either side. The French retired to Toulon, and the allies
remained in possession of Gibraltar. An attempt of the Spaniards
to retake it, made at the end of 1704 and beginning of 1705
was baffled by the resolute defence of the prince of Hesse-
Darmstadt, and the relief afforded to the garrison by the squadron
of Sir John Leake, who was left on the coast cf Portugal, when
Sir George Rooke returned to .England.
The events of 1704 had persuaded the allies to make more
serious efforts to push the war in Spain. The duke of Schom-
berg was removed from the command of the troops in Portugal
and replaced by the earl of Galway, a French Huguenot exile.
But the main attack was made, and the first successes were
achieved on the east coast of Spain. On the 3rd of June 1705
Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough, was sent with a com-
mission to command both the fleet and the army, and to promote
a rising in favour of the Habsburg, or Austrian party. He was
joined by the archduke at Lisbon, and by the prince of Hesse-
Darmstadt at Gibraltar. The truth in regard to the operations
which followed has been very much obscured. Peterborough,
a man of much erratic cleverness, but vain, spiteful and abso-
lutely indifferent to truth, successfully represented himself as a
species of hero of romance who won the most astonishing
victories in spite of want of means, and of the ill will or incapacity
of his colleagues. Critical investigation has destroyed much of
the showy edifice of fiction he contrived to erect. The substantial
facts are that after some operations on the coast of Valencia,
which led to an insurrectionary movement in favour of the
archduke, Barcelona was attacked and taken between the I3th
of September and the gth of October. The prince of Hesse-
Darmstadt was killed during the siege.
All the east of Spain, the former kingdom of Aragon, which
was at all times restive under the supremacy of Castile, now
pronounced more or less openly for the Austrian party. The fall
of Barcelona gave a severe shock to the Bourbon king. He came
in person with Marshal Tesse who had replaced the duke of
Berwick, and endeavoured to retake the town early in April 1 706.
The brutality with which Tesse treated the people of Aragon
and Catalonia raised the country against the Bourbon king.
The British relieved Barcelona on the gth of May, and Philip V.
was compelled to retreat across the Pyrenees to Perpignan. In
the meantime the withdrawal of troops from the Portuguese
frontier for service in Catalonia, had opened the way for an
invasion of Castile by the allies, British, Portuguese and Dutch.
They occupied Madrid on the 25th of June 1706, and the queen
who acted as regent in the absence of her husband retired to
Burgos. But the success of the allies was merely apparent. The
appearance in their midst of an invading army of Portuguese
and heretics roused the national feeling of the Castilians. They
rallied to the Bourbon cause. As in the later Peninsular War,
guerrillero bands sprang up on all sides, and they found capable
leaders in Vallejo and Bracamonte. The duke of Berwick, who
was sent back to Spain, collected an army, and soon the allies,
who were distressed by want of provisions and bad health, were
forced to evacuate Madrid. They moved on Guadalajara
to meet the archduke who was advancing from the east. B erwick
outmanoeuvred them, and forced them to retreat on Valencia.
In February 1707 they were reinforced by troops brought by the
fleet and advanced in April. On the 2Sth of the month they were
defeated by the French and Spanish troops at Almansa in the
province of Alicante, with the loss of all their infantry.
From this date till 1710, the land war in Spain remained
stationary. The Bourbon king was master of the greater part of
Spain, including Aragon. His generals retook Lerida on the
Catalan frontier, and on the Portuguese frontier at La Gudina
near Badajoz, on the 7th of May 1709, a Spanish army under the
Marques de Bay defeated an Anglo-Portuguese army under the
earl of Galway. Yet the Austrian party held Catalonia and
Valencia, and the financial distress of the Spanish government,
aided by the disorganized state of the administration, rendered a
vigorous offensive impossible. By 1 7 10 the French king had been
reduced to great distress, and was compelled to make at least
a show of withdrawing his support from his grandson Philip V.
The allies decided to advance from Catalonia, a course which
was strongly urged by General Stanhope (afterwards Earl Stan-
hope), who commanded the British troops. He had served in
subordinate rank from the beginning of the war, and had gained
some reputation by the capture of Port Mahon in 1708. Stan-
hope's, energy overcame the reluctance of the Imperialist
general Guido Starhemberg, who ccmmanded the German troops
of the archduke. The allies advanced and for a time seemed to
carry all before them. The Spaniards were defeated at Almenara
on the 27th of July 1710, and before Saragossa on the 2oth of
6o8
SPARASSODONTA SPARKS
August. On the 2ist of September the archduke entered Madrid.
But the invasion of 1710 was a repetition of the invasion of 1706.
The 23,000 men of the allies, reduced by a loss of 2000 in the
actions at Almenara and Saragossa, by casualties in constant
skirmishes with the guerrilleros, and by disease, were absolutely
incapable of occupying the two Castiles. The Portuguese gave
no help. The Spaniards were reorganized by the duke of Ven-
d&me, who was lent to King Philip V. by his grandfather, and were
joined by soldiers of the Irish brigade, and by some Frenchmen
who were allowed, or secretly directed, to enter the Spanish
service. The position of the allies at Madrid, which was deserted
by all except the poorest of its inhabitants, became untenable.
On the gth of November they evacuated the town, and began
their retreat to Catalonia. The archduke left the army with
2000 cavalry, and hurried back to Barcelona. The rest of the
army marched in two detachments, the division being imposed
on them by difficulty of finding food. General Starhemberg
with the main body of 12,00x3 men, was a day's march ahead of
the British troops, 5000 men, under Stanhope. Such a dis-
position invited disaster in the presence of so capable a general
as Vendome. On the 9th of December he fell upon General
Stanhope at Brihuega, and after hard fighting forced him to
surrender. Starhemberg, who received tardy information of the
peril of his colleague, marched back to support him, and fought
a drawn battle at Villa Viciosa, on the i ith. The fruits of victory
fell to Vend6me, for the Imperialist general was compelled to
continue his retreat, harassed at every step by the Spanish
cavalry and irregulars. His army was reduced to 7000 men
when he reached Barcelona.
The disastrous result of the campaign of 1710 proved to
demonstration that it was impossible to force the archduke on
the Castilians by any effort the allies were prepared to make.
They remained quiescent at Barcelona till they evacuated the
country altogether on the Peace of Utrecht. The Catalans,
though deserted by their allies, continued to fight for their local
franchises which had been declared forfeited by the victorious
Bourbon king. Barcelona was only subdued on the I2th of
Sepiember 1714, after a siege of great length and extraordinary
ferocity, by the united exertions of the French and Spanish
troops under the command of the duke of Berwick.
The naval operations, apart from the transport and support
of the troops in Spain, were more numerous than memorable.
The overwhelming superiority of the allies alone enabled them
to maintain the war in the Peninsula, but as they met no serious
opposition except in 1704, there is nothing to record save their
successive cruises. In 1707 a British and Dutch fleet under
Sir Cloudesley Shovel aided the Imperialists in the unsuccessful
siege of Toulon. The action of the allied navy was in fact as
decisive as the naval strength of Great Britain was to be in the
later struggle with Napoleon. But it was less brilliant. The
many expeditions sent to the West Indies rarely did more than
plunder coast towns or plantations in the French islands. An
exception was indeed provided by the British admiral Sir Charles
Wager, who in May 1 708 destroyed or captured a whole squadron
of Spanish treasure ships near Cartagena in South America.
The loss of the treasure was a heavy blow to the government of
Philip V. and had much to do with his inability to follow up the
victory of Almansa. On the whole however neither the British
nor the Dutch achieved any material success against the French
in America. One powerful British combined force, which was
sent against Quebec in 1711, was compelled to return by the
shipwreck of a number of the vessels composing it at the mouth
of the St Lawrence on the 2ist of August. The French found
some consolation for the weakness of the royal navy in the daring
and the frequent success of their privateers. They were indeed
the finest operations of the kind recorded in naval warfare. As
the British and Dutch took measures to guard against capture
of their merchant ships by sailing in well protected convoys, the
French combined their privateers into squadrons and attacked
the guard with great vigour. On the 2oth of October 1708, a
British squadron of 5 line of battleships, of which 2 were of
80 guns; conveying a number of store ships to Lisbon, was
attacked near the Lizard, and was almost wholly destroyed or
captured by Duguay Trouin and Forbin with 12 smaller vessels.
This was but one example of a number of operations of the same
character by which the trade of Great Britain and Holland was
hampered. The most signal single achievement of the privateers
was the capture of Rio de Janeiro from the Portuguese in
September 1711 by a fleet of 6 sail-of-the-line and 6 frigates with
corsairs. The royal ships were equipped as a speculation by
Duguay Trouin and the shipowners of St Malo. The booty taken
gave a profit of 92 % on the capital invested.
AUTHORITIES. For the war on land The History of the War of the
Succession in Spain (London, 1832) by Lord Marion (Stanhope) is
still of value. Lord Mahon was, however, misled into placing too
much confidence in Peterborough. Colonel Parnell, The War of
Succession in Spain (London, 1888), goes perhaps into the opposite
extreme, but his history is full and is supported by copious references
to original authorities. The naval operations are told for Great
Britain by Lediard Naval History (London, 1735); for Holland by
De Jonghe, Geschiedenis van het nederlansche zeewezen (Haarlem,
1858); and for France by Tronde, Batailles navales de la France
(Paris 1867). (D. H.)
SPARASSODONTA, a zoological name applied to a group of
primitive carnivorous mammals from the Santa Cruz beds of
Patagonia, represented by the genera Borhyaena, Prolhylacinus,
Amphiprovwerra, &c. By their first describer, Dr F. Ameghino,
they were regarded as nearly related to the marsupials. They
are, however, more probably members of the creodont Carnivora
(see CREODONTA).
SPARKS, JARED (1780-1866), American historian and
educationalist, was born in Willington, Tolland county, Connecti-
cut, on the loth of May 1789. He studied in the common
schools, worked for a time at the carpenter's trade, and then
became a school-teacher. In 1809-1811 he attended Phillips
Exeter Academy, where he met John G. Palfrey and George
Bancroft, two schoolmates, who became his lifelong friends. He
graduated at Harvard (A.B., in 1815 and A.M., in 1818); taught
in a private school at Lancaster, Massachusetts, in 1815-1817;
and studied theology and was college tutor in mathematics
and natural philosophy at Harvard in 1817-1819. In 1817-1818
he was acting editor of the North American Review. He was
pastor of the First Independent Church (Unitarian) of Baltimore,
Maryland, in 1810-1823, Dr William Ellery Channing delivering
at his ordination his famous discourse on " Unitarian Christi-
anity." During this period Sparks founded the Unitarian
Miscellany and Christian Monitor (1821), a monthly, and edited
its first three volumes; he was chaplain of the national House
of Representatives in 1821-1823; and he contributed to the
National Intelligencer and other periodicals. In 1823 his health
failed and he withdrew from the ministry. Removing to Boston,
he bought and edited in 1824-1830 the North American Review,
contributing to it about fifty articles. He founded and edited,
in 1830 the American Almanac and Repository of Useful Know-
ledge, which was continued by others and long remained a popular
annual. After extensive researches at home and (1828-1829) in
London and Paris, he published the Life and Writings of George
Washington (12 vols., 1834-1837; redated 1842), his most im-
portant work; and in 1839 he published separately the Life of
George Washington (abridged, 2 vols., 1842). The work was for
the most part favourably received, but Sparks was severely
criticized by Lord Mahon (in the sixth volume of his History of
England} and others for altering the text of some of Washington's
writings. Sparks defended his methods in A Reply to the Stric-
tures of Lord Mahon and Others (1852). The charges were not
wholly justifiable, and later Lord Mahon (Stanhope) modified
them. While continuing his studies abroad, in 1840-1841, in
the history of the American War of Independence, Sparks dis-
covered in the French archives the red-line map, which, in 1842,
came into international prominence in connexion with the dis-
pute over the north-eastern boundary of the United States.
In 1842 he delivered twelve lectures on American history before
the Lowell Institute in Boston. In 1839-1849 he was McLean
professor of ancient and modern history at Harvard. His
appointment to this position, says his biographer, was " the
first academic encouragement of American history, and of
SPARROW SPARTA
609
original historical research in the American field." In 1849
Sparks succeeded Edward Everett as president of Harvard.
He retired in 1853 on account of failing health, and devoted the
rest of his life to his private studies. For several years he was a
member of the Massachusetts board of education. He died on
the i4th of March 1866, in Cambridge, Mass. His valuable
collection of manuscripts and papers went to Harvard; and his
private library and his maps were bought by Cornell University.
He was a pioneer in collecting, on a large scale, documentary
material on American history, and in this and in other ways
rendered valuable services to historical scholarship in the United
States.
Among Sparks's publications not already mentioned, are Memoirs
of the Life and Travels of John Ledyard (1828); The Diplomatic
Correspondence of the American Revolution (12 vols., 1829-1830;
redated 1854); Life of Gouverneur Morris, with Selections from his
Correspondence and Miscellaneous Papers (3 vols., 1832) ; A Collection
of the Familiar Letters and Miscellaneous Papers of Benjamin Franklin
(1833); The Works of Benjamin Franklin; with Notes and a Life
of the Author (10 vols., 1836-1840; redated 1850), a work second in
scope and importance to his Washington; Correspondence of the
American Revolution; being Letters of Eminent Men to George
Washington, from the Time of his taking Command of the Army to
the End of his Presidency (4 vols.,. 1853). He also edited the Library
of American Biography, in two series (10 and 15 vols. respectively,
1834-1838, 1844-1847), to which he contributed the lives of Ethan
Allen, Benedict Arnold, Marquette, La Salle, Count Pulaski, John
Ribault, Charles Lee and John Ledyard, the last a reprint of his
earlier work. In addition, he aided Henry D. Gilpin in preparing
an edition of the Papers of James Madison (1840), and brought out
an American edition of William Smyth's Lectures on Modern History
(2 vols., 1841), which did much to stimulate historical study in the
United States.
See Herbert B. Adams, The Life and Writings of Jared Sparks
(2 vols., Boston, 1893); also Brantz Mayer, Memoir of Jared Sparks
(1867), prepared for the Maryland Historical Society; and George
E. Ellis, Memoir of Jared Sparks (1869), reprinted from the Pro-
ceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society for May 1868.
(W. L. C.*)
SPARROW (O. Eng. spearwa; Icel. sporr; O.H.G. Sparo), a
word perhaps (like the equivalent Latin passer) originally
meaning almost any small bird, but gradually restricted in
signification, and nowadays in common English applied ' to
only four kinds, which are further differentiated as hedge-
sparrow, house-sparrow, tree-sparrow and reed-sparrow the
last being a bunting (q.v.) though when used without a prefix
the second of these is usually intended.
1. The hedge-sparrow, called " dunnock " in many parts of
Britain, Accentor modularis of the sub-family Turdinae of the
thrushes (q.v.), is the little brown-backed bird with an iron-grey
head and neck that is to be seen in nearly every garden through-
out the country, unobtrusively and yet tamely seeking its food,
which consists almost wholly of insects, as it progresses over the
ground in short jumps, each movement being accompanied by
a slight jerk or shuffle of the wings. Though on the continent
of Europe it regularly migrates, it is one of the few soft-billed
birds that reside throughout the year with us, and is one of the
earliest breeders its well-known greenish-blue eggs, laid in a
warmly built nest, being recognized by hundreds as among the
surest signs of returning spring; but a second or even a third
brood is produced later. The cock has a sweet but rather
feeble song; and the species has long been accounted, though
not with accuracy, to be the most common dupe of the cuckoo.
Several other species are assigned to the genus Accentor; but all,
except the Japanese A. rubidus, which is the counterpart of the
British hedge-sparrow, inhabit more or less rocky situations, and
one, A. collaris, or alpinus, is a denizen of the higher mountain-
ranges of Europe, though it has several times strayed to England.
2. The house-sparrow, the Fringilla domestica of Linnaeus
and Passer domesticits of modern authors, is far too well known
to need any description of its appearance or habits, being found,
whether in country or town, more attached to human dwellings
than any other wild bird; nay, more than that, one may safely
assert that it is not known to thrive anywhere far away from
the habitations or works of men, extending its range in such
countries as northern Scandinavia and many parts of the Russian
Empire as new settlements are formed and land brought under
xxv. 20
cultivation. Thus questions arise as to whether it should not
be considered a parasite throughout the greater portion of the
area it now occupies, and as to what may have been its native
country. Moreover, it has been introduced to several of the
large towns of North America and to many of the British
colonies, in nearly all of which, as had been foreseen by ornitho-
logists, it has multiplied to excess and has become an intolerable
nuisance, being unrestrained by the natural checks which partly
restrict its increase in Europe and Asia. Whether indeed in the
older seats of civilization the house-sparrpw is not decidedly
injurious to the agriculturist and horticulturist has long been a
matter of discussion, and no definite result that a fair judge can
accept has yet been reached. It is freely admitted that the
damage done to growing crops is often enormous, but as yet the
service frequently rendered by the destruction of insect-pests
cannot be calculated. In the south of Europe the house-sparrow
is in some measure replaced by two allied species, P. hispaniolensis
and P. italiae, whose habits are essentially identical with its own;
and it is doubtful whether the sparrow of India, P. indicus,
is specifically distinct; but Africa has several members of the
genus which are decidedly so.
3. The tree-sparrow, the Fringilla montana of Linnaeus
and Passer montanus of modern writers both sexes of which
much resemble the male house-sparrow, but are easily distin-
guishable by the reddish-brown crown, the black patch on the
sides of the neck, and doubly-barred wings is a much more local
species, in England generally frequenting the rows of pollard-
willows that line so many rivers and canals, in the holes of which
it breeds; but in some Eastern countries, and especially in China,
it frequents houses, even in towns, and so fills the place of the
house-sparrow. Its geographical distribution is extensive and
marked by some curious characters, among which may be
mentioned that, being a great wanderer, it has effected settle-
ment seven in such remote islands as the Faeroes and some of
the Outer Hebrides.
The genus Passer belongs to the Passerine family Fringillidae.
The American birds called " sparrows " have little in common
with the members of the genus Passer, and belong to the family
Emberizidae, which is closely allied to the Fringillidae. (A. N.)
SPARTA (Gr. STTCIPTTJ or AaKtBai/juv) , an ancient city in
Greece, the capital of Laconia and the most powerful state
of the Peloponnese. The city lay at the northern end of the
central Laconian plain, on the right bank of the river Eurotas,
a little south of the point where it is joined by its largest tribu-
tary, the Oenus (mod. Kelefma). The site is admirably fitted
by nature to guard the only routes by which an army can
penetrate Laconia from the land side, the Oenus and Eurotas
valleys leading from Arcadia, its northern neighbour, and the
Langada Pass over Mt Taygetus connecting Laconia and
Messenia. At the same time its distance from the sea Sparta
is 27 m. from its seaport, Gythium made it invulnerable to a
maritime attack.
I. HISTORY
Prehistoric Period. Tradition relates that Sparta was
founded by Lacedaemon, son of Zeus and Taygete, who
called the city after the name of his wife, the daughter of
Eurotas. But Amyclae and Therapne (Therapnae) seem to
have been in early times of greater importance than Sparta,
the former a Minyan foundation a few miles to the south of
Sparta, the latter probably the Achaean capital of Laconia and
the seat of Menelaus, Agamemnon's younger brother. Eighty
years after the Trojan War, according to the traditional chrono-
logy, the Dorian migration took place. A band of Dorians
(q.v.) united with a body of Aetolians to cross the Corinthian
Gulf and invade the Peloponnese from the north-
west. The Aetolians settled in Elis, the Dorians '* oa
pushed up to the headwaters of the Alpheus, where
they divided into two forces, one of which under Cresphontes
invaded and later subdued Messenia, while the other, led by
Aristodemus or, according to another version, by his twin sons
Eurysthenes and Procles, made its way down the Eurotas
valley and gained Sparta, which became the Dorian capital
6io
SPARTA
of Laconia. In reality this Dorian immigration probably con-
sisted of a series of inroads and settlements rather than a single
great expedition, as depicted by legend, and was aided by the
Minyan elements in the population, owing to their dislike of
the Achaean yoke. The newly founded state did not at once
become powerful: it was weakened by internal dissension and
lacked the stability of a united and well-organized community.
The turning-point is marked by the legislation of Lycurgus
(q.v.), who effected the unification of the state and instituted
that training which was its distinguishing feature and the source
of its greatness. Nowhere else in the Greek world was the
pleasure of the individual so thoroughly subordinated to the
interest of the state. The whole education of the Spartan was
designed to make him an efficient soldier. Obedience, endur-
ance, military success these were the aims constantly kept in
view, and beside these all ether ends took a secondary place.
Never, perhaps, in the world's history has a state so clearly
set a definite ideal before itself or striven so consistently to
reach it. But it was solely in this consistency and steadfastness
that the greatness of Sparta lay. Her ideal was a narrow and
unworthy one, and was pursued with a calculating selfishness
and a total disregard for the rights of others, which robbed it
of the moral worth it might otherwise have possessed. Never-
theless, it is not probable that without the training introduced
by Lycurgus the Spartans would have been successful in secur-
ing their supremacy in Laconia, much less in the Peloponnese,
for they formed a small immigrant band face to face with a
large and powerful Achaean and autochthonous population.
The Expansion of Sparta. We cannot trace in detail the
process by which Sparta subjugated the whole of Laconia,
but apparently the first step, taken in the reign of Archelaus
and Charillus, was to secure the upper Eurotas valley, con-
quering the border territory of Aegys. Archelaus' son Teleclus
is said to have taken Amyclae, Pharis and Geronthrae, thus
mastering the central Laconian plain and the eastern plateau
which lies between the Eurotas and Mt Parnon: his son, Alca-
menes, by the subjugation of Helos brought the lower Eurotas
plain under Spartan rule. About this time, probably, the
Argives, whose territory included the whole east coast of the
Peloponnese and the island of Cythera (Herod, i. 82), were
driven back, and the whole of Laconia was thus incorporated
in the Spartan state. It was not long before a further ex-
tension took place. Under Alcamenes and Theopompus a
war broke out between the Spartans and the Messenians, their
neighbours on the west, which, after a struggle
Wars." " lasting for twenty years, ended in the capture of
the stronghold of Ithome and the subjection of the
Messenians, who were forced to pay half the produce of the soil
as tribute to their Spartan overlords. An attempt to throw off
the yoke resulted in a second war, conducted by the Messenian
hero Aristomenes (q.v.); but Spartan tenacity broke down the
resistance of the insurgents, and Messenia was made Spartan
territory, just as Laconia had been, its inhabitants being re-
duced to the status of helots, save those who, as perioeci, in-
habited the towns on the sea-coast and a few settlements inland.
This extension of Sparta's territory was viewed with appre-
hension by her neighbours in the Peloponnese. Arcadia and
Argos had vigorously aided the Messenians in their two struggles,
and help was also sent by the Sicyonians, Pisatans and Triphy-
lians: only the Corinthians appear to have supported the Spar-
tans, doubtless on account of their jealousy of their powerful
neighbours, the Argives. At the close of the second Messenian
War, i.e. by the war 631 at latest, no power could hope to cope
with that of Sparta save Arcadia and Argos. Early in the 6th
century the Spartan kings Leon and Agasicles made a vigorous
attack on Tegea, the most powerful of the Arcadian cities, but
it was not until the reign of Anaxandridas and Ariston, about
the middle of the century, that the attack was successful and
Tegea was forced to acknowledge Spartan overlordship, though
retaining its independence. The final struggle for Peloponnesian
supremacy was with Argos, which had at an early period
been the most powerful state of the peninsula, and even now,
though its territory had been curtailed, was a serious rival of
Sparta. But Argos was now no longer at the height of its
power: its league had begun to break up early in the
century, and it could not in the impending struggle ivare*
count on the assistance of its old allies, Arcadia
and Messenia, since the latter had been crushed and robbed
of its independence and the former had acknowledged Spartan
supremacy. A victory won about 546 B.C., when the Lydian
Empire fell before Cyrus of Persia, made the Spartans masters
of the Cynuria, the borderland between Laconia and Argolis,
for which there had been an age-long struggle. The final blow
was struck by King Cleomenes I. (q.v.), who maimed for many
years to come the Argive power and left Sparta without a rival
in the Peloponnese. In fact, by the middle of the 6th century,
and increasingly down to the period of the Persian Wars,
Sparta had come to be acknowledged as the leading state of
Hellas and the champion of Hellenism. Croesus of Lydia
had formed an alliance with her. Scythian envoys sought her
aid to stem the invasion of Darius; to her the Greeks of Asia
Minor appealed to withstand the Persian advance and to aid
the Ionian revolt; Plataea asked for her protection; Megara
acknowledged her supremacy; and at the time of the Persian
invasion under Xerxes no state questioned her right to lead
the Greek forces on land and sea. Of such a position Sparta
proved herself wholly unworthy. As an ally she was ineffec-
tive, nor could she ever rid herself of her narrowly Pelopon-
nesian outlook sufficiently to throw herself heartily into the
affairs of the greater Hellas that lay beyond the isthmus and
across the sea. She was not a colonizing state, though the
inhabitants of Tarentum, in southern Italy, and of Lyttus, in
Crete, claimed her as their mother-city. Moreover, she had no
share in the expansion of Greek commerce and Greek culture;
and, though she bore the reputation of hating tyrants and
putting them down where possible, there can be little doubt
that this was done in the interests of oligarchy rather than of
liberty. Her military greatness and that of the states under
her hegemony formed her sole claim to lead the Greek race:
that she should truly represent it was impossible.
Constitution. Of the internal development of Sparta down
to this time but little is recorded. This want of information
was attributed by most of the Greeks to the stability of the
Spartan constitution, which had lasted unchanged from the
days of Lycurgus. But it is, in fact, due also to the absence of
an historical literature at Sparta, to the small part played by
written laws, which were, according to tradition, expressly pro-
hibited by an ordinance of Lycurgus, and to the secrecy which
always characterizes an oligarchical rule. At the head of the
state stood two hereditary kings, of the Agiad and Eurypontid
families, equal in authority, so that one could not act against
the veto of his colleague, though the Agiad king received greater
honour in virtue of the seniority of his family (Herod, vi. 51).
This dual kingship, a phenomenon unique in Greek
history, was explained in Sparta by the tradition
that on Aristodemus's death he had been succeeded by his twin
sons, and that this joint rule had been perpetuated. Modern
scholars have advanced various theories to account for the
anomaly. Some suppose that it must be explained as an attempt
to avoid absolutism, and is paralleled by the analogous instance
of the consuls at Rome. Others think that it points to a com-
promise arrived at to end the struggle between two families
or communities, or that the two royal houses represent respec-
tively the Spartan conquerors and their Achaean predecessors:
those who hold this last view appeal to the words attributed
by Herodotus (v. 72) to Cleomenes I.: "I am no Dorian, but
an Achaean." The duties of the kings were mainly religious,
judicial and military. They were the chief priests of the
state, and had to perform certain sacrifices and to maintain
communication with the Delphian sanctuary, which always
exercised great authority in Spartan politics. Their judicial
functions had at the time when Herodotus wrote (about 430
B.C.) been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions
and the public roads: civil cases were decided by the ephors,
SPARTA
611
criminal jurisdiction had passed to the council of elders and the
ephors. It was in the military sphere that the powers of the
kings were most unrestricted. Aristotle describes the king-
ship at Sparta as " a kind of unlimited and perpetual general-
ship " (Pol. iii. 1285^), while Isocrates refers to the Spartans
as " subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on cam-
paign " (iii. 24). Here also, however, the royal prerogatives
were curtailed in course of time: from the period of the Per-
sian wars the king lost the right of declaring war on whom he
pleased, he was accompanied to the field by two ephors, and he
was supplanted also by the ephors in the control of foreign
policy. More and more, as time went on, the kings became
mere figure-heads, except in their capacity as generals, and the
real power was transferred to the ephors and to the gerousia
(q.v.). The reason for this change lay partly in the fact that
the ephors, chosen by popular election from the whole body
of citizens, represented a democratic element in the constitution
without violating those oligarchical methods which seemed
necessary for its satisfactory administration; partly in the weak-
ness of the kingship, the dual character of which inevitably
gave rise to jealousy and discord between the two holders of
the office, often resulting in a practical deadlock; partly in the
loss of piestige suffered by the kingship, especially during the
5th century, owing to these quarrels, to the frequency with
which kings ascended the throne as minors and a regency was
necessary, and to the many cases in which a king was, rightly
or wrongly, suspected of having accepted bribes from the
enemies of the state and was condemned and banished. In
the powers exercised by the assembly of the citizens or apella
(q.v.) we cannot trace any development, owing to the scantiness
of our sources. The Spartan was essentially a soldier, trained
to obedience and endurance: he became a politician only if
chosen as ephor for a single year or elected a life member of
the council after his sixtieth year had brought freedom from
military service.
Shortly after birth the child was brought before the elders
of the tribe, who decided whether it was to be reared: if de-
fective or weakly, it was exposed in the so-called
au" e 'af. 01 ' Apothetae (at 'A7ro0er<u, from aTrotferos, hidden).
Thus was secured, as far as could be, the main-
tenance of a high standard of physical efficiency, and thus
from the earliest days of the Spartan the absolute claim
of the state to his life and service was indicated and enforced.
Till their seventh year boys were educated at home: from that
time their training was undertaken by the state and super-
vised by the TrtuSocojuos, an official appointed for that purpose.
This training consisted for the most part in physical exer-
cises, such as dancing, gymnastics, ball-games, &c., with music
and literature occupying a subordinate position. From the
twentieth year began the Spartan's liability to military service
and his membership of one of the avBpeia or </)i6irta (dining
messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, to
one of which every citizen must belong. At thirty began the
full citizen rights and duties. For the exercise of these three
conditions were requisite: Spartiate birth, the training pre-
scribed by law, and participation in and contribution to one
of the dining-clubs. Those who fulfilled these conditions were
the 6fMioL (peers), citizens in the fullest sense of the word,
while those who failed were called viro^iovts (lesser men),
and retained only the civil rights of citizenship.
Spartiates were absolutely debarred by law from trade or
manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the
perioeci (<?..), and were forbidden to possess either
ss<em. Sld or silver, the currency consisting of bars of
iron: but there can be no doubt that this pro-
hibition was evaded in various ways. Wealth was, in theory
at least, derived entirely from landed property, and consisted
in the annual return made by the helots (q.v.) who cultivated
the plots of ground allotted to the Spartiates. But this attempt
to equalize property proved a failure: from early times there
were marked differences of wealth within the state, and these
became even more serious after the law of Epitadeus, passed
Persian
Wars.
at some time after the Peloponnesian War, removed the legal
prohibition of the gift or bequest of land. Later we find the
soil coming more and more into the possession of large land-
holders, and by the -middle of the 3rd century B.C. nearly two-
fifths of Laconia belonged to women. Hand in hand with this
process went a serious diminution in the number of full citizens,
who had numbered 8000 at the beginning of the sth century,
but had sunk by Aristotle's day to less than 1000, and had
further decreased to 700 at the accession of Agis IV. in 244 B.C.
The Spartans did what they could to remedy this by law: certain
penalties were imposed upon those who remained unmarried
or who married too late in life. But the decay was too deep-
rooted to be eradicated by such means, and we shall see that
at a late period in Sparta's history an attempt was made without
success to deal with the evil by much more drastic measures.
The sth Century B.C. The beginning of the 5th century saw
Sparta at the height of her power, though her prestige must
have suffered in the fruitless attempts made to impose upon
Athens an oligarchical regime after the fall of the Peisis-
tratid tyranny in 510. But after the Persian Wars the Spartan
supremacy could no longer remain unchallenged. Sparta had
despatched an army in 490 to aid Athens in repelling the
armament sent against it by Darius under the command of Datis
and Artaphernes: but it arrived after the battle of Marathon
had been fought and the issue of the conflict decided. In the
second campaign, conducted ten years later by Xerxes in person,
Sparta took a more active share and assumed the command of
the combined Greek forces by sea and land. Yet, in spite of
the heroic defence of Thermopylae by the Spartan king Leo-
nidas (q.v.), the glory of the decisive victory at Salamis fell in
great measure to the Athenians, and their patriotism,
self-sacrifice and energy contrasted strongly with
the hesitation of the Spartans and the selfish policy
which they advocated of defending the Peloponnese only. By
the battle of Plataea (479 B.C.), won by a Spartan general,
and decided chiefly by the steadfastness of Spartan troops,
the state partially recovered its prestige, but only so far as land
operations were concerned: the victory of Mycale, won in the
same year, was achieved by the united Greek fleet, and the
capture of Sestos, which followed, was due to the Athenians,
the Peloponnesians having returned home before the siege was
begun. Sparta felt that an effort was necessary to recover her
position, and Pausanias, the victor of Plataea, was sent out as
admiral of the Greek fleet. But though he won considerable
successes, his overbearing and despotic behaviour and the
suspicion that he was intriguing with the Persian king alienated
, the sympathies of those under his command : he was recalled
by the ephors, and his successor, Dorcis, was a weak man who
allowed the transference of the hegemony from Sparta to Athens
to take place without striking a blow (see DELIAN LEAGUE).
By the withdrawal of Sparta and her Peloponnesian allies from
the fleet the perils and the glories of the Persian War were left
to Athens, who, though at the outset merely the leading state
in a confederacy of free allies, soon began to make herself the
mistress of an empire. Sparta took no steps at first to prevent
this. Her interests and those of Athens did not directly clash,
for Athens included in her empire only the islands of the Aegean
and the towns on its north and east coasts, which lay outside
the Spartan political horizon: with the Peloponnese Athens
did not meddle. Moreover, Sparta's attention was at this time
fully occupied by troubles nearer home the plots of Pausanias
not only with the Persian king but with the Laconian helots;
the revolt of Tegea (c. 473-71), rendered all the more formidable
by the participation of Argos; the earthquake which in 464
devastated Sparta; and the rising of the Messenian helots, which
immediately followed. But there was a growing estrangement
from Athens, which ended at length in an open breach. The
insulting dismissal of a large body of Athenian troops which
had come, under Cimon, to aid the Spartans in the
siege of the Messenian stronghold of Ithome, the
consummation of the Attic democracy under Ephi-
altes and Pericles, the conclusion of an alliance between Athens
6l2
SPARTA
and Argos, which also about this time became democratic,
united with other causes to bring about a rupture between the
Athenians and the Peloponnesian League. In this so-called
first Peloponnesian War Sparta herself took but a small share
beyond helping to inflict a defeat on the Athenians at Tanagra
in 457 B.C. After this battle they concluded a truce, which gave
the Athenians an opportunity of taking their revenge on the
Boeotians at the battle of Oenophyta, of annexing to their
empire Boeotia, Phocis and Locris, and of subjugating Aegina.
In 449 the war was ended by a five years' truce, but after Athens
had lost her mainland empire by the battle of Coronea and the
revolt of Megara a thirty years' peace was concluded, probably
in the winter 446-445 B.C. By this Athens was obliged to sur-
render Troezen, Achaea and the two Megarian ports, Nisaea
and Pegae, but otherwise the status quo was maintained. A
fresh struggle, the great Peloponnesian War (q.v.), broke out
in 431 B.C. This may be to a certain extent regarded as a
contest between Ionian and Dorian; it may with greater truth
be called a struggle between the democratic and oligarchic
principles of government; but at bottom its cause
neian"war. was neither racial nor constitutional, but economic.
The maritime supremacy of Athens was used for
commercial purposes, and important members of the Pelopon-
nesian confederacy, whose wealth depended largely on their
commerce, notably Corinth, Megara, Sicyon and Epidaurus,
were being slowly but relentlessly crushed. Materially Sparta
must have remained almost unaffected, but she was forced to
take action by the pressure of her allies and by the necessities
imposed by her position as head of the league. She did not,
however, prosecute the war with any marked vigour: her
operations were almost confined to an annual inroad into Attica,
and when in 425 a body of Spartiates was captured by the
Athenians at Pylos she was ready, and even anxious, to ter-
minate the war on any reasonable conditions. That the terms
of the Peace of Nicias, which in 421 concluded the first phase
of the war, were rather in favour of Sparta than of Athens was
due almost entirely to the energy and insight of an individual
Spartan, Brasidas (q.v.), and the disastrous attempt of Athens
to regain its lost land-empire. The final success of Sparta
and the capture of Athens in 405 were brought about partly
by the treachery of Alcibiades, who induced the state to send
Gylippus to conduct the defence of Syracuse, to fortify Decelea
in northern Attica, and to adopt a vigorous policy of aiding
Athenian allies to revolt. The lack of funds which would have
proved fatal to Spartan naval warfare was remedied by the
intervention of Persia, which supplied large subsidies, and
Spartan good fortune culminated in the possession at this ,
time of an admiral of boundless vigour and considerable
military ability, Lysander, to whom much of Sparta's success
is attributable.
The 4th Century. The fall of Athens left Sparta once again
supreme in the Greek world and demonstrated clearly her
total unfitness for rule. Everywhere democracy was replaced
by a philo-Laconian oligarchy, usually consisting of ten men
under a harmost or governor pledged to Spartan
Enapire! interests, and even in Laconia itself the narrow
and selfish character of the Spartan rule led to a
serious conspiracy. For a short time, indeed, under the
energetic rule of Agesilaus, it seemed as if Sparta would pursue
a Hellenic policy and carry on the war against Persia. But
troubles soon broke out in Greece, Agesilaus was recalled from
Asia Minor, and his schemes and successes were rendered fruit-
less. Further, the naval activity displayed by Sparta during the
closing years of the Peloponnesian War abated when Persian
subsidies were withdrawn, and the ambitious projects of Ly-
sander led to his disgrace, which was followed by his death at
Haliartus in 395. In the following year the Spartan navy under
Peisander, Agesilaus' brother-in-law, was defeated off Cnidus
by the Persian fleet under Conon and Pharnabazus, and for
the future Sparta ceased to be a maritime power. In Greece
itself meanwhile the opposition to Sparta was growing increas-
ingly powerful, and, though at Coronea Agesilaus had slightly
the better of the Boeotians and at Corinth the Spartans main-
tained their position, yet they felt it necessary to rid them-
selves of Persian hostility and if possible use the Persian power
to strengthen their own position at home: they therefore
concluded with Artaxerxes II. the humiliating Peace of
Antalcidas (387 B.C.), by which they surrendered to the Great
King the Greek cities of the Asia Minor coast and of Cyprus, and
stipulated for the independence of all other Greek cities. This
last clause led to a long and desultory war with Thebes, which
refused to acknowledge the independence of the Boeotian
towns under its hegemony: the Cadmeia, the citadel of Thebes,
was treacherously seized by Phoebidas in 382 and held by the
Spartans until 379. Still more momentous was the Spartan
action in crushing the Olynthiac Confederation (see OLYNTHUS),
which might have been able to stay the growth of Macedonian
power. In 371 a fresh peace congress was summoned at Sparta
to ratify the Peace of Callias. Again the Thebans refused to
renounce their Boeotian hegemony, and the Spartan attempt
at coercion ended in the defeat of the Spartan army at the
battle of Leuctra and the death of its leader, King Cleombrotus.
The result of the battle was to transfer the Greek supremacy
from Sparta to Thebes.
In the course of three expeditions to the Peloponnese con-
ducted by Epaminondas, the greatest soldier and statesman
Thebes ever produced, Sparta was weakened by
the loss of Messenia, which was restored to an in- sparta."
dependent position with the newly built Messene
as its capital, and by the foundation of Megalopolis as the
capital of Arcadia. The invading army even made its way
into Laconia and devastated the whole of its southern portion;
but the courage and coolness of Agesilaus saved Sparta itself
from attack. On Epaminondas' fourth expedition Sparta
was again within an ace of capture, but once more the danger
was averted just in time; and though at Mantinea (362 B.C.)
the Thebans, together with the Arcadians, Messenians and
Argives, gained a victory over the combined Mantinean, Athenian
and Spartan forces, yet the death of Epaminondas in the battle
more than counterbalanced the Theban victory and led to the
speedy break-up of their supremacy. But Sparta had neither
the men nor the money to recover her lost position, and the
continued existence on her borders of an independent Messenia
and Arcadia kept her in constant fear for her own safety. She
did, indeed, join with Athens and Achaea in 353 to prevent
Philip of Macedon passing Thermopylae and entering Phocis,
but beyond this she took no part in the struggle of
Greece with the new power which had sprung up on Macedon.
her northern borders. No Spartiate fought on the
field of Chaeronea. After the battle, however, she refused to
submit voluntarily to Philip, and was forced to do so by the
devastation of Laconia and the transference of certain border
districts to the neighbouring states of Argos, Arcadia and
Messenia. During the absence of Alexander the Great in the
East Agis III. revolted, but the rising was crushed by Anti-
pater, and a similar attempt to throw off the Macedonian yoke
made by Archidamus IV. in the troublous period which suc-
ceeded Alexander's death was frustrated by Demetrius Polior-
cetes in 294 B.C. Twenty-two years later the city was attacked
by an immense force under Pyrrhus, but Spartan bravery had
not died out and the formidable enemy was repulsed, even the
women taking part in the defence of the city. About 244 an
Aetolian army overran Laconia, working irreparable harm and
carrying off, it is said, 50,000 captives.
But the social evils within the state were even harder to
combat than foes without. Avarice, luxury and the glaring
inequality in the distribution of wealth, threatened to bring
about the speedy fall of the state if no cure could be found.
Agis IV. and Cleomenes III. (qq.v.) made an heroic and entirely
disinterested attempt in the latter part of the 3rd century to
improve the conditions by a redistribution of land, a widening
of the citizen body, and a restoration of the old severe training
and simple life. But the evil was too deep-seated to be remedied
by these artificial means; Agis was assassinated, and the
SPARTA
613
reforms of Cleomenes seem to have had no permanent effect.
The reign of Cleomenes is marked also by a determined effort
to cope with the rising power of the Achaean League (q.v .) and to
recover for Sparta her long-lost supremacy in the Peloponnese,
and even throughout Greece. The battle of Sellasia (222 B.C.),
in which Cleomenes was defeated by the Achaeans and Antigonus
Doson of Macedonia, and the death of the king, which occurred
shortly afterwards in Egypt, put an end to these hopes. The
same reign saw also an important constitutional change, the
substitution of a board of patronomi for the ephors, whose
power had become almost despotic, and the curtailment of the
functions exercised by the gerousia; these measures were,
however, cancelled by Antigonus. It was not long afterwards
that the dual kingship ceased and Sparta fell under the sway
of a series of cruel and rapacious tyrants Lycurgus, Machani-
das, who was killed by Philopoemen, and Nabis, who, if we
may trust the accounts given by Polybius and Livy, was little
better than a bandit chieftain, holding Sparta by means of
extreme cruelty and oppression, and using mercenary troops to
a large extent in his wars.
The Intervention of Rome. We must admit, however, that a
vigorous struggle was maintained with the Achaean League
and with Macedon until the Romans, after the conclusion of
their war with Philip V., sent an army into Laconia under
T. Quinctius Flamininus. Nabis was forced to capitulate, evacu-
ating all his possessions outside Laconia, surrendering the
Laconian seaports and his navy, and paying an indemnity
of 500 talents (Livy xxxiv. 33-43). On the departure of the
Romans he succeeded in recovering Gythium, in spite of an
attempt to relieve it made by the Achaeans under Philopoemen,
but in an encounter he suffered a crushing defeat at the hands
of that general, who for thirty days ravaged Laconia unopposed.
Nabis was assassinated in 192, and Sparta was forced by Philo-
poemen to enrol itself as a member of the Achaean League
(q.v.) under a phil-Achaean aristocracy. But this
League. gave rise to chronic disorders and disputes, which led
to armed intervention on the part of the Achaeans,
who compelled the Spartans to submit to the overthrow of their
city walls, the dismissal of their mercenary troops, the recall
of all exiles, the abandonment of the old Lycurgan constitution
and the adoption of the Achaean laws and institutions
(188 B.C.). Again and again the relations between the Spartans
and the Achaean League formed the occasion of discussions in
the Roman senate or of the despatch of Roman embassies to
Greece, but no decisive intervention took place until a fresh
dispute about the position of Sparta in the league led to a de-
cision of the Romans that Sparta, Corinth, Argos, Arcadian
Orchomenus and Heraclea on Oeta should be severed from it.
This resulted in an open breach between the league and Rome,
and eventually, in 146 B.C., after the sack of Corinth, in the
dissolution of the league and the annexation of Greece to the
Roman province of Macedonia. For Sparta the long era of
war and intestine struggle had ceased and one of peace and a
revived prosperity took its place, as is witnessed by the
numerous extant inscriptions belonging to this period. As
an allied city it was exempt from direct taxation, though
compelled on occasions to make " voluntary " presents to
Roman generals. Political ambition was restricted to the
tenure of the municipal magistracies, culminating in the offices
of nomophylax, ephor and patronomus. Augustus showed
marked favour to the city, Hadrian twice visited it during his
journeys in the East and accepted the title of eponymous
patronomus. The old warlike spirit found an outlet chiefly in
the vigorous but peaceful contests held in the gymnasium,
the ball-place, and the arena before the temple of Artemis
Orthia: sometimes too it found a vent in actual campaigning,
as when Spartans were enrolled for service against the Parthians
by the emperors Lucius Verus, Septimius Severus and Cara-
calla. Laconia was subsequently overrun, like so much of the
Roman Empire, by barbarian hordes.
Medieval Sparta. In. A.D. 396 Alaric destroyed the city and
at a later period Laconia was invaded and settled by Slavonic
tribes, especially the Melings and Ezerits, who in turn had to give
way before the advance of the Byzantine power, though pre-
serving a partial independence in the mountainous regions.
The Franks on their arrival in the Morea found a fortified city
named Lacedaemonia occupying part of the site of ancient
Sparta, and this continued to exist, though greatly depopulated,
even after Guillaume de Villehardouin had in 1248-1249 founded
the fortress and city of Misithra, or Mistra, on a spur of Tay-
getus some 3 m. north-west of Sparta. This passed shortly
afterwards into the hands of the Byzantines, who retained it
until the Turks under Mahommed II. captured it in 1460.
In 1687 it came into the possession of the Venetians, from whom
it was wrested in 1715 by the Turks. Thus for nearly six
centuries it was Mistra and not Sparta which formed the centre
and focus of Laconian history.
The Modern City. In 1834, after the War of Independence
had resulted in the liberation of Greece, the modern town of
Sparta was built on part of the ancient site from the designs of
Baron Jochmus, and Mistra decayed until now it is in ruins
and almost deserted. Sparta is the capital of the prefecture
(j'Oyuos) of Lacedaemon and has a population, according to the
census taken in 1907, of 4456: but with the exception of several
silk factories there is but little industry, and the development
of the city is hampered by the unhealthiness of its situation,
its distance from the sea and the absence of railway communi-
cation with the rest of Greece. As a result of popular clamour,
however, a survey for a railway was begun in 1907, an event
of great importance for the prosperity of Sparta and of the
whole Eurotas Plain.
II. ARCHAEOLOGY
There is a well-known passage in Thucydides which runs
thus: " Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and
nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant
ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of
the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. . . .
Their city is not built continuously, and has no splendid temples
or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like
the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor
show " (i. 10, trans. Jowett). And the first feeling of most
travellers who visit modern Sparta is one of disappointment
with the ancient remains: it is rather the loveliness and gran-
deur of the situation and the fascination of Mistra, with its
grass-grown streets, its decaying houses, its ruined fortress
and its beautiful Byzantine churches, that remain as a lasting
and cherished memory. Until 1905 the chief ancient buildings
at Sparta were the theatre, of which, however, little shows
above ground except portions of the retaining walls; the so-
called Tomb of Leonidas, a quadrangular building, perhaps a
temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing
two chambers; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the
Eurotas; the ruins of a circular structure; some remains of late
Roman fortifications; several brick buildings and mosaic pave-
ments. To these must be added the inscriptions, sculptures
and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by
Stamatakis in 1872 and enlarged in 1907, or built into the
walls of houses or churches. Though excavations were carried
on near Sparta, on the site of the Amyclaeum in 1890 by Tsoun-
tas, and in 1904 by Furtwangler, and at the shrine of Menelaus
in Therapne by Ross in 1833 and 1841, and by Kastriotis in
1889 and 1900, yet no organized work was tried in Sparta itself
save the partial excavation of the " round building " under-
taken in 1892 and 1893 by the American School at Athens; the
structure has been since found to be a semicircular retaining-
wall of good Hellenic work, though partly restored in Roman
times.
In 1904 the British School at Athens began a thorough ex-
ploration of Laconia, and in the following year excavations were
made at Thalamae, Geronthrae, and Angelona near Monemvasia,
while several medieval fortresses were surveyed. In 1906 ex-
cavations began in Sparta itself with results of great value, which
have been published in the British School Annual, vol. xii. sqq.
614
SPARTACUS
A "small circus" described by Leake, but subsequently
almost lost to view, proved to be a theatre-like building con-
structed soon after A.D. 200 round the altar and in front of the
temple of Artemis Orthia. Here musical and gymnastic con-
tests took place as well as the famous flogging-ordeal (diamas-
tigosis). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century B.C.
rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century,
and close beside it were found the scanty remains of a yet
earlier temple, dating from the gth or even the loth century.
The votive offerings in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead
found in great profusion within the precinct range from the gth
to the 4th century B.C. and supply invaluable evidence for
early Spartan art; they prove that Sparta reached her artistic
zenith in the 7th century and that her decline had ^already
begun in the 6th. In 1907 the sanctuary of Athena "of the
Brazen House " (XaXxtoiKos) was located on the Acropolis
immediately above the theatre, and though the actual temple
is almost completely destroyed, fragments of the capitals show
that it was Doric in style, and the site_has produced the longest
extant archaic inscription of Laconia, numerous bronze nails
and plates and a considerable number of votive offerings, some
of them of great interest. The Greek city-wall, built in suc-
cessive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for
a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly
6 m. (Polyb. ix. 21). The late Roman wall enclosing the Acro-
polis, part of which probably dates from the years following
the Gothic raid of A.D. 262, was also investigated. Besides the
actual buildings discovered, a number of points were fixed
which greatly facilitate the study of Spartan topography,
based upon the description left us by Pausanias. Excavations
carried on in 1910 showed that the town of the " Mycenean "
period which lay on the left bank of the Eurotas a little to the
south-east of Sparta was roughly triangular in shape, with its
apex towards the north: its area is approximately equal to that
of Sparta, but denudation and destruction have wrought havoc
with its buildings and nothing is left save ruined foundations
and broken potsherds.
AUTHORITIES. History: J.C.F.Manso, Sparta (3 vols., Leipzig,
i8oo-l8o->)- G Gilbert, Stitdien zur altspartanischen Geschichte
(Gottinsien 1872); G. Busolt, Die Lakedaimonier und Hire Bundes-
genossen T (Leipzig, 1878), for the 6th century and the Persian wars;
W Herbst Zur Geschichte der auswartigen Pohtik bpartas im eit-
alter des peloponnesischen Krieges (Leipzig, 1853); E. von Stern,
Geschichte der spartan, u. thebanischen Hegemome, &c. ("orpat,
1884), from 387 to 362 B.C.; J. Fesenmair Sparta von der Schlacht
bei Leuktra bis zum Verschwinden des Namens (Munich, 1865):
and the general Greek histories of G. Grote, E. Meyer, G. Busolt
I. Beloch, A. Holm, B. Niese, E. Abbott and J. B. Bury.
Constitution: C. O. Miiller, The History and Antiquities of the
Doric Race (2 vols., Eng. trans., 2nd ed., London, 1839); K. rt.
Lachmann Die spartanische Staatsverfassung in ihrer hntwickelung
und ihrem Verfalle (Breslau, 1836); A. Solan, Ricerche spartane
(Leghorn 1007)- H. Gabriel, De magistratibus Lacedaemomorum
(Berlin n d ) ; L. Auerbach, De Lacedaemoniorum regibus (Berlin
1863) B Niese, " Herodotstudien, besonders zur spart. Geschichte,
in Hermes (1907), xlii. 419 sqq.; the constitutional histories o
G Gilbert G. F. Schomann, G. Busolt and A. H. J. Greenidge, and
the works cited under APELLA; EPHOR; GEROUSIA and LYCURGUS.
Land Tenure: M. Duncker, " Die Hufen der Spartiaten, in
Berichte der berl. Akademie (1881), pp. 138 sqq.; K. F. Hermann
De causis turbatae apud Lacedaemonios agrorum aequaMatis (Mar
burg, 1834); C. Reuss, De Lycurgea quae fertur agrorum division
P Army- f G. Busolt, " Spartas Heer und Leuktra," in Hermes (1905)
xl 387 sqq.; J. Kromayer, "Die Wehrkraft Lakomens u. sem.
Wehrverfassung," in Beitrdge zur alien Geschichte (1903), in. 17.
saa H K Stein, Das Kriegswesen der Spartaner (Konitz, 1863).
Toposraphy and Antiquities: W. M. Leake, Morea, chs. iv. v.
E Curtius, Peloponnesos, ii. 220 sqq.; C. Bursian, Geographic
ii 119 sqq Pausanias, iii. 11-18; and the commentary in J. L,
Frazer, Pausanias, iii. 322 sqq.; W. G. Clark, Peloponnesus, pp. 15*
sqq E. P. Boblaye, Recherches, pp. 78 sqq. ; W. Vischer, Ennne
rungen, pp. 371 SQQ-: Bory de Saint- Vincent, Relation, pp. 418 sqq.
G. A. Blouet, Architecture, ii. 61 sqq., pi. 44-52; for full title
and dates of publication of these works, see under LACONIA; H. K
Stein, Topographie des alien Sparta (Glatz, 1890); K. Nestondes
To:ro7pa4>a rf,-, Apxaios Zirdpn,* (Athens, 1892) ; N. E. Crosby, Th
Topography of Sparta," in American Journal of Archaeology (Prince
ton, 1893), viii. 335 sqq.; and various articles in the British icftoc
Annual, xii. sqq.
Inscriptions: M. N. Tod and A. J. B. Wace, Catalogue of the
^parta Museum (Oxford, 1906); British School Annual, xii. sqq.,
nd the works cited under LACONIA.
Dialect: K. Mullensiefen, De titulorum laconicorum dialecto
Strasburg, 1882); R. Meister, Dorier und Achaer (Leipzig, 1904).
Art: M. N. Tod and A. J. B. Wace, op. cit.; H. Dressel and A.
Milchhofer, " Die antiken Kunstwerke aus Sparta u. Umgebung,'^
n Athenische Mitteilungen, ii. 293 sqq.; E. Beule, " L'Art a Sparte,"
Etudes sur le Peloponnese (Paris, 1855). (M. N. T.)
SPARTACUS, leader in the Slave or Gladiatorial War against
Rome (73-71 B.C.), a Thracian by birth. He served in the
loman army, but seems to have deserted, for we are told that
ic was taken prisoner and sold as a slave. Destined for the
arena, he, with a band of his fellow-gladiators, broke out of a
raining school at Capua and took refuge on Mt Vesuvius (73).
Here he maintained himself as a captain of brigands, his
ieu tenants being two Celts named Crixus and Oenomaus, who like
limself had been gladiators. A hastily collected force of 3000
men under C. Claudius Pulcher endeavoured to starve out the
ebels, but the latter clambered down the precipices and put
Jie Romans to flight. Swarms of hardy and desperate men
now joined the rebels, and when the praetor Publius Varinius
took the field against them he found them entrenched like a
regular army on the plain. But they gave him the slip, and
when he advanced to storm their lines he found them deserted.
?rom Campania the rebels marched into Lucania, a country
setter suited for guerrilla warfare. Varinius followed, but
was defeated in several engagements and narrowly escaped
being taken prisoner. The insurgents reoccupied Campania,
and by the defeat of C. Thoranius, the quaestor of Varinius,
obtained possession of nearly the whole of southern Italy.
Nola and Nuceria in Campania, Thurii and Metapontum in
Lucania were sacked. The senate at last despatched both
consuls against the rebels (72). The German slaves under
Crixus were defeated at Mt Garganus in Apulia by the praetor
Q. Arrius. But Spartacus overthrew both consuls, one after
the other, and then pressed towards the Alps. Gaius Cassius,
governor of Cisalpine Gaul, and the praetor Gnaeus Manlius,
who attempted to stop him, were defeated at Mutina. Freedom
was within sight, but with fatal infatuation the slaves refused
to abandon Italy. Spartacus led them against Rome, but their
hearts seem to have failed them; and instead of attacking the
capital, he passed on again to Lucania. The conduct of the
war was now entrusted to the praetor Marcus Licinius Crassus.
In the next battle Spartacus was worsted and retreated towards
the straits of Messina, intending to cross into Sicily, where he
would have been welcomed by fresh hordes of slaves; but the
pirates who had agreed to transport his army proved faithless.
Crassus endeavoured to shut in the rebels by carrying a ditch
and rampart right across the peninsula, but Spartacus forced the
lines, and once more Italy lay at his feet. Disunion, however,
was at work in the rebel camp. The Gauls and Germans,
who had withdrawn from the main body, were attacked and
destroyed. Spartacus now took up a strong position in the
mountainous country of Petelia (near Strongoli in Calabria)
and inflicted a severe defeat on the vanguard of the pursuing
army. But his men refused to retreat farther, and in a pitched
battle which followed soon afterwards the rebel army was an-
nihilated. Spartacus, who had stabbed his horse before the
battle, fell sword in hand. A body of the rebels which had
escaped from the field was met and cut to pieces at the foot of
the Alps by Pompey (the Great), who was returning from Spain.
Pompey claimed the credit of finishing the war, and received
the honour of a triumph, while only a simple ovation was decreed
to Crassus. Spartacus was a capable and energetic leader;
he did his best to check the excesses of the lawless bands which
he commanded, and treated his prisoners with humanity. His
character has been misrepresented by Roman writers, whom
his name inspired with terror down to the times of the empire.
The story has to be pieced together from the vague and some-
what discrepant accounts of Plutarch (Crassus, 8 7 n ! gW- )
Appian (Bell. civ. i. 116-120), Florus, n. 8), Lrvy (Eptt. 95-97).
ancf the fragments of the Histories of Sallust, whose account seems
to have been full and graphic.
SPARTANBURG SPEAKER
615
SPARTANBURG, a city and the county-seat of Spartanburg
county, South Carolina, U.S.A., about 94 m. N.W. of Columbia.
Pop. (1890), 5544; (1900), 11,395, of whom 4269 were negroes;
(1906, estimate), 14,905. Spartanburg is served by the South-
ern, the Charleston & Western Carolina (controlled by the
Atlantic Coast line), the Glenn Springs, the Carolina, Clinch-
field & Ohio, and inter-urban (electric) railways. It is a thriv-
ing city in a cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing region,
about 800 ft. above the sea and 25 m. S.E. of the Blue Ridge.
Spartanburg is the seat of Wofford College (Methodist Episcopal,
South; founded in 1850 with a bequest of Benjamin Wofford,
a local Methodist minister, and opened in 1854), which had, in
1908, 12 instructors and 286 students; also of Converse College
(nonsectarian; for women), which was founded by D. E. Con-
verse in 1889, opened in 1890, and in 1908 had 22 instructors
and 355 students. An annual musical festival is held here
under the auspices of the Converse College Choral Society. Four
miles south of the city, at Cedar Spring, is the South Carolina
Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Blind, founded as
a private institution in 1849 and taken over by the state in
1857. There are gold-mines near the city; and Spartanburg
county produces large crops of cotton. Cotton mills are the
basis of the city's prosperity, and it has also a large wholesale
trade, iron-working establishments, and various manufactures.
The value of its factory product was $2,127,702 in 1905, or
33-7% more than in 1900. Spartanburg was founded in 1787,
and, although railway communication with Columbia and
Charleston was opened in 1859, there was little growth until
the establishment of the first cotton mill in the vicinity in 1880;
it was chartered as a city in this year.
SPEAKER, a title of the presiding officer in the legislatures
of various countries. In the English parliament the lord chan-
cellor acts as Speaker of the House of Lords, but should his
office be in commission the Crown usually appoints a Speaker
to supply his place, a case in point being that of Sir L. Shadwell,
vice-chancellor, who in 1835 was appointed Speaker during the
time the Great Seal was in commission. Unlike the House of
Commons, the Speaker of the House of Lords need not neces-
sarily be a member of the House; Brougham in 1830 sat on the
woolsack as Speaker in his capacity of lord chancellor, being
then plain Mr Brougham, his patent of nobility not having
yet been made out. The House of Lords has also deputy
Speakers who are appointed by commission. The duties of the
Speaker of the House of Lords are defined by a standing order
as follows: " The lord chancellor, when he speaks to the House,
is always to speak uncovered, and is not to adjourn the House,
or to do anything else as mouth of the House, without the
consent of the Lords first had, except the ordinary thing about
bills, which are of course, wherein the Lords may likewise over-
rule; as for preferring one bill before another, and such-like;
and in case of difference among the Lords, it is to be put to the
question; and if the lord chancellor will speak to anything par-
ticularly he is to go to his own place as a peer." The Speaker
of the House of Lords, as compared with the Speaker of the
House of Commons, is an official without power; even his seat,
the woolsack, is technically outside the House. Contrary to
the practice in the Commons, he acts as a strong party man,
making speeches on behalf of government measures from his
place as a peer. Proposals have from time to time been made
for augmenting the powers of the Speaker of the House of
Lords, but it has been pointed out that, as he is a minister of
the Crown, and not chosen by the House itself, and moreover
is often the member of the least experience in the House, it
would be inexpedient that he should exercise the same powers
as the Speaker of the Commons.
The Speaker of the House of Commons is always a member of
that House, and though chosen by the members themselves
(subject to the approval of the sovereign) from one of the great
political parties, he never either votes (except in the case of a
tie) or speaks in his capacity as a member during the time he
holds office. His duty is to enforce the observance of the
rules laid down for preserving order in the proceedings of the
House; he puts every question and declares the determination
thereon. As " mouth of the House " he communicates its
resolutions to others, conveys its thanks, and expresses its cen-
sure, its reprimands or its admonitions. He issues warrants
for executing the orders of the House, as the commitment of
offenders, the issue of writs, the attendance of witnesses or
prisoners in custody, &c. The symbol of his authority is the
mace, which is borne before him by the serjeant-at-arms when
he enters or leaves the House; it reposes on the table when he
is in the chair, and it accompanies him on all state occasions.
The Speaker takes precedence of all commoners in the kingdom
both by ancient custom and by legislative declaration (i Will.
& Mary c. 21). His salary is 5000 a year. It is usual to
create a retiring Speaker a peer of the realm, generally with the
rank of viscount. The office is of great antiquity, and in the
various conflicts between the Commons and the Crown was one
of considerable difficulty, especially when, as mouthpiece of the
House, he had to read petitions or addresses or deliver in
the presence of the sovereign speeches on their behalf. The
first to whom the title was definitely given was Sir Thomas
Hungerford (d. 1398).
A list of Speakers, most of whom are separately noticed, from
1600 is appended. The date of election is given in brackets:
J. Croke (1601). Sir T. Hanmer (1714).
Sir E. Phelips (1604). *S. Compton (1715)
Sir R. Crewe (1614). (Earl of Wilmington).
T. Richardson (1621). * 6 A. Onslow (1728).
*'Sir T. Crewe (1624). *Sir J. Cust (1761).
Sir H. Finch (1626). *Sir Fletcher Norton (1770)
Sir J. Finch (1628). (Lord Grantly}.
}. Glanville (1640). *C. W. Cornwall (1780).
* 2 W. Lenthall (1640). W. W. Grenville (1789)
H. Pelham (1647). (Lord Grenville).
F. Rous (1653). *H. Aldington (1/89)
Sir T. Widdrington (1656). (Viscount Sidmouth).
C. Chute (1659). Sir J. Mitford (1801)
Sir L. Long (1659). (Lord Redesdale).
T. Bampfylde (1659). *C. Abbott (1802)
W. Say (1660). (Lord Colchester).
Sir H. Grimston (1660). * 7 H. C. M. Sutton (1817)
Sir E. Turnour (1661). (Viscount Canterbury).
Sir J Charlton (1673). *J. Abercromby (1835)
*E. Seymour (1673). (Lord Dunfermline).
Sir R. Sawyer (1678). *C. Shaw Lefevre (1841)
Sir W. Gregory (1679). (Viscount Eversley).
*W. Williams (1680). *J. E. Denison (1857)
* 3 Sir J. Trevor (1685). (Viscount Ossington).
H.'Powle (1689). *H. B. Brand (1872)
P. Foley (1695). (Viscount Hampden).
Sir T. Littleton (1698). *A. W. Peel (1884)
*R. Harley (1701) (Viscount Peel).
(Earl of Oxford). *W. C. Gully (1895)
4 J. Smith (1705). (Viscount Selby).
Sir R. Onslow (1708). *J. W. Lowther (1905).
W. Bromley (1710).
* Speaker in more than one parliament.
The title of Speaker is also applied to the presiding officer
of the various legislative assemblies in the British colonies,
that of president being applied to the presiding officer of the
upper houses, legislative councils as they are usually called.
In Canada, however, the presiding officer both of the Senate and
the House of Commons is termed Speaker. In the United States
the Speaker of the House of Representatives is an officer of con-
siderable power (see UNITED STATES: ConstitutionandGovernment).
AUTHORITIES. Stubbs, Constitutional History; J. A. Manning,
Lives of the Speakers (1850);. E. Lummis, The Speaker's Chair
1 Brother of Sir R. Crewe.
2 Speaker of the Long Parliament.
3 Convicted of bribery and expelled, 1695.
4 First Speaker of the Commons of Great Britain.
6 Nephew of Sir R. Onslow, Speaker in 1708 and great-great-
great-grandson of R. Onslow, Speaker in the second parliament of
Elizabeth. Arthur Onslow was the second Speaker to be elected
five times; the first Speaker to be so elected was Thomas Chaucer
in the reign of Henry V. Onslow also held the Speakership for the
longest period (1727-1761).
6 Afterwards prime minister. Was first Speaker of the Commons
of the United Kingdom.
7 First to be Speaker six times and seven times.
6i6
SPEAR SPECIES
(1900); for the United States, J. Bryce, American Common-
wealth, M. P. Follett's The Speaker of the House of Representa-
tives (New York, 1896); H. B. Fuller, Speakers of the House
(Boston, 1909).
SPEAR (O. Eng. spere, O. H. Ger. sper, mod. Ger. speer, &c.,
cf. Lat. sparus; probably related to " spar, " a beam), a weapon
of offence. Developed from a sharp-headed stake, the spear
may be reckoned, with the club, as among the most ancient of
weapons. All the prehistoric races handled the spear; all
savage folk thrust with it or hurl it; civilized man still keeps
it as the lance and the boar-spear; indeed, the bayonet is a
spear-head with the rifle for a shaft.
The English before the Norman conquest were a spear-bearing
race. The freeman's six-foot ashen spear was always near his
hand; and its head is found beside the bones of every warrior.
The casting javelin was commoner than the bow. Norman
horsemen made the long lance, a dozen feet long, its pennon
fluttering below the point, the knightly weapon. Throwing
spears became rare, the Black Prince's English knights wonder-
ing at the Spanish fashion of casting darts. In the I4th cen-
tury the vamplate came into use as a guard for the lance hand
above the grip. At this time also the coronel head was devised
for the better safeguard of the jousters, many of whom, how-
ever, preferred the blunted or " rebated " point. The next
step in development gave the shaft a swell towards the hand
on both sides of the grip, a swell exaggerated in' the jousting
lance of the i6th century, which, fluted and hollowed, is found
weighing twenty pounds, with a girth of as much as 275 in.
at its broadest part. Leather " burres " were added below
the grip and, before the end of the i4th century, the weight of
the jousting lance called for the use of the lance-rest, a hook
or catch screwed to the right breast of the harness.
The Scots, always weaker than the English in archery,
favoured the long spear as the chief weapon of the infantry, and
from Falkirk onwards held their own in their " schiltron " for-
mation against all cavalry, until riddled and disarrayed by the
arrow-flights. Their English enemy, when harquebusiers
began to 'oust the archers, exchanged the old bills for those
1 8 and 20 ft. pikes which bristled from the squares pro-
tecting the " shot." At the same time, the English horsemen
began to leave the lance for sword, pistol and musketoon.
During the civil wars in the i7th century every man on foot was
either pikeman or musketeer. After 1675 the long pike gave
way to the bayonet in its first shape of a dagger whose hilt
could be struck into the muzzle of the musket, and, some four-
teen years later, the bayonet with a ring-catch gave the infantry-
man the last form of his pike. Sergeants, however, carried
through the i8th century a " halbert " (q.v.) which, in its degen-
erate form, became a short pike, and infantry officers were
sometimes armed with the spontoon. In 1816 certain dragoon
regiments were given the lance which had been seen at work
in the hands of Poles and Cossacks; and the weapon is still part
of the service equipment although controversy is still hot over
its value in action, its supporters urging the demoralizing effect
of the lance against broken troops. Queen Victoria's navy
gave up, in favour of the cutlass bayonet, the pikes which
were once served out to repel attacks of boarders. At the
present day the High Sheriff's party of javelin-men are the only
Englishmen who march on foot with the ancient weapon. (See
further LANCE.)
SPECIES, a term, in its general and once familiar significance,
applied indiscriminately to animate and inanimate objects
and to abstract conceptions or ideas, as denoting a particular
phase, or sort, in which anything might appear. In logic it
came to be used as the translation of the Gr. e?5os, and meant
a number of individuals having common characters peculiar
to them, and so forming a group which with other groups were
included in a higher group. The application of the term was
purely relative, for the higher group itself might be one of the
" species, " or modes of a still higher group. In medicine it
was used for the constituents of a prescription. In algebra
it denoted the characters which represented quantities in an
equation.
Early writers on natural history used the term in its vague
logical sense without limiting it to a special category in the
hierarchy of classification. To John Ray, the famous English
naturalist, the credit is generally given of first making species a
definite term in zoology and botany, but Ray owed much of
his classification to Kaspar or Gaspard Bauhin (1550-1624), pro-
fressor of Greek and of Anatomy and Botany at Basel, and much
of his clear definition of terms to an unpublished MS. of Joachim
Jung of Hamburg (1587-1657). Sir W. T. Thisleton Dyer
(Edinburgh Review, 1902, p. 370) thinks that Ray's use of the
word may be traced to the last-mentioned authors. It is
clear, however, that through Ray's work in the i7th century
the common biological application of species became fixed
much in its modern form, as denoting a group of animals or
plants capable of interbreeding, and although not necessarily
quite identical, with marked common characters. Working
on these lines, and attaching special importance to common
descent, naturalists applied the term with more and more
precision, until Linnaeus, in his Philosophic, botanica, gave the
aphorism, " species tot sunt diversae, quot diversae formae
a,b initio sunt creatae " " just so many species are to be
reckoned as there were forms created at the beginning. "
Linnaeus' invention of binomial nomenclature for designating
species served systematic biology admirably, but at the same
time, by attaching preponderating importance to a particular
grade in classification, crystallized the doctrine of fixity. The
lower grades in classification such as sub-species and varieties
on the one hand, and the higher grades on the other, such as
genera and families, were admitted to be human conceptions
imposed on the living world, but species were concrete, objec-
tive existences to be discovered and named. G. L. L. Buffon
and J. P. B. Lamarck practically conceded the objective
existence of species in arguing that they might be modified
by external conditions, and G. L. Cuvier proclaimed their fixity
without reserve. Charles Darwin found the conception of
species so definite and fixed that he chose for the title of his
great book (1859) the words On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection, although his exposition of evolu-
tion applied equally to every grade in classification. E. B.
Poulton, in an admirable discussion of contemporary views
regarding species (presidential address to the Entomological
Society of London 1904), has shown that Darwin did not believe
in the objective existence of species, not only because he was led
to discard the hypothesis of special creation as the explanation
of the polymorphism of life, but because in practice as a working
systematist he could neither find for himself nor ascertain from
other systematists any settled criteria by which a group of
specimens could be elevated into a genus, accepted as a species,
or regarded as a variety.
The vast advance in knowledge of the existing forms of living
things that has been acquired and recorded since 1859 has
accentuated the difficulty of finding any morphological criteria
for species. A few writers have insisted that they are discon-
tinuous, and that real gaps exist between them. Equally great
gaps, however, may exist between males and females, between
climatic phases or summer and winter forms. The attempt
to find a physiological criterion has similarly failed; many
forms that have been universally accepted as true species
produce fertile hybrids (see HYBRIDISM). In modern practice
(see ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE) systematists no longer
regard species as more than as an artificial rank in classification,
to be applied chiefly for reasons of convenience, so that the
word is reverting to its older logical significance. The word
" species " now signifies a.grade or rank in classification assigned
by systematists to an assemblage of organic forms which they
judge to be more closely interrelated by common descent than
they are related to forms judged to be outside the species, and
of which the known individuals, if they differ amongst them-
selves, differ less markedly than they do from those outside the
species, or, if differing markedly, are linked by intermediate
Forms. It is to be noted that the individuals may themselves
be judged to fall into groups of minor rank, known as sub-species
SPECIFICATION SPECTACLES
617
or local varieties, but such subordinate assemblages are elevated
to specific rank, if they appear not to intergrade so as to form
a linked species, whilst on the other hand assemblages judged
to be species are merged, or degraded to sub-species, if they are
found to intergrade by discoveries of linking forms. A species,
in short, is a subjective conception, and some writers, as for
instance E. Ray Lankester, have urged that the word is so
firmly asssociated with historical implications of fixity which
are now incongruous with its application, that it ought to be
discarded from scientific nomenclature.
In technical biology each species is designated by two words,
one for the genus, printed with an initial capital, and one for
the particular species, printed without an initial capital in
Zoology, whilst in Botany the habit once common to both sub-
jects is retained, and the specific name if derived from a proper
name is printed with a capital. The two words are printed in
italics, and may be followed by the name of the author who
first described the species. Thus " Cam's vulpes Linnaeus "
is the specific designation of the common fox, Canis being
the generic term common to dogs, wolves and so forth, and
vulpes indicating the particular species, whilst the attached
author's name indicates that Linnaeus first named the species
in question. (P. C. M.)
SPECIFICATION (from Med. Lat. specificatio, specificare, to
enumerate or mention in detail), any detailed statement,
especially one on which an estimate or plan is based, as the
specification of a builder or architect (see BUILDING). In
patent law a specification is a description of an invention. An
application for a patent must be accompanied by a specifica-
tion, either provisional or complete. If a complete specification
does not accompany the application, it must be forwarded
usually within six months of the date of application, otherwise
the application is deemed to be abandoned. A provisional
specification declares the nature of the invention in general
terms, while a complete specification describes the invention
in detail, and shows the manner in which it is to be carried out
(see further PATENTS).
In the civil law (see ACCESSION) specification was the working
up of a thing into a new product; for example, the making of bread
from grain. The effect of specification was that the original owner
lost his title in favour of the creator of the new product, but had
an action for the value of the materials.
SPECIFIC PERFORMANCE, an equitable doctrine under
which a court of equity, in certain exceptional cases where the
normal legal remedy, i.e. damages, would not be a sufficient
compensation, orders from a defaulting party a specific or actual
performance of the thing which he had contracted to do. The
courts act on their own discretion in affording or refusing the
relief of specific performance, and as a general rule will refuse
that relief where the common law remedy is adequate, where
the court would be unable to superintend or enforce the execu-
tion of its judgment, where the plaintiff has himself acted
inequitably, or where the enforcement of specific performance
would be unreasonable. Specific performance is usually con-
fined to executory agreements, such as a conveyance or a lease
of land; it is not usually enforced in the cases of personal acts
or in those of contracts for personal service. In the case of
a contract for the sale of a chattel the courts will only order
specific performance when the chattel is of peculiar value to the
purchaser and cannot be obtained elsewhere. The courts are
guided considerably by precedent, and it is only by reference
to a standard textbook that details can be obtained of the
conditions and restrictions which hedge the jurisdiction of the
courts. In Scots law specific performance, or " implement,"
is part of the ordinary jurisdiction of the courts.
See Fry on Specific Performance; Ency. English Law, tit. " Specific
Performance "; and Story, Equity Jurisprudence.
SPECTACLES, the name given to flat glasses, prisms, spherical
or cylindrical lenses, mechanically adjusted to the human eyes,
so as to correct defects of vision (q.v.). They are made usually
of crown glass or rock crystal (" pebbles "), the latter being
somewhat lighter and cooler to wear. They are mounted in
xxv. 20 a
rigid steel wire or gold frames, with fastening-pieces over the
ears; single or double eye-glasses, and hand-glasses, or lorgnettes,
being varieties of form, according to the circumstances and the
wearer's taste.
Preserves. Preserves are used to conceal deformities or to
protect the eyes in the many conditions where they cannot
tolerate bright light, such as ulceration and inflammation of the
cornea, certain diseases of the iris, ciliary body, choroid, and
retina. They are made of bluish, "smoked," or almost black
coloured glass, and are of very various shapes, according to the
amount of obscuration necessary.
Prisms. Prisms are of great value in cases of double vision
due to a slight tendency to squinting, caused by weakness or
over-action of the muscular apparatus of the eyeball. Prisms
deflect rays of light towards their bases. Hence, if a prism
is placed in front of the eye with its base towards the nose, a
ray of light falling upon it will be bent inwards, and seem to
come from a point farther out from the axis of vision. Con-
versely, if the base of the prism is turned towards the temple, the
ray of light will seem to come from a point nearer the axis, and
will induce the eye to turn inwards, to converge towards its
fellow. In cases of myopia or short-sight owing to weakness of
the internal recti muscles, the eyes in looking at a near object,
instead of converging, tend to turn outwards, and so double
vision results. If a suitable prism is placed in front of the
eyes the double vision may be prevented. These prisms may
be combined with concave lenses, which correct the myopia,
or, since a concave lens may be considered as composed of two
prisms united at their apices, the same effect may be obtained
by making the distance between the centres of the concave
lenses greater than that between the centres of the pupils.
Again, to obviate the necessity for excessive convergence
of the eyes so common in hypermetropia, the centre of the pupil
should be placed outside the centre of the corrective convex
lenses; these will then act as prisms with their bases inwards.
Where, on the other hand, there is no tendency to squinting,
care must be taken in selecting spectacles that the distances
between the centres of the glasses and the centres of the pupils
are quite equal, otherwise squinting, or at any rate great fatigue,
of the eyes may be induced.
Spherical Lenses. Biconcave, biconvex and concavo-convex
(meniscus) lenses are employed in ophthalmic practice in the
treatment of errors of refraction. Until recently these spherical
lenses were numbered in terms of their focal length, the inch
being used as the unit. Owing principally to differences in the
length of the inch in various countries this method had great
inconveniences, and now the unit is the refractive power of a
lens whose focal length is one metre. This unit is called a
" dioptric " (usually written " D"). A lens of twice its strength
has a refractive power of 2 D, and a focal length of half a metre,
and so on.
Concave Lenses are used in the treatment of myopia or short-
sight. In this condition the eye is elongated from before back-
wards, so that the retina lies behind the principal focus. All
objects, therefore, which lie beyond a certain point (the conjugate
focus of the dioptric system of the eye, the far point) are indis-
tinctly seen; rays from them have not the necessary divergence
to be focused in the retina, but may obtain it by the interposition
of suitable concave lenses. Concave lenses should never be used
for work within the far point; but they may be used in all cases to
improve distant vision, and in very short-sighted persons to remove
the far point so as to enable fine work such as sewing or reading
to be done at a convenient distance. The weakest pair of
concave lenses with which one can read clearly test types at
a distance of 18 ft. is the measure of the amount of myopia,
and this fully correcting glass may be worn in the slighter forms
of short-sight. In higher degrees, where full correction might
increase the myopia by inducing a strain of the accommodation,
somewhat weaker glasses should be used for near work. In
the highest degrees the complete correction may be employed,
but lorgnettes are generally preferred, as they can be removed
when the eyes become fatigued. It must be remembered that
6i8
SPECTROHELIOGRAPH
short-sight tends to increase during the early, especially the
school, years of life, and that hygienic treatment, good light,
good type, and avoidance of stooping are important for its
prevention.
Convex Lenses. In hypermetropia the retina is in front
of the principal focus of the eye. Hence in its condition of
repose such an eye cannot distinctly see parallel rays from a
distance and, still less, divergent rays from a near object. The
defect may be overcome more or less completely by the use of
the accommodation. In the slighter forms no inconvenience
may result; but in higher degrees prolonged work is apt to give
rise to aching and watering of the eyes, headache, inability to
read or sew for any length of time, and even to double vision
and internal strabismus. Such cases should be treated with
convex lenses, which should be theoretically of such a strength
as to fully correct the hypermetropia. Practically it is found
that a certain amount of hypermetropia remains latent, owing
to spasm of the accommodation, which relaxes only gradually.
At first glasses may be given of such a strength as to relieve the
troublesome symptoms; and the strength may be gradually
increased till the total hypermetropia is corrected. Young
adults with slighter forms of hypermetropia need glasses only
for near work; elderly people should have one pair of weak
glasses for distant and another stronger pair for near vision.
These may be conveniently combined, as in Franklin glasses,
where the upper half of the spectacle frame contains a weak
lens, and the lower half, through which the eye looks when
reading, a stronger one.
Anisometropia. It is difficult to lay down rules for the
treatment of cases where the refraction of the two eyes is unequal.
If only one eye is used, its anomaly should be alone corrected;
where both are used and nearly of equal strength, correction
of each often gives satisfactory results.
Presbyopia. When distant vision remains unaltered, but,
owing to gradual failure of the accommodative apparatus of
the eye clear vision within 8 in. becomes impossible, convex
lenses should be used for reading of such a strength as to enable
the eye to see clearly about 8 in. distance. Presbyopia is
arbitrarily said to commence at the age of forty, because it is
then that the need of spectacles for reading is generally felt ; but
it appears later in myopia and earlier in hypermetropia. It
advances with years, requiring from time to time spectacles
of increasing strength.
Cylindrical Lenses. In -astigmatism, owing to differences
in the refractive power of the various meridians of the eye, great
defect of sight, frequently accompanied by severe headache,
occurs. This condition may be cured completely, or greatly
improved, by the use of lenses whose surfaces are segments of
cylinders. They may be used either alone or in combination
with spherical lenses. The correction of astigmatism is in many
cases a matter of considerable difficulty, but the results to
vision almost always reward the trouble.
Convex spectacles were invented (see LIGHT) towards the end of
the 1 3th century, perhaps by Roger Bacon. Conclave glasses
were introduced soon afterwards. Sir G. B. Airy, the astronomer,
about 1827, corrected his own astigmatism by means of a cylindrical
lens. Periscopic glasses were introduced by Dr W. H. Wollaston.
SPECTROHELIOGRAPH, an instrument for photographing
the sun with monochromatic light. In its simplest form it
consists of a direct-vision spectroscope, having an adjustable
slit (called " camera slit "), instead of an eyepiece, in the focal
plane of the observing telescope. This slit is set in such a posi-
tion as to transmit a single line of the spectrum, e.g. the K line
of calcium. Suppose a fixed image of the sun to be formed on
the collimator slit of this spectroscope, and a photographic plate,
with its plane parallel to the plane of the solar image, to be
mounted almost in contact with the camera slit. The spectro-
scope is then moved parallel to itself, admitting to the collimator
slit light from all parts of the sun's disk. Thus a monochromatic
image of the sun, formed of a great number of successive images
of the spectral line employed, will be built up on the plate. As
the only light permitted to reach the plate is that of the calcium
line, the resulting image will represent the distribution of calcium
vapour in the sun's atmosphere. The calcium clouds or jlocculi
thus recorded are invisible to the eye, and are not shown on
direct solar photographs taken in the ordinary way.
The calcium flocculi, on account of the brilliant reversals
of the H and K lines to which they give rise, and the protection
to the plate afforded by the diffuse dark bands in which these
bright lines occur, are easily photographed with a spectrohelio-
graph of low dispersion. In the case of narrower lines, however,
higher dispersion is required to prevent the light of the con-
tinuous spectrum on either side of the dark line from blotting
out the monochromatic image. A spectroheliograph which
gives excellent results with the lines of calcium, hydrogen
and iron is shown in the figure. This instrument, used since
1905 in conjunction with the Snow (horizontal) telescope of the
Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, was constructed in the
observatory instrument shop in Pasadena.
It consists of a heavy cast-iron platform (a) mounted on four
steel balls (b) which run in V guides of hardened steel. Most of
the weight of the instrument is floated on mercury contained in
three troughs (c, c, c) which form part of the cast-iron base. The
platform carries the two slits, the collimator and camera objectives
and the prism-train. An image of the sun, about 6-7 in. in diameter,
is formed by the Snow telescope on the collimator slit (d). This
slit is long enough (8J in.) to extend entirely across the solar image
and across such prominences of ordinary height as may happen to
lie at the extremities of a vertical diameter. After passing through
the slit the diverging rays fall upon the 8 in. collimator objective
(e), which is constructed in the manner of a portrait lens in order
to give a sharp field of sufficient diameter to include the entire
solar image. In the Snow telescope the ratio of aperture to focal
length is I : 30. Hence light from any point on the slit will fill
a circle about 2 in. in diameter on the collimator objective, as its
focal length is 60 in. Since the diameter of the solar image is 6-7
in. there is a slight, but inappreciable loss of light from points
in the image at the extremities of a vertical diameter.
The rays, rendered parallel by the collimator objective, meet
a plane mirror (f) of silvered glass, which reflects them to the prisms
(g. ?') These are of dense flint-glass (Schott 0-102), and each has
a refracting angle of 63 29'. Their width and height are sufficient
to transmit (at the position of minimum deviation) the entire beam
received from the collimator. After being deviated 180 from the
original direction, the dispersed rays fall on the camera objective
(h), which is exactly similar to the collimatol" objective. This
forms an image of the solar spectrum in its focal plane on the camera
slit (t). Beyond the camera slit, and almost in contact with it,
the photographic plate-carrier (j) is mounted on a fixed support.
In order to bring a spectral line upon the camera slit, the slit is
widely opened and the plane mirror (/) rotated until the line is
seen. A cross-hair, in the focal plane of an eyepiece, is then moved
horizontally until it coincides with the line in question. The slit
is narrowed down to the desired width, and moved as a whole
by a micrometer screw, until it coincides with the cross-hair. The
eyepiece is removed and the photographic plate (k) placed in position.
An electric motor, belted to a screw (/ or /') connected with the
spectroheliograph, is then started. 1 The screw moves the spectro-
heliograph at a perfectly uniform rate across the fixed solar image.
Thus a monochromatic image of the sun is built up on the fixed
photographic plate.
The spectroheliograph, originally designed for photographing
the solar prominences, disclosed in its first application at the
Kenwood Observatory (Chicago, 1892) a new and unexplored
region of the sun's atmosphere. Photographs of the solar
disk, taken with the H or K line, show extensive luminous
clouds (flocculi) of calcium vapour, vastly greater in area than
the sun-spots. By setting the camera slit so as to admit to the
photographic plate the light of the denser calcium vapour, which
lies at low levels, or that of the rarer vapour at high levels,
the phenomena of various superposed regions of the atmosphere
can be recorded. The lower and denser vapour appears as
bright clouds, but the cooler vapour, at higher levels, absorbs
the light from below and thus gives rise to dark clouds.
The first photographs of the sun in hydrogen light were
made with the spectroheliograph in 1903. These reveal dark
hydrogen flocculi, which appear to lie at a level above that of
the bright calcium flocculi. They also show less extensive
bright flocculi, usually in the immediate neighbourhood of
sunspots, and frequently eruptive in character. These rise
'Two screws, of different pitch, are provided, to give different
speeds.
SPECTROHELIOGRAPH
PLATE.
(By permission of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.)
THE SUN, 7TH OCTOBER 1908. Showing right and left-hand Sun-spot vortices.
XXV. 618.
SPECTROSCOPY
6ig
from a low level, and sometimes reach considerable elevations
in the form of eruptive prominences.
In such an exploration of the sun's atmosphere it might be
anticipated that definite currents, or some evidences of atmo-
spheric circulation analogous to those familiar in terrestrial
meteorology, would be discovered. Neither the forms nor the
motions of the calcium flocculi revealed the existence of such
b
SPECTROSCOPY (from Lat. spectrum, an appearance, and
Gr. (TKOTretc, to see), that branch of physical science which has
for its province the investigation of spectra, which may, for our
present purpose, be regarded as the product of the resolution
of composite luminous radiations into more homogeneous
components. The instruments which effect such a resolution
are called spectroscopes.
The Five-foot Spectroheliograph
of the Mount Wilson Solar Observ-
atory (camera lens, camera slit and
plate carrier in section).
currents, but in the higher region shown by the hydrogen
photographs the distribution of the dark flocculi suggested the
operation of definite forces, though their nature remained
obscure until the spring of 1908. At that time monochromatic
photographs of the sun were first made on Mount Wilson with
the red (Ha) line of hydrogen, previous hydrogen photographs
having been taken with H/3, Hy or HS in the blue or violet.
On account of the relatively great strength of Ha at a consider-
able distance from the photosphere, the new photographs
recorded flocculi at high levels previously unexplored. The
forms of these flocculi show that all sun-spots are vortical in
nature, and are probably analogous to terrestrial cyclones or
tornadoes. Most of the solar vortices indicate clockwise
rotation in the southern hemisphere and counter-clockwise
rotation in the northern, as in the case of terrestrial cyclones.
But frequent exceptions have been observed in which the
direction of rotation is reversed. The study of these vortices
has led to the discovery of a magnetic field in sun-spots,
apparently caused by electric convection in the vortices.
It is evident that by the use of a Spectroheliograph of suffi-
ciently high dispersion, photographs may be taken of vapours
in the sun represented by lines narrower than those of calcium
and hydrogen. Such work has been in progress both at Mount
Wilson and at Meudon, and the erection of a Spectroheliograph
of 75 ft. focal length on Mount Wilson was at the end of 1908
contemplated for an early date.
Descriptions of spectroheliographs by Hale, Deslandres, Newall
and others, may be found in various papers in Astronomy and,
Astrophysics, Astrophysical Journal, Comptes rendus, Bulletin
astronomique, and other periodicals. (G. E. H.)
1. Introductory. The announcement of the first discoveries
made through the application of spectroscopy, then called
spectrum analysis, appealed to the imagination of the scientific
world because it revealed a method of investigating the chemical
nature of substances independently of their distances: a new
science was thus created, inasmuch as chemical analysis could
be applied to the sun and other stellar bodies. But the beautiful
simplicity of the first experiments, pointing apparently to the
conclusion that each element had its characteristic and invariable
spectrum whether in the free state or when combined with
other bodies, was soon found to be affected by complications
which all the subsequent years of study have not completely
resolved. Compound bodies, we now know, have their own
spectra, and only when dissociation occurs can the compound
show the rays characteristic of the element: this perhaps was
to be expected, but it came as a surprise and was not readily
believed, that elements, as a rule, possess more than one spectrum
according to the physical conditions under which they become
luminous. Spectrum analysis thus passed quickly out of the
stage in which its main purpose was " analysis " and became
our most delicate and powerful method of investigating mole-
cular properties; the old name being no longer appropriate, we
now speak of the science of "Spectroscopy." 1 Within the
limit of this article it is not possible to give a complete account
of this most intricate branch of physics; the writer therefore
confines himself to a summary of the problems which now engage
scientific attention, referring the reader for details to H. Kayser's
excellent and complete Handbuch der Spcctroscopie.
2. Instrumental. The spectroscope is an instrument which
allows us to examine the vibrations sent out by a radiating
source: it separates the component parts if they are homo-
geneous, i.e. of definite periodicity, and then also gives us the
distribution of intensity along the homogeneous constituents.
This resolution into simple periodic waves is arbitrary in the
same sense as is the decomposition of forces along assumed
1 The present writer believes that he was the first to introduce
the word " Spectroscopy " in a lecture delivered at the Royal
Institution in 1882 (Proceedings, vol. ix.).
620
SPECTROSCOPY
axes; but, in the same way also the results are correct if the
resolution is treated as an analytical device and in the final
result account is taken of all the overlapping components.
Spectroscopes generally consist of three parts: (i) the colli-
mator; (2) the analysing appliance, (3) the telescope. The slit
of the collimator confines the light to a nearly linear source,
the beam diverging from each point of the source being subse-
quently made parallel by means of a lens. The parallelism,
which is required to avoid aberrations, otherwise introduced
by the prism or grating, may often be omitted in instruments
of small power. The lens may then be also dispensed with,
and the whole collimator becomes unnecessary if the luminous
source is narrow and at a great distance, as for instance in
the case of the crescent of the sun near the second and third
contact of a total solar eclipse. The telescope serves to examine
the image of the slit and to measure the angular separation
of the different slit images; when photographic methods are
employed the telescope is replaced by a camera.
The analysing appliance constitutes the main feature of a
spectroscope. It may consist of one of the following:
a. A prism or a train of prisms. These are employed in
instruments of small power, especially when luminosity is a
consideration; but their advantage in this respect is to a great
extent lost, when, in order to secure increased resolving power,
the size of the prisms, or their number, is unduly increased.
b. A grating. Through H. A. Rowland's efforts the con-
struction of gratings has been improved to such an extent that
their use is becoming universal whenever great power or accuracy
is required. By introducing the concave grating which (see
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT, 8) allows us to dispense with all
lenses, Rowland produced a revolution in spectroscopic measure-
ment. At present we have still to content ourselves with a
much diminished intensity of light when working with gratings,
but there is some hope that the efforts to concentrate the light
into one spectrum will soon be successful.
c. An dchelon grating. Imagine a horizontal section of a
beam of light, and this section divided into a number of equal
parts. Let somehow or other retardations be introduced so
that the optical length of the successive parts increases by the
same quantity n\, n being some number and X the wave-length.
If on emergence the different portions he brought together at
the focus it is obvious that the optical action must be in every
respect similar to that of a grating when the nth order of spectrum
is considered. A. Michelson produced the successive retarda-
tions by inserting step-by-step plates of glass of equal thickness
so that the different portions of the beam traversed thicknesses
of glass equal to n\, 2n\, $n\, . . . NX. The optical effect as
regards resolving power is the same as with a grating of N lines
in the wth order, but, nearly all the light not absorbed by the
glass may be concentrated in one or two orders. 1
d. Some other appliance in which interference with long
difference of path is made use of, such as the interferometer
of Fabry and Perot, or Lummer's plate (see INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT).
The echelon and interferometer serve only a limited purpose,
but must be called into action when the detailed structure of
lines is to be examined. For the study of Zeeman effects (see
MAGNETO-OPTICS) the echelon seems specially adapted, while
the great pliability of Fabry and Perot's methods, allowing a
clear interpretation of results, is likely to secure them perma-
nently an established place in measurements of precision.
The power of a spectroscope to perform its main function,
which is to separate vibrations of different but closely adjacent
frequencies, is called its " resolving power." The limitation
of power is introduced as in all optical instruments, by the
finiteness of the length of a wave of light which causes the image
of an indefinitely narrow slit to spread out over a finite width
in the focal plane of the observing telescope. The so-called
" diffraction " image of a homogeneously illuminated slit shows
a central band limited on either side by a line along which the
1 Michelson, Astrophys. Journ. (1898), 8, p. 36; A. Schuster,
Theory of Optics, p. 115.
intensity is zero, and this band is accompanied by a number of
fainter images corresponding to the diffraction of a star
image in a telescope. Lord Rayleigh, to whom we owe the
first general discussion of the theory of the spectroscope, found
by observation that if two spectroscopic lines of frequencies
i and 2 are observed in an instrument, they are just seen as
two separate lines when the centre of the central diffraction
band of one coincides with the first minimum intensity of the
other. In that case the image of the double line shows a diminu-
tion of intensity along the centre, just sufficient to give a clear
impression that we are not dealing with a single line, and the
intensity at the minimum is 0-81 of that at the point of maximum
illumination. We may say therefore that if the difference
between the frequencies HI and 2 of the two waves is such that
in the combined image of the slit the intensity at the minimum
between the two maxima falls to 0-81, the lines are just resolved
and i/(i-2) may then be called the resolving power. There
is something arbitrary in this definition, but as the practical
importance of the question lies in the comparison between
instruments of different types, the exact standard adopted is
of minor importance, the chief consideration being simplicity
of application. Lord Rayleigh's expression for the resolving
power of different instruments is based on the assumption that
the geometrical image of the slit is narrow compared with the
width of the diffraction image. This condition is necessary
if the full power of the instrument is to be called into action.
Unfortunately considerations of luminosity compel the observer
often to widen the slit much beyond the range within which the
theoretical value of resolving power holds in practice. The
extension of the investigation to wide slits was first made by
the present writer in the article " Spectroscopy " in the gth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica. Reconsideration of
the subject led him afterwards to modify his views to some
extent, and he has since more fully discussed the question. *
Basing the investigation on the same criterion of resolution
as in the case of narrow slits, we postulate for both narrow
and wide slits that two lines are resolved when the intensity
of the combined image falls to a value of 0-810 in the centre
between the lines, the intensity at the maxima being unity.
We must now however introduce a new criterion the " purity "
and distinguish it from the resolving power: the purity is defined
by Mi/(wi-w 2 ), where MI and n 2 are the frequencies of two lines
such that they would just be resolved with the width of slit used.
With an indefinitely narrow slit the purity is equal to the
resolving power. As purity and resolving power are essentially
positive quantities, HI in the above expression must be the greater
of the two frequencies. With wide slits the difference HI-HZ
depends on their width. If we write P = /> R where P denotes
the purity and R the resolving power, we may call p the " purity-
factor. " In the paper quoted the numerical values of p are
given for different widths of slit, and a table shows to what
extent the loss of purity due to a widening of the slit is accom-
panied by a gain in luminosity. The general results may be
summarized as follows: if the width of the slit is equal to/X/4D
(where X is the wave-length concerned, D the diameter of the
collimator lens, and / its focal length) practically full resolving
power is obtained and a further narrowing of the slit would lead
to loss of light without corresponding gain. We call a slit of
this width a " normal slit. " With a slit width equal to twice
the normal one we lose 6% of resolution, but obtain twice the
intensity of light. With a slit equal in width to eight times the
normal one the purity is reduced to o-45R, so that we lose rather
more than half the resolving power and increase the light 3-7
times. If we widen the slit still further rapid loss of purity
results, with very little gain in light, the maximum luminosity
obtainable with an indefinitely wide slit being four times that
obtained with the normal one. It follows that for observations
in which light is a consideration spectroscopes should be used
which give about twice the resolving power of that actually
required; we may then use a slit having a width of nearly eight
times that of the normal one.
'Astrophys. Journ. (1905), 21, p. 197.
SPECTROSCOPY
621
Theoretical resolving power can only be obtained when the
whole collimator is filled with light and further (as pointed out
by Lord Rayleigh in the course of discussion during a meeting
of the " Optical Convention " in London, 1905) each portion
of the collimator must be illuminated by each portion of the
luminous source. These conditions may be generally satisfied
by projecting the image of the source on the slit with a lens of
sufficient aperture. When the slit is narrow light is lost through
diffraction unless the angular aperture of this condensing lens,
as viewed from the slit, is considerably greater than that of
the collimator lens.
When spectroscopes are used for stellar purposes further
considerations have to be taken account of in their construction;
and these are discussed in a paper by H. F. Newall. 1 .
3. Speclroscopic Measurements and Standards of Wave-Length.
All spectroscopic measurement should be reduced to wave-
lengths or wave-frequencies, by a process of interpolation
between lines the wave-lengths of which are known with sufficient
accuracy. The most convenient unit is that adopted by the
International Union of Solar Research and is called an Angstrom
(A) ; and is equal to icf 8 cms. A. Perot and C. Fabry, employing
their interferometer methods, have compared the wave-length
of the red cadmium line with the standard metre in Paris and
found it to be equal to 6438-4696 A, the observations being
taken in dry air at 1 8 C and at a pressure of 76 cms. (g= 980-665).
This number agrees singularly well with that determined in
1893 by Michelson, who found for the same line 6438-4700.
Perot's number is now definitely adopted to define the Angstrom,
and need never be altered, for should at some future time
further researches reveal a minute error, it will be only necessary
to change slightly, the temperature or pressure of the air in which
the wave-length is measured. A number of secondary standards
separated by about 50 A, and tertiary standards at intervals
of from 5 to 10 A have also been determined. By means of
these, spectroscopists are enabled to measure by interpolation
the wave-length of any line they may wish to determine. Inter-
polation is easy in the case of all observations taken with a
grating. In the case of a prism some caution is necessary
unless the standards used are very close together. The most
convenient and accurate formula of interpolation seems to be
that discovered by J. F. Hartmann. If D is the measured
deviation of a ray, and Do, Xo, c and a are four constants, the
equation
X = Xo+ (D-D ) 1 "
seems to represent the connexion between deviation and wave-
length with considerable accuracy for prisms constructed with
the ordinary media.
The constant a has the same value 1-2 for crown and flint
glass, so that there are only three disposable constants left.
In many cases it is sufficient to substitute unity for a and
write
which gives a convenient formula, which in this form was
first used by A. Cornu. If within the range 5100-3700 A, the
constants are determined once for all, the formula seems capable
of giving by interpolation results accurate to 0-2 A, but as a rule
the range to which the formula is applied will be much less with
a corresponding gain in the accuracy of the results.
Every observer should not only record the resolving power
of the instrument he uses, but also the purity-factor as defined
above. The resolving power in the case of gratings is simply
mn, where m is the order of spectrum used, and n the total
number of lines ruled on the grating. In the case of prisms the
resolving power is/ (dn/d\), where / is the effective thickness
of the medium traversed by the ray. If fe and t\ are thicknesses
traversed by the extreme rays, t = h li, and if, as is usually the
case, the prism is filled right up to its refraction cap, t\ o, and
/ becomes equal to the greatest thickness of the medium which
is made use of. When compound prisms are used in which,
1 Monthly Notices R.A.S. (1905), 65, p. 605.
for the purpose of obtaining smaller deviation, one part of the
compound acts in opposition to the other, the resolving power
of the opposing portion must be deducted in calculating the
power of the whole. Opticians should supply sufficient informa-
tion of the dispersive properties of their materials to allow
dnld\ to be calculated easily for different parts of the spectrum.
The determination of the purity-factor requires the measure-
ment of the width of the slit. This is best obtained by optical
means. The collimator of a spectroscope should be detached,
or moved so as to admit of the introduction of an auxiliary slit
at a distance from the collimator lens equal to its focal length.
If a source of light be placed behind the auxiliary slit a
parallel beam of light will pass within the collimator and fall
on the slit the width of which is to be measured. With fairly
homogeneous light the diffraction pattern may be observed
at a distance, varying with the width of the slit from about
the length of the collimator to one quarter of that length.
From the measured distances of the diffraction bands the width
of the slit may be easily deduced.
4. Methods of Observation and Range of Wave-Lengths. Visual
observation is limited to the range of frequencies to which our
eyes are sensitive. Defining oscillation as is usual in spectro-
scopic measurement by wave-length, the visible spectrum is
found to extend from about 7700 to 3900 A. In importance
next to visual observation, and in the opinion of some, surpassing
it, is the photographic method. We are enabled by means of
it to extend materially the range of our observation, especially
if the ordinary kinds of glass, which strongly absorb ultra-
violet light, are avoided, and, when necessary, replaced by
quartz. It is in this manner easy to reach a wave-length of
3000 A, and, with certain precautions, 1800 A. At that point,
however, quartz and even atmospheric air become strongly
absorbent and the expensive fluorspar becomes the only medium
that can be used. Hydrogen still remains transparent. The
beautiful researches of V. Schumann 2 have shown, however,
that with the help of spectroscopes void of air and specially
prepared photographic plates, spectra can be registered as far
down as 1 200 A. Lyman more recently has been able to obtain
photographs as far down as 1030 A with the help of a concave
grating placed in vacuo. 3 Although the vibrations in the
infra-red have a considerably greater intensity, they are more
difficult to register than those in the ultra-violet. Photographic
methods have been employed successfully by Sir W. Abney
as far as 20,000 A, but long exposures are necessary. Bolo-
metric methods may be used with facility and advantage in the
investigation of the distribution of intensities in continuous
or semi-continuous spectra but difficulties are met with in the
case of line spectra. Good results in this respect have been
obtained by B. W. Snow 4 and by E. P. Lewis, 6 lines as far as
11,500 having been measured by the latter. More recently
F. Paschen 6 has further extended the method and added a
number of infra-red lines to the spectra of helium, argon, oxygen
and other elements. In the case of helium one line was found
with a wave-length of 20,582 A. C. V. Boys' microradiometer
has occasionally been made use of, and the extreme sensitiveness
of the Crookes' radiometer has also given excellent results in
the hands of H. Rubens and E. F. Nichols. In the opinion
of the writer the latter instrument will ultimately replace the
bolometer, its only disadvantage being that the radiations have
to traverse the side of a vessel, and are therefore subject to
absorption. In order to record line spectra it is by no means
necessary that the receiving instrument (bolometer or radio-
meter) should be linear in shape, for the separation of adjacent
lines may be obtained if the linear receiver be replaced by a
narrow slit in a screen placed at the focus of the condensing
lens. The sensitive vane or strip may then be placed behind
the slit; its width will not affect the resolving power though
there may be a diminution of sensitiveness. The longest waves
2 Wied. Annalen (1901), 5, p. 349.
3 Astrophys. Journ. (1906), 23, p. 181.
4 Wied. Annalen (1892), 47, p. 208.
6 Astrophys. Journ. (1895), 2, p. I.
6 Drude Annalen (1908), 27, p. 537 and (1909), 29.
622
SPECTROSCOPY
observed up to the present are those recorded by H. Rubens
and E. Aschkinass 1 (-0061 cms. or 610,000 A).
5. Methods of Rendering Gases Luminous. The extreme flexi-
bility of the phenomena shown by radiating gases renders it a
matter of great importance to examine them under all possible
conditions of luminosity. Gases, like atmospheric air, hydrogen
or carbon dioxide do not become luminous if they are placed
in tubes, even when heated up far beyond white heat as in the
electric furnace. This need not necessarily be interpreted as
indicating the impossibility of rendering gases luminous by
temperature only, for the transparency of the gas for luminous
radiations may be such that the emission is too weak to be
detected. When there is appreciable absorption as in the case
of the vapours of chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, selenium
and arsenic, luminosity begins at a red heat. Thus G. Salet 2
observed that iodine gives a spectrum of bright bands when in
contact with a platinum spiral made white hot by an electric
current, and J. Evershed 3 has shown that in this and other
cases the temperature at which emission becomes appreciable
is about 700. It is only recently that owing to the introduction
of carbon tubes heated electrically the excitement of the lumin-
ous vibrations of molecules by temperature alone has become
an effective method for the study of their spectra even in the
case of metals. Hitherto we were entirely and still are generally
confined to electrical excitation or to chemical action as in
the case of flames.
In the ordinary laboratory the Bunsen flame has become
universal, and a number of substances, such as the salts of
the alkalis and alkaline earths, show characteristic spectra
when suitably placed in it. More information may be gained
with the help of the oxyhydrogen flame, which with its higher
temperature has not been used as frequently as it might have
been, but W. N. Hartley has employed it with great success,
and in cyanite (a silicate- of aluminium) has found a material
which is infusible at the temperature of this flame, and is
therefore Fuitable to hold the substance which it is desired to
examine. An interesting and instructive manner of introducing
salts into flames was discovered by A. Gouy, who forced the air
before it entered the Bunsen burner, through a spray produce
containing a salt in solution. By this method even such metals
as iron and copper may be made to show some of their charac-
teristic lines in the Bunsen burner. The spectra produced
under these circumstances have been studied in detail by C. de
Watteville. 4
Of more frequent use have been electric methods, owing
to the greater intensity of the radiations which they yield.
Especially when large gratings are employed do we find that the
electric arc alone seems sufficient to give vibrations of the
requisite power. The metals may be introduced into the arc
in various ways, and in some cases where they can be obtained
in sufficient quantity the metallic electrodes may be used in the
place of carbon poles.
The usual method of obtaining spectra by the discharges
from a Ruhmkorff coil or Wimshurst machine needs no descrip-
tion. The effects may be varied by altering the capacity and
self-induction of the circuit which contains the spark gap. The
insertion of self-induction has the advantage of avoiding the
lines due to the gas through which the spark is taken, but it
introduces other changes in the nature of the spark, so that the
results obtained with and without self-induction are not directly
comparable. Count Gramont 6 has been able to obtain spectro-
scopic evidence of the metalloids in a mineral by employing
powerful condensers and heating the electrodes in an oxyhydro-
gen flame when these (as is often the case) are not sufficiently
conducting.
When the substance to be examined spectroscopically is in
solution the spark may be taken from the solution, which must
then be used as kathode of air. The condenser is in this case
1 Wied. Annalen (1898), 65, p. 241.
1 Ann. Chim. Phys. (1873), 28.
3 Phil. Mag. (1895), 39, p. 460.
4 Phil. Trans. (1904), 204, A. p. 139.
6 Comptes rendus, vols. 121, 122, 124.
not necessary, in fact better results are obtained without it.
Lecoq de Boisbaudran has applied this method with considerable
success, and it is to be recommended whenever only small
electric power is at the disposal of the observer. To diminish
the resistance the current should pass through as small a layer
of liquid as possible. It is convenient to place the liquid in a
short tube, a platinum wire sealed in at the bottom to convey
the current reaching to the level of the open end. If a thick-
walled capillary tube is passed over the platinum tube and its
length so adjusted that the liquid rises in it by capillary action
just above the level of the tube, the spectrum may be examined
directly, and the loss of light due to the passage through the
partially wetted surface of the walls of the tube is avoided.
For the investigation of the spectra of gases at reduced
pressures the so-called Pliicker tubes (more generally but
incorrectly called Geissler tubes) are in common use. When
the pressure becomes very low, inconvenience arises owing to the
difficulty of establishing the discharge. In that case the method
introduced by J. J. Thomson might with advantage be more
frequently employed. Thomson 6 places spherical bulbs inside
thick spiral conductors through which the oscillating discharge
of a powerful battery is led. The rapid variation in the intensity
of the magnetic field causes a brilliant electrodeless discharge
which is seen in the form of a ring passing near the inner walls
of the bulb when the pressure is properly adjusted. A variety
of methods to render gases luminous should be at the com-
mand of the investigator, for nearly all show some distinctive
peculiarity and any new modification generally results in fresh
facts being brought to light. Thus E. Goldstein 7 was able to show
that an increase in the current density is capable of destroying
the well-known spectra of the alkali metals, replacing them by
quite a new set of lines.
6. Theory of Radiation. The general recognition of spectrum
analysis as a method of physical and chemical research occurred
simultaneously with the theoretical foundation of the connexion
between radiation and absorption. Though the experimental
and theoretical developments were not necessarily dependent
on each other, and by far the larger proportion of the subject
which we now term " Spectroscopy " could stand irrespective
of Gustav Kirchhoff's thermodynamical investigations, there is
no doubt that the latter was, historically speaking, the immediate
cause of the feeling of confidence with which the new branch of
science was received, for nothing impresses the scientific world
more strongly than just that little touch of mystery which
attaches to a mathematical investigation which can only be
understood by the few, and is taken on trust by the many,
provided that the author is a man who commands general
confidence. While Balfour Stewart's work on the theory of
exchanges was too easily understood and therefore too easily
ignored, the weak points in Kirchhoff's developments are only
now beginning to be perceived. The investigations both of
Balfour Stewart and of Kirchhoff are based on the idea of an
enclosure at uniform temperature and the general results of the
reasoning centre in the conclusion that the introduction of any
body at the same temperature as the enclosure can make no
difference to the streams of radiant energy which we imagine
to traverse the enclosure. This result, which, accepting the
possibility of having an absolutely opaque enclosure of uniform
temperature, was clearly proved by Balfour Stewart for the total
radiation, was further extended by Kirchhoff, who applied it
(though not with mathematical rigidity as is sometimes supposed)
to the separate wave-lengths. All Kirchhoff's further conclu-
sions are based on the assumption that the radiation transmitted
through a partially transparent body can be expressed in terms
of two independent factors (i) an absorption of the incident
radiation, and (2) the radiation of the absorbing medium, which
takes place equally in 1 all directions. It is assumed further that
the absorption is proportional to the incident radiation and (at
any rate approximately) independent of the temperature, while
the radiation is assumed to be a function of the temperature
6 Phil. Mag. 32, PP. 3 2 L 445-
7 Vertr. d. phys. Ces. (1904), 9, p. 321.
SPECTROSCOPY
623
only and independent of the temperature of the enclosure. This
division into absorption and radiation is to some extent artificial
and will have to be revised when theohenomena of radiation
are placed on a mechanical basis. For our present purpose
it is only necessary to point out the difficulty involved in the
assumption that the radiation of a body is independent of the
temperature of the enclosure. The present writer drew attention
to this difficulty as far back as iSSi, 1 when he pointed out that
the different intensities of different spectral lines need not involve
the consequence that in an enclosure of uniform temperature the
energy is unequally partitioned between the corresponding
degrees of freedom. When the molecule is losing energy the
intensity of each kind of radiation depends principally on the
rapidity with which it can be renewed by molecular impacts.
The unequal intensities observed indicate a difference in the
effectiveness of the channels through which energy is lost, and
this need not be connected with the ultimate state of equilibrium
when the body is kept at a uniform temperature. For our
immediate purpose these considerations are of importance
inasmuch as they bear on the question how far the spectra
emitted by gases are thermal effects only. We generally observe
spectra under conditions in which dissipation of energy takes
place, and it is not obvious that we possess a definition of tem-
perature which is strictly applicable to these cases. When,
for instance, we observe the relation of the gas contained in a
Pliicker tube through which an electric discharge is passing,
there can be little doubt that the partition of energy is very
different from what it would be in thermal equilibrium. In
consequence the question as to the connexion of the spectrum
with the temperature of the gas seems to the present writer to
lose some of its force. We might define temperature in the
case of a flame or vacuum tube by the temperature which a
small totally reflecting body would tend to take up if placed at
the spot, but this definition would fail in the case of a spark
discharge. Adopting the definition we should have no difficulty
in proving that in a vacuum tube gases may be luminous at very
low temperatures, but we are doubtful whether such a conclusion
is very helpful towards the elucidation of our problem. Radia-
tion is a molecular process, and we can speak of the radiation of
a molecule but not of its temperature. When we are trying
to bring radiation into connexion with temperature, we must
therefore take a sufficiently large group of molecules and compare
their average energies with the average radiation. The question
arises whether in a vacuum discharge, in which only a compara-
tively small proportion of the molecules are affected, we are to
take the average radiation of the affected portion or include the
whole lot of molecules, which at any moment are not concerned
in the discharge at all. The two processes would lead to entirely
different results. The problem, which, in the opinion of the
present writer, is the one of interest and has more or less definitely
been in the minds of those who have discussed the subject, is
whether the type of wave sent out by a molecule only depends
on the internal energy of that molecule, or on other considera-
tions such as the mode of excitement. The average energy of a
medium containing a mixture of dissimilar elements possesses
in this respect only a very secondary interest.
We must now inquire a little more closely into the mechanical
conception of radiation. According to present ideas, the wave
originates in a disturbance of electrons within the molecules.
The electrons responsible for the radiation are probably few
and not directly involved in the structure of the atom, which
according to the view at present in favour, is itself made up
of electrons. As there is undoubtedly a connexion between
thermal motion and radiation, the energy of these electrons
within the atom must be supposed to increase with tempera-
ture. But we knpw also that in the complete radiation of a
white body the radiative energy increases with the fourth
power of the absolute temperature. Hence a part of what must
be included in thermal energy is not simply proportional to
temperature as is commonly assumed. The energy of radiation
resides in the medium and not in the molecule. Even at the
1 Phil. Mag. (1881), 12, p. 261.
highest temperatures at our command it is small compared
with the energy of translatory motion, but as the temperature
increases, it must ultimately gain the upper hand, and if there
is anywhere such a temperature as that of several million
degrees, the greater part of the total energy of a body will be
outside the atom and molecular motion ultimately becomes
negligible compared with it. But these speculations, interesting
and important as they are, lead us away from our main
subject.
Considering the great variety of spectra, which one and the
same body may possess, the idea lies near that free electrons
may temporarily attach themselves to a molecule or detach ,
themselves from it, thereby altering the constitution of the
vibrating system. This is most likely to occur in a discharge
through a vacuum tube and it is just there that the greatest
variety of spectra is observed.
It has been denied by some that pure thermal motion can ever
give rise to line spectra, but that either chemical action or impact
of electrons is necessary to excite the regular oscillations which
give rise to line spectra. There is no doubt that the impact
of electrons is likely to be effective in this respect, but it must be
remembered that all bodies raised to a sufficient temperature are
found to eject electrons, so that the presence of the free electrons
is itself a consequence of temperature. The view that visible
radiation must be excited by the impact of such an electron
is therefore quite consistent with the view that there is no
essential difference between the excitement due to chemical or
electrical action and that resulting from a sufficient increase of
temperature.
Chemical action has frequently been suggested as being a
necessary factor in the luminosity of flame, not only in the sense
that it causes a sufficient rise of temperature but as furnishing
some special and peculiar though undefined stimulus. An
important experiment by C. Gunther 2 seems however to show
that the radiation of metallic salts in a flame has an intensity
equal to that belonging to it in virtue of its temperature.
If a short length of platinum wire be inserted vertically into
a lighted Bunsen burner the luminous line may be used as a slit
and viewed directly through a prism. When now a small bead of
a salt of sodium or lithium is placed in the flame the spectrum
of the white hot platinum is traversed by the dark absorption
of the D lines. This is consistent with Kirchhoff's law and shows
that the sodium in a flame possesses the same relative radiation
and absorption as sodium vapour heated thermally to the
temperature of the flames. According to independent experi-
ments by Paschen the radiation of the D line sent out by the
sodium flame of sufficient density is nearly equal to that of
a black body at the same temperature. 3 Other more recent
experiments confirm the idea that the radiation of flames is
mainly determined by their temperature.
The definition of temperature given above, though difficult
in the case of a flame and perhaps still admissible in the case
of an electric arc, becomes precarious when applied to the
disruptive phenomena of a spark discharge. The only sense
in which we might be justified in using the word temperature
here is by taking account of the energy set free in each discharge
and distributing it between the amount of matter to which
the energy is supplied. With a guess at the specific heat we
might then calculate the maximum temperature to which the
substance might be raised, if there were no loss by radiation
or otherwise. But the molecules affected by a spark discharge
are not in any sense in equilibrium as regards their partition
of energy and the word " temperature " cannot therefore be
applied to them in the ordinary sense. We might probably
with advantage find some definition of what may be called
" radiation temperature " based on the relation bet ween radiation
and absorption in Kirchhoff's sense, but further information
based on experimental investigation is required.
7. Limits of Homogeneity and Structure of Lines. As a first
approximation we may say that gases send out homogeneous
2 Wied. Ann. (1877), 2, p. 477.
3 Ibid. (1894), 51, p. 40.
624
SPECTROSCOPY
radiations. A homogeneous oscillation is one which for all
time is described by a circular function such as sm(nl-\-a),
t being the time and n and a constants. The qualification
that the circular function must apply to all time is important,
and unless it is recognized as a necessary condition of homo-
geneity, confusion in the more intricate problems or radiation
becomes inevitable. Thus if a molecule were .set into vibra-
tion at a specified time and oscillated according to the above
equation during a finite period, it would not send out homo-
geneous vibrations. In interpreting the phenomena observed
in a spectroscope, it is necessary to remember that the instru-
ment, as pointed out by Lord Rayleigh, is itself a producer
of homogeneity within the limits defined by its resolving
power. A spectroscope may be compared to a mechanical
harmonic analyser which when fed with an irregular function
of one variable represented by a curve supplies us with the sine
curves into which the original function may be resolved. This
analogy is useful because the application of Fourier's analysis to
the optical theory of spectroscopes has been doubted, and it may
be urged in answer to the objections raised that the instrument
acts in all respects like a mechanical analyser, 1 the applica-
bility of which has never been called into question.
A limit to homogeneity of radiation is ultimately set by the
so-called Doppler effect, which is the change of wave-length
due to the translatory motion of the vibrating molecule from or
towards the observer. If N be the frequency of a homogeneous
vibration sent out by a molecule at rest, the apparent frequency
will be N (i=*=/F), where V is the velocity of light and v is the
velocity of the line of sight, taken as positive if the distance
from the observer increases. If all molecules moved with the
velocity of mean square, the line would be drawn out into a
band having on the frequency scale a width 2Nv/V, where i)
is now the velocity of mean square. According to Maxwell's
law, however, the number of molecules having a velocity in
the line of sight lying between v and v+dv is proportional to
erPfdv, where |3 is equal to 3/2 2 ; for v=u, we have therefore
the ratio in the number of molecules having velocity u to those
having no velocity in the line of sight e~/' 2 = e-t = -22. We
may therefcre still take 2Nu/V to be the width of the band if
we define its edge to be the frequency at which its intensity
has fallen to 22% of the central intensity. In the case of
hydrogen rendered luminous in a vacuum tube we may put
approximately u equal to 2000 metres per second, if the trans-
latory motion of the luminous molecules is about the same as
that at the ordinary temperature. In that case \u/V or the
half width of the band measured in wave lengths would be
f-io~ s X, or, for the red line, the half width would be 0-044 A.
Michelson, who has compared the theoretical widening with that
found experimentally by means of his interferometer, had to
use a somewhat more complicated expression for the comparison,
as his visibility curve does not directly give intensities for
particular frequencies but an integral depending on a range
of frequency. 2 He finds a remarkable agreement between the
theoretical and experimental values, which it would be important
to confirm with the more suitable instruments which are now
at our disposal, as we might in this way get an estimate of the
energy of translatory motion of the luminous molecules. If the
motion were that of a body at white heat, or say a temperature
of 1000, the velocity of mean square would be 3900 metres per
second and the apparent width of the band would be doubled.
Michelson's experiments therefore argue in favour of the view
that the luminescence in a vacuum tube is similar to that pro-
duced by phosphorescence where the translatory energy does
not correspond to the oscillatory energy but further experi-
ments are desirable. The experimental verification of the
change of wave-length due to a source moving in the line of
sight has been realized in the laboratory by A. Belopolsky and
Prince Galitzin, who substituted for the source an image
formed of a stationary object in a rapidly moving mirror.
1 Phil. Mag. (1894), 37, p. 509.
J Cf. Rayleigh, Phil. Mag. (1899), 27, p. 298; Michelson,
Mag. (1892), 34. P- 28 -
Phil.
The homogeneity of vibration may also be diminished by
molecular impacts, but the number of shocks in a given time
depends on pressure and we may therefore expect to diminish the
width of a line by diminishing the pressure. It is not, however,
obvious that the sudden change of direction in the translatory
motion, which is commonly called a molecular shock, necessarily
also affects the phase of vibration. Experiments which will
be discussed in 10 seem to show that there is a difference in
this respect between the impacts of similar and those of dis-
similar molecules. When the lines are obtained under circum-
stances which tend towards sharpness and homogeneity they
are often found to possess complicated structures, single lines
breaking up into two or more components of varying intensities.
One of the most interesting examples is that furnished by the
green mercury line, which when examined by a powerful echelon
spectroscope splits up into a number of constituents which have
been examined by several investigators. Six companions to
the main lines are found with comparative ease and certainty and
these have been carefully measured by Prince Galitzin, 3 H.
Stansfield 4 and L. Janicki. 6 According to Stansfield there are
three companion lines on either side of a central line, which
consists of two lines of unequal brightness.
8. Distribution of Frequencies in Line Spectra. It is natural
to consider the frequencies of vibrations of radiating molecules
as analogous to the different notes sent out by an acoustical
vibrator. The efforts which were consequently made in the
early days of spectroscopy to discover some numerical relation-
ship between the different wave lengths of the lines belonging
to the same spectrum rather disregard the fact that even in
acoustics the relationship of integer numbers holds only in
special and very simple cases. Some corroboration of the
simple law was apparently found by Johnstone Stoney, who
first noted that the frequencies of three out of the four visible
hydrogen lines are in the ratios 20 : 27 : 32. In other spectra
such " harmonic " ratios were also discovered, but their search
was abandoned when it was found that their number did not
exceed that calculated by the laws of probability on the supposi-
tion of a chance distribution. 6 The next great step was made by
J. J. Balmer, who showed that the four hydrogen lines in the
visible part of the spectrum may be represented by the equation
n = A(i- 4 /i),
where n is the reciprocal of the wave-length and therefore
proportional to the wave frequency, and j successively takes the
values 3, 4, 5, 6. Balmer's formula received a striking confirma-
tion when it was found to include the ultra-violet lines which
were discovered by Sir William Huggins 7 in the photographic
spectra of stars. The most complete hydrogen spectrum is
that measured _ by Evershed 8 in the flash spectrum observed
during a total solar eclipse, and contains thirty-one lines, all of
which agree with considerable accuracy with the formula, if
the frequency number n is calculated correctly by reducing the
wave-length to vacuo. 9
It is a characteristic of Balmer's formula that the frequency
approaches a definite limit as 5 is increased, and it was soon
discovered that in several other spectra besides hydrogen, series
of lines could be found, which gradually come nearer and nearer
to each other as they become fainter, and approach a definite
limit. Such series ought all to be capable of being represented
by a formula resembling that of Balmer, but so far the exact
form of the series has not been established with certainty. The
more important of the different forms suggested are as follow:
(i) n= A + ^ + j. (H. Kayser and C. Runge).
(2) n= A-
(I- R- Rydberg).
3 Bulletin Akad. St Petersburg (1907), p. 159.
'Phil. Mag. (September, 1909), 18, p. 371.
5 Ann. d. Phys. (1909), 29, p. 1833.
A. Schuster, Proc. Roy. Soc. (1881), 21, p. 337.
''Phil. Trans. (1880), 171, p. 619.
8 Ibid (1891), 197, p. 381.
' The table so corrected will be found in C. Baly's Spectroscopy,
p. 472
SPECTROSCOPY
625
N (E. C. Pickering, generalized by T. N.
(3) =A- (i+M) , +a Thicle).
(4) n=A-
(5) A-
-. (Hicks).
In all cases 5 represents the succession of integer numbers.
In the last case we must put for r either s or s+% according
to the nature of the series, as will be explained further on. The
first of the forms which contains three disposable constants did
good service in the hands of their authors, but breaks down in
important cases when odd powers of s have to be introduced
in addition to the even powers. The second form contains
two or three constants according as N is taken to have the same
value for all elements or not. Rydberg favours the former
view, but he does not attempt to obtain any very close approxi-
mation between the observed and calculated values of the fre-
quencies. Equation (3), which E. C. Pickering 1 used in a special
case, presently to be 'referred to, was put into a more general
form by Thiele, 2 who, however, assumes N to have the same
value for all spectra, and not obtaining sufficient agreement,
rejects the formula. J. Halm 3 subsequently showed that if
N may differ in different cases, the equation is a considerable
improvement on Rydberg's. It then possesses four adjustable
constants, and more can therefore be expected from it. All
these forms are put into the shade by that which was introduced
by Ritz, led thereto apparently by theoretical considerations.
As he takes N to be strictly the same for all elements the equation
has only three disposable constants A, a and b. It is found
to be very markedly superior to the other equations. Its chief
advantage appears, however, when the relationship between
different series of the same element is taken into account. We
therefore turn our attention to this relationship.
In the case of those elements in which we can represent the
spectrum most completely by a number of series, it is generally
found that they occur in groups of three which are closely
related to each other. They were called by H. Kayser and F.
Paschen " Haupt serie," " ist Nebenserie," " 2nd Nebenserie,"
which is commonly translated " Principal series," "First
subordinate series," " Second subordinate series." These names
become inconvenient when, as is generally the case, each of the
series splits into groups of two or three, and we have to speak
of the second or third number of the first or second subordinate
series. Moreover, a false impression is conveyed by the nomen-
clature, as the second subordinate series is much more closely
related to the principal series than the first subordinate series.
The present writer, therefore, in his Theory of Optics, adopted
different names, and called the series respectively the " Trunk,"
the " Main Branch " and the " Side Branch," the main branch
being identical with the second subordinate series; the limit of
frequency for high values of 5 is called the " root " of the series,
and it is found in all cases that the two branches have a common
root at some point in the trunk. According to an important
law discovered by Rydberg and shortly afterwards indepen-
dently by the writer, the frequency of the common root of the
two branches is obtained by subtracting the frequency of the
root of the trunk from that of its least refrangible and strongest
member. In the spectra of the alkali metals each line of the
trunk is a doublet, and we may speak of a twin trunk springing
out of the same root. In the same spectra the lines belonging
to the two branches are also doublets. According to the above
law the least refrangible member of the trunk being double,
there must be two roots for the branches, and this is found to
be 1 the case. In fact the lines of each branch are also doublets,
with common difference of frequency. There are, therefore,
two main branches and two side branches, but these are not
twins springing out of the same root, but parallel branches
springing out of different though closely adjacent roots. It will
also be noticed that the least refrangible of the doublets of the
1 Astrophys. Journ. (1896), 4, p. 369.
'Ibid. (1897), 6, p. 65.
1 Trans. Ast. Soc. Edinburgh (1905), 41, p. 551.
ranches must according to the above law correspond to the
most refrangible of the doublets of the trunk, and if the com-
xments of the doublets have different intensities the stronger
components must lie on different sides in the trunk and branch
ies. This is confirmed by observation. Rydberg discovered
a second relationship, which, however, involving the assumed
equation connecting the different lines, cannot be tested directly
as long as these equations are only approximate. On the other
land the law, once shown to hold approximately, may be used
o test the sufficiency of a particular form of equation. These
orms all agree in making the frequency negative when 5 falls
below a certain value sp. Rydberg's second law states that if
the main branch series is taken, the numerical value of r.'j>_i
:orresponding to ty_i is equal to the frequency of the least
refrangible member of the trunk series.
The two laws are best understood by putting the equations in
the form given them by Rydberg.
For the trunk series write
and for the main branch series
n 1 . i
TT
Here M, " and N are constants, while x as before is an integer
number.
The difference between the frequencies of the roots (x = ) is
jiven by
This is the first law.
If further in the two equations we put x = i, we obtain:
Mi = Wi .
This is the second law.
As has already been mentioned, the law is only verified very
roughly, if Rydberg's form of equation is taken as correctly re-
presenting the series. The fact that the addition of the term intro-
duced by Ritz not only gives a more satisfactory representation
of each series, but verifies the above relationship with a much
closer degree of approximation, proves that Ritz's equation forms
a marked step in the right direction. According to him, the follow-
ing equations represent the connexion between the lines of the three
related series.
Trunk series: TT?
Main Branch Series: -- =
[r+a'+i'/r 2 ] 2
i
Side Branch Series: ~T^r =
Here x stands for an integer number beginning with 2 for the
trunk and 3 for the main branch, and r represents the succession
of numbers 1-5, 2-5, 3-5, &c. As Ritz points out, the first two
equations appear only to be particular cases of the form
in which s and r have the form given above. In the trunk series
x has the particular value 1-5, and in the main branch series s
has the particular value 2, but we should expect a weaker set of
lines to exist corresponding to the trunk series with r = 2-$ or
corresponding to the main branch series with x=3, and in fact
a whole succession of such series. Taking the Trunk and Main
Branch Series, we find they depend altogether on the four constants :
01, 6, a 1 , b l , while N is a universal constant identical with that
deduced from the hydrogen series. As an example of the accuracy
obtained we give in the following Table the figures for potassium.
The lines of the trunk series are double but for the sake of shortness
the least refrangible component is here omitted.
Spectrum of Potassium.
Trunk Series.
Main Branch.
Side Branch.
S
n
A
r
n
A
X
n
A
2
13036-8
0-24
i-5
12980-7
0-00
5
I7I99-5
O-OO
3
24719-4
+O-OO
2-5
6
18709-5
o-oo
4
29006-7
+O-I2
3-5
I4465-3
o-oo
7
19611-2
+0-I6
5
31073-5
-0-05
4-5
17288-3
+0-20
8
20188-0
+0-70
6
32226-5
+0-40
5-5
18779-2
+0-22
7
32939-4
-0-05
6-5
19662-3
-j-O-22
8
33408-7
-0-08
7-5
20224-7
+ I-IO
9
33736-2
O-O7
10
33971-4
-0-23
626
SPECTROSCOPY
W. M. Hicks 1 has modified Rydberg's equation in a way similar
to that of Ritz as shown by (5) above. This form has the advantage
that the constants of the equation when applied to the spectra of
the alkali metals show marked regularities. The most extensive
series which has yet been observed is that of the trunk series of
sodium when it is observed as an absorption spectrum; R. W.
Wood has in that case measured as many as 50 lines belonging to
this series.
The different series have certain characteristics which they seem
to maintain wherever they have been obtained. Thus the trunk
series consists of lines which are easily reversed while those of the
side branch are nebulous. The lines of the trunk seem to appear
at lower temperatures, which may account for the fact that it can
be observed as absorption lines. If we compare together the
spectra of the alkali metals, we find that the doublets of the
branch series separate more and more as the wave-length increases.
Roughly speaking the difference in frequency is proportional to
the square of the atomic weight. Taking sodium and lithium we
find in this way that the lithium lines ought to be double and sepa-
rated by 7 A. They have not, however, so far as we know, been
resolved. The roots of the three series have frequencies which
diminish as the atomic weight increases, but not according to any
simple law.
In the case of other metallic groups similar series have also been
found, but while in the case of the alkali group nearly the whole
spectrum is represented by the combined set of three series, such
is not the case with other metals. The Spectra of magnesium,
calcium, zinc, cadmium and mercury, give the two branch series,
and each series is repeated three times with constant difference
of frequency. In these elements the doublets of the alkali series
are therefore replaced by triplets. Strontium also gives triplets,
but only the side branch series has been observed. In the spectrum
of barium no series has yet been recognized. The spectrum of
helium has been very carefully studied by Runge and Paschen.
All its lines arrange themselves in two families of series, in other
words, the spectrum looks like that of the superposition of two
spectra similar to those presented by the alkali metals. Each
family consists of the trunk, main branch and side branch. The
conclusion which was originally drawn from this fact that helium
is a mixture of two gases has not been confirmed, as one of the
spectra of oxygen is similarly constituted.
We must refer to Kayser and Runge's Handbuch for further
details, as well as for information on other spectra such as those of
silver, thallium, indium and manganese, in which series lines have
been found.
Before leaving the subject, we return for a moment to the spectrum
of hydrogen. In 1896, Professor E. C. Pickering discovered in
the structure of the star jj Puppis a series of lines which showed
a remarkable similarity to that of hydrogen having the same root.
Kayser on examining the spectrum recognized the fact that the
two series were related to each other like the two branch series,
and this was subsequently confirmed. If we compare Balmer's
formula with the general equation of Ritz, we find that the two
can be made to agree if the ordinary hydrogen spectrum is that of
the side branch series and the constants a 1 , b, c and d are all put
equal to zero. In that case the main branch is found to represent
the new series if a 1 and b l are also put equal to zero, so that
_. n' r _i i
N ~4 r*'
where r takes successively the values 1-5, 2-5, 3-5. A knowledge of
the constants now determines the trunk series, which should be
N
The least refrangible of the lines of this series should have a wave-
length 4687-88, and a strong line of this wave-length has indeed
been found in the spectra of stars which are made up of bright
lines, as also in the spectra of some nebulae. It seems remarkable,
however, that we should not have succeeded yet in reproducing in
the laboratory the trunk and main branch of the hydrogen spectrum,
if the spectra in question really belong to hydrogen.
Considering the complexity of the subject it is not surprising
that the efforts to connect theoretically the possible periods
of the atom considered as a vibrating system have met with no
considerable success. Two methods of investigation are avail-
able. The one endeavours to determine the conditions, which
are consistent with our knowledge of atomic constitution derived
from other sources, and lead to systems of vibration similar to
those of the actual atom. We might then hope to particularize
or modify these conditions so as to put them into more complete
agreement. An attempt in that direction has been made with
partial success by J. H. Jeans, 2 who showed that a shell-like
constitution of the atom, the shells being electrically charged,
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. (1909), 83, p. 226 (abstract).
2 Phil. Mag. (1901), 2, p. 421.
would lead to systems of periods not unlike those of a series of
lines such as is given by observation. The other method starts
from the observed values of the periods, and establishes a differ-
ential equation from which these periods may be derived. This
is done in the hope that some theoretical foundation may then
be found for the equation. The pioneer in this direction is E.
Riecke, 3 who deduced a differential equation of the loth order.
Ritz in the paper already mentioned follows in the footsteps of
Riecke and elaborates the argument. On the whole it seems
probable that the system of moving electrons, which according
to a modern theory constitute the atom, is not directly con-
cerned in thermal radiation which would rather be due to a few
more loosely connected electrons hanging on to the atom.
The difficulty that a number of spectroscopic lines seem to
involve at least an equal number of electrons may be got over
by imagining that the atom may present several positions of
equilibrium to the electron, which it may occupy in turn. A
collision may be able to throw the electrons from one of these
positions to another. According to this view the different-
lines are given out by different molecules, and we should have to
take averages over a number of molecules to obtain the complete
spectrum just as we now take averages of energy to obtain the
temperature. 4 If it should be confirmed that the period called
N in the above investigation is the same for all elements, it must
be intimately connected with the structure of the electron.
At present the quantity of electricity it carries, and also its mass,
may be determined, and we can therefore derive units of length
and of mass from our electrical measurements. The quantity
N may serve to fix the third fundamental unit. One further
point deserves notice. Lord Rayleigh, 6 who has also in-
vestigated vibrating systems giving series of lines approaching
a definite limit of " root," remarks that by dynamical reasoning
we are always led to equations giving the square of the period
and not the period, while in the equation representing spectral
series the simplest results are obtained for the first power of the
period. Now it follows from Rydberg's second law put on a
more accurate basis by Ritz that in one case at any rate a nega-
tive period has reality and must be interpreted just as if it were
positive. This looks indeed as if the square of the period were
the determining quantity.
9. Distribution of Frequencies in Band Spectra. In many cases
the spectra of molecules consist of lines so closely ruled together
in groups as to give the appearance of continuous bands unless
high resolving powers are employed. Such spectra seem to be
characteristic of complex molecular structure, as they appear
when compounds are raised to incandescence without decom-
position, or when we examine the absorption spectra of vapours
such as iodine and bromine and other cases where we know that
the molecule consists of more than one atom. The bands
often appear in groups, and such spectra containing groups of
bands when viewed through small spectroscopes sometimes
give {he appearance of the flutings of columns. Hence the name
" fluted spectra," which is sometimes applied. Each band,
as has been stated, is made up of lines indicating highly homo-
geneous vibrations. A systematic study of the distribution
of frequencies in these bands was first made by H. Deslandres, 6
who found that the successive differences in the frequencies
formed an arithmetical progression.
If s represents the series of integer numbers the distribution
of frequency may be represented by
where C and B are constants. The brightest line, for which 5 = 0,
is called the "head" of the band; and as i increases the lines
diminish in intensity. The band fades towards the red or violet
according as A is positive or negative, and the appearance is some-
times complicated by the fact that several sets of lines start from
identical or closely adjoining heads. The equation which expressed
" Deslandres' law " was only given by its author as an approximate
one. The careful measurements of Kayser and Runge of the carbon
bands show that the successive differences in the frequencies do
3 Drude's Annalen (1900), I, p. 399.
4 Nature (1895), 51, p. 293.
6 Phil. Mag. (1897), 44, p. 356.
6 Camples rendus (1885), loo, p. 1256.
SPECTROSCOPY
627
not quite keep up with the mathematical expression but tend to
become more equal. The distances between the two first lines is
A, and is small compared with the frequency itself, which is B.
If this is the case it is obvious that an equation of the form
N
does, for small values of s, becomes identical with Deslandres'
equation, a representing a constant which is large compared with
unity. If we wish to be more general, while still adhering to
Deslandres' law as a correct representation of the frequencies when
s is small, we may write
n = A
where it is an additional constant.
We have now reduced the law for the bands to a form which we
have found applicable to a series of lines, but with this important
difference that while a in the case of line spectra is a small corrective
term, it now forms the constant on which an essential factor in the
appearance of the band depends. Halm, 1 to whom we owe a
careful comparison of the above equation with the observed fre-
quencies in a great number of spectra, attached perhaps top much
weight to the fact that it is capable of representing both line and
band spectra. It is no doubt important to recognize that the two
types of spectra seem to represent two extreme cases of one formula,
the significant difference being that in the line spectrum the distance
between lines diminishes as we recede from the head, while in the
case of the band it increases, at any rate to begin with. But, on
the other hand, no one pretends to have found the rigorous expression
for the law, and the appropriate approximation may take quite
different forms when constants which are large in one case are small
in the other. It would not therefore be correct to push this agree-
ment against Ritz's expression which is not applicable to bands.
A discussion of band spectra on a very broad basis was given
by Thiele, 2 who recommends a formula
^go+-7i(*+c)+ ....... +q r (s+c)<-
Po+pi(s+c) +
where 5 as before represents the integer numbers and the other
quantities involved are constants. If r = l, we obtain Pickering's
equation, which is the one advocated by Halm. Equations of this
form have received a striking observational verification in so far
as they predict a tail or root towards which the lines ultimately
tend when s is increased indefinitely. This fact bridges over the
distinction between the band and line spectra. The distance
between the lines measured on the frequency scale does not, accord-
ing to the equation, increase indefinitely from the head downwards,
but has a maximum which, in Pickering's form as written above,
is reached when (i+^) 2 = Ja. This gives a real value for s
only when a is positive. If a is negative the frequency passes
through infinity and the maximum distance between the lines
occurs there. If we only assign positive values to n and a, the band
fades away from the head, the lines at first increasing in distance.
It appears from the observations of A. S. King, 3 that in the case
of the so-called spectrum of cyanogen these tails can be observed.
If a negative value of the frequency is admitted, more complicated
effects may be predicted. A band might in that case fade away
towards zero frequencies, and as s increases, return again from
infinity with diminishing distances, the head and the tail pointing
in the same direction; or with a different value of constants a
band might fade away towards infinite frequencies, then return
through the whole range of the spectrum to zero frequencies, and
once more return with its tail near its head. The same band may
therefore cross its own head on the return journey. If we adopt
Thiele's view that each band is accompanied by a second branch
for which s has negative values the complication is still further
increased, but there does not seem to be sufficient reason to adopt
this view.
10. Effects of Varying Physical Conditions. The same spectrum
may show differences according to the physical conditions
under which the body emitting the spectrum is placed. The
main effects we have to discuss are (i) a symmetrical widening,
(2) a shift of wave-length, which when it accompanies expansion
in both directions may appear as an unsymmetrical widening,
(3) a change in the relative intensities of the lines.
As typical examples illustrating the facts to be explained,
the following may be mentioned, (a) When a sodium salt is
placed in a Bunsen burner in sufficient quantity, the yellow lines
are widened. When the amount of luminous matter is small the
lines remain narrow. (6) If a spark be sent through a Pliicker
tube containing hydrogen the lines are widened when the pressure
1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin (1905), 41, p. 551.
2 Astrophys. Journ. (1897), 6, p. 65; (1898), 8, p. I.
3 Ibid. (1901), 14, p. 323.
is increased, (c) Under moderate pressures the lines of hydrogen
may be widened by powerful sparks taken from a condenser.
(d) If a spark be taken from an electric condenser through
air, both the lines of oxygen and nitrogen are wide compared
with what they would be at low pressures. But a mixture of
nitrogen and oxygen containing only little nitrogen will show
the nitrogen lines narrow and similarly narrow oxygen lines
may be obtained if the quantity of oxygen is reduced, (e) If
a spark be taken from a solution of a salt, e.g. lithium, the
relative intensities of the lines are different according as the
solution is concentrated or dilute. (/) The relative intensity
of lines in the spark taken from metallic poles may be altered
by the insertion of greater or smaller capacities, similarly the
relative intensities are different in arc and spark spectra, (g)
Increased pressure nearly always diminishes the frequency
of vibration, but this effect is generally of a smaller order of
magnitude than the widening which takes place in the other
cases. In investigating the effects of mixture on the widening
of lines in absorption spectrum, R. W. Wood discovered some
interesting effects. The cadmium line having a wave-length
of 2288 A broadens by pressure equally in both directions,
but if mercury be added the broadening is more marked on the
less refrangible side.
The discussion as to the causes of this widening has turned
a good deal on the question whether it is primarily due to changes
of density, pressure or temperature, but some confusion has
been caused by the want of proper definition of terms. For the
cause of this the writer of the present article is jointly with others
at any rate partly responsible, and clearness of ideas can only
be re-established by investigating the mechanical causes of the
effect rather than by applying terms which refer to a different
order of physical conceptions.
The facts, as quoted, point to the closeness of the packing of
molecules as the factor which always accompanies and perhaps
causes the widening of lines. But is this alone sufficient to
justify us in assigning the widening to increased density?
Increased density at the same temperature means in the first
place a reduction of the average distance between the mole-
cules, but it means also a reduction in the mean free path and
an increase in the number of impacts. The question is: which
of these three factors is significant in. the explanation of the
widening? If it is the average distance irrespective of length
of path and of number of impacts we should be justified in as-
cribing the effect to density, but if it is the number of impacts
it would be more reasonable to ascribe it to pressure. The
question could not be settled by experiments made at the same
temperature, and if the temperature is altered the question is
complicated by the distinction which would probably have to
be drawn between the number of collisions and their intensity.
Experimentally we should be confined to a strict investigation
of absorption spectra, because in the electric discharge tempera-
ture has no definite meaning, and variations of pressure and
density are not easily measured.
Assuming for a moment the change to be one of density and
leaving out of account the pressure shift, the cases (e) and (/)
point to the fact that it is the closeness of packing of similar
molecules which is effective, e.g. the number of oxygen molecules
per cubic centimetre determines the width of the oxygen lines,
though nitrogen molecules may be mixed with them without
materially affecting the appearance. Experiment (c) is, however,
generally taken to mean that this closeness of packing cannot
be the sole determining cause, for it is argued that if a closed
vacuum tube can show both wide and narrow lines according
to the mode of discharge, density alone cannot account for
the change. But this argument is not conclusive, for though
the total number of hydrogen molecules is fixed when the gas
is enclosed, yet the number of luminous molecules may vary
with the condition. Those that are not luminous may, if
they do not contain the same vibrating system, behave like
inert molecules. When an electric current from a battery is
sent through a tube containing hydrogen, increase of current
simply means increase in the number of ions which take part
628
SPECTROSCOPY
in the discharge, except within the region of the kathode glow.
Each molecule need not radiate with increased energy, but the
more brilliant emission of light may be due to the greater
number of particles forming similar vibrating systems.
When we compare together electric discharges the intensity
of which is altered by varying the capacity, we are unable to
form an opinion as to whether the effects observed are due to
changes in the density of the luminous material or changes of
temperature, but the experiments of Sir William and Lady
Huggins 1 with the spectrum of calcium are significant in
suggesting that it is really the density which is also the deter-
mining factor in cases where different concentrations and different
spark discharges produce a change in the relative intensities
of different lines.
The widening of lines does not lend itself easily to accurate
measurements; more precise numerical data are obtainable by
the study of the displacements consequent on increased density
which were discovered and studied by W. J. Humphreys and
J. F. Mohler. In the original experiments 2 the pressures could
only be increased to 15 atmospheres, but in a more recent work
Humphreys, 3 and independently Duffield, were able' to use
pressures up to 100 atmospheres. The change of frequency
(dn) for a series of lines which behave similarly is approximately
proportional to the frequency (n) so that we can take the fraction
dnjn as a measure of the shift. It is found that the lines of
the same element do not all show the same shift, thus the
calcium line at 4223 is displaced by 0-4 A by 100 atmospheres
pressure, while the H and K lines are only displaced through
about half that amount. Duffield finds that the iron lines
divide themselves into three groups with pressure shifts which
are approximately in the ratio 1:2:4. Curiously enough this
is also approximately the ratio of the displacements found by
Humphreys in the trunk series, the side branch and main branch
in the order named, in cases where these displacements have
been measured. It was believed that band spectra did not
show any pressure shift, until A. Dufour 4 discovered that the
lines into which the band spectra of the fluorides of the alkaline
earths may be resolved widen towards the red under increased
pressure.
Let us now consider the causes which may affect the homo-
geneity of radiation. We have first the Doppler effect, which,
according to Michelson's experiment, is the chief cause of the
limit at very low pressures, but it is too small to account for the
widening which is now under discussion. We have further to
consider the possibility of sudden changes of phrase during an
encounter between two molecules, and we can easily form an
estimate of the amount of apparent widening due to this cause.
It is found to be appreciable but smaller than the observed
effects.
Shortly after the discovery of pressure shifts A. Schuster 5
suggested that the proximity of molecules vibrating in the same
period might be the cause of the diminished frequency, and
suggested that according to this view the shifts would be similar
if the increase of density were produced by the presence of
molecules of a different kind from those whose lines are being
examined. Though there is no absolutely conclusive evidence,
no experiments hitherto have given any indication that the nature
of the gas producing the pressure has any effect on the amount
of shift. G. F. Fitzgerald 6 suggested as an alternative explana-
tion the change of inductive capacity of the medium due to
increased density. J. Larmor 7 developed the same idea, and
arrived by a very simple method at an approximation estimate
of the shift to be expected.
If the medium which contains the vibration is divided into a
sphere equal to k times the molecular vibration outside of which
the effects of these molecules may be averaged up, so that its
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. (1897), 61, p. 433.
Astrophys. Journ. (1876), 3, p. 114.
Ibid. (1907), 26, p. 18.
Comptes rendus (1908), 146, pp. 118, 229.
Astrophys. Journ. (1896), 3, p. 292.
Ibid. (1897), 5, p. 210.
Ibid. (1907), 26, p. 120.
inductive capacity may be considered uniform and equal to K,
the frequency of the vibration is increased in the ratio of the
square root of I - k~ 3 " + 3 (i -K~ l ) to I. Here n represents an
integer which is 3 if the vibration is a simple doublet, but may
have a higher integer value. If K has a value nearly equal to
unity the pressure shift is ^k^" + i (K.->- - i), and it is significant
that for different values of n, the shifts should be in geometric
ratio, because as stated above, the ratio occurring in the amounts
observed with different lines of the same element are as I : 2 4.
The question is complicated by the fact that in the cases which have
been observed, the greater portion of the metallic vapour vibrates
in an atmosphere of similar molecules, and the static energy of the
field is determined by the value of K applicable to the particular
frequency. It would therefore seem to be more appropriate to
replace I -K~ l by (ju 2 - i)/ M , where M is the refractive index;
but this expression involves the wave propagation for periods
coinciding with free periods of the molecules. Close to and on either
side of the absorptive band ^ has large positive and negative
values, and if the above expression remains correct the change of
frequency .would, close to the centre of absorption, be i- 2 " + 3 ,
which for w = 3 and = io is 1/2000, or 500 times greater than the
observed shifts, but this represents now the maximum displacement
and not the displacement of the most intense portion of the radia-
tion. There is a region within the band where n = o, and this
would give an infinite shift in the opposite direction. We there-
fore should expect a band in place of the line, which is the case,
but our calculation is not able to give the displacement of the
most intense portion, which is what we require for comparison with
experiment.
The effects of resonance have been studied theoretically by
Prince Galitzin 8 and later by V. W. Ekman. 9 The latter
obtains results indicating no displacement but a widening.
He concludes an interesting and important investigation by
giving reasons for believing that the centre of a widened line
radiates with smaller energy than the adjacent parts. Hence
the apparent reversals so frequently observed in the centre of a
widened line may not be reversals at all but due to a reduction
in luminosity. Ekman quotes in support an observation due
to C. A. Young, according to which the dark line observed in
the centre of each component of the sodium doublet in a
Bunsen burner is transparent to a radiation placed behind. It
should not be difficult to decide whether the reversals are real
or fictitious.
Leaving the consideration of radical changes of a vibrating
system out of account for the present, the minor differences
which have been observed in the appearances of spectra under
different sparking conditions are probably to a large extent due
to differences in the quantities of material examined, though
temperature must alter the violence of the impact and there
is a possible effect due to a difference in the impact according
as the vibrating system collides with an electron or with a body
of atomic dimensions.
A. Schuster and G. A. Hemsalech have observed that the
insertion of a self-induction in a condenser discharge almost
entirely obliterates the air lines, and the same effect is produced
by diminishing the spark gap sufficiently. The explanation of
these facts presents no difficulty, inasmuch as during the sudden
discharge which takes place in the absence of a self-induction,
the metallic molecules have not sufficient time to diffuse through
the spark gap; hence the discharge is carried by the gas in
which it takes place. When, however, the time of discharge is
lengthened, the conditions of the arc are more nearly
approached. When the spark gap is small, the sudden
evaporation of the metal has a better chance of filling the
interval between the poles, even without the introduction of a
self-induction.
Enhanced lines are lines which appear chiefly near the pole
when strong spark discharges are used. Their presence indicates
the characteristic difference between the spark and the arc.
The name is due to Sir Norman Lockyer, who has studied these
lines and drawn the attention of astronomers to their impor-
tance in interpreting stellar spectra. These lines in the case
of the spark cannot be due entirely to the increased mass of
vapour near the poles, but indicate a real change of spectrum
probably connected with a higher temperature.
8 Wied. Ann. (1895), 56, p. 78.
Ann. d. Phys. (1907), 24, p. 580.
SPECTROSCOPY
629
11. Molecular Velocities. A. Schuster and G. A. Hemsalech 1
have measured the velocity with which the luminous molecules
are projected from metallic poles when a strong spark is passed
through the air interval which separates the poles. The method
adopted consisted in photographing the spectrum on a film
which was kept in rapid motion by being attached to the front of
a rotating disk. The velocities ranged from about 400 to 1900
metres, the metals of small atomic weight giving as a rule the
higher velocities. In the case of some metals, notably bismuth, the
velocity measured was different for different lines, which seems
intelligible only on the supposition that the metal vapour
consists of different vibrating systems which can differ with
different velocities. C. C. Schenck 2 subsequently conducted
similar experiments, using a rotating mirror, and though he
put a different interpretation on the effects, the main con-
clusions of Schuster and Hemsalech were not affected. These
have further been confirmed and extended by the experiments
of J. T. Royds made with the same rotating disk, but with im-
proved optical appliances. The photographs taken by Royds
show the separate oscillations of each spark discharge even when
the circuit only contained the unavoidable capacity of the leads.
It was found that during the successive electrical oscillations
the metallic lines can be observed to stretch farther and farther
away from the poles, thus giving a measure of the gradual diffu-
sion of the metal. The subject wants further investigation,
especially with a view to deciding the connexion between the
molecular rush and the discharge. While some of the phenomena
seem to indicate that the projection of metallic vapours into
the centre of the spark is a process of molecular diffusion
independent of the mechanism of the discharge, the different
velocities obtained with bismuth, and the probability that the
vibrating systems are not electrically neutral, seem to indicate
that the projected metallic particles are electrified and play some
part in the discharge.
12. The Zeeman Effect. The change of frequency of oscilla-
tion of radiating molecules placed in a magnetic field, which
was discovered by P. Zeeman, and the observed polarization
of the components, are all beautifully explained by the theory
of H. A. Lorentz, and leave no manner of doubt that the radiating
centres are negative electrons. The fact that in certain simple
cases where a line when looked at equatorially splits into a triplet,
the ratio of the charge to the mass is found by Lorentz's theory
to be equal to that observed in the carrier of the kathode ray,
shows that in these cases the electron moves as an independent
body and is not linked in its motion to other electrons. On
the other hand, most of the lines show a more complicated
structure in the magnetic field, suggesting a system of electrons
rather than a single free corpuscle. The question has been
fully discussed by C. Runge in the second volume of Kayser's
Handbuch (see also MAGNETO-OPTICS), and we may therefore
content ourselves with the mention of the law discovered by Th.
Preston that all the lines of the same series show identical
effects when measured on the frequency scale, and the fact
recently announced by Runge 3 that even in the more compli-
cated cases mentioned some simple relation between the
distances of the components exists. If a is the distance shown
by the normal triplets the type of separation observed in the
line D 2 shows distances from the central line equal to 0/3, 30/3,
50/3, while the type of Di gives 20/3, 40/3. In all observed
cases the distances are multiples of some number which itself
is a sub-mutiple of a. The component lines of a band spec-
trum do not as a rule give the Zeeman effect, and this seems to
be connected with their freedom from pressure shifts, for when
Dufour had shown that the bands of the fluoride of calcium
were sensitive to the magnetic field, R. Rossi 4 could show
that they were also sensitive to pressure.
13. Identification of Spectra. The interpretation of spectro-
scopic observation seemed very simple when Kirchhoff and
1 Phil. Trans. (1899), 190, p. 189.
2 Astrophys. Journ. (1901), 14, p. 116.
3 Phys. Zeitschrift, 8, p. 225.
4 Proc. Roy. Soc. (1909), 82, p. 518.
Bunsen first announced their discovery, for according to their
view every combination of an element showed the characteristic
spectrum of its constituent atoms; it did not matter according
to this view whether a salt, e.g. sodium chloride, introduced
into a flame, was dissociated or not, as in either case the spec-
trum observed would be that of sodium. It was soon found,
however, that compounds possess their own characteristic
spectra, and that an element may give under special conditions
of luminosity several different spectra. When we now speak of
the identification of spectra we like to include, wherever possible,
the identification of the particular compound which is luminous
and even though we have only begun to make any progress
in that direction the differentiation between the molecular or
electronic states which yield the different spectra of the same
element.
One preliminary question must first be disposed of. The
fact that the gases with which we are most familiar are not
rendered luminous by being heated in a tube to a temperature
well above a white heat has often been a stumbling block and
raised the not unreasonable doubt whether approximately
homogeneous oscillations could ever be obtained by a mere
thermal process. The experiment proves only the transparency
of the gases experimented upon, and this is confirmed by the
fact that bodies like bromine and iodine give on heating an
emission spectrum corresponding to the absorption spectrum
seen at ordinary temperatures. The subject, however, re-
quired further experimental investigation, which was supplied
by Paschen. Paschen proved that the emission spectra of
water vapour as observed in an oxyhydrogen flame and
of carbon dioxide as observed in a hydrocarbon flame may
be obtained by heating aqueous vapour and carbon dioxide
respectively to a few hundred degrees above the freezing point.
The same author proved that a sufficient thickness of layer raised
the radiation to that of a black body in agreement with Kirch-
hoff's law. The spectra experimented on by Paschen were
band spectra, but as these split up into fine lines the possibility
of homogeneous radiation in pure thermal oscillation may be con-
sidered as established. Paschen's observations originated in the
desire to decide the question raised by E. Pringsheim, who, by a
series of experiments of undoubted merit, tried to establish that
the emission of the line spectra of the alkali metals was invari-
ably associated with a reduction of the metallic oxide. Pring-
sheim seems, however, to have modified his view in so far as he
now seems to consider that the spectra in question might be
obtained also in other ways, and to attach importance to the
process of reduction only in so far as it forms an effective inciter
of the particular spectra. In spite of the fact that C. Freden-
hagen has recently attempted to revive Pringsheim's original
views in a modified form substituting oxidation for reduction
we may consider it as generally admitted that the origin of
spectra lies with vibrating systems which are definite and not
dependent on the method of incitement. These systems may
only be semi-stable, but they must last a sufficient length of
time to give a train of waves having a length corresponding -to
the observed homogeneity of the line.
In many cases there is a considerable difficulty in deciding
whether a particular spectrum belongs to a compound body
or to one of the elements composing the compound. Thus one
of the most common spectra is that seen at the base of every
candle and in every Bunsen burner. Everybody agrees that
carbon is necessary for its appearance, but some believe it to be
due to a hydrocarbon, others to carbon monoxide, and others to
volatilized carbon. There is a vast amount of literature on the
subject, but in spite of the difficulty of conceiving a luminous
carbon vapour at the temperature of an ordinary carbon flame,
the evidence seems to show that no other element is necessary
for its production as it is found in the spectrum of pure carbon
tetrachloride and certainly in cases where chlorine is excluded.
Another much disputed spectrum is that giving the bands which
appear in the electric arc; it is most frequently ascribed to
cyanogen, but occasionally also to carbon vapour.
Compounds generally show spectra of resolvable bands, and
630
SPECTROSCOPY
if an elementary body shows a spectrum of the same type we
are probably justified in assuming it to be due to a complex mole-
cule. But that it may be given by the ordinary diatomic
molecule is exemplified by oxygen, which gives in thick layers
by absorption one of the typical sets of bands which were used
by Deslandres and others to investigate the laws of distribution
of frequencies. These bands appear in the solar spectrum
as we observe it, but are due to absorption by the oxygen
contained in the atmosphere.
If oxygen is rendered luminous by the electric discharge, a
series of spectra may be made to appear. Under different
conditions we obtain (a) a continuous spectrum most intense
in the yellow and green, (ft) the spectrum dividing itself into two
families of series, (c) a spectrum of lines which appears when a
strong spark passes through oxygen at atmospheric pressure,
(d) a spectrum of bands seen in the kathode glow. We have
therefore five distinct spectra of oxygen apart from the absorp-
tion spectra of ozone. To explain this great variability of
spectroscopic effects we may either adopt the view that mole-
cular aggregates of semi-stable nature may be found in vacuum
tubes, or that a molecule may gain or lose one or more additional
electrons and thus form new vibrating systems. It seemed that
an important guide to clear our notions in this direction could
be obtained through the discovery of J. Stark, who examined
the spectra of the so-called "canal-rays" (Canalestrahlen).
These rays are apparently the trajectories of positively charged
particles having masses of the order of magnitude of the gaseous
molecules. Stark discovered that in the case of the series
spectrum of hydrogen and of other similar spectra the lines were
displaced indicating high velocities; in other cases no displace-
ments could be observed. The conclusion seemed natural that
the spectra which showed the Doppler effect were due to vibra-
tory systems which had an excess of positive charge. More
detailed examinations of the " canal-rays " by J. J. Thompson
and others have shown however that they contain both neutral
and charged molecules in a relative proportion which adjusts
itself continuously, so that even neutral molecules may partake
of the translatory motion which they gained while carrying a
charge. No conclusion can therefore be drawn, as Stark 1 has
more recently pointed out, respecting the charge of the mole-
cule which emits the observed spectrum. Nevertheless, the
subject is well worth further investigation.
Previous to Stark 's investigation P. Lenard 2 had concluded
that the carriers of certain of the lines of the flame spectra of the
alkali metals are positively charged. He draws a distinction
between the lines of the trunk series to which he assigns neutral,
and the lines of carriers the two branch series of which are
electrically charged. The numerical relations existing between
the trunk series and the branch series make it somewhat
difficult to believe that they belong to different vibrating
systems. But while we should undoubtedly hesitate on this
ground to adopt Fredenhagen's 3 view that the two branch
series belong to the element itself and the trunk series to a
process of oxidation, we cannot press the argument against
the view of Lenard, because the addition or subtraction of
an electron introduces two vibrating systems which are still
connected with each other and some numerical relationship is
probable. Whatever ideas we may form on this point, the
observations of Stark and Siegl 4 have shown that there is a
Doppler effect, and therefore a positive charge, for one of
the lines of the trunk series of potassium, and E. Dorn 5 has
found the Doppler effect with a number of lines of helium,
which contain representatives of the trunk series as well as
of the two branch series. These facts do not countenance
the view that there is an essential electric difference between
the vibrating system of the three members of a family of
series.
It is probable, however, that the above observations may
Phys. Zeitschrift (1910), II, p. 171.
Ann. d. Phys. (1905), 17, p. 197.
Phys. Zeilschrift (1904), 8, p. 735.
Ann. d. Phys. (1906), 21, p. 457.
Phys. Zeitschrift (1907), 8, p. 589.
help to clear up some difficulties in the phenomena presented
by flames. While we have seen that the radiation of sodium
vapour has an intensity corresponding to that of the pure ther-
mal radiation at the temperature of the flame, other flames not
containing oxygen (e.g. the flames of chlorine in hydrogen) do
not apparently emit the usual sodium radiation when a sodium
salt is placed in them. In the light of our present knowledge
we should look for the different behaviour in the peculiarity of
the oxygen flame to ionize the metallic vapour.
14. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence. When a simple peri-
odic force acts on a system capable of oscillatory motion the
ultimate forced vibration has a period equal to that of the
impressed force, but the ultimate state is only reached theoreti-
cally after an infinite time, and if meanwhile the vibrating system
suffers any perturbations its free periods will at once assert
themselves. Applying the reasoning to the case of a homo-
geneous radiation traversing an absorbing medium, we realize
that the mutual disturbances of the molecules by collision or
otherwise must bring in the free period of the molecule whatever
the incident radiation may be. It is just in this degradation of
the original period that (according to the present writer) the
main phenomenon of absorption consists. 6 With most bodies the
degradation goes on rapidly and the body mainly radiates accord-
ing to its temperature, but there are cases in which these inter-
mediate stages can be observed and the body seems then to be
luminous under the influence of the incident radiation. Such
bodies are said to be fluorescent, the degradation of motion
towards that determined by its temperature gives rise to the law of
Stokes, the fluorescent light being in nearly all cases of lower fre-
quency than the incident light. With absorbing gases we should
expect the degradation to proceed more slowly than with liquids,
and hence the discovery of E. Wiedemann and Schmidt 7 that the
vapours of sodium and potassium are fluorescent, important as
it was from an experimental point of view, caused no surprise.
It is not possible here to enter into a detailed description of the
phenomena of fluorescence (<?..), though their importance from
a spectroscopic point of view has been materially increased
through the recent researches of Wood 8 on the fluorescence of
sodium vapour. After Wood and Moore had confirmed and
extended the observations of Wiedemann and Schmidt and
showed that the vibrating system of the fluorescent light seems
identical with that observed by absorption in the fluted band
spectrum, Wood excited the fluorescence by homogeneous
radiation and discovered some remarkable facts. The fluores-
cent bands in this case appear to shift rapidly when the period
of the incident vibration is altered, though the change may be
small. The author, no doubt correctly, remarks that the shift
does not indicate a change of frequency but a change of relative
intensity, consisting of a great number of fine lines; when the
maximum intensity of the distribution of light is altered, the
appearance is that of a shift. It would probably not be difficult
to imagine a mechanical system having a number of free periods
which when set into motion by a forced vibration shows a corre-
sponding effect. If the forced vibration is suddenly stopped, the
free periods will appear but not necessarily with the same
intensity when the period of the original forced vibration is
altered. There cannot, however, be a question that, as R. W.
Wood remarks, the careful investigation of these phenomena is
likely to give us an insight into the mechanism of radiation.
Phosphorescence (q.v.) can only be here alluded to in order to
draw attention to the phenomena studied by Sir William Crookes
and others in vacuum tubes. When kathode rays strike certain
substances, they emit a phosphorescent light, the spectroscopic
investigation of which shows interesting effects which are
important especially as indicating the influence of slight
admixtures of impurities on the luminescence. It should be
mentioned that the infra-red rays have a remarkable damping
effect on the phenomena of phosphorescence, a fact which has
6 Schuster, Theory of Optics, p. 254.
7 Wied. Ann. (1896), 57, p. 447.
8 R. W. Wood and Moore, Astrophys. Journ. (1903), 18, p. 95;
R. W. Wood and Moore, Phil. Mag. (1905), 10, p. 513.
SPECTROSCOPY
631
been made use of by Becquerel in his investigations of infra-red
radiations.
15. Relationship between the Spectrum of an Element and that of
its Compounds. In the present state of our knowledge we cannot
trace any definite relationship between the spectrum of a com-
pound body and that of its elements, and it does not even seem
certain that such a relationship exists, but there is often a
similarity between different compounds of the same element.
The spectra, for instance, of the oxides and haloid salts of the
alkaline earths show great resemblance to each other, the bands
being similar and similarly placed. As the atomic weight of the
haloid increases the spectrum is displaced towards the red.
It is in the case of the absorption spectra of liquids that we
can most often discover some connexion between vibrations of a
complex system and that of the simpler systems which form the
complex. The most typical case in this respect is the effect of a
solvent on the absorption spectrum of a solution. A. Kundt, 1
who initiated this line of investigation, came to the conclusion
that the absorption spectra of certain organic substances like
cyanin and fuchsin were displaced towards the red by the solvent,
and that the displacement was the greater the greater the disper-
sive power of the solvent. This law cannot be maintained in its
generality, but nevertheless highly dispersive substances like
carbon bisulphide are always found to produce a greater shift
than liquids of smaller dispersion like water and alcohol. In
these cases the solvent seems to act like an addition to the mass
of the vibrating system, the quasi-elastic forces remaining the
same.
Dr J. H. Gladstone, 2 at an early period of spectroscopy,
examined the absorption spectra of the solution of salts, each
constituent of which was coloured. He concluded that generally
but not invariably the following law held good: " When an
acid and a base combine, each of which has a different influence
on the rays of light, a solution of the resulting salt will transmit
only those rays which are not absorbed by either, or, in other
words, which are transmitted by both." He mentioned as an
important exception the case of ferric ferrocyanide, which,
when dissolved in oxalic acid, transmits the rays in great abun-
dance, though the same rays be absorbed both by ferrocyanides
and by ferric salts. Soret has confirmed, for the ultra-violet
rays, Dr Gladstone's conclusions with regard to the identity of
the absorption spectra of different chromates. The chromates
of sodium, potassium and ammonium, as well as the bichromates
of potassium and ammonium, were found to give the same
absorption spectrum. Nor is the effect of these chromates con-
fined to the blocking out simply of one end of the spectrum, as
in the visible part, but two distinct absorption bands are seen,
which seem unchanged in position if one of the above-mentioned
chromates is replaced by another. Chromic acid itself showed
the bands, but less distinctly, and Soret does not consider the
purity of the acid sufficiently proved to allow him to draw any
certain conclusions from this observation.
In many of these cases the observed facts might perhaps be
explained by dissociation, the undissociated compound pro-
ducing no marked effect on the spectra. In 1872 W. N. Hartley
and A. K. Huntingdon examined by photographic methods the
absorption spectra of a great number of organic compounds.
The normal alcohols were found to be transparent to the ultra-
violet rays, the normal fatty acids less so. In both cases an
increased number of carbon atoms increases the absorption at
the most refrangible end. The fact that benzene and its deriva-
tives are remarkable for their powerful absorption of the most
refrangible rays, and for some characteristic absorption bands
appearing on dilution, led Hartley to a more extended examina-
tion of some of the more complicated organic substances. He
determined that definite absorption bands are only produced by
substances in which three pairs of carbon atoms are doubly
linked together, as in the benzene ring. Subsequently 3 he
subjected the ultra-violet absorption of the alkaloids to a careful
1 Wied. Ann. (1878), 4, p. 34.
2 Phil. Mag. (1857), 14, p. 418.
3 Phil. Trans. (1885), pt. ii.
investigation, and arrived at the conclusion that the spectra are
sufficiently characteristic to " offer a ready and valuable means
of ascertaining the purity of the alkaloids and particularly of
establishing their identity."
We can only briefly refer to an important investigation of
Sir William Abney and Colonel E. R. Festing, who examined
the infra-red absorption of a number of substances. We may
quote one of the principal conclusions at which they arrived:
" An inspection of our maps will show that the radical of a body
is represented by certain well-marked bands, some differing in
position according as it is bonded with hydrogen, or a halogen, or
with carbon, oxygen or nitrogen. There seem to be characteristic
bands, however, of any one series of radicals between 1000 and
about noo, which would indicate what may be called the central
hydrocarbon group, to which other radicals may be bonded. The
clue to the composition of a body, however, would seem to lie
between 700 and 1000. Certain radicals have a distinctive absorp-
tion about 700 together with others about 900, and if the first be
visible it almost follows that the distinctive mark of the radical
with which it is connected will be found. Thus in the ethyl series
we find an absorption at 740, and a characteristic band, one edge
of which is at 892 and the other at 920. If we find a body contain-
ing the 740 absorption and a band with the most refrangible edge
commencing at 892, or with the least refrangible edge terminating
at 920, we may be pretty sure that we have an ethyl radical present.
So with any of the aromatic group; the crucial line is at 867. If
that line be connected with a band we may feel certain that some
derivative of benzene is present. The benzyl group shows this
remarkably well, since we see that phenyl is present, as is also
methyl. It will be advantageous if the spectra of ammonia,
benzene, aniline and dimethyl aniline be compared, when the re-
markable coincidences will at once become apparent, as also the
different weighting of the molecule. The spectrum of nitrobenzene
is also worth comparing with benzene and nitric acid. In our own
minds there lingers no doubt as to the easy detection of any radical
which we have examined, . . . and it seems highly probable by this
delicate mode of analysis that the hypothetical position of any
hydrogen which is replaced may be identified, a point which is of
prime importance in organic chemistry. The detection of the pres-
ence of chlorine or bromine or iodine in a compound is at present
undecided, and it may be well that we may have to look for its effects
in a different part of the spectrum. The only trace we can find
at present is in ethyl bromide, in which the radical band about 900
is curtailed in one wing. The difference between amyl iodide and
amyl bromide is not sufficiently marked to be of any value."
The absorption spectra of cobalt and didymium salts also
offer many striking examples of minor changes produced in
spectra by combination and solution. (A. S.*)
Apparatus. Spectroscopes may be divided into two classes:
prism spectroscopes, with angular or direct vision, and grating
spectroscopes; the former acting by refraction (q.v.), the latter
by diffraction or interference. Angular prism spectroscopes are
the commonest. Such an instrument consists of a triangular
prism set with its refracting edge vertical on a rigid platform
attached to a massive stand. The prism may be made of a
dense flint glass or of quartz if the ultra-violet is to be explored,
or it may be hollow and filled with carbon bisulphide, o-bromnaph-
thalene or other suitable liquid. Liquid prisms, however, suffer
from the fact that any change of temperature involves a change in
the refractive index of the prism. The stand carries three tubes:
the collimator, observing telescope and scale telescope. The colli-
mator has a vertical slit at its outer end, the width of which may be
regulated by a micrometer screw; in some instruments one half
of the slit is covered by a small total reflection prism which permits
the examination of two spectra simultaneously. At the other end
of the collimator there is a condensing lens for bringing the rays
into parallelism. The observing telescope is of the ordinary terrestrial
form. The scale telescope contains a graduated scale which is
illuminated by a small burner; the scale is viewed by reflection
from the prism face opposite the first refracting face. The
power may be increased, but with a diminution of intensity,
by using a train of prisms. Steinheil made an instrument
of four prisms, each of which had, however, to be set in the
position of minimum deviation by trial. In Browning's form the
setting is automatic. The dispersion may be further increased by
causing the rays to pass more than once through the prism
or prisms. Thus, by means of a system of reflecting prisms,
Hilger passed the dispersed rays six times through one prism,
and, by similar means, Browning passed the rays first through
the upper part of a train and then back through the lower part.
Compound prisms are also employed. Rutherfurd devised one
made of flint glass with two crown glass compensating prisms;
whilst Thallon employed a hollow prism containing carbon bi-
sulphide also compensated by flint glass prisms. In direct vision
spectroscopes the refracting prisms and slit are in the observing
632
SPECULATION SPEETON BEDS
telescope. The prisms are necessarily compound, and usually
consist of flint glass with compensating prisms of crown. In all
cases where compound prisms are used, the angles must be accur-
ately calculated. Amici in 1860 devised such an instrument;
an improved form by Jannsen was made up of two flint and three
crown prisms, and in Browning's form there are three flint and four
crown. Sorby and, later, Abbe, designed instruments on the same
principle to be used in connexion with the microscope. By suitably
replacing the ocular of the observing telescope in an angular vision
spectroscope by a photographic camera, it is possible to photograph
spectra; such instruments are termed spectrographs. In grating
spectroscopes both plane and concave gratings are employed in
connexion with a collimator and observing telescope.
AUTHORITIES. The standard work is H. Kayser, Handbuch der
Spectroscopie (1900-1910, vol. v.). See also J. LandaUer, Spectrum
Analysis (Eng. trans, by J. B. Tingle, 1898); E. C. C. Baly,
Spectroscopy (1905). For spectra see A. Hagerbach and H. Konin,
Atlas of Emission Spectra (Eng. trans, by A. S. King, 1905) ; F.
Exner and E. Haschek, Wellenldngen-Tabellen (1902-1904); W. M.
Watts, Index of Spectra; also reports of B.A. Special Committee.
SPECULATION, a round game of cards at which any reasonable
number can play. Each player contributes a stake to the pool,
the dealer staking double. Three cards are dealt face down-
wards to each player; the top card of those left is turned up for
trumps. Each player, beginning with the player on the dealer's
left, turns up a card; if it is not a trump, or is a lower trump than
the trump-card, the next player turns up one of his cards, and so
on till a higher trump than the -trump-card appears, the values
being reckoned as at whist. The holder may sell this card to the
highest bidder, or retain it. The turning-up proceeds till a still
higher trump is found, but the holder of the original highest does
not turn up till his card is beaten. The new card may then be sold.
The dealer may not turn up till the trump-card has been beaten.
The holder of the highest trump when all the hands have been
exposed takes the pool. If the ace of trumps is the trump-card,
the dealer takes the pool; if it is turned up during play, the hand
is, of course, at an end. Variations of the game allow the purchase
of unseen cards or hands, or of the trump-card, even before it
is turned up. The cards used in one deal are not dealt again
till the whole pack has been gradually dealt out; they are col-
lected and shuffled by the " pone " the player on the dealer's
right to be used when the pack is exhausted.
SPECULUM, the Latin word for a mirror, employed more
particularly for a metallic mirror used in a reflecting telescope.
In early instruments metallic mirrors, made from an alloy of
copper and tin, with the addition of a little arsenic or other
metals to increase the whiteness, were customarily employed,
but they have now been displaced by the more convenient silver-
on-glass mirror (see TELESCOPE). Various forms of specula are
used in surgery for examining internal organs.
SPEDDING, JAMES (1808-1881), English author, editor of the
works of Bacon, was born on the 26th of June 1808, in Cumber-
land, the younger son of a country squire. He was educated at
Bury St Edmunds and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took
a second class in the classical tripos, and was junior optime in
mathematics in 1831. In 1835 he entered the colonial office,
but he resigned this post in 1841. In 1842 he was secretary to
Lord Ashburton on his American mission, and in 1855 he became
secretary to the Civil Service Commission; but from 1841 on-
wards he was constantly occupied in his researches into Bacon's
life and philosophy. On the ist of March 1881 he was knocked
down by a cab in London, and on the gth he died of erysipelas.
His great edition of Bacon was begun in 1847 in collaboration
with R. E. Ellis and D. D. Heath. In 1853 Ellis had to leave
the work to Spedding, with the occasional assistance of Heath,
who edited most of the legal writings. The Works were pub-
lished in 1857-1859 in seven volumes, followed by the Life
and Letters (1861-1874). Taken together these works contain
practically all the material which exists in connexion with the
subject, collected and weighed with the utmost care and im-
partiality. Spedding humorously emphasized his devotion to
Bacon in the title of one of his non-Baconian works, Reviews
and Discussions, Literary, Political and Historical, not relating
to Bacon (1879); and his literary remains outside that one field
are no longer of interest. But as a Baconian scholar he is not
likely soon to be superseded.
SPEED, JOHN (1552-1629), English historian and carto-
grapher, was born, according to Fuller, at Farringdon, Cheshire.
He was the son of a London tailor, and followed his father's
trade, being admitted member of the Merchant Taylors Company
in 1580. He settled in Moorfields, where he built himself a
house. He was enabled to give up his trade and to devote
himself to antiquarian pursuits through the kindness of Sir
Fulke Greville, whom Speed calls the " procurer of my present
estate," and through his patron's interest he also received a
" waiter's room in the custom-house." The results of the leisure
thus secured to him appeared in 1611 in his Theatre of the Empire
of Great Britaine, a series of fifty-four maps of different parts of
England, which had already appeared separately, and in which
he was helped by Christopher Saxton, John Norden and William
White. To each map descriptive matter was attached. In
1611 also he published his History of Great Britaine under
the Conquests of the Romans ... to ... King James. Speed
acknowledges his obligations to the chief antiquaries and
historians of his day. Sir Robert Cotton lent him manuscripts
and coins, and is said to have revised the proofs for him; in
heraldry he acknowledges the help of William Smith (1550?-
1618); and he had valuable help from John Barkham (1572?-
1642) and Sir Henry Spelman. Speed brought some historical
skill to bear on the arrangement of his work, and although he
repeated many of the errors of older chroniclers he added
valuable material for the history of his country. He died in
London on the 28th of July 1629.
Other maps of his, beside those in the Theatre, are in the British
Museum. Another edition of the Theatre is Theatrum Magnae
Britanniae latine, redditum a P. Holland (London, folio, 1616).
He wrote Genealogies Recorded in Sacred Scriptures (1611), and a
similar work, A Cloud of Witnesses (1616). These passed through
numerous editions, and were frequently prefixed to copies of the
Bible. An account of Speed's descendants is to be found in Rev.
J. S. Davies's History of Southampton (1883), which was founded
on MS. material left by John Speed (1703-1781).
SPEETON BEDS, in English geology, a series of clays well
exposed at Speeton, near Filey on the Yorkshire coast. Peculiar
interest attaches to these beds for they are the principal repre-
sentatives in Britain of the marine phase of the Lower Creta-
ceous system. The Speeton Clays pass downwards without
break into the underlying Kimeridgian; they are capped by the
Red Chalk, which may be regarded as the equivalent of the
Upper Gault of southern England. These beds thus form a
passage series between marine Jurassic strata and those belong-
ing undoubtedly to the Cretaceous system; in this way they
correspond with the Purbeck-Wealden rocks, which form a
connecting link between estuarine Jurassic and Cretaceous
strata.
Above the dark, bituminous, nodular shales with Kimeridge
fossils at the base of the Speeton Clay comes the zone of Belem-
nites lateralis (34 ft.), v/ithOlcostephanus gravesiformis, O. rotula,
and species of Hoplites and Oxynoticeras; this is followed by the
zone of Belemnites jaculum, with B. cristatus, Olcostephanus
(Astieria) astieri, O. (Simbirskites) inversusa.nd O. (S.) Speetonen-
sis in ascending order; Echinospatagus cordiformis, a species
found in the typical Neocomian area, also occurs in this zone.
The next higher zone is that of Belemnites brunsiiicensis ( = semi-
canaliculatus) (100 ft.), with B. Speetonensis, Hoplites des-
hayesii, and Amaltheus bicurvatus. The topmost zone is charac-
terized by Belemnites minimus with Inoceramus concentricus
and /. sulcatus; it consists of a few feet of mottled clays. It
appears, therefore, that while the lower portions of the" Speeton
Clay are the equivalents of the Wealden and perhaps of the Pur-
beck beds, the higher portions are the equivalents of the Lower
Greensand and part of the Gault. In Lincolnshire the upper
Speeton beds are represented by the Carstone and Tealby Lime-
stone and Clay, and the lower Speeton by the Claxby Ironstone,
Spilsby Sandstone and lower part of the Tealby clay. A
similar faunal horizon is recognized in Heligoland and Russia.
See CRETACEOUS; NEOCOMIAN; KIMERIDGIAN; also G. W. Lamp-
lugh, Q.J.G.S. (1889), xlv. (1896), Hi.; Rep. Brit. Assoc. (1890);
A. Pavlow and G. W. Lamplugh, Bull. soc. imp. nat. Moscow
(1891), and Q.J.G.S. (1897), liii.
SPEKE, HUGH SPELLING BEE
6 33
SPEKE, HUGH (i6s6-c. 1724), English writer and agitator,
was a son of George Speke (d. 1690) of White Lackington,
Somerset. The older Speke was a member of the Green Ribbon
Club, the great Whig organization which was founded in 1675,
and was a supporter of the duke of Monmouth, voting for the
Exclusion Bill in 1681. Educated at St John's College, Oxford,
Hugh Speke joined the Green Ribbon Club, and in 1683 he was
put in prison for asserting that Arthur Capell, earl of Essex,
another of Monmouth's supporters, had been murdered by the
friends of the duke of York. He was tried and sentenced to
pay a fine, but he refused to find the money, and remained in
prison for three years, being in captivity during Monmouth's
rebellion, in consequence of which his brother Charles was
hanged at Ilminster. In prison Speke kept a printing-press,
and from this he issued the Address to all the English Protestants
in the Present Army, a manifesto written by the Whig divine
Samuel Johnson (1649-1703), urging the soldiers to mutiny.
In 1687 he was released, and in 1688 he served James II. as a
spy in the camp of William of Orange. In December of this
year a document, apparently official, was found by a London
bookseller. This called upon the Protestants to disarm their
Roman Catholic neighbours; it was freely circulated, and much
damage was done to property in London before it was found that
it was a forgery. It appears to have been the work of Speke,
although this was not known until 1709, when he asserted his
authorship in his Memoirs of the Most Remarkable Passages and
Transactions of the Revolution. He afterwards issued these
memoirs with modifications as The Secret History of the Happy
Revolution in 1688 (1715). After imploring both Anne and
George I. to reward his past services, Speke died in obscurity
before 1725.
SPEKE, 'JOHN BANNING (1827-1864), English explorer,
discoverer of the source of the Nile, was born on the 4th of May
1827 at Jordans near Ilminster, Somersetshire. On his father's
side he descended from the ancient Yorkshire family of Espec,
a branch of which migrated to Somerset in the i^th century.
His mother was a Miss Georgina Hanning, of Dillington Park,
Somerset. Through his mother's influence with the duke of
Wellington he obtained a commission in the Indian Army, which
he entered in 1844. He served in Sir Colin Campbell's division
in the Punjab campaigns, and acquired considerable repute
both as a soldier and as a sportsman and naturalist. When on
furlough Captain Speke had explored portions of the Himalayas,
had crossed the frontier into Tibet and mapped part of its
south-western districts; but his attention was at an early date
turned to the great problems of African geography, and in 1854
he began his brief and brilliant African career by joining Captain
(afterwards Sir) Richard Burton in an expedition into the interior
of Somaliland, the incidents of which are narrated in What led
to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (London, 1864). In
April 1854 the expedition was attacked by Somalis near Berbera,
one officer being killed, Burton slightly, and Speke severely
wounded. Invalided home, Speke shortly afterwards volunteered
for the Crimea and served during the war with a regiment of
Turks. In 1856 he accepted an invitation from Burton to join
an expedition to verify the reports as to the existence of great
lakes in east central Africa, and especially to try and find Lake
Nyassa. The route to Nyassa was closed by the Arabs, and the
travellers left Zanzibar in June iS57-by a more northerly route,
which brought them by November to a place called Kaze in
Unyamwezi. Here they learnt from an Arab trader that further
inland were three great lakes and Speke leapt to the conclusion
that the most northerly of the three would prove to be the source
of the Nile. Continuing westward in January 1858 the travellers
reached Lake Tanganyika, of which they made a partial explora-
tion, Speke marking on his map the mountains which close in the
lake to the north, " Mountains of the Moon." By June they were
back at Kaze, and here Speke induced his chief, who was ill, to
allow him to attempt to reach the northern lake. Marching
north for twenty-five days, on the 3oth of July Speke reached a
creek, along which he travelled till, on the 3rd of August, lie saw it
open up into the waters of a lake extending northward to the
horizon. He no longer doubted that this lake the Victoria
Nyanza was the source of the Nile. Returning to Kaze
(August 25) he made known his discovery to Burton, who did
not believe Speke's theories. The explorers reached Zanzibar
early in 1859, Speke hastened back to England in advance of
his comrade, and at once made public his discoveries and con-
clusions. Despite the scepticism of his fellow traveller and many
geographers, he secured the support of Sir Roderick Murchison,
president of the Royal Geographical Society, under whose
direction a new expedition, expressly intended to solve the Nile
problem, was fitted out. Of this expedition Speke had the
command, his only European companion being Captain (after-
wards Colonel) J. A. Grant (?..). The expedition, over 200
men all told, started from Zanzibar in October 1860 and reached
Kaze on the 24th of January 1861. Despite illness and the
hostility and extortions of the natives the Victoria Nyanza
was again reached, at its south-west corner, in October 1861.
Following the western shores of the lake Speke crossed th,e
Kagera on the i6th of January 1862, and arrived at the capital
of Uganda on the igth of February following. Here he was de-
tained by the king, Mtesa, for some months, but at last prevailed
on the chief to furnish him with guides, and on the 28th of July
Speke stood at the spot where the Nile issued from the lake. The
great discovery was made, the problem which had baffled all
previous efforts extending over 2000 years was solved. The
troubles of the travellers were, however, by no means over;
with difficulty they obtained permission to enter Unyoro, and
with difficulty were allowed to leave, without being permitted to
visit another large lake (the Albert Nyanza) of whose existence
and connexion with the Nile they learned. As far as possible
Speke and Grant followed the course of the Nile, and on the 3rd
of December came in touch with the outside world once more,
striking in 3 10' 37" N. an outpost established at the request
of John Pctherick, British consul at Khartum, who had been
charged with a mission for the relief of the explorers. On the
1 5th of February 1863 they arrived at Gondokoro, the Egyptian
post on the Nile marking the limit of navigability from the north.
At Gondokoro they met Sir Samuel (then Mr) Baker, generously
giving him the information which enabled him to discover the
Albert Nyanza. From Khartum Speke telegraphed to London
the great news that the Nile had been traced to its source, and
on his return to England he was received with much enthusiasm.
In the. same year (1863) he published his Journal of the Dis-
covery of the Source of the Nile, a work full of geographical,
ethnological and zoological information, and written in a frank,
attractive style. The accuracy of his observations and the
correctness of his main deductions have been since abundantly
justified. But as Speke had not been able to follow the Nile the
whole way from the Victoria Nyanza to Gondokoro, and as the
part played in the Nile regime by the Albert Nyanza was then
unknown, Burton and others remained unconvinced, and Speke's
conclusions were criticized in The Nile Basin (1864), a joint pro-
duction of Burton and James McQueen; it being argued in this
work that Tanganyika was the true Nile source. It was arranged
that Speke should meet Burton at the meeting of the geographi-
cal section of the British Association at Bath on the i6th of
September and publicly debate the question of the Nile source.
On the previous afternoon Speke was out partridge shooting at
Box, near Bath. In getting over a low stone wall he laid down
his gun at half cock. Drawing the weapon towards him by the
muzzle one barrel exploded and entered his chest, inflicting a
wound from which Speke died in a few minutes. A granite
obelisk to his memory was erected by public subscription in
Kensington Gardens.
See, besides the works mentioned, Sir R. F. Burton, The Lake
Regions of Central Africa (London, 1860); J. A. Grant, A Walk
across Africa (London, 1864) ; T. D. Murray and A. S. White, Sir
Samuel Baker: a Memoir (London, 1895); The Times (Sept. 17 and
19, 1864) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, The Nile Quest (London, n. d. [1903]).
SPELLING BEE, a match in which two sides contest in accuracy
of spelling. The custom, an old one, was revived in the schools
of the United States about the year 1873, and rapidly spread
634
SPELLO SPENCER, HERBERT
throughout the country and to Great Britain, enjoying for a few
years an extraordinary vogue, not only in schools, but in all
classes and ages of society. In the United States inter-city and
inter-state matches were not unknown. According to the
generally recognized rules a competitor who misspelled a word
retired, and the match was won by the side having the greatest
number of survivors at the close. The use of the word " bee "
as an assemblage of persons for the purpose of joint work or play
originated in America in colonial times, and was taken from the
labour of the bees of a hive. Familiar examples of it are husking-
bee and quilting-bee, assemblages of villagers for the purpose of
helping a neighbour with the husking of the corn or his wife with
her quilt-making.
SPELLO (anc. Hispellum, q.v.), a town of Umbria, in the
province of Perugia, from which it is 22 m. S.E. by rail, 1030 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 5571. It is picturesquely situated
on the slope of a mountain. The Cappella Baglioni in the
church of S. Maria Maggiore contains some of Pinturicchio's
finest frescoes (1501), " The Annunciation," " The Adoration "
and " Christ in the Temple." The rich background with gold
decoration in relief is characteristic. There is also a late altar-
piece by Perugino (1521) and a fine early Renaissance canopy by
Rocco da Vicenza (1515). In the sacristy is a crucifix in silver
by Paolo Vanni of Perugia (1398). The holy- water basin is
formed of a sepulchral cippus of the Roman period. S. Andrea
contains a large altarpiece by Pinturicchio (1508), upon which
a letter from G. Baglioni to the artist is painted.
See G. Urbini, in L'Arte (1897), ii. 367 sqq., (1898), iii. 16 sqq.
SPELMAN, SIR HENRY (c. 1564-1641), English antiquary, was
the eldest son of Henry Spelman, of Congham, Norfolk, and the
grandson of Sir John Spelman (c. 1495-1544), judge of the king's
bench. Born probably in 1564, he was educated at Walsingham
School, and proceeded in 1580 to Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he took his degree in 1583. His father had died in 1581,
and on Spelman devolved the management of the family estates.
He became a member of Lincoln's Inn, but in 1 590 he returned
to Norfolk, where he married Eleanor 1'Estrange. He became
guardian to his brother-in-law, Sir Hamon 1'Estrange, on whose
property at Hunstanton he resided for some time. He occupied
himself with the history and antiquities of his native county,
writing an account of Norfolk for John Speeds's Theatre of Great
Britaine. He belonged to the Society of Antiquaries, of which
Sir Robert Cotton and William Camden were also members.
The society gradually declined, and Spelman's efforts to revive it
in 1614 were frustrated by James I. Having bought in 1594 the
remainder of the two leases of two abbeys of which the Crown
was the lessor, he became involved in prolonged litigation over
them, and a judgment given against him by Bacon makes it
interesting to find Spelman subsequently among the petitioners
who alleged corruption against the lord chancellor. His
experience in this process no doubt combined with a scandal
connected with a church and parsonage in the possession of his
uncle Francis Sanders to occasion his pamphlet De non lemer-
andis ecclesiis (1613-1616), which induced many lay owners of
ecclesiastical spoils to make restitution, and Spelman himself
acted accordingly. This tract led up to his History and Fate
of Sacrilege, 1 which was in the hands of the printer when the
Great Fire broke out. The book was supposed to have perished,
but Bishop Gibson discovered part of it in the Bodleian Library.
It was printed, not, however, under his editorship, in 1698, with
the statement on the title-page that it was "wrote in 1632."
Spelman had conceived the idea of a work on the foundations of
English law, based on early charters and records, but finding
that there were no adequate means of determining the exact
meaning of the Anglo-Saxon and Latin law terms employed in
the documents, he began to compile a glossary, the first volume
of which, Archaeologus in modum glossarii, was published at his
own expense in 1626. He continued to work at the subject
until 1638. A second volume, Glossarium archaiologicum (1664),
appeared after his death. His Codex legum velcrum slatutorum
1 This was re-edited as late as 1895, with an appendix bringing
the subject up to date, by C. F. S. Warren.
regni Angliae, quae ab ingressu Gulielmi I usque ad annum
nonum Henry III. edita sunt was published by David Wilkins
in his Leges anglo-saxonicae (1721). Spelman's most important
work, Concilia, decreta, leges, constilutiones in re ecclesiarum
orbis britannici, is an attempt to place English church history
on a basis of genuine documents. The first volume, which
occupied him seven years, came down to 1066 and was published
in 1636. A second volume was edited by Sir William Dugdale
in 1664. Spelman entered parliament as member for Castle
Rising in 1597, and in 1604 was high sheriff of his county. In
1612 he settled in London near his friend Sir Robert Cotton. In
1617 he served on a commission to inquire into disputed Irish
estates, and later took part in three legal inquiries into the
exactions levied on behalf of the Crown in the civil and ecclesias-
tical courts. He was member of parliament for Worcester in
1625. In 1627 he became treasurer of the Guiana Company,
and he was also an energetic member of the council for New
England. His general services to the state were recognized in
1636 by a gift of money, and two years later by the offer of the
mastership of Sutton's Hospital, Charterhouse. He died in
London in October 1641, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
His later years had been spent in the house of his son-in-law,
Sir Ralph Whitfield.
His son, Sir John Spelman (1594-1643), also gained a reputa-
tion as a scholar and antiquary. He was knighted in 1641 and
served the king actively at the beginning of the Civil War. He
edited from MSS. in his father's library Psalterium Davidis
latino-saxonicum vetus (1640), and wrote a Life of Alfred the
Great which was translated into Latin and published in 1678.
Edmund Gibson, bishop of London, published in 1723 The English
Works of Sir Heary Spelman, Kt., Published in his Lifetime; together
with his Posthumous works relating to the Laws and Antiquities of
England. The first section contained De non Temerandis Ecclesiis,
already mentioned; The Larger Treatise concerning Tythes, first
published in 1646; De sepultura; and Villare anglicum, or a View,
of the Towns of England; while the second included The Original,
Growth, Propagation and Condition of Feuds and Tenures by Knight-
service in England, written in 1639; Two Discourses: i. Of the Ancient
Government of England, ii. Of Parliaments; The Original of the Four
Terms of the Year, written in 1614 and first printed in 1684; Icenia:
a Latin description of Norfolk, and some other treatises. This
was a revised edition of an earlier collection (1698), and contained
a life of the author, based chiefly on the autobiographical matter
prefixed to the Glossary of 1626, and two additional papers, Of the
Admiral Jurisdiction, and the Officers thereof, and Of Antient Deeds
and Charters. Wilkins's edition of his Concilia was edited by A. W.
Haddan and W. Stubbs in 1869-1873.
SPENCE, THOMAS (1750-1814), inventor of a system of land
nationalization, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the 2ist of
June 1750, the son of a Scottish netmaker and shoemaker.
A dispute in connexion with common land rights at Newcastle
impelled him to the study of the land question. His scheme
was not for land nationalization proper, but for the establish-
ment of self-contained parochial communities, in which rent
paid to the corporation, in which the absolute ownership of the
land was vested, should be the only tax of any kind. His
pamphlet, The Meridian Sun of Liberty, which was first hawked
in Newcastle, appeared in London in 1793; it was reissued by
Mr H. M. Hyndman under the title of The Nationalization of
the Land in 1775 and 1882. Spence presently left Newcastle
for London, where he kept a bookstall in High Holborn. In
1784 he spent six months in Newgate gaol for the publication
of a pamphlet distasteful to the authorities-, and in 1801 he was
sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment for seditious libel
in connexion with his pamphlet entitled The Restorer of Society
to its Natural State. He died in London on the 8th of September
1814. His admirers formed a " Society of Spencean Philan-
thropists," of which some account is given in Harriet Martineau's
England During the Thirty Years' Peace.
See also Davenport, Life, Writings and Principles of Thomas
Spence (London, 1836).
SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903), English philosopher,
was born at Derby on the 27th of April 1820. His father,
William .George Spencer, was a schoolmaster, and his parents'
religious convictions familiarized him with the doctrines of the
SPENCER, HERBERT
635
Methodists and Quakers. He declined an offer from his uncle,
the Rev. Thomas Spencer, to send him to Cambridge, and* so
was practically self-taught. During 1837-1846 he was employed
as an engineer on the London & Birmingham railway; 1848-1853
as sub-editor of the Economist. From about this time to 1860
he contributed a large number of articles to the Westminster
Review, which contain the first sketches of his philosophic
doctrines. He also published two larger works, Social Statics
in 1850, and Principles of Psychology in 1855. In 1860 he sent
out the syllabus of his Synthetic Philosophy in ten volumes,
and in spite of frequent ill health had the satisfaction of com-
pleting it in 1896 with the third volume of the Principles of
Sociology. He died on the 8th of December 1903.
Herbert Spencer's significance in the history of English
thought depends on his position as the philosopher of the great
scientific movement of the second half of the igth century, and
on the friendship and admiration with which he was regarded
by men like Darwin, G. H. Lewes and Huxley. Spencer tries
to express in a sweeping general formula the belief in progress
which pervaded his age, and to erect it into the supreme law
of the universe as a whole. His labours coincided in time with
the great development of biology under the stimulus of the
Darwinian theory, and the sympathizers with the new views,
feeling the need of a comprehensive survey of the world as a
whole, very widely accepted Spencer's philosophy at its own
valuation, both in England and, still more, in America. In
spite of this, however, his heroic attempt at a synthesis of all
scientific knowledge could not but fall short of its aim. Living
at the commencement of an epoch of unparalleled scientific
activity, Spencer could not possibly sum up and estimate its
total production. To the specialists in sciences which were
advancing rapidly and in divergent directions to results which
often reacted on and transformed their initial assumptions,
Spencer has often appeared too much of a philosopher and defec-
tive in specialist knowledge. To the technical philosophers,
who strictly confine themselves to the logical collation and
criticism of scientific methods, he has, contrariwise, not seemed
philosophic enough. Hence his doctrines were open to damaging
attacks from both sides, the more so as he always stood aloof
from the academic spirit and its representatives. It seems
unlikely, therefore, that as a system the Synthetic Philosophy
will prove long-lived; but this hardly detracts from its fruit-
fulness as a source of suggestion, or from the historic influence
of many of its conceptions on the culture of the age.
This estimate of Spencerian philosophy may be substantiated
by a brief survey of its origin and leading characteristics.
Spencer claims, with some reason, that he was always an evolu-
tionist. But his notions of what " evolution " is developed
quite gradually. At first he seems to have meant by the word
only the belief that progress is real, and that the existing order
of nature is the result of a gradual process and not of a " special
creation." In Social Statics (1850) he still regards the process
Ideologically, and argues after the fashion of Paley that " the
greatest happiness is the purpose of creation " (ch. iii. i),
and that to " gag the moral sentiment " is "to balk creative
design " (ch. xxxii. 7). But this phraseology soon dis-
appears, without his considering how, in default of some sort
of teleology, it is legitimate to treat the world's history as a
process. In The Development Hypothesis (1852) he objects
strongly to the incredibility of the special creation of the myriad
forms of life, without, however, suggesting how development
has been effected. In Progress, its Law and Cause (1857) he
adopted Von Baer's law, that the development of the individual
proceeds from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous. This is
at once connected with the nebular hypothesis, and subsequently
" deduced " from the ultimate law of the " persistence of force,"
and finally supplemented by a counter-process of dissolution,
all of which appears to Spencer only as " the addition of Von
Baer's law to a number of ideas that were in harmony with it."
It is clear, however, that Spencer's ideas as to the nature of
evolution were already pretty definite when Darwin's Origin of
Species (1859) revolutionized the subject of organic evolution
by adding natural selection to the direct adaptation by use and
disuse, and so suggesting an intelligible method of producing
modifications in the forms of life. Spencer welcomed the
Darwinian theory, and enriched it with the phrase " survival
of the fittest "; but he did not give up the (Lamarckian) belief
in the hereditary transmission of the modifications of organisms
by the exercise of function. Shortly afterwards (1860) he sent
out the prospectus of a systematic exposition of his Synthetic
Philosophy, of which the first volume, First Principles, appeared
in 1862. This work is divided into two parts; the first intended
to show that while ultimate metaphysical questions are insoluble
they compel to a recognition of an inscrutable Power behind
phenomena which is called the Unknowable; the second devoted
to the formulation and illustration of the Law of Evolution.
In the first part Spencer's argument rests on Mansel's Limits of
Religious Thought and Hamilton's " philosophy of the con-
ditioned " (and so ultimately on Kant), and tries to show that
alike in scientific and religious thought the ultimate terms are
"inconceivable" (not by him distinguished from" unimagin-
able "). In science, the more we know the more extensive " the
contact with surrounding nescience." In religion the really
vital and constant element is the sense of mystery. This is
illustrated by the difficulties inherent in the conception of Cause,
Space, Time, Matter, Motion, the Infinite, and the Absolute,
and by the " relativity of knowledge," which precludes know-
ledge of the Unknowable, since " all thinking is relationing."
Yet the Unknowable may exist, and we may even have an
" indefinite knowledge " of it, positive, though vague and
extralogical. Hence both science and religion must come to
recognize as the " most certain of all facts that the Power which
the Universe manifests to us is utterly inscrutable." Thus to
be buried side by side in the Unknowable constitutes their final
reconciliation, as it is the refutation of irreligion which consists
of " a lurking doubt whether the Incomprehensible is really
incomprehensible."
Such are the foundations of Spencer's metaphysic of the
Unknowable, to which he resorts in all the fundamental difficul-
ties which he subsequently encounters. Whatever its affinities
with that version of " faith " which regards it as antagonistic to
knowledge, it can hardly be deemed philosophically satis-
factory. A failure to solve the problems of metaphysics must
always remain a failure, in spite of all protestations that it was
inevitable; and it in no wise justifies an advance to so self-
contradictory an asylum ignorantiae as the Unknowable. In
the edition of his First Principles, published in 1900, Spencer
adds a " postscript " which shows some consciousness of the
contradiction involved in his knowledge of the Unknowable,
and finally contends that his account of the Knowable in part ii.
will stand even if part i. be rejected. Even this, however,
understates the case, seeing that a really inscrutable Unknow-
able would destroy all confidence in the order of nature and
render all knowledge entirely precarious.
In part ii. Spencer recognizes successively likenesses and
unlikenesses among phenomena (the effects of the Unknowable),
which are segregated into manifestations, vivid (object, non-
ego) or faint (subject, ego), and then into space and time, matter
and motion and force, of which the last is symbolized for us by
the experience of resistance, and is that out of which our ideas
of matter and motion are built. Hence the Persistence of Force
is the ultimate basis of knowledge. From it Spencer proceeds
to deduce the indestructibility of matter and energy, the equiva-
lence and transformation of forces, the necessity of a rhythm,
of Evolution (i.e. integration of matter with concomitant
dissipation of motion) and Dissolution, and finally reaches the
statement of the Law of Evolution as " an integration of matter
and concomitant dissipation of motion, during which the
matter passes from an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a
definite coherent heterogeneity, and during which the retained
motion undergoes a parallel transformation." This process
of evolution is due to " the instability of the homogeneous,"
the " multiplication of effects " and their " segregation," con-
tinuing until it ceases in complete " equilibration." Sooner
6 3 6
SPENCER, HERBERT
or later, however, the reverse process of Dissolution, with its
absorption of motion and disintegration of matter, which
indeed has always been going on to some extent, must prevail,
and these oscillations of the cosmic process will continue with-
out end.
It appears, therefore, that Spencer ultimately describes the
Knowable in terms of the mechanical conceptions of matter
and motion, and that this must give a materialistic colouring
to his philosophy. There are, however, other flaws also in his
procedure. The presence of Force, i.e. his version of the methodo-
logical assumption of constancy in the quantitative aspects
of phenomena, seems a very unsuitable basis for a philosophy
of progress. To such a philosophy a consideration of the
conditions, if any, under which progress can be conceived as
ultimately real, seems a necessary preliminary, which Spencer
omits. He also assumes that " Evolution " is a real, nay, an
ultimate law of nature, but his evidence only goes to show that
it is a result, in some cases, of the complex interaction of laws,
which, like Rhythm, Segregation, &c., are in their turn only
tendencies, and may be, and often are, counteracted. By the
afterthought of a " dissolution " process (and ed. of First
Principles) Spencer in a way admits this, but introduces fresh
difficulties as to its relation to " Evolution." If the two pro-
cesses go on together both are tendencies, and whether there
is on the whole progress or not will depend on their relative
strength; neither can be universal, nor the " law " of cosmic
existence, unless its coexisting rival is regarded as essentially
secondary. But if so it ceases to be available as evidence of
a coming reversal of the dominant process. If, on the other
hand, the processes are strictly alternative, a world which ex
hypothesi exemplifies the one can never justify us in inferring
the other. Spencer appeals alternately to the " instability of
the homogeneous " and the impossibility of complete equilibra-
tion to keep up the cosmic see-saw, but he can do so only by
confining himself to a part of the universe. A world wholly
homogeneous or equilibrated could no longer change, while so
long as a part only is in process, the process cannot be repre-
sented as universal. Again, an infinite world cannot be wholly
engaged either in evolution or in dissolution, so that it is really
unmeaning to discuss the universality of the cosmic process until
it is settled that we have a universe at all, capable of being con-
sidered as a whole. In the last resort, therefore, Spencer fails
to deduce philosophically not only the necessity of progress,
but also its compatibility with the evolution-dissolution oscilla-
tion, and even the general possibility of conceiving the world
as a process. In other words, in spite of his intentions he
does not succeed in giving a metaphysic of evolutionism.
In the Principles of Biology the most notable points are the
definition of life as the continuous adjustment of internal
to external relations, and the consequent emphasis on the need
of adapting the organism to its environment. This exaggerates
the passivity of life, and does not sufficiently recognize that the
higher organisms largely adjust external to internal relations
and adapt their environment to their needs. His universal
process of Evolution seems to give Spencer a criterion of
" higher " and " lower " " progression " and " degeneration,"
independent of the accidents of actual history, and unattainable
by strictly Darwinian methods. The higher (at least in times
of " evolution ") is the more complex and differentiated, whether
it invariably survives or not. On the other hand, he advances
too easily from the maxim that function is prior to, and makes,
structure to the conclusion that the results of use and disuse
are therefore immediately incarnated in structural adaptations
capable of hereditary transmission. This inference has involved
him in much controversy with the ultra-Darwinians of Weis-
mann's school, who deny the possibility of the inheritance of
acquired characteristics altogether. And though Spencer's
general position that it is absurd to suppose that organisms
after being modified by their life should give birth to offspring
showing no traces of such modifications seems the more philo-
sophic, yet it does not dispose of the facts which go to show that
most of the evidence for the direct transmission of adaptations
is illusory, and that beings are organised to minimize the effects
of fife on the reproductive tissues, so that the transmission of the
effects of use and disuse, if it occurs, must be both difficult and
rare far more so than is convenient for Spencer's psychology.
In his Principles of Psychology Spencer advocates the genetic
explanation of the phenomena of the adult human mind by
reference to its infant and animal ancestry. On the funda-
mental question, however, of the psychophysical connexion
and the derivation of mind from matter, his utterances are
neither clear nor consistent. On the one hand, his whole formu-
lation of Evolution in mechanical terms urges him in the direc-
tion of materialism, and he attempts to compose the mind out
of homogeneous units of consciousness (or " feeling ") " similar
in nature to those which we know as nervous shocks; each of
which is the correlative of a rhythmical motion of a material
unit or group of such units " ( 62). On the other hand, when
pressed by his disciple, Fiske (Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy
ii. p. 444), he is ready to amend nervous into psychical shocks,
which is no doubt what he ought to have meant but could not
say without ruining the illusory bridge between the psychical
and the physiological which is suggested in the phrase " nervous
shock." And he admits ( 63) that if we were compelled to
choose between translating mental phenomena into physical and
its converse, the latter would be preferable, seeing that the
ideas of matter and motion, merely symbolic of unknowable
realities, are complex states of consciousness built out of units
of feeling. But easiest of all is it to leave the relation of
the unknowable " substance of Mind " to the unknowable
" substance of Matter " (substance he throughout conceives
as the unknowable substrate of phenomena) to the Unknowable,
as he finally does. To the theory of knowledge Spencer con-
tributes a " transfigured realism," to mediate between realism
and idealism, and the doctrine that " necessary truths," acquired
in experience and congenitally transmitted, are a priori to the
individual, though a posteriori to the race, to mediate between
empiricism and apriorism. It has already been explained,
however, that the biological foundations of the latter doctrine
are questionable.
In the Principles of Sociology Spencer's most influential ideas
have been that of the social organism, of the origination of
religion out of the worship of ancestral ghosts, of the natural
antagonism between nutrition and reproduction, industrialism
and warfare. Politically, Spencer is an individualist of an
extreme laissez faire type, and it is in his political attitude that
the consequences of his pre-Darwinian conception of Evolution
are most manifest. But for this he would hardly have estab-
lished so absolute an antithesis between industrial and military
competition, and have shown himself readier to recognize
that the law of the struggle for existence, just because it is
universal and equally (though differently) operative in every
form of society, cannot be appealed to for guidance in deciding
between the respective merits of an industrial or military and
of an individualist or socialist organization of society.
In the Principles of Ethics Spencer, though relying mainly
on the objective order of nature and the intrinsic consequences
of actions for the guidance of conduct, conceives the ethical end
in a manner intermediate between the hedonist and the evolu-
tionist. The transition from the evolutionist criterion of sur-
vival which in itself it is difficult to regard as anything but
non-moral to the criterion of happiness is effected by means
of the psychological argument that pleasure promotes function
and that living beings must, upon pain of extinction, sooner or
later take pleasure in actions which are conducive to their
survival. Hence pleasure is, on the whole, good, and asceticism
reprehensible, although in man's case there has arisen (owing
to the rapidity of evolution) a certain derangement and diver-
gence between the pleasant and the salutary ( 39). Never-
theless pleasure forms an " inexpugnable element " of the moral
aim ( 16). Conduct being the adjustment of acts to ends,
and good conduct that which is conducive to the preservation
of a pleasurable life in a society so adjusted that each attains
his happiness without impeding that of others, life can be
SPENCER,
EARL
6 37
considered valuable only if it conduces to happiness. On the
other hand, life must in the long run so conduce, whatever its
present value may appear to be, because a constant process
of adjustment is going on which is bound sooner or later to lead
to a complete adjustment which will be perfect happiness.
This is the refutation of pessimism, which ultimately agrees with
optimism in making pleasure the standard of value. In this
reasoning Spencer appears to have overlooked the possibility
of an expansion of the ethical environment. If this is as rapid
as (or more rapid than) the rate of adaptation, there will be no
actual growth of adaptation and so no moral progress. Complete
adaptation to an infinitely receding ideal is impossible, and
relative adaptation depends on the distance between the actual
and the ideal. Spencer, however, considers that he can not
only anticipate such a state of complete adjustment, but even
lay down the rules obtaining in it, which will constitute the
code of " Absolute Ethics " and the standard for discerning
the " least wrong " actions of relative ethics. He conceives
it as a state of social harmony so complete that in it even the
antagonism between altruism and egoism will have been over-
come. Both of these are original and indispensable, but egoism
has the priority, since there must be egoistic pleasure somewhere
before there can be altruistic sympathy with it. And so in the
ideal state everyone will derive egoistic pleasure from doing
such altruistic acts as may still be needed. In it, too, the sense
of duty will have become otiose and have disappeared, being
essentially a relic of the history of the moral consciousness.
Originally the socially salutary action was in the main that
which was enjoined on the individual by his political and
religious superiors and by social sentiment; it was also in the
main that to which his higher, more complex and re-representa-
tive feelings prompted. Hence the fear with which the political,
religious and social controls were regarded came to be associated
also with the specifically moral control of lower by higher
feelings, and engendered the coercive element in the feeling
of obligation. Its authoritativeness depends on the intrinsic
salutariness of self-control, and must cease to be felt as the
resistance of the lower feelings relaxes. Hence Spencer con-
cludes that the sense of duty is transitory and must diminish
as moralization increases. In the preface to the last part of his
Ethics (1893) Spencer regrets that " the Doctrine of Evolution
has not furnished guidance to the extent he had hoped," but
his contributions to ethics are not unlikely to be the most
permanently valuable part of his philosophy.
After completing his system (1896) Spencer continued to revise
it, and brought out new editions of the Biology (1898-1899) and
First Principles (1900). The dates of his chief works are as follows:
1842, Letters to the Nonconformist, " The Proper Sphere of Govern-
ment." 1850, Social Statics. 1852, The Theory of Population
(cf. part vi. of Biology); "The Development Hypothesis" (in
Essays, vol. i.) 1853. The Universal Postulate (cf. Psychology, part
vii.). 1854, "the Genesis of Science" (in Essays, vol. ii.). 1855,
Principles of Psychology (l vol.). 1857, Progress, its Law and
Cause (Essays, vol. i.). 1858, Essays (containing most of his con-
tributions to the Westminster Review; 1863, vol. ii.; 1885, vol. iii.).
1861, Education: Intellectual, Moral, Physical. 1862, First Prin-
ciples (2nd ed., 1867; 6th, 1900). 1864-1867, Principles of Biology
(2 vols.). 1872, Principles of Psychology (2nd ed., in 2 vols.). 1873,
The Study of Sociology. 1876, vol. i., The Principles of Sociology;
vol. ii., Ceremonial Institutions, 1879, Political Institutions, 1882;
vol. iii., Ecclesiastical Institutions, 1885, completed 1896. 1879,
The Data of Ethics (part i. of Principles of Ethics in 2 vols. ;
part iv., Justice, 1891 ; parts ii. and iii., Inductions of Ethics and
Ethics of Individual Life, 1892 ; parts v. and vi., Negative and Positive
Beneficence, 1893). 1884, Man versus the State. 1886, Factors of
Organic Evolution. 1893, Inadequacy of Natural Selection. 1894,
A Rejoinder to Professor Weismann and Weismannism once more.
1897, Fragments. 1902, Facts and Comments. An Autobiography
in 2 vols. appeared posthumously in 1904. For a full bibliography
ot his works see W. H. Hudson's Introduction to the Philosophy of
Herbert Spencer (up to 1895) ; and for a useful summary of his chief
doctrines by Spencer himself, his preface to Collins's Epitome of the
Synthetic Philosophy. He also supervised the compilation of a
comprehensive series of volumes by various writers on Descriptive
Sociology, of which by 1881 eight parts on dillerent racial areas had
been published (at a loss to him of 3250)33 the result of fourteen
years of labour. He then suspended this undertaking, but resolved
that at his death it should be continued at the cost of his estate.
In his will he appointed trustees, who were to entrust the supervision
to Mr. H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athenaeum Club; and the
work was resumed accordingly after his death, five more parts
being arranged for, one of which was published in 1910.
(F. C. S. S.)
SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3 RD EARL (1782-
1845), English statesman, better known by the courtesy title
of Lord Althorp, which he bore during his father's lifetime, was
the son of George John, 2nd Earl (1758-1834), grandson of
John (1734-1783), created ist Earl Spencer in 1765, and
great-grandson of Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland.
His father served in the ministries of Pitt, Fox and Grenville,
and was first lord of the admiralty from 1794-1801; and
his interest in literature was shown in his attention to
the Althorp library, inherited from the 3rd Earl of Sunder-
land, which he developed into the finest private library
in Europe; his wife, the eldest daughter of the ist Earl
Lucan, was conspicuous in London society for her gaiety and
brightness. Their eldest son, John Charles, was born at Spencer
House, London, on the 3Oth of May 1782. In 1800 he took
up his residence at Trinity College, Cambridge, and for some
time applied himself energetically to mathematical studies; but
he spent most of his time in hunting and racing. Almost im-
mediately after taking his degree in 1802, he set out on a conti-
nental tour, which was cut short, after he had passed some months
in the chief cities in Italy, by the renewal of war. Through the
influence of Pitt's government he was returned to parliament
for the borough of Okehampton in Devonshire in April 1804,
and, although he vacated his seat in February 1806, to contest
the university of Cambridge against Lord Henry Petty and Lord
Palmerston (when he was hopelessly beaten), he was elected in
the same month for St Albans, and appointed a lord of the
treasury. At the general election in November 1806, he was
elected for Northamptonshire, and he continued to sit for the
county until he succeeded to the peerage. His tastes were then,
as ever, for country life, but his indignation at the duke of
York's conduct at the Horse Guards led him to move a resolu-
tion of the House of Commons in 1809 for the duke's removal
from his post. For the next few years after this speech Lord
Althorp occasionally spoke in debate and always on the side of
Liberalism, but from 1813 to 1818 he was only rarely in the
House of Commons. His absence was partly due to a feeling
that it was hopeless to struggle against the will of the Tory
ministry, but more particularly to his marriage on the i4th of
April 1814, to Esther, only daughter of Richard Acklom of
Wiseton Hall, Northamptonshire, who died in childbirth 1818.
In 1819, on his return to political life after her death, and for
many years after that date he pressed upon the attention of the
house the necessity of establishing a more efficient bankruptcy
court, and of expediting the recovery of small debts; and
he saw both these reforms accomplished before 1825. During
the greater part of the reign of George IV. the 'Whigs lost their
legitimate influence in the state from their want of cohesion,
but this defect was soon remedied in 1830 when Lord Althorp
was chosen their leader in the lower house, and his capacity for
the position was proved by experience. When Lord Grey's
administration was formed at the close of the year the chan-
cellorship of the exchequer combined with the leadership of the
House of Commons was entrusted to Lord Althorp, and to him
more than to any other man, with the exception of the prime
minister and the lord chancellor, may be attributed the success
of the government measures. The budget, it is true, was a
failure, but this misfortune was soon forgotten in the struggles
over the Reform Bill. The consideration of the preliminaries
of this measure was assigned to four ministers, two in the cabinet
and two outside that body; but their proposals were, after
careful examination, approved or rejected by Lord Grey and
Lord Althorp before they were brought under the notice of the
cabinet. When the Bill was ready for introduction to the House
of Commons its principles were expounded by Lord John Russell;
but from the commencement of the protracted discussion over
its details he had the assistance of Lord Althorp, and after some
6 3 8
SPENCER, 5 TH EARL SPENER
weeks of incessant toil, which the physique of Lord John Russell
could not sustain any longer, the whole responsibility was cast
on Lord Althorp. To combat the objections of three such
pertinacious opponents as Croker, Sugden and Wetherell required
both skill and courage, and in Lord Althorp these qualities were
found. On one evening he made as many as twenty speeches.
The Reform Bill was carried at last, and popular instinct was
right in assigning to the leader of the house a credit only second
to that earned by Lord John Russell. After the dissolution of
1833 the Whigs returned to power with augmented numbers;
but differences soon showed themselves among both leaders and
followers, and their majority crumbled away. Their position
was strengthened for a time by triumphantly carrying a new poor
law bill; and even their keenest critics would not allow that,
had the Whig propositions on tithes and church rates been
carried into effect, many years of passionate controversy would
have been spared. The ministry of Lord Grey was shattered to
pieces by difficulties over an Irish coercion bill. Although Lord
Melbourne became premier (July 14, 1834), the fortunes of the
ministry rested on Lord Althorp's presence in the House of
Commons.
The death of the 2nd Earl Spencer in November 1834, called
his son to the upper house, and William IV. took advantage
of this event to summon a Tory cabinet to his side. The new
Lord Spencer abandoned the cares of office and returned to
country life with unalloyed delight. Henceforth agriculture,
not politics, was his principal interest. He was the first presi-
dent of the Royal Agricultural Society (founded 1838), and a
notable cattle-breeder. Often as he was urged by his political
friends to come to their assistance, he rarely quitted the peaceful
pleasures which he loved. He died at Wiseton on the ist of
October 1845, being succeeded as 4th Earl, in default of issue,
by his brother Frederick (d. 1857). He had held, as a statesman,
a remarkable position. The Whigs required, to carry the
Reform Bill, a leader of unstained character, one to whom party
spirit could not attach the suspicion of greed of office, and
against Lord Althorp malevolence was powerless. No stronger
proof of his pre-eminence could be given than the oft-quoted
saying of Lord Hardinge that one of Croker's ablest speeches
was demolished by the simple statement of Lord Althorp that
he had collected some figures which entirely refuted it, but had
lost them. The trust which the house put in him then was never
wanting.
SPENCER, JOHN POYNTZ SPENCER, 5th EARL (1835-1910),
English statesman, was the son of the 4th Earl and his first
wife, a daughter of William Stephen Poyntz, of Cowdray Park,
Sussex. Born on the 27th of October 1835, and educated at
Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was a member of
parliament for a few months before he succeeded to the earl-
dom in December 1857. His long career as a Liberal politician
dates from his acceptance of the office of lord-lieutenant of
Ireland under Gladstone in 1868, a post which he retained until
1874. When the Liberals returned to power in 1880 he was
appointed lord president of the council, but in 1882 he entered
upon a second term of office as lord-lieutenant of Ireland.
The three years during which Earl Spencer now filled this
position was a period of exceptional disorder in Ireland, marked
by a long series of outrages and conspiracies associated with the
" Invincibles," but the courage and firmness which he then
displayed won the admiration of all, and made his adoption of
the policy of Home Rule in 1885 an event of considerable
interest. In the short Liberal administration of 1886 he was
lord-president of the council, and from 1892 to 1895 he was a
very capable first lord of the admiralty; it is on record that
Gladstone, on retiring in 1904, would have recommended the
Queen, if she had consulted him, to summon Lord Spencer to the
premiership. From 1902 to 1905 he was the Liberal leader in the
House of Lords, and early in 1905, when a change of government
was seen to be probable, it was thought in some quarters that
he would be the most suitable Liberal prime minister. But
his health broke down just at this time, and he took no further
part in political life, although he survived until the i3th of
August 1910, when he died at Althorp. For forty-five years
the earl was a Knight of the Garter; he was lord-lieutenant of
Northamptonshire for upwards of thirty years, and he had a
reputation as a keen and daring rider to hounds. The fine
library, collected at Althorp by the 2nd earl, was sold by him
for 250,000 to Mrs Rylands, the widow of a Manchester
merchant, and was by her presented to the city of Manchester.
Earl Spencer had no children, and his successor was his half-
brother, Charles Robert Spencer (b. 1857), who became the 6th
earl. As the Hon. Charles R. Spencer he was one of the parlia-
mentary representatives for Northamptonshire from 1880 to
1895 and again from 1900 to 1905, and was vice-chamberlain of
the royal household from 1892 to 1895. In 1905 he was ap-
pointed lord chamberlain, and in the same year he was raised
to the peerage as Viscount Althorp.
SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1760-1834), English poet
and wit, was the son of Lord Charles Spencer, second son of
Charles Spencer, 3rd duke of Marlborough and 5th earl of
Sunderland. He was educated at Harrow and Christ Church,
Oxford, but left the university without taking a degree. Spencer's
wit made him a popular member of society, but he took no
part in public life although he numbered among his friends
leading statesmen like Pitt, Fox and Sheridan. He was an
accomplished writer of " occasional " verse, which was warmly
praised by Scott, by Christopher North and by Byron, who
placed him in the same rank as Moore, Rogers and Campbell.
In 1796 he published an English version of Burger's Leonore,
and in 1802 he burlesqued German romance in his Urania,
which was produced on the stage at Drury Lane. Among his
best-known pieces, which were published in a collection of his
poems in 1811, were " Beth Gelert " and " Too Late I Stayed."
He died in poverty in Paris in 1834. In 1791 he married
Susan, daughter of Count Jenison-Walworth, chamberlain to
the elector palatine, by whom he had five sons and two daughters.
One son, AUBREY GEORGE SPENCER (1795-1872), became first
bishop of Newfoundland in 1839, being afterwards translated
to the See of Jamaica. Another son, GEORGE TREVOR SPENCER
(1799-1866), was in 1837 consecrated second bishop of Madras.
He published several books relating to missionary work in India;
on his return to England in 1849 ne was appointed assistant
to the bishop of Bath and Wells, and in 1860 became chancellor
of St Paul's Cathedral. He married, in 1823, Harriet, daughter
of Sir Benjamin Hobhouse and sister of Lord Broughton.
See W. R. Spencer, Poems (London, 1835), containing a bio-
graphical memoir; The Annual Register (1834); Alumni Oxonienses
1715-1886, annotated by J. Foster (4 vols., Oxford, 1891).
SPENCER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about ii m. W. of Worcester. Pop. (1890), 8747;
(1900), 7627, of whom 1614 were foreign-born; (1910, U.S.
census), 6740. Area, about 34-1 sq. m. The township is
served by the Boston & Albany railway and by inter-urban
electric lines. The Richard Sugden Public Library, founded
in 1889, had 12,000 volumes in 1908. Bemis Memorial Park
and the Samuel Bemis Monument were dedicated in 1901 in
honour of the first settler of Spencer. There are three other
public parks. Among the township's manufactures are boots
and shoes, woollens, muslin underwear, wire, and wooden and
paper boxes. Spencer was a part of the Leicester grant; was
first settled in 1721; was the "West Parish of Leicester" in
1744-1753; and in 1753 was incorporated as a township, under
its present name. In one house in Spencer were born Elias Howe,
jun., the inventor of the sewing-machine, and his uncles,
William Howe, inventor of the " Howe truss " bridge (see
BRIDGES), and Tyler Howe (1800-1880), inventor (in 1855)
of the spring bed; in 1909 a memorial was dedicated to these
three inventors.
See Henry M. Tower, Historical Sketches Relating to Spencer, .
Mass. (4 vols., Spencer, 1901-1909).
SPENER, PHILIPP JAKOB (1635-1705), German theologian,
was born on the I3th of January 1635, at Rappoltsweiler in
Upper Alsace. After a brief stay in the grammar school of
Colmar he went to Strassburg in 1651, where he devoted himself
SPENNYMOOR SPENSER, EDMUND
639
to the study of philology, history and philosophy, and won his
degree of master (1653) by a disputation against the philosophy
of Hobbes. He then became private tutor to the princes
Christian and Charles of the Palatinate, and lectured in the
university on philology and history. From 1659 to 1662 he
visited the universities of Basel, Tubingen and Geneva, and
commenced the study of heraldry, which he pursued throughout
his life. In Geneva especially his religious views and tendencies
were turned in the direction of mysticism. He returned to
Strassburg in 1663, where he was appointed preacher without
pastoral duties, with the right of holding lectures. Three years
afterwards he was invited to become the chief pastor in the
Lutheran Church at Frankfort-on-Main. Here he published
his two chief works, Pia desideria (1675) and Allgcmeine Gottes-
gelehrtheit (1680), and began that form of pastoral work which
resulted in the movement called Pietism. In 1686 he accepted
the invitation to the first court chaplaincy at Dresden. But
the elector John George III., at whose personal desire the post
had been offered to him, was soon offended at the fearless con-
scientiousness with which his chaplain sought to discharge his
pastoral duties. Spener refused to resign his post, and the
Saxon government hesitated to dismiss him. But in 1691 the
Saxon representative at Berlin induced the court of Brandenburg
to offer him the rectorship of St Nicholas in Berlin with the title
of " Konsistorialrat." In Berlin Spener was held in high
honour, though the tendencies of the court and the government
officials were rather rationalistic than pietistic. The university
of Halle was founded under his influence in 1694. All his life
long Spener had been exposed to the attacks and abuse of the
orthodox Lutheran theologians; with his years his opponents
multiplied, and the movement which he had inaugurated
presented increasingly matter for hostile criticism. In 1695
the theological faculty of Wittenberg formally laid to his charge
264 errors, and only his death on the 5th of February, 1705,
released him from these fierce conflicts. His last important
work was Theologische Bedenken (4 vols., 1700-1702), to which
was added after his death Letzte theologische Bedenken, with a
biography of Spener by C. H. von Canstein (1711).
Though Spener has been justly called " the father of Pietism,"
hardly any of the errors and none of the extravagances of the
movement can be ascribed to him personally. So far was he from
sharing them that A. Ritschl (Geschichte des Pietismus, ii. 163)
maintains that " he was himself not a Pietist," as he did not advocate
the quietistic, legalistic and semi-separatist practices of Pietism,
though they were more or less involved in the positions he assumed
or the practices which he encouraged or connived at. The only
two points on which he departed from the orthodox Lutheran
faith of his day were the requirement of regeneration as the sine
qua non of the true theologian, and the expectation of the con-
version of the Jews and the fall of Papacy as the prelude of the
triumph of the church. He did not, like the later Pietists, insist
on the necessity of a conscious crisis of conversion, nor did he en-
courage a complete breach between the Christian and the secular
life.
Spener was a voluminous writer. The list of his published
works comprises 7 vols. folio, 63 quarto, 7 octavo, 46 duodecimo ;
a new edition of his chief writings was published by P. Griinberg
in 1889. See W. Hossbach, Philipp Jakob Spener und seine Zeit
(1828, 3rd ed., 1861) ; A. Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, ii. (1884) ;
E. Sachsse, Ursprung und Wesen des Pietismus (1884) ; P. Griinberg,
P. J. Spener (3 vols., 1893-1906).
SPENNYMOOR, a market town in the Bishop Auckland parlia-
mentary division of Durham, England, 6 m. S. of the city of
Durham, on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop of
urban district, which includes several neighbouring parishes
(1901), 16,665. It is in the midst of a populous coal-mining
district, and its growth is modern.
SPENS, THOMAS DE (c. 1415-1480), Scottish statesman and
prelate, received his education at Edinburgh, and by his excep-
tional abilities attracted the notice of the advisers of the Scottish
king, James II., who sent him on errands to England and to
France. About 1450 he became bishop of Galloway; soon after-
wards he was made keeper of the privy seal, and in 1459 he was
chosen bishop of Aberdeen. Much of his time, however, was
passed in journeys to France and to England, and in 1464 he
and Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, a son of James II.,
were captured at sea by some English sailors. Edward IV.,
to whom the bishop had previously revealed an assassination
plot, set him at liberty, and he was partly responsible for the
treaty of peace made about this time between the English king
and James III. He also helped to bring about the meeting
between Edward IV. and Louis XI. of France at Picquicny,
and another treaty of peace between England and Scotland in
1474. Spens was a frequent attender at the Scottish parlia-
ments, and contributed very generously to the decoration of his
cathedral at Aberdeen. He died in Edinburgh on the i4th of
April 1480.
SPENSER, EDMUND (c. 1552-1599), English poet, author of
the Faery Queen, was born in London about the year 1552. The
received date of his birth rests on a passage in sonnet Ix. of the
Amorelti. He speaks there of having lived forty-one years;
the Amoretti was published in 1595, and described on the title-
page as " written not long since "; this would make the year
of his birth 1552 or 1553. We know from the Prothalamion
that London was his birthplace. This at least seems the most
natural interpretation of the words
" Merry London, my most kindly nurse,
That to me gave this life's first native source."
In the same poem he speaks of himself as taking his name from
" an house of ancient fame." Several of his pieces are addressed
to the daughters of Sir John Spencer, head of the Althorp
family; and in Colin Clout's Come Home Again he describes three
of the ladies as
" The honour of the noble family
Of which I meanest boast myself to be."
Mr R. B. Knowles, however, is of the opinion (see the Spending
of the Money of Robert Nowell, privately printed, 1877) that the
poet's kinsmen must be sought among the humbler Spencers
of north-east Lancashire. Robert Nowell, a London citizen,
left a sum of money to be distributed in various charities, and
in the account-books of his executors among the names of other
beneficiaries has been discovered that of " Edmund Spensore,
scholar of the Merchant Taylor School, at his going to Pembroke
Hall in Cambridge." The date of this benefaction is the 28th
of April 1569. As the poet is known to have been a sizar of
Pembroke, the identification is beyond dispute. Till this
discovery it was not known where Spenser received his school
education. The speculations as to the poet's parentage, started
by the Nowell MS., are naturally more uncertain. Mr Knowles
found three Spensers in the books of the Merchant Taylors, and
concluded that the poorest of them, John Spenser, a " free
journeyman " in the " art or mystery of clothmaking," might
have been the poet's father, but he afterwards abandoned this
theory. Dr Grosart, however, adhered to it, and it is now
pretty generally accepted. The connexion of Spenser with
Lancashire is also supported by the Nowell MS. several
Spensers of that county appear among the " poor kinsfolk "
who profited by Nowell's bounty. The name of the poet's
mother was Elisabeth, and he notes as a happy coincidence
that it was borne by the three women of most consequence to
him wife, queen and mother (Amorelti, Ixxiv.).
It is natural that a poet so steeped in poetry as Spenser
should show his faculty at a very early age; and there is strong
reason to believe that verses from his pen were published just
as he left school at the age of sixteen or seventeen. Certain
pieces, translations from Du Bellay and Petrarch, afterwards
included in a volume of poems by Spenser published in 1591,
are found in a miscellany, Theatre for Worldings, issued by a
Flemish Protestant refugee, John van der Noodt, on the 25th of
May 1569. The translations from Du Bellay appear in blank
verse in the miscellany, and are rhymed in sonnet form in the
later publication, but the diction [is substantially the same; the
translations from Petrarch are republished with slight variations.
Poets were so careless of their rights in those days and pub-
lishers took such liberties that we cannot draw for certain the
conclusion that would be inevitable if the facts were of more
640
SPENSER, EDMUND
modern date; but the probabilities are that these passages
in Van der Noodt's Theatre, although the editor makes no
acknowledgment, were contributed by the schoolboy Spenser. 1
As the exercises of a schoolboy writing before our poetic diction
was enriched by the great Elizabethans, they are remarkable
for a sustained command of expression which many schoolboys
might exhibit in translation now, but which was a rarer and more
significant accomplishment when Surrey and Sackville were
the highest models in post-Chaucerian English.
Little is known of Spenser's Cambridge career, except that
he was a sizar of Pembroke Hall, took his bachelor's degree in
1572, his master's in 1576, and left Cambridge without having
obtained a fellowship. Dr Grosart's inquiries have elicited
the fact that his health was not good college allowances while
he was in residence being often paid " Spenser aegrotanti."
One of the fellows of Pembroke strongly influenced his destiny.
This was Gabriel Harvey, a prominent figure in the university
life of the time, an enthusiastic educationist, vigorous, versatile,
not a little vain of his own culture and literary powers, which
had gained him a certain standing in London society. The
revival and advancement of English literature was a passion of
the time, and Harvey was fully possessed by it. His fancy for
reforming English verse by discarding rhyme and substituting
unrhymed classical metres, and the tone of his controversy with
Thomas Nash, have caused him to be regarded as merely an
obstreperous and pragmatic pedant; but it is clear that Spenser,
who had sense enough not to be led astray by his eccentricities,
received active and generous help from him and probably not a
little literary stimulus. Harvey's letters to Spenser 2 throw a
very kindly light on his character. During his residence at the
university the poet acquired a knowledge of Greek, and at a
later period offered to impart that language to a friend in Ireland
(see Ludowick Bryskett, Discourse of Civil Life, London, 1606
written twenty years previously). Spenser's affinity with Plato
is most marked, and he probably read him in the original.
Three years after leaving Cambridge, in 1579, Spenser issued
his first volume of poetry, the Shepherd's Calendar. Where and
how he spent the interval have formed subjects for elaborate
speculation. That most of it was spent in the study of his art
we may take for granted. That he lived for a time in the
" north parts " of England; that there or elsewhere he fell in
love with a lady whom he celebrates under the anagram of
" Rosalind," and who was most likely Rose, a daughter of a
yeoman named Dyneley, near Clitheroe; that his friend Harvey
urged him to return south, and introduced him to Sir Philip
Sidney; that Sidney took to him, discussed poetry with him,
introduced him at court, put him in the way of preferment
are ascertained facts in his personal history. Dr Grosart con-
jectures with considerable plausibility that he was in Ireland
in 1577. The words " for long time far estranged " in E.K.'s
preface to the Shepherd's Calendar point that way. Spenser
undoubtedly entered the service of the earl of Leicester either
in 1578 or a year earlier (Carew Papers).
The interest of the Shepherd's Calendar is mainly personal to
Spenser. Its twelve poems continue to be read chiefly because
they were the first published essays of the author of the Faery
Queen, the poems in which he tried and disciplined his powers.
They mark no stage in the history of pastoral poetry. The title,
borrowed from a French almanack of the year 1496, which was
translated into English in 1503 and frequently reprinted, is at-
tractive but hardly tallies with the subject. It may have been an
afterthought. Spenser had too strong a genius not to make his
own individuality felt in any form that he attempted, and his
buoyant dexterity in handling various schemes of verse must always
afford delight to the connoisseur in such things. But a reader not
already interested in Spenser, or not already familiar with the
artificial eclogue, would find little to attract him in the Shepherd's
Calendar. The poems need a special education; given this, they
1 The first versions of the Visions of Petrarch and Du Bcllay
are reproduced by Dr Grosart in his Complete Works of Spenser,
vol. iv. (London, 1882). The translations of Petrarch are imitated
from Marot. Koeppel (Englische Studien, vol. xv.), questions whether
they are by Spenser (see also J. B. Fletcher, Modern Language
Notes, vol. xxii.).
* Letter-Book of Gabriel Harvey (Camden Society).
are felt to be full of charm and power, a fresh and vivid spring to
the splendid summer of the Faery Queen. The diction is a studi-
ously archaic artificial compound, partly Chaucerian, partly North
Anglian, partly factitious; and the pastoral scenery is such as may
be found in any country where there are sheep, hills, trees, shrubs,
toadstools and running streams. That Spenser, having been in
the north of England, should have introduced here and there a
touch of north country colour is natural enough, but it is not suffi-
cient to give a character to the poems as pastoral poems. As such
they follow continuously and do not violently break away from
Latin, Italian and French predecessors, and Professor George
Saintsbury is undoubtedly right in indicating Marot as the most
immediate model. At the same time one can quite understand
on historical grounds why the Shepherd's Calendar was hailed with
enthusiasm as the advent of a " new poet." Not only was it a
complete work in a form then new to English literature, but the
execution showed the hand of a master. There had been nothing
so finished, so sustained, so masterful in grasp, so brilliant in metre
and phrase, since Chaucer. It was felt at once that the poet for
whom the age had been waiting had come. The little coterie of
friends whose admiration the young poet had won in private were
evidently concerned lest the wider public should be bewildered
and repelled by the unfamiliar pastoral form and rustic diction.
To put the public at the right point of view the poems were pub-
lished with a commentary by " E.K." supposed to be one Edward
Kirke, who was an undergraduate with Spenser at Pembroke.
This so-called " glosse " explained the archaic words, revealed the
poet's intentions, and boasted that, as in the case of Virgil, the
pastoral poetry of the " new poet " was but " a proving of the wings
for higher and wider flights. The " new poet s " name was with-
held; and the identification of the various " shepherds" of Cuddie
and Roffy and Diggon Davie, and the beauteous golden-haired
" widow's daughter of the glen "was fortunately reserved to
yield delight to the ingenious curiosity of a later age. 3 On the
subject of Spenser's obligations the " glosse " is very misleading.
An eclogue drawn almost entirely from Virgil is represented as
jointly inspired by Virgil and Theocritus and chiefly by the latter.
Marot is belittled and his claim to be a poet called in question.
As regards the twelfth eclogue suggested by -and in part translated
from his poetry, his influence is ignored. The stanzas Professor
Hales cites as autobiographical are actually taken from Marot's
eclogue, Au Roi sous les noms de Pan el Robin. Dr Grosart falls
into the same error.
The Shepherd's Calendar was published at Gabriel Harvey's
instance, and was dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney. It was one out
of many poetical schemes on which the young poet was busy in the
flush of conscious power and high hopes excited by the admiration
of the literary authorities whose approval was then most to be
coveted. His letters to Harvey and Harvey's letters to him
furnish hints for a very engaging fancy picture of Spenser at this
stage of his life looking at the world through rose-coloured
spectacles, high in favour with Sidney and Leicester, dating his
letters from Leicester House, gaily and energetically discussing the
technicalities of his art, with some provision from his powerful
friends certain, but the form of it delightfully uncertain going
to court in the train of Leicester, growing pointed beard and
mustachios of fashionable shape, and frightening his ever-vigilant
friend and mentor Harvey by the light courtier-like tone of his
references to women. The studious pastoral poet from " north
parts " had blossomed with surprising rapidity in the image of the
gay fortune-seeking adventurers who crowded the court of the
virgin queen in those stirring times. Some of the poems which
he mentions to Harvey as then completed or on the anvil his
Dreams, his Nine Comedies, his Dying Pelican and his Stemmata
dudleiana (singing the praises of the noble family which was
befriending him) have not been preserved, at least in any form
that can be certainly identified. Among the lost works was his
English Poet a contribution to literary criticism. He had sent
Harvey a portion of the Faery Queen, which he was eager to con-
tinue; but Harvey did not think much of it a judgment for which
Harvey is often ridiculed as a dull pedant, as if we knew for certain
that what was submitted to him was identical with what was
published ten years later.
Spenser was appointed secretary to the lord-deputy of Ireland
in 1580. and was one of the band of adventurers who, with mixed
motives of love of excitement, patriotism, piety and hopes of
forfeited estates, accompanied Lord Arthur Grey of Wilton to
Ireland to aid in the suppression of Desmond's rebellion.
Regret is sometimes expressed that the author of the Faery
Queen, who ought to have been dreamy, meditative, gentle and
refined, should have been found in such company, and should
have taken part in the violent and bloody scenes of Lord Grey's
two years' attempt at " pacification." But such things must
be judged with reference to the circumstances and the spirit
of the time, and it must be remembered that England was then
3 See Dr Grosart's Complete Works of Spenser, vol. i.
SPENSER, EDMUND
641
engaged in a fierce struggle for existence against the Catholic
powers of the Continent. Of Lord Grey's character his secretary
was an enthusiastic admirer, exhibiting him in the Faery Queen
as Arthegal, the personification of justice; and we know exactly
what were his own views of Irish policy, and how strongly he
deplored that Lord Grey was not permitted to carry them out.
Spenser's View of the Stale of Ireland drawn up after fourteen
years' experience, but first printed in 1633 by Sir James Ware,
who complains of Spenser's harshness and inadequate know-
ledge (History of Ireland, appendix) , is not the work of a gentle
dreamer, but of an energetic and shrewd public official.
The View is not a descriptive work; there is nothing in the style
to indicate that it was written by a poet; it is an elaborate state
paper, the exposition in the form of a dialogue of a minutely con-
sidered plan for the pacification of Ireland, written out of zeal for
the public service for the eyes of the government of the day. A
very thoroughgoing plan it is. After passing in review the history
and character of the Irish, their laws, customs, religion, habits of
life, armour, dress, social institutions and finding " evil usages "
in every department, he propounds his plan of " reformation."
Reformation can be effected only by the sword, by the strong hand.
The interlocutor in the dialogue holds up his hands in horror.
Does he propose extermination? By no means; but he would
give the Irish a choice between submission and extermination.
The government had vacillated too long, and, fearing the cost
of a thorough operation, had spent twice as much without in any
way mending matters. Let them send into Ireland 10,000 foot
and looo horse, disperse them in garrisons a complete scheme of
localities is submitted give the Irish twenty days to come in; if
they did not come in then, give no quarter afterwards, but hunt
them down like wild beasts in the winter time whfen the covert
is thin; " if they be well followed one winter, ye shall have little
work to do with them the next summer "; famine would complete
the work of the sword ; and in eighteen months' time peace would
be restored and the ground cleared for plantation by English
colonists. There must be no flinching in the execution of this
plan " no remorse or drawing back for the sight of any such
rueful object as must thereupon follow, nor for compassion of their
calamities, seeing that by no other means it is possible to recover
them, and that these are not of will but of very urgent necessity."
The government had <jut of foolish compassion drawn back before
when Lord Grey had brought the recalcitrant Irish to the necessary
extremity of famine; the gentle poet warns them earnestly against
a repetition of the blunder.
Such was Spenser's plan for the pacification of Ireland, pro-
pounded not on his own authority, but as having support in
" the consultations and actions of very wise governors and
counsellors whom he had sometimes heard treat thereof." He
knew that it was " bloody and cruel "; but he contended passion-
ately that it was necessary for the maintenance of English power
and the Protestant religion. The method was repugnant to
the kindly nature of average Englishmen; from the time of
Lord Grey no English authority had the heart to go through
with it till another remorseless zealot appeared in the person of
Cromwell. That Cromwell knew the treatise of " the sage and
serious Spenser," perhaps through Milton, is probable from the
fact that the poet's Irish estates were secured to his grandson
by the Protector's intervention in 1657. These estates had been
granted to Spenser as his share in the redistribution of Munster
3000 acres of land and Kilcolman Castle, an ancient seat of
the Desmonds, in the north of the county of Cork. The elaborate
and business-like character of the View shows that the poet
was no sinecurist, but received his reward for substantial
political services. He ceased to be secretary to the lord-deputy
when Lord Grey was recalled in 1582; but he continued in the
public service, and in 1 586 was promoted to the onerous position
of clerk to the council of Munster.
Amidst all the distractions of his public life in Ireland Spenser
kept up his interest in literature, and among proper subjects
for reforn included Irish poetry, of which he could judge only
through the medium of translations. He allows it some merit
" sweet wit," " good invention," " some pretty flowers "
but laments that it is " abused to the gracing of wickedness and
vice." Meanwhile he seems to have proceeded steadily with
the composition of the Faery Queen, translating his varied ex-
perience of men and affairs into the picturesque forms of his
allegory, and expressing through them his conception of the
immutable principles that ought to regulate human conduct.
xxv. 21
He had, as we have seen, conceived a work of the kind and made
a beginning before he left England. The conception must
have been very much deepened and widened and in every way
enriched by his intimate daily contact with the actual struggle
of conflicting individuals and interests and policies in a great
crisis. Some four or five years later, being asked in a mixed
company of English officials in Ireland (as recorded in Lodowick
Bryskett's Discourse of Civil Life) to give off-hand a short
sketch of " the ethical part of moral philosophy " and the
practical uses of the study, Spenser explained to these simple-
minded men that the subject was too intricate for an impromptu
exposition, but that he had in hand a work called the Faery
Queen in which an ethical system would be exhibited in action.
The respect paid by his official brethren to Spenser as a man,
" not only perfect in the Greek tongue, but also very well read
in philosophy, both moral and natural," is an interesting item
in his biography. Some years later still, when Spenser was
settled at Kilcolman Castle, Sir Walter Raleigh found him with
three books of the Faery Queen completed, and urged him to
come with them to London. London accordingly he revisited
in 1 589, after nine years' absence. There is a very pretty record
of this visit in Colin Clout's Come Home Again, published in
1535,* but written in 1591, immediately after his return to
Kilcolman. The incidents of the visit, by that time matters of
wisTful memory, are imaged as a shepherd's excursion from his
quiet pastoral life into the great world. Colin Clout calls round
him once again the masked figures of the Shepherd's Calendar,
and describes to them what he saw, how he fared, and whom he
met at the court of Cynthia, and how, through the influence of
" the Shepherd of the Ocean," he was admitted at timely hours
to play on his oaten pipe in the great queen's presence.
How much is pure fiction and how much veiled fact in this
picture cannot now be distinguished, but it is undoubted that
Spenser, though his chief patrons Leicester and Sidney were
now dead, was very graciously received by the great world on his
return to London. Not only did the queen grant him an audi-
ence, but many ladies of the court, several of whom he after-
wards honoured with dedications, honoured him with their
patronage. The first three books of the Faery Queen, which
were entered at Stationers' Hall on the ist of December 1589,
were published in 1590, and he was proclaimed at once with
remarkable unanimity by all the writers of the time as the first
of living poets.
From the first week of its publication the literary world has
continued unanimous about the Faery Queen, except on minor
points. When romanticism was at its lowest ebb Pope read Spenser
in his old age with as much delight as in his boyhood. Spenser
speaks: himself of having had his detractors, of having suffered from
the venomous tooth of the Blatant Eeast, and he seems to have had
in more than ordinary share the poet's sensitiveness to criticism;
but the detraction or indifference have generally been found
among men who, like the lord high treasurer Burghley, have no
liking for poetry of any kind. \ The secret of Spenser s enduring
popularity with poets and lovers of poetry lies specially in this,
that he excels in the poet's peculiar gift, the instinct for verbal
music. Shakespeare, or the author of the sonnet usually assigned
to him, felt and expressed this when he drew the parallel between
" music and sweet poetry "-
" Thou lovest to hear the sweet melodious sound
That Phoebus' lute, the queen of music, makes;
And I in deep delight am chiefly drowned
Whenas himself to singing he betakes."
This is an early word in criticism of Spenser, and it is the last
word about his prime and unquestionable excellence a word in
which all critics must agree. Whether he had imagination in the
highest degree or only luxuriant fancy, and whether he could tell
a story in the highest epic manner or only put together a richly
varied series of picturesque incidents, are disputable points; but
about the enchantment of his verse there can be no difference of
opinion. It matters not in the least that he gains his melody often
by archaic affectations and licences of diction ; there, however
purchased, the marvellously rich music is. In judging of the struc-
ture of the Faery Queen we must always remember that, long and
diffuse as it is, what we have is but a fragment of the poet's design,
and that the narrative is regulated by an allegorical purpose; but,
however intricate, however confused, the reader may feel the
succession of incidents to be, when he Studies the succession of
incidents, it is only at the call of duty that he is likely to occupy
himself with such a study in reading Spenser.
642
SPENSER, EDMUND
The ethical value of the allegory has been very variously esti-
mated. The world would probably never have divined that there
was any allegory if he had not himself drawn attention to it in a
prose dedication and in doggerel headings to the cantos. It 'was
apparently at his friend Raleigh's suggestion that the poet con-
descended to explain his ethical purpose in A Letter of the Author's
addressed to Sir Walter and dated the 23rd of January 1589-1590;
otherwise it would have been as problematical as the similar intention
in the case of the Idylls of the King before that intention was expressly
declared. It is almost to be regretted, as far as the allegory is
concerned, that the friendly " E. K." was not employed to furnish
a " glosse " to the Faery Queen as he had done to the Shepherd's
Calendar. Undoubtedly the peculiar " poetic luxury " of the
Faery Queen can be enjoyed without any reference to the allegory;
even Professor Dowden, the most eloquent champion of Spenser's
claims as a " teacher," admits that it is a mistake to look for
minute correspondence between outward symbol and underlying
sense, and that the poet is least enjoyable where he is most ingenious.
Still the allegory governs the structure of the poem, and Spenser
himself attached great importance to it as determining his position
among poets. The ethical purpose is distinctive of the poem as a
whole; it was foremost in Spenser's mind when he conceived the
scheme of the poem, and present with him as he built up and articu-
lated the skeleton; it was in this respect that he claimed to have
" overpassed " his avowed models Ariosto and Tasso. If we wish
to get an idea of Spenser's imaginative force and abundance, or to
see his creations as he saw them, we must not neglect the allegory.
It is obvious from all that he says of his own work that in his eyes
the ethical meaning not only heightened the interest of the marvel-
lously rich pageant of heroes and heroines, enchanters and monsters,
but was the one thing that redeemed it from romantic common-
place. For the right appreciation of many of the characters
and incidents a knowledge of the allegory is indispensable. For
example, the slaughter of Error by the Red Cross knight would
be merely disgusting but for its symbolic character; the iron Talus
and his iron flail is a revolting and brutally cruel monster if he is
not regarded as an image of the executioner of righteous law; the
Blatant Beast, a purely grotesque and ridiculous monster to out-
ward view, acquires a serious interest when he is known to be an
impersonation of malignant detraction.
Notwithstanding its immense range, the Faery Queen is pro-
foundly national and Elizabethan, containing many more or less
cryptic allusions to contemporary persons and interests. It
has never been popular abroad, as is proved by the fact that
there is no complete translation of it in any of the Continental
languages. This is doubtless on account of a certain monotony
in the subject-matter, which is only partially relieved by subtle
variations. The same objection applies to the famous " Spen-
serian stanza " (see below) with its concluding Alexandrine.
It was by no means a happy invention, but its infelicity is dis-
guised by its author's marvellous skill in rhythm, and thus
recommended it was adopted by Byron and Keats. In his own
day Spenser was criticized by Sidney, Ben Jonson, Daniel and
others for the artificiality of his language, his " aged accents and
untimely words," but Ben Jonson went further " Spenser's
stanza pleased him not, nor his matter." Milton, on the other
hand, duly appreciated " our sage and serious poet," and he has
been followed by a long line of distinguished judges. It was
Charles Lamb who named Spenser " the poet's poet."
After the publication of the Faery Queen Spenser seems to
have remained in London for more than a year, to enjoy his
triumph. It might be supposed, from what he makes the Shep-
herd of the Ocean say in urging Colin Clout to quit his banish-
ment in Ireland, that Raleigh had encouraged him to expect
Some permanent provision in London. If he had any such
hopes, they were disappointed. The thrifty queen granted him
a pension of 50, which was paid in February 1591, but nothing
further was done for him. Colin Clout's explanation that the
selfish scrambling and intriguing of court life were not suited
to a lowly shepherd swain, and that he returned to country life
with relief, may be pastoral convention, or it may have been an
expression of the poet's real feelings on his return to Kilcolman,
although as a matter of fact there seems to have been as much
scrambling for good things in Munster as in London. Certain
it is that he did return to Kilcolman in the course of the year
1591, having probably first arranged for the publication of
Daphnaida and Complaints. Daphnaida is a pastoral elegy
on the death of the niece of the mistress of the robes. The fact
implied in the dedication that he was not personally known to
the lady has more than once provoked the solemn remark that
the poet's grief was assumed. Of course it was assumed; and
it is hardly less obvious that sincerity of personal emotion,
so far from being a merit in the artificial forms of pastoral
poetry, the essence of which lies in its dreamy remoteness
from real life, would be a blemish and a discord. Any
suggestion of the poet's real personality breaks the charm;
once raise the question of the poet's personal sincerity, and
the pastoral poem may at once be thrown aside. The remark
applies to ah 1 Spenser's minor poetry, including his love-
sonnets; the reader who raises the question whether Spenser
really loved his mistress may have a talent for disputation, but
none for the full enjoyment of hyperbolical poetry. Complaints,
also published in 1591, is a miscellaneous collection of poems
written at different periods. The volume contained The Ruins of
Time; The Tears of the Muses; Virgil's Gnat; Mother Hubbard's
Tale; The Ruins of Rome; Muiopotmos; Visions of the World's
Vanity; Bellay's Visions; Petrarch's Visions. Some of these
pieces are translations already alluded to and interesting only
as the exercises of one of our greatest masters of melodious
verse; but two of them, The Tears of the Muses and Mother
Hubbard's Tales, have greater intrinsic interest. The first is
the complaint of the decay of learning alluded to in Midsummer
Night's Dream, v. i. 52
" The thrice three Muses mourning for the death
Of Learning late deceased in beggary."
The lament, at a time when the Elizabethan drama was " mew-
ing its mighty youth," was not so happy as some of Sperser's
political prophecies in his View of Ireland; but it is idle work
to try to trace the undercurrents and personal allusions in such
an occasional pamphlet. Mother Hubbard's Tale, a fable in
Chaucerian couplets, shows a keenness of satiric force not to
be paralleled in any other of Spenser's writings, and suggests
that he left the court in a mood very different from Colin
Clout's.
Spenser returned to London probably in 1595. He had
married in the interval a lady whose Christian name was
Elizabeth Dr Grosart says Elizabeth Boyle. The marriage,
celebrated on the nth of June 1594, was followed by a rapid
succession of publications. The first was a volume (entered at
Stationers' Hall, on the I9th of November 1594; published 1595)
containing the Amoretti, a series of exquisite sonnets com-
memorative of the moods and incidents of his courtship, and
the magnificent Epithalamion, incomparably the finest of his
minor poems. As in the case of the Complaints, the publisher
for obvious reasons issued this volume nominally without his
authority. Colin Clout's Come Home Again was published in
the same year, with a dedication to Sir Walter Raleigh, dated
1591. Early in 1596 the second three books of the Faery Queen
were entered in the register of Stationers' Hall, and in the
course of the same year were published his Four Hymns, his
Prolhalamion, and his Astrophel, a pastoral lament for Sir Philip
Sidney, which he dedicated to the countess of Essex.
That Spenser wrote more of the Faery Queen during the
last two years of his life, and that the MS. perished in the sack
of Kilcolman Castle by the rebels, may plausibly be conjectured,
but cannot be ascertained. During those years he would seem
to have been largely occupied with political and personal cares.
He describes himself in the Prothalamion as a disappointed suitor
at court. He drew up his View of Ireland in 1596 when he was
in London, and from various circumstances it is evident that
he had hopes of some kind from the favour of Essex. The
View, with its urgent entreaty that Essex should be sent to
Ireland, was entered at Stationers' Hall in April 1598, but
he did not obtain leave to publish it. Burghley, who had long
stood in his way, died in August of that year, and next month
Spenser, who seems to have returned to Ireland in 1597, was
appointed sheriff of Cork. In October Tyrone's rebellion broke
out, and Spenser's house was sacked and burned. The poet
himself escaped, and in December was sent to London with
despatches. Again he ventured to urge upon the queen his
plan for the thorough " reformation " of Ireland. But his own
SPENSER, J. SPERANSKI
643
end was near. On the i6th of January 1599 he died at West-
minster, ruined in fortune, if not heart-broken, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey, near his master Chaucer. Ben Jonson
asserted that he perished for lack of bread, and that when the
earl of Essex, hearing of his distress, sent him " 20 pieces,"
the poet declined, saying that he had no time to spend them. 1
This report of his end is mentioned also by the author of The
Return from Parnassus, but, having regard to Spenser's position
in the world, it is inherently improbable. Still there is an ugly
possibility of its truth. The poet left three sons and a daughter.
A pedigree of the family appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine
for August 1842.
Editions by Todd (8 vols., 1805) and by A. B. Grosart (10 vols.,
1882-1884;; the Aldine edition, with Life by Collier, and the Globe
edition, with LifebyJ.W. Hales ; Dean Church's \Spenser, in "English
Men of Letters " series; Craik's Spenser and his Poetry (1845); Mrs
C. M. Kirkland's Spenser and the Faery Queen (New York, 1847);
J. S. Hart's Essay on the Life and Writings of Edmund Spenser
(New York, 1847) ; Kitchin and Mayhew's Spenser's Faery Queen,
bks. i.-ii., and Herford's Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar (Oxford,
Clarendon Press) ; Roden Noel's preface to the Spenser volume in
the Canterbury Poets; and F. I. Carpenter's Guide to the Study of
Spenser (Chicago, 1894). (W. M.; F. J. S.)
SPENSER, JOHN (1559-1614), president of Corpus Christi
College, Oxford, was educated at Merchant Taylors' school,
London, and Oxford. After graduating he became Greek reader
in Corpus Christi College, and held that office for ten years,
resigning in 1588. He then left Oxford and held successively
the livings of Alveley, Essex (1589-1592), Ardleigh, Essex (1592-
1594), Faversham, Kent (1594-1599), and St Sepulchre's
London (1599-1614). He was also presented to the living of
Broxbourne, Hertfordshire, in 1592. In 1607 he was appointed
president of Corpus Christi College. After the death of his
friend Richard Hooker he edited the first five books of Hooker's
Ecclesiastical Politie (London, 1604). The introduction to that
work and A Sermon at Paule's Crosse on Esay V ., 2, 3 (London,
1615) are his only published writings. He was, however, one
of the translators of the authorized version of the Bible, serving
on the New Testament committee.
SPENSERIAN STANZA, a form of verse which derives its
name from the fact that it was invented by the poet Edmund
Spenser, and first used in his Faery Queene in 1590. The origin
of this stanza has been matter for disagreement among critics
of prosody. Schiffer has argued that it was adapted from the
old French ballade-stanza (see BALLADE). But it is much more
probable that it was of Italian origin, and that Spenser, who was
familiar with ottava rima as it had long been employed in Italy,
and was at that very time being used by the school of Tasso,
added a line between the Italian fourth and fifth, modified
slightly the arrangements of rhyme, and added a foot to the
last line, which became an Alexandrine. The form of the pure
Spenserian stanza can best be observed by the study of a speci-
men from the Faery Queene:
Into the inmost temple thus I came,
Which fuming all with frankincense I found,
And odours rising from the altar's flame.
Upon a hundred marble pillars round
The roof up high was reared from the ground,
All decked with crowns and chains and garlands gay,
And thousand precious gifts worth many a pound,
The which sad lovers for their vows did pay,
And all the ground was strow'd with flowers as fresh as May."
It is necessary to preserve in all respects the characteristics of
this example, and the number, regular sequences and identity
of rhymes must be followed. It is a curious fact that, in spite
of the very great beauty of this stanza and the popularity of
Spenser, it was hardly used during the course of the I7th century,
although Giles and Phineas Fletcher made for themselves adap-
tations of it, the former by omitting the eighth line, the latter by
omitting the sixth and eighth. In the middle of the i8th century
the study of Spenser led poets to revive the stanza which bears
his name. The initiators of this reform were Akenside, in The
Virtuoso (1737); Shenstone, in The Schoolmistress (1742); and
1 See Conversations with Drummond, Shakespeare Society,
pp. 7, 12.
Thomson, in The Castle of Indolence (1748). MrsTighe (1772-
1810) used it for her once-famous epic of Psyche. It was a
favourite form at the time of the romantic revival, when it was
employed by Campbell, for his Gertrude of Wyoming (1809);
by Keats, in The Eve of St Agnes (1820) ; by Shelley, in The Revolt
of Islam (Laon and Cythna) (1818) ; by Mrs Hemans; by Reginald
Heber; but pre-eminently by Byron, in Childe Harold (1812-
1817). Thomas Cooper, the Chartist, wrote his Purgatory of
Suicides (1845) m Spenserian stanza, and Tennyson part of his
Lotus Eaters. By later poets it has been neglected, but Worsley
and Conington's translation of the Iliad (1865-1868) should be
mentioned. The Spenserian stanza is an exclusively English
form.
SPERANSKI, COUNT MIKHAIL MIKHAILOVICH (1772-
1839), Russian statesman, the son of a village priest, spent his
early days at the ecclesiastical seminary in St Petersburg, where
he rose to be professor of mathematics and physics. His brilliant
intellectual qualities attracted the attention of the government,
and he became secretary to Prince Kurakin. He soon became
known as the most competent of the imperial officials. The most
important phase of his career opened in 1806, when the emperor
Alexander I. took him with him to the conference of Erfurt
and put him into direct communication with Napoleon, who
described him as " the only clear head in Russia " and at the
instance of Alexander had many conversations with him on the
question of Russian administrative reform. The result of these
interviews was a series of projects of reform, including a consti-
tutional system based on a series of dumas, the cantonal assembly
(volosf) electing the duma of the district, the dumas of the districts
electing that of the province or government, and these electing
the Duma of the empire. As mediating power between the
autocrat and the Duma there was to be a nominated council of
state. This plan, worked out by Speranski in 1809, was for
the most part stillborn, only the council of the empire coming
into existence in January 1810; but it none the less, to quote M.
Chesle, 1 dominated the constitutional history of Russia in the
igth century and the early years of the 2oth. The Duma of the
empire created in 1905 bears the name suggested by Speranski,
and the institution of local self-government (the zemstvos) in
1864 was one of the reforms proposed by him. Speranski 's
labours also bore fruit in the constitutions granted by Alexander
to Finland and Poland.
From 1809 to 1812 Speranski was all-powerful in Russia, so
far as any minister of a sovereign so suspicious and so unstable
as Alexander could be so described. He replaced the earlier
favourites, members of the " unofficial committee," in the tsar's
confidence, becoming practically sole minister, all questions
being laid by him alone before the emperor and usually settled
at once by the two between them. Even the once all-powerful
war-minister Arakcheyev was thrust into the background.
Speranski used his immense influence for no personal ends. He
was an idealist; but in this very fact lay the seeds of his- failure.
Alexander was also an idealist, but his ideals were apt to centre
in himself; his dislike and distrust of talents that overshadowed
his own were disarmed for a while by the singular charm of
Speranski's personality, but sooner or later he was bound to
discover that he himself was regarded as but the most potent
instrument for the attainment of that ideal end, a regenerated
Russia, which was his minister's sole preoccupation. In 1810
and the first half of 1811 Speranski was still in high favour, and
was the confidant of the emperor in that secret diplomacy which
preceded the breach of Russia with Napoleon. 2 He had, however,
committed one serious mistake. An ardent freemason himself,
he conceived in 1809 the idea of reorganizing the order in Russia,
with the special object of using it to educate and elevate the
Orthodox clergy. The emperor agreed to the first steps being
taken, namely the suppression of the existing lodges; but he was
naturally suspicious of secret societies, even when ostensibly
admitted to their secrets, and Speranski's abortive plan only
resulted in adding the clergy to the number of his enemies.
1 Le Parlement russe (Paris, 1910), p. 21
2 Schiemann, Gesch. Russlands, i. 77.
644
SPERMACETI SPEUSIPPUS
On the eve of the struggle with Napoleon, Alexander, conscious
of his unpopularity, conceived the idea of making Speranski his
scape-goat, and so conciliating that Old Russian sentiment
which would be the strongest support of the autocratic tsar
against revolutionary France. Speranski's own indiscretions
gave the final impulse. He was surrounded with spies who
reported, none too accurately, the minister's somewhat sharp
criticisms of the emperor's acts; he had even had the supreme
presumption to advise Alexander not to take the chief command
in the coming campaign. A number of persons in the entourage
of the emperor, including the grand-duchess Catherine, Karam-
zin, Rostopchin and the Swedish general Baron Armfield,
intrigued to involve him in a charge of treason. 1 Alexander
did not credit the charge, but he made Speranski responsible
for the unpopularity incurred by himself in consequence of the
hated reforms and the still more hated French policy, and on the
i7th-2gth of March 1812 dismissed him from office. Reinstated
in the public service in 1816, he was appointed governor-general
of Siberia, for which he drew up a new scheme of government,
and in 1821 entered the council of state. Under Nicholas I.,
he was engaged in the codification of the Russian law (published
in 1830 in 45 vols.), on which he also wrote some important
commentaries.
See the biography (in Russian) by M. Korff (St Petersburg,
1861). On his public life and constitutional reforms see Theodor
Schiemann, Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser Nikolaus I., Bd. i.
Kaiser Alexander I. p. 75 seq. (Berlin, 1904) ; Pierre Chasles, Le
Parlement russe p. 19 seq. (Paris, 1910), and the works of V. Vagin
(St Petersburg, 1872 and Moscow, 1905). Count Nesselrode's
letters to Speranski and many references are published in vol. iii.
of the Lettres el papiers du comte de Nesselrode.
SPERMACETI (from Lat. sperma, seed, and celus, a whale),
a wax found in the head cavities and blubber of the sperm-whale
(Physeter macrocephalus), where it is dissolved in the sperm oil
while the creature is living; it also occurs in other Cetacea (see
WHALE OILS). At a temperature of about 6 C. the solid matter
separates in a crystalline condition, and when purified by pressure
and treatment with weak solution of caustic alkali it forms
brilliant white crystalline scales or plates, hard, but unctuous
to the touch, and destitute of taste or smell. It is quite in-
soluble in water, very slightly affected by boiling alcohol, but
easily dissolved in ether, chloroform, and carbon bisulphide.
Spermaceti consists principally of cetin or cetyl palmitate,
Ci 5 H3iCO2Ci6H 3 3. The substance is used in making candles of
standard photometric value, in the dressing of fabrics, and in
medicine and surgery, especially in cerates, bougies, ointments,
and in cosmetic preparations.
SPERM-WHALE, or CACHALOT (Physeter macrocephalus), the
largest representative of the toothed whales, its length and
bulk being about equal ,to, or somewhat exceeding those of the
Arctic right-whale, from which, however, it is very different
The Sperm- Whale (Physeter macrocephalus}.
in appearance and structure. The head is about one-third
of the length of the body, very massive, high and truncated in
front; and owing its size and form mainly to the accumulation
of a peculiarly modified form of fatty tissue in the large hollow
on the upper surface of the skull. The oil contained in cells in
this cavity, when refined, yields spermaceti, and the thick cover-
ing of blubber, which everywhere envelopes the body, produces
the valuable sperm-oil of commerce. The single blowhole is a
longitudinal slit, placed at the upper and anterior extremity
of the head to the left side of the middle line. The opening of
the mouth is on the under side of the head, considerably behind
the end of the snout. The lower jaw is extremely narrow, and
* See Schiemann, op. cit., i. 81.
has on each side from twenty to twenty-five stout conical teeth,
which furnish ivory of good quality, though not in- sufficient
bulk for most of the purposes for which that article is required.
The upper teeth are rudimentary and buried in the gum. The
flipper is short, broad, and truncated, and the dorsal fin a mere
low protuberance. The general colour of the surface is black
above and grey below, the colours gradually shading into each
other. The sperm-whale is one of the most widely distributed
of animals, being met with, usually in herds or " schools," in
almost all tropical and subtropical seas, and occasionally visiting
the northern seas, a number having been killed around the
Shetlands a few years ago. The food of sperm-whales consists
mainly of squid and cuttlefish, but also comprises fish of consider-
able size. The substance called " ambergris," formerly used
in medicine and now in perfumery, is a concretion formed in the
intestine of this whale, and found floating on the surface of
the sea. Its genuineness is proved by the presence of the horny
beaks of the cuttles on which the whale feeds. The one represen-
tative of the genus Cogia is called the lesser or pigmy sperm-
whale, being only from 9 ft. to 13 ft. long.
SPES, in Roman mythology, the personification of Hope.
Originally a nature goddess (like Venus the garden goddess,
with whom she was sometimes identified), she represented
at first the hope of fruitful gardens and fields, then of abundant
offspring, and lastly of prosperity to come and good fortune
in general, being hence invoked on birthdays and at weddings.
Of her numerous temples at Rome, the most ancient was appro-
priately in the forum olitorium (vegetable market), built during
the first Punic war, and since that time twice burnt down
and restored. The day of its dedication (August i) cor-
responded with the birthday of Claudius, which explains the
frequent occurrence of Spes on the coins of that emperor. Spes
is represented as a beautiful maiden in a long light robe, lifting
up her skirt with her left hand, and carrying in her right a bud
already closed or about to open. Sometimes she wears a garland
of flowers on her head, ears of corn and poppy-heads in her
hand, symbolical of a prosperous harvest. Like Fortune, with
whom she is often coupled in inscriptions on Roman tombstones,
she was also represented with the cornu copiae (horn of plenty).
See G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer (1902), according
to whom Spes was originally not a garden goddess, but simply
the divinity to whom one prayed for the fulfilment of one's desires.
SPESSART, a highland forest country of Germany, belonging
mainly to the Bavarian province of Lower Franconia, but in
the north to the Prussian province of Hesse Cassel, and it is
bounded on the S. and W. by the Main, on the E. by the Sinn
and on the N. by the Kinzig and Joss. The main ridge of the
formation, consisting of gneiss, granite and red sandstone, runs
from a point opposite Miltenberg, in a north-westerly direction
to the source of the Kinzig near Schliichtern a distance of 45 m.
and attains its highest elevation in the Geiersberg (1919 ft.),
which lies north of the Rohrbrunn pass, through which runs the
main road from Aschaffenburg to Wurzburg. The forest,
with which it is densely covered, consists of oak, beech,
ash and fir, and the scenery, especially on the main side,
between Gemiinden and Lohr, is impressive. The climate is
inclement in winter and oppressively hot in midsummer.
The inhabitants are engaged chiefly in woodcutting, raft-
making and quarrying, and most of the timber is floated down
to Holland. Cobalt, silver, lead and copper are also worked,
and the southern and western slopes yield wine of good quality.
This beautiful tract of country until recent years was compara-
tively little known to the tourist, but a club (Spessart KluV)
through the establishment of finger-posts and the issue of maps,
has indicated the more interesting tours to be followed.
See Bucking, Der nordwes'liche Spessart, geologisch aufgenommen
(Berlin, 1893); Schober, Fuhrer durch den Spessart (Aschaffenburg,
1904); Wolff, Der Spessart, sein Wirtschaftsleben (ibid., 1905).
SPEUSIPPUS (4th century B.C.), Greek philosopher, son of
Eurymedon and Potone, sister of Plato, is supposed to have been
born about 407 B.C. He was bred in the school of Isocrates;
SPEUSIPPUS
645
but, when Plato returned to Athens about 387, yielded to his
influence and became a member of the Academy. In 361, when
Plato undertook his third and last journey to Sicily, Speusippus
accompanied him. In 347 the dying philosopher nominated his
nephew to succeed him as scholarch, and the choice was ratified
by the school. Speusippus held the office for eight years, and
died in 339 after a paralytic seizure. According to some
authorities he committed suicide. There is a story that his
youth was riotous, until Plato's example led him to reform his
ways. In later life he was conspicuously temperate and amiable.
He was succeeded by Xenocrates.
Of Speusippus's many philosophical writings nothing survives
except a fragment of a treatise On Pythagorean Numbers. Nor
have secondary authorities preserved to us any general state-
ment or conspectus of his system. Incidentally, however, we
learn the following details. (A) In regard to his theory of being:
(1) whereas Plato postulated as the basis of his system a cause
which should be at once Unity, Good, and Mind, Speusippus
distinguished Unity, the origin of things, from Good, their end,
and both Unity and Good from controlling Mind or Reason;
(2) whereas Plato recognized three kinds of numbers firstly,
ideal numbers, i.e. the " determinants " or ideas; secondly, mathe-
matical numbers, the abstractions of mathematics; and thirdly
sensible numbers, numbers embodied in things Speusippus
rejected the ideal numbers, and consequently the ideas; (3)
Speusippus traced number, magnitude and soul each to a distinct
principle of its own. (B) In regard to his theory of knowledge :
(4) he held that a thing cannot be known apart from the know-
ledge of all things besides; for, that we may know what a thing
is, we must know how it differs from other things, which other
things must therefore be known; (5) accordingly, in the ten
books of a work called "0/ioia, he attempted a classification of
plants and animals; (6) the results thus obtained he distinguished
at once from " knowledge" (eTriori^mj) and from " sensation"
holding that " scientific observation" (eTricrrrj/uow/xi)
) , though it cannot attain to truth, may, nevertheless,
in virtue of a certain acquired tact, frame " definitions " (\6joi),
(c) In regard to his theory of ethics: (7) he denied that pleasure
was a good, but seemingly was not prepared to account it
an evil.
In default of direct evidence, it remains for us to compare
these scattered notices of Speusippus's teaching with what we
know of its original, the teaching of Plato, in the hope of obtain-
ing at least a general notion, firstly, of Speusippus's system, and,
secondly, of its relations to the systems of Plato, of contemporary
Platonists, such as Aristotle, and of the later Academy.
It has been suggested elsewhere (see SOCRATES) that the crude
and unqualified " realism " of Plato's early manhood gave place
in his later years to a theory of natural kinds founded upon a
" thoroughgoing idealism," and that in this way he was led to
recognize and to value the classificatory sciences of zoology and
botany. More exactly, it may be said that the Platonism of
Plato's maturity included the following principal doctrines:
(i.) the supreme cause of all existence is the One, the Good, Mind,
which evolves itself as the universe under certain eternal immu-
table forms called " ideas" ; (ii.) the ideas are apprehended by
finite minds as particulars in space and time, and are then called
" things" ; (iii.) consequently the particulars which have in a
given idea at once their origin, their being, and their perfection
may be regarded, for the purposes of scientific study, as members
of a natural kind; (iv.) the finite mind, though it cannot directly
apprehend the idea, may, by the study of the particulars in
which the idea is revealed, attain to an approximate notion
of it.
Now when Speusippus (i) discriminated the One, the Good,
and Mind, (2) denied the ideas, and (3) abandoned the attempt
to unify the plurality of things, he explicitly rejected the theory
of being expressed in (i.) and (ii.); and the rejection of the theory
of being, i.e. of the conception of the One evolving itself as a
plurality of ideas, entailed consequential modifications in the
theory of knowledge conveyed in (iii.) and (iv.). For, if the
members of a natural kind had no common idea to unite them,
scientific research, having nothing objective in view, could at
best afford a \6yos or definition of the appropriate particulars;
and, as the discrimination of the One and the Good implied the
progression of particulars towards perfection, such a Xiryos or
definition could have only a temporary value. Hence, though,
like Plato, Speusippus (4) studied the differences of natural
products (5) with a view to classification, he did not agree with
Plato in his conception of the significance of the results thus
obtained; that is to say, while to Plato the definition derived
from the study of the particulars included in a natural kind was
an approximate definition of the idea in which the natural kind
originated, to Speusippus the definition was a definition of the
particulars studied, and, strictly speaking, of nothing else. Thus
while Plato hoped to ascend through classificatory science to the
knowledge of eternal and immutable laws of thought and being,
Speusippus, abandoning ontological speculation, was content
to regard classificatory science not as a means but as an end, and
(6) to rest in the results of scientific observation. In a word,
Speusippus turned from philosophy to science.
It may seem strange that, differing thus widely from his
master, Speusippus should have regarded himself and should
have been regarded by others as a Platonist, and still more
strange that Plato should have chosen him to be his successor.
It is to be observed, however, firstly, that the scientific element
occupied a larger place in Plato's later system than is generally
supposed, 1 and, secondly, that other Academics who came into
competition with Speusippus agreed with him in his rejection
of the theory of ideas. Hence Plato, finding in the school no
capable representative of his ontological theory, might well
choose to succeed him a favourite pupil whose scientific enthu-
siasm and attainment were beyond question; and Speusippus's
rivals, having themselves abandoned the theory of ideas, would
not be in a position to tax him with his philosophical apostasy.
In abandoning the theory of ideas that is to say, the theory of
figures and numbers, the possessions of universal mind, eternally
existent out of space and time, which figures and numbers when
they pass into space and time as the heritage of finite minds are
regarded as things Speusippus had the approval, as of the
Platonists generally, so also of Aristotle. But, whereas the new
scholarch, confining himself to the detailed examination of
natural kinds, attempted no comprehensive explanation of the
universe, Aristotle held that a theory of its origin, its motions,
and its order was a necessary adjunct to the classificatory sciences;
and in nearly all his references to Speusippus he insists upon
this fundamental difference of procedure. Conceiving that the
motions of the universe and its parts are due to the desire which
it and they feel towards the supreme external mind and its
several thoughts, so that the cosmical order planned by the divine
mind is realized in the phenomenal universe, Aristotle thus secures
the requisite unification, not indeed of mind and matter, for mind
and matter are distinct, but of the governing mind, the prime
unmoved movent, since it and its thoughts are one. Contrari-
wise, when Speusippus distinguishes One, Good, and Mind, so
that Mind, not as yet endowed with an orderly scheme, adapts
the initial One to particular Goods or ends, his theory of nature
appears to his rival " episodical," i.e. to consist of a series of
tableaux wanting in dramatic unity, so that it reminds him of
Homer's line OVK ayadov iroKvKoipavl^ ' els Koipavos eorco.
Speusippus and his contemporaries in the school exercised an
important and far-reaching influence upon Academic doctrine.
When they, the immediate successors of Plato, rejected their
master's ontology and proposed to themselves as ends mere
classificatory sciences which with him had been means, they
bartered their hope of philosophic certainty for the tentative
and provisional results of scientific experience. Xenocrates
indeed, identifying ideal and mathematical numbers, sought to
1 That Plato did not neglect, but rather encouraged, classificatory
science is shown, not only by a well-known fragment of the comic
poet Epicrates, which describes a party of Academics engaged in
investigating, under the eye of Plato, the affinities of the common
pumpkin, but also by the Timaeus, which, while it carefully dis-
criminates science from ontology, plainly recognizes the importance
of the study of natural kinds.
6 4 6
SPEY SPHENE
shelter himself under the authority of Plato; but, as the Xeno-
cratean numbers, though professedly ideal as well as mathe-
matical, were in fact mathematical only, this return to the
Platonic terminology was no more than an empty form. It would
seem, then, that Academic scepticism began with those who had
been reared by Plato himself, having its origin in their acceptance
of the scientific element of his teaching apart from the ontology
which had been its basis. In this way, and, so far as the present
writer can see, in this way only, it is possible to understand the
extraordinary revolution which converted Platonism, philo-
sophical and dogmatic, into Academicism, scientific and sceptical.
It is as the official representative of this scientific and sceptical
departure that Speusippus is entitled to a place in the history of
philosophy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. G. F. Ravaisson, Speusippi de primis return
principiis placita (Paris, 1838); Chr. Aug. Brandis, Geschichte der
griechisch-romischen Philosophic (Berlin, 1853), II. ii. i; Zeller, Die
Philosophic d. Griechen (Leipzig, 1875), II. i. ; Mullach, Fragmenta
philosophorum Graecorum, iii. 62-69 (Paris, 1881). (H. JA.)
SPEY, a river in the Highlands of Scotland. It rises in Mt
Clach-a-Cheannaiche in the north of Lochaber, in Inverness-
shire, at a height of 1407 ft. above the sea. A mile from its
source it forms the small Loch Spey, and 31 m. lower down it
expands into the larger Loch Inch. After crossing the boundary
of Elginshire, below Grantown, it pursues an extremely serpen-
tine course, as far as Craigellachie, where it begins to flow due
northwards, becoming wholly a Moray stream as it approaches
Fochabers, and falling by several mouths into the Moray Firth
at Kingston. Its total length is about no m. It is the most rapid
river in Scotland and is nowhere properly navigable, though at
Speymouth in its lowest reaches some ship-building has been
intermittently carried on. The strength of its current is due
partly to its lofty origin, and partly to the volume of water con-
tributed by numberless affluents from the mountainous regions
of its birth. The more important tributaries are, on the left, the
Markie, Calder, Dulnain, Tulchan, Ballintomb and Rothes and,
on the right, the Mashie, Truim, Tromie, Feshie, Nethy, Avon,
Fiddich and Mulben. Its area of drainage is 1300 sq. m. At
certain points the stream attains a considerable width, as at
Alvie, where it is 150 ft. wide, and at Kingussie, where its width
is from 80 to 100 ft. From below Craigellachie, and especially
on the low-lying coast -land, pools or stretches of fair size become
frequent. For beauty of scenery Strathspey holds its own with
any of the great valleys of Scotland. As a salmon river the
Spey yields only to the Tay and Tweed. It passes many interest-
ing spots in its long career, such as Laggan; Cluny Castle, the
seat of Cluny Macpherson; Craig Dhu, the " black rock," and
Kingussie. It flows past the pine forests of Rothiemurchus;
Granton, the capital of Strathspey; Cromdale, where the clans-
men suffered defeat at the hands of William III.'s troops in 1690;
Ballindalloch, with a splendid Scottish baronial castle, the seat
of the Macpherson-Grants; and Charlestown of Aberlour and its
fine cataract.
SPEZIA, a city of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa,
56 m. S.E. of that town by rail, 49 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1906), 41,773 (town); 75,756 (commune); in 1861 only 11,556.
It is the chief naval harbour of Italy, having been adopted as
such in 1861. The Bay of Spezia is sheltered from all except
southerly winds, and on its western shore are numerous openings,
which afford perfectly safe anchorage in all weathers. The
entrance is protected by forts, while a submarine embankment,
2 m. long, renders it secure. The arsenal consists of three depart-
ments, the principal of which is 3937 ft. long, with an average
width of 2460 ft. The chief basin is 23 acres in extent, and the
second connected with the first by a canal 91 ft. wide 36
acres. Both basins have an average depth of between 33 and
35 ft. The second basin gives access to the docks, of which there
are six; two 390 ft. long, two 420 ft. long, one 500 ft. long, and
one 650 ft. long. The establishment of San Vito is devoted
entirely to the production of artillery; that of San Bartolomeo
is exclusively used for electrical works and the manufacture of
submarine weapons, especially torpedoes. The arsenal was
constructed by General Chiodo (d. 1870), whose statue rises at
the entrance, and near it are the naval barracks and hospital.
Though the town itself, with the barracks and military hospital
as its principal buildings, presents little to attract the foreign
visitor, the beauty of the gulf and of the neighbouring country
has brought Spezia into some repute as a winter resort, and it is
also visited in summer for sea-bathing. The walls and gates
of the old city are for the most part destroyed. The opening of a
railway across the Apennines (there is a branch leaving the coast
line at Vezzano, and joining the line from Sarzana at S. Stefano di
Magra), placed Spezia in communication with Parma and the
most fertile regions of the Po valley, and so stimulated commerce
that a new commercial port to the east of the city was built.
This harbour consists of a broad quay with 657 ft. of wharfage,
and of a mole 1639 ft. long with 984 ft. of wharfage. The basin
of the harbour is about 26 ft. deep. A branch railway connects
the wharves directly with the main line. Since the opening of
the new port the traffic has considerably increased, and it exports
oil, pig-lead, silver, flour, wine, marble and sandstone for
paving purposes, while it imports quantities of coal, iron, cereals,
phosphates, timber, pitch, petroleum, and mineral oils. The
import of coal in 1906 was 439,494 tons, being nearly double the
average for 1901-1905. The tonnage of vessels entered was over
600,000, an increase of about 25% on that of 1905. Several
important industrial establishments lie along the bay, including
large lead and silver works at Pertusola (see LERICI), submarine
cable works, a shipyard at Muggiano for the construction of
mercantile vessels up to 10,000 tons, a branch of the Vickers
Terni works for armour plate, several motorboat works, brick
and tile works, &c.
The origin of Spezia is doubtful; but it probably rose after
the destruction of Luna. Sold by one of the Fieschi in 1276 to
Genoa, the town was fortified by its new possessors and made the
seat of a governor of some importance. It became a city in the
1 6th century. The idea of making the Gulf of Spezia a great
naval centre was first broached by Napoleon I.
SPHAERISTERIUM (Gr. a<j>aipwhpu>v, a<j>aipa, ball), the
term in Classic architecture given to a large open space connected
with the Roman thermae, for exercise with balls after the
bather had been anointed; they were also provided in the
Roman villas.
SPHENE, a mineral consisting of calcium titano-silicate,
CaTiSiOs, crystallizing in the monoclinic system. The crystals
vary considerably in habit, but are generally thin and wedge-
shaped; hence the name sphene, from the Greek atfiv (a wedge),
given by R. J. Haiiy in 1801. The earlier name titanite, given
by M. H. Klaproth in 1795, is also in common use. Twinning
on the ortho-pinacoid is not uncommon.
The colour is green, yellow, brown or black,
and the lustre resinous to adamantine;
crystals are transparent to opaque. The
hardness is s|, and the specific gravity 3-5.
The refractive indices and the optic axial
angle vary considerably with the colour of
the light: the dispersion of the optic axes is
inclined, and the interference figure seen hi
convergent light between crossed nicols is
very characteristic of the mineral. Sphene
is sometimes cut as a gem-stone, though
it is rather too soft to stand much wear;
owing to its high dispersive power it gives
brilliant flashes of prismatic colours. As
crystals, sphene has a wide distribution as an
constituent of many kinds of igneous rocks (granite, syenite,
trachyte, phonolite, &c.), and also of gneiss, schist and crystalline
limestone. Sharply-developed, transparent, pale green crystals
are frequently associated with adularia, asbestos and quartz
in the crystal-lined crevices of the schists of the Swiss and
Tyrolese Alps. Large, rough and dark-coloured crystals are
found at Arendal and Kragero in Norway, and in granular
limestone at Diana in New York and Eganville in Ontario.
A greyish, compact and impure variety of sphene, known as
small
embedded
accessory
SPHENODON SPHERE
647
" leucoxene," frequently occurs in basic igneous rocks as an
alteration product of ilmenite and rutile. (L. J. S.)
SPHENODON, or TUATARA. Sphenodon s. Hatteria (called by
Gray after Hatter), with one species, S. punctatum, is the sole
surviving member of the whole group of Rhynchocephalia (q.v.
under REPTILES, Fossil). It is one of the few reptiles inhabiting
New Zealand; formerly common on the main islands, now
restricted to some of the small, uninhabited islands in the Bay of
Plenty, where these last " living fossils " enjoy the protection
of the government. The Maoris call it ruatara, tuatete or tuatara,
the latter meaning " having spines.'^ This creature represents
an almost ideally generalized type of reptile. The total length
of large males is more than two feet, but mature females are
scarcely half this size. In general appearance they much resemble
the Agamidae, especially Uromastix, or Physignathus, with the
massive head, the chisel-shaped front teeth, short legs and erectile
crest of cutaneous spines on the head and along the mid-line
of the trunk and tail, whilst the rest of the dark olive-green skin
is granular, with yellowish specks. But the Agamoid resem-
blance is only skin-deep, and only the tyro can confound them with
any group of Lacertilia. At the same time it is probable that
Sphenodon stands near the ancestral root of the Lacertilia, before
these divided into geckos, chameleons, and lizards proper. The
development of this animal has been first studied by G. B.
Howes, who quotes the literature bearing upon the whole subject.
A good account of the habits of the tuatara has been given by
Newman. They live upon animals, but these are only taken
when alive and moving about, e.g. fish, worms, insects. Sluggish
in their habits, they sleep during the greater part of the day in
their self-dug burrows, and are very fond of lying in the water,
and they remain below for hours without breathing. Each
individual excavates its own hole, a tunnel leading into a roomy
chamber, lined with grass and leaves; part of the habitation is
shared socially by a family of petrels, which is said to occupy
usually the left side, whilst the tuatara itself lives a solitary life.
The male croaks or grunts much during the pairing season; the
hard-shelled, long-oval eggs, about 28 mm. long, are laid in holes
in the sand, about ten in one nest, from November to January or
February. They contain nearly ripe embryos in the following
August, but they are not hatched until about thirteen months
old; in the meantime they seem to undergo a kind of hibernation,
their nasal chambers becoming blocked with proliferating
epithelium, which is resolved shortly before hatching during the
southern summer. In spite of their imposing, rather noble
appearance, when, with their heads erect, they calmly look
about with their large quiet eyes, they are dull creatures, but
they bite furiously.
For life history see A. K. Newman, Trans. New Zealand Inst.
(1878), x. 222; Von Haast, ibid. (1881), xiv. 276; Reischek, ibid.
xiv. 274; A. Dendy, ibid. (1899), xxxi. 245; Nature, 59, 340. For
development; G. B. Howes and H. H. Swinnerton, Trans. Zool.
Soc. (1900), xv. 1-86, six plates; A. Dendy, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.
(1899), 42, pp. 1-87, ten plates and ibid. pp. 111-153 (parietal eye);
H. Schauinsland, Arch. mikr. Anal. (1900), 56, pp. 747-867, plates.
For anatomy: A. Giinther, Phil. Trans. (1867), 157, pp. 595-629,
plates; A. K. Newman, quoted above; F. J. Knox, Trans. New
Zealand Inst. (1869) ii. 17-20; G. Osawa, Arch. mikr. Anal. (1898),
51, pp. 481-690, and ibid. 52, pp. 268-366. (H. F. G.)
SPHERE (Gr. a<j>aipa, a ball or globe), in geometry, the solid
or surface traced out by the revolution of a semicircle about its
diameter; this is essentially Euclid's definition; 1 in the modern
geometry of surfaces it is defined as the quadric surface passing
through the circle at infinity. Every point is equidistant from
a fixed point within the surface; this point is the " centre," the
constant distance the " radius," and any line through the centre
and intersecting the sphere is a " diameter." All sections of the
1 The surfaces formed by revolving a circle about any chord
also received attention at the hands of the Greeks. According to
Heron and Geminus they were discussed under the name spire by
Perseus (c. 200-100 B.C.), their sections were termed spiral sections,
and are probably the same as the hippopede of Eudoxus. The
surface and solid traced by the revolution of the lesser segment
of a circle is termed a " spindle." An "anchor ring " or " tore "
results when a circle revolves about an axis in its plane.
sphere are necessarily circles; if the cutting plane contains the
centre, the section is said to be " meridional," the curve of inter-
section is a " great circle," and the solid cut off a " hemisphere."
If the plane does not contain the centre, the curve of intersection
is a " small circle," and the solid cut off is a " segment." " Great "
circles may also be defined as circles on a sphere which pass
through the extremities of a diameter; they are familiar as the
meridians or lines of longitude of geographers; lines of latitude
are " small circles." The shortest distance between two points
on a sphere is the arc of the great circle containing the points.
This proposition is the basis of the " great circle sailing " of
navigators, and the arc of the great circle is called the " rhumb-
line " or " loxodromic curve." The determination of the
shortest distance between two small circles on a sphere is given
in the article VARIATIONS, CALCULUS or. The extremities of the
diameter perpendicular to a small circle are called the " poles " of
that circle, and the distance from the pole to the circle, measured
by the arc of the, great circle through the pole, is the " polar
distance " of the small circle. The solid enclosed by a small
circle and the radii vectores from the centre of the sphere is a
" spherical sector " ; and the solid contained between two spherical
sectors standing on copolar small circles is a " spherical cone." A
" spherical sector " and " spherical cone " may be also regarded
as the solids of revolution of a circular sector about one of its
bounding radii, and about any other line through the vertex
respectively. The solid intercepted between two parallel planes
is a " zone."
The geometry of the sphere was studied by the Greeks; Euclid,
in book xii. of his Elements, discusses various properties of the
sphere, and in book xiii. he shows how to inscribe the five regular
polyhedra within it. But with the sole exception of proving that
the volumes of spheres are in the triplicate ratio of their diameters,
a theorem probably due to Eudoxus, no mention is made of its
mensuration. This subject was investigated by Archimedes, who,
by his " method of exhaustions," derived the principal results.
He showed that the surface of a segment is equal to the area of the
circle whose radius equals the distance from the vertex to the base
of the segment ; that the surface of the entire sphere is equal to the
curved surface of the circumscribing cylinder, and to four times
the area of a great circle of the sphere; and that the volume is two-
thirds that of the circumscribing cylinder. To Zenodorus (c. 200-
100 B.C.) is due the important problem in maxima and minima
that for a given surface the sphere is the solid of maximum volume.
Calling the radius r, and denoting by ?r the ratio of the circumfer-
ence to the diameter of a circle, the volume is $irr 3 , and the surface
4 ,rr 2 .
Archimedes gave his results in the treatise Ilept TJ?S <r<j>aipas KO!
rov Kv\lvdpov: he left unfinished the problem of dividing a sphere
into segments whose volumes are in a givon ratio. A solution
by means of the parabola and hyperbola was given by Dionysodorus
of Amisus (c. 1st century B.c), and a similar problem to construct
a segment equal in volume to a given segment, and in surface to
another segment was solved by the Arabian mathematician and
astronomer, Al Kuhi.
In analytical geometry, the equation to the sphere takes the
forms x 2 +j> 2 +2 2 = a 2 , and r = a, the first applying to rectangular
Cartesian co-ordinates, the second to polar, the origin being in both
cases at the centre of the sphere. If the centre be (a, /3, y), the
Cartesian equation becomes (x a) 2 + (y /3) 2 + (z y) 2 = a 2 ;
consequently the general equation is x 2 +y 2 + z 2 + 2\x-\-
2By+2Cz+D=o, and it is readily shown that the 'co-ordinates
of the centre are (-A, -B, -C), and the radius A 2 + B 2 +C 2 r D.
A sphere can therefore be described so as to satisfy four given
conditions. Systems of spheres have characters analogous to those
of systems of circles. If r, r\ be the radii of two spheres, d the
distance between the centres, and <t> the angle at which they inter-
sect, then d 2 = r 2 + r\ 2 + 2m cos <j>; hence 2rr\ cos 0=^ r 2 n 2 -
This function is named the " power " of the two spheres, and it is
important in the investigation of systems of spheres. If the sphere
r, degenerate to a point, the function 2rr\ cos <t> has the limit d 2 ~r 2 ;
this is the square of the tangent to the sphere from the point, and is
named the " power of the sphere at the point," or the " power of
the point with respect to the sphere." Two spheres intersect in
a plane, and the equation to a system of spheres which intersect
in a common circle is x* + y 2 + z 2 +2Ax + D = o, in which A
varies from sphere to sphere, and D is constant for all the spheres,
the plane yz being the plane of intersection, and the axis of x the
line of centres. Corresponding to the radical centre of three circles,
it may be shown that four spheres have a radical centre, i.e. that
there exists a point such that the tangents from this point to the
four spheres are equal, and that with this point as centre, and the
length of the tangent as radius, a sphere may be described which
648 SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE SPHERES OF INFLUENCE
cuts the four spheres at right angles; this " orthotomic " sphere
corresponds to the orthogonal circle of a system of circles.
The investigation of triangles and other figures drawn upon the
surface of a sphere is all-important in the sciences of astronomy,
geodesy and geography. In astronomy, we are principally con-
cerned with the orientation of points on a sphere the so-called
celestial sphere with regard to certain planes and points within
the sphere; this subject is treated in the article ASTRONOMY (Spheri-
cal). In " geodesy," and the cognate subject " figure of the earth,"
the matter of greatest moment with regard to the sphere is the
determination of the area of triangles drawn on the surface of a
sphere the so-called "spherical triangles"; this is a branch of
trigonometry, and is studied under the name of spherical trigono-
metry. In mathematical geography the problem of representing
the surface of a sphere on a plane is of fundamental importance;
this subject is treated in the article MAP.
SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE, in Pythagorean philosophy, the
harmony produced by the heavenly bodies in their orbits,
inaudible to human ears. Pythagoras (cf. Arist. de Caelo, ii. 9)
held that the movements of stars were governed by fixed laws
which could be expressed in numbers according to the numbers
which give the harmony of sounds (see PYTHAGORAS, ad fin.).
It is this theory to which Shakespeare alludes in The Merchant of
Venice (Act. v. i. seq. : " such harmony is in immortal souls, but
... we cannot hear it "). According to Gomperz (Greek
Thinkers, i. 118, Eng. trans.) " there was nothing fanciful in the
Pythagorean doctrine except only the belief that the differences
of velocity in the movements of the stars were capable of
producing a harmonious orchestration and not merely sounds of
varying pitch."
SPHERES OF INFLUENCE. "Spheres of influence,"
" spheres of action," " spheres of interest," " zones of influence,"
_ , " field of operations," " Machtsphare," " Interessen-
DefinHloas. ... . . ,. ' . .
sphare, are phrases in international law which
have come into use to describe regions as to which nations have
agreed that one or more of them shall have exclusive liberty
of action. These phrases became common after 1882, when
the " scramble for Africa " began, to describe diplomatic
arrangements with respect to it. Some definitions may be
quoted when secretary of state for the colonies, Lord
Knutsford, replying to a deputation in 1890, said: " 'Sphere of
action ' is a term I do not wish to define now; but it amounts
to this: we should not allow the Portuguese, Germans, or any
foreign nation or republic to settle down and annex the territory "
(quoted in Keane's Compendium of Geography, i. 21). " The term
' sphere of influence ' implies an engagement between two states
that one of them will abstain from interfering or exercising
influences within certain territories which, as between the con-
tracting parties, are reserved for the operation of the other "
(Ilbert, Government of India, 2nd ed., p. 370). " Unter ' Inter-
essensphare ' oder ' Machtsphare ' versteht man namlich das auf
Grund von Vereinbarungen unter den betheiligten Kolonial-
staaten abgegrenzte Gebiet, innerhalb dessen ein Staat
ausschliesslich berechtigt ist, seine koloniale Herrschaft durch
Besitzergreifung oder Abschluss von Protectoratsvertragen zu
begriinden, oder doch einen fiir die in diesem Gebiete vorhandenen
Volkerschaften massgebenden politischen Einfluss auszuiiben "
(Stengel, Die deutschen Schutzgebiete, p. 18). " The term
' sphere of influence or sphere of interest ' has been given an
extended meaning by recent developments. Formerly it was
used to signify a region wherein a nation, through its citizens,
had acquired commercial or industrial interests without having
asserted any political protectorate or suzerainty. To-day, as
used in China and elsewhere, the term applies rather to a region
pre-empted for further exploitation and possibly for political
control " (Dr Reinisch's Politics, pp. 60, 61). "A portion of a
non-Christian or uncivilized country which is the subject of
diplomatic arrangements between European states, but has not
yet developed into a protectorate " (Jenkyn's British Rule ami
Jurisdiction beyond the Seas). See also Hall, 6th ed., 129.
The reasons for making these arrangements are to be explained
partly by reference to the history of international law as to
occupation. The Roman jurists recognized certain " natural
modes " of acquiring property, in particular traditio and
occupatio. The doctrines which the Roman jurists had worked
out as to acquisition of private property by occupation were
applied to the appropriation by states or their subjects of vacant
lands (res nullius), including lands in the possession Ktghts of
of barbarous tribes. " Quod enim nullius est, id Discoverer
ratione naturali occupanti conceditur " (Institutes, aad
ii. 1-12). The Roman law required the animus Occupatloa -
domini there must be seizure for and on behalf of the owner.
There must be " apprehensio. Apiscimur possessionem corpore
et animo, neque per se animo aut per se corpore " (Dig. xli. 2^3).
Professing to act on these doctrines, and relying also on an
assumed right on the part of Christian nations to subdue obdu-
rate non-Christian communities, the navigators and explorers of
the isth and i6th centuries made exorbitant claims. Having
occupied certain points on the coast-line, they claimed to have
occupied a whole island or continent (De Martens i. 462).
They made vast claims under Papal bulls; for example, under
the bull of Nicholas V. of 1454, and the bull of Alexander VI.
of 1494, which assigned to the Portuguese the empire of Guinea
just discovered. It was one of Grotius's services to diffuse
sounder ideas, and to point out that Roman law gave no support
to these pretensions: " In venire non illud est oculis usurpare, sed
apprehendere " (Mare liberum, c. 2). He insisted that " occu-
patio autem publica eodem modo fit quo privata territoria sunt
ex occupationibus populorum ut privata dominia ex occupa-
tionibus singulorum." In recent times the old doctrine that
discovery without occupation confers an independent right to
the land so discovered of any extent is discredited. The ten-
dency is to insist on actual occupation as a condition of legiti-
mate possession or sovereignty (see correspondence between
Great Britain and Portugal, State Papers 79, p. 1062), and
to treat the discoverer's right as merely inchoate. Thus, in
opening the conference at Berlin in 1884, Prince Bismarck
said: " Pour qu'une occupation soit consideree comme effective,
il est, de plus, a desirer que 1'acquereur manifeste, dans
delai raisonnable, par des institutions positives, la volonte
et le pouvoir d'y exercer ses droits et de remplir les devoirs
qui en resultent." This doctrine is recognized in articles 34
and 35 of the General Act of Berlin, the former of which states
that " any Power which henceforth takes possession of a tract
of land on the coast of the African continent outside its posses-
sions, or whkh being hitherto without such possessions shall
acquire them, as well as the Power which assumes a protectorate,
shall accompany the respective act with a notification thereof,
addressed to the other Signatory Powers of the present act, in
order to enable them, if need be, to make good any claim of their
own." To a similar effect wrote Lord Salisbury in 1887 with
reference to the claims of Portugal in East Africa. " Great
Britain considers that it has been admitted in principle by all the
parties to the act of Berlin that a claim of sovereignty in Africa
can only be maintained by real occupation of the territory
claimed; and that the doctrine has been practically applied in
the recent Zambezi delimitation (State Papers 79, p. 1063). No
paper annexation of territory can pretend to validity as a bar to
the enterprise of other nations." At its session at Lausanne, in
1889, the Institut de Droit International adopted the following
principles:
" Article I. L'occupation d'un territoire a litre de souverainete'
ne pourra e"tre reconnue comme effective que si elle reunit Jes
conditions suivantes: i La prise de possession d'un territoire
enferm<5 dans certaines limites, faite au nom du gouvernement.
2 La notification officielle de la prise de possession. La prise de
possession s'accomplit par 1'e'tablissement d'un pouvoir local re-
sponsable, pourvu de moyens suffisants pour maintenir 1'ordre et
pour assurer 1'exercice regulier de son autoritd dans les limites du
territoire occup6. Ces moyens pourront etre emprunt6s 4 des
institutions existantes dans le pays occup6. La notification de la
prise de possession de fait, soit pour la publication dans la forme
qui, dans chaque 6tat, est en usage pour la notification des
actes omciels, soit par la yoie diplomatique. Elle contiendra
la determination approximative des limites du territoire occup6 "
(Annuaire x. 201).
This development of international law naturally led to arrange-
ments as to " spheres of influence." Nations which had not yet
settled or occupied, or established protectorates, in regions con-
tiguous to their existing possessions, were desirous to retain a
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
649
hold over the former, and proceeded to enter into treaties defining
the spheres of influence.
The following are some of the chief treaties by which such
spheres are defined:
Great Britain and Portugal as to Africa, August 20, 1890,
November 14, 1890 and June n, 1891. Great Britain and France
as to Upper Niger, January 20, 1891; November 15, 1893, as to
Lake Chad. Great Britain and France as to Siam, January 15,
1896. The two governments engage to one another " that neither
of them will, without the consent of the other in any case or under
any pretext, advance their armed forces into the regions, &c."
They also engage not to acquire within this region any special
privilege or advantage which shall not be enjoyed in common,
or equally open to Great Britain and France or their nationals
and dependants. Great Britain and Italy as to Africa, April 15,
1891; May 5, 1894, as to region of the Gulf of Aden. Congo and
Portugal, May 25, 1891, as to " spheres de souverainete' et d'influ-
ence in the region of Lunda. Great Britain, Belgium and Congo,
May 12, 1894, as to the sphere of influence of the independent
Congo State. Great Britain and Germany, July I, 1890 and
November 15, 1893, as to East and Central Africa. Great Britain
and Russia as to the spheres of influence to the east of Lake Victoria
in the region of the Pamirs, March n, 1895.
As an example of the promises or engagements in such treaties
may be quoted that between Great Britain and Portugal of the
2othof August 1800. Portugal engages that the territory of which
the limits are defined in article 3 shall not, without the consent
of Great Britain, be transferred to any other power. In the
treaty between the same powers of the i4th of November 1890 it
is stipulated that neither power will make, tender, accept pro-
tectorates, or exercise any act of sovereignty, &c. Sometimes
a treaty defining spheres of influence declares that such and
such territory shall be neutral.
In the treaty of delimitation between France and Germany of
the 1 5th of March 1894, the line of demarcation of the zones of
influence of the two states in the region of Lake Chad is drawn,
and they agree to exercise no political influence in such spheres.
Each of the states agrees (art. 2) to acquire no territory, to
conclude no treaties, to accept no rights of sovereignty, or pro-
tectorate, and not " gener ou de contester 1'influence de 1'autre
Puissance dans la zone qui lui est reservee."
Being the result of treaties, arrangements as to spheres of
influence bind only the parties thereto. As Mr Olney, in his
correspondence with Lord Salisbury in regard to Venezuela,
remarked: " Arrangements as to spheres of influence are new
departures, which certain great European Powers have found
necessary and convenient in the course of their division among
themselves of great tracts of the continent of Africa, and which
find their sanction solely in their reciprocal obligations "
(United States No. 2, 1896, p. 27).
Some treaties expressly declare that the arrangement* shall
not affect the rights of other powers (Stoerck, Recueil, xvi. p. 932).
No doubt, however, the tendency is for spheres of influence to
become protectorates. It may be mentioned that Germany and
Holland have concluded a treaty (Dec. 21, 1897) by which
the latter agrees to extradite German criminals in spheres
of influence. By an agreement of the I2th of May 1894 between
Great Britain and the Congo State, the former granted to the
latter a lease of territories comprised within the sphere of
influence laid down in the Anglo-German agreement of the
ist of July 1890 (19 Hertslet, p. 179).
Somewhat akin to the rights of a state in a sphere of influence
are those possessed by Germany in the zone surrounding the
protectorate of Kiaochow under the treaty of the 6th of March
1898, and the rights obtained under treaties with China that
certain provinces shall not be alienated.
Somewhat similar arrangements as to ports of the sea are not
unknown. Grotius in his Mare liberum says: " Illud interim
fatemur, potuisse inter gentes aliquas convenire, ut capti
in maris hac vel ilia parte, hujus aut illius reipublicae
judicium subirent, atque ita ad commoditatem distinguendae
jurisdictionis in mari fines describi, quod ipsos quidem earn
sibi legem ferentes obligat, at alios populos non item; neque
locum cujus proprium facit, sed in personas contrahentium jus
constituit " (c. 5).
The best known example of a claim to a sphere of influence,
which is not the result of any treaty, is the Monroe doctrine, first
broached by President Monroe in 1823. The Romans had their
equivalent to the Monroe doctrine; they forbade any Asiatic
king entering Europe and conquering any part of it; the breach
of this rule was their chief grievance against Mithradates
(Montesquieu, De la Grandeur et de la decadence des remains,
(c. 6).
Claims somewhat similar to those relating to spheres of influ-
ence have been put forward as against the whole world, in virtue
of the right of continuity or the doctrine of the Hiaterl d
hinterland. Sometimes it is called the " doctrine of
contiguity," or " droit de vicinite, de priorite, de preemption
ou d'enclave." He who occupies a part of a well-defined close or
fundus, a parcel of land with artificial or natural boundaries,
which enables him to control the whole area, may be said to
occupy it. He need not be present everywhere, or enter on
every part of it: " Sufticit quamlibet partem ejus fundi introire,
dum mente et cogitatione hac sit, uti totum fundum usque ad
terminum velit possidere " (Dig. xli. 2, 3). In virtue of a supposed
analogy to such occupation, it has been said that the occupation
of the mouth of a river is constructive occupation of all its basin
and tributaries, and that the occupation of part of a territory
extends to all the country of which it forms physically a part.
A state, having actually occupied the coast, may claim to reserve
to itself the right of occupying from time to time territory lying
inland (hinterland). In the discussions as to the western boun-
dary of Louisiana between the commissions of the United States
and Spain, as to Oregon, as to the claims of the Portuguese in
East Africa, and as to the boundaries of Venezuela, the question
of the extent of the rights of the discoverer and occupier came up.
Portugal actually claimed all territory lying between her African
possessions. It has been urged that the subsequent settlement
within a reasonable time of the mouth of a river, " particularly
if none of its branches had been explored prior to such discovery,
gave the right of occupation, and ultimately of sovereignty, to the
whole country drained by such river and its several branches."
Another form of the same doctrine is, that the occupier of a part
of the sea-coast thereby acquires rights " extending into the
interior of the country to the sources of the rivers emptying
within that coast, to all their branches, and the country they
cover " (Twiss, Laws of Nations in Time of Peace, p. 170; Twiss,
Oregon Question, p. 245; Bluntschli, s. 282; Phillimore, Commen-
taries, p. 236; Westlake, International Law, pt. i. p. 128). Lord
Salisbury referred to " the modern doctrine of hinterland with
its inevitable contradictions " (United States, No. 2, 1896, p. 12).
Certainly it is inconsistent with the doctrine, more and more
received in recent times, that effective possession is necessary
to found a title to sovereignty or control. It is akin to the
extravagant claims of the early Portuguese and Spanish navi-
gators to territory on which they had never set foot or eyes.
The doctrine of the hinterland is likely to become less important,
now that Africa has been parcelled out.
AUTHORITIES. Twiss, Laws of Nations in Time of Peace (1855) ;
Phillimore, Commentaries on International Law, s. 236; Salomon,
L'Occupation des territoires sans mailre (1889); Correspondence as
to Delagoa Bay (Portugal, No. I, 1875, p. 191); British Counter Case,
Venezuela, No. 2 (1899), p. 135; Annuaire de I'institut de droit
international, ix. 243; x. 173; Revue de droit international, xvii.
113; xviii. 433; xix, 371; Venezuelan Papers, No. 4 (1896); J. B.
Moore, Digest of International Law (1906), i. 268. (J. M.)
SPHERICAL HARMONICS, in mathematics, certain functions
of fundamental importance in the mathematical theories of
gravitation, electricity, hydrodynamics, and in other branches
of physics. The term " spherical harmonic " is due to Lord
Kelvin, and is primarily employed to denote either a rational
integral homogeneous function of three variables x, y, z, which
satisfies the differential equation
known as Laplace's equation, or a function which satisfies the
differential equation, and becomes a rational integral homo-
geneous function when multiplied by a power of
650
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
Of all particular integrals of Laplace's equation, these are of the
greatest importance in respect of their applications, and were
the only ones considered by the earlier investigators; the solu-
tions of potential problems in which the bounding surfaces are
exactly or approximately spherical are usually expressed as series
in which the terms are these spherical harmonics. In the wider
sense of the term, a spherical harmonic is any homogeneous
function of the variables which satisfies Laplace's equation,
the degree of the function being not necessarily integral or real,
and the functions are not necessarily rational in x, y, z, or single-
valued; when the term spherical harmonic is used in the narrower
sense, the functions may, when necessary, be termed ordinary
spherical harmonics. For the treatment of potential problems
which relate to spaces bounded by special kinds of surfaces,
solutions of Laplace's equation are required which are adapted
to the particular boundaries, and various classes of such solutions
have thus been introduced into analysis. Such functions are
usually of a more complicated structure than ordinary spherical
harmonics, although they possess analogous properties. As
examples we may cite Bessel's functions in connexion with
circular cylinders, Lame's functions in connexion with ellipsoids,
and toroidal functions for anchor rings. The theory of such
functions may be regarded as embraced under the general term
harmonic analysis. The present article contains an account of
the principal properties of ordinary spherical harmonics, and some
indications of the nature and properties of the more important
of the other classes of functions which occur in harmonic analysis.
Spherical and other harmonic functions are of additional impor-
tance in view of the fact that they are largely employed in the
treatment of the partial differential equations of physics, other
than Laplace's equation; as examples of this, we may refer to the
du'
equation ^- = kV*u, which is fundamental in the theory of con-
duction of heat and electricity, also to the equation-^ = &V 2 w,
which occurs in the theory of the propagation of aerial and
electro-magnetic waves. The integration under given condi-
tions of more complicated equations which occur in the theories
of hydro-dynamics and elasticity, can in certain cases be effected
by the use of the functions employed in harmonic analysis.
i. Relation between Spherical Harmonics of Positive arid Negative
Degrees. A function which is homogeneous in x, j, z, of degree
n in those variables, and which satisfies Laplace's equation
is termed a solid spherical harmonic, or simply a spherical harmonic
of degree n. The degree re may be fractional or imaginary, but we
are at present mainly concerned with the case in which n is a positive
or negative integer. If x, y, z be replaced by their values r sin 6
cos <t>, r sin 9 sin <t>, r cos in polar co-ordinates, a solid spherical
harmonic takes the form r"f n (9, <t>) ; the factor /(#, <j>) is called a
surface harmonic of degree n. If V n denote a spherical harmonic
of degree n, it may be shown by differentiation that v 2 (r m V n )
= m(2n + m + i)r" > "~ !! V n , and thus as a particular case that
V 2 ( r ^"~ 1 V n )=o; we have thus the fundamental theorem that
from any spherical harmonic Vn of degree n, another of degree
n I may be derived by dividing v n by r 2n+1 . All spherical
harmonics of negative integral degree are obtainable in this way
from those of positive integral degree. This theorem is a par-
ticular case of the more general inversion theorem that if F (*, y, z)
is any function which satisfies the equation (l), the function
l rfi 7. 1\
r V 2 ' r v r 2 /
also satisfies the equation.
The ordinary spherical harmonics of positive integral degree n
are those which are rational integral functions of x, y, z. The
most general rational integral function of degree n in three letters
contains \(n-\-l)(n-\-2) coefficients; if the expression be substituted
in (i), we have on equating the coefficients separately to zero
in(n l) relations to be satisfied; the most general spherical
harmonic of the prescribed type therefore contains %(n+i)(n+2)
\n(n i), or 2re + i independent constants. There exist, there-
fore, 2n+i independent ordinary harmonics of degree n;_and
corresponding to each of these there is a negative harmonic of
degree n i obtained by dividing by r 2 " 41 . The three inde-
pendent harmonics of degree i are x, y, z; the five of degree 2 are
y 2 z 2 , z* x 2 , yz, zx, xy. Every harmonic of degree n is a linear
function of 2n + i independent harmonics of the degree; we pro-
ceed, therefore, to find the latter.
2. Determination of Harmonics of given Degree. It is clear that a
function f(ax+by+cz) satisfies the equation (i), if a, b, c are
constants which satisfy the condition a 2 +6 2 +c 2 =o; in particular
the equation is satisfied by (z+ix cos a+iy sin a)". Taking n to
be a positive integer, we proceed to expand this expression in a
series of cosines and sines of multiples of o; each term will then
satisfy (i) separately. Denoting e' a by k, and y+ix by /, we
have
(z+ix cos a+0- sin a)"
which may be written as (2kt)-"[(z+kt)' i r 2 )|". On expansion by
Taylor's theorem this becomes
the differentiation applying to z only as it occurs explicitly; the
terms involving cos ma, sin ma in this expansion are
^+^r e^V-V \
where m = i, 2, . . . n; and the term independent of o is
2- cosma \&m?S^ ( *-^
^,-^ j
On writing
(y+ix) m = i m r m (cos m<$> <. sin m4>)2 sin "9,
i~ m r~~ m (cos m<t>-\-i sin m<j>) sin""^
and observing that in the expansion of (z+ix cos a-\-iy sin o)
the expressions cos ma, sin ma can only occur in the combination
cos m(<l> a), we see that the relation
cj n *nf) ftn+m ql -, mo Jlnwi
* m r"7^rfr, ^(#-lJ *^-^:5| |^(z 2 -r 2 )"
'n+m)\ 3z"
must hold identically, and thus that the terms in the expansion
reduce to
( n + m )\ ^ rm cos OTa cos "** sin m9 aP s(z2 ~ r2) "
i i m
(n+m)\ 2" = i rm sln *" sln m ^ sm '
We thus see that the spherical harmonics of degree n are of the
form
r m4> sin
- O"
where /i denotes cos 6 ', by giving m the values o, i , 2 . . . n we thus
have the 2+l functions required. On carrying out the differen-
tiations we see that the required functions are of the form
(n-m)(n-m-i)(n-m-2)(nm-z) _,, , . , . ,,, ,.
T ..... 2.4.271-1 .2JI-3 v T - rn
where m = o, i, 2, 3, ... n.
3. Zonal, Tesseral and Sectorial Harmonics. Of the system of
2n-\-i harmonics of degree n, only one is symmetrical about the z
axis; this is
writing
we observe that P,,(M) has n zeros all lying between' i, conse-
quently the locus of points on a sphere r=a, for which PnCju)
vanishes is n circles all parallel to the meridian plane : these circles
divide the sphere into zones, thus PnG") is called the zonal surface
harmonic of degree n, and rP n U), r^-'-PnW are the solid zonal
harmonics of degrees n and re I. The locus of points on a
sphere for which ^ m<t>.sm
-iY vanishes consists of
nm circles parallel to the meridian plane, and m great circles
through the poles; these circles divide the spherical surface into
quadrilaterals or riaafpa, except when n = m, in which case the
surface is divided into sectors, and the harmonics are therefore
called tesseral, except those for which m = n, which are called
sectorial. Denoting (i-M 2 )
by
the tesseral
surface harmonics are ^ m<t> -P"(cos 9), where m = i, 2, . . .n-i,
and the sectorial harmonics are ^ n#>.P^(cos 9). The functions
PnO),
denote the expressions
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
65,
- J*"il, \ .-(-')
2 n n\ nil * 2.2n-i
2.4.211-1.211-3
(n m)(n m i)
i
(4)
Every ordinary harmonic of degree n is expressible as a linear func-
tion of the system of 2 + i zonal, tesseral and sectorial harmonics
of degree n; thus the general form of the surface harmonic is
" M). (5)
m=i
In the present notation we have
(z+occosa+iy sin a)" = r" j P n
if we put = 0, we thus have
(cos 0+i sin cos <)" = P n (cos 0)+22'
,
- a) f
P (cos 0) cos :
from this we obtain expressions for P n (cos 0), P n (cos 0) as definite
integrals
P n (cos 0) =- I * (cos 0+i sin cos <t>)"d<t> ]
n \ - i r- r
' m ( n -L. m \Pn ( cos e ) = ~ j ( cos 8 + t sine cos 0)"cos m<j>d<t>. \
4. Derivation of Spherical Harmonics by Differentiation. The
linear character of Laplace's equation shows that, from any solution,
others may be derived by differentiation with respect to the variables
x, y, z; or, more generally, if
\dx l dy' dz
denote any rational integral operator,
f
7
is a solution of the equation, if V satisfies it. This principle has
been applied by Thomson and Tail to the derivation of the system
of any integral degree, by operating upon i/r, which satisfies Laplace's
equation. The operations may be conveniently carried out by
means of the following differentiation theorem. (See papers by
Hobson, in the Messenger of Mathematics, xxiii. 115, and Proc. Land.
Math. Soc. vol. xxiv.)
:(7)
./a a a \ i _ , \ n (^n) ! i ( _ r 2 v z
\dx' dy' dz] r 2"n\ r* n+1 ( 2.2n i
+2. 4 .2n-T.2n-3~ ' ' ' (** y ' z)
which is a particular case of the more general theorem
, }
,dx dy dz)
where f n (x, y, z) is a rational integral homogeneous function of
degree n. The harmonic of positive degree n corresponding to
that of degree n i in the expression (7) is
.2 I
2.4.27} i .2n 3
It can be verified that even when n is unrestricted, this expression
satisfies Laplace's equation, the sole restriction being that of the
convergence of the series.
5. Maxwell's Theory of Poles. Before proceeding to obtain by
means of (7), the expressions for the zonal, tesseral and sectorial
harmonics, it is convenient to introduce the conception, due to
Maxwell (see Electricity and, Magnetism, vol. i. ch. ix.), of the
poles of a spherical harmonic. Suppose a sphere of any radius
drawn with its centre at the origin ; any line whose direction-cosines
are /, m, n drawn from the origin, is called an axis, and the point
where this axis cuts the sphere is called the pole of the axis. Differ-
ent axes will be denoted by suffixes attached to the direction-cosines ;
the cosine (/iX+wtiy+noO/r of the angle between the radius
vector r to a point (x, y, z) and the axis (It, m t , ni), will be denoted
by Xi; the cosine of the angle between two axes is /jy+f,r-y+mn-y,
which will be denoted by M'y- The operation
Z J- _?_4. A
performed upon any function of x, y, z, is spoken of as differentiation
with respect to the axis (L, mi, m), and is denoted by d/d&u The
potential function Vo=eo/r is defined to be the potential due to
a singular point of degree zero at the origin ; e is called the strength
of the singular point. Let a singular point of degree zero, and
strength e a , be on an axis hi, at a distance oo from the origin, and
also suppose that the origin is a singular point of strength e c ;
let eo be indefinitely increased, and oo indefinitely diminished, but
so that the product e oo is finite and equal to o; the origin is then
said to be a singular point of the first degree, of strength e\, the
axis being hi. Such a singular point is frequently called a doublet.
In a similar manner, by placing two singular points of degree, unity
and strength, i, e\, at a distance ai along an axis hi, and at the
origin respectively, when i is indefinitely increased, and 01 diminished
so that ioi is finite and = e 2 , we obtain a singular point of degree 2,
strength e^ at the origin, the axes being hi, hi. Proceeding in this
manner we arrive at the conception of a singular point of any degree
n, ot strength e n at the origin, the singular point having any n given
axes hi, hi,. . .&. If e n _i <_! (x, y, z) is the potential due to a
singular point at the origin, of degree n i, and strength <?_!,
with axes hi, hi,...h*- t , the potential of a singular point of degree
n, the new axis of which is h n , is the limit of
when
(xl n a, ym^a, z n o) e^_i
(x, y, z) ;
this limit is
n I I n ,/'~ -
- -
Since <tn> = i/r, we see that the potential V, due to a singular point
at the origin of strength e n , and axes hi, hi, . . .& is given by
V -( TW a " ' CRN
v ; "dhidhi.. .dh n r
6. Expression for a Harmonic with given Poles. The result of
performing the operations in (8) is that V n is of the form
Y n
where Y n is a surface harmonic of degree n, and will appear as a
function of the angles which r makes with the axes, and of the
angles these axes make with one another. The poles of the n
axes are defined to be the poles of the surface harmonics, and are
also frequently spoken of as the poles of the solid harmonics
Y n r", Ynr"""" 1 . Any spherical harmonic is completely specified by
means of its poles.
In order to express Y n in terms of the positions of its poles, we
apply the theorem (7) to the evaluation of V n in (8). On putting
r = n
f n (x, y, z) =H(l r x+m r y+n r z'), we have
Y _ (2n!) _i / i
" 2"n\n\ ' r"V 2.;
X
I I 2.4.2M I .2n 1
n
H(l r x+m,y+n r z). _
i
By 2(/j s X"~ 2 ') we shall denote the sum of the products of i of the
quantities M, and n 2s of the quantities X; in any term each
suffix is to occur once, and once only, every possible order beine
taken. We find
H(lx+my+nz) =2(X")r",
and generally
thus we obtain the following expression for Y n , the surface har-
monic which has given poles hi, hi, . . .h,;
itl
(2TO-2OT)!
2 n ~ m n\(n m)\
(9)
where S denotes a summation with respect to m from m=o to
m = \n, or J(n i), according as n is even or odd. This is Maxwell's
general expression (loc. cit.) for a surface harmonic with given
poles.
If the_ poles on a sphere of radius r are denoted by A, B, C. . .,
we obtain from (9) the following expressions for the harmonics of
the first four degrees :
Y!=COS PA, Y 2 = J(3 cos PA cos PB-cos AB),
Ya = j('5 cos PA cos PB cos PC -cos PA cos BC-cos PB cos CA
-cos PC cos AB),
Y 4 = 1(35 cos PA cos PB cos PC cos PD - 52 cos PA cos PB cos CD
+ 2 cos AB cos CD).
7. Poles of Zonal : Tesseral and Sectorial Harmonics. Let the n
axes of the harmonic coincide with the axis of z, we have then by
(8) the harmonic
gn i
dz" r '
652
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
applying the theorem (7) to evaluate this expression, we have
n\ dz" 7~2 a n\n\7"l l ~2 . 2n i~^2 . \.2n\ . 2n^~ \
_ (2n)\ ( ^ n(n i) n _2,
~2 n n\n\ \ M ~2.2n i lt ' '
the expression on the right side is P"G*), the zonal surface har-
monic ; we have therefore
The zonal harmonic has therefore all its poles coincident with
the z axis. Next, suppose n m axes coincide with the z axis,
and that the remaining m axes are distributed symmetrically in
the plane of x, y at intervals Tr/m, the direction cosines of one of
them being cos a, sin a, O. We have
d ,
ITx + s
+.
(+) j.
+
^
Let = x+iy, ij = 3t ly, the above product becomes
1
which is equal to
this becomes
2 I (W ~ ( ~ J) W
sm m<t>) sin"
(n m)(n m I)
hence
2.2 I
^cos"
dz n ~"
as we see on referring to (4) ; we thus obtain the formulae
yr-m
It is thus seen that the tesseral harmonics of degree n and order
m are those which have nm axes coincident with the z axis, and
the other m axis distributed in the equatorial plane, at angular
intervals ir/m. The sectorial harmonics have all their axes in the
equatorial plane.
8. Determination of the Poles of a given Harmonic. It has been
shown that a spherical harmonic Y n (x, y, z) can be generated by means
of an operator
d d d
the function / being so chosen that
(*, y, z) =(- I)gg j I - J ^r T + ... \fn(x, y, z) ;
this relation shows that if an expression of the form
(x*+y>+r)f^(x,y, z)
is added to /(*, y, z), the harmonic Y n (*, y, z) is unaltered; thus
if Y n be regarded as given, /(*, y, z) =0, is not uniquely deter-
mined, but has an indefinite number of values differing by multiples
of x 2 +J^+z 2 . In order to determine the poles of a given harmonic,
/n must be so chosen that it is resolvable into linear factois; it will
be shown that this can be done in one, and only one, way, so that
the poles are all real.
If x, y, z are such as to satisfy the two equations Y(x, y, z) =0,
* 2 +y 2 +z 2 =p, the equation /(*:, y, z) is also satisfied; the problem
of determining the poles is therefore equivalent to the algebraical
one of reducing Y n to the product of linear factors by means of
the relation x 2 +/+z 2 = 0, between the variables. Suppose
(*, y, z) =1?n(l.x+m. y +n,z)+(x*+y>+z*)Vn-. 2 (x, y, z),
S-l
we see that the plane l,x+m,y+n,z = Q passes through two of the
2n generating lines of 'the imaginary cone 2 +;y 2 +2 2 =0, in which
that cone is intersected by the cone Y n (, y, z)=0. Thus a pole
(/, m,, n,)_is the pole with respect to the cone 2 +y 2 +z 2 =0, of a
plane passing through two of the generating lines; the number
of systems of poles is therefore n(2n i), the number of ways of
taking the 2n generating lines in pairs. Of these systems of poles,
however, only one is real, viz. that in which the lines in each pair
correspond to conjugate complex roots of the equations Y n =0,
* 2 +;y 2 +z 2 = 0. Suppose
1182 3 + l/3 3
gives one generating line, then the conjugate one is given by
0-1 'ft 02 1/?2 03 l/3 3 '
and the corresponding factor Ix -\-my-\-nz is
x y z
Ol+lft 02+1/82 03 + 1/83
01 l/3l 02 ift 03 ift
which is real. It is obvious that if any non-conjugate pair of
roots is taken, the corresponding factor, and therefore the pole, is
imaginary. There is therefore only one system of real poles of a
given harmonic, and its determination requires the solution of an
equation of degree 2n. This theorem is due to Sylvester (Phil.
Mag. (1876), 5th series, vol. ii., " A Note on Spherical Harmonics ").
9. Expression for the Zonal Harmonic with any Axis. The zonal
surface harmonic, whose axis is in the direction
*L 2.' Z L :. p (xx'+ yy '+zz'\
7> 7' r" lsF "i 7? j
or P n (cos0cos'0'+ sin0 sine' cos <#>-<'); this is expressible as a
linear function of the system of zonal, tesseral, and sectorial har-
monics already found. It will be observed that it is symmetrical
with respect to (x, y, z) and (*', y', z'), and must thus be capable of
being expressed in the form
<z P n (cos 0)P n (cos 6') +2a m P(cos 0)P?(cos 9')cos m (^ _ (#) ') >
and it only remains to determine the co-efficients a c , a t , ...o m ...a n .
To find this expression, we transform (x'x+y'y+z'z)", . where
#, y, z satisfy the condition x 2 +y 2 +z 2 = 0; writing = x+iy,
ri = x (.y, t'=x'+iy', ri'=x' iy', we have
which equals
tn"*
the summation being taken for all values of a and 6, such that
a+6Sw, a>6; the values o = 0, 6 = corresponding to the term
(zz') n . Using the relation TJ = z 2 , this becomes
putting ab = m, the coefficient of
, on the right side is
from 6 = to 6 = J(w w), or J(re OT i), according as nm
is even or odd. This coefficient is equal to
2.2m+2
-w- 3 , .
^* ' ' > J '
in order to evaluate this coefficient, put 2 = 1, x' = i cos o,
y' = i sin a, then this coefficient is that of (i cos a+sin a) m , or of
t ">e-mia in the expansion of (z'+tx' cos a+ty' sin a) n in powers of
e~> and ' a , this has been already found, thus the coefficient is
Similarly the coefficient of i] m z n ~ m is
hence we have
+t sin
In this result, change x, y, z into
dx' dy' dz'
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
653
and let each side operate on i/r, then in virtue of (10), we have
( rr ')np n /**'+y/+3z'\ =Pn ( cos 9 cos e'+sin e sin B' cos -</>')
which is known as the addition theorem for the function P n
It has incidentally been proved that
P - ( cosfl ) =
_
2.2TO+2
which is an expression for PIT (cos 6) alternative to (4). _
10. Legendre's Coefficients. The reciprocal of the distance of a
point (r, 6, <j>) from a point on the z axis distant r' from the origin is
(r 2 -2rr' M +-' 2 )-i
which satisfies Laplace's equation, n denoting cos 6. Writing
this expression in the forms
it is seen that when r< r', the expression can be expanded in a
convergent series of powers of r/r', and when r' < r in a convergent
series of powers of r'/r. We have, when h?(2n h) 2 <i
* = i +h(2n-
( ft
2.4. . .2n
and since the series is absolutely convergent, it may be rearranged
as a series of powers of h, the coefficient of h n is then found to be
1.2. 3. ..n ( 2.2-l 2.4.2W-I.2W-3
this is the expression we have already denoted by PnW ; thus
(i -2hp+h*f* = PoGO +*>PI(M) + +A"P0*) + , ('3)
the function P,,(M) may thus be defined as the coefficient of h" in
this expansion, and from this point of view is called the Legendre's
coefficient or Legendre's function of degree n, and is identical with
the zonal harmonic. It may be shown that the expansion is valid
for all real and complex values of h and /i, such that mod, h is less
than the smaller of the two numbers mod. (/u^VM 2 i)- We now
see that
is expressible in the form
when r < r', or
CO
2 -In
^
when r' < r; it follows that the two expressions r n P n (jj), r~"
are solutions of Laplace's equation.
The values of the first few Legendre's coefficients are
P 6 (/t) =
We find also
P n (l) = I, Pn(-l) = (-!)"
Pn(0)=0, or (-i)}" 1 - 3 ' 5 ;""'
according as n is odd or even ; these values may be at once obtained
from the expansion (13), by putting n = l, o, I.
II. Additional Expressions for Legendre's Coefficients. The
expression (3) for P n (ju) may be written in the form
with the usual notation for hypergeometric series.
On writing this series in the reverse order
. n\ p/ n
or
2 2
according as n is even or odd.
From the identity
(i -2h cos
it can be shown that
By (13), or by the formula
which is known as Rodrigue's formula, we may prove that
P"(cos0) = I- j 2 sin 2 !
, -n,
Also that
P n (cos 9 ) -c
= cos 2 F-n, -n, i, -t
By means of the identity
(16)
it may be shown that
P n ( C os0) =cos"0 j i-
(17)
Laplace's definite integral expression (6) may be transformed
into the expression
i_ r* d<t>
KJ o(/i V/i 2 i
by means of the relation
-I cos
-Vi 2 -i cos ^) =
Two definite integral expressions for PnM given by Dirichlet have
been put by Mehler into the forms
P n (cos0) =
2 re
rj o
j 2
V 2 cos 2 cos i" r *J eVa cos0 2cos<#>
When n is large, and 6 is not nearly equal to o or to ir, an approximate
value of P n (cos0) is \2Jnir sin 6)} sin ) (n + 5)0 + 4"'}
12. Relations between successive Legendre's Coefficients and their
Derivatives. If (i 2&/u+/* 2 )~4 be denoted by u, we find
on substituting 2A"P n for u, and equating to zero the coefficient of
h", we obtain the relation
nP n - (zn - 1 >?-! + (n - 1 )Pn-s = 0.
From Laplace's definite integral, or otherwise, we find
We may also show that
the last term being 3Pi or Po according as n is even or odd.
13. Integral Properties of_ Legendre's Coefficients. It may be
shown that if P(M) be multiplied by any one of the numbers I, M,
IJL-, ... p"" 1 and the product be integrated between the limits I, I
with respect to ^, the result is zero, thus
0, a = 0, i, 2, ...n-i. (18)
To prove this theorem we have
654
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
on integrating the expression k times by parts, and remembering i hence
that (/jf i)" and its first n I derivatives all vanish when /*= i,
the theorem is established. This theorem derives additional
importance from the fact that it may be shown that AP n (^) is the
only rational integral function of degree n which has this property ;
from this arises the importance of the functions P in the theory of
quadratures.
The theorem which lies at the root of the applicability of the
functions P n to potential problems is that if n and n' are unequal
integers
0, (19)
which may be stated by saying that the integral ol the product of
two Legendre's coefficients of different degree taken over the whole
of a spherical surface with its centre at the origin is zero ; this is the
fundamental harmonic property of the functions. It is immediately
deducible from (18), for if n' <n, Pn'G") is a linear function of powers
of it, whose indices are all less than n.
When n'=n, the integral in (19) becomes J* |P n G*)] 2 <fji; to
evaluate this we write it in the form
on integrating n times by parts, this becomes
which on putting
= -(i M, becomes ^ n [ n \ J "U u)"du,
hence
P "0<)) 2 <**=5^+? (20)
14. Expansion of Functions in Series of Legendre's Coefficients.
If it be assumed that a f unction /(ju) given arbitrarily in the interval
H= i to +i, can be represented by a series of Legendre's co-
efficients oo+o 1 P I ( AJ )+o 2 P ? (M)+. . .+OnP(M)+. -and it be assumed
that the series converges in general uniformly within the interval,
the coefficient a can be determined by using (19) and (20); we see
that the theorem (19) plays the same part as the property
I .n'0d9=0, (n=tn') does in the theory of the expansion of
functions in series of circular functions. On multiplying the series
by P n (ji), we have
(M) P.GO*.
hence
hence the series by which /(/i) is in general represented in the interval
is
^ A ^*t I T /*T
(21)
The proof of the possibility of this representation, including the
investigation of sufficient conditions as to the nature of the function
/GO. that the series may in general converge to the value of the
function requires an investigation, for which we have not space,
similar in character to the corresponding investigations for series
of circular functions (see FOURIER'S SERIES). A complete investi-
gation of this matter is given by Hobson, Proc. Land. Math. Soc.,
2nd series, vol. 6, p. 388, and vol. 7, p. 24. See also Dini's Serie di
Fourier.
The expansion may be applied to the determination at an external
and an internal point of the potential due to a distribution of matter
of surface density /GO placed on a spherical surface r = a. If
we see that Vi, Vo have the characteristic properties of potential
functions for the spaces internal to, and external to, the spherical
surface respectively ; moreover, the condition that Vi is continuous
with Vo at the surface r = a, is satisfied. The density of a surface
distribution which produces these potentials is in accordance with
a known theorem in the potential theory, given by
hence
we have
); on comparing this with the series (21),
. = 2-o ! J ^
are the required expressions for the internal and external potentials
due to the distribution of surface density /(/t).
15. Integral Properties of Spherical Harmonics. The fundamental
harmonic property of spherical harmonics, of which property (19)
is a particular case, is that if Y n (x, y, z), Z,i(x, y, z) be two (ordinary)
spherical harmonics, then,
*, y, z)Z n ,(x, y,
(22)
when n and n' ay: unequal, the integration being taken for every
element dS of a spherical surface, of which the origin is the centre.
Since v 2 Y n = 0, v 2 Z/ = 0, we have
jJJ
(Yv 1! Z n , -
= 0,
the integration being taken through the volume of the sphere of
radius r; this volume integral may be written
CCC \A(v^_ Z 2X*W d (V aZ "' 7 d ^"
JJJ I dx 1 Y dx ^"'IF/ +dy l Y -a7- z '-^r
by a well-known theorem in the integral calculus, the volume
integral may be replaced by a surface integral over the spherical
surface; we thus obtain
on using Euler's theorem for homogeneous functions, this becomes
whence the theorem (22), which is due to Laplace, is proved.
The integral over a spherical surface of the product of a spherical
harmonic of degree n, and a zonal surface harmonic P B of the same
degree, the pole of which is at (x', y', z') is given by
.(*. y, z)
n (x', y', z")
(23)
thus the value of the integral depends on the value of the spherical
harmonic at the pole of the zonal harmonic.
This theorem may also be written
P" j _jV n (9, 4>)P n (cos 8 cos e'+sin 6 sin 9' cos Q-
To prove the theorem, we observe that V is of the form
" m
OoP n (//)+2(o m cos m<t>+b m sin m<t>)P n (/i) ;
i
to determine oo we observe that when /t = i ,
hence a is equal to the value V n (0) of V n (6, <j>) at the pole =
of PnM- Multiply by P n (^) and integrate over the surface of the
sphere of radius unity, we then have
" (9> *) P
if instead of taking /i = I as the pole of Pn(yu) we take any other point
(it', </>') we obtain the theorem (23).
If f(x, y, z) is a function which is finite and continuous through-
out the interior of a sphere of radius R, it may be shown that
R
~*~2.4.2n+3.2+5~
where x, y, z are put equal to zero after the operations have been
performed, the integral being taken over the surface of the sphere
of radius R (see Hobson, " On the Evaluation of a certain Surface
Integral," Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vol. xxv.).
The following case of this theorem should be remarked: If
/(#, y, z) is homogeneous and of degree n
if /(*, y, z) is a spherical harmonic, we obtain from this a theorem,
due to Maxwell (Electricity, vol. i. ch. ix.),
//Y.C., * *)/.(*, ,, - ' R -"
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
655
where hih 2 ...h, are the axes of Yn. Two harmonics of the same
degree are said to be conjugate, when the surface integral of their
product vanishes; if Y n , Z n are two such harmonics, the addition
of conjugacy is
Lord Kelvin has shown how to express the conditions that 2n + i
harmonics of degree n form a conjugate system (see B. A. Report,
1871).
1 6. Expansion of a Function in a Series of Spherical Harmonics.
It can be shown that under certain restrictions as to the nature of a
function F(ju, <#>) given arbitrarily over the surface of a sphere,
the function can be represented by a series of spherical harmonics
which converges in general uniformly. On this assumption we
see that the terms of the series can be found by the use of the
theorems (22), (23). Let F(ju, 4>) be represented by
change p, <t> into p.', <j>' and multiply by
P n (cos 6 cos fl'+sin 6 sin 6' cos <t><t>'),
we have then
( I,F(M', ^)fn(cos 6 cos 9'+sin 9 sin 6' cos <t><t>')dn'd^>'
= ( Q I V(y, <*>')P(cos 6 cos 9'-f sin B sin 6' cos <t><t>')diJL'd<t>'
hence the series which represents F(/n, <t>) is
.
(2W + I) f" P F( M ', <#>')P(cos 9 COS 9'
_
+sin 9 sin 9' cos <#> 4>')d//d</>'. (24)
A rational integral function of sin 9 cos <t>, sin 9 sin <t>, cos 9 of
degree n may be expressed as the sum of a series of spherical har-
monics, by assuming
/(*, y, *)=Y.+f*Y_a+r<Y_+. . .
and determining the solid harmonics Y n , Y_ 2 , . . . and then letting
r i, in the result.
Since V^'Yn-z.) = 2j(2-2*+i)r 2 '- 2 Y_2., we have
the last equation being
n2)(n l). . . Y , if n is even,
3)n. . .Yi, if is odd
from the last equation Yo or YI is determined, then from the pre-
ceding one Y 2 or Ys, and so on. This method is due to Gauss (see
Collected Works, v. 630).
As an example of the use of spherical harmonics in the potential
theory, suppose it required to calculate at an external point, the
potential of a nearly spherical body bounded by r = a(i-\-tu), the
body being made of homogeneous material of density unity, and
u being a given function of 9, <t>, the quantity being so small that
its square may be neglected. The potential is given by
2 - 2 "' cos yr
where y is the angle between r and r'; now let u' be expanded in
a series
of surface harmonics ; we may write the expression for the potential
f,n fl fsd+en') ( I r' ,
Joj-Jo 1 7 +?W >}+...
lP(cos 7) + ...
which is,
^3 ^_ 3 d+^+3e M ')P(cos 7) j
on substituting for u' the series of harmonics, and using (22), (23),
this becomes
which is the required potential at the external point (r, 8, <t>).
if. The Normal Solutions of Laplace's Equation in Polars. If
hi, hi, hi be the parameters of three orthogonal sets of surfaces, the
length of an elementary arc ds may be expressed by an equation of
the form ds 2 = w.dh\ + rndhl + Tndh\, where HI, Hz, H
are
functions of hi, hi, h>, which depend on the form of these parameters;
it is known that Laplace's equation when expressed with hi, h?, h
as independent variables, takes the form
av
/ H, av\ , a / H 2 _av\ d j H 3
\H 2 H 3 dhj + dht \H 3 Hi dhj + dh* iHIH
In case the orthogonal surfaces are concentric spheres, co-axial
circular cones, and planes through the axes of the cones, the para-
meters are the usual polar co-ordinates r, 6, <j>, and in this case
HI = i, Hi = -, H 3 = - , -, thus Laplace's equation becomes
Assume that V = Re< is a solution, R being a function of r only,
9 of 8 only, * of only ; we then have
I d <f R\ , i d I . d& . I
This can only be satisfied if R j* Y^d! ' s a constant '
n(n-)-i), -^-^Ta is a constant, say m 2 , and 9 satisfies the equation
if we write for 9, and fi for sin 9, this equation becomes
('-*'>+(+'>-7=- <*>
From^ the equations which determine R, 9, , it appears that
Laplace's equation is satisfied by
r" cos . ,
r^wa***-*:
where is any solution of (26) ; this product we may speak of as
the normal solution of Laplace's equation in polar co-ordinates;
it will be observed that the constants n, m may have any real or
complex values.
1 8. Legendre's Equation. If in the above normal solution we
consider the case m = 0, we see that
r n
fn-lU n
is the normal form, where satisfies the equation
(27)
known as Legendre's equation ; we shall here consider the special
case in which re is a positive integer. One solution of (27) will be
the Legendre's coefficient PJ>(M), and to find the complete primitive
we must find another particular integral ; in considering the forms
of solution, we shall consider it to be not necessarily real and between
=*= i . If we assume
as a solution, and substitute in the equation (27), we find that m = n,
OTn i, and thus we have as solutions, on determining the ratios
of the coefficients in the two cases,
and
+ i)(n+2)(n+ 3 )(n+4)
+ 3 T 2 .
the first of these series is (re integral) finite, and represents P(M),
the second is an infinite series which is convergent when mod M > i.
If we choose the constant /3 to be
1.2.3.
the second
3.5. . .
solution may be denoted by QnGO, and is called the Legendre's
function of the second kind, thus
n . . _ 1.2.3. . .
+I. 2, ?3, 1
2 2 2 ?
This function Q B (M), thus defined for mod >i > I, is of considerable
importance in the potential theory. When mod it < I, we may in a
similar manner obtain two series in ascending powers of M, one
of which represents PnM, and a certain linear function of the two
series represents the analytical continuation of QnO*) as defined
above. The complete primitive of Legendre's equation is
By the usual rule for obtaining the complete primitive of an ordinary
differential equation of the second order when a particular integral
is known, it can be shown that (27) is satisfied by
_ Cy.
J (M*-I
the lower limit being arbitrary.
656
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
From this form it can be shown that
Q.GO - P.GO log j|y - W_i 0.) ,
where Wn_i(/*) is a rational integral function of degree n I in /u;
it can be shown that this form is in agreement with the definition
of QT.(M) by series, for the case mod />!. In case mod n<i it is
convenient to use the symbol Q(M) for
which is real when /t is real and between i, the function QnGu)
in this case is not the analytical continuation of the function
Qn(p) for mod M>I, but differs from it by an imaginary multiple
of P(AI). It will be observed that Q(i), Q n (-i) are infinite, and
Q n (co)=o. The function W^I(M) has been expressed by Christoffel
in the form
2n ! , | 2n 5
-y-^- P.-lGO +5^5P
and it can also be expressed in the form
9
It can easily be shown that the formula (28) is equivalent to
Q . =,</;.. ;;^,
which is analogous to Rodrigue's expression for P n (/*).
Another expression of a similar character is
It can be shown that under the condition mod \u V(tt 2 l))
>mod (/* V(yu 2 1)|, the function !/(/* ) can be expanded in
the form 2(al+l)P*()Q.(tt); this expansion is connected with the
definite integral formula for Q(M) which was used by F. Neumann
as a definition of the function Q(M), this is
which holds for all values of n which are not real and between
From Neumann's integral can be deduced the formula
which holds for all values of n which are not real and between
=*= i, provided the sign of V(M S l) is properly chosen; when jj is
real and greater than i, V (ff i) has its positive value.
By means of the substitution.
the above integral becomes
Q-(M) = J^lM-V (M 2 - I) .cosh x }'d x , where Xo^os*.
This formula gives a simple means of calculating QnM for small
values of n ; thus
Neumann's integral affords a means of establishing a relation
between successive Q functions, thus
nQ n - (2 - i)MQ
Again, it may similarly be proved that
19. Legendre Associated Functions. Returning to the equation
(26) satisfied by u" the factor in the normal forms ^^^mQ. u,
we shall consider the case in which n, m are positive integers, and
n^m. Let = (ju 2 !)*", then it will be found that v satisfies
the equation
If, in Legendre's equation, we differentiate m times, we find
it follows that v = -s ^'hence u = (i i) -=
oju dfj.
The complete solution of (26) is therefore
when #i is real and lies between i, the two functions
are called Legendre's associated functions of degree n, and
ord;r m, of the firrt and second kinds respectively. When /JL is
not real and between =t i , the same names are given to the two
functions
in either case the functions may be denoted by P n (jit),
It can be shown that, when p. is real and between
(cos 0)
+ (n m
(cos 9)
In the same case, we find
P^cos 0)-2(m + i) cot 9 Pr
9) -
20. Bessel's Functions. If we take for three orthogonal systems
of surfaces a system of parallel planes, a system of co-axial circular
cylinders perpendicular to the planes, and a system of planes
through the axis of the cylinders, the parameters are z, p, <j>, the
cylindrical co-ordinates; in that case HI = I, H 2 = i, H 3 = i/p, and
the equation (25) becomes
&V #V I 3V I 3 2 V_
dz 2+ dp 2+ p dp V d<?~-
To find the normal functions which satisfy this equation, we put
V = ZR<!>, when Z is a function of z only, R of p only, and * of <t>, the
equation then becomes
I (PZ I APR, I dR
z '
I I
That this may be satisfied we must have 7~ji constant, say =k*,
1 <? Z
2 constant, say m', and R, for which we write u, must
satisfy the differential equation
d?u . i du I " 2 \
it follows that the normal forms are e^ ?^m<t>.u(kp), where u(p)
satisfies the equation
d?u . I du .
This is known as Bessel's equation of order m; the particular case
<P . i du ,
dp~*+pTp +u = < (30)
corresponding to m = o, is known as Bessel's equation.
If we solve the equation (29) in series, we find by the usual process
that it is satisfied by the series
the expression
\. ? - P' J
i( 2.2m+2 ' 2.4.2m+2.2m+4 )
^w 2
is denoted by J m (p). "-.
When m=o, the solution
of the equation (30) is denoted by Jo(p) or by J(p).
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
657
The function J m (p) is called Bessel's function of order m, and
Jo(p) simply Bessel's function; the series are convergent for all
finite values of p.
The equation (29) is unaltered by changing m into m, it follows
that J_ m (p) is a second solution of (29), thus in general
= AI m (p)+BJ_ m (p)
is the complete primitive of (29). However, in the most important
case, that in which m is an integer, the solutions J_ m (p), J m (p) are not
distinct, for J- m (p) may be written in the form
(-0"
(tr
(-1)"
n-Q
p-O
now n( m) is infinite when z is an integer, and n< m; thus the
first part of the expression vanishes, and the second part is
( l) m ]m(p), hence when m is an integer J- m (p) = ( i)Jm(p), and
the second solution remains to be found.
Bessel's Functions of the Second Kind. When m is not a real
integer, we have seen that any linear function of J m (p), J-m(p)
satisfies the equation of order m. The Bessel's function of the
second kind of order m is defined as the particular linear function
Tg m,r. J-m(p) COS mir . Jm(p) _
sin 2OT7T
and may be denoted by Y m (p). This definition has the advantage
of giving a meaning to Y m (p) in the case in which m is an integer,
for it may be evaluated as a limiting form o/o, and the limit will
satisfy the equation (29). The only failing case is when m is half
an odd integer; in that case we take cosiwx . Y m (p) as a second finite
solution of the differential equation.
When m is an integer, we have
Y m ( P ) = (-]
on carrying out the differentiations, and proceeding to the limit
we find m
n_0
m-1
n-0
where \(n) denotes n'(ra)/n(n).
When m=o we have the second solution of (30) given by
21. Relations between Bessel's Functions of Different Orders. Since
* cos
sin.
cos
sin
m<t>.u m (p) satisfies the differential equation
d-u . d-u .
(31)
The linear character of this equation shows that if u is any solution
is also one, / denoting a rational integral function of the operators.
Let {, ij denote x+iy, xiy, then since p~J"'m(V^i)) satisfies
the differential equation, so abo does
or
thus we have
where C is a constant. If w m (p)=Jm(p), we have u m+p = Jm+p(p),
and by comparing the coefficients of p m+p , we find C = ( 2)", hence
J+P(P) = (-
and changing m into m, we find
In a similar manner it can be proved that
T M . __ d"
Jm p(P) =
From the definition of Y OT (p), and applying the above analysis, we
prove that
and
As particular cases of the above formulae, we find
L,(P) = (-2p) p Jo(p), Y,(p) = (-2p)*
dp ' dp '
22. Bessel's Functions as Coefficients in an Expansion. It is clear
that ** or ev"" * = ' satisfy the differential equation
(31), hence if these exponentials be expanded in series of cosines and
sines of multiples of <t>, the coefficients must be Bessel's functions,
which it is easy to see are of the first kind. To expand e'P sin *, put
e ll t> = t, we have then to expand eipC"'" 1 ) in powers of t. Multiplying
together the two absolutely convergent series
ip<
m\ \2 P
f tm,
we obtain for the coefficient of /" in the product
2 m m\
hence
) = Jo
(p) + . . .
(32)
= S-J.GO
the Bessel's functions were defined by Schlomilch as the coefficients
of the powers of / in the expansion of eip((~ r \ and many of the
properties of the functions can be deduced from this expansion.
By differentiating both sides of (32) with respect to /, and equating
the coefficients of t m ~ l on both sides, we find the relation
]m-l (p) +Jm+l(p) = Jm(p) ,
which connects three consecutive functions. Again, by differ-
entiating both sides of (32) with respect to p, and equating the
coefficients of corresponding terms, we find
In (32), let t e<-<t>, and equate the real and imaginary parts, we
have then
cos (p sin 4>)=Jo(p)+2j 2 (p) cos 2<#>+2j 3 (p) cos 34>+. . .
sin (p sin <t>) =2ji(p) sin +2j 3 (p) sin 3^+. . .
we obtain expansions of cos (p cos <j>), sin (p cos #), by changing <f>
into J <t>. On comparing these expansions with Fourier's series,
we find expressions for ] m (p) as definite integrals, thus
Jo(p) = - J cos (p sin <t>)dit>, ] m (p) = - J Q cos (p sin $) cos m<t>d<t> (m even)
I f"
Jm(p) = T I Q sin (p sin <t>) sin m<j>d<t> (m odd).
It can easily be deduced that when m is any positive integer
Jm(p) = M QCOS (m<t>-p sin <t>)d<f>.
23. Bessel's Functions as Limits of Legendre's Functions^. The
system of orthogonal surfaces whose parameters are cylindrical co-
ordinates may be obtained as a limiting case of those whose para-
meters are polar co-ordinates, when the centre of the spheres moves
off to an indefinite distance from the portion of space which is con-
templated. It would therefore be expected that the normal forms
e 4j ]mMlm(i> would be derivable as limits of ^"jP^Ccos 9)m<j>,
and we shall show that this is actually the case. If O be the centre
of the spheres, take as new origin a point C on the axis of z, such
that OC=a; let P be a point whose polar co-ordinates are r, 0, <t>
referred to O as origin, and cylindrical co-ordinates p, z, <j> referred
to C as origin ; we have
P = r sin 0, z = r cos - a, hence (^ "P n (cos9) = sec"0 (l + ~j "P n (cos 8) .
Now let O move off to an infinite distance from C, so that a becomes
658
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
infinite, and at the same time let n become infinite in such a way
that n/a has a finite value X. Then
and it remains to find the limiting value of P B (cos 6). From the
series (15), it may be at once proved that
/ . e\ !
( sin 2J
where S is some number numerically less than unity and m is a fixed
finite quantity sufficiently large; on proceeding to the limit, we
have
T / Xp\ XV , XV , , . .
LPnlcOS I =1 -y-+ . K . ... + ( l) m S,
\ n/ 2* 2 2 . 4 2
.(2m) 2
where 81 is less than unity.
Hence
L F
n-co
Again, since
we have
hence
L n--P? (cos?-) =J m (p).
n^oo \ n l
It may be shown that Y (p) is obtainable as the limit of Q n (cos ^
the zonal harmonic of the second kind ; and that
24. Definite Integral Solutions of Bessel's Equation. Bessel's
equation of order m, where m is unrestricted, is satisfied by the
/m-J
e'p' (Pi) dt, where the path of integration is either
a curve which is closed on the Riemann's surface on which the
integrand is represented, or is taken between limits, at each of which
_ j)+i is zero. The equation is also satisfied by the expres-
sion J e
zP "
where the integral is taken along a closed
path as before, or between limits at each of which e* p ' ~~
vanishes.
The following definite integral expressions for Bessel's functions
are derivable from these fundamental forms.
-i)
where the real part of m+$ is positive.
mir.J m (p)
* sin '"
where the real parts of m+i, p are positive; if p is purely
imaginary and positive the upper limit may be replaced by oo .
-iiri.e""" sec tmr.J m (p)
-"Si-l-)
, cos sinh
under the same restrictions as in the last case; if p is a negative
imaginary number, we may put > for the upper limit.
If p is real and positive
2 /" co
JO(P) =- I sin (p cosh <t>)d<t>
/CO
cos (p cosh 4>)d4>.
25. Bessel's Functions with Imaginary Argument. The functions
with purely imaginary argument are of such importance in connexion
with certain differential equations of physics that a special notation
has been introduced for them. We denote the two solutions of the
equation
I du
by Io(r), K (r) when
and
= ;/o cosh
i r a
f C os (r si
sinh
The particular integral Ko(r) is so chosen that it vanishes when
r is real and infinite ; it is also represented by
""> cos v
and by
f "" J
7 - *du
J 1 V(tt 2 -l)
The solutions of the equation
du
are denoted by l m (r), K m (r), where
when > is an integer, and
K.M = (
We find also
Y m (ir) +i
cosh (r cos
26. The Asymptotic Series for Bessel's Functions. It may be
shown, by means of definite integral expressions for the Bessel's
functions, that
2 mte . it
C S ~ + ~
rmr , jr \ )
~ + 4~ P ) S
Y.(p) = - sec
P sin +-p -Q cos +=-
where P and Q denote the series
( 4 m 2 -i 2 )( 4 m 2 -3 2 )
I.2.(8p) 2
-
I.8p
l.2.3.(8p) 3
These series for P, Q are divergent unless m is half an odd integer,
but it can be shown that they may be used for calculating the values
of the functions, as they have the property that if in the calculation
we stop at any term, the error in the value of the function is less
than the next term; thus in using the series for calculation, we must
stop at a term which is small. In such series the remainder
after n terms has a minimum for some value of n, and for greater
values of n increases beyond all limits; such series are called semi-
convergent or asymptotic.
We have as particular cases of such series:
/T /7T \ ( I 2 I 2 'f S* )
- V^ sin (4-") I rur i.a'. 3 (8p) 4
when m is an integer,
rc'-i 2 , ( 4 m 2 -i 2 )( 4 m 2 -3 2 ) , I
27. The Bessel' s functions of degree half an odd integer are of special
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
659
importance in connexion with the differential equations of physics.
The two equations
dit d*u
are reducible by means of the substitutions u=e~*'v, u^e^'v to
the form vHi+* = o. If we suppose v to be a function of r only,
this last differential equation takes the form
so that v has the values
sin r/r, cos r/r;
in order to obtain more general solutions of the equation V 2 v+v=Q,
we may operate on
sin r/r, cos r/r
with the operator
Y /J__l d\
* n \dx' dy' dz)'
where Y n (x, y, z) is any spherical solid harmonic of degree n. The
result of the operation may be at once obtained by taking Y n (x, y, z)
for /(*, y, z) in the theorem (7'), we thus find as solutions, of
|-D=O, the expressions
. d n sin r , , , . d" cos r
Y.C*. y, z)- n , Yn(x, y, z} n ~-
By recurring to the definition of the function JmW, we see that
r 2 , r* I . /Fsin r
thus
Using the relation between Bessel's functions whose orders differ
by an integer, we have
It may be shown at once that
is a second solution of Bessel's equation of order n+J; thus the
differential equation ^v+v = o is satisfied by the expression
Y.<*. y, z),
and by the corresponding expression with a second solution of
Bessel's equation instead of Jn+iM; if S>n(ji, <j>) denotes a surface
harmonic of degree n, the expression
is a solution of the equation v*v+v = o.
The Bessel's functions of degree half an odd integer are the only
ones which are expressible in a closed form involving no trans-
cendental functions other than circular functions. It will be
observed that in this case the semi-convergent series for J m becomes
a finite one as the expressions P, Q then break off after a finite
number of terms.
28. The Zeros of Bessel's Functions. The determination of the
position of the zeros of the Bessel's functions, and the values of the
argument at which they occur, have been investigated by Hurwitz
(Math. Ann. vol. xxxiii.), and more completely by H. M. Macdonald
(Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vols. xxix.,xxx.). It has been shown that
the zeros of J n (z)/z" are all real and associated with the singular
point at infinity when n is real and > I , and that all the real zeros
of Jn(z)/z" when n is real and < I, and not an integer, are
associated with the essential singularity at infinity. When n is a
negative integer , J n (z)/z has, in addition, 2m real zeros co-
incident at the origin. When n= m v, m being a positive
integer, and I > i;> o, J n (z)/z has a .finite number 2m of zeros which
are not associated with the essential singularity. If is real, and
starts with any positive value, the zeros nearest the origin approach
it as n diminishes, two of them reaching it when n = i, and two
more reach it whenever n passes through a negative integral value ;
these zeros then become complex for values of n not integral. The
zeros of J n (z)/z" are separated by those of J^+iW/z", one zero of
the latter, and one only, lies between two consecutive zeros of
J ? (z)/z n . When n is real and > I, all the zeros of J n (z)/z" are
given by a formula due to Stokes ; the m' h positive zero in order of
magnitude is given by
8a 3-(8a^
where a = \v(2n+^m i). It has been shown by Macdonald
that the function K n (z.) has no real zeros unless = 2 + f where k
is an integer, when it has one real negative zero; and that K n (z)
has no purely imaginary zeros, and no zero whose real part is
positive, other than those at infinity. When i>n>o, K n (z) has
no zeros other than those at infinity, when 2>re>l,it has one
zero whose real part is negative, and when m-\-i~>n>m where m
is an integer, there are m zeros whose real parts are negative.
When n is an integer, K n (z) has n zeros with negative real parts.
29. Spheroidal Harmonics. For potential problems in which the
boundary is an ellipsoid of revolution, the co-ordinates to be used
are r, 8, <t> where in the case of a prolate spheroid
X = c-^r 2 i sinfl cos <f, y = c-<Jr' l sin 8 sin <f>, z = crcos0,
the surfaces r = ro, 8=6 a , <=</><> are confocal prolate spheroids,
confocal hyperboloids of revolution, and planes passing through
the axis of revolution. We may suppose r to range from I to ,
9 from o to TT, and <t> from o to 2x, every point in space has then
unique co-ordinates r, 6, 4>.
For oblate spheroids, the corresponding co-ordinates are r, 0, <t>
given by
sin cos 0, y =
sin sin 0, z = crcos0,
where
O< r < oo , o < < JT, O < <#> < 2jr ;
these may be obtained from those for the prolate spheroid by chang-
ing c into ic, and r into ir.
Taking the case of the prolate spheroid, Laplace's equation
becomes
d 5^ 2 ^V) . i d / .
Tr \ ^~ : > a7 \ +ihT? Te ( s
dV
(r 8 i)sin 2
and it will be found that the normal solutions are
= 0,
For the space inside a bounding spheroid the appropriate normal
forms are P"(r)P"(cos8) < ^nt<t>, where n, m are positive integers,
and for the external space
For the case of an oblate spheroid, P"(ir), Q(ir), take the place
of PT(r), Or(r).
30. Toroidal Functions. For potential problems connected with
the anchor-ring, the following co-ordinates are appropriate: If
A, B are points at the extremities of a diameter of a fixed circle, and
P is any point in the plane PAB which is perpendicular to the
plane of the fixed circle, let P = log(AP/BP), 0=/.APB, and let
<t> be the angle the plane APB makes with a fixed plane through the
axis of the circle. Let 6 be restricted to lie between ir and ir, a
discontinuity in its value arising as we pass through the circle, so
that within the circumference 6 is w on the upper side of the circle,
and IT on the lower side ; 8 is zero in the plane of the circle outside
the circumference; p may have any value between oo and oo , and
<any value between o and 2-n-. The position of a point is then uniquely
represented by the co-ordinates p, 0, <, which are the parameters
of a system of tores with the fixed circle as limiting circle, a system
of bowls with the fixed circle as common rim, and a system of planes
through the axis of the tores. If x, y, z are the co-ordinates of a
point referred to axes, two of which x, y are in the plane of the circle
and the third along its axis, we find that
r a sinh p a sinh p . a sin
[ *~cosh p-cos COS * y=cosh p-cos sm *' 2 ~ cosh p- cos 0'
where a is the radius of the fixed circle.
Laplace's equation reduces to
d_ ( sinhp t)V ) j)_ ( sinhp 9V ) I S>V _
dp \ P 2 dp 5 + d9 I P 2 de J "'"P 2 sinh p d<j? ~'
when P denotes V(cosh p cos 0). It can be shown that this
equation is satisfied by
Pr_4(cosh p) cos - cos
V (cosh p-cos ^Q.n^cosh p) sin ** sin m<#> '
the functions P_j(cosh p), QJ^fcosh p) required for the potential
problems, are associated Legendre's functions of degree n |, half
an odd integer, of integral order m, and of argument real and greater
than unity; these are known as toroidal functions. For the space
external to a boundary tore the function Q^_j(cosh p) must be
used, and for the internal space P"_j(cosh p).
66o
SPHERICAL HARMONICS
The following expressions may be given for the toroidal
functions:
(-O" n(n-j) C
JT n(n m j)J o (cosh p + sinh p cos <#>)" + i
cos m<t>
FfT n~^ I (cosh p + sinh p cos <)" 1 cos m<t>d<j>.
v ii(n y) Jo
cosh n<fr .
P_j(cosh p) =
o V2 cosh p 2 cosh <j>
V) A>g coth Ip
(cosh p
sinh p cosh w)"~a cosh mwdw
-i)n(-l) sinh
COS H(t>
r ^T\d<i>.
ir~ ' ./ (2 cosh p 2 cos #) + i v
The relations between functions for three consecutive values of
the degree or the order are
2n cosh pP^j(coshp) - (n -m + |)P + , (cosh p)
- (n+m i)P^_i (cosh p) = o.
P^fcosh p) + 2(m + i) coth pP^Xcosh p)
- (n - m - i) (n + m + J)P^ j (cosh p) = o,
with relations identical in form for the functions Q^_, (cosh p).
The function Qn_j(cosh p) is expansible in the form
, + i. n + i,e- 2 />),
which is useful for calculation of the function when p is not small.
P_}(cosh p) can also be expressed in terms of e"? by a somewhat
complicated formula.
31. Ellipsoidal Harmonics. In order to treat potential problems
in which the boundary surface is an ellipsoid, Lam6 took as co-
ordinates the parameters p, it, v of systems of confocal ellipsoids,
hyperboloids of one sheet, and of two sheets; these co-ordinates
are three roots of the equation
we thence find that
where oo^p'^A 2 , W<\?<W, and k*>i?>o.
We find from these values of x, y, z
and on applying the general transformation of Laplace's equation
that equation becomes
where , i>, f are defined by the formulae
which are equivalent to
p = kdn(kt, ki),n
where fci 2 , Ai' 2 denote the quantities i-fc 2 /* 2 ,
the complete elliptic integral
V I
and E(/i), E() satisfy the equations
of the parameters |, ;, f in terms of p, M, "> we find that the equation
satisfied by E(p) becomes
and E(M), EM satisfy equations in /, v respectively of identically
the same form ; this equation is known as Lame's equation.
If n be taken to be a positive integer, it can be shown that it
is possible in 2M+I ways so to determine p that the equation in
E(p) is satisfied by an algebraical function of degree n, rational in
P, V (p 2 A"). V(p 2 * 2 )- The functions so determined are called
Lame's functions, and the 2 + i functions of degree n are of one
of the four forms.
K(p) = OOP" + Qip"
L (p) = V p 2 -A 2 (ao
M(p) =
N(p) =
1 + oV" 3 +.
These are the four classes of Lame's functions of degree n; of the
functions K there are i+Jn, or %(n + i), according as n is even
or odd; of each of the functions L, M, there are %n, or (n i), and
of the functions N, there are Jn, or (n + i).
The normal forms of solution of Laplace's equation, applicable
to the space inside the ellipsoid, are the 2n + i products E(p) E(/i)
E(i>). It can be shown that the 2n + i values of p are real and
unequal.
It can be shown that, subject to certain restrictions, a function
of n and v, arbitrarily given over the surface of the ellipsoid p = pi,
can be expressed as the sum of products of Lame's functions of
M and v, in the form
to 2tt+l
L S
the potential function for the space inside the ellipsoid, which has
the arbitrarily given value over the surface of the ellipsoid, is
consequently
It can be shown that a second solution of Lame's equation is
F n (p) where
F.W =
this function F n (p) vanishes'at infinity as p""~', and is therefore adapted
to the space outside the bounding ellipsoid. The external potential
which has at the surface p = pi, the value
and K denotes
It can now be shown that Laplace's equation is satisfied by the
product E(p)EGOE(iO, where E(o) satisfies the differential equation
=o,
where n and p are arbitrary constants. On substituting the values
32. History and Literature. The first investigator in the subject
was Legendre, who introduced the functions known by his name,
and at present also called zonal surface harmonics; he applied
them to the determination of the attractions of solids of revolution.
Legendre's investigations are contained in a memoir of the Paris
Academy, Sur I' attraction des spMroides, published in 1785, and in a
memoir published by the Academy in 1787, Recherches sur la figure
des planetes ; his investigations are collected in his Exercices, and in
his Traite des functions elliptiques. The potential function was
introduced by Laplace, who also first obtained the equation which
bears his name; he applied spherical surface harmonics to the
determination of the potential of a nearly spherical solid, in his
memoir, Theorie des attractions des spheroides el de la figure des
planltes, published by the Paris Academy in 1785. Laplace was
the first to consider the functions of two angles, which functions
have consequently been known as Laplace's functions; his investi-
gations on these functions are given in the Mecanique celeste, tome ii.
livre iii., tome v. livre xi., and in the supplement to vol. v. The
notation P'"' was introduced by Dirichlet (see Crelle's Journal, vol.
xvii., " sur les series dont le terme general depend de deux angles "
&c. ; see also his memoir, " Ueber einen neuen Ausdruck zur^Bestim-
mung der Dichtigkeit einer unendlich diinncn Kugelschale," in the
Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, 1850). The name " Kugel-
functionen " was introduced by Gauss (see Collected Works, vi.
648). A direct investigation of the expression for the reciprocal
of the distance between two points in spherical surface harmonics
was given by Jacobi (Crelle's Journal, vol. xxvi., see also vol. xxxii.).
The functions of the second kind were first introduced ^ by Heine
(see his " Theorie der Anziehung eines Ellipspides," Crelle's Journal,
vol. xlii., 1851). The above-mentioned investigators employed
almost entirely polar co-ordinates; the use of Cartesian co-ordinates
for the expression of spherical harmonics was introduced by Kelvin
in his theory of the equilibrium of an elastic spherical shell (see
SPHEROID SPHERULITES
661
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1862), and also independently by^Clebsch
(see his paper, " Ueber die Reflexion an einer Kugelflache," Crelle's
Journal-, vol. Ixi., 1863). The general theory of spherical harmonics
of unrestricted degree, order and argument has been treated by Hob-
son (Phil. Trans., 1896) ; see also a paper by Barnes in the Quar. Journ.
Math. 39, p. 97- The functions which bear the name of Bessel
were first introduced by Fourier in his investigations on the con-
duction of heat (see his Theorie analytique de la chaleur, 1822); they
were employed by Bessel in the theory of planetary motion (see
the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, 1824). The functions which
are now known as Bessel's functions of degree half an odd integer
were employed by Poisson in the theory of the conduction of heat in
a solid spherical body (see the Journ. de I'ecole polyt., 1823, cah. 19).
The toroidal functions were introduced by C. Neumann (Theorie
der Elektricitats- und Warmevertheilung in einem Ringe, Halle,
1864), and independently by Hicks (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1881).
The ellipsoidal harmonics were first investigated by Lame in con-
nection with the stationary motion of heat in an ellipsoidal body
(see Liouville's Journal, 1839, pt. iv. The external ellipsoidal
harmonics were introduced by Liouville and Heine (see Liouville's
Journal, vol. x., and Crelle's Journal, vol. xxix.). The ellipsoidal har-
monics have been considered as expressed in Cartesian co-ordinates
by Green (see Collected Works), by Ferrers (see his treatise), and by
W. D. Niven (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1892). A method of representing
ellipsoidal harmonics in a form adapted for actual use in certain physi-
cal problems has been developed by G. H. Darwin (Phil. Trans.,
vol. 197).
The following treatises may be consulted: Heine, Theorie der
Kugelfunctionen (2nd ed., 1878, vol. i.; 1881, vol. ii.) ; this treatise
gives much information as to the history and literature of the
subject; Ferrers, Spherical Harmonics (Cambridge, 1881); Tod-
hunter, The Functions of Laplace, Lame and Bessel (Cambridge,
1875); Thomson and Tait, Natural Philosophy (1879), App. B-
Haentzschel, Reduction der Polentialgleichung auf gewohnliche Differ-
entialgleichungen (Berlin, 1893); F. Neumann, Beitrdge zur Theorie
der Kugelfunctionen (Leipzig, 1878) ; C. Neumann, Theorie der Bessel'-
schen Functionen (Leipzig, 1867); Ueber die nach Kreis-,Kugel- und
Cylinder-functionen fortschreitenden Entwickelungen (Leipzig, 1881) ;
Lommel, Studien uber die Bessel' schen Functionen (Leipzig, 1868);
Mathieu, Cours de physique mathematiqtie (Paris, 1873); Pockets,
Ueber die partielle Differentialgleichung A-j- 2 M=o (Berlin, 1891);
B6cher, Ueber die Reihenentwickelungen der Potentialtheorie (Leipzig,
1894); Gray and Mathews, Treatise on Bessel's Functions; Dini,
Serie di Fourier e altre rappresentazione . . . (Pisa, 1880); Graf and
Gubler, Einleitung in die Theorie der Bessel'schen Functionen
(Berne, 1898) ; Nielsen, Handbuch der Theorie der Cylinderfunktionen
(Leipzig, 1904); Whittaker, A Course of Modern Analysis (Cambridge,
1902); H. Weber, Die partiellen Differentialgleichungen der Physik
(Bremen, 1900); W. E. Byerly, Fourier's Series and Spherical, Cylin-
drical and Ellipsoidal Harmonics (Boston, 1893). (E. W. H.)
SPHEROID (Gr. er^atpa-etSTjj, like a sphere), a solid resem-
bling, but not identical with, a sphere in shape. In geometry,
the word is confined to the figures generated by an ellipse
revolving about a diameter. If the axis of revolution be the
major axis of the ellipse, the spheroid is " prolate "; if the minor
axis, " oblate "; if any other, " universal."
If the generating ellipse has for its equation * 2 /a 2 -r-y 2 /6 2 = l, and
revolves about the major axis, i.e. the axis of x, the volume of the
solid generated is %iraV*, and its surface is 2ir\b*+(ab/e) sin-Vj ,
where e denotes the eccentricity. If the curve revolve about
the minor axis, the volume is fJ 2 &, and the surface is7r|2o 2 +
(6 2 /e) log (l +e)/(l e) } . The figure of the earth is frequently referred
to as an oblate spheroid; this, however, is hardly correct, for the
geoid has three unequal axes. The Cartesian equation to a spheroid
assumes the forms x 2 /o 2 -Hy 2 +z 2 )/& s = I, for the prolate, and
(x 2 +3 2 )/a 2 +y 2 /i 2 = l, for the oblate, the origin being the centre and
the co-ordinate axes the axes of the original ellipse, * 2 /a 2 +;y 2 /fe 2 = l,
and the line perpendicular to the plane containing them.
In physics, the term " spheroidal state " is given to the following
phenomenon. If drops of a liquid be placeq on a highly heated
surface, for example, the top of a stove, the liquid forms a number
of tremulous globules which continually circulate internally. There
is no visible boiling, although the globule diminishes slowly in size.
The theory of the experiment is that the liquid is surrounded by an
elastic envelope of its vapour which acts, as it were, as a cushion
preventing actual contact of the drop with the plate. On the
formation of a similar protective cushion of vapour depends the
immunity of such experiments as plunging a hand into a bath of
molten metal.
SPHEROMETER (Gr. <r<f>cupa , a sphere, fiirpov, a measure),
an instrument for the precise measurement of the radius of a
sphere or the thickness of a thin plate. The usual form consists
of a fine screw moving in a nut carried on the centre of a small
three-legged table; the feet forming the vertices of an equilateral
triangle (see figure).
The lower end of the screw and those of the table legs are finely
tapered and terminate in hemispheres, so that each rests on a point.
If the screw has two turns of the
thread to the millimetre the head
is usually divided into 500 equal
parts, so that differences of o-ooi
millimetre may be measured without
using a vernier. A lens, however,
may be fitted, in order to magnify
the scale divisions. A vertical
scale fastened to the table indicates
the number of whole turns of the
screw and serves as an index for
reading the divisions on the head.
In order to measure the thickness
of a plate the instrument is placed
on a perfectly level plane surface
and the screw turned until the point
just touches; the exact instant
when it does so is defined by a
sudden diminution of resistance
succeeded by a considerable in-
crease. The divided head and scale
are read; the screw is raised; the
thin plate slipped under it ; and the
process is repeated. The difference
between the two readings gives
the required thickness. A contact-
lever, delicate level or electric contact arrangement may be
attached to the spherometer in order to indicate the moment of
touching more precisely than is possible by the sense of touch. To
measure the radius of a sphere e.g. the curvature of a lens the
spherometer is levelled and read, then placed on the sphere, adjusted
until the four points exert equal pressure, and read again. The
difference gives the thickness of that portion of the sphere cut off
by a plane passing through the three feet. Calling this distance
h, and the distance between the feet a, the radius R is given by
the formula R = (a 2 +3/i 2 )/6/;.
SPHERULITES (Gr. c^aipa, sphere, Xi0os, stone), in petrology
small rounded bodies which commonly occur in vitreous igneous
rocks. They are often visible in specimens of obsidian, pitch-
stone and rhyolite as globules about the size of millet seed or
rice grain, with a duller lustre than the surrounding glassy base
of the rock, and when they are examined with a lens they prove
to have a radiate fibrous structure. Under the microscope the
spherulites are of circular outline and are composed of thin
divergent fibres, which are crystalline and react on polarized
light. Between crossed nicols a black cross appears in the spheru-
lite; its axes are usually perpendicular to one another and parallel
to the crossed wires; as the stage is rotated the cross remains
steady; between the black arms there are four bright sectors.
This shows that the spherulite consists of radiate, doubly
refracting fibres which have a straight extinction; the arms of the
black cross correspond to those fibres which are extinguished.
The aggregate is too fine grained for us to determine directly of
what minerals it is composed.
Spherulites are commonest in acid glassy rocks like those
above mentioned, but they occur also in basic glasses such as
tachylyte. Sometimes they compose the whole mass; more
usually they are surrounded by a glassy or felsitic base. When
obsidians are devitrified the spherulites are often traceable,
though they may be more or less completely recrystallized or
silicified. In the centre, of a spherulite there may be a crystal
(e.g. quartz or felspar) or sometimes a cavity. Occasionally
spherulites have zones of different colours, _and while most
frequently spherical they may be polygonal, or irregular in
outline. In some New Zealand rhyolites the spherulites send
branching " cervicorn " processes (like stags' horns) outwards
through the surrounding glass of the rock. The name axiolites
is given to long, elliptical or band-like spherulites.
Occasionally spherulites are met with which are half an inch
or more in diameter. If the rock be pounded up fragments of
these can be picked out by hand and subjected to analysis, and
it is found that from their composition they may be regarded
as a mixture of quartz and acid felspar. Direct microscopic
evidence as to the presence of these minerals is rarely obtainable.
Some authors describe spherulites as consisting of felsite or
microfelsite, which also is supposed to be a cryptocrystalline
quartzofelspathic substance.
662
SPHINX
Very large and cavernous spherulites have been called litho-
physae; they are found in obsidians at Lipari, the Yellowstone
Park, &c. The characteristic radiate fibrous structure is usually
conspicuous, but the fibres are interrupted by cavities which are
often arranged as to give the spherulite a resemblance to a rose-
bud with folded petals separated by arching interspaces. Some
of these lithophysae are an inch or more in diameter. In the
crystallization of a glass there must be contraction, and it is
supposed that thus the concentric cavities arise. The steam
and other vapours in the magma would fill these empty spaces
and exert a powerful mineralizing action on the warm rock.
The presence of garnet, tridymite, fayalite and other minerals,
very abnormal in rhyolites in these cavities, in the lithophysae
is accounted for in this way. The fibres of these coarse spherulites
are often broad and seem to belong to alkali felspar (sanidine or
anorthoclase) embedded in tridymite and glass; by analogy it is
often inferred that the extremely tenuous fibres of ordinary
spherulites have the same composition.
Artificial glass which has not the right composition, or is
retained for too long a time in a furnace, sometimes crystallizes,
and contains spherulites which may be as large as a marble.
As the glass has little similarity in chemical composition to
volcanic obsidians these spherulites when analysed throw little
light on the mineral nature of spherulites in rocks. They show,
however that in viscous semi-solid glasses near their fusion point
crystallization tends to originate at certain centres and to spread
outwards, producing spherulitic structures. Many salts and
organic substances exhibit the same tendency, yielding beautiful
spherulite crystallizations when melted and cooled rapidly on a
microscopic slide.
There are many structures in rocks which are allied to spherulites
and usually grouped with them, though probably they are not
exactly of the same nature. Some are more vitreous, while others
are more perfectly crystalline than the true spherulites. Of the
former we mention the doubly refracting glassy spheroids common
in rhyolites and obsidians. They differ in no respect from the
surrounding hyaline base in ordinary light, but between crossed
nicols appear as rounded bodies faintly lighted, with a black cross
like that of the spherulites. They are portions of the glass which
are in a state of compression or strain and hence no longer isotropic.
In gelatin, celluloid and artificial glasses similar appearances are
occasionally seen. Opal, especially the variety known as hyalite,
exhibits the same phenomenon.
In the group of porphyries known as granophyres crystals of
quartz and felspar occur surrounded by a ground-mass which has a
radiate fibrous or spherulitic structure. The fibres consist of quartz
and felspar, usually in graphic intergrowth over considerable areas,
and often sufficiently coarse to be easily distinguishable by means of
the microscope. Often the quartz or the felspar of the spherulite
extinguishes simultaneously with a crystal of either of these minerals
lying in the centre of the aggregate. Exactly what the relationships
of the spherulites are to those of the obsidians has never been
cleared up; they are probably analogous growths but not identical.
The name granospheres has been given to these bodies. Another
group of radiate fibrous growths resembling spherulites in many
respects consists of minute feathery crystals spreading outwards
through a fine grained or glassy rock. In the variolites there are
straight or feathery felspar crystals (usually oligoclase) forming pale
coloured spherulites, a quarter to half an inch in diameter. The
same rocks often contain similar aggregates of plumose skeleton
crystals of augite. Many volcanic rocks have small lath-shaped
crystals of felspar or augite diverging from a common centre. To
distinguish these radiate crystal groups from the cryptocrystalline
spherulites they have been called sphaerocrystals. They are com-
monest in those rdcks which contain a fine ground-mass and have
been rapidly consolidated. Stellate groupings are frequent also
in secondary minerals, being very characteristic of natrolite, chlorite
and chalcedony; often the component prisms are very narrow and
regularly arranged so that in microscopic sections they give a black
cross exactly like that of the spherulites. (J. S. F.)
SPHINX (Gr. a<t>lyyei.v, to draw tight, squeeze), the Greek
name for a compound creature with lion's body and human
head. The Greek sphinx had wings and female bust, and the
male sphinx of Egypt (wingless) is distinguished as " andro-
sphinx " by Herodotus. The type perhaps originated in Egypt,
where figures of gods with human bodies and animal heads, and
compound animal forms like the gryphon were numerous from
very early times. The sphinx, however, is a perfectly clear and
well-defined type there, and is usually recumbent. The most
celebrated example is the Great Sphinx of Giza, 189 ft. long, a
rock carved into this shape, and from its situation likely to be a
work of the IVth Dynasty. The pattern of the wig-lappets has
been quoted to prove that it dates from the Xllth Dynasty,
but it is said that the peculiar disposition of the uraeus on
its forehead agrees with that in the earliest sculptures. The
face looks out due eastward from the pyramid field over the
Nile valley, and, according to the inscriptions of the XVIIIth
Dynasty in the shrine between the paws, it represented the sun-
god Harmachis. Sphinxes of granite, &c., occur of the XII th
Dynasty and later. A pair from Tanis are attributed by Flinders
Petrie to Pepi I. of the Vlth Dynasty. The heads of the sphinxes
are royal portraits, and apparently they are intended to represent
the power of the reigning Pharaoh. The king as a sphinx, in
certain religious scenes, makes offerings to deities; and elsewhere
he tears his enemies in pieces. In the Saite period accordingly the
figure of the sphinx was used as a hieroglyph for neb, " master,"
" lord." Recumbent sphinxes were especially used in pairs to
guard the approach to a temple, and it may be conjectured
that the Great Sphinx was sculptured at Giza to guard the
entrance of the Nile valley. The name of the sphinx in Egyptian
was Hu.
The great temple avenues at Thebes are lined with recumbent
rams, true sphinxes (a few late instances), and with the so-called
criosphinxes or ram-sphinxes, having lion bodies and heads of
the sacred animal of Ammon. A falcon-headed sphinx was
dedicated to Harmachis in the temple of Abu Simbel, and is
occasionally found in sculptures representing the king as Horus,
or Mont, the war-god. It is distinguishable from the gryphon
only by the absence of wings.
W. M. F. Petrie, History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the
XVIth Dynasty, p. 51, &c.; L. Borchardt, " Das Alter der grossen
Sphinx," in Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Academy (1897), p. 752.
Baedeker's Egypt; Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de I' art tgyptien (Paris,
1878), vol. ii. pi. 26, 35, text, pp. 405, 410. (F. LL. G.)
From Egypt the figure of the sphinx passed to Assyria, where
it appears with a bearded male head on cylinders; the female
sphinx, lying down and furnished with wings, is first found
in the palace of Esar-haddon (7th cent. B.C.). Sphinxes have
been found in Phoenicia, one at least being winged and another
bearded. They are copies of the Egyptian, both in form and
posture, wearing the pshent and the uraeus, but distinguished
by having the Assyrian wings. The sphinx is common en Persian
gems, and the representations are finely executed. On a Persian
intaglio are two sphinxes face to face, each wearing a tiara and
guarding a sacred plant which is seen between them; but the
sphinx, whether of the Egyptian or the Assyrian type, is not
found in Persian sculptures (Perrot and Chipiez, History of
Art in Persia, Eng. trans., London, 1892). In Asia Minor the
oldest examples are the " Hittite " sphinxes of Euyuk. They
are Egyptian sphinxes treated in the Assyrian style. They are
not recumbent, and the hair falling from the head is curled, not
straight, as in the true Egyptian sphinx. An ancient female
sphinx, but wingless, stands on the sacred road near Miletus.
Sphinxes of the usual Greek type are represented seated on each
side of two doorways in an ancient frieze found by Sir Charles
Fellowes at Xanthus in Lycia, and now in the British Museum.
The same type appears on the early sculptures of the half-Greek,
half-Oriental temple at Assus. In the early art of Cyprus the
half-way house between Asia and Greece sphinxes of this type
are not uncommon. On the other hand, on a gem of Phoenician
style found at Curium in Cyprus there appear two male (bearded)
sphinxes, with the tree of life between them. With regard to
Greece proper, in the third tomb on the acropolis of Mycenae
were found six small golden sphinxes; they are beardless, but
the sex is doubtful. The bust is not that of a woman, though
the head and face are distinctly feminine. A shallow cap covers
the head, and from the middle of it there is always a sort of tail
or plume, blown back by the wind. It is curious that, though
the sphinx (as also the gryphon) were thus common in the
Mycenaean period, the words <r<#7 and ypbf/ do not occur in
Homer. Helbig suggested that the word KVUV (dog), which is
SPIDER-MONKEYSPIDERS
663
connected with the sphinx in the tragedians, was used by Homer
for the sphinx, but this theory has not met with general accep-
tance. In the ancient tomb discovered in 1877 at Spata near
Athens (which represents a kindred but somewhat later art than
the tombs at Mycenae) were found female winged sphinxes
carved in ivory or bone. Sphinxes on glass plates have been
found in graves at Camirus in Rhodes and on gold plates in
Crimean graves. Sphinxes were represented on the throne of
Apollo at Amyclae and on the metopes at Selinus; in the best
period of Greek art a sphinx was sculptured on the helmet of the
statue of Athena in the Parthenon at Athens; and sphinxes
carrying off children were sculptured on the front feet of the
throne of Zeus at Olympia. There is also an Athenian vase from
Capua in the form of a sphinx painted white. It is winged, and
the face is smooth and delicate in contour. Though Greek
sphinxes are in general winged, there have been found in Boeotia
terra-cotta figures of wingless sphinxes. Roman sphinxes of a
late period have sometimes a man's, sometimes a woman's
head with an asp on the forehead. An indefinable man-lion
(nara sinha} represents the fourth avatar of the Indian Vishnu,
and is found also among the Tibetans.
In Greek mythology the most famous sphinx was that of
Thebes in Boeotia, first mentioned by Hesiod (Theog. 326),
who calls her the daughter of Orthus and Chimaera. According
to Apollonius (iii. 5, 8), she was the daughter of Typhon and
Echidna, and had the face of a woman, the feet and tail of a lion
and the wings of a bird. She dwelt at the south-east corner of
Lake Copais on a bald rocky mountain called Phicium (mod.
Fagas), which was derived from <!?, the Aeolic form of a4>iy^.
The Muses taught her a riddle and the Thebans had to guess it.
Whenever they failed she carried one of them off and devoured
him. The riddle was this: " What is that which is four-footed,
three-footed, and two-footed?" At last Oedipus guessed
correctly that it was man; for the child crawls on hands
and feet, the adult walks upright, and the old man supports
his steps with a stick. Then the sphinx threw herself down
from the mountain.
The story of the sphinx's riddle first occurs in the Greek
tragedians. Milchhofer believes that the story was a mere
invention of Greek fancy, an attempt to interpret the mysterious
figure which Greek art had borrowed from the East. On the
other hand, he holds that the destroying nature of the sphinx
was much older, and he refers to instances in both Egyptian
and Greek art where a sphinx is seen seizing and standing upon
a man. And, whereas the Theban legend is but sparingly
illustrated in Greek art, the figure of the sphinx appears
more commonly on tombs, sculptured either in the round or
in relief. From this Milchhofer seems to infer that the sphinx
was a symbol of death.
Among the remains of the Mayan culture in Yucatan are
found examples of sphinxes, male and female, which are not
unlike those of Egypt and Asia Minor.
Milchhofer, in Mitth. d. deutsch. archaol. Instil, in Athen (1879),
p. 46 sea.', J. Ilberg, Die Sphinx in der griechischen Sage und Kunst
(1895); Sir R. C. Jebb's edition of Sophocles, Oed. Tyrann., app.,
note 12. (J. M. M.)
SPIDER-MONKEY, the English title of a group of tropical
American monkeys known to the natives of Brazil by the name
coaita, and to zoologists as A teles., in allusion to the imperfectly-
developed thumb. They take their English name from the
slimness of the body, the elongated limbs, and the long tail, the
under surface of the prehensile extremity of which is naked.
The thumb is either rudimentary or wanting, so that the hands
act merely as hooks in climbing. The absence of woolly under-
fur, the less compressed nails, and the broader partition between
the nostrils distinguishes them from the woolly spider-monkeys
(Br achy teles.) The species are numerous, and the most active
and thoroughly arboreal of all American monkeys. The prehen-
sile tail is employed not only as a means of suspension, but also
to convey food to the mouth. These monkeys generally go
about in small parties, high up in the trees; and, like the other
members of the group, are comparatively silent. Their food
consists chiefly of fruits and leaves. (See PRIMATES.)
SPIDERS, the common English name of Arachnida (q.v.) of
the order Araneae, resembling the Pedipalpi in many structural
points, but differing from them as well as from all other Arachnida
in retaining short abdominal appendages known from their
silk-manipulating function as spinnerets or spinning mamillae,
with which are associated silk glands. It is probably owing to
the possession of such glands and the varied purposes for which
the silk is used that spiders as a group far surpass the other
orders of Arachnida, with the possible exception of the Acari
(mites and ticks), in diversity of form and of size, in numbers of
genera and species, in extent of geographical distribution, and in
adaptation to varied habitats. Except in the extreme north and
south, and on the tops of the highest mountains, where there is
no insect life as food supply, spiders are found all over the world,
even in isolated oceanic islands. They occur up mountain
slopes as far as vegetation extends, in tropical valleys and forests,
in open grassy plains, in sandy deserts, and even in fresh-water
ponds and between tide-marks on the seashore. Some are
nocturnal, some diurnal; some catch their prey by speed of foot,
some by cunningly lying hid, some by means of silken nets. The
phenomena known as " protective resemblance," or similarity
to inanimate objects or vegetation, and the kindred phenomenon
of " mimicry," or beneficial likeness to certain protected species
of animals, are common in the group. In these particulars,
considered in their entirety, spiders show a marked contrast to
other Arachnida, such as the scorpions, pedipalps, book-scorpions
and so-called harvest spiders, which by comparison are remark-
ably uniform, within the limits of the orders, in structure, habits
and other respects. Spiders, in short, must be regarded as the
most highly organized and the most successful members of the
class Arachnida.
Their success in the struggle for existence, as already indicated,
must be assigned in a great measure to the possession of silk
glands and to their power of manipulating the silk for a variety
of purposes. Several facts point to the conclusion that the
primary use of this secretion was the formation of egg-cases or
cocoons by the female, for this is the only constant use for which
the silk is employed, without exception, by all species. The
second step in the evolution of spinning instincts was probably
the making of a silken chamber for the reception of the cocoon
itself and for the protection of the mother while guarding it and
her newly-hatched young. If an aperture for ingress and egress,
for purposes of feeding, were left in the wall of such a chamber,
there would arise in a rudimentary form what is known as the
tubular nest or web; and the next important step was possibly
the adoption of such a nest as a permanent abode for the spider.
Some spiders, like the Drassidae and Salticidae, have not advanced
beyond this stage in architectural industry; but next to the cocoon
this simple tubular retreat whether spun in a crevice or burrow
or simply attached to the lower side of a stone is the most
constant feature to be observed in the spinning habits of spiders.
From this starting-point the evolution of web-making seems to
have proceeded along two main divergent lines. Along one line
there was a gradual elaboration of the tube until it culminated,
so far as structural complexity is concerned, in the so-called trap-
door nests or burrows of various families; along the other line
the tubular retreat either retains its primitive simplicity in
association with a new structure, the snare or net, or is entirely
superseded by the latter.
Trap-door nests are made by spiders belonging to two widely
different groups, namely the Lycosidae or wolf-spiders, to which
the true tarantula (q.v.) belongs, and the Mygalomorphae,
containing the species which construct the best-known types of
this style of burrow. Although there is no direct genetic
affinity between the spiders of these two groups, an interesting
parallelism in their habits may be traced. In both there are
species which form no nest or burrow, others which construct
a simple silk-lined tunnel in the soil, and others which close the
aperture of the burrow with a hinged door; while both share
the habit of lining the burrow with silk to prevent the infall of
loose sand or mould; and the species which make an open burrow
close the aperture with a sheet of silk in the winter during
66 4
SPIDERS
hibernation and open it again in the spring. Possibly from this
habit was developed the instinct to build a door with a movable
hinge. In the trap-door species of Lycosidae, like, for instance,
Lycosa opifex of the Russian steppes, the hinge is weak and the
lid of the burrow is kept normally shut by being very much
thicker and heavier at its free margin opposite the hinge so that
it readily falls by its own weight. In the burrows made by the
Mygalomorphae, on the contrary, the hinge is strong and highly
elastic, its component silken threads being laid on in such a way
that the door shuts with a snap when the occupant has passed
in or out. The lid is sometimes thin and wafer-like as in the
burrow of the species of Nemesia, sometimes thick and cord-like
as in that of the species of Cteniza or Pachylomerus. Its upper
side is always covered by the spider with pieces of the vegetation
growing hard by, so that, when the door is closed, the position
of the burrow is completely concealed. If an attempt be made
by any enemy to lift the lid, the spider seizes its inner side with
his fangs and striking his claws into the walls of the burrow offers
the greatest possible resistance to the efforts of the intruder.
When on the watch for prey the spider slightly raises the lid and,
peeping through the chink, darts like a flash upon any beetle
or fly that unwittingly passes within reach. Quite commonly
the burrow has a second passage running obliquely upwards
from the main passage to the surface of the soil, and this sub-
sidiary track may itself be shut off from the main branch by an
inner door, so that when an enemy has forced an entrance through
the main door, the spider retreats behind the second, leaving the
intruder to explore the seemingly empty burrow.
There is no doubt that the primary influence that has guided
the evolution of the architecture of the burrowing spiders has
been that great necessity for the preservation of life, avoidance
of enemies and protection from adverse physical conditions
like rain, cold or drought. And when we turn to the other line
along which the web-building instinct has been developed we
find that the primary guiding influence has been that second great
vital necessity, namely the necessity of getting food. Reference
has already been made to the silken tube or tent, of simple
structure, with an orifice at one or both ends, as the possible
origin of all snares, however complex they may be. Perhaps the
most rudimentary form of snare arose from the spinning of
threads round the mouth of the tube to hold it in place. Be that
as it may, the snare in many instances, as in that of theAgalenidae
(Tegenaria, Agalena), a family closely allied to the Lycosidae,
is a horizontal sheet of webbing, upon which the spider runs,
continuous with the lower half of the aperture of the tube, of
which it is simply an extension. A very similar sheet is spun
by a species of Linyphia, one of the Argyopidae, but in this case
there is no tube connected with the web and the spider hangs
suspended beneath the horizontal netting. Snares of another
type consisting of a tangled mass of threads amongst which the
spiders pick their way with ease, but which are impassable to
insects, are spun by members of the Theridiidae and Pholcidae;
but by common consent the so-called orbicular web, so character-
istic of the Argyopidae but by no means confined to them, is
regarded as manifesting the greatest perfection of instinct in
snare-spinning. These webs, which are typically subcircular in
form, consist of a system of threads radiating from a common
centre and crossed at intervals, and approximately at right
angles, by a series of concentric lines, the whole being suspended
in a triangular, quadrangular or polygonal framework formed
of so-called foundation lines, attached to the branches or leaves
of trees or other firm objects in the neighbourhood. Passing
back from the centre of the web to the underside of an adjoining
leaf or some other sheltered spot runs a single thread, the trap
line affording passage to the spider to and from the sheltered
spot and the snare itself. At whatever spot an insect becomes
entangled in the frame, the vibration set up by its struggles is
transmitted along the nearest radiating thread to the centre
and thence up the trap line to the shelter where the occupant
lurks awaiting the signal. No sooner is the vibration perceived
than the spider descends with all speed to the centre, and by
feeling the ends of the radiating lines learns which is ashake
and rapidly, without the possibility of mistake, makes its way
to the entangled insect. The probable reason for the wall-lines
being concentric is that lines passing over the radii as nearly as
possible at right angles are the shortest that can be laid on; they
therefore use up a smaller quantity of silk and take a snorter
time to spin than threads crossing the radii in any other direction;
and at the same time they afford them the greatest possible
support compatible with delicacy and strength of construction.
On account of its delicacy no web is more difficult to see than
one of the orbicular type above described. Its whereabouts is
thus, to a great extent, concealed both from enemies searching
for spiders and from insects suitable for food; and its open
meshwork of strong threads makes it much less liable to be
beaten down by rain or torn to shreds by winds than if it were
a flat sheet of closely woven silk. In constructing, therefore, a
snare of radiating and concentric lines, it seems that a spider
economizes both time and silk and in addition renders the
web as strong and as serviceable and yet as delicate and invisible
as possible.
Perfect orbicular webs are made by many genera of Argyopidae
(Zilla, Mela, Gasteracantha) , the best-known example being that
of the common garden spider of England, Aranea or Epeira
diademata; but these webs are not associated with any tubular
retreat except such as are made under an adjoining leaf or in
some nook hard by. Some tropical members of the family
belonging to the genus Nephela, however, spin a web which is
intermediate in structure between that of Aranea and the com-
plete sheet-like web of Agalena. It covers an area of about one-
third of a circle and its radiating threads diverge from the mouth
of a funnel-shaped tube resembling in every respect the tube of
the last-mentioned genus. Again some species of Dictyna,
belonging to the Amaurobiidae, also have a tubular retreat
opening on to the surface of a snare in which a crude attempt
at a radial and concentric arrangement of the threads is per-
ceptible. The interest of these two types of web lies in the
fact that they bridge over the structural gap between the simple
sheet-web of Agalena and the perfected orb-web of Aranea.
Dictyna may be cited as an example of a group of spiders,
sometimes called the Cribellata, which have certain spinning
glands and appliances not possessed by others. These glands
are represented externally by a special plate, the cribellum,
which lies in front of the ordinary spinning mamillae, and by a
comb of short bristles, the calamistrum, placed in the penultimate
segment of the left of the last pair. By means of the calamistrum
the silk secreted by the cribellum is teased into a fine thread
which is twisted round the main threads of the web, giving it a
very characteristic woolly or flocculent appearance.
There are many other uses to which silk is put, besides those
mentioned above. By trailing a thread behind them spiders
are able to drop from any height to the ground and to retrace
their steps with certainty to a particular spot. The possession
of silk-glands has also profoundly influenced the geographical
distribution of spiders and has enabled them to cross arms of
the sea and establish themselves on isolated oceanic islands which
most of the orders of Arachnida are unable to reach. This is
effected by the so-called habit of " ballooning " practised by
very young spiders, which float through the air, often at great
altitudes, in the direction of the prevalent winds. It was
formerly supposed that this custom was peculiar to a single
species, which was called the " gossamer " spider from the fact
that the floating webs, when brought to the earth by rain or
intercepted by bushes and trees, coat the foliage or grass with a
sheeting of gossamer-like silk; but the habit is now known to '
be practised by the newly-hatched young of a great variety of
species belonging to several distinct families.
As a commercial product spider-silk has been found to be
equal, if not superior, to the best silk spun by lepidopterous
larvae; but the cannibalistic propensities of spiders, making it
impossible to keep more than one in a single receptacle, coupled
with the difficulty of getting them to spin freely in a confined
space, have hitherto prevented the silk being used on any
extensive scale for textile fabrics.
SPIDERS
665
The methods of catching prey adopted by spiders are extremely
varied. The nets or snares are highly efficient for this purpose.
Amongst the threads, which entangle the wings and legs of inter-
cepted prey, the spiders are perfectly at home and can pounce
on the struggling victim at once if it be small and harmless or
keep at a respectful distance, checking all efforts at escape, if
it be poisonous or strong. If in the latter case the spider be
afraid to come to close quarters, various devices for securing it
are resorted to. The Theridiidae eject on to the insect from their
spinning mamillae drops of liquid adhesive silk; the Argyopidae,
steadying it with the tips of their long front legs, sweep additional
strands of silk over it with the legs of the hinder pair; the
Agalenidae, attaching a long thread to a point hard by, run
round and round the victim in circles, gradually winding it up
beyond all hope of breaking loose. Two genera of Argyopidae
(Hyptiotes and Theridiosoma) construct spring-nets out of their
incomplete webs of the orbicular type. To the web is attached
a trap-line which when drawn taut holds the snare stretched
and tight, and when relaxed loosens the whole structure so
that the threads fall together. When an insect strikes the web
the spider loosens his hold of the trap-line, thus enveloping the
victim in a tangle of threads which would otherwise not come into
contact with it. Spiders which spin no snare are dependent
for capturing prey for the most part upon their quickness or
powers of lying concealed. Many Thomisidae lurk amongst the
stamens and petals of flowers, which they closely match in colour,
waiting to seize the insects which visit the blossoms for nectar.
Examples of Selenops (Clubionidae) He flat and absolutely still
on the bark of trees, to which their coloration assimilates, and
spring like a flash of light upon any insect that touches their
legs; the Lycosidae dart swiftly upon their prey; and the Saltlcidae,
' which compared with other spiders have keen powers of vision,
stealthily stalk it to within leaping distance, then, gathering
their legs together, cover the intervening space with a spring and
with unerring aim seize it and bury their fangs in its body.
One genus of Thomisidae (Phognarachne), which inhabits the
Oriental region, adopts the clever device of spinning on the surface
of a. leaf a sheet of web resembling the fluid portions of a splash
of bird's dung, the more solid central portions being represented
by the spider itself, which waits in the middle of the patch to
seize the butterflies or other insects that habitually feed on birds'
excrement and are attracted to the patch mistaking it for their
natural food.
The sexes of spiders are distinct. Except in the case of the
water-spider (Argyroneta) the males are smaller, sometimes very
much smaller, than the females, but have proportionately longer
legs and smaller bodies. When adult the males may always be
distinguished from the females by the presence of a pair of horny
intromittent organs, one of which is lodged in the terminal seg-
ment of each palpus or appendage of the second pair. In its
simplest form this is a hollow flask-shaped horny piece, con-
sisting of a dilated basal portion and a terminal spiniform portion
with an orifice at the apex; but its structure is frequently com-
plicated by accessory processes and outgrowths which aid copula-
tion and serve to protect the delicate point from injury. In the
breeding season the male deposits drops of sperm on a sheet of
webbing, picks it up in these flasks by means of capillary attrac-
tion and carries it about until he falls in with a female. During
pairing he thrusts the tip of these organs into the seminal vesicles
of the female and the eggs are fertilized as they pass out of the
oviduct. Cases of parthenogenetic reproduction, or reproduction
without the intervention of the male, have been recorded in
the case of two genera (Filistata and Tegenaria), and may be
commoner than is usually supposed. All spiders are oviparous.
The number of eggs produced at a time varies enormously accord-
ing to the species, from about half a dozen, more or less, in some
ant-mimicking Atlidae or jumping spiders to many hundreds in
the larger orbicular- webbed spiders of the family Argyopidae.
The first act of the female after oviposition is to wrap her eggs in
a casing of silk commonly called the cocoon. The cocoon varies
greatly in size, shape and consistency according to the nature
of the spider that makes it. Sometimes, as in Pholcus, it is
merely a thin network of silk just sufficient to hold the eggs
together. More often it consists of a thick felting of silk, either
spun in one continuous piece into a globular form, as in the
Aviculariidae, or composed of two plate-like pieces, an upper
and a lower, united at the edges and lenticular in shape, as in
some of the Lycosidac. Sometimes it is woolly and flocculent,
sometimes smooth like parchment, and its shape depends in a
large measure upon the habits of the female, towards her offspring.
As a rule terrestrial spiders guard the cocoon in the permanent
burrow, as in the trap-door spiders, or in the silken retreat which
acts as a temporary nursery, as in the Salticidae. Other species
of wandering habits carry the cocoon about with them, sometimes
attached to the spinnerets, as in the Lycosidae, sometimes
tucked under the thorax, as in the large tropical house-spider,
Heteropoda regia, one of the Clubionidae. The females of some
snare-spinning species, like the Pholcidae, carry it in their jaws;
but in the case of the Argyopidae the females usually leave the
cocoon to its fate as soon as it is constructed, sometimes rolling
it in a leaf, sometimes attaching it by a stalk to a branch. It
is in this and related families that the greatest diversity in the
colour and form of the cocoon is found. In these spiders, too,
the newly-hatched young shift for themselves as soon as they
emerge from the cocoon; in others that guard the cocoon the
young stay for a longer or shorter time under their mother's
protection, those of the wandering Lycosidae climbing on her back
to be carried about with her wherever she goes. There is no
metamorphosis during growth such as occurs in some insects,
the young being hatched with its full complement of appendages
and only differing from its parents in characters of comparatively
minor importance. Growth is accompanied by a succession of
moults, the spider emerging from its old skins by means of a
fracture which extends along the front and sides of the cephalo-
thorax just beneath the edge of the carapace. It is only at the
final moult that the sexual organs are mature, the two sexes
being alike in the earlier stages of growth. Until maturity is
reached the spider has the power to repair lost or damaged limbs.
If a limb be lost at an early stage it may be re-grown in perfection;
but at later stages it is only imperfectly reproduced and is
shorter and thinner than the other limbs. Rapidity of growth
and longevity vary greatly according to circumstances and to
the species. In northern and temperate latitudes where insects
disappear in the winter, species of Argyopidae like Aranea diade-
mata, live only for a single season. The young emerge from the
cocoon in the early spring, grow through the summer, and reach
maturity in the early autumn. The sexes then pair and perish
soon after the female has constructed her cocoon. Species of
other families (Lycosidae, Clubionidae) may live for a few seasons,
hibernating in the soil or amongst dead leaves; and examples
of the larger spiders (Aviculariidae) have been kept alive in
captivity for several years.
Owing to the smaller size of the male and the greater voracity
of the female, the male makes his advances to his mate at the
risk of his life and is not infrequently killed and eaten by her
either before or after pairing has been effected. Fully aware of
the danger, he pays his addresses with extreme caution, frequently
waiting for hours in her vicinity before venturing to come to
close quarters. Males of the Argyopidae hang on the outskirts
of the webs of the females and signal their presence to her by
jerking the radial threads in a peculiar manner. Other web-
spinning spiders (Tegenaria) have somewhat similar habits; and
the male of the park- web spider (Atypus), one of the Mygalo-
morphae, taps the walls of the tubular web of the female before
daring to bite a hole in it and descend into her burrow. Most
curious of all is the courtship of the males of some species of
Salticidae, or jumping spiders, which are decorated with plumes
or coloured stripes or iridescent patches. These they display
before her, posing and performing extraordinary antics in her
presence exactly as cock birds behave towards their hens. Lastly,
the males of some species of spiders differ from the females in
possessing stridulating organs consisting of horny ridges and
spikes and lodged either between the mandible and palpus as in
some species allied to Linyphia, one of the Argyopidae, or between
666
SPIDERS
the cephalo-thorax and abdomen as in Steatoda, one of the
Theridiidae and Cambridgea, one of the Agalenidae. It is believed
that the males of these species signal to their females by means
of the sound these organs emit. The greatest disparity in size
between the sexes is met with in the tropical genus Nephila,
the females of which are gigantic representatives of the Argyopi-
dae. The male, however, is a veritable pigmy beside the female,
and during copulation presents the appearance of a parasite
attached to her abdomen. It has been suggested that the
diminutive size of the male is of great advantage to him during
courtship, because he is enabled to move easily thereby to escape
from her clutches should she turn upon him with hostile intent.
All spiders possess a pair of poison-glands, one in each of the
chelicerae or mandibles and opening by means of a duct at the
tip of the fang. The primary function of this poison is to kill
the prey upon which they feed, its action being very rapid upon
insects. In a great majority of cases, however, it is comparatively
innocuous to human beings, despite legends to the contrary
that have arisen in connexion with certain species like the
tarantula. The bite, however, of any spider, strong enough to
pierce the skin, may give rise to a certain amount of local inflam-
mation and pain depending principally upon the amount of
poison injected. The bite, for example, of large species of the
family Aviculariidae, sometimes called Mygales, and sometimes,
but erroneously, known as tarantulas, species which have fangs
half an inch long and as sharp as needles and a considerable
quantity of poison, may be very painful, though seldom serious
provided the health of the patient be good. There is one possible
exception, however, to the innocuous nature of the poison and
this is supplied by the species of the genus Lathrodectus, one of
the Theridiidae. There is no actual proof that this spider is
more poisonous than others, but it is a significant fact that its
species, inhabiting countries as widely separated as Chile,
Madagascar, Australia, New Zealand and South Europe are
held in great fear by the indigenous population, and many stories
are current of serious or fatal results following their bites.
Many of the species of these spiders, moreover, are very conspicu-
ously coloured, being either wholly black or black relieved by
fiery red spots, forcibly suggesting that they are warningly
coloured. Some of the species of Aviculariidae also appear to be
warningly coloured with black or black and red, and their colora-
tion is associated with the urticating nature of their bristles,
which makes them highly unpalatable to vertebrate foes. So
far as is known, however, only the large spiders belonging to
this group possess this special means of defence, and in many
other species this is accompanied by highly-developed stridu-
lating organs resembling those of rattlesnakes and scorpions
in function. Others again, like Gasteracantha and Acrosoma,
belonging to the Argyopidae, are armed with sharp and strong
abdominal spines, and these spiders are hard-shelled like beetles
and are spotted with black on a reddish or yellow ground, their
spines shining with steel-blue lustre. The majority of spiders,
however, are soft-skinned and succulent, and are tasty morsels
for insectivorous reptiles, birds and mammals. Hence as a very
general rule the coloration makes for concealment under natural
conditions of existence, and the instincts which lead to conceal-
ment are very highly developed. As instances of procryptic
or celative coloration may be mentioned that of the species of
the genus Dolomedes, one of the Lycosidae, which lives amongst
reeds and is marked with a pair of longitudinal yellow lines which
harmonize with the upright stalks of the vegetation, and Lycosa
picta, which lives on the sand, can scarcely be seen on account
of its mottled pattern: Sparassus smargdulus and the species of
Pecucetia, which are found amongst grass or low green herbage,
are mostly green in colour, and Sallicus scenicus is banded with
white and black to match the grey tint of the rocks and stone walls
on which it hunts its prey. Similar instances of protective colora-
tion could be cited without end. Sometimes the shape of the
spider combines with the colour to produce the same effect, as in
the species of Uloborus, which as they hang in thin shabby-looking
webs exactly resemble fragments of wind-blown rubbish. The
success of procryptic coloration depends, however, very largely
upon stillness, and the instinct to keep stationary without moving
a limb is a marked characteristic of all spiders unless engaged in
hunting or fleeing from imminent danger. The instinct reaches
its highest development in the phenomenon miscalled " death
feigning." Spiders of various families will, when alarmed, lie
absolutely still with legs tucked up and allow themselves to be
pushed and rolled, and handled in various ways without betraying
that they are alive by the slightest movement. But it would
be absurd to suppose that they are in reality pretending to be
dead, because there is no reason to think they can have any
knowledge of death. They are merely practising the inherited
instinct to He motionless, movement being the only indication
of the presence of living prey known to many insectivorous
animals. When concealment is no longer possible terrestrial
species, like the Lycosidae, dart swiftly to the nearest shelter
afforded by crevices in the soil, stones, fallen leaves or logs of
wood, while those that live in bushes, like the Argyopidae, drop
straight to the ground and lie hidden in the earth or in the fallen
vegetation beneath.
The extent to which procryptic coloration and instincts
favouring concealment are developed indicates that generation
after generation spiders have been subjected to persecution
from enemies. No doubt large numbers are devoured by
insectivorous birds, mammals and reptiles, but the mortality
due to them and other foes sinks into insignificance beside that
caused by the persecution of hymenopterous insects of the
families Ichneumonidae and Pompilidae, especially of the latter,
many species of which systematically ransack the country for
spiders wherewith to feed their young in the breeding season.
It is no exaggeration to say that countless thousands of spiders
of all families are annually destroyed by these insects, and there
is no reason to doubt that destruction on at least as great a scale
has been going on for centuries, too many even to guess at.
Hence it is probable that no factor has had a greater influence
than these wasps in moulding the protective instincts and habits
of spiders. One interesting phenomenon in spider-life seems to
be directly and certainly traceable to this influence, and that is
mimicry of ants. In several families of spiders, but principally
in those like the Clubionidae and Salticidae, which are terrestrial
in habits, there are species which not only live amongst ants,
but so closely resemble them in their shape, size, colour and
actions that it requires a practised eye to distinguish the Arachnid
from the insect. Now the Pompilidae or mason wasps provision
their cells with insects of many different kinds, as well as with
spiders; but, of the hundreds of species of these wasps that have
been described from different parts of the world, only one is
known to use ants for this purpose; and this species is not one
that preys upon spiders. On the other hand it has been specially
recorded of two of the species of spider-destroyers that they have
great dislike and apparent fear of these little poisonous Hyrneno-
ptera. So, too, does it appear that ants are entirely immune to the
attacks of Ichneumonidae, which destroy hosts of other insects
and of spiders by laying their eggs upon their bodies. But
since ants are not persecuted by these two families of Hymeno-
ptera, the greatest enemies spiders have to contend with, it is
evident that mimicry of ants is of supreme advantage to spiders.
Ants, however, are not the only animals mimicked by spiders.
Some members of the Argyopidae (Cyclosa) are exactly like small
snails ; others (Cyrtarachne) resemble Coccinellidae in shape and
colour. Now, Coccinellidae (ladybirds) are known to be highly
distasteful to most insectivorous mammals and birds, and snails
would be quite unfit food for the Pompilid or Ichneumonid
larvae, so that the reason for the mimicry in these cases is also
perfectly clear. The exact extent, however, to which each
particular class of enemy has affected the protective habits
and attributes of spiders is by no means always evident; and it
is impossible to discuss the question in detail within the limits
of a short article. But two instances of extreme deviation from
the ordinary mode of life due, apparently, like ant-mimicry,
solely, if not wholly, to the persecution of Hymenoptera, may be
cited as illustrations of the profound effect upon habit brought
about by long-continued persecution from enemies of this kind.
SPIELHAGEN SPIKENARD
667
This deviation is the adoption of an aquatic mode of life by
the European fresh- water spider (Argyroneta) and by the marine
spidef Desis, which is found on the shores of the Indian and Pacific
Oceans from Cape Colony to eastern Australia. Desis lives
invariably between tide-marks upon the rocks and coral reefs,
and may be found at low tide either crawling about upon them
or swimming in tidal pools and feeding upon small fish or crusta-
ceans. As the tide rises the spiders take refuge in crevices and
spin over their retreat a sheet of silk, impervious to water,
beneath which they lie in safety with a supply of air until the
ebb exposes the site again to the sun. The fresh-water spider
(Argyroneta) lives amongst the weeds of lakes and ponds and,
like Desis, is quite at home beneath the water either swimming
from spot to spot or crawling amongst the stems of aquatic
plants. As a permanent home the spider makes beneath the
surface a thimble-shaped web, with inverted mouth, anchoring
it to the weeds. He then ascends to the surface, carries down a
bubble of air and releases it inside the mouth of the silk-thimble,
thus replacing a certain amount of water. This action is repeated
until the domicile is filled with air, when the spider takes
possession of it. The spider owes its name Argyroneta or the
silver swimmer to its silvery appearance as it swims about under
water enveloped in air, and its power to retain an envelope of
air on its sternum and abdomen depends upon the circumstance
that these areas are beset with hairs which prevent the water
reaching the integument; but the air retained by these hairs
can be released when the spider wishes to fill its subaqueous
home with that element. Argyroneta feeds principally upon
flies or gnats, which it seizes from below as they light upon the
surface of the water. In the breeding season the male spins
a bell or thimble near that of the female and joins the two by
means of a silken passage. The female attaches her eggs to the
inner wall of her own home, and the young when large enough
to shift for themselves have the bell-making instinct fully
developed. Since the adoption of an aquatic mode of life by
Desis and Argyroneta involves no increased facilities in getting
food, and merely substitutes for ordinary terrestrial enemies
fishes and crustaceans in the former case, and fishes, amphibians,
and insectivorous water-insects in the latter, the supposition
is justified that the change in environment is due to the unre-
mitting persecution of Pompilidae and Ichneumonidae, which
would not venture to pursue their prey beneath the water's
surface. The habits of certain other spiders suggest the origin
of the perfect adaptation to aauatic conditions exhibited by
Desis and Argyroneta. The nature of the integument and its
hairy clothing in all spiders enables them to be plunged under
water and withdrawn perfectly dry, and many species, even as
large as the common English house-spider (Tegenaria), are so
lightly built that they can run with speed over the surface of
standing water, and this faculty has been perfected in genera like
Pirata, Dolomedes and Triclaria, which are always found in the
vicinity of lakes or on the edges of rivers and streams, readily
taking to the water or running down the stems of water plants
beneath its surface when pursued. Some species of Dolomedes,
indeed, habitually construct a raft by spinning dead leaves
together and float over the water upon it watching for an
opportunity to dash upon any insect that alights upon its
surface.
Geologically, spiders date from the Carboniferous Period, Artkro-
lycosa and others from the coal beds of Europe and North America
being closely allied to the existing genus Liphistius. Remains of
spiders from the Baltic amber beds of Oligocene age and from nearly
coeval fluviatile or lacustrine deposits of North America belong to
forms identical with or closely related to existing genera, thus
proving the great antiquity of our present spider fauna. (R. I. P.)
SPIELHAGEN, FRIEDRICH VON (1820- ), German
novelist, was born at Magdeburg on the 24th of February 1829.
He was brought up at Stralsund, where his father was in 1835
appointed government architect; he attended the gymnasium
there, and studied law, and subsequently literature and philo-
sophy, at the universities of Berlin, Bonn and Greifswald. On
leaving the university he became a master in a gymnasium at
Leipzig, but upon his father's death in 1854 devoted himself
entirely to writing. After publishing Klara Vere (1857) and
Auf der Dune (1858), he obtained a striking success with Proble-
matische Naturen (1860-1861), one of the best novels of its time;
it was followed by Die von Hohenstein (1863), In Reih' und died
(1866), Hammer und Amboss (1869), Deutsche Pioniere (1870),
Allzeit voranl (1872), Sturmflut(i&i6),Plattland (i&-;&),Quisisana
( 1 880) , A ngela ( 1 88 1 ) , Uhlenhans ( 1 884) , Bin neuer Pharao (1889),
Faustulus (1897) and Freigeboren (1900). Spielhagen's best
work was produced between the years 1860 and 1876; he wrote
nothing after Sturmflut which can be compared with that power-
ful romance. His novels combine two elements of especial
power, the masculine assertion of liberty which renders him the
favourite of the intelligent and progressive citizen, and the ruth-
less war he wages against the self-indulgence of the age. His
love of the sea, derived from an early residence at Stralsund,
introduces an element of poetry into his novels which is some-
what rare in German fiction. Spielhagen's dramatic productions,
Hans und Crete (1868) and Liebe fur Liebe (1875), and others,
cannot compare with his novels. From 1878-1884 he was editor
of Westermann's Monatshefte.
Spielhagen's Samtliche Werke were published in 1871 in sixteen
volumes, in 1878 in fourteen volumes; his Samtliche Romane in
1898 (22 vols.), and these were followed by a new series in 1902.
See his autobiography, Finder und Erfinder (2 vols., 1890); also
G. Karpeles, F. Spielhagen (1889), and H. and J. Hart, Kritische
Waffengange (1886).
SPIESS, CHRISTIAN HEINRICH (1755-1799), German writer
of romances, was born at Freiberg in Saxony on the 4th of April
1755. For a time an actor, he was appointed in 1788 controller
on the estate of a certain Count Kiinigl at Betzdikau in Bohemia,
where he died, almost insane, the result of his weird fancies, on
the 1 7th of August 1799.
Spiess, in his Rilter-, Rauber- und Geister- Romane, as they are
called stories of knights, robbers and ghosts of the " dark "
ages the idea of which he borrowed from Goethe's Gotz von
Berlichingen and Schiller's Rauber and Geisterseher, was the
founder of the German Schauerroman (shocker), a style of writ-
ing continued, though in a finer vein, by Karl Gottlob Cramer
(1758-1817) and by Goethe's brother-in-law, Christian August
Vulpius. These stories, though appealing largely to the vulgar
taste, made Spiess one of the most widely read authors of his
day. The most popular was a ghost story of the I3th century,
Das Petermiinnchen (1793); among others were Der alte Uberall
und Nirgends (1792); Die Lowenritler (1794), and Hans Heiling,
vierter und letzter Regent der Erd- Luft- Feuer- und Wasser-
Geister (1798). Beside numerous comedies, Spiess wrote, antici-
pating Schiller, a tragedy Maria Stuart (1784), which was in
the same year performed at the court theatre in Vienna.
See Karl Goedeke, Grundriss, v. 506 sqq. ; Mtiller-Fraureuth, Die
Ritter- und Rauberromane (Halle, 1894).
SPIKENARD, or NARD (O. Fr. spiquenard, Lat. spica nardi,
from spica, ear of corn, and Gr. vapdos, Pers. nard, Skt. nalada,
Indian spikenard, from Skt, nal, to smell), a celebrated per-
fume which seems to have formed one of the most durable
aromatic ingredients in the costly unguents used by the Romans
and Eastern nations. The ointment prepared from it ("oint-
ment of pistic nard" 1 ) is mentioned in the New Testament
(Mark xiv. 3-5; John xii. 3-5) as being " very costly," a pound
of it being valued at more than 300 denarii (over 10). This
appears to represent the prices then current for the best quality
of nard, since Pliny (H.N. xii. 26) mentions that nard spikes
reached as much as 100 denarii per Ib, and, although he does
not mention the price of nard ointment, he states (xiii. 2)
that the "unguentum cinnamominum," a similar preparation,
ranged from 25 to 300 denarii according to its quality. Nard
ointment also varied considerably in price from its liability to
sophistication (Ibid. xii. 26, 27; xiii. 2). The genuine ointment*
1 The meaning of the word " pistic " is uncertain, some rendering
it " genuine," others " liquid," and others taking it for a local name,
2 The use of alabaster vessels for preserving these fragrant
unguents was customary at a very early period. Theophrastus
(c. 314 B.C.) states that vessels of lead and alabaster were best for the
purpose, on account of their density and coolness, and their power
668
SPILLIKINS SPINAL CORD
(unguentum nardinum sive foliatuni) contained costus (the root
of Saussurea lap pa), amomum (the fruits of Amomum carda-
momum), balm (the oleoresin of Balsamodendron opobalsamum)
and myrrh, with Indian nard (Ibid. xiii. 2).
The exact botanical source of the true or Indian nard was
long a matter of uncertainty, the descriptions given by ancient
authors being somewhat vague, but it is now identified as
Nardostachys jatamansi, a plant of the valerian order, the
fibrous root-stocks or " spikes " of which are still collected in
the mountains of Bhotan and Nepal. The name " spike "
is applied apparently from its resemblance in shape to a spike
or ear of bearded corn. The root is crowned by the bases of
several stems, each about 2 in. or more in length and as
thick as the finger. To these the fibrous tissue of former leaves
adheres and gives them a peculiar bristly appearance. It is
this portion that is chiefly collected.
Other and inferior varieties of nard are mentioned by Dioscorides
and subsequent writers. Celtic nard, obtained from the Ligurian
Alps and Istria, consisted of the roots of plants also belonging to
the valerian order (Valeriana celtica and V. saxatilis). This was
exported to the East and thence to Egypt, and was used in the
e reparation of baths. Mountain nard was collected in Cilicia and
yria, and is supposed to have consisted of the root of Valeriana
tuberosa. The false nard of Dauphine, used in later times, and
still employed as a charm in Switzerland, is the root-stock of Allium
vlctorialis. It presents a singular resemblance to the spikes of
Indian nard, but is devok} of fragrance. It is remarkable that all
the nards belong to the natural order Valerianaceae, the odour of
valerian being considered disagreeable at the present day; that of
Nardostachys jatamansi is intermediate between valerian and
patchouli, although more agreeable than either.
The name " spikenard " has also been applied in later times to
several plants. The spikenard of the United States is Aralia race-
mosa, and another species of the same genus, A. nudicaulis, or wild
sarsaparilla, is known as " wild spikenard." In the West Indies
Hyptis suaveolens is called " spikenard," and in Great Britain the
name " ploughman's spikenard " is given to Inula conuza.
SPILLIKINS (M.D., spelleken, little pin), or JACKSTRAWS (origi-
nally "jerk-straws" ), a game of some antiquity played with
a set of slender sticks of wood, bone or ivory, from 3 to 6 in.
long, generally carved to represent weapons and utensils of
various kinds, which are thrown in a heap haphazard upon the
table. The players then endeavour in turn to extricate from
the heap, one at a time, as many straws as possible, without
moving any except the one angled for. The player obtaining
the most straws wins. The game is called in French jotichcts
and in German Federspiel.
SPINA (Lat. for a thorn, or prickle, also backbone, whence
spine), in architecture, the term given to the low podium
wall which divided the circus of the Romans and round which
the chariots ran; at each end of it was the meta or goal. On
coins, gems and bas-reliefs it is shown with numerous other
features on it, such as obelisks (of which those from the spina
of the Circus Maximus are now in the piazzas of the Lateran
and del Popolo), small aedicula or pairs of columns carrying
an entablature, altars, statues, trophies, &c.
SPINACH (Spinacia oleracea), an annual plant, a member of
the natural order Chenopodiaceae, which has been long culti-
vated for the sake of its succulent leaves. It is probably
of Persian origin, being introduced into Europe about the isth
century. It should be grown on good ground, well worked
and well manured; and for the summer crops abundant water-
ing will be necessary.
The first sowing of winter spinach should be made early in
August, and another towards the end of that month, in some
sheltered but not shaded situation, in rows 18 in. apart the
plants, as they advance, being thinned, and the ground hoed.
By the beginning of winter the outer leaves will have become
fit for use, and if the weather is mild successive gatherings may
be obtained up to the beginning of May. The prickly-seeded
and the Flanders are the best for winter; and these should be
thinned out early in the autumn to about 2 in. apart, and later
of resisting the penetration of the ointment into their substance.
Pliny also recommends alabaster for ointment vases. For small
quantities onyx vessels seem to have been used (Horace, Carm. iv.
12, lines 10, 17).
MATER
OENTIOU*
on to 6 in. The Jettuce-leaved is a good succulent winter sort,
but not quite so hardy. To afford a succession of summer
spinach, the seeds should be sown about the middle of February,
and again in March; after this period small quantities should
be sown once a fortnight, as summer spinach lasts but a very
short time. They are generally sown in shallow drills, between
the lines of peas. If a plot of ground has to be wholly occu-
pied, the rows should be about i ft. apart. The round-seeded
is the best sort for summer use.
The Orach or Mountain Spinach (A triplex hortensis), a member of
the same order, is a tall-growing hardy annual, whose leaves, though
coarsely flavoured, are used as a substitute for spinach, and to correct
the acidity of sorrel. The white and the green are the most desirable
varieties. The plant should be grown quickly in rich soil. It may
be sown in rows 2 ft. apart, and about the same distance in the row,
about March, and for succession again in June. If needful, water
must be freely given, so as to maintain a rapid growth.
The New Zealand Spinach (Tetragonia expansar), natural order
Ficoideae, is a half-hardy annual, native of New Zealand, sometimes
used as a substitute for spinach during the summer months, but in
every way inferior to it. The seeds should be sown in March, on a
gentle hot-bed, having been previously steeped in water for several
hours. The seedlings should be potted, and placed under a frame
till the end of May, and should then be planted out in light rich soil.
The young leaves are those which are gathered for use, a succession
being produced during summer and autumn.
SPINAL CORD, in anatomy, that part of the central nervous
system in man which lies in the spinal canal formed by the ver-
tebrae, and reaches from the
foramen magnum to the lower
margin of the first lumbar
vertebra. It is about 18 in. ,
long, and only occupies
the upper two-thirds of the'
spinal canal. The cord is
protected by the same three
membranes which surround
the brain. Outside is the
dura mater, which differs
from that of the brain in FIG. I .Transverse Section of the
not forming a periosteum Spinal Cord and its Membranes,
to the bones, in sending no processes inward, and in having no
blood sinuses enclosed within its walls. In other words the
spinal dura mater is the continuation of only the inner or cere-
bral layer of the dura mater of the skull. Inside the dura mater
is the arachnoid, which is delicate and transparent, while between
the two lies the sub-dural space, which reaches down to the second
or third sacral vertebra. The pia mater is the innermost cover-
ing, and is closely applied to the surface of the cord into
the substance of which it sends processes. Between it and the
arachnoid is the sub-arachnoid space, which is mflch larger than
the sub-dural and contains the cerebro-spinal fluid. Across
this space, on each side of the cord, run a series of processes of
the pia mater arranged like the teeth of a saw; by their apices
they are attached to the dura mater, while their bases are
continuous with the pia mater surrounding the cord. These
ligaments, each consisting of twenty-one teeth, are the liga-
menta denticulata, and by them the spinal cord is moored in the
middle of the cerebro-spinal fluid.
The spinal cord itself is a cylinder slightly flattened from
before backward. In the cervical region it is enlarged where
the nerves forming the brachial plexus come off, while opposite
the lower thoracic vertebrae the lumbar enlargement marks
the region whence the lumbo-sacral nerves are derived. (See
fig. 2.) Opposite the second lumbar vertebra the cylindrical
cord becomes pointed and forms the conus medullaris, from
the apex of which a glistening membranous thread runs down
among the nerves which form the cauda cquina, and, after
blending with the' termination of the dural sheath, is attached
to the back of the coccyx.
In a transverse section of the cord two median fissures are seen ;
the antero-median (see fig. 3, A) is wide, and reaches about a third
of the way along the antero-posterior diameter of the cord; it is
lined by the pia mater, which, at its orifice, is thickened to form a
(From Gray's Anatomy, Descriptive and
Surgical.)
SPINAL CORD
669
Postero-median _
fissure"
Cervical swelling-
Posterior para-
mediaa fissure"
Postero-lateral
fissure"
glistening band, known as the linea splendent; in front of this lies
the single anterior spinal artery.
The postero-median fissure (fig. 3, P.) is much deeper and narrower,
and has no reflection of the pia mater into it. Where the posterior
nerve roots emerge (fig. 3, P.R.) is a
depression which is called the postero-
lateral fissure, while between this and
the postero-median a slight groove is
seen in the cervical region, the para-
median fissure (fig. 3, P.M ; see also
fig. 2). On looking at fig. 3 it will be seen
that the anterior nerve roots (A.R.)
do not emerge from a definite fissure.
The spinal cord, like the brain,
consists of grey and white matter,
but, as there is here no representa-
tive of the cortical grey matter of
the brain, the white matter entirely
surrounds the grey. In section
the grey matter has the form of an
H, the cross bar forming the grey
commissure. In the middle of this
the central canal can just be made
out by the naked eye (see fig. 4). The
anterior limbs of the H form the
anterior cornua, while the posterior,
which in the greater part of the cord
are longer and thinner, are the pos-
terior cornua. At the tips of these
is a lighter-coloured cap (fig. 3, S.G.)
which is known as the substantia
gelatinosa Rolandi. On each side of
the H is a slighter projection, the
lateral cornu, which is best marked
in the thoracic region (see fig. 4).
On referring to fig. 4 it will be seen
that the grey matter has different
and characteristic appearances in
different regions of the cord, and it
will be noticed that in the cervical and
lumbar enlargements, where the nerve
to the limbs comes off, the anterior
horns are broadened.
'CVi
CVv
-DVn
Lumbar swelling..
-DVx
p M. c.T.
PR L.T
DCT
iDVxn
_LVn
(FromD. J. Cunningham, in Cunning-
ham's Text-Book of Anatomy.)
FIG. 2. Diagram of the
Spinal . Cord as seen from
behind.
CVl shows the level of the
1st cervical vertebra; CVv of
the 5th cervical vertebra;
DVn of the 2nd dorsal
vertebra; DVx of the loth
dorsal vertebra; DVxn of
the 1 2th dorsal vertebra;
LVn of the and lumbar
vertebra.
FIG. 3. Diagram to show the Tracts
in the Spinal Cord.
A. Antero-median fissure.
P. Postero-median fissure.
A.R. Anterior nerve roots.
P.R. Posterior nerve roots.
P.M. Paramedian fissure.
S.G. Substantia gelatinosa.
G.T. Tract of Goll.
B.T. Tract of Burdach.
C.T. Comma tract.
O.A. Oval area.
L.T. Lissauer's tract.
D.C.T. Direct cerebellar tract.
T.G. Gowers' tract.
C.P.T. Crossed pyramidal tract.
L.B.B. Lateral basis bundle.
A.B.B. Anterior basis bundle.
D.P.T. Direct pyramidal tract.
Histologically the grey matter is made up of neuroglia, medul-
lated and non-medullated nerve fibres, and nerve cells (for details see
NERVOUS SYSTEM). The nerve cells are arranged in three main
columns, ventral, intermedio-lateral and posterior vesicular. The
ventral cell column has the longest cells, and these are again sub-
divided into antero-mesial, afttero lateral, postero-lateral and centra"
groups. The intermedia lateral cell column is found in the latera
horn of the thoracic region.
FIG. 4. Sections of Spinal Cord,
twice scale of nature.
1. Cervical enlargement.
2. Thoracic region.
3. Lumbar enlargement.
4. Sacral region.
The posterior vesicular or Clarke's column is also largely confined
:o the thoracic region, and lies in the mesial part of the posterior
cornu. It is the place to >
which the sensory fibres of
the sympathetic system (vis-
ceral afferents) run. The
white matter, as has been
shown, surrounds the grey,
and passes across the middle
ine to form the white com-
missure, which lies in front
of the grey. It is composed
of neuroglia and medullated
nerve fibres, which are ar-
ranged in definite tracts,
although in a section of a
lealthy cord these tracts
cannot be distinguished even
with the microscope. They
lave been and are still being
^radually mapped out by
)athologists, physiologists
and embryologists.
On tracing a sensory nerve
to the cord (fig. 3, P.R.)
through the posterior nerve root it will be seen to lie quite close to
the mesial side of the posterior horn of grey matter, where most of it
runs upward. The next root higher up takes the same position and
lushes the former one toward the middle line, so that the lower
lerve fibres occupy an area close to the postero-median fissure known
as the tract of Goll (fig. 3, G.T.), while the higher lie more externally
in the tract of Burdach (B.T.). The greater part of each nerve
sooner or later enters the grey matter and comes into close relation
with the cells of Clarke's column, but some fibres run right up to the
nucleus gracilis and cuneatus in the medulla (see BRAIN), while a few
turn down and form a descending tract, which, in the upper part of
the cord, is situated in the inner part of the tract of Burdach and is
known as the comma tract (fig. 3, C.T.), but lower down gradually
shifts quite close to the postero-median fissure and forms the oval
area of Flechsig (fig. 3, O.A.). It will be obvious that both these
tracts could not be seen in the same section, and that fig. 3 is only a
diagrammatic outline of their position.
A few fibres of each sensory nerve ascend in a small area known as
Lissauer's tract (fig. 3, L.T.) on the outer side of the posterior nerve
roots, and eventually enter the substantia gelatinosa.
To the outer side of Lissauer's tract and lying close to the lateral
surface of the cord is the direct cerebellar tract (fig. 3, D.C.T.), the
fibres of which ascend from the cells of Clarke's column to the cere-
bellum. As Clarke's column is only well developed in the thoracic
region this tract obviously cannot go much lower.
In front of the last and also close to the lateral surface of the cord
is another ascending tract, the tract of Gowers (fig. 3, T.G.), or, as it
is sometimes called, the lateral sensory fasciculus. It probably
begins in the cells of the posterior horn, and runs up to join the
fillet and also to reach the cerebellum through the superior cerebellar
peduncle. The crossed pyramidal tract (fig. 3, C.P.T.) lies internal
to the direct cerebellar tract, between it and the posterior cornu.
It is the great motor tract by which the fibres coming from the
Rolandic area of the cerebral cortex are brought into touch with the
motor cells in the anterior cornu of the opposite side. This tract
extends right down to the fourth sacral nerve.
In front of the crossed pyramidal tract is the lateral basis bundle
(fig. 3, L.B.B), which probably consists of association fibres linking
up different segments of the cord.
The anterior basis bundle (fig. 3, A.B.B.) lies in front and on the
mesial side of the anterior cornu, and through it pass the anterior
nerve roots. Like the lateral bundle it consists chiefly of association
fibres, but it is continued up into the medulla as the posterior
longitudinal bundle to the optic nuclei.
The direct pyramidal tract (fig. 3, D.P.T.) is a small bundle of the
motor fibres from the Rolandic area, which, instead of crossing to
the other side at the decussation of the pyramids in the medulla,
runs down by the side of the antero-median fissure. Its fibres,
however, keep on gradually crossing to the opposite side through the
anterior white commissure of the cord, and by the time the mid-
thoracic region is reached it has usually disappeared.
The roots of the spinal nerves in the upper part of the canal rise
from the cord nearly opposite the points at which they emerge
between the vertebrae, but the farther one passes down the higher
the origin of each root becomes above its point of emergence. Con-
sequently the lumbar and sacral nerves run a long way down from
the lumbar enlargement to their spinal foramina and are enclosed
in the dural and arachnoid sheaths to form a mass like a horse's tail,
which is therefore known as the cauda equina. The relation between
the origin of each nerve and the spinous processes of the vertebrae
has been worked out by R. W. Reid (Journ. Anal, and Phys., xxiii.
341).
Embryology. The early development of the neural tube from the
ectoderm is outlined in the article on the BRAIN. When the neural
groove becomes a tube it is oval in section with a very large laterally
'6yo
SPINAL CORD
compressed central canal (see fig. 5). The original ectodermal
cells elongate and, radiating outward from the canal, are now known
as spongioblasts, while the inner ends of some of them bear cilia
and so the canal becomes ciliated. A number of round cells, known
as germinal cells, now appear close to the central canal, except at
the thin mid-dorsal and mid-ventral laminae (roof-plate and floor-
plate). From the division of these the primitive nerve cells or
neuroblasts are formed and these later on migrate from the region
MID-DORSAL LAMINA
MVEIO-
SPONGIUM
Early
MID-VENTRAL LAMINA
(From D. J. Cunningham in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.)
FIG. 5. Schema of a Transverse Section through the
Neural Tube (Young).
The left side of the section shows an earlier stage than the right side.
of the canal and shoot out long processes the axons. The perma-
nent central canal of the cord was formerly said only to represent
the ventral end of the large embryonic canal, the dorsal part being
converted into a slit by the gradual closing in of its lateral walls, thus
forming the postero-median fissure. A. Robinson, however, does
not believe that the posterior fissure is any remnant of the central
canal, and there are many points which bear out his contention
(Studies in Anatomy, Owens College, 1891). The most modern view
(1908) is that the fissure is formed partly by an infolding and partly
from the original central canal. The antero-median fissure is caused
by the ventral part of the cord growing on each side, but not in the
mid-line where no germinal cells are.
The anterior nerve roots are formed by the axons of the neuro-
blasts in the developing anterior cornua, but the posterior grow into
the cord from the posterior root ganglia (see NERVE -.Spinal), and, as
they grow, form the columns of Goll and Burdach. That part of
the grey matter from which the ventral, anterior or motor nerve
roots rise is known as the basal lamina of the cord, while the more
dorsal part into which the posterior nerve roots enter is the alar
lamina. These parts are important in comparing the morphology
of the spinal cord with that of the brain.
In the embryo up to the fifth month there is little difference in the
appearance of the grey and white matter of the cord, but at that time
the fibres in the columns of Burdach acquire their medullary sheaths
or white substance of Schwann, the fatty matter of which is probably
abstracted from the blood. Very soon after these the basis bundles
myelenate and then, in the sixth month, the columns of Goll. Next
follow the direct cerebellar tracts and, in the lacter half of the eighth
month the tracts of Gowers, while the fibres of the pyramidal and
Lissauer's tracts do not gain their medullary sheaths until just
before or after birth. At first the spinal cord exends as far as the
last mesodermal somite, but neuroblasts are only formed as far as
the first coccygeal somite, so that behind that the cord is non-nervous
and degenerates later into the filum terminale. After the fourth
month the nervous portion grows more slowly than the rest of the
body and so the long cauda equina and filum terminale are produced.
At birth the lower limit of the cord is opposite the third lumbar
vertebra, but in post-natal development it recedes still farther to the
lower level of the first.
For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908) ;
J. P. McMurrich, Development of the Human Body (1906). Most
modern descriptions are founded on the writings of W. His, references
to which and to other literature will be found on p. 463 of
McMurrich'sbook.
Comparative Anatomy. In the Amphioxus there is little difference
between the spinal cord and the brain; the former reaches the whole
length of the body and is of uniform calibre. It encloses a central
canal from which a dorsal fissure extends to the surface of the cord
and it is composed of nerve fibres and nerve cells; most of the latter
being grouped round the central canal or neurocoele, as they are in
the human embryo. Some very large multipolar ganglion cells are
present, and there are also large fibres known as giant fibres, the
function of which is not clear.
When the reptiles are reached the cord shows slight enlargements
in the regions of the limbs and these become more marked in birds
and mammals.
In the lumbar region of birds the dorsal columns diverge and open
up the central canal, converting it into a diamond-shaped space
which is only roofed over by the membranes of the cord, and is known
as the sinus rhomboidalis.
In all these lower vertebrates except the Anura (frogs and toads),
the cord fills the whole length of the spinal canal, but in the higher
mammals (Primates, Chiroptera and Insectivora) it grows less
rapidly, and so the posterior part ol the canal contains the cauda
equina within its sheath of dura mater. In mammals below the
anthropoid apes there are no direct pyramidal tracts in the cord,
since the decussation of the pyramids in the medulla is complete.
Moreover, the crossed tracts vary very much in their proportional
size to the rest of the cord in different animals. In man, for example,
they form 11-87% f the total cross area of the cord, in the cat
7-76%, in the rabbit 5-3%, in the guinea-pig 3%, and in the mouse
1-14%. In the frog no pyramidal tract is found. It is obvious, there-
fore, that in the lower vertebrates the motor fibres of the cord are
not so completely gathered into definite tracts as they are in man.
A good deal of interest has lately been taken in a nerve bundle
which in the lower vertebrates runs through the centre of the central
canal of the cord, and takes its origin in the optic reflex cells in close
relation to the posterior commissure of the brain. More posteriorly
(caudad) it probably acquires a connexion with the motor cells of
the cord and is looked upon as a means by which the muscles can be
made to actively respond to the stimulus of light. It is known as
Reissner's fibre, and its morphology and physiology have been studied
most carefully in cyclostomes and fishes. It is said to be present in
the mouse, but hitherto no trace of it has been found in man. It
was discovered in 1860, but for forty years has been looked upon as
an artifact.
See P. E. Sargent, " Optic Reflex Apparatus of Vertebrates," Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. xlv. No. 3 (July, 1904) ; also for
general details R. Wiedersheim, Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates
(London, 1907) ; Lenhossek, Bau des Nervensystems (1895). (F. G. P.)
SURGERY OF THE SPINE AND SPINAL CORD
Fracture of the spine may occur from indirect violence, as
when a man falls from a height upon his head, or in a sitting
position; or it may result from direct violence, as when he is
hanged, or as when he is run over by a loaded van, or in a
fall from a height across a beam. The vertebrae above the
fracture being displaced from those below it, the spinal cord is
generally torn across, and the parts of the trunk, or the limbs,
which are supplied by the spinal nerves passing out from the
cord below the seat of injury are of necessity cut off from their
connexion with the brain, and at once deprived of sensation
and of the power of voluntary movement. In some cases of
fracture of the spine there is at the time marvellously little
constitutional disturbance. The higher up the column that
the fracture occurs the more quickly does death ensue. If
the fracture is in the middle of the back the patient may linger
for several weeks, but even if he is lying upon a water-bed, and
even if every care is taken of him, inflammation of the bladder
and intractable bed-sores are apt to make their appearance,
and his existence becomes truly miserable. Operative surgery
is unable to effect much in these cases on account of the spinal
cord being generally torn across or hopelessly crushed.
Curvature of the spine may be due to deformity of the bodies
of the vertebrae caused by irregular pressure, or to the dis-
integration of their anterior parts by tuberculous ulceration,
known as Pott's disease or spinal caries. Thus the causes of
spinal curvature are very different, and it is necessary that the
actual condition be clearly recognized or treatment may prove
harmful. Briefly, the curvature which is due to tuberculous
disease requires absolute and continuous rest; the other calls
for well-regulated exercises.
Lateral or rotatory curvature of the spine is a deformity which
comes on during the developing period of life, before the bodies
of the vertebrae are solidly formed. In young people who are
SPINAL CORD
671
growing rapidly, and whose muscular system is weak, the bad
habit of standing, and throwing the weight of the body constantly
on one leg, gives rise to a serious tilting of the trunk; or, if,
when writing at a desk, they sit habitually in a twisted position,
a lateral curvature of the spine is apt to take place. By con-
stant indulgence in these bad habits the spinal column gets
permanently set in a faulty position. Sometimes the tilting of
the base of the trunk is due to a congenital or acquired differ-
ence in the length of the legs. In the concavity of the curve
there is increased pressure, and, necessarily, diminished growth ;
in the convexity of the curve there is diminished pressure with
increased growth. The patient's friends probably notice that
one shoulder is higher than the other, or that " the hip is growing
out," and unless means are taken to alter the abnormal distri-
bution of pressure, the condition becomes worse, until complete
ossification checks the further progress of the deformity. The
growth of the subject being completed, the deformity ceases
to increase. And when the growth is completed and the bones
are solid and misshapen the condition is quite incapable of
improvement. The usual curvature is one in which there is a
convexity of the spine in the chest-region towards the right,
with the right shoulder higher than the left. Compensatory
curves in the opposite direction form in the loins and neck.
Along with the lateral bending of the spine a rotation of the
bodies of the vertebrae towards the convexity of the curve
takes place, the spinous processes turning towards the con-
cavity of the curve. Since the line of the spinous processes
of the vertebrae can be easily traced through the skin, their
deviation may mislead the superficial observer as to the actual
amount of the curvature.
To counteract this deformity in the earliest stages (and
it is in the early stage that treatment effects most), the patient
(generally a girl) should be encouraged to walk perfectly erect.
Systematic exercises, to strengthen the muscles of the back,
ought to be strictly and persistently carried out under the
direction of a surgeon with the assistance of a skilled instructor
of gymnastics. During the intervals of rest the child should
lie upon her back on a firm board, and should avoid taking
exercise which gives rise to weariness of the muscles; for when-
ever the muscles become wearied she will attempt to take up a
position which throws the strain on to her ligamentous and
bony structures. One of the best exercises is to lay the patient
on her face, fix her feet, and encourage her to raise herself by
using the muscles of the back. Whilst she hangs from a trapeze
the weight of the lower limbs and pelvis will help to straighten
the spine as a whole, necessarily diminishing the increased
pressure upon the cartilaginous bodies of the vertebrae towards
the concavity, and increasing the pressure between the sides of
the bodies towards the convexity. It is often a good thing to
remove a girl with commencing lateral curvature from the
sedentary life of school or town and to let her run wild in the
country, exercising her muscles to the full.
If the deformity is due to inequality in the length of the legs,
a high boot on the short leg may correct it. In some cases of
lateral curvature a tilted seat is useful. Mechanical "spinal
supports " are as expensive as they are inefficient. As a rule,
indeed, they are positively harmful, in that they add to the
weight of the trunk and hinder needful muscular development.
By kyphosis is meant an exaggerated degree of roundness
of the shoulders. It can be effaced only by constant drillings
and exercises whilst the spinal column is still plastic. When
once the bones are solid no great improvement is possible. The
deformity is sometimes due to short sight. It is well, therefore,
to have the child's vision duly tested.
Lordosis is an exaggeration of the normal concavity of the
loin-region of the .spine. It is most often met with in those
cases in which from congenital displacement of the head of the
thigh bone, or from old disease of the hip-joint, the subject has
acquired the habit of throwing the shoulders back in order to
preserve the balance.
Tuberculous disease of the spine (Pott's disease), is the result
of a deposit of tubercle-germs in the body of the vertebra.
Inflammation having thus been set up, ulceration (caries) of the
vertebra, or of several vertebrae, occurs, and if the case runs
on unchecked extensive abscesses may form in the thigh, loin or
groin. The trouble is often begun by a blow or by a sprain of
the spine, which, by lowering the power of resistance of the
delicate bone, prepares it for the bacillary invasion. The
earliest symptoms are likely to be a dull aching in the back
with stiffness of the spine. The child complains of being tired,
and is anxious to lie down and be left quiet whilst his little
companions are running about. If the disease is in the middle
part of the spine, pains are complained of in the front of the
chest or at the pit of the stomach. Unfortunately such pains
are often ascribed to indigestion. If the disease is in the upper
part of the spine the pains may be in the head, the shoulders
or the arms. If in the loin-region of the spine they are in the
lower part of the trunk, the thighs or the legs. (These obscure
peripheral pains are often misunderstood and are apt to be
attributed to rheumatism). The back is stiff so that the child
cannot stoop. In trying to pick up anything from the floor
he keeps his back straight and bends his knees. If the disease
is in the neck-region he cannot easily look upwards, and, instead
of turning his head to look sideways, he wheels round his whole
body. In some cases, though the disease is far advanced,
there have been no complaints of pain in the back. As the
bodies of the vertebrae crumble away, the spine bends for-
wards under the influence of the weight of the head and of
the upper part of the trunk, and a projection may appear in
the middle line of the back. In the neck, and in the loin-
region, the projection is rarely weU marked, but in the
chest-region a conspicuous boss may make its appearance
the " hump-back." The projection is often spoken of as an
angular curvature a contradiction in terms, for a thing which
is angular is not curved. When the deformity is great there may
be pressure upon the spinal cord with more or less paralysis
in the parts below.
The treatment of tuberculous disease of the spine demands
absolute and uninterrupted rest. The best thing is to put the patient
flat on his back for as many months as may be found necessary,
but not in a close bedroom. If he is compelled to lie in a bedroom
the windows should be open night and day. If the patient is a child,
he should be laid flat in a box-splint, or upon a thin horsehair
mattress, and should be carried out of doors every day but always
lying flat. When the pressure-symptoms, such as the pains in the
legs, thighs or arms, the " belly-ache," or the pains in the chest or
neck have passed away, a firm leather splint may be moulded on to
keep the parts quiet until consolidation has taken place, or a
cuirass of poroplastic felt or of plaster of Paris may be applied. The
danger in these cases is of leaving off treatment too soon: they
must not be hurried, or the trouble will be likely to come back
again with, perhaps, increased deformity. If the disease is in the
upper part of the dorsal spine, or in the neck-region, a cervical
collar of leather, or a double Thomas's hip-splint may be found
useful.
In cases of advanced tuberculous disease of the spine, in which
the spinal cord is compressed within its bony canal either by the
posterior parts of the vertebral bodies or by inflammatory products,
or in which, after severe injury, the cord is pressed upon by a dis-
placed piece of bone, the surgeon may think it expedient to open
the spinal canal from behind, removing in the procedure the posterior
arches (laminae) of the vertebrae. The operation is called by the
hybrid word laminectomy. Sometimes in the case of tuberculous
disease, where the propriety of resorting to the operation is being
discussed, the symptoms of the compression begin to clear off and the
child makes a complete recovery without being operated on; the
moral is that we should wait patiently and give Nature a full chance
of doing her work in her own way. The operative treatment of
these cases is not highly satisfactory. Still, there are a certain small
number of cases in which it may be given a trial.
The treatment of spinal abscess has been greatly influenced by the
Listerian method. The collection of broken-down tuberculous
material or fluid is not an abscess in the usual sense, for it does not
contain " pus " or " matter," being, as a rule, destitute of septic
micro-organisms. A spinal abscess is therefore no longer drained :
it is incised, scraped, washed out, and swabbed dry, the opening
being carefully and permanently sewn up. In this way septic germs
are effectually excluded from the cavity, and the patient is spared
the depressing and tedious discharging of the cavity which so often
followed the old methods of treatment. It must be clearly under-
stood, however, that every spinal abscess does not undergo cure after
being subjected to the evacuation and closure treatment mentioned
SPINAL CORD
above, but that the surgeon is sometimes compelled to use irrigation
and drainage.
In 1897 Dr Calot of Berk-sur-Mer reintroduced the method of
straightening out the hump of the back, so often left after disease of
the spine, by stretching the child on a flat table and dealing with the
hump, under chloroform, with what is commonly known as " brute
force." A considerable number of hump-backed children on the
Continent as well as in England and America were thus dealt with,
but it is doubtful whether the records of those cases, could they all
be collected and published, would be found to justify the enthusiasm
and publicity with which the method was inaugurated and its
details were spread abroad. It is scarcely necessary to say that the
forcible straightening of a spine which has developed a hump because
tuberculous disease has wrecked the front of the vertebral segments
is in no sense a curative operation. Diminishing the size of the
projection does not cure the tuberculous ulceration of the bones;
indeed, it may increase the ulcerative process or determine a scatter-
ing of the germs of tubercle throughout the body. The operation
has not been accepted by British and American surgeons. In the
practice of the foreign surgeon death ensued in three cases out of
thirteen that were operated on, and an English surgeon reported
fourteen cases " in all of which the deformity had recurred although
the spines had been fixed in plaster oi Paris after the straightening."
Being deeply placed in the mass of the muscles of the back, and,
moreover, being jealously locked within the bony canal of the verte-
bral column, the spinal marrow or spinal cord was, until the last few
years, generally considered to be beyond the reach even of the most
enterprising surgeon. Still, like other tissues, it was liable to diseases
and injuries. The exact situation of a tumour pressing upon the
spinal cord can now be located with great precision by noting the
areas of pain and numbness, and the height in the limbs or trunk to
which loss of power of voluntary movement ascends, and by not'ng
also whether these effects are symmetrical upon the two sides or
appear more upon one side than on the other. By cutting away the
posterior parts of certain segments of the vertebral column, tumours
of various sorts have been successfully removed from the interior
of the canal. Displaced fragments of bone in tuberculous affection
of the spine, abscess-contents and inflammatory tissue have also
been similarly dealt with. Sir William Macewen of Glasgow and Sir
Victor Horsley of London have been pioneers in this development of
surgery. In cases of fracture of the spine, with displacement of the
vertebrae and compression of the spinal cord, surgeons have also been
trying what relief can be afforded by the adoption of bold operative
measures, but as in most of these cases of fracture-dislocation the
spinal cord is torn right across or crushed beyond hope of repair,
active measures cannot be undertaken with much prospect of
success.
" Concussion of the Spine." Occasionally one hears persons,
whose professional education should have taught them better,
speaking or writing of concussion of the spine as if that were
in itself a disease. It is an expression which is not infrequently
used in an equally comprehensive and incorrect way when the
ill-informed person is speaking of the injuries, real or imaginary,
of which an individual makes complaint after having met with
a severe shake when travelling on a railway. One might as well
speak of concussion of the skull as of concussion of the spine, for
the spine is but the bony envelope of the spinal cord, as the skull
is of the brain. The violent shaking of the spinal cord and the
spinal nerves in a serious accident may, however, be followed
by some functional disturbance, which may be associated with
pains in the back, by numbness and tingling in the limbs,
or with muscular weakness. In some cases the disturbance
is due to slight haemorrhages into the nerve sheaths, which
may clear up with rest and quiet. But when the presence of
these obscure symptoms, after a railway accident for instance,
becomes the subject of an action-at-law, there is a great chance
that they will not pass off until the case is settled in one way
or the other. Not, perhaps, that the individual concerned
is dishonest in his estimation of them, but because the anxiety
of the overhanging lawsuit has so grievously disturbed his
mind and altered his perspective that his sense of proportion
is for a time in abeyance. After the action-at-law the symp-
toms may clear up with a rapidity which to some people appears
surprising. (E. O.*)
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SPINAL CORD
The name spinal cord, given by early morphologists to the
nervous mass lying in the tubular chamber enclosed by the
vertebral column, was doubtless given under the supposition
that the organ so named could be treated as an entity. Scien-
tifically, however, it cannot be so treated, either as regards its
structure or its function. It is merely a part of that great
nervous structure which throughout the length of the body
forms the central meeting-place of the nerve-paths arriving
from and issuing to all regions with which nerve fibres are in
touch. To separate from the rest of this system the part which
lies within the spine is an artificial and in many ways mis-
leading provision. This artificial treatment is the outcome of
crude ideas drawn from the study of merely the gross form of
the bodily parts. But crude as the distinction is, its historic
priority has influenced the study of the vertebrate nervous
system, not only in regard to morphological description but
also in regard to exposition of the functional reactions of the
nervous system and even up to the present day. Hence it is
still customary arbitrarily to detach certain of the reactions
of the nervous system into a separate group and describe that
group by itself, simply because they occur in nervous arcs
whose central courses in the great central nervous organ lie
within that part of it extending along the spine. An additional
inconvenience attaching to the mode of description of the nervous
system customary in works on human anatomy, is that in such
works the parts of the nervous arcs outside the central organ
are described apart from it under the term peripheral nerves.
This severs artificially structures which are functionally in-
dissolubly united. The study and description of the working
of the nervous system is hampered by this unphilosophic sub-
division of its structural parts.
To gain a broader and truer point of view as starting-point
for understanding the working of the spinal cord one must
prepare the exposition by a short reference to the general
function of the nervous system in the bodily economy.
Relation to General Nervous System. An animal of micro-
scopic size may continue throughout its life to be constituted
entirely by one single cell. Animals of larger bulk, although
each begins its existence as a single cell, attain their develop-
ment by the multiplication of the original single cell, so that
from it there comes to be formed a coherent mass of cells very
many millions in number. In these multicellular animals each
of the constituent cells is a minute self-centred organism, in-
dividually born, leading its own life and destined for individual
death. . The corporate power of the complex animal is the sum
of the powers of those manifold individual existences, its cells.
In the complex animal the several organs, even the most homo-
geneous, such as muscles or glands, are each composed of many
thousands of cells similarly specialized but living each per se.
The solidarity of action which a complex animal thus built
up exhibits is the result of the binding together of the units
which compose the complex'organism. Of the agencies which
integrate the complex animal, one of the most potent is nervous
action. A certain number of the unit cells composing the animal
are specially differentiated from the rest to bind the whole
together by nervous action. These specially differentiated cells
are called " neurones." They constitute living threads along
which waves of physico-chemical disturbance are transmitted
to act as releasing forces for the energy in distant cells, where
they finally impinge.
It is characteristic of this nervous system, the system of
neurones, that, although ramifying far and wide through the
body, it is a continuum from end to end. The peripheral
nerves are formed of bundles of neurones lying side by side,
but these, although packed close together, are strictly isolated
one from another as conductors and remain isolated throughout
the whole length of the nerve. The points of functional nexus
of the neurones one with another are confined to one region
only of the whole system. All their conductive connexions
one with another take place solely in the central nervous mass
which constitutes the so-called central nervous system, a
nervous organ extending axiaJly along the length of the
body midway between the body's lateral halves. Thither
the neurones converge in vast numbers, those of each body
segment converging to that fraction of the central organ which
belongs to their body segment. The central nervous organ
thus receiving these neurones is, where it lies in the head, called
SPINAL CORD
673
the brain, the rest of it is called in vertebrates the " spinal
cord," in vermes and arthropods the " nerve-cord." The
central organ not only receives neurones which converge to it
from outside, but many of its own neurones thrust out their
conductive arms from it as nerve fibres carrying nervous
influence outwards to regulate the activity of glands and muscles.
In the vertebrata the ingoing neurones for each segment and
similarly the out-going neurone fibres are collected into a seg-
mental nerve. To the spinal cord these are each attached by
two roots, one dorsal, consisting of the afferent fibres, the other
ventral, consisting of the efferent fibres.
The Reflex. Analysis of function of this nervous system leads
to what is termed " the reflex " as the unit of its action. The
simplest complete reaction of the system is a reflex. There are
many reflexes which are extremely complex, being built up of
a number of simpler reflexes combined together. A reflex is a
reaction started by the environment acting as a stimulus upon
some nerve which communicates the excitement thus started in
itself to other nerves by means of its connexions with these
in the central nervous organ. The excitement so generated
and transmitted finally travels outward from the central organ
by one or more of the efferent nerves and through these reaches
muscles or glands producing in them its final effect. The
muscles and glands are from this point of view termed effector
organs. The reaction is therefore " reflected " fiom the central
organ. The nerve structures along which it runs in its tra-
jectory are spoken of as a nervous arc. The whole purpose of
the central nervous organ is therefore to bring afferent neurones
into touch with efferent neurones. The whole purpose of
reflex arcs is to bind one part of the organism to another part
in such a way that what the environment is doing to the organism
at one place may appropriately call forth or restrain movement
or secretion in the muscles or glands possessed by the organism.
Receptor Cells. There is one condition for the due perform-
ance of these reactions which is not provided by the nervous
system itself. The afferent neurones are not in most cases
so constituted as to be excitable themselves directly by the
environment for instance, they cannot be stimulated by light.
Their amenability to the environment, their sensitization to
environmental agencies, is effected by special cells adjunct to
their peripheral ends. These cells from organs are called
receptors. They are delicately adapted to be stimulated by this
or that particular agent and are classifiable into various species,
so that each species is easily excited by a particular agent which
is " adequate " for it, and is quite inexcitable or only excitable
with difficulty by agencies of other kinds. Thus in the skin
some receptors are adapted for mechanical stimuli (touch)
and not for thermal sti^nuli, while others (cold spots, warm
spots) are adapted for thermal stimuli and not for mechanical.
As far as it is known each afferent neurone is connected with
receptors of one species only. The receptors thus confer upon
the reflex arcs selective excitability. Each arc is thus tuned
to respond to certain stimuli, while other arcs not having that
kind of receptor do not respond. The receptors, therefore,
while increasing the responsiveness of the organism to the
environment, prevent confusion of reactions (inco-ordination)
by limiting to particular stimuli a particular reaction.
Proprioceptors. The system of neurones is thus made acces-
sible to the play of the external world acting on the body. And
in addition to those receptors which are stimulated directly
by the external world, are others lying within the mass of the
organism itself, which are excitable by actions occurring in
the organism itself. These are called proprioceptors. They are
distributed preponderantly in the muscles and structures
functionally adjunct to muscle, such as joints, ligaments, fasciae,
&c. The reactions induced in such motor structures reflexly
in response to environmental stimuli tend therefore secondarily
to be followed and accompanied by reflex reactions initiated
from proprioceptors.
Conduction. The process by which the excitement generated
in the afferent neurone travels along the reflex arc is known as
conduction. Conduction along afferent and efferent nerves
xxv. 22
differs in some important respects from that obtaining in the
nerve centre, i.e. in the piece of the central nervous system
connecting the afferent nerve with the efferent nerve. In a nerve-
trunk the excited state set up in it by a stimulus travels along
its fibres as wave-like disturbance at a speed of about thirty-
three metres per second, and does not alter in intensity or speed
in its travel. A nerve-trunk when excited (artificially) at some
point along its length transmits the " impulse," i.e. the wave-
like excited state in both directions, i.e. both up and down each
fibre, from the point stimulated. This is true whether the fibre
is afferent or efferent. The speed of travel of the nervous
impulse along the nerve-trunk is practically the same whether
the state of excitement, i.e. nervous impulse, is weak or intense.
The nerve-trunk shows practically no delay in its response to
an effective even though weak stimulus and its response ceases
practically at once on cessation of the exciting stimulus. When
excited by repeated brief stimuli the rhythm of the response
corresponds closely with that of the stimuli, even when the
frequency of the latter is as high as 100 per second. With
momentary stimuli a response even so brief as ia can be given
by the nerve-trunk. Finally, nerve-trunk conduction is singu-
larly resistant to fatigue, to impoverished blood supply, and
to many drugs which powerfully affect reflex actions.
In conduction through the central nervous organ the travel
of the nervous impulse exhibits departure from these features.
Its intensity is liable to be altered in transit. Its time of
transit, especially if it be weak, is much longer than for a similar
length of nerve-trunk. Its direction of transmission becomes
polarized, that is, confined to one direction along the nervous
path. The state of excitement engendered does not subside
immediately on cessation of the stimulus, and may outlast the
stimulus by many seconds. The rhythm of response to a
rhythmic stimulus does not change in correspondence with
change in the stimulus-rhythm. A response, however brief
the stimulus, is probably never shorter than 50 in duration.
These are striking differences, and morphological study of
the structural features of the central organ does not at present
suggest how they for the most part arise. It seems certain,
however, that in the central organ it is that part which consists
of so-called grey matter which forms the place of their occurrence.
There the spread of the impulse from one nerve-fibre to others
seems clearly due to the fact that each afferent fibre breaks
up into branching threadlets which ramify in various directions
and terminate in close apposition with other neurones. There
has been much dispute as to whether the termination is one
of contiguity .with the next neurone or of actual continuity
with it. The result of recent investigation seems to show that
in the vast majority of cases contiguity and not actual homo-
geneous continuity is the rule in the spinal cord. The point
of nexus of one neurone with another is termed the synapse. If
synapsis occurs by contiguity and not homogeneous continuity,
it is fair to suppose that at it the transmission of nervous
impulses must be different from that observable in the homo-
geneous conducting threads of nerve fibres. The conduction
must traverse something of the nature of a membrane. To
the properties of synaptic membranes many of the features
peculiar to conduction in the grey matter may be due, for
instance, the feature of irreversible direction of conduction.
Reflex Reactions. When the spinal cord is severed at any point
the reflex arcs of the portion of the body behind the transection
are quite cut off from the rest of the nervous system in front,
including the brain. The reflex reactions elicited from the
thus isolated region cannot therefore be modified by the action
of the higher nervous centres. It is important to see what
character these reflexes possess. The higher centres in the
brain exercise powers over the motor machinery of the body
and in doing so make use of the simpler nervous centres that
belong to the segments severally, that is the local nervous
centres existing for and in each body segment itself. In the
head the local centres are overlaid by higher centres which
cannot by any simple severance be separated from them. By
studying, therefore, the powers of the cord behind a complete
674
SPINAL CORD
spinal transaction we can obtain in a comparatively simple
way information as to the powers of the purely local or
segmental reflex mechanisms.
The so-called " flexion-reflex " of the limb is one of the most
accessible of the local reflex reactions which can thus be studied
with an isolated portion of the spinal cord as its centre.
Let it be supposed that the limb observed is the hind limb.
The three main joints of the limb are the hip, the knee and the
ankle. Each of these joints is provided with muscles which
flex or bend it, and others which extend or straighten it. It
is found that the reflex throws into contraction the flexor muscles
of each of these joints. It matters little which of all the various
afferent nerves of the limb is stimulated, whichever of these
the afferent nerve may be, the centrifuged discharge from the
cord goes to practically the same muscles, namely, always to
the flexors of the joints.
The centrifuged discharge does not go to the extensor
muscles of the limb. However strong the stimulus and however
powerful the afferent nerve chosen the spinal centre does not dis-
charge impulses into the extensor muscles, though these muscles
receive motor nerves issuing from the very same region of the
cord as that supplying motor nerves to the flexor muscles.
Not only does the reflex action not discharge motor impulses
into the nerves of the extensor muscles, but if the spinal cord
happens to be discharging impulses into these nerves when the
reflex is evoked this discharge is suppressed or diminished
(inhibited). The result is that when the reflex occurs not only
are the flexor muscles made to contract, but their antagonists,
the extensors, are, if in contraction at the same time, thrown out
of contraction, that is, relaxed. In this way the latter muscles
are prevented from impeding the action of the contracting
flexors. This inhibition occurs at the beginning of the reflex
action which excites the muscles and continues so long as the
flexion-reflex itself continues. It thus prevents other reflexes
from upsetting for the time being the due action of the flexion-
reflex, for it renders the muscles opposing that reflex less
accessible to motor discharge through the spinal cord whatever
the quarter whence incitation to that discharge may come.
A feature of this reflex is its graded intensity. A weak
stimulus evokes in the flexor muscles a contraction which is
weak and in the extensor muscles a relaxation which is slight.
Not only is the contraction weak in the individual flexor muscles,
but it is limited to fewer of them, and in large muscles seems to
involve only limited portions of them.
The duration of the reflex similarly varies directly with the
duration of the exciting stimulus applied to the afferent nerve.
The time relations of electrical stimuli can be controlled by the
experimenter with much precision. In the single induction
shock he has at command a stimulus of extreme brevity, lasting
only a few millionths of a second. With such stimulus a lower
limit is soon found to the brevity of the reflex effect as ex-
pressed by muscles. It is found difficult to evoke with brief
stimuli reflex contractions so brief as those evoked from the
muscle by similar stimuli applied direct to the motor nerve of
the muscle. There is reason to think that such stimuli applied
to a nerve may evoke one single nerve-impulse. A single nerve
impulse generated in a motor nerve causes in the muscle a brief
contraction which is called a twitch, and lasts a tenth of a second.
A single nerve impulse generated in an afferent nerve sometimes
fails on arriving at the spinal centre to evoke any observable
reflex effect at all, but if it is effective the muscle contraction
tends to be longer than a " twitch," often much longer. It is
therefore questioned whether the spinal centre when excited
even most briefly ever discharges one single centrifugal im-
pulse only; it seems usually to discharge a short series of such
impulses.
Allied to this character is the tendency which even simple
spinal reflexes exhibit to continue discharging for a certain
time after their exciting stimulus has ceased to be applied. This
after-discharge succeeding a strong stimulus may persist even
for several seconds.
Refractory Phase. Besides characters common to all or many
spinal reflexes certain spinal reflexes have features peculiar to
themselves or exhibited by them in degrees not obvious in other
reflexes. One of these features is refractory phase. The scratch-
reflex exemplifies this. In the dog, cat, and many other ani-
mals the hind limb often performs a rapid scratching movement,
the foot being applied to the skin of the shoulder or neck as if
to groom the hairy coat in that region. This movement is
in the intact animal under control of the brain, and can be
executed or desisted from at will. When certain of the higher
centres in the brain have been destroyed, this scratching action
occurs very readily and in, as it were, an uncontrolled way.
When the spinal cord has been severed in the neck this scratch-
ing movement of the hind limb can be elicited with regularity
as a spinal reflex by merely rubbing the skin of the side of the
neck or shoulder, applying there a weak electric current to the
skin. In this reflex the stimulus excites afferent nerves con-
nected with the hairs in the skin and these convey impulses
to the spinal centres in the neck or shoulder segments, and these
in turn discharge impulses into nerve fibres entirely intraspinal
passing backward along the cord to reach motor centres
in the hind limb region. These motor centres in turn discharge
centrifugal impulses into the muscles of the hind limb of the same
side of the body as the shoulder which is the seat of irritation.
The motor discharge is peculiar in that it causes the muscles of
the hind limb to contract rhythmically at a rate of about four
contractions per second, and the discharge is peculiar further
in that it excites the flexor and extensor muscles of the joints
alternately so that at the hip for instance the limb is alternately
flexed and extended, each single phase of the movement lasting
about an eighth of a second. Now this rhythmic discharge
remains the same in rate whether the exciting stimulus applied
to the skin be continuous or one of many various rates of
repetition. Evidently at some point in the reflex arc there is
a mechanism which after reacting to the impulses reaching it
remains for a certain brief part of a second unresponsive, and
then becomes once more for a brief period responsive, and so
on. And this phasic alternation of excitability and inex-
citability repeats itself through the continuance of the reflex
even when that endures for minutes. The phase of inexcit-
ability is termed the refractory phase. It is important as an
essential element in the co-ordination; without it the scratching
movement would obviously not be obtained for alternation
of flexion and extension is essential to the act. A similar element
almost certainly forms part of the co-ordinating mechanism
for many other cyclic reflexes, including -those of the stepping
of the limbs, the movement of the jaw in mastication, the action
of the "eyelids in blinking, and perhaps the respiratory move-
ments of the chest and larynx.
Fatigue. Nerve trunks do not easily tire out under stimu-
lation even most prolonged. Reflex actions on the other hand
relatively soon tire. Some are more resistant, however, than
are others. The flexion-reflex may be continued for ten minutes
at a time and the scratch-reflex can be maintained so long.
As a reflex tires, the muscular contraction which it causes tends
to become less intense and less steady. The relatively rapid
onset of fatigue in reflexes is counterbalanced by speedy recovery
in repose. A long flexion-reflex, when from fatigue it has
become weak, tremulous and irregular, will recommence after
30 seconds' repose with almost the same vigour and steadiness
as if it had not recently been tired out.
This character of reflexes is in accordance with their executing
movements which for the most part are not under natural
circumstances required to last long. Such movements are the
taking of a step by a limb, the movement of the jaw in masti-
cation, the descent of the diaphragm in breathing, the withdrawal
of the foot or the pinion from a noxious stimulus or the move-
ment of the eyelids to wash off a particle touching the cornea,
in all these no very prolonged reflex discharge is required. These
natural movements to which the artificially provoked reflexes
seem to correspond do not demand prolonged motor activity,
or when they do, demand it in rhythmic repetition with
intervening pauses which allow repose.
SPINAL CORD
675
Reflex Postures. But there are certain reflexes which do
persist for long periods at a stretch. These are reflex postures.
The hind limbs of the " spinal " frog assume an attitude which is
reflex, for it ceases on severance of the afferent spinal roots.
This attitude is one of flexion at hip, knee and ankle, resembling
the well-known natural posture of the frog as it squats when
quiet in the tank. Similarly in the " spinal " dog or cat certain
muscles exhibit a slight but persistent contraction. This is
seen well in the extensor muscles of the knee. These tonic
reflexes are related to attitudes. In the dog and cat they are
exhibited by those muscles whose action antagonizes gravity
in postures which are usual in the animal, thus the extensors
of the knee and hip and shoulder and elbow are in tonic con-
traction during standing. The reflex arcs concerned in reflex
maintenance of this tonic contraction of muscles have been
shown in several cases to arise within those muscles, and in those
very muscles which themselves exhibit the tonic contraction.
It is not, however, certain that all muscles exhibit a reflex tonus:
for instance, it is not certain that in the dog the tail muscles
exhibit such a tonus. And in those muscles which do exhibit
the spinal reflex tonus attempts to obtain a similar untiring
slight steady reflex contraction by artificial stimuli applied
to receptive organs or nerves have failed.
The Spinal Reflex Arcs of the Hind Limb. When the skin of the
limb is stimulated the flexion-reflex already described is evoked.
The reflex is excited by nocuous stimuli such as a prick or
squeeze applied to the skin anywhere in the limb, but most
easily when applied to the foot. Electrical stimuli wherever
applied evoke the same reflex. Similarly electrical stimuli
applied to any afferent nerve of the limb evoke this reflex,
whether the afferent nerve be from skin or from the muscles.
Since the reflex always provokes excitation of the flexor muscles
and inhibition of the extensor muscles, the result is that central
stimulation of the afferent nerve of a flexor muscle excites
its own muscle and inhibits its antagonist (reciprocal innerv-
ation), while similar stimulation of the afferent nerve of an
extensor muscle inhibits its own muscle and excites its anta-
gonist (reciprocal innervation). The reflex flexion of the ipse-
lateral hind limb is commonly accompanied by reflex extension
of the opposite hind limb. If the reflex spreads to the fore
limb, it produces extension of the same side fore limb with
flexion of the crossed fore limb sometimes, but sometimes
extension of both fore limbs.
In the dog and cat extension of the ipselateral hind limb
can, however, be excited by stimulation of the skin in three
limited regions. One of these is the sole of the foot; smooth
pressure between the pads excites a strong brief extension.
This is called the extensor thrust. It is accompanied by a
similar sudden brief extension of all three other limbs. This
reflex may be related to the action of galloping, and the pres-
sure which excites resembles that which the weight of the body
bears on the pads against the ground.
The two other regions are the skin of the front of the groin
supplied by the crural branch of the genito-crural nerve, and
the skin just below and mesial to the buttock. These always
excite the extensor muscles, not the flexors. They may be
concerned with sexual acts.
Reflexes of the Fore Limb. These resemble those obtainable
from the hind limb. The ipselateral reflex is flexion at shoulder,
elbow and wrist. The contra lateral fore limb at the same time is
extended at shoulder, elbow and wrist. When the reflex spreads
to the hind limbs the hind limb of the same side is extended at
hip, knee and ankle, that of the crossed side is sometimes flexed
at hip, knee and ankle, but sometimes is instead extended at
hip, knee and ankle. The reflex sometimes spreads to the neck,
causing the head to be turned toward the fore limb, which is the
seat of the stimulation.
The Scratch Reflex. This has already been partly described
above. The area from which it can be excited by appropriate
stimulation is a large one, namely, a field of skin which is some-
what saddle-shaped having its greatest width transversely
across the shoulders. It extends from close behind the pinna
back to the loin. The stimuli which are effective are rubbing
the skin or lightly pricking it, or lightly pulling on the hairs: also
faradisation by a needle electrode whose point is only just
inserted among the hairs but not deeper than their roots. If
the stimulus be applied to the right hand of the mid-line the
right hind limb is flexed at hip and performs the rapid scratch-
ing movement described above, and the left hind limb is thrown
into steady extension. And conversely, when the stimulus is
to the left side of the mid-line.
Each of these reflexes is a co-ordinate reaction. It is seen,
therefore, that through the medium of the spinal cord the body
behind the head has at command a certain number of reflexes
and that each of these manages the skeletal musculature in a
co-ordinate way. It will also be clear from the facts mentioned
above about these separate reflexes that the fields of muscles
worked by these several reflexes is to a large extent common to
them all. Thus the reflex excited from the skin of the right hind
limb acts on the muscles of that limb and also on those of the
three other limbs. So similarly the reflex excited from the left
hind limb, and from each fore limb. Study of the inter-relation-
ship between these reflexes shows that by means of the spinal
cord not only is co-ordinate action of the muscles ensured for
each reflex, but that also the separate reflexes are co-ordinated
one with another.
When we examine the relationship holding between individual
reflexes we find that some resemble one another in regard to
their action upon a particular muscle or group of muscles. On
the other hand, some act in opposite ways upon a particular
muscle or muscle group. In order to follow the co-ordination
effected by the spinal cord in corresponding reflexes together
we have to turn to a certain feature in the scheme of construction
of the nervous system. This feature is embodied in what is
termed the principle of the common path.
Interaction between Reflexes. At the commencement of every
reflex-arc is a receptive neurone extending from the receptive
surface to the central nervous organ. This neurone forms the
sole avenue which impulses generated at its receptive point can
use whithersoever be their destination. This neurone is therefore
a path exclusive to the impulses generated at its own receptive
point, and other receptive points than its own cannot employ
it. A single receptive point may play reflexly upon quite a
number of different effector organs. It may be connected
through its reflex path with many muscles and glands in many
different regions. Yet all its reflex arcs spring froni the one
single shank or stem, i.e. from the one afferent neurone which
conducts from the receptive point at the periphery into the
central nervous organ.
But at the termination of every reflex arc we find a final
neurone, the ultimate conductive link to an effector organ,
(muscle or gland). This last link in the chain, e.g. the motor
neurone, differs obviously in one important respect from the
first link of the chain. It does not subserve exclusively impulses
generated at one single receptive source, but receives impulses
from many receptive sources situate in many and various regions
of the body. It is the sole path which all impulses, no matter
whence they come, must travel if they are to act on the
muscle fibres to which it leads.
Therefore, while the receptive neurone forms a private path
exclusively serving impulses of one source only, the final or
efferent neurone is, so to say, a public path, common to impulses
arising at any of many sources of reception. A receptive field,
e.g. an area of skin, is analysable into receptive points. One
and the same effector organ stands in reflex connexion not only
with many individual points, but even with many various
receptive fields. Reflexes generated in manifold sense-organs
can pour their influence into one and the same muscle. Thus a
limb muscle is the terminus ad quern of many reflex arcs arising
in many various parts of the body. Its motor nerve is a path
common to all the reflex arcs which reach that muscle.
Reflex arcs show, therefore, the general features that the
initial neurone of each is a private path exclusively belonging
to a single receptive point (or small group of points) ; and that
6y6
SPINAL CORD
finally the arcs embouch into a path leading to an effector organ;
and that their final path is common to all receptive points where-
soever they may lie in the body, so long as they have connexion
with the effector organ in question. Before finally converging
upon the motor neurone the arcs converge to some degree.
Their private paths embouch upon intern-uncial paths common
in various degree to groups of private paths. The terminal
path may, to distinguish it from internuncial common paths,
be called the final common path. The motor nerve to a muscle is
a collection of final common paths.
Certain consequences result from this arrangement. One of
these is the preclusion of essential qualitative difference
between nerve-impulses arising in different afferent nerves.
If two conductors have a tract in common there can hardly
be essential qualitative difference between their modes of
conduction; and the final common paths must be capable of
responding with different rhythms which different conductors
impress upon it. It must be to a certain degree aperiodic. If
its discharge be a rhythmic process, as from many considera-
tions it appears to be, the frequency of its own rhythm must be
capable of being at least as high as that of the highest frequency
of any of the afferent arcs that play upon it; and it must be
able also to reproduce the characters of the slowest.
A second consequence is that each receptor being dependent
for final communication with its effector organ upon a path not
exclusively its own but common to it with certain other receptors,
such nexus necessitates successive and not simultaneous use
of the common path by various receptors using it to different or
opposed effect. When two receptors are stimulated simul-
taneously, each of the receptors tending to evoke reflex action
that for its end-effect employs the same final common path but
employs it in a different way from the other, one reflex appears
without the other. The result is this reflex or that reflex, but
not the two together.
In the simultaneous correlation of reflexes some reflexes com-
bine harmoniously, being reactions that mutually reinforce.
These may be termed allied reflexes, and the neural arcs which
they employ allied arcs. On the other hand, some reflexes, as
mentioned above, are antagonistic one to another and incom-
patible. These do not mutually reinforce, but stand to each
other in inhibitory relation. One of them inhibits the other, or
a whole group of others. These reflexes may in regard to one
another be termed antagonistic; and the reflex or group of reflexes
which succeeds in inhibiting its opponents may be termed
" prepotent " for the time being.
Allied Reflexes. The action of the principle of the final com-
mon path may be instanced in regard to " allied arcs " in the
scratch-reflex as follows. If, while the scratch-reflex is being
elicited from a skin point at the shoulder, a second point distant
10 mm. from the other point but also in the receptive field of
skin, be stimulated, the stimulation at this second point favours
the reaction from the first point. This is well seen when the
stimulus at each point is of subminimal intensity. The two
stimuli, though each unable separately to invoke the reflex, yet
do so when applied both at the same time. This is not due to
overlapping spread of the feeble currents about the stigmatic
poles of the two circuits used. Weak cocainization of either of
the two skin poles annuls it. Moreover, it occurs when localized
mechanical stimuli are used. It therefore seems that the arcs
from the two points, e.g. Ra and R have such mutual relation
that reaction of one of them reinforces reaction of the other,
as judged by the effect on the final common path.
This reinforcement is really an instance of summation in the
final common path. So also is the effect to which Exner has
given the name of " bahnung " a phenomenon of frequent
occurrence in reflex reactions. Suppose a stimulus (A) be
applied which is too weak to elicit the reflex which were it
stronger it could evoke. It is found that a second stimulus (B)
also of itself too weak to evoke the reflex, will evoke the reflex
if applied at a short interval after the application of (A). The
two stimuli sum in their effect upon the final common path.
The " receptive field " of a reflex is really the common area of
commencement of a number of allied arcs. And reflexes whose
arcs commence in receptive fields even widely apart may also
have " allied " relation. In the bulbo-spinal dog stimulation
of the outer digit of the hind foot will evoke reflex flexion of the
leg, and stimulation of each of the other digits evokes prac-
tically the same reflex; and if stimulation of several of these
points be simultaneously combined the same reflex as a result
is obtained more readily than if one only of these points is
stimulated. And to these stimulations may be added simul-
taneously stimulation of points in the crossed fore foot;
stimulation there yields by itself flexion of the hind leg;
and under the simultaneous stimulation of fore and hind
foot the flexion of the leg goes on as before, though
perhaps more readily; that is, the several individual reflexes
harmonize in their effect on the hind limb. Further, to
these may be added simultaneous stimulation of the tail and
of the crossed pinna; and the reflexes of these stimulations all
coalesce in the same way in flexion of the hind limb. Exner
has shown that, in exciting different points of the central nervous
system itself, points widely apart exert " bahnung " for one
another's reactions and for various reflex reactions induced from
the skin. Thus reflexes originated at different distant points, and
passing through paths widely separate in the brain, converge to
the same motor mechanism (final common path) and act har-
moniously upon it. Reflex arcs from widely different parts con-
join and pour their influence harmoniously into the same muscle.
The motor neurones of a muscle of the knee are the terminus ad
quern of reflex arcs arising in receptors not only of its own foot,
but from the crossed fore foot and pinna and tail, also undoubtedly
from the otic labyrinth, olfactory organs and eyes. Thus, if
we take as a standpoint any motor nerve to a muscle it consists
of a number of motor neurones which are more or less bound into
a unit mechanism among the reflex actions of the organism a
number can all be brought together as a group, because they
all in their course converge together upon this motor mechanism,
this final common path, activate it, and are in harmonious mutual
relation with regard to it. They are in regard to it what were
termed above " allied " reflexes.
Antagonistic Reflexes. But not all reflexes connected to one
and the same common final path stand to one another in the rela-
tion of " allied reflexes." Suppose during the scratch-reflex a
stimulus be applied to the foot not of the scratching side, but
of the opposite side. The left leg, which is executing the scratch-
reflex in response to stimulation of the left shoulder skin is cut
short in its movement by the stimulation of the right foot,
although the stimulus at the shoulder to provoke the scratch
movement is maintained unaltered all the time. The stimulus
to the right foot will temporarily interrupt a scratch-reflex, or
will cut it short or will delay its onset; which it does of these
depends on the time-relations of the stimuli. The inhibition
of the scratch-reflex occurs sometimes when the contraction of
the muscles innervated by the reflex conflicting with it is very
slight. There is interference between the two reflexes and the
one is inhibited by the other. The final common path used by
the left scratch-reflex is also common to the reflex elicitable
from the right foot. This latter reflex evokes at the opposite
(left) knee extension; in doing this it causes steady excitation of
extensor neurones of that knee and steadily inhibits the
flexor neurones. But the scratch-reflex causes rhythmic
excitation of the flexor neurones. Therefore these flexor neurones
in this conflict lie as a final common path under the influence
of two antagonistic reflexes, one of which would excite them to
rhythmical discharge four times a second, while the other would
continually repress all discharge in them. There is here an
antagonistic relation between reflexes embouching on one and
the same final common path.
In all these forms of interference there is a competition, as it
were, between the excitatory stimulus used for the one reflex
and the excitatory stimulus for the other. Both stimuli are in
progress together, and the one in taking effect precludes the
other's taking effect as far as the final common path is concerned;
and the precise form in which that occurs depends greatly on
SPINAL CORD
677
the time-relations of application of the two stimuli competing
against each other.
Again, if, while stimulation of the skin of the shoulder is
evoking the scratch-reflex, the skin of the hind foot of the same
side is stimulated, the scratching may be arrested. Stimulation
of the skin of the hind foot by any of various stimuli that have
the character of threatening the part with damage causes the
leg to be flexed, drawing the foot up by steady maintained
contraction of the flexors of the ankle, knee and hip. In this
reaction the reflex arc is (under schematic provisions similar
to those mentioned in regard to the scratch reflex schema)
Antagonistic Reflexes.
(i.) the receptive neurone, noci-ceptive, from the foot to the spinal
segment, (ii.) the motor neurone to the flexor muscle, e.g. of hip
(a short intra-spinal neurone); a Schalt-zelle (v. Monakow) is
probably existent between (i.) and (ii.) but omitted for simplicity.
Here, therefore, there is an arc which embouches into the same
final common path, FC. The motor neurone FC is a path
common to it and to the scratch-reflex arc; both these arcs
employ the same effector organ, namely, the knee-flexor, and
employ it by the common medium of the final path FC. But
though the channels for both reflexes embouch upon the same
final common path, the excitatory flexor effect specific to each
differs strikingly in the two cases. In the scratch-reflex the
flexor effect is an intermittent effect; in the noci-ceptive flexion-
reflex the flexor effect is steady and maintained. The accom-
panying tracing shows the result of conflict between the two
reflexes. The one reflex displaces the other at the common path.
Compromise is not evident. The scratch-reflex is set aside by
that of the noci-ceptive arc from the homonymous foot. The
stimulation which previously sufficed to provoke the scratch-
reflex is no longer effective, though it is continued all the time.
But when the stimulation of the foot is discontinued the scratch-
reflex returns. In that respect, although there is no enforced
inactivity, there is an interference which is tantamount to, if
not the same thing as, inhibition. Though there is no cessation
of activity in the motor neurone, one form of activity that was
being impressed upon it is cut short and another takes its place.
A stimulation of the foot too weak to cause more than a minimal
reflex will often suffice to completely interrupt, or cut short, or
prevent onset of, the scratch-reflex.
The kernel of the interference between the homonymous
flexion-reflex and the scratch-reflex is that both employ the same
final common path FC to different effect just as in the inter-
ference between the crossed extension-reflex and the scratch-
reflex. Evidently, the homonymous flexion-reflex and the
crossed extension-reflex both use the same final common path
FC. And they use it to different effect. The motor neurone to
the flexor of the knee being taken as a representative of the
final common path, the homonymous flexion-reflex inhibits it
from discharging. Hence if, while the direct flexion-reflex is
in progress, the crossed foot is stimulated, the reflex of the
knee-flexor is inhibited. The crossed extension-reflex therefore
inhibits not only the scratch-reflex, but also the homonymous
flexion-reflex.
Further, in all these interferences between reflexes the direction
taken by the inhibition is reversible. Thus, the scratch-reflex
is not only liable to be inhibited by, but is itself able to inhibit
either the homonymous flexion-reflex or the crossed extension-
reflex; the homonymous flexion-reflex is not only capable of being
inhibited by the crossed extension-reflex, but conversely in its
turn can inhibit the crossed extension-reflex. These inter-
ferences are therefore reversible in direction. Certain conditions
determine which reflex among two or more competing ones shall
obtain mastery over the final common path and thus obtain
expression.
Therefore, in regard to the final common path FC, the reflexes
that express themselves in it can be grouped into sets, namely,
those which excite it in one way, those which excite it in
another way, and those which inhibit it. The reflexes com-
posing each of these sets stand in such relation to reflexes of
the same set that they are with them " allied reflexes."
But a reflex belonging to any one of these sets stands in
such relation to a reflex belonging to one of the other sets
that it is in regard to the latter an " antagonistic " reflex.
This correlation of reflexes about the flexor neurone in the
leg, so that some reflexes are mutually allied and some are
mutually antagonistic in regard to that neurone, may serve as a
paradigm of the correlation of reflexes about every final common
path, e.g. about every motor nerve to skeletal muscle.
As to the intimate nature of the mechanism which thus, by
summation or by interference, gives co-ordination where neu-
rones converge upon a common path, it is difficult to surmise.
In the central nervous system of vertebrates, afferent neurones
A and B in their convergence toward and impingement upon
another neurone Z, towards which they conduct, do not make any
lateral connexion directly one with the other at least, there
seems no clear evidence that they do. It seems, then, that the
only structural link between A and B is neurone Z itself. Z
itself should therefore be the field of coalition of A and B if they
transmit " allied " reflexes.
It was argued, from the morphology of the perikaryon, that
it must form, in numerous cases, a nodal point in the conductive
lines provided by the neurone. The work of Ramon-y-Caja] ,
van Gehuchten, v. Lenhossek and others, with the methods of
Golgi and Ehrlich, establishes as a concept of the neurone in
general that it is a conductive unit wherein a number of branches
(dendrites) converge towards, meet and coalesce in a single
out-going stem (axone). Through this tree-shaped structure
the nervous impulses flow, like the water in a tree, from roots to
stem. The conduction does not normally run in the reverse
direction. The place of junction of the dendrites with one
another and with the axone is commonly the perikaryon. This
last is therefore a nodal point in the conductive system. But it
is a nodal point of particular quality. It is not a nodal point
where lines meet to cross one another, nor one where one line
splits into many. It is a nodal point where conductive lines
run together into one which is the continuation of them all.
It is a reduction point in the system of lines. The perikaryon
with its convergent dendrites is therefore just such a structure
as spatial summation and immediate induction would demand.
678
SPINAL CORD
The neurone Z may well, therefore, be the field of coalition,
and the organ where the summational and inductive processes
occur. And the morphology of the neurone as a whole is
seen to be just such as we should expect, arguing from the
principle of the common path.
With the phenomenon of " interference " the question is more
difficult. There it is not clear that the field of antagonism is
within the neurone Z itself. The field may be synaptic. We
have the demonstration by Verworn that the interference
produced by A at Z for impulses from B is not accompanied
by any obvious change in excitability of the axone of Z. Z, if
itself the seat of inhibition, might have been expected to exhibit
that inhibition throughout its extent. This, as tested by its
axone, it does not. There exist, it is true, older experiments by
Uspensky, Belmondo and Oddi, &c., according to which the
threshold of direct excitability of the motor root is lowered by
stimulation of the afferent root. This points to an extension
of the facilitation effect through the whole motor neurone,
conversely to Verworn's demonstration for central inhibition.
Verworn's experiment and its result is very clear. It leads us
to search for some other mechanism common to A and B to
which might be attributable their mutual influence on each
other's reactions. But if we admit the conception, argued
above, that at the nexus between A and Z, i.e. at
synapse A Z, and similarly between B and Z, i.e. at synapse
B Z, there exists a surface of separation, a membrane in the
physical sense, a further consequence seems inferable. Suppose
a number of different neurones A, B, C, &c., each conducting
through its own synapse upon a neurone Z. The synapses A Z,
B Z, C Z, &c. are all surfaces or membranes into which Z enters
as a factor common to them all. A change of state induced in
neurone Z might be expected to affect the surface condition or
membrane at all of the synapses, since the condition of Z is a
factor common to all those membranes. Therefore a change of
state (excitatory or inhibitory) induced in Z by any of the
neurones A, B, C, &c., playing upon it would enter as a condition
into the nervous transmission at the other synapses from the
other collateral neurones. In harmony with this is the spread
of refractory state in the neurones as mentioned above. A
change in neurone Z induced by neurone A playing upon it, in
that case seems to effect its point of nexus with the other
neurones B, C, &c., also. It is conceivable that the phenomena of
interference may be based in part at least on such a condition.
The neurone threshold of Z for stimulation through B will be
to some extent a function of events at synapses A Z.
Factors Determining the Sequence. The formation of a common
path from tributary converging afferent arcs is important
because it gives a co-ordinating mechanism. There the domi-
nant action of one afferent arc, or set of allied arcs in con-
dominium, is subject to supercession by another afferent arc, or
set of allied arcs, and the supercession normally occurs without
intercurrent confusion. Whatever be the nature of the physio-
logical process occurring between the competing reflexes for
dominance over the common path, the issue of their competition
namely, the determination of which one of the competing arcs
shall for the time being reign over the common path, is largely
conditioned by four factors. These are spinal induction,
relative fatigue, relative intensity of stimulus, and the func-
tional species of the reflex.
i. The first of these occurs in two forms, one of which has
already been considered, namely, immediate induction. It
is a form of " bahnung." The stimulus which
induction. exc i tes a reflex tends by central spread to facilitate
and lower the threshold for reflexes, allied to .that
which it particularly excites. A constellation of reflexes thus
tends to be formed which reinforce each other, so that the reflex
is supported by allied accessory reflexes, or if the prepotent
stimulus shifts, allied arcs are by the induction particularly
prepared to be responsive to it or to a similar stimulus.
Immediate induction only occurs between allied reflexes. Its
tendency in the competition between afferent arcs is to fortify
the reflex just established, or, if transition occur, to favour
transition to an allied reflex. Immediate induction seems to
obtain with highest intensity at the outset of a reflex, or at
least near its commencement. It does not appear to persist
long.
The other form of spinal induction is what may be termed
successive induction. It is in several ways the reverse of the
preceding.
In peripheral inhibition, exemplified by the vagus action on
the heart, the inhibitory effect is followed by a rebound after-
effect opposite to the inhibitory (Gaskell). The same thing is
obvious in various instances of the reciprocal inhibition of the
spinal centres. Thus, if the crossed-extension reflex of the limb
of the " spinal " dog be elicited at regular intervals, say once a
minute, by a carefully adjusted electrical stimulus of defined
duration and intensity, the resulting reflex movements are
repeated each time with much constancy of character, amplitude
and duration. If in one of the intervals a strong prolonged (e.g.
30") flexion-reflex is induced from the limb yielding the extensor-
reflex movement, the latter reflex is found intensified after
the intercurrent flexion-reflex. The intercalated flexion-reflex
lowers the threshold for the aftercoming extension-reflexes, and
especially increases their after-discharge. This effect may
endure, progressively diminishing, through four or five minutes,
as tested by the extensor reflexes at successive intervals. Now,
as we have seen, during the flexion-reflex the extensor arcs were
inhibited : after the flexion-reflex these arcs are in this case
evidently in a phase of exalted excitability. The phenomenon
presents obvious analogy to visual contrast. If visual bright-
ness be regarded as analogous to the activity of spinal discharge,
and visual darkness analogous to absence of spinal discharge,
this reciprocal spinal action in the example mentioned has a
close counterpart in the well-known experiment where a white
disk used as a prolonged stimulus leaves as visual after-effect a
grey image surrounded by a bright ring (Hering's " Lichthof ").
This bright ring has for its spinal equivalent the discharge from
the adjacent reciprocally correlated spinal centre. The exalta-
tion after-effect may ensue with such intensity that simple dis-
continuance of the stimulus maintaining one reflex is immediately
followed by " spontaneous " appearance of the antagonistic
reflex. Thus the flexion-reflex, if intense and prolonged,
may, directly its own exciting stimulus is discontinued, be suc-
ceeded by a " spontaneous " reflex of extension, and this even
when the animal is lying on its side and the limb horizontal -
a pose that does not favour the tonus of the extensor muscles.
Such a " spontaneous " reflex is the spinal counterpart of the
visual " Lichthof." To this spinal induction, as it may be
termed, seems attributable a phenomenon commonly met in a
flexion-reflex of high intensity when maintained by very pro-
longed excitation. The reflex flexion is then frequently broken
at irregular intervals by sudden extension movements. It
would seem, therefore, that some process in the flexion-reflex
leads to exaltation of the activity of the arcs of the opposed
extension-reflex. An electrical stimulation of the proximal
end of the severed nerve of the extensor muscles of the knee
(cat), though it does not, in the present writer's experience,
directly excite contraction of the extensors of the knee is on
cessation often immediately followed by contraction of them.
As examples of the rebound exaltation following on inhibition
the following may also serve. The so-called " mark-time "
reflex of the " spinal " dog is an alternating stepping movement
of the hind limbs which occurs on holding the animal up so that
its limbs hang pendent. It can be inhibited by stimulating the
skin of the tail. On cessation of that stimulus the stepping
movement sets in more vigorously and at quicker rate than
before. The increase is chiefly in the amplitude of the move-
ment, but the writer has also seen the rhythm quickened even
by 30% of the frequence.
This after-increase might be explicable in either of two ways.
It might be due to the mere repose of the reflex centre, the repose
so recruiting the centre as to strengthen its subsequent action.
But a similar period of repose obtained by simply supporting one
limb which causes cessation of the reflex in both limbs, the
SPINAL CORD
679
stimulus being stretch of the hip-flexors under gravity is not
followed by after-increase of the reflex.
Or the after-increase might result from the inhibition being
followed by a rebound to superactivity. This latter seems to
be the case. The after-increase occurs even when both hind
limbs are passively lifted from below during the whole duration of
the inhibitory stimulus applied to the tail. It is the depression of
inhibition, and not the mere freedom from an exciting stimulus,
that induces a later superactivity. And the reflex inhibition
of the knee-extensor by stimulation of the central end of its own
nerve is especially followed by marked rebound to superactivity
of the extensor itself.
Again, the knee jerk, after being inhibited by stimulation of
the hamstring nerve, returns, and is then more brisk than
before the inhibition.
By virtue of this spinal contrast, therefore, the extension-
reflex predisposes to and may actually induce a flexion-reflex,
and conversely the flexion-reflex predisposes to and may actually
induce an extension-reflex. This process is qualified to play a
part in linking reflexes together in a co-ordinate sequence of
successive combination. If a reflex arc A during its own
activity temporarily checks that of an opposed reflex arc B,
but as a subsequent result induces in arc B a phase of greater
excitability and capacity for discharge, it predisposes the spinal
organ for a second reflex opposite in character to its own in
immediate succession to itself. The writer has elsewhere pointed
out the peculiar prominence of " alternating reflexes " in pro-
longed spinal reactions. It is significant that they are usually
cut short with ease by mere passive mechanical interruption of
the alternating movement in progress. It seems that each step
of the reflex movement tends to excite by spinal induction the
step next succeeding itself.
Much of the reflex action of the limb that can be studied in the
" spinal " dog bears the character of adaptation to locomotion.
This has been shown recently with particular clearness by the
observations of Phillipson. In describing the extensor thrust
of the limb the writer drew attention at the time to its signifi-
cance for locomotion. Spinal induction obviously tends to
connect to this extensor-thrust flexion of the limb as an after-
effect. In the stepping of the limb the flexion that raises the
foot and carries it clear of the ground prepares the antagonistic
arcs of extension, and, so to say, sensitizes them to respond
later in their turn by the supporting and propulsive extension
of the limb necessary for progression. In such reflex sequences
an antecedent reflex would thus not only be the means of bring-
ing about an ensuing stimulus for the next reflex, but would pre-
dispose the arc of the next reflex to react to the stimulus when
it arrives, or even induce the reflex without external stimulus.
The reflex " stepping " of the " spinal " dog does go on even
without an external skin stimulus: it will continue when the
dog is held in the air. The cat walks well when anaesthetic in
the soles of all four feet.
Each reflex movement must of itself generate stimuli to afferent
apparatus in many parts and organs muscles, joints, tendons
&c. This probably reinforces the reflex in progress. The
reflex obtainable by stimulation of -the afferent nerve of the
flexor muscles of the knee excites those muscles to contraction
and inhibits their antagonistics: the reflex obtainable from the
afferent nerve of the extensor muscles of the knee excites the
flexors and inhibits their antagonistics.
Where a reflex by spinal induction tends to eventually bring
about the opposed reflex, the process of spinal induction is
therefore probably reinforced by the operation of any reflex
generated in the movement. This would help to explain how it is
that a reflex reaction, when once excited in a " spinal " animal,
ceases on cessation of the stimulus as quickly as it generally does.
Such a reaction must generate in its progress a number of further
stimuli and throw up a shower of centripetal impulses from the
moving muscles and joints into the spinal cord. Squeezing of
muscles and stimulation of their afferent nerves and those of
joints, &c., elicit reflexes. The primary reflex movement
might be expected, therefore, of itself to initiate further reflex
movement, and that secondarily to initiate further still, and
so on. Yet on cessation of the external stimulus to the foot
in the flexion-reflex the whole reflex comes usually at once
to an end. The scratch-reflex, even when violently pro-
voked, ceases usually within two seconds of the discontinuance
of the external stimulus that provoked it.
We have as yet no satisfactory explanation of this. But we
remember that such reflexes are intercurrent reactions breaking
in on a condition of neural equilibrium itself reflex. The suc-
cessive induction will tend to induce a compensatory reflex,
which brings the moving parts back again to the original position
of equilibrium.
2. Another condition influencing the issue of competition
between reflexes of different source for possession of one and the
same final common path is fatigw. A spinal reflex Fatigue
under continuous excitation or frequent repetition
becomes weaker, and may cease altogether. This decline is
progressive, and takes place earlier in some kinds of reflexes than
it does in others. In the " spinal " dog the scratch-reflex under
ordinary circumstances tires much more rapidly than does the
flexion-reflex.
A reflex as it tires shows other changes besides decline in
amplitude of contraction. Thus in the flexion-reflex, the
original steadiness of the contraction decreases; it becomes
tremulous, and the tremor becomes progressively more marked
and more irregular. The rhythm of the tremor in the writer's
observations has often been about 10 per second. Then phases
of greater tremor tend to alternate with phases of improved con-
traction as indicated by some regain of original extent of flexion
of limb and diminished tremor. Apart from these partial evan-
escent recoveries the decline is progressive. Later, the stimula-
tion being maintained all the time, brief periods of something
like complete intermission of the reflex appear, and even of a
replacement of flexion by extension. These lapses are -recovered
from, but tend to recur more and more. Finally, an irregular
phasic tremor of the muscles is all that remains. It is not the
flexor muscles themselves which tire out, for these, when under
fatigue of the flexion-reflex they contract no longer for that
reflex, contract in response to the scratch-reflex which also
employs them.
Similar results are furnished by the scratch-reflex, with certain
differences in accord with the peculiar character of its individual
charge. One of these latter is the feature that the individual
beats of the scratch-reflex usually become slower and follow each
other at slower frequency. Also the beats, instead of remaining
fairly regular in amplitude and frequency, tend to succeed in
somewhat regular groups. The beats may disappear altogether
for a short time, and then for a short time reappear, the stimulus
continuing all the while. Here, again, the phenomena are not
referable to the muscle, for when excited through other reflex
channels, or through its motor nerve directly, the muscle shows
its contraction well. Part of the decline of these reflexes under
electrical stimulation in the " spinal " dog may be due to reduction
of the intensity of the stimulus itself by physical polarization.
That does not account in the main for the above described
effects. The graphic record of fatigue of the flexion of the
scratch-reflex obtained by continued mechanical stimulation
does not appreciably differ from that yielded' under electrical
stimulation. The different speed of the decline due to fatigue
proceeds characteristically in different kinds of reflex, and in the
same kind of reflex under different physiological conditions, e.g..
"spinal shock": this indicates its determination by other
factors than electrical polarization. Polarization has in a num-
ber of cases been deferred as far as possible by using equalized
alternate shocks applied in opposite directions through the same
gilt needle; this precaution has not yielded' results differing
appreciably from those given by ordinary double shocks or by
series of make or break shocks of the same direction. The slow-
ing of the beat in fatigue is also against the explanation
by polarization, since merely weakening the stimulus does not
lead to a slower beat.
When the scratch-reflex elicited from a spot of skin is fatigued,
68o
SPINAL CORD
the fatigue holds for that spot, but does not implicate the reflex
as obtained from the surrounding skin. The reflex is, when tired
out to stimuli at that spot, easily obtainable by stimulation two
or more centimetres away. This is seen with either mechanical
or electrical stimuli. When the spot stimulated second is close
to the one tired out, the reflex shows some degree of fatigue, but
not that degree obtaining for the original spot. This fatigue
may be a local fatigue of the nerve-endings in the spot of skin
stimulated, to which in experiments making use of electric
stimuli some polarization may be added. Yet its local character
does not at all necessarily imply its reference to the skin. It
may be the expression of a spatial arrangement in the central
organ by which reflex arcs arising in adjacent receptors are
partially confluent in their approach toward the final common
path, and are the more confluent the closer together lie their
points of origin in the receptive field. The resemblance between
the distribution of the incidence of this fatigue and that of the
spatial summation previously described argues that the seat of
the fatigue is intraspinal and central more than peripheral and
cutaneous; and that it affects the afferent part of the arc inside
the spinal cord, probably at the first synapse. Thus, its inci-
dence at the synapse Ra Pa and at R P would explain its
restrictions, as far as we know them, in the scratch-reflex.
The local fatigue of a spinal reflex seems to be recovered from
with remarkable speed, to judge by observations on the reflexes
of the limbs of the " spinal " dog. A few seconds' remission of the
stimulus suffices for marked though incomplete restoration of
the reaction. In a few instances there may be seen return of a
reflex even during the stimulation under which the waning and
disappearance of the reflex occurred. The exciting stimulus
has usually in such cases been of rather weak intensity. In the
writer's experience these spinal reflexes fade out sooner under a
weak stimulus than under a strong one. This seeming paradox
indicates that under even feeble intensities of stimulation the
threshold of the reaction gradually rises, and that it rises above
the threshold value of the weaker stimulus before it reaches that
of a stronger stimulus. The scratch-reflex which has ceased to
be elicited by a weak stimulus is immediately evoked often
without any sign of fatigue in its motor response by increasing
the intensity of the stimulus applied at the same electrode.
The occurrence of fatigue earlier under the weaker stimulus
than under the stronger also shows that the fatigue consequent
under the weaker stimulus may often be, relatively to the
production of the natural discharge, greater than when a stronger
stimulus is employed. This, which has been of frequent occur-
rence in the writer's observations on the leg of the "spinal"
dog, if obtaining widely in reflex actions, has evident practical
importance.
It is easy to avoid in some degree the local fatigue associated
with excitation of the scratch-reflex from one single spot in the
skin by taking advantage of the spatial summation of stimuli
applied at different points in the receptive field. When this was
done, a curious result met the writer. The provocation of the
reflex has been made through ten separate points in the receptive
field, the distance between each member of the series of points
and the point next to it being about four centimetres. Each
point is stimulated by a double-induction shock delivered twice
a second. When this is done a series of scratch movements
is elicited, and continues longer than when the stimuli are applied
at the same interval, not to succeeding series of skin points but
to one point. Thus three or four hundred beats can be elicited
in unbroken series. But the series tends somewhat abruptly
to cease. If, then, in spite of the cessation of the response, the
stimulation be continued without alteration during three or
four minutes or more, the scratching movement breaks out again
from time to time and gives another series of beats, perhaps
longer than the first. These experiments indicate that physical
polarization at the stigmatic electrode is not answerable for the
fading out of the scratch-reflex. It shows also the complexity
of the central mechanisms involved in the reflex. The phenome-
non recalls Lombard's phases of briskness and fatigue in series
of records obtained with the ergograph.
It is interesting to note certain differences between the cessa-
tion of a reflex under fatigue and under inhibition. The reflex
ceasing under inhibition is seen to fade off without obvious
change in the frequency of repetition of the beats, or in the
duration of the individual beats. The reflex ceasing under
fatigue is seen to show a slower rhythm and a sluggish course
for the latter beats, especially for the terminal ones.
Among the signs of fatigue of a reflex action are several sug-
gesting that in it the command over the final common path
exercised for the time being by the receptors and afferent path
in action becomes less strong, less steady and less accurately
adjusted. Under prolonged excitation their hold upon the final
common path becomes loosened. This view is supported by
the fact that its connexion with the final common path is then
more easily cut short and ruptured by other rival arcs competing
with it for the final common path in question. The scratch-
reflex interrupts the flexion-reflex more readily when the latter
is tired out than when it is fresh.
In the hind limb of the " spinal " dog the extensor-thrust is
inelicitable during the flexion-reflex. That is to say, when the
flexion-reflex is evoked with fair or high intensity the writer has
never succeeded in evoking the extensor-thrust, though the
flexed posture of the limb is itself a favouring circumstance for
the production of the thrust if the flexion be a passive one. But
when the flexion-reflex is kept up by appropriate stimulation
of a single point over a prolonged time, so that it shows fatigue,
the extensor-thrust becomes again clickable. Its elicitability
is, then, not regular nor facile, but it does become obtainable,
usually in quite feeble degree at first, later more powerfully.
In other words, it can dispossess the rival reflex from a common
path when that rival is fatigued, though it cannot do so when
the rival action is fresh and powerful.
Again, the crossed extension-reflex cannot inhibit the reflexion
of the flexor-reflex under ordinary circumstances if the intensity
of the stimulation of the competing arcs be approximately equal;
but it can do so when the flexion-reflex is tired.
The waning of a reflex under long-maintained excitation is
one of the many phenomena that pass in physiology under the
name of fatigue. It may be that in this case the so-called
fatigue is really nothing but a negative induction. Its place
of incidence may lie at the synapse. It seems a process elabo-
rated and preserved in the selective evolution of the neural
machinery. One obvious use attaching to it is the prevention
of the too prolonged continuous use of a common path by
any one receptor. It precludes one receptor from occupying
for long periods an effector organ to the exclusion of all other
receptors. It prevents long continuous possession of a common
path by any one reflex of considerable intensity. It favours the
receptors taking turn about. It helps to ensure serial variety
of reaction. The organism, to be successful in a million-sided
environment, must in its reaction be many sided. Were it not
for such so-called fatigue, an organism might, in regard to its
receptivity, develop an eye, or an ear, or a mouth, or a hand or
leg, but it would hardly develop the marvellous congeries of all
those various sense-organs which it is actually found to possess.
The loosening of the hold upon the common path by so-called
fatigue occurs also in paths other than those leading to
muscle and effector organs. If instead of motor effects sensual
are examined, analogous phenomena are observed. A visual
image is more readily inhibited by a competing image in the
same visual field when it has acted for some time than when it
is first perceived (W. Macdougall).
One point, on a priori grounds, is a natural corollary from the
" principle of the common path," as indicated by the experimental
findings relative to the incidence of fatigue. The reflex arcs,
each a chain of neurones, converge in their course so as to
impinge upon and conjoin in links (neurones) common to whole
varied groups in other words, they conjoin to common paths.
This arrangement culminates in the convergence of many
separately arising arcs in the final efferent-root neurone. This
neurone thus forms the instrument for many different reflex arcs
and acts. It is responsive to them in various rhythm and in
SPINAL CORD
681
various grades of intensity. In accordance with this, it seems
from experimental evidence to be relatively indefatigable. It
thus satisfies a demand that the principle of the common path
must make regarding it.
3. In the transition from one reflex to another a final common
path changes hands and passes from one master to another. A
fresh set of afferent arcs becomes dominant on the
"** supersession of one reflex by the next. Of all the
conditions determining which one of competing reflexes shall for
the time being reign over a final common path, the intensity of
reaction of the afferent arc itself relatively to that of its rivals is
probably the most powerful. An afferent arc that strongly
stimulates is caeteris paribus more likely to capture the common
path than is one excited feebly. A stimulus can only establish
its reflex and inhibit an opposed one if it have intensity. This
explains why, in order to produce examples of spinal inhibition,
recourse has so frequently been made in past times to strong
stimuli. A strong stimulus will inhibit a reflex in progress,
although a weak one will fail. Thus in Goltz's inhibition of
micturition in the " spinal " dog a forcible squeeze of the tail
will do it, but not, in the present writer's experience, a weak
squeeze. So, likewise, any condition which raises the excitability
and responsiveness of a nervous arc will give it power to inhibit
other reflexes, just as it would if it were excited by a strong
stimulus. This is much as in the heart of the Tunicate. There
the prepotent spot whence starts the systole lies from time to
time at one end and from time to time at the other. The pre-
potent region at one end which usually dominates the common
path is from time to time displaced by local increase of
excitability at the other under local distension of the blood-
sinuses there.
In judging of intensity of stimulus the situation of the stimulus
in the receptive field of the reflex has to be remembered. One
and the same physical stimulus will be weak if applied near the
edge of the field, though strong if applied to the focus of the
field.
Crossed reflexes are usually less easy to provoke, less reliable
of obtainment, and less intense than are direct reflexes. Con-
sequently we find crossed reflexes usually more easily inhibited
and replaced by direct reflexes than are these latter by those
former. Thus the crossed stepping-reflex is easily replaced by
the scratch-reflex, though its stimulus be continued all the time,
and though the scratch-reflex itself is not a very potent reflex.
But the reverse can occur with suitably adjusted intensity of
stimuli.
Again, the flexion-reflex of the dog's leg is, when fully
developed, accompanied by extension in the opposite leg. This
crossed extensor movement, though often very vigorous, may be
considered as an accessory and weaker part of the whole reflex,
of which the prominent part is flexion of the homonymous limb.
When the flexion-reflex is elicitable poorly, as, for instance, in
spinal shock or under fatigue or weak excitation, the crossed ex-
tension does not accompany the homonymous flexion and does
not appear. But, where the flexion-reflex is well developed,
if not merely one but both feet be stimulated simultaneously
with stimuli of fairly equal intensity, steady flexion at knee,
hip and ankle results in both limbs, and extension occurs in
neither limb. The contralateral part of each reflex is inhibited
by the homolateral flexion of each reflex. In other words, the
more intense part of each reflex obtains possession of the final
common paths at the expense of the less intense portion of the
reflex. But if the intensity of the stimuli applied to the right
and left feet be not closely enough balanced, the crossed exten-
sion of the reflex excited by the stronger stimulus is found to
exclude even the homonymous flexion that the weaker stimulus
should and would otherwise evoke from the leg to which it is
applied.
It was pointed out above that in a number of cases the
transference of control of the final common path FC from one
afferent arc to another is reversible. The direction of the trans-
ference can caeteris paribus be easily governed by making the
stimulation of this receptor or that receptor the more intense,
xxv. 22 a
A factor largely determining whether a reflex succeed another
or not is therefore intensity of stimulus.
4. A fourth main determinant for the issue of the conflict
between rival reflexes seems the functional species of the reflexes.
Reflexes initiated from a species of receptor appa- Species of
ratus that may be termed noci-ceptive appear to Reflex.
particularly dominate the majority of the final common paths
issuing from the spinal cord. In the simpler sensations we
experience from various kinds of stimuli applied to our skin
there can be distinguished those of touch, of cold, of warmth
and of pain. The adequate stimuli for the first-mentioned
three of these are certainly different; mechanical stimuli, applied
above a certain speed, which deform beyond a certain degree
the resting contour of the skin surface, seem to constitute
adequate stimuli for touch. Similarly the cooling or raising of
the local temperature, whether by thermal conduction, radia-
tion, &c., are adequate for the cold and warmth sensations. The
organs for these three sensations have by stigmatic stimuli been
traced to separate and discrete tiny spots in the skin. In regard
to skin-pain it is held by competent observers, notably by V.
Frey and Kiesow, that skin-pain likewise is referable to certain
specific nerve-endings. In evidence of this it is urged that
mechanical stimuli applied at certain places excite sensations
which from their very threshold upward possess unpleasantness,
and as the intensity of the stimulus is increased, culminate
in " physical pain." The sensation excited by a mechanical
stimulus applied to a touch-spot does not evoke pain, however
intensely applied, so long as the stimulation is confined to the
touch-spot. The threshold value of mechanical stimuli for touch-
spots is in general lower than it is for pain-spots; and conversely
the threshold value of electrical stimuli for touch-spots is in
general higher than it is for the spots yielding pain. Similarly it
is said that stimulation of a cold spot or of a warm spot does
not, however intense, evoke, so long as confined to them, sensa-
tions of painful quality. But pain can be excited not only by
strong mechanical stimuli and by electrical stimuli, but by
cold and by warmth, though the threshold value of these
latter stimuli is higher for pain than for cold and warm spots.
If these observations prove correct there exist, therefore,
numerous specific cutaneous nerve-fibres evoking pain.
A difficulty here is that sensory nerve-endings are usually
provided with sense organs which lower their threshold for
stimuli of one particular kind while raising it for stimuli of all
other kinds; but these pain-endings in the skin seem almost
equally excited by stimuli of such different modes as mechanical,
thermal conductive, thermal radiant, chemical and electrical.
That is, they appear anelective receptors. But it is to be re-
marked that these agents, regarded as excitants of skin-pain,
have all a certain character in common, namely this, that they
become adequate as excitants of pain when they are of such
intensity as threatens damage to the skin. And we may note
about these excitants that they are all able to excite nerve when
applied to naked nerve directly. Now there are certain skin
surfaces from which, according to most observers, pain is the
only species of sensation that can be evoked. This is alleged,
for instance, of the surface of the cornea a modified piece of
skin. The histology of the cornea reveals in its epithelium
nerve-endings of but one morphological kind; that is, the ending
by naked nerve-fibrils that pass up among the epithelial cells.
Similar nerve-endings exist also in the epidermis generally.
It may therefore be that the nerve-endings subserving skin-
pain are free naked nerve-endings, and the absence of any
highly evolved specialized end-organ in connexion with them
may explain their fairly equal amenability to an unusually
wide range of different kinds of stimuli. Instead of but one
kind of stimulus being their adequate excitant, they may be
regarded as adapted to a whole group of excitants, a group of
excitants which has in relation to the organism one feature
common to all its components, namely, a nocuous character.
With its liability to various kinds of mechanical and other
damage, in a world beset with dangers amid which the individual
and species have to win their way in the struggle for existence,
682
SPINAL CORD
we may regard nocuous stimuli as part of a normal state of
affairs. It does not seem improbable, therefore, that there
should under selective adaptation attach to the skin a so-to-say
specific sense of its own injuries. As psychical adjunct to the
reactions of that apparatus we find a strong displeasurable
effective quality in the sensations they evoke. This may
perhaps be a means for branding upon memory, of however
rudimentary kind, a feeling from past events that have been
perilously critical for the existence of the individuals of the
species. In other words, if we admit that damage to such an
exposed sentient organ as the skin must in the evolutionary
history of animal life have been sufficiently frequent in relation
to its importance, then the existence of a specific set of nerves
for skin-pain seems to offer no genetic difficulty, any more than
does the clotting of blood or innate immunity to certain diseases.
That these nerve-endings constitute a distinct species is argued
by their all evoking not only the same species of sensation, but
the same species of reflex movement as regards " purpose,"
intensity, resistance to " shock," &c. And their evolution may
well have been unaccompanied by evolution of any specialized
end-organ, since the naked free nerve-endings would better
suit the wide and peculiar range of stimuli, reaction to which
is in this case required. A low threshold was not required
because the stimuli were all intense, intensity constituting
their harmfulness; but response to a wide range of stimuli of
different kinds was required, because harm might come in various
forms. That responsive range is supplied by naked nerve itself,
and would be cramped by the specialization of an end-organ.
Hence these nerve-endings remained free.
It is those areas, stimulation of which, as judged by analogy,
can excite pain most intensely, and it is those stimuli which,
as judged by analogy, are most fitted to excite pain which,
as a general rule, excite in the " spinal " animal where pain
is of course non-existent the prepotent reflexes. If these are
reactions to specific pain-nerves, this may be expressed by saying
that the nervous arcs of pain-nerves, broadly speaking, dominate
the spinal centres in peculiar degree. Physical pain is thus
the psychical adjunct of an imperative protective reflex. It is
preferable, however, since into the merely spinal and reflex
aspect of the reaction of these nerves no sensation of any kind
can be shown to enter, to avoid the term " pain-nerves." Re-
membering that the feature common to all this group of stimuli
is that they threaten or actually commit damage to the tissue
to which they are applied, a convenient term for application
to them is nocuous. In that case what from the point of view
of sense are cutaneous pain-nerves are from the point of view of
reflex-action conveniently termed noci-ceptive nerves.
In the competition between reflexes the noci-ceptive as
a rule dominate with peculiar certainty and facility. This
explains why such stimuli have been so much used to evoke
reflexes in the spinal frog, and why, judging from them, such
" fatality " belongs to spinal reflexes.
One and the same skin surface will in the hind limb of the
spinal dog evoke one or other of two diametrically different
reflexes according as the mechanical stimulus applied be of
noxious quality or not, a harmful insult or a harmless touch.
A needle-prick to the planta causes invariably the drawing up
of the limb the flexion-reflex. A harmless smooth contact,
on the other hand, causes extension the extensor-thrust above
described. This flexion is therefore a noci-ceptive reflex.
But the scratch-reflex which is so readily evoked by simple
light irritation of the skin of the shoulder is relatively mildly
noci-ceptive. When the scratch-reflex and the flexion-reflex
are in competition for the final neurone common to them, the
flexion-reflex more easily dispossesses the scratch-reflex from
the final neurone than does the scratch-reflex the flexion-
reflex. If both reflexes are fresh, and the stimuli used are such
as, when employed separately, evoke their reflexes respec-
tively with some intensity, in my experience it is the flexion-
reflex that is usually prepotent. Yet if, while the flexion-reflex
is being moderately evoked by an appropriate stimulus of weak
intensity, a strong stimulus suitable for producing the scratch-
reflex is applied, the steady flexion due to the flexion-reflex is
replaced by the rhythmic scratching movement of the scratch-
reflex, and this occufs though the stimulus for the flexion-reflex
is maintained unaltered. When the stimulus producing the
scratch is discontinued the flexion-reflex reappears as before.
The flexion-reflex seems more easily to dispossess the scratch-
reflex from the final common paths than can the scratch-reflex
dispossess the flexion-reflex. Yet the relation is reversible
by heightening the intensity of the stimulus for the scratch-reflex
or lowering that of the stimulus for the flexion-reflex.
In decerebrate rigidity, where a tonic reflex is maintaining
contraction in the extensor muscles of the knee, stimulation of
the noci-ceptive arcs of the limb easily breaks down that reflex.
The noci-ceptive reflex dominates the motor neurone previously
held in activity by the postural reflex. And noci-ceptive reflexes
are relatively little depressed by " spinal shock."
Noci-ceptive arcs are, however, not the only spinal arcs
which in the intact animal, considered from the point of view
of sensation, evoke reactions rich in affective quality. Beside
those receptors attuned to react to direct noxa, the skin has
others, concerned likewise with functions of vital importance
to the species and colligate with sensations similarly of intense
affective quality; for instance, those concerned with sexual
functions. In the male frog the sexual clasp is a spinal reflex.
The cord may be divided both in front and behind the brachial
region without interrupting the reflex. Experiment shows
that from the spinal male at the breeding season, and also at
other times, this reflex is elicited by any object that stimulates
the skin of the sternal and adjacent region. In the intact
animal, on the contrary, other objects than the female are,
when applied to that region, at once rejected, even though they
be wrapped in the fresh skin of the female frog and in other
ways made to resemble the female. The development of the
reflex is not prevented by removal of the testes, but removal of
the seminal reservoirs is said to depress it, and their distension,
even by indifferent fluids, to exalt it. If the skin of the sternal
region and arms is removed the reflex does not occur. Severe
mutilation of the limbs and internal organs does not inhibit
the reflex, neither does stimulation of the sciatic nerve central
to its section. The reflex is, however, depressed or extinguished
by strong chemical and pathic stimuli to the sternal skin, at
least in many cases. The tortoise exhibits a similar sexual
reflex of great spinal potency.
It would seem a general rule that reflexes arising in species
of receptors which considered as sense-organs provoke strongly
affective sensation caeteris paribus prevail over reflexes of other
species -when in competition with them for the use of the "final
common path." Such reflexes override and set aside with
peculiar facility reflexes belonging to touch organs, muscular
sense-organs, &c. As the sensations evoked by these arcs,
e.g. " pains," exclude and dominate concurrent sensations, so
do the reflexes of these arcs prevail in the competition for
possession of the common paths. They seem capable of pre-
eminent intensity of action.
Of all reflexes it is the tonic reflexes, e.g. of ordinary posture,
that are in the writer's experience the most easily interrupted
by other reflexes. Even a weak stimulation of the noci-ceptive
arcs arising in the foot often suffices to lower or abolish the
knee-jerk or the reflex extensor tonus of the elbow or knee.
If various species of reflex are arranged, therefore, in their
order of potency in regard to power to interrupt one another,
the reflexes initiated in receptors which considered as sense-
organs excite sensations of strong affective quality lie at the
upper end of the scale, and the reflexes that are answerable
for the postural tonus of skeletal muscles lie at the lower end
of the scale. One great function of the tonic reflexes is to main-
tain habitual attitudes and postures. They form, therefore,
a nervous background of active equilibrium. It is of obvious
advantage that this equilibrium should be easily upset, so
that the animal may respond agilely to the passing events that
break upon it as intercurrent stimuli.
Results. Intensity of stimulation, fatigue and freshness,
SPINAL CORD
683
spinal induction, functional species of reflex, are all, therefore,
physiological factors influencing the result of the interaction
of reflex-arcs at a common path. It is noticeable that they
all resolve themselves ultimately into intensity of reaction.
Thus, intensity of stimulus means as a rule intensity of reaction.
Those species of reflex which are habitually prepotent in inter-
action with others are those which are habitually intense;
those specially impotent in competition are those habitually
feeble in intensity, e.g. skeletal muscular tone. The tonic
reflexes of attitude are of habitually low intensity, easily inter-
fered with and temporarily suppressed by intercurrent reflexes,
these latter having higher intensity. But these latter suffer
fatigue relatively early, whereas the tonic reflexes of posture
can persist hour after hour with little or no signs of fatigue.
Fatigue, therefore, in the long run advantageously redresses the
balance of an otherwise unequal conflict. We can recognize
in it another agency working toward that plastic alternation
of activities which is characteristic of animal life and increases
in it with ascent of the animal scale.
The high variability of reflex reactions from experiment to
experiment, and from observation to observation, is admittedly
one of the difficulties that has retarded knowledge of them.
Their variability, though often attributed to general conditions
of nutrition, or to local blood-supply, &c., seems far more
often due to changes produced in the central nervous organ by
its own functional conductive activity apart from fatigue.
This functional activity itself causes from moment to moment
the temporary opening of some connexions and the closure of
others. The chains of neurones, the conductive lines, have
been, especially in recent years, by the methods of Golgi, Ehrlich,
Apathy, Cajal and others, richly revealed to the microscope.
Anatomical tracing of these may be likened, though more
difficult to accomplish, to tracing the distribution of blood
vessels after Harvey's discovery had given them meaning,
but before the vasomotor mechanism was discovered. The
blood vessels of an organ may be turgid at one time, con-
stricted almost to obliteration at another. With the conductive
network of the nervous system the temporal variations are
even greater, for they extend to absolute withdrawal of nervous
influence. Under reflex inhibition a skeletal muscle may
relax to its post-mortem length, i.e. there may then be no
longer evidence of even a tonic influence on it by its motor
neurone. The direction of the stream of liberation of energy
along the pattern of the nervous web varies from minute to
minute. The final common path is handed from some group of
a plus class of afferent arcs to some group of a minus class,
or of a rhythmic class, and then back to one of the previous
groups again, and so on. The conductive web changes its
functional pattern with certain limits to and fro. It changes
its pattern at the entrances to common paths. The changes in
its pattern occur there in virtue of interaction between rival
reflexes, " interference." As a tap to a kaleidoscope, so a new
stimulus that strikes the receptive surfaces causes in the central
organ a shift of functional pattern at various synapses. The
central organ is a vast network whose lines of conduction follow
a certain scheme of pattern, but within that pattern the details
of connexion are, at the entrance to each common path, mutable.
The grey matter may be compared v/ith a telephone exchange,
where, from moment to moment, though the end-points of the
system are fixed, the connexions between starting-points and
terminal points are changed to suit passing requirements, as
the functional points are shifted at a great railway junction.
In order to realize the exchange at work, one must add to its
purely spatial plan the temporal datum that within certain
limits the connexions of the lines shift to and fro from minute
to minute. An example is the " reciprocal innervation " of
antagonistic muscles when one muscle of the antagonistic
couple is thrown into action the other is thrown out of action.
This is only a widely spread case of the general rule that antagon-
istic reflexes interfere where they embouch upon the same final
common paths. And that general rule is part of the general
principle of the mutual interaction of reflexes that impinge
upon the same common path. Unlike reflexes have successive
but not simultaneous use of the common path; like reflexes mutually
reinforce each other on their common path. Expressed teleo-
logically, -the common path, although economically subservient for
many and various purposes, is adapted to serve but one purpose
at a time. Hence it is a co-ordinating mechanism and prevents
confusion by restricting the use of the organ, its minister, to but
one action at a time.
In the case of simple antagonistic muscles, and in the instances
of simple spinal reflexes, the shifts of conductive pattern due
to interaction at the mouths of common paths are of but small
extent. The co-ordination covers, for instance, one limb or a
pair of limbs. But the same principle extended to the reaction
of the great arcs arising in the projicient receptor organs of the
head, e.g. the eye, which deal with wide tracts of musculature
as a whole, operates with more multiplex shift of the conductive
pattern. Releasing forces acting on the brain from moment
to moment shut out from activity whole regions of the nervous
system, as they conversely call vast other regions into play.
The resultant singleness of action from moment to moment is a,
keystone in the construction of the individtial whose unity it is
the specific office of the nervous system to perfect. The interference
of unlike reflexes and the alliance of like reflexes in their actior^
upon their common paths seem to lie at the very root of th?
great psychical process of " attention."
The spinal cord is not only the seat of reflexes whose " centres ''
lie wholly within the cord itself; it supplies also conducting
paths for nervous reactions initiated by impulses derived from
afferent spinal nerve, but involving mechanisms situate altOr
gether headward of the cord, that is to say, in the brain. Many
of these reactions affect consciousness, occasioning sensations
of various kinds. In regard to the part played by spinal con-
duction in subserving these sensual reactions a question of
practical rather than theoretical importance has been as yet the
chief aim of inquiry. The inquiry has been in fact whether the
impulses concerned in evoking the various species of sensations
follow in their headward course along the cord certain discrete
paths occupying separable fractions of the cross-area of the cord,
and if they are thus confined to discrete paths in what parts
of the cross-area of the cord do these parts lie. This "localizar
tion" problem has as yet been almost the sole problem attacked,,
and therefore, despite its limited scope and interest, the results
attained in it may be briefly mentioned here.
Localization. The sensations usually grouped under the
name of touch may with advantage, as shown by Head, be dis r
tinguished from the point of view of their practical elicitation
into superficial and deep. The former of these are referable
to stimulation of afferent nerve-fibres distributed actually to
the skin, the latter to stimulation of deeper afferents subjacent
to the skin. The touch-fibres belonging to the skin proper are
further subdivisible, as Head has shown, into two kinds. One
kind, the prolopathic, yield sensations so suffused with disagreer
able affective tone (skin-pain) that they may for the present
purpose be considered pain-nerves, and the description of their
spinal connexions be relegated to the paragraph dealing with the
spinal path for pain. The other kind, the epicritic, are those
which react to tangible stimuli lightly applied, such as stroking
the skin with a loose pledget of cotton wool or the light touching
of the skin with a pin's head or a blunt pencil point. Deep
touch, on the other hand, involves afferent nerve fibres supplied
by nerve-trunks not classed as cutaneous, but probably largely
muscular in the sense that they run to muscles and contain side
by side the afferent fibres in question and the efferent nerve-
fibres causing muscular contraction. Head has brought forward
clear evidence that though the afferent fibres subserving the
epicritic tactual sense of the skin and deep touch of subcutaneous
origin run so separate a course in the peripheral nerves, the
spinal fibres constituting the intraspinal headward-running
paths from these two kinds of peripheral touch-fibres, the
epicritic and the deep, to the brain, lie together and are impli-
cated together by injuries of the spinal cord. In this sense
there is, therefore, in the cord a tactual path. The question
684
SPINEL
is, therefore, what course does this path follow in the cord ? In
the first place it must be noted that the path contains a synapse
for the peripheral neurone whether belonging to the epicritic
tactual group or to the deep tactual gioup ends in the cord,
probably not far, i.e. not more than four or five segments,
from its place of entrance. The rest of the headward path must
therefore run through one secondary neurone at least, it may be
through a series of such arranged as a headward running line of
relays. It is, however, more probable that one long secondary
neurone reaching the bulb covers the whole of the remaining spinal
part of the trajectory. The part of the headward-running path
formed by the intraspinal part of the peripheral neurone (primary
afferent neurone) lies certainly in the dorsal column of the cord
of the same lateral half as the side from which the neurone
entered, i.e. in the right dorsal column if the neurone entered
by a spinal root of the right side. The secondary neurone
continuing the path lies, however, in the ventral column of the
crossed half of the cord. The junction or synapse between the
primary and secondary neurone lies, of course, in the grey matter
of the spinal cord.
The spinal path of impulses which when they reach the
brain occasion pain has been determined chiefly in regard to
pain referred to the skin. The primary afferent neurones
bringing these impulses to the cord are the protopathic of Head
mentioned above. These, there is much evidence to show,
terminate in the grey matter of the cord not far from their
point of en trance into the cord, that is, they terminate intraspin-
ally nearer their point of entrance than do the corresponding
primary afferent neurones for touch. From the local spinal
grey matter the pain-path is continued headward in the lateral
white columns of the cord by secondary afferent neurones. These
secondary afferent neurones run chiefly in the lateral column of
the opposite half of the cord from that which the primary afferent
neurones entered; but some run up the lateral column of the
same side as that by which the primary neurones entered. The
synapse between the primary afferent neurone and the secondary
afferent neurone of this path lies probably in the grey matter
called substantia gelatinosa of the dorsal horn.
The spinal path taken by the impulses concerned with sensa-
tions of heat and cold seems to agree closely with that taken by
the impulses subserving skin pain. The position of the nerve-
fibres belonging to the secondary afferent neurones of the pain
and temperature path has been fairly successfully identified
with that of the spinal tract called Gowers' tract. The uncrossed
portion of the temperature path appears, however, to be relatively
smaller as compared with its crossed portion than is that of
pain.
There is much evidence that impulses contributory to " mus-
cular sense " pass headward along the spinal cord and in their
course remain for the most part uncrossed. This course would
in so far agree with the course taken by the intraspinal continua-
tions of the primary afferent neurones which form the long
fibres of the dorsal columns. These are known to run to the
bulb without transgressing the median plane at all. In addition
to this uncrossed tract there is another, namely, that offered
by the dorsal cerebellar tract, a tract of secondary neurones
connected through the grey matter of the vesicular column of
Clarke with primary afferent neurones of the ipselateral side.
Either or both of these uncrossed tracts may be the path taken
by the impulses subserving muscular sense, and there is experi-
mental evidence in favour of such a possibility, but the question
cannot be considered as definitely answered at present.
Besides the paths followed by headward-running impulses
the spinal cord contains paths for impulses passing along
it backwards from the brain. These paths lie almost entirely
in the ventrolateral columns of the cord. The fibres of
which they are composed cross but little in the cord. Their
sources are various, some come from the hind brain and some
from the mid brain, and in the higher mammalia, especially
in man and in the anthropoid apes, a large tract of fibres in the
lateral column (the crossed pyramidal tract) comes from the
cortex of the neopallium of the fore brain. This last tract is
the main medium by which impulses initiated by electrical
stimulation of the motor cortex reach the moto-neurones of the
cord and through them influence the activity of the skeletal
muscles. Of the function of the other tracts descending from
the brain into the cord little is known except that mediately or
immediately they excite or inhibit the spinal moto-neurones by
various levels. How they harmonize one with another in their
action or what their purpose in normal life may be is at present
little more than conjecture. Such terms, therefore, as " paths
for volition," &c., are at present too schematic in their basis
to warrant their discussion here. (C. S. S.)
SPINEL, a name now given to a group of minerals, of which
the typical member is a magnesium aluminate, sometimes used as
a gem-stone, to which the term " spinel " was originally restricted.
The name comes from the French spinelle (diminutive of Lat.
spina), perhaps suggested by the sharp angles of the crystals.
All spinels crystallize in the cubic system, usually in octahedra,
and often twinned as in the accompanying figure, which
is a form so characteristic as to be
called the " spinel twin." The hard-
ness of spinel is about that of topaz
(8) and its specific gravity near that
of diamond. Professor A. H. Church
gives the range in variously coloured
spinels as 3-582 to 3-715. Pure spinel
is colourless, but most varieties are
coloured, no doubt in many cases with
iron and probably in some with chro-
mium. The deep red spinel is known
as " spinel-ruby," or " ruby-spinel," and has often been taken
for true ruby, from which it is distinguished, however, by
being singly refracting and therefore not dichroic, as well as
by its inferior hardness and density. The " balas ruby " is a
rose-red spinel, said to derive its name from Balkh, the
capital of Badakshan (Balaxia), where it occurs with rubies,
and was formerly worked, chiefly in the Shighnan valley, in
the upper Oxus basin. Rubicelle is a spinel in which the red
colour tends to orange, whilst in almandine-spinel it passes
into violet. Stones of the colour of vinegar are called vinegar-
spinel. When the colour is blue the mineral is known as
sapphire-spinel, and when green as chloro-spinel.
The spinels used in jewelry are found mostly in gem-gravels,
where, however, the octahedral form is often well preserved.
The chief localities are Ceylon, Siam and Upper Burma. In
all these localities the spinels accompany the coloured corun-
dums, and their close association with true rubies led Tavernier
to call spinel " the mother of ruby." Formerly there was much
confusion between the two minerals, and probably many stones
described as monster rubies have been spinels. The great
historic " ruby" set in the Maltese cross in front of the Imperial
state crown of England is really a spinel. This fine stone was
given to Edward the Black Prince by Pedro the Cruel, king of
Castile, on the victory of Najera in 1367, and it was afterwards
worn by Henry V. at the battle of Agincourt, when it narrowly
escaped destruction. V. Ball described, in 1894, a spinel
weighing 1335 carats, engraved with a Persian inscription,
then in the possession of Lady Carew.
All the isomorphous minerals known as the group of spinellids,
of which spinel is the type, crystallize in regular octahedra and
have a composition conforming to the general formula R"R 2 "'C>4
( = R"P'R 2 "'C>3). Ordinary spinel is MgAljOi. A black opaque spinel
in which Fe partly replaces Mg is known as pleonaste (irKtovaaTm,
abundant, from the number of faces on certain crystals) or
ceylonite, from the island of Ceylon, but sometimes written ceylanite.
It occurs in gneiss, often with cordierite, and is found also in the
ejected blocks of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. Large crystals come
from Warwick and Amity, Orange county, New York, U.S.A. The
black spinels are generally green or brown when viewed in thin
sections by transmitted light. In some cases spinel is evidently a
result of contact metamorphism, whilst in others it has crystallized
out of a molten magma, as illustrated by the experiments of J. Moro-
zewicz. A chrome-spinel with the formula (Mg.Fe) (Al,Fe,Cr) 2 p4
is named picotite, after Picot de la Peyrouse, who described it.
Picotite occurs in the form of black grains and crystals in certain
olivine rocks and in serpentine. A black iron-spinel
SPINELLO ARETINO SPINNING
685
found in the granulites of Saxony and Bohemia, is known as hcr-
cynitefiomtheHercynian Forest. A zinc-spinel (ZnAljOi), occurring
in talcose slate near Falun in Sweden, is named gahnite, after its
discoverer J. G. Gahn; whilst it has also been termed automolite
from Or. aurijuoXos, a deserter, in allusion to the occurrence of
zinc in a mineral where it was unexpected. The group of spinellids
includes, as its extreme members, magnetite (Fe"Fe2'"O4) and
chromite (FeCr 2 O 4 ) (g..). (F. W. R.*)
SPINELLO ARETINO (c. i33o-c. 1410), Italian painter, the
son of a Florentine named Luca, who had taken refuge in Arezzo
in 1310 when exiled with the rest of the Ghibelline party, was
born at Arezzo about 1330. Spinello was a pupil of Jacopo di
Casentino, a follower of Giotto, and his own style was a sort of
link between the school of Giotto and that of Siena. In the early
part of his life he worked in Florence as an assistant to his master
Jacopo while painting frescoes in the church of the Carmine and
in Sta Maria Novella. Between 1360 and 1384 he was occupied
in painting many frescoes in and near Arezzo, almost all of which
have now perished. After the sack of Arezzo in 1384 Spinello
returned to Florence, and in 1387-1388 with some assistants
covered the walls and vault of the sacristy of S. Miniato near
Florence with a series of frescoes, the chief of which represent
scenes from the life of St Benedict. These still exist, though in
a sadly restored condition; they are very Giotto-like in composi-
tion, but have some of the Siena decorative brilliance of colour.
In 1391-1392 Spinello was painting six frescoes, which still remain
on the south wall of the Pisan Campo Santo, representing
miracles of St Potitus and St Ephesus. For these he received
270 gold florins. Among his later works the chief are the very
fine series of frescoes painted in 1407-1408 on the walls and
vault of a chapel in the municipal buildings of Siena; these also
have suffered much from repainting, but still are the finest of
Spinello's existing frescoes. Sixteen of these represent the war
of Frederick Barbarossa against the republic of Venice. Spinello
died at Arezzo about 1410.
Spinello's frescoes are all strong and highly decorative works,
drawn with much spirit, and are very superior in style to his panel
pictures, many of which appear to be mere bottega productions.
The academy of Florence possesses a panel of the " Madonna and
Saints," which is chiefly interesting for its signature " Hoc opus
pinxit Spinellus Luce Aritio D.l.A.(l39l)." The easel pictures
which are to be found in the various galleries of Europe give little or
no notion of Spinello's power as a painter.
SPINET, or SPINNET (Fr. espinette or epinette; Ger. Spinett;
Ital. spinetta), names given in England to all small keyboard
instruments irrespective of shape, having one string to a note,
plucked by means of a quill or plectrum of leather. The earliest
name recorded for this instrument is clavicymbalum, which
occurs in the rules of the Minnesingers (1404), and also in the
Wunderbuch (1440), a MS. preserved in the grand-ducal library
at Weimar. This is enriched with pen and ink sketches, amongst
which is a series of musical instruments comprising a clavi-
cymbalum, not represented as the rectangular instrument figured
by Virdung and Luscinius, but harp- or wing-shaped like the
larger and more perfect instrument afterwards known as harpsi-
chord in England (clavecin, clavicymbel).
In Italy the usual early model of spinet was pentagonal or
heptagonal, and was generally enclosed in an outer case, from
which it was taken for performance. Some of the oldest rect-
angular specimens merely contain a pentagonal spinet, the
corners not being filled in. In the i6th century the rectangular
spinets were modelled in Italy on the cassone or wedding coffers,
and the keyboard, until the -middle of that century, stood out
from the case, Rosso of Milan being the first to recess it. Both
forms were in use in England until the Restoration, when the
transverse or wing form became popular in England, Haward,
Stephen Keene and Thomas Hitchcock being the most cele-
brated English makers 1 at the end of the i7th and beginning
of the i 8th century.
The mechanism of all spinets, virginals and harpsichords
is the same in principle, the principal variation being in the
number of strings to each note and the manner in which they
'See A. J. Hipkins, The History of the Pianoforte, pp. 71-73
(London, 1896).
are disposed over the soundboard. In the spinets they run
parallel or at an obtuse angle to the keyboard. The jack rests
on the back of the key-lever, and works through a rectangular
hole cut through the soundboard as the key is depressed. The
quill or plectrum is embedded in a pivoted tongue near the top
of the jack in such a manner that when the tongue is at rest
the quill protrudes at right angles just under the string. As the
jack rises the quill catches the string and twangs it, causing
the tongue, kept in place by a bristle spring, to fall back and
thus avoid the string on the return of the jack. A little piece
of cloth acting as a damper and attached to the jack rests on
the string whenever the key returns to its normal position.
For the history of the spinet, see PIANOFORTE.
SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnan, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen,
&c., the Teut. root is spen, to draw out, cf. span, spider),
the forming of threads by drawing out and twisting various
fibres. There is ample evidence of the great antiquity and wide
diffusion of the art of spinning, for spinning necessarily precedes
weaving (q.v.) whenever short fibrous materials have to be made
into threads, and weaving is one of the primal and most univer-
sal employments of mankind. Either remains of implements
employed in spinning, or spun threads, are found wherever
traces of prehistoric man make their appearance. The simple
spinning apparatus which was used in the earliest ages continued
to be used by civilized communities till comparatively recent
times, and it may therefore be said that no art which has been
so long and widely practised remained so unprogressive as that
of spinning. On the other hand, since about the middle of
the i8th century, when human ingenuity bent itself in earnest
to improve the art, there have not been developed in the whole
range of mechanical industries machines of greater variety,
delicacy of action, and manifold productive capacity than those
now in use for spinning.
The primitive thread-making implement consisted of a wooden
spindle, from 9 to 15 in. long, which was rounded and tapered
at both extremities, as in the accompanying figure. Near the
Primitive Spindle.
top there was usually a notch in which the yarn was caught
while undergoing the operation of twisting, and lower down a
whorl, or wharve, composed of a perforated disk of clay, stone,
wood, or other material was secured to give momentum and
steadiness to a rotating spindle. Long fibres were commonly
attached to a distaff of wood, which was held under the left arm
of the operator, but short fibres were spun from carded rolls.
After attaching some twisted fibres to the spindle, a rotatory
motion was given to the latter either by rolling it by hand
against one thigh, or by twirling it between the fingers and
thumb of the right hand, after which the fibres were drawn
out in a uniform strand by both hands and converted into
yarn. When the thread was of sufficient strength, the spindle
was suspended by it until a full stretch had been drawn and
twisted, after which that portion was wound upon the body
of the spindle, and the operation continued until the spindle
was filled. The quantity thus rolled up gives the name to a
now definite measure of linen yarn, namely " the spindle, "
or 14,400 yards. Simple as was this primitive apparatus, a
dexterous spinner could produce yarn of an evenness, strength
and delicacy such as has scarcely been exceeded by elaborate
modern appliances. The yarns for the gossamer-like Dacca
muslins of India were so fine that i Ib weight of cotton was
spun into a thread nearly 253 m. long. This was accomplished
with the aid of a bamboo spindle not much bigger than a darning
needle, and which was lightly weighted with a pellet of clay.
Since such a tender thread could not support even the weight
of so slight a spindle, the apparatus was rotated upon a piece
of hollow shell. The spindle as here described was, so far as is
686
SPINOLA, A.
known, the sole apparatus with which yarn was spun until
comparatively recent times.
The changes in modern spinning have had for their object:
(1) the providing of mechanical means to rotate the spindle,
(2) an automatic method of drawing out the fibres, and (3)
devices for working a large group of spindles together, at speeds
before unattainable.
The first improvement consisted in cutting a ring groove in
the wharve, mounting the spindle horizontally in a frame,
and passing a band from a large wheel round the wharve. A
rotatory motion was then given to the spindle by turning the
wheel with the left hand. After attaching the filaments to
the spindle they were attenuated with the right hand, and when
fully twisted the thread was moved to form a right angle with
the spindle and coiled upon it. Such a wheel has long been
known in India, and from a drawing in a 14th-century manuscript
in the British Museum it is obvious that it was not unknown,
although far from being in general use, in Europe at that early
date. It came ultimately to be known in England as the
" bobbing wheel," and was in constant use down to the beginning
of the igth century for spinning coarse and fine yarns. But
fine yarns received two spinnings; the first consisted in drawing
out and slightly twisting the fibres into what is still known
as a roving, and by the second spinning the roving was fully
attenuated and twisted. In 1533, a citizen of Brunswick is
said to have cranked the axis of the large wheel and added a
treadle, by which the spinner was enabled to rotate her spindle
with one foot and have both hands free to manipulate the fibres.
It is not possible accurately to fix the dates at which all
improvements in spinning appliances were made; it is certain
that many were known and used long before they were generally
adopted. Thus the flyer, which twists yarn before winding it
upon a bobbin, is shown in a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci,
together with a device for moving the bobbin up and down the
spindle so as to effect an even distribution of the yarn. During
the 1 6th century a machine of the foregoing type was widely
used, and came to be known as the Saxony wheel. It changed
spinning from an intermittent to a continuous operation.
The spindle had affixed upon its outer end a wooden flyer,
whose forked legs were far enough apart to enclose a double-
flanged spool, and at short intervals bent wires, known as the
heck, were inserted in each leg for the purpose of guiding the
thread evenly upon the spool. This spool was loosely threaded
upon the spindle and one of its flanges was grooved to take a
driving band from the large wheel, hence the spindle and the
spool were separately driven, but the former at a higher speed
than the latter. The twisted filaments were drawn through
an eye in the flyer, led along one of its legs, and made fast to
the spool. By operating the treadle the flyer twisted all the
fibres about a common axis once for each revolution, and the
spool wound up the length thus spun: the thread being slipped
from tooth to tooth of the heck at regular intervals to direct
it evenly across the spool. During the I7th century a second
and similar spindle and flyer were added, and these left the
spinner free to manipulate one thread with her right, and another
with her left hand. It was in this condition that the most
advanced form of yarn-making was carried on until a great
series of inventions revolutionized spinning, and laid the
foundations of the factory system which now prevails.
The remaining part of the problem which lay before inventors
was to draw out masses of parallel fibrous material, and twist
them into uniform strands by mechanical means. The first
stage in the evolution of mechanical spinning was effected
by the invention of Lewis Paul, of Birmingham, who obtained
a patent in 1738, and who was assisted by John Wyatt. The
essential features of this invention consisted in passing carded
slivers between pairs of parallel rollers, each succeeding pair
of which moved faster than the preceding pair, to attenuate
the sliver to the required extent. From Paul's specification
it would appear that he attempted to turn the rollers about
their horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously, in order to
draw out the fibres and twist them at one operation. But he
also mentions a plan for which he procured a patent twenty
years later, namely, the use of only one pair of rollers working
in conjunction with a bobbin which drew off the thread faster
than the rollers delivered the sliver, and coiled the thread about
itself. The bobbin, therefore, attenuated, twisted and wound
the material. Neither plan proved a commercial success.
Thomas Highs, of Leigh, and others, laboured upon the problem,
but it was left to Richard Arkwright, a barber, of Preston
and Bolton, to achieve what his predecessors vainly struggled
for. He obtained patents, in 1769 and 1775, for a machine
which was subsequently known as the water-twist frame by
reason of water-power being applied to drive it. Arkwright's
first machine did not contain any really new feature, for it
consisted of Paul's drawing rollers, and the spindle, flyer and
spool from the Saxony wheel, but the spindles and rollers were
grouped in sets of four. Later the water-twis^ frame was
changed into the " throstle " frame, which in turn has almost
ceased to be used. In 1829 C. Danforth (1797-1876), an American
spinner, invented a dead spindle, on the top of which he placed
a hollow cap to serve as the winding point, and inside the cap he
rotated a spool: a plan still used by worsted spinners. In 1828
Mr Thorpe, also an American, invented the ring spinning frame,
whose principal feature consisted in the substitution for the
flyer of a flanged annular ring, and a light C-shaped traveller.
By means of the traveller a thread was held in the best position
for winding upon a spool, as well as put under the necessary
tension. Later inventors have so altered the construction of
the ring, traveller and spindle that a speed of upwards of 11,000
revolutions per minute can now be attained. This represents
the highest development of continuous spinning.
Whilst endeavours were being made to perfect continuous
spinning, attention was also directed to perfecting the inter-
mittent process as represented by the bobbing wheel. Between
the years 1764 and 1767, James Hargreaves, of Standhill,
invented the spinning jenny, by the aid of which sixteen, or
more, threads could be spun simultaneously by one person.
All the spindles were placed vertically and rotated from a drum,
but the rovings were mounted in a movable carriage and passed
between a clamp that opened and shut like a parallel ruler.
After securely clamping the rovings and attaching them to the
spindles, the carriage was drawn out slowly by one hand and
the spindles revolved by the other. The rovings were thus
stretched to the proper degree of tenuity, and sufficiently
twisted. This was followed by the inward run of the carriage,
when the stretch of spun threads was wound upon the spindles,
and the operation repeated. Hargreaves therefore returned
to the first principles of spinning, namely, simultaneous
drawing and twisting. But although the jenny gave a greatly
increased output, it was ill adapted for fine spinning. During
the years 1774 to 1779, Samuel Crompton, of Bolton, combined,
in the mule, the drawing rollers of Paul with the stretching of
Hargreaves. But his rollers did not fully attenuate the rovings
before twisting them, as is the case with continuous spinning,
neither was stretching alone relied upon. From its introduction
this machine was able to spin finer and more elastic threads than
any of its rivals, but for a time the preparation of suitable
rovings was a source of great trouble. The immediate conse-
quence of the decision of the court of King's Bench, in 1785,
to throw open to the public Arkwright's preparatory machinery,
was to enormously increase the usefulness of the mule. Since
Crompton's time a host of inventors have laboured to render
all parts of the mule thoroughly automatic; this has led to many
changes and additions, but none of its essential features have
been discarded. The inventions of Paul, Arkwright, Hargreaves
and Crompton are at the foundations of all rnqdern systems
of spinning; details regarding them are given in the article on
COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. (T. W. F.)
SPINOLA, AMBROSE, MARQUIS DE LOS BALBASES (1560-1630),
Spanish general, was born in Genoa in 1569. He was the eldest
son of Philip Spinola, marquis of Sesto and. Benafro, and his
wife Policena, daughter of the prince of Salerno. The family
of Spinola was of great antiquity, wealth and power in Genoa.
SPINOLA, C. R. DE SPINOZA
687
In the i6th century the republic was practically a protected
state under the power of Spain, the Genoese being the bankers
of the monarchy and having entire control of its finances.
Several of the younger brothers of Ambrose Spinola sought their
fortune in Spain, and one of them, Frederick, distinguished
himself greatly as a soldier in Flanders. The eldest brother
remained at home to marry and continue the family. In 1592
he was married to Joanna Bacciadonna, daughter of the count
of Galerrata. The houses of Spinola and Doria were rivals for
authority within the republic. Ambrose Spinola continued the
rivalry with the count of Tursi, then the chief of the Dorias. He
was not successful, and having lost a lawsuit into which he had
entered to enforce a right of pre-emption of a palace belonging
to the Salerno family which the Dorias wished to purchase, he
decided to withdraw from the city and advance the fortunes
of his house by serving the Spanish monarchy in Flanders. In
1602 he and his brother Frederick entered into a contract with
the Spanish government a " condotta " on the old Italian
model. It was a speculation on which Spinola risked the whole
of the great fortune of his house. Ambrose Spinola undertook
to raise 9000 men for land service, and Frederick to form a squad-
ron of galleys for service on the coast. Several of Frederick's
galleys were destroyed by English war-ships on his way up
channel. He himself was slain in an action with the Dutch
on the 24th of May 1603. Ambrose Spinola marched overland to
Flanders in 1602 with the men he had raised at his own expense.
During the first months of his stay in Flanders the Spanish
government played with schemes for employing him on an
invasion of England, which came to nothing. At the close of
the year he returned to Italy for more men. His actual experi-
ence as a soldier did not begin till as general, and at the age of
thirty-four, he undertook to continue the siege of Ostend on the
29th of September 1603. The ruinous remains of the place fell
into his hands on the 22nd of September 1604. The archduke
Albert and the infanta Clara Eugenia, daughter of Philip II.,
who then governed Flanders and had set their hearts on
taking Ostend, were delighted at his success, and it won him a
high reputation among the soldiers of the time. On the close
of the campaign he went to Spain to arrange with the court,
which was then at Valladolid, for the continuance of the war.
At Valladolid he insisted on being appointed commander-in-
chief in Flanders. By the gth of April he was back at Brussels,
and entered on his first campaign. The wars of the Low Countries
consisted at that time almost wholly of sieges, and Spinola
made himself famous by the number of places he took in spite
of the efforts of Maurice of Nassau to save them. In 1606 he
again went to Spain. He was received with much outward
honour, and entrusted with a very secret mission to secure
the government of Flanders in case of the death of the arch-
duke or his wife, but he could not obtain the grandeeship which
he desired, and was compelled to pledge the whole of his fortune
as security for the expenses of the war before the bankers would
advance funds to the Spanish government. As he was never
repaid, he was in the end utterly ruined. The Spanish govern-
ment began now to have recourse to devices for keeping him
away from Spain. Until the signing of the twelve years' truce
in 1609 he continued to command in the field with general
success. After it was signed he retained his post, and had among
other duties to conduct the negotiations with France when the
prince of Conde fled to Flanders with his wife in order to put
her beyond the reach of the senile admiration of Henry IV. of
France. By 1611 Spinola's financial ruin was complete, but
he obtained the desired " grandeza." In 1614 he had some
share in the operations connected with the settlement of Cleves
and Juliers. On the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War he
made a vigorous campaign in the lower Palatinate and was
rewarded by the grade of captain-general. After the renewal
of the war with Holland in 1621 he gained the most renowned
victory of his career the capture of Breda after a long siege
(Aug. 28, i624-June 5, 1625) and in spite of the most
strenuous efforts of the prince of Orange (Frederick Henry) to
save it. The surrender of Breda is the subject of the great
picture by Velasquez, known as " Las Lanzas "; the portrait of
Spinola is from memory.
The taking of Breda was the culmination of Spinola's career.
Utter want of money paralysed the Spanish government, and
the new favourite, Olivares, was jealous of the general. Spinola
could not prevent Frederick Henry of Nassau from taking
Groll, a good set-off for Breda. In January 1628 he left for
Spain, resolved not to resume the command in Flanders unless
security was given him for the support of his army. At Madrid
he had to endure much insolence from Olivares, who endeavoured
to make him responsible for the loss of Groll. Spinola was
resolute not to return to Flanders. Meanwhile the Spanish
government added a war over the succession to the duchy of
Mantua to its other burdens. Spinola was appointed as pleni-
potentiary and general. He landed at Genoa on the igth of
September 1629. In Italy he was pursued by the enmity of
Olivares, who caused him to be deprived of his powers as pleni-
potentiary. Spinola's health broke down, and, having been
robbed of his money, grudged the compensation he asked for
his children and disgraced in the presence of the enemy, he
died on the 2Sth of September 1630 at the siege of Casale,
muttering the words " honour " and " reputation." The
title of marquis of Los Balbases, still borne by his representa-
tives in Spain, was all that his family received for the vast
fortune they spent in the service of Philip III. and IV.
Don A. Rodriguez Villa has published a biography well supplied
with original documents Ambrosia Spinola, primer marques de
los Balbases (Madrid, 1905). (D. H.)
SPINOLA, CRISTOVAL ROJAS DE (d. 1695), Spanish ecclesi-
astic, was general of the Franciscan order in Madrid. He went
to Vienna as confessor to the Spanish wife of Leopold I., and
became bishop of Wienerisch-Neustadt in 1685. He endea-
voured to reconcile the Protestant churches with the Roman
Catholic, and at a conference at Hanover in 1683 presented his
Regulae circa Christianorum omnium ecclesiaslicum reunionem.
The Helmstadt theologians, represented by Gerhard Molanus
(1633-1722), at the same time put forward their Methodus
reducendae unionis. The discussions were approved by the
pope and the emperor, but had no popular feeling behind them,
and though the negotiations were continued for ten years,
especially between Molanus on the one side and Bossuet on the
other, no agreement was reached, for the Protestants could
not accept the Council of Trent as authoritative or surrender
the matter of communion under both species. Spinola died on
the i2th of March 1695.
SPINOZA, BARUCH (1632-1677), or, as he afterwards signed
himself, Benedict de Spinoza, Dutch philosopher, was born
at Amsterdam on the 24th of November 1632. His parents
belonged to the community of Jewish emigrants from Portugal
and Spain who, fleeing from Catholic persecution in the Penin-
sula, had sought refuge in the nearly emancipated Netherlands.
The name, variously written Espinoza, De Spinoza, D'Espinoza
and Despinoza, probably points to the province of Leon as the
previous home of the family; there are no fewer than five town-
ships so called in the neighbourhood of Burgos. The philo-
sopher's grandfather appears to have been the recognized head
of the Jewish community in Amsterdam in 1628, and his father,
Michael Espinoza, was repeatedly warden of the synagogue
between 1630 and 1650. The father was a merchant in fair
circumstances. He was thrice married and had six children,
all of whom predeceased him save a daughter Rebekah, born of
the first marriage, and Baruch, the son of his second wife.
Spinoza's mother died in 1638 when the boy was barely six
years old, and his father in 1654 when he was in his twenty-
second year. Spinoza received his first training under the
senior rabbi, Saul Levi Morteira, and Manasseh ben Israel,
a theological writer of some eminence whose works show con-
siderable knowledge of philosophical authors. Under these
teachers he became familiar with the Talmud and, what was
probably more important for his own development, with the
philosophical writings of Ibn Ezra and Maimonides, Levi ben
Gerson, Hasdai Crescas, and other representatives of Jewish
688
SPINOZA
medieval thought, who aim at combining the traditional
theology with ideas got from Aristotle and his Neoplatonic
commentators. Latin, still the universal language of learning,
formed no part of Jewish education; and Spinoza, after learning
the elements from a German master, resorted for further in-
struction to a physician named Franz van den Ende, who
eked out an income by taking pupils. Van den Ende appears
to have been distinctly a man of parts, though of a somewhat
indiscreet and erratic character. He was eventually hanged
in Paris as a conspirator in 1674. His enthusiasm for the
natural sciences may have been the only ground for the reputa-
tion he had acquired of instilling atheistic notions into the minds
of his pupils along with the Latin which he taught them. But
it is quite possible that his scientific studies had bred in him,
as in many others at that time, a materialistic, or at least a
naturalistic, turn of mind; indeed, we should expect as much in
a man of Van den Ende's somewhat rebellious temperament.
We do not know whether his influence was brought to bear in
this sense upon Spinoza; but it has been suggested that the
writings of Bruno, whose spirit of enthusiastic naturalism and
fervid revolt against the Church would be especially dear to a
man of Van den Ende's leanings, may have been put into the
pupil's hand by the master. Latin, at all events, Spinoza
learned to use with correctness, freedom and force, though his
language does not, of course, conform to classical canons.
A romance has woven itself round Spinoza's connexion with
Van den Ende's household. The physician had an only daughter,
Clara Maria by* name, who, besides being proficient in music,
understood Latin, it is said, so perfectly that she was able to
teach her father's pupils in his absence. Spinoza, the story
goes, fell in love with his fair instructress; but a fellow-student,
called Kerkering, supplanted him in his mistress's affections
by the help of a valuable necklace of pearls which he presented
to the young lady. Chronology unfortunately forbids us to
accept this little episode as true. Recent investigation has
proved that, while the marriage with Kerkering, or rather
Kerckkrink, is a fact, it did not take place till 1671, in which
year the bride, as appears by the register, was twenty-seven
years of age. She cannot, therefore, have been more than
eleven, or twelve in 1656, the year in which Spinoza left Amster-
dam; and as Kerckkrink was seven years younger than Spinoza,
they cannot well have been simultaneous pupils of Van den
Ende's and simultaneous suitors for his daughter's hand. But,
though the details of the story thus fall to pieces, it is still pos-
sible that in the five years which followed his retirement from
Amsterdam Spinoza, who was living within easy distance and
paid visits to the city from time to time, may have kept up his
connexion with Van den Ende, and that the attachment may
have dated from this later period. This would at least be some
explanation for the existence of the story; for Colerus expressly
says that Spinoza " often confessed that he meant to marry
her." But there is no mention of the Van den Endes in Spinoza's
correspondence; and in the whole tenor of his life and character
there is nothing on which to fasten the probability of a romantic
attachment.
The mastery of Latin which he acquired from Van den Ende
opened up to Spinoza the whole world of modern philosophy
and science, both represented at that time by the writings of
Descartes. He read him greedily, says Colerus, and afterwards
often declared that he had all his philosophical knowledge from
him. The impulse towards natural science which he had received
from Van den Ende would be strengthened by the reading of
Descartes; he gave over divinity, we are told, to devote himself
entirely to these new studies. His inward break with Jewish
orthodoxy dated, no doubt, further back from his acquaintance
with the philosophical theologians and commentators of the
middle ages; but these new interests combined to estrange him
still further from the traditions of the synagogue. He was
seldomer seen at its services soon not at all. The jealousy
of the heads of the synagogue was easily roused. An attempt
seems to have been made to draw from him his real opinions
on certain prominent points of divinity. Two so-called friends
endeavoured, on the plea of doubts of their own, to lead him into
a theological discussion; and, some of Spinoza Is expressions
being repeated to the Jewish authorities, he was summoned
to give an account of himself. Anxious to retain so promising
an adherent, and probably desirous at the same time to avoid
public scandal, the chiefs of the community offered him a yearly
pension of 1000 florins if he would outwardly conform and
appear now and then in the synagogue. But such deliberate
hypocrisy was abhorrent to Spinoza's nature. Threats were
equally unavailing, and accordingly on the yjth of July 1656
Spinoza was solemnly cut off from the commonwealth of Israel.
The curses pronounced against him may be read in most of the
biographies. While negotiations were still pending, he had been
set upon one evening by a fanatical ruffian, who thought to
expedite matters with the dagger. Warned by this that
Amsterdam was hardly a safe place of residence for him any
longer, Spinoza had already left the city before the sentence
of excommunication was pronounced. He did not go far,
but took up his abode with a friend who lived some miles out
on the Old Church road. His host belonged to the Collegiants
or Rhijnsburgers, a religious society which had sprung up
among the proscribed Arminians of Holland. The pure morality
and simple-minded piety of this community seem early to have
attracted Spinoza, and to have won his unfeigned respect.
Several of his friends were Collegiants, or belonged to the
similarly minded community of the Mennonites, in which the
Collegiants were afterwards merged. In this quiet retreat Spinoza
spent nearly five years. He drew up a protest against the
decree of excommunication, but otherwise it left him unmoved.
From this time forward he disused his Hebrew name of Baruch,
adopting instead the Latin equivalent, Benedictus. Like every
Jew, Spinoza had learn, ed a handicraft; he was a grinder of
lenses for optical instruments, and was thus enabled to earn *
an income sufficient for his modest wants. His skill, indeed,
was such that lenses of his making were much sought after,
and those found in his cabinet after his death fetched a high
price. It was as an optician that he was first brought into
connexion with Huygens and Leibnitz; and an optical Treatise
on the Rainbow, written by him and long supposed to be lost,
was discovered and reprinted by Dr Van Vloten in 1862. He was
also fond of drawing as an amusement in his leisure hours;
and Colerus had seen a sketch-book full of such drawings repre-
senting persons of Spinoza's acquaintance, one of them being
a likeness of himself in the character of Masaniello.
The five years which followed the excommunication must
have been devoted to concentrated thought and study. Before
their conclusion Spinoza had parted company from Descartes,
and the leading positions of his own system were already clearly
determined in his mind. A number of the younger men in
Amsterdam many of them students of medicine or medical
practitioners had also come to regard him as their intellectual
leader. A kind of philosophical club had been formed, including
among its members Simon de Vries, John Bresser, Louis Meyer,
and others who appear in Spinoza's correspondence. Originally
meeting in all probability for more thoroughgoing study of the
Cartesian philosophy, they looked naturally to Spinoza for
guidance, and by and by we find him communicating systematic
drafts of his own views to the little band of friends and students.
The manuscript was read aloud and discussed at their meetings,
and any points remaining obscure were referred to Spinoza for
further explanation. An interesting specimen of such difficulties
propounded by Simon de Vries and resolved by Spinoza in accor-
dance with his own principles, is preserved for us in Spinoza's
correspondence. This Simon de Vries was a youth of generous
impulses and of much promise. Being in good circumstances,
he was anxious to show his gratitude to Spinoza by a gift of
2000 florins, which the philosopher half-jestingly excused himself
from accepting. De Vries died young, and would fain have
left his fortune to Spinoza; but the latter refused to stand in
the way of his brother, the natural heir, to whom the property
was accordingly left, with the condition that he should pay
to Spinoza an annuity sufficient for his maintenance. The heir
SPINOZA
689
offered to fix the amount at 500 florins, but Spinoza accepted
only 300, a sum which was regularly paid till his death. The
written communications of his own doctrine referred to above
belong to a period after Spinoza had removed from the neigh-
bourhood of Amsterdam; but it has been conjectured that the
Short Treatise on God, on Man, and his Wellbeing, which represents
his thoughts in their earliest systematic form, was left by him
as a parting legacy to this group of friends. It is at least
certain, from a reference in Spinoza's first letter to Oldenburg,
that such a systematic exposition was in existence before Septem-
ber 1 66 1. 1 There are two dialogues somewhat loosely incorpor-
ated with the work which probably belong to a still earlier period.
The short appendix, in which the attempt is made to present
the chief points of the argument in geometrical form, is a fore-
runner of the Ethics, and was probably written somewhat later
than the rest of the book. The term " Nature " is put more
into the foreground in the Treatise, a point which might be urged
as evidence of Bruno's influence the dialogues, moreover,
being specially concerned to establish the unity, infinity and self-
containedness of Nature 2 ; but the two opposed Cartesian
attributes, thought and extension, and the absolutely infinite
substance whose attributes they are substance constituted by
infinite attributes appear here as in the Ethics. The latter
notion of substance is said to correspond exactly to " the
essence of the only glorious and blessed God." The earlier
differs from the later exposition in allowing an objective causal
relation between thought and extension, for which there is
substituted in the Ethics the idea of a thoroughgoing parallelism.
The Short Treatise is of much interest to the student of Spinoza's
philosophical development, for it represents, as Martineau
says, " the first landing-place of his mind in its independent
advance." Although the systematic framework of the thought
and the terminology used are both derived from the Cartesian
philosophy, the intellectual milieu of the time, the early work
enables us, better than the Ethics to realize that the inspiration
and starting-point of his thinking is to be found in the religious
speculations of his Jewish predecessors. The histories of philo-
sophy may quite correctly describe his theory as the logical
development of Descartes's doctrines of the one Infinite and
the two finite substances, but Spinoza himself was never a
Cartesian. He brought his pantheism and his determinism with
him to the study of Descartes from the mystical theologians of
his race.
Early in 1661 Spinoza's host removed to Rhijnsburg near
Leiden, the headquarters of the Collegiant brotherhood, and
Spinoza removed with him. The house where they lived at
Rhijnsburg is still standing, and the road bears the name of
Spinoza Lane. Very soon after his settlement in his new quar-
ters he was sought out by Henry Oldenburg, the first secretary
of the Royal Society. 8 Oldenburg became Spinoza's most
1 Various manuscript copies were apparently made of the treatise
in question, but it was not printed, and dropped entirely out of
knowledge till 1852, when Edward Bohmer of Halle lighted upon
an abstract of it attached to a copy of Colerus's Life, and shortly
afterwards upon a Dutch MS. purporting to be a translation of the
treatise from the Latin original. This was published in 1862 by
Van Vloten with a retranslation into Latin. Since then a superior
Dutch translation has been discovered, which has been edited by
Professor Schaarschmidt and translated into German. Another
German version with introduction and notes has been published by
Sigwart based on a comparison of the two Dutch MSS. A scholarly
English translation similarly equipped was published by A. Wolf in
1910.
1 The fact that Spinoza nowhere mentions Bruno would not imply,
according to the literary habits of those days, that he was not
acquainted with his speculations and even indebted to them. There
is no mention, for example, of Hobbes throughout Spinoza's political
writing, and only one casual reference to him in a letter, although
the obligation of the Dutch to the English thinker lies on the surface.
Accordingly, full weight must be allowed to the internal evidence
brought forward by Sigwart, Avernarius and others to prove
Spinoza's acquaintance with Bruno's writings. But the point
remains quite doubtful and is in any case of little importance.
' Heinrich Oldenburg (c. 1626-1678) was a native of Bremen,
but had settled in England in the time of the commonwealth.
Though hardly a scientific man himself, he had a genuine interest in
science, and must have possessed social gifts. He was the friend of
regular correspondent a third of the letters preserved to us are
to or from him; and it appears from his first letter that their
talk on this occasion was " on God, on infinite extension and
thought, on the difference and the agreement of these attri-
butes, on the nature of the union of the human soul with
the body, as well as concerning the principles of the Cartesian
and Baconian philosophies." Spinoza must, therefore, have
unbosomed himself pretty freely to his visitor on the main
points of his system. Oldenburg, however, was a man of no
speculative capacity, and, to judge from his subsequent corre-
spondence, must have quite failed to grasp the real import
and scope of the thoughts communicated to him. From one
of Oldenburg's early letters we learn that the treatise De
intellectus emendatione was probably Spinoza's first occupation
at Rhijnsburg. The nature of the work also bears out the
supposition that it was first undertaken. It is, in a manner,
Spinoza's " organon " the doctrine of method which he
would substitute for the corresponding doctrines of Bacon
and Descartes as alone consonant with the thoughts which
were shaping themselves or had shaped themselves in his
mind. It is a theory of philosophical truth and error, involving
an account of the course of philosophical inquiry and of the
supreme object of knowledge. It was apparently intended by
the author as an analytical introduction to the constructive
exposition of his system, which he presently essayed in the
Ethics. But he must have found as he proceeded that the
two treatises would cover to a large extent the same ground,
the account of the true method merging almost inevitably in a
statement of the truth reached by its means. The Improvement
of the Understanding was therefore put aside unfinished, and
was first published in the Opera posthuma. Spinoza meanwhile
concentrated his attention upon the Ethics, and we learn from
the correspondence with his Amsterdam friends that a consider-
able part of book i. had been communicated to the philosophical
club there before February 1663. It formed his main occupation
for two or three years after this date. Though thus giving his
friends freely of his best, Spinoza did not cast his thoughts
broadcast upon any soil. He had a pupil living with him at
Rhijnsburg whose character seemed to him lacking in solidity
and discretion. This pupil (probably Albert Burgh, who after-
wards joined the Church of Rome and penned a foolishly insolent
epistle to his former teacher) was the occasion of Spinoza's
first publication the only publication indeed to which his name
was attached. Not deeming it prudent to initiate the young man
into his own system, he took for a textbook the second and third
parts of Descartes's Principles, which deal in the main with
natural philosophy. As he proceeded he put Descartes's matter
in his own language and cast the whole argument into a geometric
form. At the request of his friends he devoted a fortnight
to applying the same method to the first or metaphysical part
of Descartes's philosophy, and the sketch was published in
1663, with an appendix entitled Cogitata metaphysica, still
written from a Cartesian standpoint (defending, for example,
the freedom of the will), but containing hints of his own doctrine.
The book was revised by Dr Meyer for publication and furnished
by him, at Spinoza's request, with a preface in which it is
expressly stated that the author speaks throughout not in his
own person but simply as the exponent of Descartes. A
Dutch translation appeared in the following year. 4
In 1663 Spinoza removed from Rhijnsburg to Voorburg, a
suburban village about 2 m. from the Hague. His reputa-
tion had continued to spread. From Rhijnsburg he had paid
frequent visits to the Hague, and it was probably the desire
Boyle, and acquainted with most of the leaders of science in England
as well as with many on the Continent. He delighted to keep him-
self in this way au courant with the latest developments, and lost no
opportunity of establishing relations with men of scientific reputa-
tion. It was probably at the suggestion of Huygens that he bent
his steps towards Spinoza's lodging.
* The title of the Latin original ran Renati des Cartes princi-
piorum philosophiae pars i. et ii. more geometrico demonstratae per
Benedictum de Spinoza Amstelodamensem. Accesserunt ejusdem
cogitata metaphysica.
690
SPINOZA
to be within reach of some of the friends he had made in these
visits among others the De Witts that prompted his changed
residence. He had works in hand, moreover, which he wished
in due time to publish; and in that connexion the friendly patron-
age of the De Witts might be of essential service to him.
The first years at Voorburg continued to be occupied by the com-
position of the Ethics, which was probably finished, however,
by the summer of 1665. A journey made to Amsterdam in
that year is conjectured to have had reference to its publication.
But, finding that it would be impossible to keep the authorship
secret, owing to the numerous hands through which parts of the
book had already passed, Spinoza determined to keep his manu-
script in his desk for the present. In September 1665 we find
Oldenburg twitting him with having turned from philosophy
to theology and busying himself with angels, prophecy and
miracles. This is the first reference to the Tractates theologico-
polilicus, which formed his chief occupation for the next four
years. The aim of this treatise may be best understood from
the full title with which it was furnished Tractalus theologico-
polilicus, continens dissertationes aliquot, quibus ostenditur
libertatem philosophandi non tantum salva pietate et reipublicae
pace posse concedi sed eandem nisi cum pace reipublicae ipsaque
pietate tolli non posse. It is, in fact, an eloquently reasoned
defence of liberty of thought and speech in speculative matters.
The external side of religion its rites and observances must
of necessity be subject to a certain control on the part of the state,
whose business it is to see to the preservation of decency and
order. But, with such obvious exceptions, Spinoza claims com-
plete freedom of expression for thought and belief; and he claims
it in the interests alike of true piety and of the state itself. The
thesis is less interesting to a modern reader because now gener-
ally acknowledged than the argument by which it is supported.
Spinoza's position is based upon the thoroughgoing distinction
drawn in the book between philosophy, which has to do with
knowledge and opinion, and theology, or, as we should now say,
religion, which has to do exclusively with obedience and conduct.
The aegis of religion, therefore, cannot be employed to cover with
its authority any speculative doctrine; nor, on the other hand,
can any speculative or scientific investigation be regarded as
putting religion in jeopardy. Spinoza undertakes to prove his
case by the instance of the Hebrew Scriptures. Scripture deals,
he maintains, in none but the simplest precepts, nor does
it aim at anything beyond the obedient mind; it tells nought
of the divine nature but what men may profitably apply to their
lives. The greater part of the treatise is devoted to working
out this line of thought; and in so doing Spinoza consistently
applies to the interpretation of the Old Testament those canons
of historical exegesis which are often regarded as of compara-
tively recent growth. The treatise thus constitutes the first
document in the modern science of Biblical criticism. It was
published in 1670, anonymously, printer and place of publication
being likewise disguised (Hamburgi apud Heinricum Kunraht).
The storm of opposition which it encountered showed that these
precautions were not out of place. It was synodically condemned
along with Hobbes's Leviathan and other books as early as April
1671, and was consequently interdicted by the states-general
of Holland in 1674; before long it was also placed on the Index
by the Catholic authorities. But that it was widely read appears
from its frequent reissue with false title-pages, representing
it now as an historical work and again as a medical treatise.
Controversialists also crowded into the lists against it. A
translation into Dutch appears to have been proposed; but
Spinoza, who foresaw that such a step would only increase
the commotion which was so distasteful to him, steadily set
his face against it. No Dutch translation appeared till 1693.
The same year in which the Tractatus was published Spinoza
removed from his suburban lodging at Voorburg into the
Hague itself. He took rooms first on the Veerkay with the
widow Van de Velde, who in her youth had assisted Grotius to
escape from his captivity at Loewenstein. This was the
house afterwards occupied by Colerus, the worthy Lutheran
minister who became Spinoza's biographer. But the widow
insisted on boarding her lodger, and Spinoza presently found
the expense too great for his slender purse. He accordingly
removed to a house on the Pavelioen Gracht near at hand,
occupied by a painter called Van der Spijck. Here he spent the
remaining years of his life in the frugal independence which
he prized. Colerus gives particulars which enable us to realize
the almost incredible simplicity and economy of his mode of
life. He would say sometimes to the people of the house that
he was like the serpent which forms a circle with its tail in its
mouth, meaning thereby that he had nothing left at the year's
end. His friends came to visit him in his lodgings, as well as
others attracted by his reputation Leibnitz among the rest
and were courteously entertained, but Spinoza preferred not
to accept their offers of hospitality. He spent the greater
part of his time quietly in his own chamber, often having his
meals brought there and sometimes not leaving it for two or
three days together when absorbed in his studies. On one
occasion he did not leave the house for three months. " When
he happened to be tired by having applied himself too much
to his philosophical meditations, he would go downstairs to
refresh himself, and discoursed with the Van der Spijcks about
anything that might afford matter for an ordinary conversation,
and even about trifles. He also took pleasure in smoking a
pipe of tobacco; or, when he had a mind to divert himself
somewhat longer, he looked for some spiders and made them
fight together, or he threw some flies into the cobweb, and was
so well pleased with the result of that battle that he would
sometimes break into laughter " (Colerus). He also conversed
at times on more serious topics with the simple people with
whom he lodged, often, for example, talking over the sermon
with them when they came from church. He occasionally
went himself to hear the Lutheran pastor preach the pre-
decessor of Colerus and would advise the Van der Spijcks not
to miss any sermon of so excellent a preacher. The children,
too, he put in mind of going often to church, and taught them
to be obedient and dutiful to their parents. One day his land-
lady, who may have heard strange stories of her solitary lodger,
came to him in some trouble to ask him whether he believed
she could be saved in the religion she professed. " Your religion
is a good one," said Spinoza; " you need not look for another,
nor doubt that you will be saved in it, provided that, while you
apply yourself to piety, you live at the same time a peaceable
and quiet life." Only once, it is recorded, did Spinoza's admir-
able self-control give way, and that was when he received the
news of the murder of the De Witts by a frantic mob in the
streets of the Hague. It was in the year 1672, when the sudden
invasion of the Low Countries by Louis XIV. raised an irresis-
tible clamour for a military leader and overthrew the republican
constitution for which the De Witts had struggled. John De Witt
had been Spinoza's friend, and had bestowed a small pension
upon him; he had Spinoza's full sympathy in his political aims.
On receiving the news of the brutal murder of the two brothers,
Spinoza burst into tears, and his indignation was so roused that
he was bent upon publicly denouncing the crime upon the spot
where it had been committed. But the timely caution of his
host prevented his issuing forth to almost certain death. Not
long after Spinoza was himself in danger from the mob, in
consequence of a visit which he paid to the French camp. He
had been in correspondence with one Colonel Stoupe, a Swiss
theologian and soldier, then serving with the prince of Conde,
the commander of the French army at Utrecht. From him
Spinoza received a communication enclosing a passport from
the French commander, who wished to make his acquaintance
and promised him a pension from the French king at the easy
price of a dedication to his majesty. Spinoza went to Utrecht,
but returned without seeing Conde, who had in the meantime
been called elsewhere; the pension he civilly declined. There
may have been nothing more in the visit than is contained in
this narrative; but on his return Spinoza found that the popu-
lace of the Hague regarded him as no better than a spy. The
town was full of angry murmurs, and the landlord feared that
the mob would storm his house and drag Spinoza out. Spinoza
SPINY SQUIRREL
691
quieted his fears as well as he could, assuring him that as soon
as the crowd made any threatening movement he would go out
to meet them, " though they should serve me as they did the
poor De Witts. I am a good republican and have never had
any aim but the honour and welfare of the state." Happily
the danger passed off without calling for such an ordeal.
In 1673 Spinoza received an invitation from the elector
palatine to quit his retirement and become professor of philo-
sophy in the university of Heidelberg. The offer was couched
in flattering terms, and conveyed an express assurance of " the
largest freedom of speech in philosophy, which the prince is
confident that you will not misuse to disturb the established
religion." But Spinoza's experience of theological sensitiveness
led him to doubt the possibility of keeping on friendly terms
with the established religion, if he were placed in a public capa-
city. Moreover, he was not strong; he had had no experience
of public teaching; and he foresaw that the duties of a chair
would put an end to private research. For all these reasons he
courteously declined the offer made to him. There is little
more to tell of his life of solitary meditation. In ; 1675 we
learn from his correspondence that he entertained the idea of
publishing the Ethics, and made a journey to Amsterdam to
arrange matters with the printer. " But, whilst I was busy with
this," he writes, " the report was spread everywhere that a
certain book of mine was in the press, wherein I endeavoured to
show that there was no God; and this report found credence with
many. Whereupon certain theologians (themselves perhaps the
authors of it) took occasion to complain of me to the prince and
the magistrates; moreover, the stupid Cartesians, because they
are commonly supposed to side with me, desiring to free them-
selves from that suspicion, were diligent without ceasing in their
execrations of my doctrines and writings, and are as diligent
still." As the commotion seemed to grow worse instead of
subsiding, Spinoza consigned the manuscript once more to his
desk, from which it was not to issue till after his death. His
last literary work was the unfinished Tractatus politicus and the
preparation of notes for a new edition of the Tractatus theologico-
politicus, in which he hoped to remove some of the misunder-
standings which the book had met with. The Tractatus politicus
develops his philosophy of law and government on the lines
indicated in his other works, and connects itself closely with the
theory enunciated by Hobbes a generation before. Consump-
tion had been making its insidious inroads upon Spinoza for many
years, and early in 1677 he must have been conscious that he
was seriously ill. On Saturday, the 2Oth of February, he sent
to Amsterdam for his friend Dr Meyer. On the following day,
the Van der Spijcks, having no thought of immediate danger,
went to the afternoon service. When they came back Spinoza
was no more; he had died about three in the afternoon with
Meyer as the only witness of his last moments. Spinoza was
buried on the 2$th of February " in the new church upon the
Spuy, being attended," Colerus tells us, " by many illustrious
persons and followed by six coaches." He was little more than
forty-four years of age.
Spinoza's effects were few and realized little more than was
required for the payment of charges and outstanding debts. " One
need only cast one's eyes upon the account," says his biographer,
" to perceive that it was the inventory of a true philosopher. It
contains only some small books, some engravings, a few lenses and
the instruments to polish them." His desk, containing his letters
and his unpublished works, Spinoza had previously charged his
landlord to convey to Jan Rieuwertz, a publisher in Amsterdam.
This was done, and the Opera posthuma appeared in the same year,
without the author's name, but with his initials upon the title-
page. They were furnished with a preface written in Dutch by
Jarig Jellis, a Mennonite friend of Spinoza's, and translated into
Latin by Dr Meyer. Next year the book was proscribed in a
violently worded edict by the states of Holland and West Friesland.
The obloquy which thus gathered round Spinoza in the later years
of his life remained settled upon his memory for a full hundred
years after his death. Hume's casual allusion to " this famous
atheist " and his " hideous hypothesis " is a fair specimen of the
tone in which he is usually referred to; people talked about Spinoza,
Lessing said, " as if he were a dead dog." The change of opinion
in this respect may be dated from Lessing's famous conversation
with Jacobi in 1780. Lessing, Goethe, Herder, Novalis and
Schleiermacher, not to mention philosophers like Schelling and Hegel,
united in recognizing the unique strength and sincerity of Spinoza's
thought, and in setting him in his rightful place among the specula-
tive leaders of mankind. Transfused into their writings, his spirit
has had a large share in moulding the philosophic thought of the
I9th century, and it has also been widely influential beyond the
schools. Instead of his atheism Hegel speaks of his acosmism, and
Novalis dubs him a God-intoxicated man. Schleiermacher's fine
apostrophe is well known, in which he calls upon us to " offer a lock
of hair to the manes of the holy and excommunicated Spinoza."
Spinoza's personal appearance is described by Colerus from the
accounts given him by many people at the Hague who knew him
familiarly. " He was of a middle size, and had good features in
his face, the skin somewhat dark, black curled hair, and the long
eyebrows of the same colour, so that one might easily know from
his looks that he was descended from the Portuguese Jews." Leib-
nitz also gives a similar description: " The celebrated Jew Spinoza
had an olive complexion and something Spanish in his face." These
characteristics are preserved in a portrait in oil in the Wolfenbiittel
library, which was probably the original of the (in that case unsuc-
cessfully rendered) engraving prefixed to the Opera posthuma of
1677. This portrait was photographed for Dr Martineau's Study of
Spinoza. In 1880 a statue was erected to Spinoza at the Hague by
international subscription among his admirers, and more recently
the cottage in which he lived at Rhijnsburg has been restored and
furnished with all the discoverable Spinoza relics.
Spinoza's philosophy is a thoroughgoing pantheism, which has
both a naturalistic and a mystical side. The foundation of the
system is the doctrine of one infinite substance, of which all finite
existences are modes or limitations (modes of thought or modes of
extension). God is thus the immanent cause of the universe; but
of creation or will there can be no question in Spinoza's system.
God is used throughout as equivalent to Nature (Deus sine nalura).
The philosophical standpoint comprehends the necessity of all that
is a necessity that is none dther than the necessity of the divine
nature itself. To view things thus is to view them, according to
Spinoza's favourite phrase, sub specie aeternitatis. Spinoza's philo-
sophy is fully considered in the article CARTESIANISM.
LITERATURE. The contents of the Opera posthuma included the
Ethics, the Tractatus polilicus and the De intelleclus emendations
(the last two unfinished), a selection from Spinoza's correspondence,
and a Compendium of Hebrew Grammar. The Treatise on the Rain-
bow, supposed to be lost, was published anonymously in Dutch in
1687. The first collected edition of Spinoza's works was made by
Paulus in 1802; there is another by Gfrorer (1830), and a third by
Bruder (1843-1846) in three volumes. Van Vloten's volume, pub-
lished in 1862, Ad Benedicli de Spinoza opera quae supersunt omnia
supplementum, is uniform with Bruder's edition, and contains the
early treatise De deo et homine, the Treatise on the Rainbow, and several
fresh letters. A complete edition undertaken by Dr Van Vloten and
Professor J. P. N. Land for the Spinoza Memorial Committee formed
in Holland to celebrate the bicentenary of the philosopher's death
appeared in 1882 and was reissued in three volumes in 1895. An
English translation of The Chief Works of Spinoza, by R. H. M.
Elwes, appeared in 1883, and translations of the Ethics and the De
intettectus emendatione were published in 1883 and 1895 by W. Hale
White; A. Wolf's translation of the Short Treatise appeared in 1910;
previous translations were unscholarly in execution.
The main authority for Spinoza's life is the sketch published in
1705, in Dutch, with a controversial sermon against Spinozism, by
Johannes Colerus. The French version of this Life (1706) has been
several times reprinted as well as translated into English and
German. The English version, also dating from 1706, was reprinted
by Sir Frederick Pollock at the end of his Spinoza, his Life and
Philosophy (1880). This book, Dr Martineau's Study of Spinoza
(1882) and Dr John Caird's Spinoza (1888), are all admirable pieces
of work, and, as regards the philosophical estimate, complement
one another. H. H. Joachim's Study of the Ethics of Spinoza (1901)
and R. A. Duff's Spinoza's Political and Ethical Philosophy (1903)
are important contributions of more recent date. Careful research
by Professor Freudenthal, Dr W. Meyer and Dr K. O. Meinsma has
recently brought to light a number of fresh details connected with
Spinoza's life and increased our knowledge of his Jewish and Dutch
environment. The earliest lives and all the available documents
have been edited by Freudenthal in a single volume, Die Lebens-
geschichte Spinozas (1899), on the basis of which he has since rewritten
the Life, Spinozas Leben und Lehre, vol. i., Das Leben (1904).
Meinsma's Spinoza und en zijn Kring (1896) appeared in a German
translation in 1909. The new material has been judicially used
by A. Wolf in the " Life " prefixed to his translation of the Short
Treatise (1910), and the greater part of it also in the second edition
of Sir Frederick Pollock's Spinoza (1899). (A. S. P.-P.)
SPINY SQUIRREL, a book-name for a group of African
ground squirrels, characterized by the spiny nature of the fur
of the more typical forms. They form the genus Xerus, which
is split up into a number of subgenera; Xerus rutilus of Abyssinia
and East Africa belonging to the typical group, while the striped
6g2
SPION KOP SPIRE
North African X. getulus represents the sub-genus Atlanto-
xerus. The more typical species are characterized by the coarse
spiny hair, the small size, or even absence of the ears, and the
long, nearly straight, claws. The skull is narrower and longer
than in typical squirrels, and there are distinctive features in
the cheek-teeth; but the more aberrant types come much
closer to squirrels. Typical spiny squirrels differ from true
squirrels in being completely terrestrial in their habits, and live
either in clefts or holes of rocks, or in burrows which they dig
themselves. (See RODENTIA.)
SPION KOP, a mountain in Natal on the north side of the
Tugela River, and 24 m. W.S.W. of Ladysmith. It is celebrated
as the scene of a battle (Jan. 24, 1900) in the Transvaal War,
in which the British forces under Sir Redvers Buller were
defeated by the Boers (see TRANSVAAL and LADYSMITH). The
Spion Kop incident led to much controversy; for an admirable
elucidation of the facts see The Times History of the War in
South Africa. The name itself (Dutch for " Look-out Hill ") is
fairly common as a place-name in South Africa.
SPIRAL, in mathematics, the locus of the extremity of a line
(01 radius vector) which varies in length as it revolves about a
fixed point (or origin). Here we consider some of the more
important plane spirals. Obviously such curves are con-
veniently expressed by polar equations, i.e. equations which
directly state a relation existing between the radius vector
and the vector angle; another form is the " p, r " equation,
wherein r is the radius vector of a point, and p the length of the
perpendicular from the origin to the tangent at that point.
The equiangular or logarithmic spiral (fig. l) is such that as the
vector angle increases arithmetically, the radius vector increases
F/C3.
F/G4.
geometrically; this definition laads to an equation of the form
r = AB, where e is the base of natural logarithms and A, B are
constants. Another definition is that the tangent makes a constant
angle (a, say) with the radius vector; this leads to p = r sin a. This
curve has the property that its positive pedals, inverse, polar
reciprocal and evolutes are all equal equiangular spirals. A group
of spirals are included in the " parabolic spirals " given by the
equation r = a8"; the more important are the Archimedean spiral,
r = a8 (fig.2); the hyperbolic or reciprocal spiral, r = o~i (fig.3);and
the lituus, r = af>~i (fig. 4). The first-named was discovered byConon,
whose studies were completed by Archimedes. Its " p, r " equation
is = r 2 /V (<I 2 +'' 2 ), and the angle between the radius vector and the
tangent equals the vector angle. The second, called hyperbolic on
account of the analogy of its equation (polar) to that (Cartesian) of
a hyperbola between the asymptotes, is the inverse of the Archime-
dean. Its p, r equation is p~2 = r~2+a~2, and it has an asymptote
at the distance a above the initial line. The lituus has the initial
line as asymptote. Another group of spirals termed Cotes's spirals
appear as the path of a particle moving under the influence of a
central force varying as the inverse cube of the distance (see
M ECHANICS). Their general equation is p~2 = A.r~i + B, in which A and
B can have any values. If B =o, we have p = rVA, and the locus is
the equiangular spiral. If A = i we have p~'=*r~? + B, which leads
to the polar equation r0 = i/VB, i.e. the reciprocal spiral. The
more general investigation is as follows : Writing u = f~i we have
p-* = Au 2 + B, and since p- 2 = u? + (du/d8)'' (see INFINITESIMAL
CALCULUS), then Au' + B='u?+(du/d0)*, i.e. (du/M)* = (A-i)u* + B.
The right-hand side may be written as C 2 ( 2 + D 2 ), C 2 (M 2 -D 2 ),
C 2 (D 2 M 2 ) according as A I and B are both positive, A I positive
and B negative, and as A I negative and B positive. On integration
these three forms yield the polar equations = C sin hD8, = C
cos hDff, and u = C sin D0. Of interest is the spiral r = o0 2 /(0 2 i),
which has the circle r=a as an asymptote in addition to a linear
asymptote.
SPIRE (O. Eng. spir, a blade of grass, and so anything tapering
to a point), the architectural term (Fr. fleche, Ital. guglia, Ger.
spilze) given to the lofty roofs in stone or wood covered with
lead or slate, which crown the towers of cathedrals, churches,
&c. In their origin, as in the church of Thaon in Normandy,
they were four-sided roofs of slight elevation, but soon began
to be features of great importance, becoming lofty pyramids
generally of octagonal form, and equal in height sometimes
to the towers themselves. The junction, however, of an octa-
gonal spire and a square tower involved a distinct architectural
problem, and its solutions in English, French and German spires
are of infinite variety. One of the earliest treatments is that
of the south-west tower of Chartres Cathedral, where, on the
four projecting angles are lofty spire lights which, with others
on the four faces and the octagonal spire itself, form a fine
composition; at the abbey of St Denis the spire light at each
angle was carried on three columns which filled better the three-
cornered space at the angles and gave greater lightness to the
structure; long vertical slits in the spire lights and the spire
increased this effect, leading eventually to the introduction
of tracery throughout the spire; the ultimate results of this
we see in the lace-work spires of Strassburg, Antwerp, St
Stephen's at Vienna, Freiberg, Ulm and other examples, which
in some cases must be looked upon as the tours de force of the
masons employed. In England the spires were far less pre-
tentious but of greater variety of form. The spire of the cathe-
dral at Oxford (1220) is perhaps the earliest example; it is of
comparatively low elevation, of octagonal form with marked
entasis, and is decorated with spire lights on each face and
pinnacled turrets at the angles. Those which are peculiar to
England are the broach-spires, in which the four angles of the
tower are covered with a stone roof which penetrates the central,
octagonal spire. In the best examples the spire comes down
on the tower with dripping eaves, and is carried on a corbel
table, of which the finest solution is St Mary's at Stamford.
The angles of the octagonal spire have a projecting moulding
which is stopped by a head just above the corbel table, and at
the top of the broach is a small niche with a figure in it; the
spire lights are in three stages alternately in the front and dia-
gonal faces. At St Mary, Kelton, and St Nicholas, Walcot,
are similar designs. Seen, however, on the diagonal, the void
space at the angles of these broach-spires is noticeable, so that
an octagonal pinnacle was erected, of which the earliest example
is that of the cathedral at Oxford, where the broach was of very
low pitch. Of later date St Mary's, Wollaston, All Saints,
Leighton Buzzard, and St Mary's, Witney, are good examples.
As a rule the broach penetrates the octagonal spire about one-
sixth or one-seventh up its height, but there is one instance in
St Nicholas, Cotsmere, in Rutlandshire, where it rises nearly
half the way up the octagonal spire. When the parapet or battle-
ment (the latter being purely decorative) took the place of the
dripping eaves, the broach disappeared, and octagonal turrets
occupy the corners, as in St Peter's at Kettering and Oundle,
Northamptonshire, and in All Saints, Stamford, Lincolnshire.
The next combination perhaps followed from this; in order to
connect the angle tower or pinnacle with the spire, a flying
buttress was thrown across, thus filling the gap between them;
of this St James's, at Louth, in Lincolnshire, may be taken as a
fine type; it belongs to the Perpendicular period and is further
enriched with crockets up each angle of the spire; the same
is found in St Mary's, Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire. At St
Michael's, Coventry, the lower part of the octagonal spire
is made vertical with a battlemented cresting round it. In St
Patrick's, Partington, Yorkshire, the lower part of the spire,
which otherwise is plain, is enclosed with an open gallery like
the cresting of a crown. Sometimes the upper storey of the
tower is made octagonal, and is set back so as to allow of a
passage round with parapet or battlement, as at St Mary's,
Bloxham, St Peter and St Paul, Seton, and St Mary, Castlegate,
York. The most important groupings are those which surmount
the towers of the English cathedrals; at Lichfield square turrets
of large size with richly crocketed pinnacles; at Peterborough,
a peculiar but not happy arrangement where a lofty spire
covers over the buttress between angle turret and spire; and at
SPIRE LIGHT SPIRES
6 93
Salisbury an octagonal pinnacle at the angle and a triangular
spire light against the spire. The happiest combination of all,
however, is perhaps the spire of St Mary's, Oxford, with three
ranges of angle niche-groups set one behind the other, forming
with the centre spire a magnificent cluster of spires; the niche
gables and pinnacles are all enriched with crockets and the ball
flower in the arch mouldings.
Reference has already been made to two of the French spires,
at Chartres and St Denis; there is nothing like the diversity of
design in France, however, when compared with those in
England, and there are but few on the crossing of nave and
transept; the towers were built to receive them, as at Amiens,
Reims and Beauvais, but for some reason not carried above the
roof, possibly from some doubt as to the expediency of raising
stone lanterns and spires of great weight on the four piers of
the crossing; on the other hand their places were taken by
constructions in timber covered with lead, of immense height
and fine design. There was a 13th-century fleche on the crossing
of Notre-Dame, Paris, taken down soon after the beginning
of the ipth century, of which the existing example by Viollet-le-
Duc is a copy. The same fate befell that over the Sainte
Chapelle, Paris, being reconstructed about 1850 by Lassus.
The fleche at Amiens, though of late date (c. 1500), is still in good
preservation and is a remarkable work; above the ridges of
the roofs of nave and transept, and octagonal in plan, are two
stages, the upper one set back to allow of a passage round, and,
above the cresting of the latter, a lofty octagonal spire with
spire lights at the base on each side, crockets up the angles,
and other decorations in the lead work with which it is covered.
Including the vane, from the ridge of roof the height is 182 ft.
Of timber fleches covered with slates there are many examples
in the north of France, those at Orbais (Marne) and the abbey
at Eu (Seine Inferieure) being the best known. Returning to
stone spires, those on the west front of St Stephen's, Caen
(Abbaye-aux-Hommes) , are good examples with lofty octagonal
turrets and pinnacles at west angle and spire light between,
and among others are those of St Pierre at Caen, Senlis, Cou-
tances, Bayeux, and many others in Calvados, and at Soissons,
Noyon and Laon in Picardy. One of the most beautiful spires
in France, though of late date, is that of the north-west tower
to Chartres Cathedral. In the south of France, in the Charente
and Perigord, the stone spire takes quite another form, being of
much less height, of convex form, and studded with small scales,
giving somewhat the appearance of a pine cone, with small
pinnacles also with scales, and carried on a group of shafts at
the angles of the tower. The west tower of Angouleme Cathe-
dral, the central towers of Saintes Le Palud, and Plassac in the
Charente, and the tower of St Front, Perigueux, and Brantome
in Perigord, have all spires of this kind, of which a small example
crowns the Lanterne des Morts at Cellefrouin. The German
towers are generally covered with roofs only, of varied form,
but at Ulm, Strassburg, Freiburg and Cologne is a remarkable
series of traceried spires in stone, of great elaboration and show-
ing great masonic ability, but wanting in repose and solidarity,
and the same applies to the spire at Antwerp. In Spain there
are not many examples of note, the spire at Burgos suggesting
in its outline and want of height the influence of the Perigordian
spires, and that at Salamanca the influence of those in the north
of France.
Looking upon the spire as the crowning feature of a tower,
those of the Renaissance period must be included here, though
as a compromise they are often termed " steeples." Of these
the finest and most varied are those by Wren in London, among
which that of Bow Church and St Bride's, Fleet Street, are the
best known, the former with two stages of lanterns with de-
tached columns round, and the latter octagonal on plan with
five stages, set one behind the other, with arches in centre of
each face and pilasters at the angles. St Antholin, now de-
stroyed, was the only example based on a Gothic prototype;
it consisted of an octagonal spire with Renaissance spire lights
and angle finials resting on the upper octagonal storeys of the
tower. St Margaret Pattens somewhat resembles it, but the
tower has a balustrade round and the angle pinnacles are in the
form of obelisks, a favourite Renaissance interpretation of the
Gothic finial, which is found in other churches, as in those of
St Martins-in-the-Fields by Gibbs and St Giles-in-the-Fields
by Flitcroft. Hawksmoor apparently based his spire of St
George's, Bloomsbury, which consists of a series of lofty steps,
and is crowned with a statue of George I., on that of the
mausoleum at Halicarnassus. In France, Italy and Spain,
lanterns usually terminate the towers. The spire of the Seo
at Saragossa in design somewhat resembles those of Wren,
being one of the few examples worth noting. (R. P. S.)
SPIRE LIGHT (Fr. lucarne), the term given to the windows
in a spire which are found in all periods of English Gothic
architecture, and in French spires form a very important feature
in the composition. There is an early example in the spire of
the cathedral at Oxford; they are not glazed, and have occasion-
ally, if of large size, transoms to strengthen the mullions.
SPIRES (Ger. Speyer or Speier), a town and episcopal see
of Germany, capital of the Bavarian palatinate, situated on the
left bank of the Rhine, at the mouth of the Speyerbach, 16 m.
S. of Mannheim by rail. Pop. (1905), 21,823. The principal
streets are broad but irregular, and the general appearance of
the town little corresponds to its high antiquity, owing to the
fact that it was burned by the French in 1689. The only impor-
tant ancient building that survived the flames is the cathedral,
a very large and imposing basilica of red sandstone, and one of
the noblest examples of Romanesque architecture now extant.
Beyond the general interest attaching to it as one of the old
Romanesque churches of the Rhineland, Spires Cathedral has a
peculiar importance in the history of architecture as probably
the earliest Romanesque basilica in which the nave as well
as the side arcades was vaulted from the first (see ARCHITECTURE:
Romanesque in Germany). Built in 1030-1061 by Conrad II.
and his successor, this church has had a chequered history,
its disasters culminating in 1689, when the soldiers of Louis XIV.
burned it to the bare walls, and scattered the ashes of the eight
German emperors who had been interred in the king's choir.
Restored in 1772-1784 and provided with a vestibule and facade,
it was again desecrated by the French in 1794; but in 1846-1853
it was once more thoroughly restored and adorned in the interior
with gorgeous frescoes at the expense of the king of Bavaria.
The large cathedral bowl (Domnapf) in front of the west facade
formerly marked the boundary between the episcopal and
municipal territories. Each new bishop on his election had to
fill the bowl with wine, while the burghers emptied it to his
health. The heathen tower to the east of the church, on founda-
tions supposed to be Roman, was probably part of the town-wall
built in 1080 by Bishop Rudger. Of the Retscher, or imperial
palace, so called because built after the model of the Hradschin
at Prague, only a mouldering fragment of wall remains. It
was in this palace that the famous Diet of Spires met in 1529, at
which the Reformers first received the name of Protestants.
The Altportel (alia porta), a fine old gateway of 1246, is a relic
of the free imperial city. Among the modern buildings are
several churches and schools, a museum and picture gallery,
&c. Spires, although rebuilt in 1697, has never recovered from
the injuries inflicted by the French in 1689. Its trade is in-
significant, although it still has a free harbour on the Rhine.
Its manufactures include cloth, paper, tobacco and cigars, sugar,
sugar of lead, vinegar, beer and leather. Vines and tobacco
are grown in the neighbourhood.
Spires, known to the Romans as Augusta Nemetum or Nemetae,
and to the Gauls as Noviomagus, is one of the oldest towns on the
Rhine. The modern name appears first under the form of
Spira, about the 7th century. Captured by Julius Caesar in
47 B.C., it was repeatedly destroyed by the barbarian hordes in
the first few centuries of the Christian era. The town had
become an episcopal seat in the 4th century; but heathenism
supervened, and the present bishopric dates from 610. In 830
Spira became part of the Prankish Empire, the emperors having
a " palatium " here; and it was especially favoured by the Salic
imperial house. The contentions between the bishops and the
SPIRITS
citizens were as obstinate and severe as in any other city of
Germany. The situation of the town opposite the mouths of
several roads through the Rhine valley early fostered its trade;
in 1294 it rose to be a free imperial city, although it owned no
territory beyond its walls and had a population of less than
30,000. It enjoyed great renown as the seat of the imperial
supreme court from 1527 till 1689; it was fifth among the free
cities of the Rhine, and had a vote in the Upper Rhenish Diet.
Numerous imperial diets assembled here. From 1801 till 1814
it was the capital of a department of France; but it was restored
to Bavaria in the latter year. By the Peace of Spires in 1544
the Habsburgs renounced their claims to the crown of Sardinia.
SPIRITS. 1 The original meaning of the word spirit (Lat.
spiritus, from spirare) was wind in motion, breath, the soul, and
hence it came to denote that which gives life or vigour to the
human body and other objects, and it is, therefore, synonymous
with everything eminently pure, ethereal, refined or distilled. In
popular chemical nomenclature the term " spirit " in its former
sense is still occasionally encountered, for instance, " spirits of
salts " for hydrochloric acid. The spirits of the British Phar-
macopoeia (e.g. sp. aelheris nitrosi; sp. chloroformi; sp. cam-
phorae) are solutions of various substances obtained either by
distilling these with, or dissolving them in, the rectified spirit
of the Pharmacopoeia, which latter is pure alcohol with 16%
by weight of water.
In the modern sense, spirits may be broadly denned as the pro-
ducts resulting from the distillation of saccharine liquids which
have undergone alcoholic fermentation. Spirits of wine means
rectified spirit of a strength of 43 degrees over proof and upwards.
By rectified spirit is meant spirit rectified at a licensed rectifier's
premises. Proof spirit, which is the standard spirit of the
United Kingdom, is legally defined (58 Geo. III. c. 28) as a
spirit which at 51 F. weighs exactly twelve-thirteenths of the
weight of an equal volume of distilled water. The strength of
proof spirit at 60 F. the temperature now generally employed
for official calculations is now officially regarded as being
equal to a spirit containing 57-06% by volume, or 49-24% by
weight, of absolute alcohol. Spirit which possesses a greater or
smaller alcoholic strength than proof is described as being
so many degrees over or under proof, as the case may be. The
strength is legally estimated by Sykes's hydrometer, which was
legalized in 1816 by 56 Geo. III. c. 40. The degrees " over "
or " under " proof as ascertained by Sykes's hydrometer are
arbitrary percentages by volume of a standard spirit contained
in the spirit under examination. This standard spirit is proof
spirit. For example, by a spirit of strength 75-25 degrees over
proof (absolute alcohol) is meant a spirit of such a strength
that loo volumes of the same contain an amount of spirit
equal to 175-25 volumes of the standard (proof) spirit. A
spirit of 25 degrees under proof is one of which 100
volumes contain only as much alcohol as do 75 (i.e. 10025)
volumes of proof spirit. According to Nettleton, " proof
spirit " would appear to be the outcome of an attempt to pro-
duce a mixture of pure alcohol and water, containing equal
weights of the constituents. The term " proof " probably
originated from a rough test for spirituous strength formerly
employed, which consisted in moistening gunpowder with the
spirit and applying a light. If the gunpowder did not ignite,
but the spirit merely burned away, the spirit was regarded as
being under proof, i.e. it contained so much water that the
gunpowder became moist and refused to deflagrate. The basis
of the standard of other countries is almost invariably the unit:
volume of absolute alcohol, the hydrometers/orVather " alcoholo-
meters " such as those of Gay-Lussac and of J. G. Tralles
employed indicating the exact quantity of alcohol in a mixture
at a standard temperature, in percentages by volume. In the
United States the term " proof " is also employed, American
proof spirit being a spirit which contains 50% of alcohol
by volume at 60 F. American " proof " spirit is, therefore,
considerably weaker than British " proof." Allowing for this
difference and also for the fact that the American standard
1 For the sense of disembodied persons, see SPIRITUALISM.
gallon (which is really the old English wine-gallon) is equal to
0-833 of an imperial gallon, the American " proof " gallon
roughly equals 0-73 of a British proof gallon.
Historical. The art of distillation, more particularly the
preparation of distilled alcoholic fluids for beverage and medi-
cinal purposes, is of very ancient origin. It is probable that
the art of making spirits was well known many centuries before
FIG. !. Ancient form of Still, FIG. 2. Ancient form of Still,
used in China. used in Central India.
the advent of the Christian era. According to T. Fairley, the
Chinese distilled liquor " sautchoo " was known long before
the Christian era, and " arrack " was made in India at a date as
remote as 800 B.C. Aristotle in
his Meteorology (lib. ii. ch. ii.)
says " Sea-water can be rendered
potable by distillation: wine
and other liquids can be sub-
mitted to the same process.
After they have been converted
into humid vapours they return
to liquids. " There is, on the
whole, little doubt that spirits
were manufactured in Egypt,
India, China, and the Far East
generally, as far back as 2000
B.C. Figs. 1-4 (from More-
wood's Inebriating Liquors,
FIG. 3. Ancient form of Still,
used in Tibet.
published in 1838) show very ancient forms of stills in use in
China, India, Tibet and Tahiti.
As far as can be ascertained the oldest reference to the pre-
paration of a distilled spirituous liquor in the British Isles
is contained in the
" Mead Song " written
by the Welsh bard,
Taliesin, in the 6th cen-
tury. He said " Mead
distilled I praise, its
eulogy is everywhere,"
&c. (Fairley, The Ana-
fytf, 1905, p. 300). The
same authority points
out that the knowledge
of distillation in the
British Isles was inde-
FIG. 4. Ancient form of Still, used
in Tahiti.
pendent of the art of distillation from wine, seeing that distilla-
tion from grain was known in Ireland before the art of making
wine came to Europe. An Irish legend states that St Patrick
first taught the Irish the art of distillation; but, however
that may be, it is certain that at the time of the first
English invasion of Ireland (1170-72) the manufacture
of a spirit distilled from grain (i.e. whisky) was known to
the inhabitants of that country. It is probable that grain
spirit was first prepared in the Far East, inasmuch as a spirit
distilled from rice and other grains was made in India before
the Christian era. The establishment of regular distilleries
in England appears to date back to the reign of Henry VIII.,
and they are said to have been founded by Irish settlers
who came over at that time. It is difficult to obtain exact data
SPIRITS
695
regarding the origin of the distilling industry in Scotland, but,
as Fairley says, it is probable that distilling was carried on there
almost as early as in Ireland. At the time of the Tudors Scotch
whisky was held in great repute in England. The production
of a spirit from wine (i.e. brandy) appears to have been known
in the pth century; but, according to Morewood, the first attempt
at the distillation of wine in France is attributed to Arnaldus de
Villa Nova, in the i3th century. As a manufacturing industry
the distillation of brandy in France began in the i4th century.
The history of the spirit industry in the United Kingdom is,
as Nettleton has well pointed out, inseparably connected with
questions of taxation. According to one writer, it was not until
1660 that an excise duty was first imposed on the consumption
of spirit (" aqua vitae ") in the United Kingdom, but it appears
probable that the industry generally was taxed in one form or
another in the reign of Elizabeth, when it first began to assume
considerable importance. No record, however, of the quantity
of spirit on which duty was charged was kept until 1684. In
that year duty was paid on 527,492 gallons. At the end of the
century the consumption reached 1,000,000 gallons, and in 1745
it had risen to a quantity equivalent to about 5,000,000 gallons
at proof. Cromwell imposed a tax of 8d. per gallon, but this
was soon lowered to 2d. In 1751 a tax equivalent to is. per proof
gallon was imposed, and in 1766 this was further increased to
2s. After this various changes and complex methods of assess-
ing the duty were introduced (see Nettleton, The Manufacture of
Spirit, Marcus Ward, 1893) until, in more modern times, a more
rational and uniform system was introduced.
Conditions of Manufacture. The principal act now governing
and regulating the manufacture of 'spirits and the working of
distilleries in Great Britain is the Spirits Act of 1880. The
provisions of this and of the other acts bearing on the subject are
exceedingly numerous and complicated, and, therefore, only a
few of the chief points can be set forth here, so that an adequate
appreciation may be gained of the arduous and rigid conditions
under which the spirit manufacturer is, in order to ensure the
safeguarding of the revenue, constrained to carry out his opera-
tions. A distillery must not, without permission, be carried on
at a greater distance than half a mile from a market town, nor
may it be situated within a quarter of a mile from a rectifying
establishment. A distiller must give notice of the erection of
new plant or apparatus, of the time of brewing, of the removing
of sugar from store or of yeast from wort or wash, of the making
of " bub," of the locking of the spirit receiver supply pipe, &c.
He may use any material he pleases, provided that the gravity
of the wort can be ascertained by the saccharometer, but he may
not brew beer nor make cider, wine nor sweet wines. When
the worts are collected in the wash-back (fermenting vessel)
a declaration must be made at once, specifying the original
gravity and the number of dry inches remaining in the
back. At the end of every distilling period a return must be
delivered showing (a) the quantity of brewing materials
used, (b) the quantity of wort or wash attenuated and distilled,
out of store, the number and size of vessels, the locking of the
latter, and the painting of the pipes carrying various liquids
in certain colours. The methods of assessing the duty are three-
fold, and whichever of these methods gives the highest return
is the one adopted. The first is the " attenuation charge."
This consists of levying the charge due on one gallon of proof
spirit for every hundred gallons of worts collected and for every
five degrees of attenuation observed, the latter being calculated
by taking the difference between the highest specific gravity of
the worts and the lowest gravity of the wash after complete
fermentation. Secondly, there is the " low-wines charge,"
calculated upon the bulk-quantity at proof-strength of the low
wines produced by the distillation of the wash; and lastly, the
" feints and spirits charge." This is the method usually
adopted, as it generally gives the highest results; it is
assessed on the number of bulk gallons at proof of the feints
and spirits produced by the final distilling operations. The
duty, which was fixed at 105. per proof gallon in 1860, remained
at that rate until 1890, when an addition of 6d. was made, but
a further increase to the like amount made in 1894 was remitted
in the next year owing to the unsatisfactory results obtained.
The rate remained at IDS. 6d. until 1900 when it was raised to
us., a further increase being made in 1909-1910.
Legally, the word " spirit " implies spirit of any description,
and all liquors, mixtures and compounds made with the same.
In the same way plain spirit is any British spirit which has not
been artificially flavoured, and to which no ingredient has been
added subsequent to distillation.
The extremely severe and inelastic provisions of the acts
governing the manufacture of spirit in the United Kingdom
have proved to be a very serious impediment to the develop-
ment of the spirit industry on modern lines, and have placed
the British manufacturer at a considerable disadvantage as
compared with his foreign competitors. There is little doubt
that the enormous revenue derived from the spirit industry
could be adequately safeguarded in a manner more consistent
with the development of the industry on sound commercial
and technological lines than it is at present.
Production and Consumption. The production of spirit in the
United Kingdom amounted in 1907 to roughly 50,000,000 proof
gallons, the consumption to a gallon per head of population. In the
decade 1880-1890 the quantity of spirits distilled remained practi-
cally stationary at about 40,000,000 gallons, but during the ten years
1890-1900 there was a rapid increase, the maximum being attained
in 1898, when nearly 64,000,000 gallons were produced. A point
had then been reached at which the production had considerably
outstripped the consumption, due in part to the desire of the spirit
trade to meet the increased demand for " matured " spirits, and in
part to the fact that an excessive amount of capital had, owing to
the increased popularity of Scotch whisky, been attracted to the
distilling industry. This over-production led to a vast increase in
the quantity of spirit remaining in warehouse. In 1906 production
and consumption were about equal, and the quantity of spirit in
warehouse represented roughly a five years' supply.
The following figures regarding production, consumption, duty,
&c., heed no explanation:
UNITED KINGDOM
I. Statistics regarding Home-made Spirits.
Year.
Total quantity
distilled
(proof gallon).
Total consump-
tion of pot-
able spirit
(proof gallon).
Consumption of
potable spirit per
head of popula-
tion (proof gallon).
Exports
(proof gallon).
Retained for
methylation
(proof gallon).
Remaining in
warehouse
(proof gallon).
Duty paid
(Excise).
1895-1896
1898-1899
1900-1901
1903-1904
1905-1906
1906-1907
49,324,875
63,437,884
57,020,847
51,816,600
49,214,165
50,317,908
31,088,448
34,334,084
36,703,728
34,103,111
32,486,958
32,5",3i6
0-79
0-85
0-89
0-80
o-75
0-74
4-254,883
5,090,290
5,773,718
6,334,971
7,049,798
7,341,077
3,838,082
4,781,369
5, 70,7I3
5,054,586
5,663,429
6,055,285
114,110,701
151-732,539
161,502,829
167,155,504
163,519,957
161,648,409
16,380,134
17,967,142
20,124,003
18,667,818
17,765,352
17,745,125
(c) the quantity of spirits produced at proof -strength, and (d) the
quantity of " feints " remaining. Regulations also exist with
regard to the amount of " bub " (see below) that may be added
to the worts, or the quantity of yeast that may be removed from
the wash, concerning the time permissible for drawing over
spirit at the various stages, as to placing in and taking spirit
The importation of foreign potable spirits into the United King-
dom has fallen off materially since 1870-1875, during which period it
stood at 16,000,000 to 17,000,000 gallons. This is chiefly due to the
decreased consumption of brandy, and, to a smaller extent, to the
diminishing importance of rum and other foreign spirits. The most
remarkable change in this connexion is in the case of foreign methyl-
ated spirit. At onetime (1891) the quantity of this article imported
6 9 6
SPIRITS
2. Statistics regarding Imparted Spirits.
Consumption
Year.
Total imports
(proof gallon).
per head of
population
(proof gallon).
Nature of spirits
(proof gallon).
Retained for
methylation.
(Rum . . 6,217,469
1895-1896
10,821,518
O-2O
4 Brandy. . 2,668,616
91,990
1. Other sorts. 1,935433
1902-1903
13,130,182
O-2O
rRum . . 6,719,452
( Brandy. . 3,081,525
1,212,001
L Other sorts. 2,617,090
1905-1906
8,228,435
0-16
rRum . . 4,879,958
1 Brandy. . 2,456,773
I Other sorts. 891,704
nil.
rRum. . . 5,110,345
1906-1907
8,129,503
0-17
r> i UTvJ
-j Brandy. . 1,942,415
nil.
LOther sorts. 1,076,743
was almost equal to the amount manufactured in the United King-
dom, the figures being 1,995,782 gallons for the home produce and
1,456,108 for the foreign. For various reasons-^chiefly owing to
the surtax of 4d. per gallon on all foreign spirit the quantity
imported has gradually dwindled away, and at the present time is
practically negligible. The principal spirit-producing countries
are Russia and Germany, the United States coming next, and then
France, Austria and the United Kingdom in succession, followed by
Hungary, Holland and Belgium. The following are the figures for
1905:
Proof gallons.
Russian Empire .... 161,366,000 (1904)
Germany 146,014,000
United States 125,042,000
France 160,584,000
Austria 55,682,000
United Kingdom .... 48,520,000
Hungary 40,216,000
Holland . 13,552,000
Belgium ...... 11,924,000
If we except Canada and the Cape (which make roughly
6,000,000 and 1,500,000 gallons respectively), the production
of the British Empire, apart from the United Kingdom, is very
small. British Guiana exports 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 and Jamaica
about 1,500,000 gallons of rum.
With regard to the consumption in gallons per head, Denmark
stands first with 2-4, then follows the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with
1-98, Germany with 1-43, Holland with the same figure, France
with 1-37, Sweden with 1-36, the United States with 1-26, Belgium
with i-io, and last the United Kingdom with 0-91. The consump-
tion in Russia is about equal to that of the United Kingdom. The
figures given are for the year 1905. In the British colonies Western
Australia comes first with a consumption per head of 1-33 gallons;
and then in order Queensland 1-32 gallons; Canada 0-94 gallon;
New South Wales 0-77 gallon; New Zealand 0-73 gallon; Victoria
0-64 gallon; the Cape 0-68 gallon, and South Australia 0-47 gallon.
Of the spirits distilled in the United Kingdom, Scotland produces
roughly one half, England and Ireland about one quarter each.
Although the number of distilleries in England and Ireland has
varied but little of recent years, the number in Scotland increased
from 120 in 1880 to 161 in 1899. In 1906 the actual numbers were
Scotland 150; Ireland 28; England 8. The apparent anomaly
between the number of distilleries and the quantity of spirit produced
in different parts of the kingdom is explained by the fact that the
great majority of the distilleries in Scotland and Ireland are small,
pot-still distilleries, whereas the English works are all of considerable
capacity. It is difficult to arrive at any satisfactory figure with
regard to the amount of capital invested in British and Irish distil-
leries, but it probably exceeds twenty millions.
Illicit distillation has almost ceased to exist in Great Britain, but
in Ireland the number of annual seizures under this heading is still
considerable. In 1906-1907, out of a total of 974 detections and
seizures, 968 were in Ireland.
The spirit produced in the United Kingdom is made almost
exclusively from malt, unmalted grain (chiefly maize, rye, barley,
wheat and oats) and molasses. The relative proportion of malt
to unmalted grain has shown a slight tendency to increase during
the past twenty years, but the quantity of molasses employed has
increased very largely in the same period, owing mainly to the
fact that home-made spirit has largely displaced the foreign article
for several industrial purposes and particularly for methylation.
The estimated quantities of the various materials employed in 1883
and 1906 respectively were as under:
Year.
Malt (quarters).
Unmalted grain
(quarters).
Molasses and
sugar (cwt.)
1883
1906
859,363
1,151-199
1,054,081
1,090,286
165,529
985,808
With regard to the materials employed
in the manufacture of spirits in France,
roughly 80-90 % now consist of maize (and
other starchy substances), beetroot and
molasses, whereas in 1840 nine- tenths of
the alcohol produced was derived from the
grape and other fruits. This change is due
in part to the ravages of the o'idium disease
(1850-1857) and the phylloxera (1876-1890),
which destroyed an immense number of
vines, but chiefly to the increased demand
for commercial spirit in the arts and manu-
factures, and also to the improved methods
for obtaining a high-class spirit from prac-
tically any starchy or saccharine material.
In 1905 the number of alcohol units (the
unit = 1000 hectorlitres of pure alcohol)
distilled from maize and other starchy
materials was 589, from molasses 516, from
beetroot 1002, from wine, cider, lees and
fruits 499. In Germany roughly 75% of the spirit manufactured
is derived from potatoes. In 1905 the total spirit distilled
amounted to 3786 units (of 1000 hectolitres of pure alcohol), of
which 2877 units were obtained from potatoes, 765 units from
grain and 144 units from molasses and other material. In Russia
spirits are distilled chiefly from potatoes and rye, in the United
States from maize.
Manufacture. The manufacture of spirits consists broadly
in converting starchy or saccharine matter into alcohol, the
latter product being subsequently separated, concentrated
and rectified. When spirits are made from a purely saccharine
material the process of conversion into alcohol is a relatively
simple one, but where farinaceous raw products are employed
it is primarily necessary to transform the starch contained in
them into sugar. The main varieties of spirits manufactured
from sugar, or from sugar-containing materials, are:
SUGAR-DERIVED SPIRITS
Raw Material. Product.
Wine. Brandy.
Sugar-cane and cane molasses. Rum.
Beetroot; beet molasses. Industrial alcohol.
Occasionally wine, cider, perry and cane molasses are also
employed for making either plain potable spirit or industrial
alcohol, and at times cane molasses (chiefly obtained from
Cuba and the West Indies) are used somewhat extensively in
England for the manufacture of plain spirit. Occasionally, also,
plain potable spirit is derived from beets, but rarely from beet
molasses, the spirit derived from the latter being somewhat
difficult of rectification.
The chief spirits derived from starchy materials, and their
corresponding raw materials, are as follows:
STARCH-DERIVED SPIRITS
Raw Material. Product.
{Whisky, "corn brandy," "vod-
ka," plain spirit; industrial
, . . . alcohol.
Potatoes Industrial alcohol.
A. Spirits Derived from Saccharine Materials. The manu-
facture of the finer brandies, such as those of Cognac, is, as far
as the processes involved are concerned, by no means
a complex matter. The excellence of this class of
spirit is due mainly to the character of the wine employed
and to the great experience of the distillers in selecting and
blending the raw materials and finished products. The
character of the wine is, of course, chiefly due to the
peculiar soil and climatic conditions, and in some degree to
the methods of cultivation. The latter, it may be added,
have since the reconstitution of the Charente vineyards
subsequent to their partial destruction by the phylloxera
(see BRANDY) been much improved. In the pre-phylloxera
days the vineyards were planted and cultivated in a very rough
and ready fashion, without any attempt at regularity of planting.
The result was that the vines spread practically unrestrained
in every and any direction. In consequence there was a great
irregularity of growth, feeble and hardy plants being found
side by side, and the yield was poor. In vineyards constructed
in the modern style the vines are planted in regular rows,
and the bushes are, with a view to obtaining regular and rapid
Brandy.
SPIRITS
697
ripening, methodically supported by wire. The wines pro-
duced by the Charente vineyards are of a light(white)character
and possess no marked " bouquet," but they nevertheless
produce a spirit of a peculiarly fine and delicate character. It
is remarkable that the fuller and more aromatic wines of the
Gironde and of Burgundy, for instance, are not so suitable for
the manufacture of brandy as the relatively poor growths of
the Charente. The apparatus employed for the distillation of
the fine Cognac brandies is generally of a very simple pot-
still type. Fig. 5 depicts the still-room of a Charente distillery
FIG. 5. Old Cognac Pot-still.
of former times, and fig. 6 shows one of Messrs Martell's
distilleries in Cognac, equipped on modern lines. It will be
seen that, in principle, there is very little difference between
FIG. 6. Modern Cognac Pot-still (Martell & Co.)
the two sets of plant, the reason being that experience has
shown that for wines producing the finest brandies, the simplest
form of still is also the best. For the distillation of wines not
of the highest quality (from the brandy distillers' point of view)
more complicated apparatus is employed, as the spirit from
these wines must be more highly rectified than is the case with
the finest brandies. Broadly speaking, it may be said that the
type of still is suited to the production in the most economical
manner of the best spirit to be obtained from the wine of a
particular district. In Cognac, brandy is generally, but not
universally, made by the " brouillis et repasse " system, this
being a double distillation in a simple pot-still. The stills are
(compared with whisky pot-stills) very small, holding roughly
one hundred gallons, and the distillation is conducted very
slowly and carefully, lasting about eight hours. Sometimes the
whole of the spirit is collected in one receiver (corresponding to
the low wines of Scotch whisky), but frequently the " brouillis,"
as the results of the first distillation are termed, are divided
into several fractions. The " brouillis " which contain about
25 to 35% of alcohol are redistilled, this second distillation
Kurn.
being called the " bonne chauffe " or " repasse." The first
runnings which vary in quality according to the quality of the
wine, the manner of heating, &c. are termed " produit
de tete " or " tetes," and are separately collected and mixed
with the " brouillis " of the following operation. The
spirit which next comes over (starting at a strength of about
80% and running down to about 55%) is the " cceur," and
as a whole, marks roughly 66 to 70% of absolute alcohol by
volume. The residue in the still is then run down to water,
and the spirit so obtained, which shows 20 to 25%, is called
" seconde," and is either mixed with a fresh charge of wine or
rectified separately, the stronger portion being mixed with the
" brouillis," the weaker with a charge of wine (see BRANDY).
There are two main kinds of rum, namely, Jamaica rum and
rum of the type prepared principally in Demerara and Trinidad
(see RUM). There are two varieties of Jamaica
rum (a) the common clear rum, and (b) flavoured,
or " German " rum. (a) " Common clear " rum is prepared
from a mixture of sugar-cane molasses, " skimmings " (the
scum from the boiling cane juice) and " dunder," this last
name being given to the spent lees from previous distillations.
Previous to use the " skimmings " are subjected to acid fermen-
tation either alone or in conjunction with " trash " (crushed
cane). The wort, which on the average contains about 10 to
15% of sugar, ferments very slowly, owing to the fact
that very little yeast the latter being derived from the cane
rind is present. Roughly five to ten days are occupied by
this operation. At first the fermentation is mainly alcoholic,
but it rapidly assumes an acid character, owing to the presence
of a great number of acidifying bacteria derived from the
" dunder " and " skimmings." The distillation of the fer-
mented wort is carried out in pot stills heated by fire or steam,
either of a simple type or provided with rectifiers. In the
former case two distillations are necessary, the first resulting
in the production of a weak alcoholic liquid termed " low wines,"
the second, which consists in a rectification of the low wines,
producing " high wines " or strong rum. The other type of
still is provided with two rectifiers, which are interposed
between the still and the condensing worm. These are charged
with low and high wines respectively. The first runnings of
the still (25 to 40 o.p.) constitute the rum proper, the next
fraction the high wines, and the final distillate the low wines.
(b) Flavoured or " German " rum is prepared from the same
materials as the " common clear " variety, with the addition
of " acid " and " flavour." " Acid " is obtained by acidifying
fermented cane juice by means of cane " trash " and refuse
from the wash backs. " Flavour " is prepared in much the
same way as " acid," except that " dunder " sediment is also
added. The fermentation, which is to a very great extent
bacterial, results in the formation of large quantities of acid,
including much butyric acid and compound esters. The
distillation of " flavoured " rum is carried out in much the same
manner as that of the " common clear." The manufacture of
" Demerara rum " is differentiated from that of the Jamaica
varieties mainly by the fact that the fermentation in the former
case is practically purely saccharomycetic (i.e. yeast), whereas
the latter is largely schizomycetic (i.e. bacterial). For the
distillation of the Demerara rums, which are much lighter in
flavour than the Jamaica varieties, stills of the " patent " (see
below) or rectifying type are frequently employed (see RUM
and ARRACK).
For the manufacture of industrial spirit from saccharine materials
see below, under Industrial Alcohol.
B. Spirits Derived from Starchy Materials. The manufac-
ture of spirit from saccharine materials is, as we have seen,
a relatively simple operation, the sugar being transformed
into alcohol by fermentation, and the latter then distilled off.
To convert starchy matter into alcohol is a much more compli-
cated matter. To the operations necessary for the transforma-
tion of sugar into spirit, must, in the case of starchy materials,
be added that of converting the starch into sugar. This is
accomplished either by the action of a diastatic ferment, such
SPIRITS
as that present in malted grain (see BREWING) or secreted by
certain living organisms, or by an acid such as sulphuric acid.
The latter process is little employed at the present time. The
materials employed by the distiller, and the methods of pre-
paration and treatment to which they are subjected before
and after entering the distillery, are in some respects similar,
in others materially different, from those employed by the
brewer. The materials most frequently employed are maize,
rye, barley malt, raw barley, oats, wheat and potatoes. Com-
paring the main operations (apart from the actual process of
distillation) of the brewer with those of the distiller, it is true
that these are identical in the sense that they consist in the
conversion of starch into sugar and of the latter into alcohol;
but whereas the object of the brewer is to produce beer, of
which alcohol forms only a relatively small proportion, the
distiller, broadly speaking, desires to produce alcohol, and it is
this fact which is responsible for the differences alluded to
above.
Distillery Mailing. Where malt is employed as the main
raw material, as, for instance, in the case of cotch pot-still
whiskies, and also, but to a minor degree, in Irish pot-still
whiskies and patent-still whiskies, the process of preparation
does not, except in some specific particulars, differ very widely
from that used in making brewer's malt (see MALT). With
regard to the barley employed for this purpose, certain qualities
which are of the greatest importance to the brewer, such as the
nature of the husk, colour, and friability of the starch, are of
little interest to the distiller, and providing that the grain is
sound and that it contains a high percentage of starch and malts
as well, it will pass muster as an average distillery material. It
is usual to give barley intended for patent-still work a rather
longer period in the steep and on the floors than in brewery
malting, and it is well to treat the steep-water with some anti-
septic, preferably lime, as the distiller has not the opportunity
of lessening the dangers of bacterial infection at subsequent
stages which is afforded to the brewer by the boiling and hopping
of the wort. In distilleries where barley malt is not used as
the main raw material, but mainly or chiefly as a diastatic agent
(for instance, in potato and maize distilleries on the continent
of Europe), the so-called "long" malt process is widely em-
ployed. This consists essentially in subjecting the grain first to
a somewhat lengthy steep (until the increase in weight due to
the absorbed water is about 40 to 45%), and secondly to a very
prolonged " flooring " at a moderate temperature, great attention
being paid to the conditions of ventilation and humidity. It
was formerly believed that the germinating barley grain attains
its maximum of diastatic power after a very short period, and
that when the acrospire is three-quarters " up " and the rootlets
say one and a half times the length of the grain, the malt is
i ready for removal from the floor. M. Delbruck, Hayduck and
others have, however, shown that this is not the case, and the
practical results obtained by adopting the twenty days' " floor-
ing " period (and its attendant conditions) have amply confirmed
the scientific researches on this subject.
Hayduck has shown that the relative diastatic strengths of
" short " (seven to ten days) and " long " (twenty days) malt
are, (i) for heavy barleys as 100: 128-5 (average), (2) for light
barleys as 100: 160-5 (average). In contradistinction to the
brewer (who can only use it on exceptional occasions and for
special purposes), the distiller prefers, whenever this is feasible,
to use green malt rather than kilned malt. One of the principal
objects of kilning brewing malt is to restrict the diastatic power;
but this is the very factor which the distiller desires to preserve,
as the green malt possesses roughly twice the diastatic activity
of high kilned malt. It is obvious that the distiller, who regards
his malt merely as a starch-converting agent, will, ceteris paribus,
use as little kilned malt as possible. The malt whisky distiller
cannot, however, use green malt, as he relies to a great extent
on the kilning process for the development of the peculiar
flavour characteristic of the article he produces. Moreover,
it is frequently difficult during hot weather to obtain a satis-
factory green malt supply, especially as the latter will not bear
carriage for any distance, and distillers who make pressed yeast
(commonly called " German " yeast) find that a proportion of
kilned malt is necessary for the satisfactory manufacture of this
article. When the distiller is unable to use green malt he will,
by preference, use a malt which has been kilned at as low a
temperature as possible. Under these conditions the kilning
is little more than a drying operation, and the temperature is
rarely raised above 130 F.
Although green or low-dried barley malt is the saccharifying
agent usually employed both in the United Kingdom and on
the continent of Europe, malts prepared from other cereals
are not infrequently employed for this purpose. According to
Glaser and Moransky the relative starch-transforming capacities
of the various malted grains, taking barley as the unit, are as
follows:
Barley malt
Rye malt .
Wheat malt
Oat malt .
Maize malt
l-oo
o-93
i -08
0-30
0-28
Oat malt, notwithstanding its low transforming power,
possesses certain advantages, inasmuch as it is easily and rapidly
prepared, it acts very quickly in the mash tun, and its diastatic
power is well maintained during fermentation. Rye is best
malted in conjunction with a little barley or oats, as it otherwise
tends to superheat and to grow together in a tangled mass.
Distillery Mashing. Distillery mashing, although outwardly
very similar to the process employed in brewing, differs very
widely in some important particulars. In brewing all the
necessary fermentable matter is formed from the starch by the
mashing operation. The wort so obtained is then hopped and
sterilized. This method of working, however, cannot be
adopted by the distiller. The brewer must have a ctrtain
proportion of dextrinous, non-fermentable carbohydrate matter
in his wort; the distiller, on the contrary, desires to convert the
starch as completely as possible into fermentable, that is,
alcohol-yielding, material. This result is obtained in two ways:
first, by mashing at low temperatures, thus restricting the action
of the diastase less than is the case in the brewer's mash; and,
secondly, by permitting the diastatic action to continue during
the fermentation period. Low temperature mashing alone will
not have the desired effect, for part of the dextrinous bodies
resulting from diastatic starch-transformation are not further
degraded by diastase alone, but are rendered completely fer-
mentable by the combined action of diastase and yeast. Hence
the distiller is unable to boil, that is, to sterilize his wort, as
he would thereby destroy the diastase entirely. In this he is
at a serious disadvantage compared with the brewer, as an
unsterilized wort is very liable to bacterial infection. The
latter danger prevents the distiller from taking full advantage
of the benefits of low-temperature mashing, and he is obliged
to heat his mash to a temperature which will, at any rate, be a
partial safeguard against the bacterial evil. The method
employed varies according to the nature of the mash and the
quality of the spirit that it is desired to obtain, but in principle
it consists, or should consist, in bringing the mash as rapidly
as possible to the temperature of maximum saccharification,
keeping the whole at this point for some little time, then heating
to the temperature of maximum liquefaction, and subsequently
to as high a temperature as is consistent with the thickness of
the mash and the preservation of sufficient diastase for the
fermenting period.
The Fermenting Operations. The conditions and methods of
distillery fermentation vary considerably, and in some respects
radically, from those employed in the brewery. In order to
obtain the maximum alcohol yield the distiller is obliged to work
with unsterilized wort, and at relatively high temperatures.
The necessity for the former condition has already been ex-
plained, but the latter is due to the fact that the optimum
working capacity of distillery yeast is reached at a temperature
markedly above that most favourable to brewing types. Apart
from this, if the distiller worked at brewing temperatures the
SPIRITS
699
brewing yeasts would predominate, and these produce less
alcohol than the distillery types. Thus at 75 F. (and above)
distillery yeasts tend to predominate. The conditions of fer-
mentation which are more or less forced upon the distiller
are unfortunately also very favourable to the development of
bacteria, and if special methods are not adopted to check their
development, the result would seriously affect not only the
quantity but also the quality of alcohol produced. The micro-
organisms chiefly to be feared are those belonging to the class
of fission fungi (schizomycetes), such as the butyric, the lactic,
the mannitic, and mucic ferments.
Souring. It has long been known to practical distillers that
in order to avoid irregular (bacterial) fermentations it is necessary
either to let the wort " sour " naturally, or to add a small quan-
tity of acid (formerly sulphuric acid was frequently employed)
to it before pitching with yeast. The reason for this necessity
was until recent times by no means clear. It has, however,
now been demonstrated that a slightly acid wort is a favourable
medium for the free development of the desirable types of
distillery yeasts, but that the growth of brewery yeasts, and
especially of bacteria, is very much restricted, if not entirely
suppressed, in a " soured " liquid. The acid which is the result
of a properly conducted souring is lactic acid, formed by the
decomposition of the sugar in the wort, by bacterial action,
and according to the equation C 6 H i: O6 = 2C 3 H 6 O 3 .
For various reasons (one being that in order to restrict the
lactic fermentation when sufficient acid has formed it is neces-
sary to heat the soured liquid to a higher temperature than is
desirable in the case of the main wort) it is inexpedient to allow
the souring process to take place in the main wort. It is usual
to make a small mash, prepared on special lines, for the produc-
tion of the " bub " (German Hefegut), as the soured wort is
termed. This is allowed either to " sour " spontaneously, or,
better, is inoculated with a pure culture of B. acidificans longis-
simus, which for this purpose is undoubtedly the best variety of
the lactic acid bacteria. The optimum developing temperature
of this organism is about 104 F., but it is better to keep the
wort at 122 F., for at the latter temperature practically no other
bacteria are capable of development. When the lactification
is completed the wort is raised to 165 F. in order to cripple the
lactifying bacteria otherwise souring would go on in the main
fermentation and after cooling to the proper point it is pitched
with yeast. When a good crop of the latter is formed the whole
is added to the main wort. The beneficial effects of souring
are not due to any specific action of the lactifying bacteria,
but purely to the lactic acid formed. It has been found that
excellent and in some respects better results can be obtained
by the use of lactic acid as such in place of the old souring
process. Some success has also attended the introduction of
hydrofluoric acid and its salts as a substitute for lactic acid.
Hydrofluoric acid is poisonous to bacteria in doses which do
not affect distillery yeasts, and the latter can be cultivated in
such a manner as to render them capable of withstanding as
much as 0-2% of this acid. Bacteria, apparently, cannot be
" acclimatized " in this fashion. Worts treated with hydrofluoric
acid produce practically no side fermentation, and it seems a
fact that this substance stimulates diastatic action, and thus
permits of the use of relatively low mashing temperatures.
The yeast employed in British and Irish pot-still and in some
patent-still distilleries is still generally obtained from breweries,
but it is now generally recognized that at any rate for the
production of industrial alcohol and for " plain " spirit a
special type of yeast such as the so-called " German " yeast, a
good deal of which comes from Holland, but which is now also
produced in the United Kingdom on a considerable scale, is
desirable in the distillery. This variety of yeast, although
closely allied botanically to that used in brewing (belonging as
it does to the same class, namely Saccharomyces cerevisiac),
is capable of effecting a far more rapid and far more complete
fermentation than the latter. Probably the most widely
known and best " pure-culture " distillery yeast is the one
called " Species II," first produced in the laboratories of the
Berlin Distillers' Association. The optimum working tempera-
ture of distillery yeast is at about 81-5 F.; but it would be
inexpedient to start the main fermentation at this temperature,
as the subsequent rise may be as much as 36. It is, therefore,
usual to pitch at about 80 F., and then, by means of the attem-
perator, to cool down very slowly until the temperature reaches
60 F. The temperature subsequently rises as fermentation
goes on, but should not exceed 85 F. Pot-still malt whisky
distillers frequently work at somewhat higher temperatures.
Fermentation is carried on until practically all the saccharine
matter is converted into alcohol; and when this is the case, the
gravity of the mash is about equal to, or even a little below,
that of water. In malt whisky distilleries the original gravity
of the wort is usually from 1-050 to 1-060, occasionally lower, but
in grain and potato distilleries the worts are often made up to a
higher gravity. In Germany gravities as high as i-n are em-
ployed; but in that country " thick " mashes, owing to the
method employed to raise the duty, are a matter of necessity
rather than of choice.
It will be seen from the above that the employment of malt for
the purpose of rendering starch soluble and fermentable leaves a
good deal to be desired in regard to both the mashing and
fermenting operations in the production of spirit. The use of
acid for this purpose is also attended by serious drawbacks inas-
much as a considerable proportion of the starch is converted
into " reversion " products which are practically unfermentable
and thus considerable caramelization is brought about by the
action of the acid. In the case of the production of potable
spirits such as whisky, where the alcohol yield is not the only
object, and the conservation of a specific flavour is desired, it
is doubtful whether any material improvement can be made in
this connexion, as it seems probable that part of the flavour
may be due to some of the circumstances which from the point
of view of alcoholic yield alone are most undesirable. For the
production of industrial alcohol, however, and for the preparation
of spirit intended to be used in compound potable spirits and
liqueurs, these difficulties have now been surmounted. The
older methods at the disposal of the distiller have of late years
been enriched by the discovery that certain micro-organisms
(or rather the enzymes contained in them) possess the power of
converting starch into sugar, and also of splitting up saccharine
materials into the ordinary products of alcoholic fermentation.
It is possible to inoculate a sterilized wort with a pure culture
of a micro-organism of this description and subsequently with a
pure culture of yeast, and so to avoid all undesirable features of
the older processes.
Details concerning the practical application of this discovery will
be found below under Industrial Alcohol.
Distillation. The primary object of the distillation of all
fermented liquids is that of separating, as far as possible, alcohol
from the non-volatile constituents of the wash. In the second
place the object of the distiller is to rectify and concentrate
the dilute alcoholic liquid obtained by simple distillation. The
degree and manner of rectification and concentration vary in
accordance with the type of spirit to be produced, and it will be
better therefore to discuss methods of distillation under the
headings of the different types of spirit concerned.
i. Scotch Pot-still Whisky. The raw material employed in
the manufacture of Scotch pot-still whisky is practically without
exception malted barley only. The malt is prepared whisky
in much the same way as brewery malt, except that
it is generally cured (dried) with a peat, or mixed peat and coke,
fire. It is to this peat drying that the so-called smoky flavour
of most Scotch pot-still whisky is due. The malt is mashed
in a mash-tun on lines similar to those obtaining in the brewery,
except that the mashing heats are somewhat different. They
should be so regulated as to obtain the maximum yield consistent
with the preservation of the proper flavour. In order to obtain
as high a yield as possible four separate mashes are as a rule made
with the same lot of grist, the temperature of each successive
mash being somewhat higher than that preceding it. The worts
obtained from the first three mashes are united prior to
yoo
SPIRITS
fermentation. The liquor from the last mash is used as mashing
liquor for the next lot of malt. The general scheme of. opera-
tions subsequent to mashing is illustrated by fig. 7, which
depicts the process at one of Messrs Buchanan's distilleries.
After the wort has been drawn off it is run through a refrigerator,
and then passes to the wash backs. The latter are large wooden
vessels corresponding to the fermenting backs of the brewer. Here
the wort is pitched with yeast, the fermentation starting as a rule
in the low wines still is termed " spent lees." Both these liquors are
run to waste, or where local circumstances make it necessary are
destroyed, or modified by means of a purification process. In some
cases the solid matter contained is converted into manure. The
mixed feints and foreshots contained in the feints receiver are worked
up in the subsequent operation, being mixed with the next lot of low
wines in the proportion of roughly one third mixed feints and fore-
shots, and two-thirds low wines. The object of the double distilla-
tion as described is in the first place to concentrate the alcohol
X
X
x
x
>^
X
X,
X
Mm.li Tun
1
Wash Back Wail: Back Wasli SocA
Ho. I Mo.2 Ha. 3
FIG. 7. Diagram of Malt-whisky Pot-still Plant. (Messrs J.Buchanan's Glentaucher's Distillery, Speyside, N.B.)
at something over 70 F. The maximum temperature attained at
some distilleries frequently exceeds 90 F., but in the opinion of the
author this is excessive. Fermentation proceeds until the whole
of the saccharine matter is converted into alcohol, and when this
is the case the gravity of the fermented wort now termed wash
should be equal to, or a little lower than that of water. The wash
from the various wash backs is now collected in the wash charger,
which is an intermediary vessel serving for the mixing of the contents
of the different wash backs, and also for the purpose of enabling the
revenue officer to ascertain the total volume and strength of the wash.
In this way he obtains a check on the quantity and gravity of the
wort as taken pr'or to fermentation. From the wash charger the
wash passes to the wash still, which is a copper vessel varying in
size in Scotland from about 3000 to 8000 gallons. The usual size
is about 5000 to 6000 gallons. This still is heated either by direct
fire (as shown in the illustration), or frequently by means of a steam
jacket or steam coil. The wash still is provided with rakes or chains
actuated from outside for the purpose of preventing the solid
contents of the wash from being charred. The whole of the spirit
is drawn off in one fraction from this still, and is condensed by means
of a copper coil copied by running water. The distillate so obtained
is termed " low wines," and the strength is generally about 50 u.p.
The next stage in the process is the redistillation of the low wines.
This takes place in the low wines still, which is a vessel similar to the
wash still, except that it is rather smaller. The distillate from the
low wines still is collected in three separate fractions termed respec-
tively and in the order of their collection, (a) foreshots, (b) clean
spirit or whisky, (c) feints. The quantity of each of these three
fractions collected will vary somewhat according to the nature of
the spirit being made, the quality of the material employed, and to
other circumstances into which it is not necessary to enter. As a
rule the foreshots will be run from the starting of the still down to
25 to 30 o.p. Whisky will be collected from about 25 to 30 o.p.
to proof, the remainder, namely the residual fraction, from proof
down to water, being feints. In collecting the various fractions the
distiller is mainly guided by the alcoholic strength of the spirit
coming over, by its flavour, and by its behaviour on mixing with
water. It is the object of the distiller to obtain a clean spirit or
whisky which gives as little " blueing," that is opalescence, when
mixed with water as possible. The foreshots and feints are run
into the feints receiver, the whisky to the spirit receiyer. The dis-
tiller is able to divert the spirit coming over into either of these
receivers at will by means of a movable arm contained in the spirit
safe. The spirit safe is a closed vessel containing two or more
broad funnels each of which is connected with a pipe leading to a
feints or spirit receiver as the case may be. Tbe movable arm fixed
on to the pipe leading from the condensing coil can be actuated
from without by the distiller. In this way the distiller is able to
regulate the distillation at will without haying access to the spirit.
The quality of the spirit coming over is judged by means of the
apparatus contained in the sampling safe. This is another closed
vessel containing hydrometer jars fitted with hydrometers, and with
a water supply. A small part of the spirit coming from the coil
passes through this box into the hydrometer jars, where its strength
is taken by means of the hydrometers and its behaviour towards
water ascertained by mixing with a known volume of the same.
The strength of the whisky collected varies at different distilleries,
but it is generally from 25 to 30 p.p. The quantity and strength
of the spirit are gauged in the spirit receiver by the revenue officer,
and the spirit is then run into casks and placed in store. The residue
in the wash still is termed " pot ale " or " spent wash," the residue
contained in the wash, and secondly to rectify it. Part of the
volatile by-products pass out in the spent wash and spent lees;
another part is eliminated by the modification which some of these
products undergo during storage in the feints receiver.
2. 7mA Pot-still Whisky. Both as regards the raw material
employed and the manner of manufacture, Irish pot-still whisky
differs very appreciably from the Scotch variety. There are
a few distillers who work with malted barley only, but the great
majority employ a mixture of from (generally) 25 to 50% of
malted barley and 50 to 75% of a mixed grist of " raw " (i.e.
unmalted) rye, wheat, barley and oats. The malt is not peat
cured. The distillation is carried out in a type of still radically
different from the Scotch pot-still. The stills (of which there
are generally three as against two in the Scotch process) are very
large, ranging up to 20,000 gallons. A characteristic feature
of the Irish pot-still is the great length and height of the " Jyne-
arm," i.e. the pipe connecting the still with the condensing coil.
This lyne-arm generally runs up vertically from the still for a
distance of 10 to 20 ft., then horizontally for another 30 or 40 ft.,
again vertically for 10 to 20 ft., and is then connected to the
condenser. The horizontal portion of the lyne-arm lies in a
shallow trough fitted with a water supply, and the temperature
of the spirit vapours prior to their passing to the -condenser
may thus be regulated at will. According to the length and
height of the lyne-arm and the temperature of the water jacket,
more or less of the vapours condense and are carried back to the
still by means of a pipe running back from the horizontal portion
FIG. 8. Diagram of single type of Irish Pot-still Plant. (Messrs
John Jameson's Distillery, Dublin.)
of the lyne-arm to the still. The return pipe is fitted with a
cock, which enables the distiller to regulate the return flow.
Occasionally there is a further return pipe for the condensing
coil, but this is not usual. The result of this form of plant is
that it is possible to work up far greater quantities of wash and
SPIRITS
701
to obtain a much higher rectification in a single operation than is
possible in the case of the Scotch pot-still.
A single type of Irish pot-still plant as employed at Messrs
J. Jameson's, Dublin, is shown in fig. 8. It will be noticed that in
this case there is no return pipe from the lyne-arm. The method
of collection and of working the Irish pot-stills is a great deal more
complicated than that described under the Scotch variety. Three
stills are employed and strong low wines and weak low wines, strong
feints and weak feints are collected, and mixed in varying proportions
according to the discretion of the distiller.
3. American Pol-still Whisky. There are two main varieties
of American pot-still whisky, namely, rye whisky, in which rye
is the predominant raw material, and Bourbon whisky, in which
maize or Indian corn is the chief substance employed. There are
different varieties of these whiskies.
" Sour mash " whisky is made by scalding the raw material
with pot ale (i.e. the residue left in the stills from the previous
operation), then cooling down to mashing temperature and
saccharifying by means of malt. The distillation is sometimes
carried out with naked fire, but more generally by means of
steam which is passed into the wash (termed " beer " in America),
either in a free state or by means of a coil, and then collecting
the spirit, after condensing and subsequently rectifying by
means of a second distillation (termed " doubling "). " Sweet
mash " whisky is made by mashing the raw material in the
ordinary way by means of malt. The stills generally employed
for making whisky by this procees contain three compartments
situated above one another and connected by means of a curve
pipe. Live steam blown into the lower compartment causes
the wash to boil. The vapours go up through the curved pipe
into the next compartment and so cause the contents of the
latter to boil. The vapour from the second compartment
then passes up to the third in the same manner. The vapour
from the third compartment passes into a vessel charged with
low wines, and the vapours so obtained are finally condensed,
forming whisky, or " high wines."
4. Patent-still Whisky. Scotch and Irish patent-still or
" grain " whiskies are manufactured usually with a mixed grist
of raw and malted grain, and by means of an apparatus usually
termed the " patent," but more properly called Coffey's still.
For the manufacture of patent-still whisky a grist containing
generally 25% or more of malted barley is employed. The
balance consists of maize together with malted and unmalted
rye, oats and wheat, and the mixture of grains employed varies
at different distilleries. The mashing takes place as a general
rule in an ordinary mash-tun, and calls for no special mention.
The fermentation is conducted in much the same way as at pot-
still distilleries, except that at some patent-still distilleries where
bakers' yeast is made it is conducted on somewhat different
lines, the conditions being adjusted so as to suit the propagation
of a healthy type of yeast of a particular type. For fermentation
of this description it is well recognized that the use of selected
or pure yeast is necessary. The fermenting vessels, wash
chargers, &c., are much the same as in the pot-still distillery
except that they are of much larger size. The " patent " still
was invented by Aeneas Coffey in the early part of the ipth
century with a view of accomplishing in one operation that
which necessitates several operations in the pot-still, of economiz-
ing time, fuel, and material, and also of obtaining at will a spirit
of a higher purity than that which can be got by the pot-still.
It is sometimes stated that the patent still does not produce
whisky, but merely plain spirit or alcohol, but as a matter of
fact this is not the case. It can be so worked by selecting the
proper materials and by running the still in a particular way as
to produce an article which is most distinctly a potable spirit
of the character of whisky. It can also be employed by altering
the proportion of the materials and by running the still differently
to produce a spirit which may be used for purposes of methy-
lation, or which may pass through the hands of the rectifier
and emerge as plain spirit or alcohol pure and simple. It is,
however, quite impossible to obtain from the Coffey still a really
plain or silent spirit such as that produced by some of the stills
on the continent of Europe; in order to obtain this type of spirit,
the product of the patent still is treated by the rectifier in a
special rectifying still with charcoal and potash. In certain
details the Coffey still has been modified since it was devised by
the inventor, but in principle it has been very little altered.
Although it does not in some respects compare with some of the
modern continental rectifying stills, it must be remembered that
it is not made for the purpose of obtaining pure alcohol, and
from this point of view it is a remarkable tribute to the ingenuity
of Coffey that he should at so early a date have designed so perfect
an apparatus.
i
The still shown in fig. q is one of the type designed by Messrs
Robert Willison of Alloa for Scotch grain whisky distilleries. The
Coffey still is a double still consisting of two adjacent columns,
termed respectively the rectifier and analyser. Both columns are
subdivided into a number of chambers by perforated copper plates.
The main structure is of wood firmly braced with iron. Each com-
partment communicates with the next by means of a drop pipe
standing slightly above the level of the plate and passing downwards
into a cup, which forms a water seal or joint. Each compartment
is also fitted with a safety valve in case of the plates choking or of
the pressure rising unduly. At the beginning of the operation both
columns are filled with steam at a pressure of about 5 ft. The steam
at the base of the analyser passes upwards through it, and then to
the bottom of the rectifier by means of the pipe B (termed
the low-wines vapour pipe), and then up through the rectifier.
When both columns are filled with steam the wash is pumped up
from the wash charger through the copper pipe A to near the top
of the rectifier, which it enters at the point A'. The pipe A runs
from the top to the bottom of the rectifier forming a double bend in
each compartment, and the wash (contained in the pipe) travels
down in a zigzag course until it reaches the base of the rectifier at the
point C. From here (still remaining in pipe A) it is pumped to
the top of the analyser, where it emerges from the pipe and covers
the plate of the top compartment. As there is an upward pressure
of steam the wash is not able to pass through the perforations of
the copper plate forming the base of the compartment, but collects
until its level reaches the top of the first drop pipe. Through this
it passes into the cup on the plate below and so out on to the next
plate. The drop pipes being trapped by the cups the steam cannot
pass upwards through the former. In this way the wash passes
through compartment to compartment of the analyser until it reaches
the bottom, and then passes out by means of the spent wash siphon.
The steam on its passage up through the analyser carried with it the
alcoholic vapours and other volatile matters contained in the wash.
The alcoholic vapours pass from the top of the analyser to the
bottom of the rectifier, and then upwards through the latter from
compartment to compartment. In so doing they are gradually
cooled by the wash flowing down through the pipe A. This gradual
cooling causes the less volatile constituents to condense and so to
flow downwards through the column until they reach the base of the
rectifier. At a certain point in the upper part of the rectifier
(marked S in the illustration) the bottom of the compartment in
question is formed not of a perforated plate, but of a stout copper
sheet, pierced by a fairly wide pipe, which stands up about two inches
above the level of the former. This is termed the spirit plate. It
is so placed that the alcoholic vapours condense either on or imme-
diately above it. The alcohol passes out from the spirit plate cham-
ber from one of the two pipes shown in the illustration (either to the
spirits or to the feints receiver as the case may be), and is then
further cooled, in order to complete the condensation, by means of
coils immersed in flowing water, as shown in the illustration. In
order to render the condensation still more perfect the upper cham-
bers of the rectifier are fitted with coils through which cold water
is passed. The vapours condensed by this fall upon the spirit plate.
The vapours which have an appreciably lower boiling-point than
ethylic alcohol, such as the aldehydes, together with a large volume
of carbonic acid gas derived from the wash, pass out of the top of
the rectifier by means of the " incondensible gas " pipe E, and thence
to a separate condensing coil. The spirit obtained is of high strength,
generally about 64 o.p. The less volatile constituents of the wash,
generally termed fusel oil," which pass out of the base of the recti-
fier, are cooled and then passed to the oil vessel. After the apparatus
has been worked for some time the fusel oil which floats in a layer
on the top of the contents of the oil vessel is skimmed off. The
watery layer from the oil vessel, which still contains a little alcohol,
is again passed through the apparatus to remove the last trace of the
latter. By employing the Cold wash to cool the alcoholic vapours
much condensing water is saved as compared with the ordinary
pot-still apparatus. Conversely, as the hot alcohol vapours heat
the cold wash to boiling-point, there is a great economy of coal as
compared with the older process.
The distillation is controlled by an operator standing on the
platform P. The operator is able by means of the sampling appa-
ratus X to determine the quality and strength of the spirit and of
the wash. He is able, by regulating the quantity of steam admitted
to the apparatus, by modifying the rate of pumping, and by running
702
SPIRITS
the spirit either to the spirit or to the feints receiver, as the case may
be, to control the strength and quality of the product in much the
same manner as does the pot-still distiller.
Analyser
FIG. 9. Diagram of a Coffey Still. (Messrs R. Willison & Co., Alloa.)
Industrial Alcohol. By industrial alcohol is understood spirit
which is employed for other than potable purposes. Alcohol
is largely employed in the industries and arts, and for domestic
purposes. It is chiefly used for the manufacture of varnish,
fine chemicals and dye-stuffs, for pharmaceutical purposes, and
in the form of ordinary methylated spirit for lighting and heating.
Ordinary methylated spirit for domestic purposes is prepared
in the United Kingdom by adding 10 parts of wood naphtha
and a small quantity of mineral naphtha to 90 parts of strong
spirit. This spirit may be employed duty free for any purpose,
except that it may not be purified in such a manner as to produce
pure alcohol or a potable spirit. Up to the year 1906 British
manufacturers were forced either to use this spirit or to pay the
full duty if they wished to use any other variety. As a result
of the recommendations of the industrial alcohol committee
of 1904-1905 the Revenue Act of 1906 contained provisions
modifying this undesirable state of affairs. Manufacturers may
now use a special " industrial methylated spirit," which consists
of alcohol 95 parts and wood naphtha 5 parts, and they may
also, under certain conditions and restrictions, employ pure
alcohol. It is generally considered
that the most satisfactory way of
methylating or " denaturing " spirit
intended for technical purposes is that
which consists in adding one of the
ingredients which would ordinarily be
used in the course of manufacture,
or some other ingredient which does
not interfere with the manufacture of
the specific article in question. In
the year 1906 the total quantity of
" industrial methylated spirit " em-
ployed in the United Kingdom was
2,041,373 proof gallons. The quantity
of pure alcohol employed in the same
year was 435,915 gallons; for the
same period the total quantity of
ordinary methylated spirit produced
was 6,055,285 gallons. On the con-
tinent of Europe and in America
alcohol is used in the industries to a
greater extent than is the case in the
United Kingdom.
The raw materials generally em-
ployed in making industrial alcohol
are the sugar beet, and beet or cane
molasses, potatoes, maize, rice and
similar starchy materials. The manu-
facture of spirit for industrial pur-
poses in many respects resembles the
process for manufacturing potable
spirit, but, broadly speaking, it may
be said that the raw materials em-
ployed need not be of so high a class,
and that the main object of the dis-
tiller in this case is to produce as
high a yield of alcohol as possible.
Taste and flavour are secondary con-
siderations, although in the case of
industrial alcohol employed for some
purposes for instance, for pharma-
ceutical preparations a very fine
spirit is required. When beets or
molasses are employed for making
alcohol, the process is a comparatively
simple one. If beets are used the
sugar is extracted from them in much
the same way as is the case in the
manufacture of sugar itself (see
SUGAR), although in recent years a
process for steaming the beets under
pressure in much the same way as in
the preparation of potato mashes has been employed. The
sugar present in the beet and in molasses is not directly fer-
mentable. It is generally rendered so by the addition of a
small quantity of mineral acid. The saccharine solution is
then pitched with yeast and fermented in the ordinary way.
Potatoes, maize, rice and other starchy materials are generally
treated under pressure with steam in a close vessel termed
a converter. This method entirely disrupts the starch cells,
and so renders the starch very readily convertible. When the
pressure " cooking " is completed the mash is run out of the
converter into the mash tun proper, where it is treated with a
minimum quantity of malt at the most suitable temperature.
The wort obtained is, after (as a rule) removing a part of the
husks and skins by means of special machinery, pitched with
yeast and fermented.
We have seen above in the paragraphs dealing with the general
features of distillery operations that the method of converting
starch into sugar by means of malt possesses very serious
SPIRITS
703
drawbacks. Of late years a process has been discovered whereby
these disadvantages, as far as industrial spirit is concerned, are
entirely overcome. It has been known for some time that certain
micro-organisms (or rather the enzymes contained in them)
possess the power of converting the starch directly into ferment-
able sugar, and further of splitting up the latter into the usual
products of alcoholic fermentation. Among the organisms of this
description first known may be mentioned the moulds, Aspergillus
Oryzae and Eurotium Oryzae. Later A. L. C. Calmette dis-
covered a mould to which he gave the name Amylomyces Rouxii,
which was employed by A. Collette and A. Boidin for producing
alcohol on an industrial scale. Since then Boidin has discovered
another mould to which he gave the name of Mucor /3, which
possesses advantages over the other micro-organisms named
inasmuch as it works more rapidly and in a more concentrated
wort. The amylo process, as this method of producing alcohol
is termed, is now worked on a very large scale in many countries.
The process consists in inoculating a sterile (mostly maize or
rice) mash in a closed vessel with a very small quantity of the
spores of the mould, passing filtered air through the liquid for a
certain time, thus causing the material to develop very rapidly,
and subsequently inducing fermentation by the addition of a pure
yeast culture. The mould is of itself capable of fermenting the
sugar produced, but it is found that the yeast acts more quickly,
and will stand a greater percentage of alcohol, than the former.
The whole process occupies about five days. The advantages
accruing from operating, as is the case in the amylo process, with
sterile worts are enormous, inasmuch as undesirable bacterial
and side fermentations are impossible. The quality and yield
of the alcohol is, owing to this fact, considerably improved. The
fact that no malt is employed leads to a further very considerable
economy. The general course of operations in the amylo
process may be gathered from fig. 10. The maize or other raw
Steeps
Still
FIG. IO. Diagram of the Amylo Process.
material is steeped in the vessels AA with a sufficient quantity
of dilute acid to convert the secondary into primary phosphates.
When the steeping operations are complete the material passes
into the converters BB. After conversion is completed the
disintegrated material passes into the vessel C, and thence by
means of the pipe D to the fermenting vessels EEE. After
fermentation is completed the wash passes to the still F.
It is impossible at present to employ the amylo process in
its most satisfactory form in the United Kingdom owing to the
fact that it is necessary in order to take full advantage of the
process to employ a thick wort, i.e. one from which the husks
have not been removed. The gravity of a wort of this descrip-
tion cannot be taken by the saccharimeter prescribed by the
spirit Acts, but no doubt this difficulty will in time be over-
come. The average yield by the amylo process is from one to
one and a half gallons a cwt. of raw material more than is the
case with the processes ordinarily employed in the United
Kingdom.
Distillation of Industrial Alcohol. A still intended for the
distillation of industrial alcohol should be so devised as to yield
a spirit of the greatest strength and purity in the most economical
manner. Stills are now constructed which yield in one opera-
tion a spirit containing up to 98% of absolute alcohol, and free
from all but the merest traces of aldehyde, fusel oil, &c. (fore-
shots and tailings). An excellent still of this kind is that of R.
Ilges. He takes advantage of the fact that if a liquid containing
15% of alcohol is boiled, the quantity of fusel oil in the vapour
is equal to the amount in the remanent fluid, and that if the
percentage of alcohol is less than 15% the amount of fusel oil
in the vapour is greater than that in the liquid. It is therefore
possible, by working on proper lines, to remove the whole of
the fusel from the mash by a single operation. By subjecting
the vapours so obtained to a carefully regulated dephlegmation,
the fusel oil condenses, together with the steam and a certain
proportion of alcohol in practice 15%- By further cooling
the liquid so obtained the fusel separates out, and, being specific-
ally lighter, rises to the surface of the watery spirit, and is then
easily removed. This form of still is so arranged that any change
from the correct temperature necessary for the adequate separa-
tion of the concentrated " feints " into two layers is automatically
corrected by the admission of more or less cooling liquor to the
refrigerating pipe coiled round the dephlegmating column.
The " foreshots " (aldehyde, &c.) are removed by submitting
the alcoholic vapour passing through the main dephlegmator
to further purification. The Ilges apparatus yields three con-
tinuous streams of fine spirit, fusel oil, and foreshots respectively.
By-products of Fermentation and Distillation. The main con-
stituent of spirits is, of course, ethyl alcohol spirit of wine
but all spirits contain small but varying quantities of by-products
and it is by these that the character of a spirit is determined.
The by-products are mainly formed during fermentation, but
are also to a certain extent pre-existent in the raw materials,
or may be formed during the operations preceding and succeeding
fermentation. The nature of the by-products is complex, and
varies sensibly according to the raw materials employed and
the methods of malting, mashing, fermentation and distillation.
The by-products may be classified as follows: (a) higher
alcohols usually going under the name of fusel oil; (6) esters;
(c) fatty acids; (d) fatty aldehydes and acetals; (e) furfuryl
aldehyde; (/) terpene, terpene hydrate and ethereal oils;
and (g) volatile bases. The higher alcohols consist of mixtures
of fatty alcohols (CnHsn + iOH), containing three or more atoms
of carbon in which, as a rule, amyl alcohol (CsHnOH) predomi-
nates. The fusel oil of British pot-still spirits is chiefly composed
of amyl and butyl alcohols, whereas in patent spirits propyl
alcohol preponderates, that is, in the finished or fine spirit, since
the fusel oil separated from patent spirit in the course of distil-
lation consists mainly of amyl and butyl alcohols. Broadly
speaking, the higher alcohols present in pot are of higher mole-
cular weight than those in patent spirits. Potato fusel contains
a high proportion of isobutyl alcohol, grain fusel of n-butyl
alcohol. The acid present in spirits is chiefly acetic acid, but
small quantities of other acids are also found. The esters,
formed by the interaction of alcohols and acids chiefly during
the fermenting and distilling operations, consist almost entirely
of fatty acid radicles in combination with ethyl and, to a minor
extent, amyl alcohol. Ethyl acetate (acetic ester) is the main
constituent of the esters, the others being mainly ethyl valerate,
butyrate and propionate. Oenanthic ether (ethyl pelargonate)
is one of the characteristic esters of brandy. Furfuryl aldehyde
(furfurol) is a characteristic product in pot-still spirits, although
it occurs to a greater or less extent in patent spirits according
to the degree of rectification. It is probable that the furfural
is formed by the splitting up of a part of the pentoses contained
in the wort. It was formerly thought that its occurrence in
relatively large quantities in pot-still spirits was due to the char-
ring effect of the action of the fire gases on the carbonaceous
matter adhering to the bottom and sides of the still, but the author
has shown that this is not the case, inasmuch as he has found
that spirits distilled by means of a steam jacket instead of direct
fire contain quite as much furfurol as those distilled in the old
way. Terpene and terpene hydrate are characteristic constituents
of grain fusel. Although the ethereal oils appear to play an
important part in determining the character of a spirit, too little
is at present known of these substances to warrant any closer
description.
Eject of Maturing on the By-products. That potable spirits
(excepting, of course, pure alcohol) and wine are greatly improved
by age is an undeniable fact, and one that has been recognized
for many hundreds, and even thousands, of years. Thus in
the gospel of St Luke we have the statement " that no man
having drunk old wine, straightway desireth new: for he saith.
704
SPIRITS
The old is better." And again in the Apocrypha, " New friends
are like new wine: when it is old, thou shall drink it with
pleasure." There is little doubt that the beneficial effect of age
on the character of spirits is due to the changes effected in the
character and quantity of the by-products, but the exact nature
of these changes is by no means clear. Such improvement as
takes place is apparently connected in some way with the free
access of air to, or rather the satisfactory ventilation of, the
containing vessel; for spirits preserved entirely in glass undergo
relatively little change, either in taste or in chemical composition,
whereas cask storage materially affects both these factors.
Concerning the changes which take place during maturation,
it was formerly believed that the higher alcohols decreased with
age, and that the main reason of the improvement noticeable
in mature spirits was due to this fact. The author has, however,
shown conclusively that this is not the case, but that on the con-
trary the higher alcohols generally increase during maturation.
This decrease is not absolute, but only relative, and may be due
to the fact that the higher alcohols are less volatile than ethyl
alcohol. There is a decided increase during maturation of both
the volatile and non-volatile acids. On the whole also the
esters and aldehydes generally tend to increase, but not to so
great an extent as was formerly believed to be the case. There
is, however, a marked decrease in regard to furfurol. The type
of cask exercises a marked influence on the course of maturation;
and, as regards whisky, spirit stored in a sherry cask undoubtedly
matures more quickly than that contained in a plain wood cask.
The relative humidity of the cellar in which spirit is stored has
a very great effect on the course of maturation. In a very damp
cellar the spirit will lose alcohol very rapidly and as a result all
those changes which are favoured by these conditions will take
place with relative rapidity. On the other hand, in a very dry
cellar the loss of alcohol is relatively smaller than that of water
(cf. Schidrowitz and Kaye, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., June 1905).
Physiological Effects of Spirit By-products. The nature of the
physiological effects produced by the ingestion of spirits varies
considerably, not only according to the class of spirit (i.e.
whether whisky, brandy, rum, &c.) consumed, but also with its
condition (i.e. whether new or old, and so on) ; and there is no
doubt that the causation of these phenomena is intimately
connected with the nature and quantity of the by-products, to
which, as has been already said, the character of the spirit is
due. Commenting on a statement in Bailey's Book of Sports to
the effect that wine and brandy had a tendency to make a man
fall on his side, whisky to make him fall forward, and cider and
perry to make him fall on his back, Sir T. Lauder Brunton
(Evidence, Spirits Committee, 1891) suggests that these state-
ments if correct might indicate definite injury to various
parts of the cerebellum. Thus, if the anterior part of the middle
lobe of the cerebellum is injured, the animal tends to fall forward;
when the posterior part is affected, the head is drawn backwards,
&c. Brunton is inclined to believe that the varying action of
different spirits may be due to the specific action of specific
products on the separate nerve centres. Thus the cause of the
epileptic convulsions produced by the injection of absinthe has
been traced to the specific action of the chief flavouring agent
of this liqueur.
In view of the doubt which modern research has thrown on the
older theories, to the effect that the improved character of a
mature, as compared with a new, spirit is due to the decrease in
the quantity of the higher alcohols (i.e. the fusel oil), a discussion
of the specific action and relative toxicity of these bodies may
seem superfluous, more especially as they occur in quantities
which are apparently incapable of producing serious effects. As,
however, there is considerable reason for believing that the
higher alcohols do influence, at any rate, the flavour of the spirit
a brief reference to their physiological action seems to the
author not out of place. Broadly speaking, the toxicity of the
fatty alcohols increases with their molecular weight. Dujar-din-
Beaumetz and Audige found that the lethal dose for dogs was
5-6 grammes per kilo-body-weight for ethyl (ordinary) alcohol;
3-75 grammes for propyl alcohol; 1-8 grammes for butyl; and
1-5 grammes for n-amyl alcohol. It is interesting to note that
the experiments of these investigators were conducted chiefly
with the pig, as the digestive organs of the latter animal are very
similar to those of man, and also because the pig is apparently
the only animal which willingly takes alcohol with its food.
With regard to the action of spirits generally, the investigators
named above found that the digestive organs of pigs fed for
thirty months with pure alcohol alone were not affected, whereas
the animals treated with similar quantities of imperfectly purified
spirit (whether derived from the beet, the potato or from grain)
suffered considerably.
Of late years the attention of pharmacologists has been
directed to furfurol especially, and the aldehydes generally,
as being, at any rate in part, the cause of the unpleasant after
or by-effects of certain spirits. Curci and others showed that
furfurol in certain doses is poisonous to animals. Brunton and
F. W. Tunnicliffe demonstrated a poisonous action of this sub-
stance upon man, and, comparing the after-effects upon animals
of spirits containing, and freed from, aldehydes, found certain
important physiological differences between them. I. Guareschi
and A. Mosso first drew attention to the fact that numerous
samples of reputedly pure spirits contained small quantities of
certain volatile bases of an alkaloidal nature. They apparently
belong to the pyridine series, and have effects similar to those of
strychnine. E. Bamberger and Einhorn discovered the presence
of pyridine, dimethylpyridine and other bodies belonging to
the same series, in commercial fusel oil. It is possible that the
existence of these volatile bases in spirit may have given rise
to the on the face of it absurd suggestion that tar bases have
been used as adulterants of whisky. It appears likely that the
formation of the bases in question is connected with the use of
inferior or decaying grain or maize. Thus the spirit produced in
Sweden in 1879 was particularly bad and had very curious effects,
and it was found, on investigation by M. Husz, that it had
actually been largely prepared from decomposing grain. More-
over, C. Lombroso discovered an alkaloidal body in decayed
maize, the action of which was not unlike that of strychnine.
The quantities of these bases which have been found in spirits
are very small, but it must be remembered that substances are
known such as abrine, for instance which have marked effects
in practically unweighable quantities. It is possible that these
volatile bases may be responsible for some of the effects very
similar to alkaloidal poisoning produced by crude spirits such
as Cape " smoke " and the cheap Portuguese liqueurs.
Having described the nature and effects of spirit by-products,
and the changes occurring in them during storage, the question
that arises is: How is the knowledge gained by scientific research
in this direction applied in practice? It may be said that the
old adage " prevention is better than cure " holds good in the
spirit industry as elsewhere, and the distiller, therefore, tries as
far as possible to avoid the formation of those by-products which
are objectionable, or at any rate to remove them during the
course of manufacture. These methods for obtaining a satis-
factory potable spirit are so far, however, only successful up to
a certain point, and the distiller is therefore bound to have
recourse to prolonged storage or to one of the many artificial
processes of purification' and maturing, the majority of which
have been devised with varying success during recent years.
Referring, in fhe first place, to what may be called the natural
or " preventive " methods for the production of a well-flavoured
spirit, it is necessary (a) that the water supply (for steeping,
mashing, &c.) be a good one; (b) that no mouldy or inferior
material be used; (c) that mashing heats be kept within reason-
able limits; (d) that refrigerators be constructed so as to avoid
bacterial infection; (e) that the " souring " of the wort be con-
ducted on proper lines; (/) that a favourable and vigorous type
of yeast be used; and (g) that stills, &c., be kept perfectly clean.
Coming next to the methods ordinarily or frequently employed
by distillers for eliminating the undesirable by-products, which,
despite all care, are formed in the course of manufacture, tht
most important undoubtedly is purification by rational fractional
distillation. By properly regulating the distilling heats, by
SPIRITUALISM
705
using a well-devised still, both in the first instance and also for
rectifying, a product very free from fusel oil, and especially
from fatty aldehydes and volatile ethers, may be obtained.
The removal of acids objectionable chiefly on account of the
unpleasant decomposition products which they form in still is
carried out by neutralizing the still contents with an alkaline
medium. The alkali so used also decomposes undesirable
esters, and retains some of the aldehydes. For the elimination
of fusel oil, treatment with charcoal is the most common method.
Luck has suggested for this purpose the passing of the alcoholic
vapours through petroleum, which is said to absorb the higher
alcohols much more easily than it does ordinary spirit; and some
distillers have successfully tried the method of V. Traube, which
consists in treating the spirit with a saturated aqueous solution
of various inorganic salts. This causes the formation of a super-
natant layer, which is said to contain practically all the fusel oil
as well as the greater part of the foreshot by-products, i.e. fatty
aldehydes, &c.'
Finally, there remain for consideration the artificial maturing
processes. These are exceedingly numerous, but it may be said
at once that the great majority of them are hardly to be taken
seriously. Thus one inventor, acting on the alleged fact that
spirits are improved by lengthy journeys, suggests that a
miniature railway, with numerous obstacles to augment the roll-
ing and sLaking action, be laid down in the distiller's ware-
house. Of the methods worthy of consideration may be men-
tioned, first, those depending solely on the action of currents of
air, oxygen and ozone. They exist in numerous modifications,
but the principle involved, broadly speaking, is to pass a current
of hot or cold air or oxygen, or alternate currents of hot and cold
air, or a current of ozonized air, through the liquid, with or with-
out pressure, as the case may be. According to the patents of
E. Mills and J. Barr, new whisky rapidly acquires the character
of the mature sherry-cask stored spirit if the action of alternate
hot and cold air currents be assisted by the addition of a little
sherry and a minute trace of sulphuric acid, the latter being
subsequently neutralized by lime. Secondly, there are the pro-
cesses which make direct or indirect use of the electric current.
Of the indirect methods in this class may be mentioned that of
Hermite, which consists essentially in adding an electrolvsed
solution of common salt to the spirit, and subsequently redistill-
ing. Thirdly, the processes which rely on accelerating natural
cask action by artificially reproducing the conditions attendant
on the latter in a purposely exaggerated or heightened form.
One method strives to obtain this object by heating the spirit
under pressure in an atmosphere of oxygen in a vessel containing
a quantity of oak shavings. This process certainly seems calcu-
lated to remove a portion of the by-products, for the " grog "
obtained in A. H. Allen's experiments by steaming the staves
of an old whisky cask contained appreciably more fusel oil and
esters than commercial whisky. Fourthly, we have the methods
chiefly dependent on the action of cold. R. P. Pictet, by cooling
a new brandy to -80 C., is said to have obtained a liquid which
had apparently acquired the properties of a twelve-year-old
spirit. R. C. Scott's process consists in energetically treating
spirit which has been cooled down to o C. with dry filtered air,
and the operations are so conducted, it is said, that there is no
loss of alcohol or of the important aromatic esters. According
to the published data, the quantity of the fusel oil is materially
reduced by this method, and the quality of the spirit much
improved. None of the above processes has apparently (although
in practice they may give satisfactory results) been devised with
a view to effecting the direct removal of those specific substances
(furfurol, other aldehydes and volatile bases) which later research
has shown to be present to a greater extent in new or inferior
spirits than in the matured or superior article, and to some of
which, at any rate, owing to their acknowledged toxicity in
very small quantities, it is more than reasonable (as Lauder
1 The above chiefly applies to industrial spirit, in the manufacture
of which a product which is practically pure alcohol is desired.
These methods can only be used to a limited extent by whisky and
brandy distillers, for a complete removal of by-products also entails
destruction of the spirit's character.
xxv. 23
Brunton and Tunnicliue have pointed out) to suppose that at
least a part of the evil effects by drinking new or inferior spirit
may be ascribed. In this connexion a patent taken out by J . T.
Hewitt is of interest, inasmuch as it deals with the problem of
spirit purification on seemingly rational scientific lines. This
patent takes advantage of the fact that furfurol and similar
aldehydes can be removed from spirits by distillation with phenyl-
hydrazine-sulphonate of soda, which salt forms non-volatile
products with the substance in question. (P. S.)
SPIRITUALISM, a term used by philosophical writers to
denote the opposite of materialism, and also used in a narrower
sense to describe the belief that the spiritual world manifests
itself by producing in the physical world effects inexplicable
by the known laws of nature. It is in the latter sense that it is
here discussed. The belief in such occasional manifestations
has probably existed as long as the belief in the existence of
spirits apart from human bodies (see ANIMISM; MAGIC, &c.),
and a complete examination into it would involve a discussion
of the religions of all ages and nations. In 1848, however, a
peculiar form of it, believed to be based on abundant experi-
mental evidence, arose in America and spread there with great
rapidity, and thence over the civilized world. To this movement,
which has been called " modern spiritualism," the present article
is confined.
The movement began in a single family. In 1848 a Mr and Mrs
J. D. Fox and their two daughters, at Hydesville (Wayne county),
New York, were much disturbed by unexplained knockings. At
length Kate Fox (b. 1839) discovered that the cause of the sounds
was intelligent and would make raps as requested, and, communi-
cation being established, the rapper professed to be the spirit
of a murdered pedlar. An investigation into the matter was
thought to show that none of the Fox family was concerned in
producing the rappings; but the evidence that they were not
concerned is insufficient, although similar noises had been noticed
occasionally in the house before they lived there. It was, how-
ever, at Rochester, where Kate and her sister Margaret (1836-
1893) went to live with a married sister (Mrs Fish) that modern
spiritualism assumed its present form, and that communication
was, as it was believed, established with lost relatives and
deceased eminent men. The presence of certain " mediums "
was required to form the link between the worlds of the living
and of the dead, and Kate Fox and her sister were the first
mediums. Spiritualists do not as yet claim to know what special
qualities in mediums enable spirits thus to make use of them.
The earliest communications were carried on by means of
" raps," or, as Sir William Crookes calls them, " percussive
sounds." .It was agreed that one rap should mean "no" and
three " yes," while more complicated messages were and are
obtained in other ways, such as calling over or pointing to
letters of the alphabet, when raps occur at the required letters.
The idea of communicating with the departed was naturally
attractive even to the merely curious, still more to those who
were mourning for lost friends, and most of all to those who
believed that this was the commencement of a new revelation.
The first two causes have attracted many inquirers; but it is the
last that has chiefly given to modern spiritualism its religious
aspect. Many came to witness the new wonder, and the excite-
ment and interest spread rapidly. It should be noted that expec-
tations favourable to the new idea had already been created by
the interest in mesmerism and the phenomena of hypnotic trance
(see HYPNOTISM), widely diffused at this time both in America
and Europe. It was believed that information about other
worlds and from higher intelligences could be obtained from
persons in the sleep-waking state. Andrew Jackson Davis (q.v.)
was in America the most prominent example of such persons; his
work, The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations (New
York, 1847), was alleged to have been dictated in " clairvoyant "
trance, and before 1848 his followers were expecting a new
religious revelation. Many reputed "clairvoyants" developed
into mediums (q.v.). The "spiritualistic" movement spread
like an epidemic. " Spirit circles " were soon formed in many
families. There is very little evidence to show that mediumship
5
706
SPIRITUALISM
arose anywhere spontaneously, 1 but those who sat with the
Foxes were often found to become mediums themselves and then
in their turn developed mediumship in others. The mere reading
of accounts of seances developed the peculiar susceptibility in
some persons, while others, who became mediums ultimately, did
so only after prolonged and patient waiting.
There seems to have been little practical interest in spiritual-
ism in England till 1852, when its first development took the
form of a mania for table-turning (q.v.). This seems to have
prevailed all over Europe in 1853. In England it was greatly
stimulated by the visit of Mrs Hayden, a professional medium
from Boston, in the winter of 1852-1853. Daniel Dunglas Home,
the next medium of importance who appeared in London, came
over from America in 1855; and for many years almost all the
chief mediums for physical phenomena known in England came
from the United States. It was at Keighley in Yorkshire
where also the first English periodical, the Yorkshire Spiritual
Telegraph, was published in 1855 and onwards that spiritual-
ism as a religious movement first made any mark in England;
but this movement, though it spread rather widely, cannot be
said to have attained at any time very vigorous proportions. It
had taken more hold in its original home in the United States
of America, and thence it has spread in some degree to most
Christian countries. Nowhere, however, has there been much
religious organization in connexion with it, and the force of the
movement seems to have declined rather than increased.
In the present article it is impossible to give an exhaustive
catalogue of the phenomena and modes of communication of
modern spiritualism. 2 The greater part of the phenomena may
be divided into two classes. To the first belong what may be
called the physical phenomena (q.v.) of spiritualism those,
namely, which, if correctly observed and due neither to conscious
or unconscious trickery nor to hallucination or illusion on the
part of the observers, exhibit a force acting in the physical world
hitherto unknown to science. The earliest of these phenomena
were the raps already spoken of and other sounds occurring
without apparent physical cause, and the similarly mysterious
movements of furniture and other objects; and these were shortly
followed by the ringing of bells and playing of musical instru-
ments. Later followed the appearance of lights; quasi-human
voices; musical sounds, produced, it is said, without instruments;
the " materialization " or presence in material form of what
seemed to be human hands and faces, and ultimately of complete
figures, alleged to be not those of any person present, and some-
times claimed by witnesses as deceased relatives; " psycho-
graphy," or " direct writing and drawing," asserted to be done
without human intervention; " spirit-photography,!' or the
appearance on photographic plates of human and other forms
when no counterpart was visible before the camera to any but
specially endowed seers; 3 unfastening of cords and bonds;
elongation of the medium's body; handling of red-hot coals;
and the apparent passage of solids through solids without
disintegration.
The second class of phenomena, which we may call the
automatic, consists in table-tilting and turning with contact;
writing, drawing, &c., through the medium's hand; convulsive
movements and involuntary dancing; entrancement, trance-
speaking, and personation by the medium of deceased persons
attributed to temporary " possession " (q.v.); seeing spirits and
visions and hearing phantom voices. This class bears affinity
to some of the phenomena of hypnotism and of certain nervous
1 It is possible that the family of Dr Phelps we'e unaware of the
" Rochester knockings " when the disturbances began in his house
at Stratford, Connecticut, in 1850 (see Capron's Modern Spiritualism,
its Facts, &c.) ; but these disturbances^ as recorded, have no closer
resemblance to the ordinary occurrences at a spiritualistic s&nce
than those which took place at Tedworth in 1661 (see Glanvill's
Sadducismus Triumphatus) and at Slawensik in 1806 (see Kerner's
Seherin von Prevorsl), and others too numerous to mention.
2 See the articles on PSYCHICAL RESEARCH; MAGIC; CONJURING;
AUTOMATISM ; DIVINATION ; CRYSTAL GAZING ; HYPNOTISM ; APPARI-
TIONS; HALLUCINATIONS; HAUNTINGS, &c.
a There have been several professional photographers (all detected
in fraud sooner or later) who made it their business to take photo-
complaints, to certain epidemics of the middles ages, 4 and to
phenomena that have occurred at some religious revivals.
In a third class must be placed the cure of disease by healing,
mediums. This belongs to medical psychology, and cannot well
be studied apart from hypnotic treatment of disease, from the
now well-recognized power of suggestion (q.v.), from " faith
cures," " mind cures," " Christian Science " and cures connected
with other forms of religious belief (see FAITH-HEALING).
Phenomena falling into the automatic class are much the
most common. The investigation of Carpenter on unconscious
cerebration and of Faraday on unconscious muscular action 6
showed early in the movement that it was not necessary to look
outside the medium's own personality for the explanation of even
intelligent communications unconsciously conveyed through
table-tilting, automatic writing and trance-speaking provided
the matter communicated was not beyond the range of the
medium's own knowledge or powers. And the whole subject of
the action of the subconscious personality the " subliminal
self " has since been more fully worked out by psychologists
and notably by F. W. H. Myers. 6 No one conversant with the
facts now doubts that what looks like possession or inspiration
by an external intelligence may generally be accounted for by
subconscious mentation, so that in all cases where no material
effects are produced except such as can be attributed to the
muscular action of the medium, the evidence for a supernormal
interpretation must depend on the content of the communication.
Spiritualists maintain that true information is received, which
is provably unknown to the medium or other persons present, or
which at least is expressed in a marner obviously beyond their
powers; and they attribute this to extra-corporeal intelligences.
Others, while not going so far as this, admit that the content of
the communications does occasionally exceed the medium's,
knowledge and affords evidence of telepathic communication
(see TELEPATHY) between living persons. Probably most per-
sons who have studied the subject would now be inclined to
go this length; and there is some evidence, notably in connexion
with the trances of an American medium, Mrs Piper, 7 which has
convinced some good observers that the hypothesis of occasional
communication from deceased persons must be seriously enter-
tained. 8 Recently the Society of Psychical Research has
obtained from various persons automatic script affording
important new material for investigation and which prima facie
supports the spiritualistic hypothesis. Whether or not further
study of the scripts of these writers confirms this hypothesis, it
cannot fail to throw light on the nature of the intelligence in-
volved. The scripts contain some matter unknown to the writers
and in particular show interconnexions with each other not to be
accounted for by knowledge normally possessed by the writers. 9
At no period of the spiritualistic movement has the class of
physical phenomena been accepted altogether without criticism.
Most spiritualists know that much fraud in connexion with them
has been discovered frequently by spiritualists themselves
and that the conditions favourable to obtaining them are often
such as favour fraud. It is with a full knowledge of these difficul-
ties in the way of investigation that they maintain that un-
mistakably genuine phenomena are of constant occurrence.
Many volumes containing accounts of such phenomena have-
been printed, and appeal is often made to the mass of evidence
so accumulated. " No physical science can array a tithe of the
mass of evidence by which psychism " (i.e. what is usually called
spiritualism) " is supported," says Serjeant Cox. 10 But the
graphs which should contain, besides the normal sitter, representa-
tions of deceased friends. For an account of these see Proceedings
of the Society for Psychical Research, vii. 268.
4 See Hecker, Epidemics of the Middle Ages (1859).
6 Athenaeum (July 2, 1853); see also on this subject Chevreul, De
la baguette divinatoire, &c. (1854).
6 Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (2 vols., 1903).
7 See Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, vi. 436;
viii. i; xiii. 284; xxiv. ^51.
8 See F. W. H. Myers, op. cit.
9 See Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, xx., xxi.
166; xxii. 19; xxiv. 2-328.
10 Mechanism of Man: What am I? (1879), ii. 313.
SPIRITUALISM
707
majority of these accounts have scarcely any scientific value.
.Spiritualists have, as a rule, sought to convince not by testimony
but by ocular demonstration. Yet, if there is not a mass of
scientific evidence, there are a number of witnesses among them
distinguished men of science and others of undoubted intelligence
who have convinced themselves by observation that phe-
nomena occur which cannot be explained by known causes;
and this fact must carry weight, even without careful records,
when the witnesses are otherwise known to be competent and
trustworthy observers.
Among proposed normal explanations of these phenomena
that of hallucination (q.v.), including illusion as to what is seen
almost amounting to hallucination, deserves careful considera-
tion. Sensory hallucination of several persons together who are
not in a hypnotic state is, however, a rare phenomena outside
the seance room and must not therefore be lightly assumed within
it; nor is it in most cases a plausible explanation where there is
general agreement not only of all the witnesses but of more than
one sense as to what is perceived, as distinguished from what is
inferred. Nevertheless something of the kind seems occasionally
to have happened, especially at some of the seances with Home. 1
What may broadly be called " conjuring " is a much more
probable explanation of most of the recorded phenomena; and
in the vast majority of cases the witnesses do not seem to have
duly appreciated the possibilities of conjuring, and have con-
sequently neither taken sufficient precautions to exclude it nor
allowed for the accidental circumstances which may on any
particular occasion favour special tricks or illusions. The ex-
periments of S. J. Davey and R. Hodgson should be studied in
this connexion. 2 At a spiritualistic seance the medium has
the privilege of failing whenever he pleases and there is seldom
.any settled programme circumstances very favourable to
deception. As it was put by Mr Stainton Moses, a leading
spiritualist and himself a medium, who wrote under the nom de
plume of " M.A. (Oxen.)": " In 99 out of every 100 cases
people do not get what they want or expect. Test after test,
cunningly devised, on which the investigator has set his mind,
is put aside, and another substituted." 3 In other words, the
evidence is rarely strictly experimental, and this not only gives
facilities for fraud, but makes it necessary to allow a large margin
for accidents, mistakes and mal-observation. It may be urged
that if none of the phenomena is genuine we have to assume
a large amount of apparently aimless trickery in non-professional
mediums. But it must be borne in mind that the most excellent
moral character in the medium is no guaranteee against trickery,
unless it can be proved that he was in no abnormal mental
condition when the phenomena occurred; and extraordinary
deceptions are known to have been carried on by hysterical
patients and others with no apparent motive.
One of the possibilities to be allowed for is that of exceptional
muscular endowment or anatomical peculiarity in the medium.
For instance, it is not very uncommon to find persons who can
make loud sounds by partially dislocating and restoring the toe,
knee, or other joints, and aome experiments made with the Fox
girls in 1851 supported the view that they made raps by this
method.
Besides the general arguments for supposing that the physical
phenomena of spiritualism may be due to conjuring, there are
two special reasons which gain in force as time goes on. (i)
Almost every medium who has been prominently before the
public has at some time or other been detected in fraud, or what
cannot be distinguished from fraud except on some violently
improbable hypothesis; and (2) although it is easy to devise
experiments of various kinds which, by eliminating the neces-
sity for continuous observation on the part of the investigator,
would place certain phenomena above the suspicion of conjur-
1 See, e.g., Report on Spiritualism of the Committee of the London
Dialectical Society (1871'), pp. 207, 367-369. See also Guldenstubbe,
De la realite des esprits (1857), p. 66; also Maxwell, Les Phenomenes
psychiques (1903).
2 See Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, iv. 371 ;
viii. 253.
3 Human Nature, for 1876, p. 267.
ing, there is no good evidence that such experiments have ever
succeeded.
Nevertheless there does exist evidence for the genuineness of
the physical phenomena which deserves consideration. Count
Agenor de Gasparin, in his Tables tournantes (Paris, 1854), gives
an account of what seem to have been careful experiments,
though they are hardly described in sufficient detail to enable
us to form an independent judgment. They convinced him that
by some unknown force tables could be got to move without
contact. The experiments were conducted with his own family
and friends without professional mediums, and in some of them
he was assisted by M. Thury, professor of physics at Geneva, who
was also convinced of (he operation of an unknown force. 4 The
minutes of the sub-committee No. i of the committee of the
Dialectical Society (op. cit., pp. 373-391) report that tables moved
without contact, whilst all the persons present knelt on chairs
(the backs of which were turned to the table) with their hands
on the backs. The report, however, would be of greater value
if the names of the medium and of the working rrembers of the
committee were given we only know that of Serjeant Cox
and if they had written independent accounts of what they
witnessed. Sir William Crookes has published accounts of
striking experiments and observations with D. D. Home, which
have left him convinced of the genuineness of the wide range
of physical phenomena which occurred through Home's medium-
ship. 5 Of considerable interest again are the experiences of
Mr Stainton Moses between 1870 and 1880, of which the best
account has been compiled from contemporary records by
F. W. H. Myers in two papers published in the Proceedings of the
Society for Psychical Research* More recently several men of
science, including Sir Oliver Lodge in England, Professor Charles
Richet in France, and Professors Schiaparelli and Morselli in
Italy, have convinced themselves of the supernormal character
(though not of any spiritualistic explanation) of certain physical
phenomena that have occurred in the presence of a Neapolitan
medium, Eusapia Palladino, though it is known that she fre-
quently practises deception. 7 M. Joseph Maxwell, of Bordeaux,
has published accounts 8 of raps and movements of objects
without contact, witnessed with private and other mediums,
which he appears to have observed with care, though he does
not describe the conditions sufficiently for others to form any
independent judgment about them.
The interest in spiritualism, apart from scientific curiosity
and mere love of the marvellous, is partly due to the belief that
trustworthy information and advice about mundane matters
can be obtained through mediums to the same impulse in fact
which has in all ages attracted inquirers to fortune-tellers.
The more thoughtful spiritualists, however, are chiefly interested
in the assurance of life and progress after death, and the moral
and religious teaching, which they obtain through automatic
writing and trance-speaking. It was discovered very early
in the movement that the accuracy of these communications
could not always be relied on; but it is maintained by spiritualists
that by the intelligent exercise of the reason it is possible to
judge whether the communicating intelligence is trustworthy,
especially after prolonged acquaintance with particular intelli-
gences, or where proofs are given of identity with persons known
to have been trustworthy on earth. Such intelligences are not
supposed to be infallible, but to have the knowledge of spirit
life superadded to their earthly experience. Still the agreement
between communications so received has not been sufficiently
4 See Thury, Les Tables tournantes considerees au point du vue de
la question de physique gtnerale qui s'y rattache (Geneva, 1855).
6 Quart. Journ. of Science (July and Oct. 1871; republished wuh
other papers by Crookes, under the title of Researches on the Pheno-
mena of Spiritualism (1874-1876). Seealsohis" Notesof S6ances with
D.D. Home," Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, vi. 98.
6 Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, ix. 245 ; xi. 24.
7 See E. Morselli, Psicologia e spiritismo (Turin, 1908); cf. also
Bulletin de Vinstitut general psychologique (Nov.-Dec., 1908), and
Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, xxiii. 306.
8 Maxwell, Les Phenomenes psychiques (ist ed., Paris, 1903).
There is also an English translation entitled Metapsychical Phenomena
(London, 1905).
708
SPIT SPITSBERGEN
great for anything like a universal spiritualistic creed to have been
arrived at. In France the doctrine of successive reincarnations
with intervals of spirit life promulgated by Allan Kardec (L. H.
D. Rivail) forms a prominent element of spiritualistic belief.
This view has, however, made but little way in England and
America, where the opinions of the great majority of spiritu-
alists vary from orthodox Christianity to Unitarianism of an
extreme kind. Probably it would be impossible to unite
spiritualists in any creed, which,, besides the generally ac-
cepted belief in God and immortality, should postulate more
than the progress of the spirit after death, and the power of
some of the dead to communicate with the living by means
of mediums.
Spiritualism has been accused of a tendency to produce in-
sanity, but spiritualistic sittings carried on by private persons
do not appear to be harmful provided those who find in them-
selves " mediumistic " powers do not lose their self-control and
exercise these powers when they do not desire to do so, or
against their better judgment. Public sittings are apt to be
means of obtaining money by false pretences, and the great
scandal of spiritualism is undoubtedly the encouragement it
gives to the immoral trade of fraudulent mediumship.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to the works already mentioned, the
student, for a general idea of the whole subject, should consult
the following: F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism (2 vols., London,
1902), and The Newer Spiritualism (1910); F. W. H. Myers, Human
Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (2 vols., 1903) ; E. W.
Capron, Modern Spiritualism, its Facts, &c. (Boston, 1 855), for the early
history of the movement in America ; 1 . W. Edmonds and G. T. Dexter,
Spiritualism (New York, 18531855); R. Hare, Experimental Investi-
gations of the Spirit Manifestations (New York, 1856) ; Allan Kardec,
Livre des esprits (ist ed., 1853); Mrs De Morgan, From Mailer to
Spirit (London, 1863), with preface by Professor De Morgan; Alfred
Russel Wallace, Miracles and Modern Spiritualism (1876); W.
Stainton Moses [M.A. (Oxon.)], Spirit Identity and Spirit Teaching;
Zollner, Wissenschaftliche A bhandlungen (the part relating to spiritu-
alism has been translated into English under the title Transcendental
Physics by C. C. Massey) ; Report of the Seybert Commission on
Spiritualism (Philadelphia, 1887); Professor Th. Flournoy, Des
Indes a la Planete Mars (Geneva, 1900 ; there is an English translation
published in London) ; Proceedings of the Society for Psychical
Research, passim. A succinct account of typical frauds of spiritu-
alism is contained in D. D. Home's Lights and Shadows of Spiritu-
alism (2nd ed., 1877-1878), and also in Hereward Carrington's
The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism, Fraudulent and Genuine
(Boston 1907). (E. M. S.)
SPIT, a rotating bar for roasting meat, game or poultry.
A spit usually has one or more prongs to which the meat is fixed;
in the case of a basket-spit it is enclosed in an oblong basket of
iron wire. The old form of spit was fixed on hooks or upon
rachets on the fire-dogs; at one end of the bar is a grooved
wheel for a chain connected with a smoke-jack in the chimney,
or some similar contrivance for turning the spit so that every
surface of the meat is exposed to the fire in turn. The jack was
sometimes turned by a boy or a small dog trained for the pur-
pose, the boy and the dog were equally known as turn-spits.
The spits, when not in use, were placed in a spit-rack over the
fireplace. These primitive arrangements eventually gave
place to a combined spit and mechanical roasting-jack, which
was fixed to a small crane projecting from the mantelpiece.
The jack, which was largely of brass, rotated when wound up,
and the meat was hung below it immediately in front of the
fire, and the gravy and dripping were caught in a large shallow
metal pan with a high screen to prevent the diffusion of
heat. The almost universal employment in England of closed
kitcheners has thrown all forms of spits and jacks into disuse,
but in old-fashioned kitchens they are still sometimes seen. The
more ancient forms of roasting apparatus are now much sought
after by collectors.
SPITALFIELDS, a district of London, England, in the western
part of the metropolitan borough of Stepney. The name is
derived from the fact that the land belonged to a priory of
St Mary Spital, founded in 1197. Excavations have revealed a
Roman burial-place here. The name is well known in connexion
with the silk industry established here by French refugees
after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in 1685.
SPITHEAD, a strait of the English Channel, between the
mainland (the coast of Hampshire, England) and the north-
eastern coast of the Isle of Wight, forming the eastern entrance
to Southampton Water, the Solent being the western. Its
length is about 12 m., and its general breadth about 4 m.,
though the distance between Ryde and Gilkicker Point is almost
exactly 3 m. The Spit Sand, extending south-east from this
promontory, gives name to the strait. On the north side opens
the narrow entry to Portsmouth Harbour, with the towns of
Portsmouth and Gosport east and west of it. On the south
the coast of Wight rises sharply though to no great elevation;
it is well wooded, and studded with country residences. Here
is also the favourite watering-place of Ryde. Spithead, which
as an anchorage is exposed only to the south-east, shares in the
fortifications of Portsmouth Harbour, the principal station
of the British navy. In this connexion the strait has been
the scene of many splendid naval pageants, such as those
attendant upon the jubilee in 1897, and the funeral in 1901
of Queen Victoria, and that which celebrated the coronation
of King Edward VII. on the i6th of August 1902.
SPITI, an extensive minor division of Kangra district in the
Punjab, India. Area, 2155 sq. m., the population (1901)
being only 3231, all Buddhists. It consists of an outlying
Tibetan valley among the external ranges of the Himalayas,
which has a mean elevation of 12,981 ft. and contains on its
borders many peaks over 20,000 ft. and one in the outer
Himalayas of 23,064 ft. in altitude. Spiti originally formed
part of the kingdom of Ladakh, and came into the hands of the
British in 1846. The river Spiti rises at the converging angle
of the Kamzam and outer Himalayan ranges at a height of
20,073 ft-, drains the whole valley of Spiti, and falls into the
Sutlej after a course of 1 20 m.
SPITSBERGEN (the name being Dutch is incorrectly, though
commonly, spelled Spilzbergen), an Arctic archipelago, almost
midway between Greenland and Novaya Zemlya, in 76 26'
to 80 50' N. and 10 20' to 32 40' E., comprising the five large
islands of West Spitsbergen or New Friesland, North-East
Land, Edge Island, Barents Island and Prince Charles Fore-
land, the Wiche Islands, and many small islands divided by
straits from the main group. The chief island, West Spits-
bergen, shaped like a wedge pointed towards the south and
deeply indented on the west and north by long branching fjords,
has an area of about 15,200 sq. m. At the north-west angle
of the island is a region of bold peaks and large glaciers, in the
midst of which is the fine Magdalena Bay. Farther south
come the series of glaciers called by the whalers " The Seven
Icebergs," which drain a high snowfield reaching east almost
to Wood Bay and south to the head of Cross Bay. On the
south-east it is drained by glaciers towards or into Dickson and
Ekman bays. South of this snowfield comes the mountainous
King James Land, consisting of an intricate network of craggy
ridges with glaciers between. A deep north-and-south de-
pression is occupied by Wijde and Dickson bays, the one opening
on the north coast, the other a head-branch of the great Ice
Fjord of the west coast, bordered on the west by a range of fine
mountains, a spur of which separates the two bays. East of
this depression there is a plateau region. Its edge is eaten
away into deep valleys, down which the ice-sheet of New Fries-
land sends glacier tongues into Wijde Bay. East of Dickson
Bay the marginal valleys are larger, and no glaciers come far
down them. The plateau between Dickson and Klaas Billen
bays is cut up by deep valleys such as the Rendal, Skansdal
and Mimesdal (all well known to geologists); it contains no
large glaciers. Farther east is found a glaciated area called
Garwood Land by Sir Martin Conway. The neck of West Spits-
bergen is bounded on the north by a line from near the head of
Klaas Billen Bay to Wiche Bay, and on the south by the Sassendal
and the depression leading to Agardh Bay. It is a complicated
area of fine craggy ridges with beautiful glaciers between.
Adventure Land lies south of the neck, and is bounded on the
south by a line from the head of Van Keulen Bay to Whales Bay.
It is an area of boggy valleys, rounded hills, and small glaciers,
SPITSBERGEN
709
and may be described as the temperate and fertile belt, and
is the only part of the island where reindeer still linger in any
number. Near the west coast it contains some fine peaks and
large glaciers. It is penetrated by the longest green valleys
in Spitsbergen, e.g. from Coles Bay, Advent Bay and Low
Sound (the valley of the Shallow river). The southern division
of the island is very icy. There is a high snowfield alcng its
east side, and ranges of peaks farther west. Two parallel ranges
form the backbone of the island south of Horn Sound, the higher
of them containing the famous Horn Sund Tind (4560 ft.).
The long narrow island, Prince Charles Foreland, with lofty
peaks, runs parallel to part of the west coast of West Spits-
bergen, from which it is separated by a narrow strait. Its
range of mountains is interrupted towards the southern end
of the island by a flat plain of 50 sq. m. raised only a few feet
above sea-level. There is a narrower depression a few miles
farther north. The broad Stor (Great) Fjord, of Wybe Jans
Water, separates the main island from two others to the east
Edge Island (2500 sq. m.) and Barents Land (580 sq. m.).
Formerly these were considered as one, until the narrow Freeman
Strait which parts them was discovered. Neither Barents
Land nor Edge Island carries ice-sheets, and both are practi-
cally devoid of glaciers down their western coasts, but have
large glaciers reaching the sea on the east. To the north-east
of West Spitsbergen, separated from it by Hinlopen Strait
(7 to 60 m. in breadth) lies North-East Land, with an area of
about 6,200 sq. m. Its western and northern coasts are indented
by several bays and fjords. It is covered with a true ice-sheet,
while the neighbouring Wiche Islands to the south-east bear
no large glaciers at all. East by north from Cape Leigh Smith,
the easternmost promontory of North-East Land, rises White
Island, covered with snow and ice, and rising to about 700 ft. It
was discovered by Cornelis Giles or Gillis in 1707, and is alterna-
tively named Giles Land. Numerous small islands lie around the
larger: Danes and other islands off the north-west coast of West
Spitsbergen, the Seven Islands, Outger Reps, Broch, and
Charles XII. Island on the north of North-East Land; Hinlopen
Strait contains numerous islets, and the Ryk Yse Archipelago,
Hope or Walrus Island, and the Thousand Islands (about a
hundred small rocks) lie to the east and south of Edge Island.
The nomenclature is in a state of hopeless confusion, the
names given by the old explorers having been carelessly trans-
ferred from point to point, or capriciously set aside. The
true names, English and Dutch, of the principal misnamed
sites are here indicated in brackets after the current names:
South Cape (Point Look-out), Torrel's Glacier (Slaadberg),
Recherche Bay (Joseph's Bay, Schoonhoven) , Van Keulen Bay
(Lord Ellesmere Sound, Sardammer Rivier), Van Mayen Bay
(Low Sound, Klok Rivier), Coal Bay (Coles Bay), Advent Bay
(Adventure Bay), St John's Bay (Osborn's Inlet), English Bay
(Cove Comfortlesse), Foreland Sound (Sir Thomas Smith Bay,
Keerwyk), Cross Bay (Close Cove), the bay called Smeerenburg
(Fair Haven, Dutch Bay), Flat Hook (Fox Point), Biscayers'
Hook (Point Welcome), Redbeach (Broad Bay), Leifde Bay
(Wiche Sound), Grey Hook (Castlin's Point), Wijde Bay (Sir
Thomas Smith Inlet), Verlegen Hook (Point Desire), Treuren-
berg Bay (Bear Bay), Agardh Bay (Foul Sound), Stor Fjord
(Wybe Jans Water), North-East Land (Sir Thomas Smith
Island), North Cape (Point Purchas). Stans Foreland is not,
as often appears, an alternative name of Edge Island, but the
name of its south-eastern cape only.
Geology. The backbone of the main island consists of an ancient
mass of pre- Devonian granites, gneisses and schists forming a moun-
tain chain in the western region. Resting upon these ancient
crystalline rocks, the precise age of which has not been definitely
determined, there is a succession of sedimentary rocks representing
nearly every one of the prominent periods of geological time. For
the eastern part of the group these strata lie nearly horizontal;
here and there they are pierced by intrusive igneous rocks. The
oldest sediments yet found are the Ordjvician beds which occur at
Hekla Hook, dolomites, limestones, slates and quartzites; Silurian
rocks may possibly exist in the north-west ; and Devonian grits with
Pteraspis have been recorded in Liefde Bay. The Carboniferous
period is represented by Culm-like rocks (classed by O. Heer as
Urslen Upper Devonian) ; upon these come limestones with
Spirifer Mosquensis (Hinlopen Straits) and above these again are
limestones with Cyathophyllum and Fusulina; (Eisfjord, Bell Sound,
Horn Sound, &c.). Permo-Carboniferous limestones and dolomites
occur on the west on the mainland and on Prince Charles Foreland
and in King James Land. Black slaty shales with large ammonites
in the Calcareous nodules and beds of black, bituminous limestone
represent the Trias at Cape Thorodsen; and Rhaetic fossils are found
in Research Bay, Bell Sound. Jurassic rocks are widely spread and
include Bajocian, Bathonian, Callovian, Oxfordian and Portlandian
(Cape Starashchin and Advent Bay) ; the older stages being in the
west. Some of these rocks are coal-bearing. Wealden strata with
coal seams and marine beds (Vplgian) occur in the south, and in
King Charles Land are Neocomian rocks with interbedded basalts.
Plant-bearing lower Cretaceous strata have been recorded, and lower
Eocene beds are found in Ice Fjord, Bell Sound containing large
magnolia leaves and others; beds of London Clay age occur in Kol-
bay. Miocene Sandstones and clay with lignite beds, some 2800 ft.
thick, occupy the west coast about Ice Fjord, Bell Sound, Advent
Bay, &c. In this period these islands were probably all united and
covered a much greater area and were covered with extensive peat
bogs, on the edges of which the marsh cypress flowered, dropping
its leaves and blossoms into the marshes. Sequoia, poplars, birches,
planes and large oaks also grew there, while ivy and thick underwood
freely developed under their shadow, and thousands of insects
swarmed in the thicket. Subsidence followed in late Tertiary times,
to be succeeded by a period of rapid elevation giving origin to the
raised beaches such as those seen on Prince Charles Foreland, and
possibly resubmergence may be again in progress. In comparatively
recent geological times this, the main island, was over most of its
area a high plateau covered with an ice-sheet, which has gradually
been withdrawn from the west towards the east, the western region
being thus cut up into deep valleys and more or less rugged moun-
tains. Farther east the mountains are more rounded, but still
farther east the plateau character of the land remains.
Climate. The sea around Spitsbergen is shallow, and the ice
readily accumulates round the shores. Although the glaciers of
Spitsbergen do not give origin to icebergs so huge as those of Green-
land, the smaller bergs and the pack-ice are thick enough to prevent
access to the shores except for a few months in the year. However,
the warm drift from the Atlantic sends a branch to the western
shores of Spitsbergen, moderating its climate, and leaving an open
passage which permits vessels to approach the western coast even
under the most unfavourable conditions of ice in the arctic regions.
Drift-wood from lower latitudes, glass floats of the Norwegian
fishermen and other objects have been found at the northern
extremity of Spitsbergen. On the other hand a cold current charged
with ice descends from higher latitudes along the eastern coasts,
rendering approach extremely difficult. On this account these
shores long remained practically unknown.
Owing to the warm drift the climate of Spitsbergen is less severe
than in the corresponding latitudes of Greenland and Smith Sound.
Bear Island, notwithstanding its more southerly position, has a
lower temperature. The isotherm of 23 F., which crosses the middle
of Eastern Siberia, touches its southern extremity, and only the
north-east coa3ts of Spitsbergen have an average yearly temperature
so low as 14 to 10-5 . At Mussel Bay (79 53') the average yearly
temperature is 16 (January 14-1, July 39'3)- Even in the coldest
months of the winter a thaw may set in for a few days; but, on the
other hand, snow sometimes falls in July and August. Spring comes
in June; the snow becomes saturated with water and disappears in
places, and scurvy grass and the polar willow open their buds. By
the end of June the thermometer has ceased to sink below the
freezing-point at night; July, August and September are the best
months. In September, however, autumn sets in on shore, and by
the end of the month the pack-ice rapidly freezes into one solid mass.
In Treurenberg Bay an annual precipitation of 64 in. has been
observed.
Fauna and Flora. The Greenland whale has completely disap-
peared in consequence of the great havoc made by the early whalers.
According to Scoresby, no less than 57,590 whales were killed
between 1669 and 1775. A great diminution, in the same way, is
to be observed in the numbers of other creatures which were the
object of hunters. A reckless extermination of sepls was carried on.
Walruses are now only occasionally seen in the waters of West
Spitsbergen. Birds, also, have rapidly diminished in numbers.
The fulmar petrel meets ships approaching Spitsbergen far away
from the coasts. It makes colonies on the cliffs, as also do the
glaucous gull and the " burgomaster." Rotches, black guillemots,
ivory gulls, auks and kittiwake gulls breed on the cliffs, while geese,
looms and snipe frequent the lagoons and small fresh-water ponds.
The eider duck breeds on the islands, but its numbers have become
noticeably reduced, while the lumme and the tern confine themselves
to separate cliffs. These birds, however, are only guests in Spits-
bergen, the snow-bunting being the only species which stays perma-
nently; some twenty-three species breed regularly on Spitsbergen,
and four others (the falcon, snowy owl, swan and skua) come
occasionally. Of land mammals, besides the polar bear, the reindeer
and arctic fox have been greatly reduced; the reindeer, in fact, are
approaching extinction, whereas for several years consecutively
SPITSBERGEN
before 1868 from 1500 to 2000 were killed by hunters in a few weeks
of summer.
There are twenty-three species of fishes, but no reptiles. Insects
are few. Arachnids, and especially Pantopods, on the other hand,
are very common. Molluscs are also numerous. At some places
the mussels and univalves reach a large size and appear in great
abundance. Of Crustaceans fully 100 species have been recognized
in the waters of the archipelago.
The flora is, of course, poor. The only tree is the polar willow,
which does not exceed 2 in. in height and bears a few leaves not
larger than a man's finger-nail ; and the only bushes are the crow-
berry and cloudberry. But at the foot ot the warmer cliffs some
loam has been formed notwithstanding the slowness of putrefaction,
and there, in contrast with the brownish lichens that cover the hills,
grows a carpet of mosses of the brightest green, variegated with the
golden-yellow flowers of the ranunculus, the large-leaved scurvy grass,
several saxifrages, fox-tail grass, &c., with a few large flowers, Polygona
and Andromedae; while on the driest spots yellow poppies, whitlow
grasses, &c., are found. Even on the higher slopes, 1500 ft. above
the sea, the poppy is occasionally met with. In all over 130 species
of flowering plants have been found. Mosses, mostly European
acquaintances, cover all places where peat has accumulated. The
slopes of the crags and the blocks of stone on the beach are sometimes
entirely covered with a luxuriant moss and lichen vegetation, among
the last being the so-called " famine bread " (Umbilicaria arctica),
which has maintained the life of many arctic travellers. Although
limited in number, the flora is suggestive in its distribution. The
vegetation of the south has a decidedly Lappish or European alpine
character, while that of the north coast is decidedly American, and
recalls that of Melville Island. Many flowering plants which are
common in north-west Spitsbergen are absent from the east coast,
where the cold climate is inimical to both flora and fauna; but,
on the other hand, one moss (Pottia hyperborea) and one lichen
(Usnea melaxantha) are found there which are of American origin
and grow both in North America and on the Cordilleras. Algae
are most numerous, many, like the brown Laminaria and Nostoc
communis, which fill all pools and are the chief food of many birds,
being familiar in Europe. Protococcus nivalis covers the snow
with its reddish powder.
History. Spitsbergen has never been permanently inhabited,
although there are several instances of hunters wintering on the
island under stress of circumstances, and several scientific
expeditions have done so. A Russian trapper named Starash-
chin is said in various accounts to have spent 32 or 39 winters,
and 15 consecutive years, in the archipelago; he died there in
1826. Spitsbergen was discovered on the I7th of June 1596,
during the expedition under William Barents and Jacob Heem-
skerk, which ended with the death of Barents. Barents saw
parts of the west and north coasts, and to these he gave the
name of Spitsbergen. In 1607 Henry Hudson, after visiting
the coast of Greenland, reached Spitsbergen in June. Bear
Island, the ice-bound island midway between Spitsbergen and
the North Cape, situated on the same submarine platform as the
former, had been discovered by Barents, and became important
as a hunting-ground (for walrus, &c.) before Spitsbergen began
to be visited for this purpose. In 1609 Thomas Marmaduke
of the " Heartsease," proceeding north from Bear Island,
reached Spitsbergen, and in the following year the first hunting
expedition was despatched thither by the Muscovy Company
on board the " Amitie " of London, Jonas Poole, master,
on whose report of the abundance of whales on the coast the
Spitsbergen whaling industry, which was to grow to such im-
portance, was established in 1611. Very shortly the Dutch
began to take a share in this, and there were frequent collisions
between the whalers of the two nationalities, while in 1615 the
Danes attempted to claim this part of " Greenland," as Spits-
bergen was for a long time considered. England attempted to
annex the archipelago, but at length the Dutch became pre-
dominant in the whaling industry, and in 1623 founded the
summer settlement of Smeerenburg. This became a busy and
important centre, but began to decline in about twenty years,
as the whales were gradually driven from the bays and must
be followed, at first northward along the coast, and later into
the open sea. Independently of the English and Dutch, Russians
from the White Sea district came to Spitsbergen to hunt
walruses, seals, bears, foxes, &c. At what early period they
first did so cannot be known, but the industry seems to have
gained a certain importance before 1740. The Russians had their
own nomenclature for various parts of the archipelago, the
whole of which they also called Grumant, a corruption of Green-
land. A similar hunting industry was established by Nor-
wegians early in the i8th century, but Spitsbergen declined in
importance as a hunting-ground owing to the indiscriminate
slaughter of game.
Many expeditions have made Spitsbergen their base for polar
exploiation. The Russian admiral Chichagov visited it twice,
in 1765 and 1766, and reached 80 28' N. The expedition
sent from England in 1773 at the instigation of Daines Barrington
under the command of Constantine John Phipps, was the
first having a purely geographical purpose. It consisted of
two vessels, the " Racehorse " and the " Carcass," on the first
of which Horatio Nelson was a midshipman. Phipps mapped
the north of Spitsbergen, and reached 80 48' north. In 1818
David Buchan and John Franklin reached 80 34' to the
north of the archipelago. Captain D. C. Clavering and Sir
Edward Sabine in 1823 explored the islands, and Sabine made
his remarkable magnetic observations, while Clavering reached
80 20' N. Sir William Parry, shortly after his return from his
third voyage, went to Spitsbergen and reached 82 40' north on
sledges, while other members of the expedition were occupied
with scientific work in the archipelago. In the same year the
Norwegian geologist Balthasar Mathias Keilhau visited the
group and related his experiences in a remarkable book, Resa i
Ost og West Finmarken (Christiania, 1831). The Swedish pro-
fessor Sven Loven was the first to undertake, in 1837, dredging
and geological explorations in Spitsbergen and its vicinity.
Next year a body of French, Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian
naturalists, among whom was Charles Martins, visited the
western coast. In 1858, at the suggestion of Loven, Otto
Torell, accompanied by A. E. Nordenskiold and A. Quenncrstadt
made many important observations and brought home rich
geological collections. In 1861 a larger expedition led by Torell,
Nordenskiold, A. J. Malmgren, and Karl Chydenius, set out
with the object of finding how far it was possible to obtain a
measurement of an arc of meridian of sufficient extent. This
aim was only partly accomplished, but the expedition returned
with an invaluable store of various observations. The work
of the measurement of the arc was completed in 1864 by another
expedition conducted by Nordenskiold, assisted by Malmgren
and N. Duner. This expedition was followed in 1868 by that
of the " Sofia," under Nordenskiold, which, in the words of
Oswald Heer, " achieved more and gave a wider extension to
the horizon of our knowledge than if it had returned merely
with the information that the ' Sofia ' had hoisted her flag on
the North Pole." In the same year the German arctic ex-
pedition under Karl Koldewey circumnavigated West Spits-
bergen. In 1870 two young Swedish savants, Drs Nathorst
and Wilander, visited Spitsbergen in order to examine the
phosphoric deposits, and two years later a colony was formed
in Ice Fjord, and a small tramway constructed to work the
beds. The attempt, however, did not prove successful. Leigh
Smith and the Norwegian Captain Ulve visited and mapped
parts of East Spitsbergen in 1871, returning with valuable
information. They reached 81 24' north. In the same year the
first tourist steamer visited the archipelago. In 1872 a great
polar expedition under Nordenskiold set out to winter on
Spitsbergen with the intention of attempting in the spring to
advance towards the pole on sledges drawn by reindeer. But
the expedition encountered a series of misfortunes. The ships
were beset in the ice very early in Mussel Bay, and, six Nor-
wegian fishing vessels having been likewise overtaken and shut
in, the expedition had to feed the crews on its provisions and thus
to reduce the rations of its own men. The reindeer all made
their escape during a snow-storm; and when the sledge party
reached the Seven Islands they found the ice so packed that
all idea of going north had to be abandoned. Instead of this,
Nordenskiold explored North-East Land and crossed the vast
ice-sheet which covers it. The expedition returned in 1873
with a fresh store of important scientific observations, especially
in physics and submarine zoology. In 1873 R. von Drasche-
Wartinberg, the geologist, paid a short visit to Spitsbergen,
SPITTA SPODUMENE
ii
In 1882 the Swedish geologists, A. G. Nathorst and G. de Geer
made a journey which furnished interesting data about the
geology and flora of the islands. In the same year a Swedish
meteorological station was established at Cape Thordsen for
carrying on the observations desired by the international polar
committee. During the last decade of the ipth century Spits-
bergen attracted not only a number of scientists but also sports-
men and tourists. Such expeditions as those of Gustaf Norden-
skiold in 1890 and the important circumnavigation by Nathorst
in 1898, during which the Wiche Islands and White Islands
were carefully explored, confined their attentions almost en-
tirely to the coasts. In 1892 M. C. Rabot made the first serious
attempt to penetrate the interior from the head of Ice Fjord,
exploring a part of the Sassendal; and in 1896 Sir Martin Con way
led an expedition which crossed the island for the first time,
and surveyed the region between Ice Fjord and Bell Sound
on the east coast. In 1897 Conway and Mr E. J. Garwood
surveyed the glaciated area north of Ice Fjord to about
78 10' N., and climbed Horn Sund Tind. In the same year
Herr Andre made his fatal balloon ascent from Danes Island
with the intention of floating over the Pole. In 1896 a weekly
service of Norwegian tourist steamers was established in summer,
and a small inn was built at Advent Bay in Ice Fjord, and though
this was afterwards closed, the west coast continued to be fre-
quently visited by tourist steamers during the height of summer.
In 1898, 1899 and 1906 the prince of Monaco made scientific
investigations in the Archipelago, and in 1898-1902 Swedish and
Russian expeditions undertook the measurement of an arc of
the meridian, the results of which were accompanied by valuable
physiographical, meteorological, botanical and other obser-
vations. Dr W. S. Bruce made a complete survey and scien-
tific investigations of Prince Charles Foreland. In 1900 coal
began to be worked on Advent Bay, a seam 10 ft. thick being
found below 40 ft. of fossil ice and 20 ft. of rock. This develop-
ment and other considerations led to some discussion between
the powers interested as to the territorial sovereignty over the
archipelago, a question which though approached before (as
in 1870) had never been brought to a settlement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. On a land visited by so many scientific observers
the literature is naturally voluminous. The chief source of scientific
papers is the publications of the Swedish Vetenskaps Akademie.
Sir W Martin Conway narrates his expedition in the First Crossing of
Spitsbergen (London, 1897); and in No Man's Land (Cambridge,
1906) he details the history of the Archipelago down to 1840,
tabulates the principal voyages and incidents thereafter until
1900, and furnishes a very full bibliography for the history and
geography of Spitsbergen from the earliest time down to 1902.
The various observations of the Swedish expedition for the measure-
nient of an arc of the meridian were brought together (in French)
in Missions scientifiques pour la mesure d'un arc de meridien au
Spitzberg . . . (Stockholm, 19031906), and those of the Russian
expedition under the same title in 1904, seq. (St. Petersburg).
SPITTA, FRIEDRICH (1852- ), German Protestant
theologian, was born at Wittingen on the loth of January
1852. His father, Karl Johann Philipp (1801-1859), well
known as a hymn-writer (see Lyra domestica, ist series, London,
1860; 2nd series, 1864). was superintendent at Burgdorf near
Hanover. Friedrich studied at Gottingen and Erlangen, and
in course of time became (1887) professor ordinarius and univer-
sity preacher at Strassburg. In 1896 he became joint-editor
with J. Smend of the M ' onatschrift fiir Gottesdienst und kirch-
liche Kunsl, and he is widely known as the author of a work on
the Acts of the Apostles (Die Apostelgeschichte, ihre Quellen
und deren geschichtlicher Wert (1891).
His other works include : Der Knabe Jesus, eine biblische Geschichte
und ihre apokryphischen Rntstellungen (1883), Die Offenbarung des
Johannes (1889), Zur Reform des evang. Kultus (1891), and Zur
Geschichte und Litteratur des Urchristentums (3 vols., 18931901).
SPLEEN (Gr. air\T]v), a vascular organ situated on the left
side of the abdomen (see DUCTLESS GLANDS). It was supposed
in olden times to be the seat of ill-humour and melancholy,
whence such phrases as " to have the spleen," to be out of
temper, sulky, morose, " splenetic."
SPLUGEN PASS, one of the passes across the main chain of
the Alps from Switzerland to Italy (from 1512 to 1797, however,
Chiavenna belonged to the Grisons). The route quits that of the
Albula Pass (q.v.) at Thusis, passes first through the celebrated
gorge of the Via Mala, then through the Schams basin and past
Andeer, beyond which the Rofna gorge gives access to the
village of Spliigen (from which the pass takes its name) in the
upper reach of the main or Hinter branch of the Rhine (q.v.).
Leaving to the west the road over the San Bernardino Pass.
6769 ft. (by which the St Gotthard railway line is joined at
Biasca, the route lying entirely through Swiss territory) the
Splugen road (constructed in 1823) mounts south to the pass
(6946 ft.), which forms the political frontier. On the other
side the road avoids the old path through the dreaded Car-
dinello gorge (here passed Macdonald's army in December,
1800) in order to descend by zigzags to Pianazzo. Thence past
Campo Dolcino and Gallivaggio the descent is made to the
ancient town of Chiavenna at the junction of the read from the
upper Engadine over the Maloja Pass, and 17 m. by rail above
Colico, at the northern end of the lake of Como. The distance
by road from Splugen village (16 m. above Andeer) to Chia-
venna is 25 m. The diligences take 55 hours from Splugen vil-
lage (4 hours above Thusis) to Chiavenna. But by the proposal
to pierce a railway tunnel of about 16 m. in length from Andeer
to Gallivaggio, it was calculated that the Splugen line would
become the shortest route from southern Germany to Milan,
while at Chiavenna it would receive the traffic from the upper
Engadine. (W. A. B.C.)
SPODUMENE, a lithium-aluminium silicate belonging to
the pyroxene group (see PYROXENE). It was named by B. J.
d'Andrada e Sylva, in 1800, from Gr. ajroSios (ash-coloured),
in allusion to its grey colour. Soon afterwards J. R. Haiiy
termed it triphane, because it exhibited certain characteristics
equally in three directions (Tpi<ba.vi]s, appearing three-fold).
Spodumene crystallizes in the monoclinic system, the crystals
having generally a prismatic habit and being often striated
longitudinally. It has perfect prismatic cleavage, and imper-
fect cleavage parallel to the clinopinacoid, whilst a lamellar
structure may be developed by parting along the orthopinacoid.
The hardness is 6-5 to 7, and the specific gravity about 3-16.
Though generally a dull mineral, some varieties of spodumene
are so brightly coloured and transparent as to be valued as
gem-stones. Such is the emerald-green hiddenitc (q.v.) and
the lilac-coloured kunzite (q.v.), whilst a yellow or yellowish-
green spodumene found as pebbles in the state of Minas Geraes, in
Brazil, resembles, when cut, some kinds of chrysoberyl. Common
spodumene is used as a source of lithium in chemical preparations.
Spodumene occurs in granite and crystalline schists. The
original specimens came from the isle of Uto in Sodermanland,
Sweden, but the finest examples are found in the United States,
especially in Massachusetts, where Goshen, Sterling and Chester-
field are well-known localities. Very fine specimens have been
obtained from the Black Hills of S. Dakota. Some remarkable
deposits containing spodumene were discovered many years ago
at Branchville, Fairfield county, Connecticut, and the minerals
which they yielded were exhaustively studied by Professor G. J.
Brush and E. S. Dana. The spodumene occurred in large
quantity, in a vein of albite-granite, associated with apatite,
garnet, columbite, pitchblende and other uranium minerals,
together with several species of manganese phosphates, termed
eosphorite, triploidite, dickinsonite, lithiophilite, natrophilite,
reddingite, fairfieldite and fillowite. The spodumene, which has
normally the formula LiAl (8103)2, becomes altered at Branch-
ville to what has been called jS-spodumene, which consists
really of the mineral eucryptite (LiAlSi0 4 ) and albite. Eucryp-
tite was named by Brush and Dana from ev (well) and Kpu7rr6s
(concealed). Further alteration results in the formation of
cymatolite, a mineral described by C. U. Shepard in 1867, but
shown to be an intimate mechanical mixture of muscovite and
albite. The final products of alteration of the spodumene may
be muscovite, albite and microcline. The mineral dis-
covered in 1817 in the granite of Killiney Hill, near Dublin,
and described by T. Thomson as killinite, appears to be an
altered spodumene. (F. W. R.*)
712
SPOHR
SPOHR, LUDWIG (1784-1859), German composer and violin-
ist, was born at Brunswick on the 2$th of April 1784. He
spent his childhood at Seesen, where in 1789 he began to study
the violin, and at six years old was able to take part in chamber-
music. He had a few lessons in composition, but, as he himself
tells us, he learnt more from studying the scores of Mozart.
After playing a concerto of his own at a school concert with
marked success, he was placed under Maucourt, the leader of
the duke's band; and in 1798 he started on an artistic tour.
This proved a failure; but on his return to Brunswick the duke
gave him an appointment in his band, and provided for his
future education under Franz Eck, with whom he visited
St Petersburg and other European capitals. His first violin
concerto was printed in 1803. In that year Spohr returned to
Brunswick and resumed his place in the duke's band. A visit
to Paris was prevented by the loss of his favourite violin a
magnificent Guarnerius, presented to him in Russia. After a
series of concerts in Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden, and other German
towns, his reputation gained for him in 1805 the appoint-
ment of leading violinist to the duke of Gotha. Soon after
this he married his first wife, Dorette Scheidler, a celebrated
harpist. At Gotha he composed his first opera, Die Priifung,
but did not succeed in producing it. Alruna was equally
unfortunate, though Goethe approved of it at a trial rehearsal
at Weimar in 1808. In this year Spohr, hearing that Talma
was performing at Erfurt before Napoleon's Congress of Princes,
and failing to obtain admission to the theatre, bribed a horn-
player to send him as his deputy; and, though he had never
touched a horn in his life, he learned in a single day to play it
well enough to pass muster in the evening and so to get a good
view of Napoleon and the princes in a pocket mirror on his
desk. Spohr's third opera, Der Zweikampf mit der Gdieblen,
written in 1809, was successfully performed at Hamburg next
year. In 1811 he produced his (first) Symphony in E flat, and
in 1812 composed his first oratorio, Das jiingste Gericht. 1 In
writing this work he felt hampered by lack of skill in counter-
point; so with characteristic diligence he mastered the contents
of Marpurg's Abhandlung von der Fuge.
In 1812 Spohr visited Vienna, and was induced to accept the
leadership of the orchestra at the Theater an der Wien. He then
began his dramatic masterpiece, Faust, which he completed
in 1813, though it was not performed until five years later.
His strength and inventiveness as a composer were now fully
developed, and enabled him to produce large works with astonish-
ing rapidity. He resigned his appointment at Vienna in
1815, and soon afterwards made a tour in Italy, where he per-
formed his eighth and finest violin concerto, the Scena cantante
nello slilo drammatico. The leading Italian critics called him
" the finest singer on the violin that had ever been heard."
On Spohr's return to Germany in 1817 he was appointed con-
ductor of the opera at Frankfort; and there in 1818 he first
produced his Faust. It was followed by Zemire und Azor,
which, though by no means as fine as Faust, soon attained a
much greater popularity. Faust suffered from its libretto,
which is on quite a different plot from Goethe's poem.
Spohr first visited England in 1820, and on the 6th of March
played his Scena cantante with great success in London at the
first Philharmonic concert. At the third he produced a new
symphony (No. 2 in D minor) and, instead of having it led by
the first violinist and a maestro al cembalo, conducted it himself
with a baton; a great innovation in London at the time. Spohr
had a triumphant success both as composer and as virtuoso; and
he on his side was delighted with the Philharmonic orchestra.
At his farewell concert in London Mme Spohr played on the
harp for the last time. The constrained attitudes of harp-
playing were bad for her health ; so in later concerts she played
the pianoforte in duets with violin which her husband produced
with his usual prompt facility. After a transitory visit to Paris,
Spohr returned to Germany and settled for a time in Dresden,
where German and Italian opera were flourishing side by side
under the direction of Weber and Morlacchi. Spohr could
1 Not to be confused with The Last Judgment.
not appreciate Weber's genius; nevertheless Weber recommended
him strongly to the elector of Hesse Cassel as Kapellmeister.
Spohr entered upon his duties at Cassel on the ist of January
1822, and soon afterwards began his sixth opera, Jessonda,
which he produced in 1823. This work which he himself re-
garded as one of his best marks an important epoch in his
operatic career. It was his first opera on Gluck's lines, i.e. with
accompanied recitative throughout in place of secco-recitative
or spoken dialogue; and it was produced in the same year
as Weber's Euryanthe, a work marked by the same departure
from German custom.
Spohr's resources at Cassel enabled him to produce his new
works on a grander scale and with more perfect detail than he
could have attained in a less well-endowed post; and he never
failed to use these privileges to the advantage of other meri-
torious composers, though as a critic he was very difficult to
please. Soon after his instalment Mendelssohn, then a boy
of thirteen, visited Cassel; notwithstanding the disparity of
their years, a firm friendship sprang up between the two, which
ceased only with Mendelssohn's death in 1847. Spohr's next
three operas, Der Berggeist (1825), Pietro von Abano (1827) and
Der Alchymist (1830), attained only fair temporary success.
But at the Rhenish musical festival held at Diisseldorf in 1826,
his oratorio Die letzten Dinge met with so enthusiastic a reception
that it was repeated a few days later in aid of the Greek Insur-
gents, and became the most famous of his sacred compositions.
It is known in English as The Last Judgment. In 1831 Spohr
summed up another aspect of his career by publishing his Violin
School, an admirable book for advanced students, which stands
to the violin much as the combination of Cramer's Studies with
dementi's Gradus stands to the pianoforte. The year 1834
was saddened by the death of Spohr's wife. In 1836 he married
again. During 1833 he had been working at an oratorio Des
Heilands lelzte Stunden, known in English as Calvary or The
Crucifixion which was performed at Cassel on Good Friday
1835, and sung in English at the Norwich Festival of 1839 under
Spohr's own direction, with an effect which he afterwards
always spoke of as the greatest triumph of his life. For the
Norwich Festival of 1842 he composed The Fall of Babylon,
which also was a perfect success, though the elector of Hesse-
Cassel, unmoved by a petition from England almost amounting
to a diplomatic representation, refused Spohr leave of absence
to conduct it. His last opera, Die Kreuzfahrer, was produced
at Cassel in 1845. Of his nine symphonies the finest, Die
Weihe der Tone, was produced in 1832. His compositions for
the violin include concertos, quartetts, duets, and other con-
certed pieces and solos, and among these a high place is taken
by four double quartetts, (i.e. octets for two antiphonal string-
quartet groups), an art-form of his own invention. He was,
indeed, keenly interested in experiments, notwithstanding his
attachment to classical form; and the care with which he pro-
duced Wagner's Fliegender Hollander and Tannhauser at Cassel
in 1842 and 1853, in spite of the elector's opposition, shows that
his failure to understand Beethoven lay deeper than pedantry.
Spohr retained his appointment until 1857, when, very much
against his wish, he was pensioned off. In the same year he
broke his arm, but he was able to conduct Jessonda at Prague
in 1858. This, however, was his last effort. He died at Cassel
on the i6th of October 1859.
Spohr's Selbstbiographie is a delightful document, revealing a
character the generosity of which was conspicuous through all
its complacent intellectual foibles. He was a born taste-maker,
for he mastered the technique of his art safely^ and then applied
his mastery to the expression of exactly those "modes of thought
which surprise no one who believes that each art-problem has
one answer and that the critics know it. But he had a very
genuine melodic invention, and his sense of beauty was such
as even the all-pervading mannerisms of his otiose chromatic
style could not quite destroy. He tried every experiment the
copy-book optimism of his age could suggest; the subjects of
his operas are all that is romantic and necromantic; he wrote
almost as much " programme-music " as Berlioz; he invented
SPOIL-FIVESPOKANE
" double quartets," he wrote an Historical Symphony tracing
the progress of music from Bach to his own day; and, lastly,
his gift for orchestration was quite exceptional. Yet not one
of his experiments shows any essential connexion between
the new form and the old material which he has so skilfully
packed into it. Nor is his treatment of his beloved classical
forms any nearer to organic life. In conversation with Joachim
he once in his last years expressed the ambition to write a set
of string quartets " in the strict form with all the passages
ending properly with shakes." This shows that all his work as
a composer had failed to wean him from the conventions of
virtuoso players, and it well illustrates the way in which " strict
forms " desert their convenient functions to pose as classical
ideas; for the " passage ending in a shake " is merely the easiest
known way of finishing a section in concerto style, and is so
far from being an essential feature in chamber-music that in
the ten mature quartets of Mozart which Spohr undoubtedly
regarded as his models it cannot be traced in more than twelve
of the thirty-one movements in which it ought to occur.
The steady level of Spohr's mastery prevents any of his
work from either rising to the height of Mendelssohn's master-
pieces, or sinking to the weakness of Mendelssohn's failures.
But where the true conditions of an art-form suit Spohr's
training and temperament he is, at times, very nearly a great
composer; and in the severely restricted medium of duets for
two violins his work is an artistic tour de force, the neglect of
which would be unfortunate in a wider field than that of mere
violin-technique. His best work is not so great that we are
obliged to live with it; but its merits demand that we should
let it live. (D. F. T.)
SPOIL-FIVE, an old game of cards, probably imported from
Ireland, where it is still very popular, though the original name,
according to The Compleat Gamester, was " Five-cards." It
may probably be identified with " Maw," a game of which
James I. of England was very fond. A full pack of cards is
used: about five players is the best number, each receiving five
cards, dealt in pairs and triplets, the card that is left at the top
of the pack being turned up for trumps. If the turn-up is an
ace, the dealer must " rob," i.e. put out, face downwards, any
card from his hand and take in the ace. The trump suit re-
mains unaltered. " Robbing " must take place before the
first player, the player on the dealer's left, leads. Similarly
a player who holds the ace of trumps must rob, putting out
any card and taking in the turn-up, but need not disclose the
fact till it is his turn to play. A player who fails to rob cannot
go out that hand. The card put out may not be seen. The
player on the dealer's left leads. The highest card of the suit
led the value of the cards will be explained or the highest
trump, wins the trick. Players must follow suit to a lead of
trumps, except in certain cases which will be mentioned. To
a plain suit no one need follow except a player who holds no
trumps; others may follow or trump as they please. If a player
takes three tricks he wins the game. If no one succeeds there
is a " spoil," and a fresh stake, smaller than the original one as
a rule, is put into the pool for the next round. The order of the
cards in plain suits may be remembered by " after the knave
the highest in red and the lowest in black." In red suits the
order is king, queen, knave, ten, &c., down to the ace, which is
lowest: in black suits king, queen, knave, ace, &c., up to ten,
which is lowest. But the ace of hearts, which is always a trump,
is not reckoned in its own suit. In trumps the order is " below
the queen highest in red, lowest in black." The order in red
suits is five, knave, ace, of hearts, ace of trumps, king, queen,
ten, &c. : in black suits five, knave, ace of hearts, ace of trumps,
king, queen, two, three, &c., up to ten, which is the lowest.
When trumps are led, the five and the knave of trumps and the
ace of hearts need not be played. This is called " reneging,"
colloquially " renigging." The five may always renege: if
it is led, no card can renege. The knave may renege if the five
is played, not led. Only the five can renege to the knave led.
The ace of hearts can renege to any inferior card. If hearts
are not trumps and the ace of hearts is led, a trump must be
played if possible: if not, it is not necessary to play a heart.
" Twenty-five " and " Forty-five " are varieties of " Spoil-five ":
the game is played for either of these numbers; each trick
counts five to the maker, and there is no " spoil," but the trick
made by the highest trump out scores ten; if a player gets out
before that trump is played, he wins the game all the same.
The winning of all five tricks is called a " jink "; at " Spoil-
five " a player who jinks, if jinking is agreed upon, receives an
extra stake all round; but if, after winning three tricks, he
elects to " jink " and fails, he cannot score during that hand.
SPOKANE, a city and the county-seat of Spokane county,
Washington, U.S.A., on both banks of the Spokane river, near
the eastern boundary of the state, and about 242 m. E. of Seattle.
Pop. (1890), 19,922; (1900), 36,848, of whom 7833 were foreign-
born, including 1683 English Canadians, 1326 Germans, and
1168 Swedes; (1910 census) 104,402. Spokane is served
by the Great Northern, the Oregon Railway & Navigation
Co. (Union Pacific system), the Northern Pacific, the Idaho
& Washington Northern, the Spokane, Portland & Seattle,
and the Spokane & International railways, and by the Spokane
& Inland Empire (electric) line connecting with the Cceur
d'Alene mining region, Idaho, and with Colfax, Washington and
Moscow, Idaho. Among the principal buildings of the c'ty
are the Federal building, the county court-house, the city-
hall, the post office, the Paulsen building, the Columbia and
Auditorium theatres, the Spokane club, the masonic temple,
the Spokesman-Review building, and a large Roman Catholic
church. Spokane is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop.
The city has a Carnegie library, and ten public parks aggre-
gating 320 acres; the more important are Liberty Park (25
acres), Manito Park (85 acres), and Corbin Park (13 acres). Fort
George Wright (established in 1895) is 3 m. west of Spokane
on a tract of 1022 acres given to the United States Govern-
ment by the city, for that purpose, in 1894-1895. Spokane is
the seat of Gonzaga College (Roman Catholic) for boys, founded
in 1887 and incorporated in 1904; of Spokane College (1907;
Lutheran); of Brunot Hall (Protestant Episcopal), for girls;
the Academy of the Holy Names (Roman Catholic), for girls;
and of other schools and academies. Among the city's charit-
able institutions are a home for the friendless (1890), the St
Joseph orphanage (1890), St Luke's (1900) and the Marie Beard
Deaconess (1896) hospitals, each having a training school for
nurses, a Florence Crittenden home, and a House of the Good
Shepherd. The Spokane river is a rapidly flowing stream with
two falls (the upper of 60 and the lower of 70 ft.), within the
city limits, providing an estimated energy of about 35,000
horse-power at low water. Of this energy, in 1908, about
17,000 horse-power was being utilized, chiefly for generating
electricity (the motive power most used in the city's indus-
tries), as well as for lighting and transit purposes, while about
9000 horse-power in electrical power was transmitted to the
Cceur d'Alene mines. At Post Falls, Idaho, 22 m. east of
Spokane, about 12,000 horse-power is developed, and at Nine
Mile Bridge near Spokane, about 20,000 horse-power. Spokane's
manufacturing interests have developed with remarkable rapidity.
In 1900 there were 84 factories capitalized at $2,211,304,
and their product was valued at $3,756,119. In 1905
there were 188 factories capitalized at $5,407,313 (144-5%
increase), and the value of their products was $8,830,852 (135-1%
increase). The city's principal manufactures in 1905 were:
lumber and planing nv'll products ($2,040,059); flour and grist-
mill products ($1,089,396); malt liquors ($679,274); foundry
and machine-shop products ($479,954); and lumber and timber
products ($418,019). Spokane is an important jobbing centre,
is a natural supply point for the gold, silver and lead mining
regions of northern and central Idaho, eastern Washington,
and Oregon, and is a distributing point for the rich agricultural
districts in this region.
The first permanent settlement on the site of Spokane was
made in 1874 by James N. Glover, who bought from two
trappers a tract of land here. The settlement was named
Spokane Falls, in memory of the Spokan Indians, a tribe o
SPOLETO SPON
Salishan stock, which formerly occupied the Spokane Valley;
the word Spokan is said to mean " children of the sun." Spo-
kane was incorporated as a town in 1881 and in the same year
received its first city charter (amended in 1891). The city
became the county-seat in 1882. The present name was adopted
in 1890. The city was reached by the Northern Pacific rail-
way in 1883, by the Union Pacific in 1889, and by the Great
Northern in 1892. On the 4~6th of August 1889, thirty squares
of the city (nearly aP of its business section) were destroyed
by fire, with a loss estimated at $5,000,000. Rebuilding was
at once begun, and in about two years the city had been almost
entirely reconstructed and greatly improved. In 1910 Spokane
adopted a commission form of government.
SPOLETO (anc. Spoletium), a town and archiepiscopal see of
the province of Perugia, Italy, 18 m. N.N.E. of Terni, and
88 m. N. by E. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1901), 9631 (town);
24,648 (commune). It is situated on a hill, so that the lowest
part is about 1000, the highest 1485, ft. above sea-level, at
the south end of the open valley of the Topino, a tributary of
the Tiber, which it joins near Assisi. The principal industries
are the collection and preparation of truffles and preserved
foods, also tanning and the manufacture of earthenware.
Spoleto is also the centre of an agricultural district, and contains
a government experimental olive oil factory. There are few
towns of Italy which possess so many Roman remains in good
preservation under the medieval buildings, and few medieval
towns with so picturesque an appearance. There are con-
siderable remains of perhaps pre-Roman polygonal walls
in one place a piece of this walling has masonry of rectangular
blocks superposed, with an inscription of two of the Roman
municipal magistrates (quattuorviri) . There are also a few
traces of an inner enceinte of the Roman period. There are
remains of a Roman theatre, over 370 ft. in diameter, and an
amphitheatre 390 by 205 ft. A Roman bridge of three arches,
80 ft. long and 26 ft. high, exists at the lower (north) entrance
to the town, under the modern road to Foligno, in the former
bed of a torrent which has now changed its course. A Mith-
raeum was found outside this gate in 1878. The rock above
the town was included within the polygonal walls: but Totila
fortified, not this rock, but the amphitheatre, which remained
the citadel until 1364, when Cardinal Albornoz destroyed it
and erected the present Rocca, which was enlarged by Pope
Nicholas V.; it is now a prison. The Porta della Fuga (the
name alludes to the repulse of Hannibal) occupies the site of a
Roman gate, but is itself medieval: while the medieval enceinte
encloses a somewhat wider area than the ancient. The Piazza
del Mercato represents the Roman forum; close by is a triumphal
arch of Drusus and Germanicus, and a temple (?) into which
is built the church of S. Ansano. A Roman house in the upper
part of the town, with mosaic pavements, probably belonged
to Vespasia Polla, the mother of the emperor Vespasian. The
Palazzo Municipale, close'by, contains the archives and picture
gallery. The cathedral of S. Maria Assunta, much modernized in
1644, occupies the site of a church of the Lombard dukes erected
about 602. The present church was consecrated in 1198;
the facade belongs to the middle of the i2th century. Over
the main entrance is a large mosaic of Christ enthroned, with
the Virgin and St John, by the artist Solsernus (1207). The
Early Renaissance vestibule (after 1491) is fine. In the choir
and on the half dome of the apse, are the finest frescoes of Fra
Filippo Lippi (scenes from the life of the Virgin) completed
after his death by Fra Diamante: his tomb, erected by Lorenzo
de' Medici, with the epitaph by Politian, is on the left of the
choir. The fine stalls and panelling in the winter choir date
from 1548-1554. In and near the Piazza del Duomo are the
unfinished Palazzo della Signoria, of the early i4th century,
which contains the archaeological museum, the small Renais-
sance church of the Manna d'Oro (1527), the facade of the Roman-
esque basilica of S. Eufemia (in the archbishop's palace) and the
fine Early Renaissance Palazzo Arroni with its graffito frieze.
The church of S. Pietro, outside the town on the road to Rome
(wrongly supposed to have been the cathedral before 1067), was
founded in A.D. 419 by Bishop Achilles. Its facade is re-
markable for its richly sculptured decorations of grotesque
figures and beasts, which are of two different dates, about 1000
and about 1 200. S. Domenico is a fine example of later Italian
Gothic with bands of different coloured stones. Both the
church and its crypt contain 14th-century frescoes. The triple-
apsed crypt of S. Gregorio probably dates from the 9th century:
the upper church was consecrated in 1196 and the Romanesque
work covered with stucco in the restoration of 1597. S. Nicolo
is a beautiful example of Pointed Gothic. The basilica of
S. Salvatore (il Crocefisso) at the cemetery belongs to the 4th
century A.D. The fine sculptures of the facade, with its beauti-
ful windows, as also the octagonal dome, all belong to this
period; Meliorantius, the sculptor of the portal of the cathedral
(after 1155), took his inspiration hence. S. Ponziano, not far
off, belongs to the i3th century, but its interior has been re-
stored: the crypt contains frescoes of the 15th century. The
city is still supplied with water by an aqueduct, to which be-
longs the huge bridge called the Ponte delle Torri, crossing the
ravine which divides the town from the Monte Luco (2723 ft.).
The bridge is 253 ft. high and 755 ft. long and has ten arches:
the ground plan is Roman; the stone piers are in the main
later (the work is often attributed to Theodelapius, the third
Lombard duke, in 604), while the pointed brick arches belong
to a restoration of the i4th (?) century. The Monte Luco,
which commands a splendid view, has several hermitages
upon it.
The first mention of Spoletium in history is the notice of the
foundation of a colony there in 241 B.C. (Liv. Epit. xx.;
Veil. Pat. i. 14), and it was still according to Cicero (Pro Balb.
21) " colonia latina in primis firma et illustris " a Latin
colony in 95 B.C. After the battle of Trasimenus (217 B.C.)
Spoletium was attacked by Hannibal, who was repulsed by
the inhabitants (Liv. xxii. 9). During the Second Punic War the
city was a useful ally to Rome. It suffered greatly during
the civil wars of Marius and Sulla. The latter, after his victory
over Crassus, confiscated the territory of Spoletium (82 B.C.).
From this time forth it was a municipium. Under the empire
it again became a flourishing town, but is not often mentioned
in history. It was situated on a branch of the Via Flaminia,
which left the main road at Narnia and rejoined it at Forum
Flaminii. An ancient road also ran hence to Nursia. Martial
speaks of its wine. Aemilianus, who had been proclaimed
emperor by his soldiers in Moesia, was slain by them here on
his way to Rome (A.D. 253), after a reign of three or four months.
Rescripts of Constantine (326) and Julian (362) are dated from
Spoleto. The foundation of the episcopal see dates from the
4th century. Owing to its elevated position it was an im-
portant stronghold during the Vandal and Gothic wars; its
walls were dismantled by Totila (Procop. Bell. got. iii. 12).
Under the Lombards Spoleto became the capital of an in-
dependent duchy (from 570), and its dukes ruled a considerable
part of central Italy. Together with other fiefs, it was be-
queathed to Pope Gregory VII. by the empress Matilda, but
for some time struggled to maintain its independence. In
1155 it was destroyed by Frederick Barbarossa. In 1213 it
was definitely occupied by Gregory IX. During the absence of
the papal court in Avignon it was a prey to the struggles between
Guelphs and Ghibellines, until in 1354 Cardinal Albornoz
brought it once more under the authority of the Church. In
1809 it became capital of the French department of Trasimene.
In 1860 it was taken by the Italian troops after a gallant
defence. Giovanni Pontano, founder of the Accademia
Pontaniana of Naples, was born here.
See A. Sansi, Degli Edifizi e dei frammenti storici dell' antichith.
di Spoleto (Foligno, 1869), and other works; G. Angelini Rota,
Spoleto e Dintorni (Spoleto, 1905) ; and various articles by G. Sordini,
in Notizie degli Scam. (T. As.)
SPON, JACQUES (1647-1685), French doctor and archaeo-
logist, was born at Lyons and died at Vevey. He is famous as
a pioneer in the exploration of the monuments of Greece, travel-
ling there in 1675-1676 with the Englishman (Sir) George Wheler
SPONGES
(1650-1723), whose collection of antiquities was afterwards
bequeathed to Oxford University. Spon brought back many
valuable treasures, coins, inscriptions and manuscripts, and in
later years published various important works on archaeology .
notably his Voyage d'ltalie, de Dalmatic, de Grece el du Levant
(1678), and a Histoire de la republique de Geneve (1680).
SPONGES. The Sponges or Porifera form a somewhat
isolated phylum (or principal subdivision) of the animal king-
dom. This phylum includes an immense number of marine
and fresh-water organisms, all of which agree amongst them-
selves in possessing a combination of important structural
characters which is not found in any other animals. Though the
phylum is a very large one yet almost the only examples with
which the name " sponge " is popularly associated are the
common bath sponges (species of the genera Euspongia and
Hippospongia) , which are amongst the most highly organized
and least typical members of the group.
The history of the group begins with Aristotle, who recognized
several different kinds of sponge, some of which were used by the
Greek warriors for padding their helmets. Owing, however,
to the permanently fixed character, irregular growth and feeble
power of movement in the adult organism, it was not until the
advent of microscopical research that it was definitely proved
that the sponges are animals and not plants. Indeed our
scientific knowledge of the group can scarcely be said to begin
much before the middle of the igth century, when the classical
researches of R. E. Grant, J. E. Gray, H. J. Carter and J. S.
Bowerbank laid the foundations of modern spongology. It
very soon became evident that the group is one which illustrates
with remarkable clearness and beauty those laws of organic
evolution which were beginning to attract so much attention
from zoologists, a fact, which found abundant recognition in
Ernst Haeckel's epoch-making work on the Calcareous Sponges
published in 1872. This was followed by a series of remark-
able researches by F. E. Schulze on the minute anatomy,
histology and embryology of the group, which have served as a
pattern to all subsequent investigators. In more recent years
our knowledge of the sponges has advanced very rapidly,
especially as the result of the great series of scientific exploring
expeditions inaugurated by the voyage of H.M.S. " Challenger.''
The large collection made by the " Challenger " expedition
alone, necessitated a complete reorganization of our systematic
knowledge of the phylum, and afforded the foundation 'upon
which our present system of classification has been built up.
There is perhaps no great group of the animal kingdom in the
study of which greater advance has been made in the last twenty
years. It is impossible in the space at our disposal to do justice
to the numerous valuable memoirs which have appeared during
this period, but reference to the more important works of recent
investigators will be found in the bibliography at the end of
this article, while for a comprehensive account of the whole
subject the reader should refer especially to Professor E. A.
Minchin's article in Sir E. Ray Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
General Characters of the Phylum. The sponges are all aquatic
organisms, and for the most part marine. They vary in size
from minute solitary individuals, scarcely visible to the naked
eye, up to great compound masses several feet in circumference,
and in form from almost complete shapelessness to the most
exquisite and perfect symmetry. The indefiniteness of shape
and size which characterizes the vast majority of the group is
due to the power of budding, which is almost universal amongst
them, whereby extremely complex colonies are built up in
which it is usually impossible to determine the limits of the
individual zooids or persons, while very frequently, by a process
of integration, individuals of a higher order are produced which
again form colonies by budding (fig. 2).
The entire body of the sponge is penetrated by a more or
less complicated canal-system, beginning with numerous in-
halant pores, scattered over the general surface or collected in
special pore-areas, and ending in one or several larger apertures,
the vents or oscula, situated usually on the uppermost portions
of the sponge (fig. 8). If the living animal be kept under
observation it will be seen that a stream of water is ejected
with considerable force from the vents, carrying with it minute
particles in suspension. At the same time numerous smaller
streams enter the canal system through the inhalant pores,
bringing with them the minute particles of organic matter upon
which the sponge feeds and the oxygen which it requires for
respiration. This stream of water may be temporarily inter-
rupted by the closure of the pores and vents, to be resumed
apparently at will. It is maintained by the activity of certain
cells, known as collared cells or choanocytes (fig. 35, g, fig.
36), which line the walls of the canal system either throughout
their entire extent or in certain regions only. These cells bear
an extraordinarily close resemblance to the choanoflagellate
Protozoa or collared Monads. Each is provided with a filmy
protoplasmic collar and a long whip-like flagellum, and the
movements of the latter drive the water out of the canal-system
through the vents and thus keep up the circulation. In all
but the simplest sponges the collared cells are confined to certain
portions cf the canal system known as flagellated chambers
(fig. 9), the size, form and arrangement of which vary greatly
in different types. That part of the canal-system which is not
lined by collared cells is covered with a flattened pavement-
epithelium (fig. 34, i), and so also is the outer surface of the
sponge. The space between the various branches of the canal-
system is occupied by a gelatinous ground-substance (meso-
gloea) in which amoeboid and connective-tissue cells are em-
bedded (fig. 34, 3, 4, 5; fig. 35, a), and in which in most cases
a well-developed skeleton is secreted by special cells known
as scleroblasts. This skeleton (figs. 24-32, &c.) supports the
extremely soft tissues of which the body is composed, and con-
sists either of mineral spicules (carbonate of lime or silica) or
of horny fibres (spongin) , or of a combination of siliceous spicules
with spongin. In many cases the proper skeleton is more or
less completely replaced by sand.
The question as to how far the cell-layers of the sponge body
correspond to the " germinal layers " usually recognizable in other
multicellular animals is an extremely difficult one and not yet
by any means settled. It has until recently been generally sup-
posed that the flattened epithelium which covers the outer surface
of the sponge, together with part of that which lines the canal-
system, is ectodermal, while the collared cells and the remainder
of the flattened epithelium lining the canal-system are endodermal,
and the term mesoderm has been frequently applied to the middle
gelatinous layer. Recent embryological research, however, makes
it extremely doubtful whether this view is justifiable, and whethe;-
indeed the germ-layers of typical Metazoa can be identified at all
in the Porifera. Embryological research, moreover, tends to show
that the primitive gastral epithelium (of collared cells) is in most
sponges completely replaced, except in the flagellated chambers,
by an invasion of the derma! epithelium (composed of flat pavement*
cells).
Sexual reproduction, by means of ova and spermatozoa, is
probably universal throughout the group. The segmentation of
the ovum gives rise to the free-swimming ciliated larva (figs.
38, e, 39) in the form of a hollow " amphiblastula " or of a solid
" parenchymula." This larva becomes attached and, by means of
a more or less complex metamorphosis, gives rise to the young
sponge. During the metamorphosis the outer, ciliated or flagellated
cells of the larva take up their position in the interior of the body
and give rise to the collared cells of the adult ; while the inner cells
(of the parenchymula) migrate outwards and form the superficial
epithelium, so that the position of the so-called " ectoderm "
and " endoderm " is completely reversed in the adult as compared
with the larva.
A sexual reproduction is effected by budding, and the buds may
either remain attached to the parent and form colonies or become
detached and form entirely separate individuals.
Types of Struct, re. We may illustrate our account of the
general characters of the group by a brief description of the
anatomy of three widely divergent types, selected as being fairly
representative of the entire group, viz. Leucosolenia, Plakina
and Euspongia.
Leucosolenia. The genus Leucosolenia includes a number of
calcareous sponges of very simple structure, and thus forms a
suitable starting-point for our studies. Imagine a minute, thin-
walled sac (fig. l), attached at the lower end to some rock or
seaweed, and enclosing a spacious cavity in its interior. This
cavity is the gastral or digestive cavity, and it opens to the exterior
716
SPONGES
through a wide vent or osculum at the upper extremity of the
sponge. The thin wall is also pierced by numerous small inhalant
pores or prosopyles. The inhalant pores, the gastral cavity and
the vent constitute the canal-system, through which a stream of
water can be kept flowing by the activity of the collared cells which
line practically the whole of the gastral cavity. Each collared cell
consists of an oval nucleated body surmounted by a filmy proto-
plasmic collar, in the middle of which the whip-
like flagellum projects into the water. They
are placed close together, side by side, and thus
form a continuous layer, extending almost up
to the vent and interrupted only by the
inhalant pores. The outer surface of the
sponge is covered by a single layer of flattened
pavement-epithelium or epidermis. Some of
these cells, distinguished as porocytes, become
perforated by the inhalant pores, around which
they form contractile diaphragms capable of
opening and closing, and thus regulating the
supply of water. Between the outer protective,
dermal epithelium, and the inner gastral epi-
thelium of collared cells, lies the mesogloea, a
layer of gelatinous material containing cells of
at least two kinds, amoebocytes and sclero-
blasts. The former closely resemble the amoe-
boid white blood corpuscles, or leucocytes, of
higher animals, and have the power of wan-
dering about from place to place in the sponge-
wall. They probably serve to distribute
food material and carry away waste products,
and some of them undoubtedly give rise to
the ova and spermatozoa. The scleroblasts
are derived from cells of the dermal epith-
elium which migrate inwards into the gela-
tinous ground-substance and there secrete the
FIG. I. Leucoso- spicules of which the skeleton is composed.
lenia primordialis These spicules are composed of transparent
(Olynthus form). crystalline carbonate of lime (calcite), and may
be of three fundamental forms: triradiate,
quadriradiate and monaxon. It has been shown by E. A. Minchin,
however, that the triradiate and quadriradiate types are not simple
spicules but spicule-systems, each formed of three or four primary
spicules, originating from as many mother-cells and only secondarily
united. In fig. I only triradiate spicules are represented, but
very often all three kinds are present in the same sponge (cf. fig. 24).
The triradiates lie in the mesogloea with their three rays extended
in a plane parallel to the surfaces of the sponge-wall, and form a
kind of loose scaffolding upon which the soft tissues are supported.
The quadriradiates resemble the triradiates in form and position,
but a fourth ray is developed which projects through the layer of
collared cells into the gastral cavity, where it serves as a defence
against internal parasites. The monaxon spicules have one end
embedded in the mesogloea while the other projects outwards and
upwards and serves as a defence against external foes.
Although all species of the genus Leucosolenia agree essentially
in structure, yet they exhibit very great diversity in external
form. This is due to the habit of budding and colony formation.
All start life after the metamorphosis of the larva in the simple
sac-shaped condition which we have just described, and to which
the name " Olynthus-type " is sometimes applied. This is indeed
the simplest type of sponge organization known to us and we
must look upon the Olynthus as representing a primary sponge-
Sndividual or " person." By a simple process of budding, in which
(After Hacckel.)
(After Minchin, from Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.)
FIG. 2. Leucosolenia (Clathrina) clalhrus, natural size; showing
reticulate form of colony, expanded and with_ open oscula on the
left, contracted and with closed oscula on the right.
osc, Osculum. ph. Sphincter of osculum.
d. osc, Closed osculum. dty, Diverticula.
contr. osc. Closed oscula in con- osc. div, Diverticula from which
tracted part of colony. new oscula arise.
the buds all remain united together by their bases, we get a branched
colony in which the persons or zooids are still easily recognizable,
each with its own vent or osculum. Very frequently, however,
the zooids become elongated into slender cylindrical tubes which
branch in an extremely complex manner and anastomose with one
another in many places to form networks, in which it is no longer
possible to recognize the component individuals (fig. 2). This is
known as the " Clathrina " type of structure, and we may look
upon a Clathrina colony as an individual of a higher order, which
may assume a definite external form and even acquire a secondary
internal cavity (pseudogaster), opening to the exterior through a
secondary vent (pseudosculum), while the outer tubes of the colony
may give rise to a protective skin (pseudoderm), perforated by
secondary inhalant pores (pseudopores) which are obviously quite
distinct in nature from the primary inhalant pores or prosopyles of
the Olynthus.
Other types of colony-formation in the genus Leucosolenia will be
discussed when we come to deal with the canal-system in general.
Plakina.- The genus Plakina includes some of the simplest of
the siliceous sponges. Just as in the Calcarea the most primitive
" person " or individual is represented by the Olynthus type, so
in the non-calcareous sponges we may recognize a primitive or
(After Keller.)
FIG. 3. Vertical section of a Rhagon, diagrammatic.
o, Osculum ; p, Gastral cavity. ( X 100.)
fundamental form of individual to which the name " Rhagon "
has been applied. This is the first stage reached after the meta-
morphosis of the larva in certain species, and the little sponge
consists of a cushion-shaped sac, attached below by a broad flattened
base and terminating above in a single vent or osculum (fig. 3).
There is a large gastral cavity lined by pavement-epithelium and
surrounded by a number of more or less spherical " flagellated
chambers," lined by collared cells. These chambers open into the
gastral cavity by wide mouths (apopyles) and communicate with
the exterior by smaller inhalant pores. The entire outer surface
of the sponge is covered with pavement-epithelium and there is
a well-developed mesogloea which may contain spicules. This
Rhagon may be compared to an Olynthus which has become flattened
out from above downwards and from which a number of small
buds (the flagellated chambers) have been given off all round,
except from the attached basal portion; so that the whole forms
a small colony, in which the collared cells have become restricted
to the buds. We may, therefore, perhaps, look upon the Rhagon
as an. individual or person of a higher order than the Olynthus.
Like the Olynthus the Rhagon occurs as a transient stage in the
development of certain sponges, but we do not know any non-
calcareous sponge which remains in such a simple condition through-
out life. In Plakina monolopha, for example, the entire wall of
the Rhagon becomes thrown into folds (fig. 4) so that a system of
inhalant and exhalant canals is formed between the folds, through
which the water has to pass on its way to and from the chambers.
The inhalant canals lead down between the folds from the outer
surface of the sponge. In P. monolopha they are wide and ill
defined. In another species, Plakina dilopha, they become con-
stricted to form perfectly definite, narrow canals, by the_develop-
ment of a thick layer of mesogloea (and pavement-epithelium)
which covers the outer surface of the sponge in such a manner that
the folded character is no longer visible externally. The external
openings of the inhalant canals now form definite dermal pores.
In such a sponge as this the folded chamber-layer of the sponge-
wall is sometimes called the choanospme, while the external layer
of mesogloea and pavement-epithelium is called the ectosome.
In a third species, Plakina trilopha, further folding of the " choano-
somal lamella " takes place and we thus get a still more complex
canal-system.
In Plakina the spicules are composed of colloidal silica. The
fundamental spicule form is the primitive tetract or calthrops,
consisting of four sharp-pointed rays diverging at equal angles
from a common centre (fig. 5, a~e). Modifications of this form
occur in two directions: in the first place some of the tetracts, by
branching of one ray, give rise to " candelabra," while others, by
suppression of rays, give rise to forms with three or even two rays
only, triacts and diacts, the latter sometimes termed oxeate (fig.
5, /-/). The arrangement of the spicules is very irregular; the
candelabra alone are definitely arranged (at the surface of the
sponge), the other forms are thickly scattered without any sort
of order throughout the mesogloea.
Euspongia. The genus Euspongia, to which belong all^the finer
bath sponges, is a typical example of the true " horny " sponges
or Euceratosa, characterized especially by the fact that the skeleton
is not composed of spicules but of so called horny fibres. A living
SPONGES
717
bath sponge appears as a dark-coloured, irregular or sometimes
cup-shaped mass attached by the under surface to the sea-bottom.
The outer surface is covered by a skin or dermal membrane, elevated
in innumerable minute conuli by the growing apices of the primary
(After F. E. Schulze.)
FIG. 4. Plakina monolopha.
Ciliated embryo (the central e, Rhagon stage, viewed as a
- -
part should be shaded).
6, Part of section of ciliated
embryo.
col, Inner cell-mass.
ec, External, columnar cells.
fl, Flagella.
c, Attached embryo, viewed
from above, with the gas-
tral cavity appearing in
the interior.
d, Vertical section oi attached
embryo.
transparent object, show-
ing the inhalant -pores on
the surface and the flagel-
jated chambers in the
interior; the osculum is not
shown.
/, Part of vertical section
through adult sponge,
showing the folded cnoano-
somal lamella or spongo-
phare.
of, Ova. bl, Embryo.
skeleton fibres. This skin is pierced by a vast number of inhalant
dermal pores of microscopic size, and by a much smaller number of
comparatively large vents or oscula. When the sponge is removed
from the water the soft tissues rapidly decay and leave behind
only the elastic " hornv " skeleton, which is what we iisnallv
horny " skeleton, which is what we usually
(Alter F. E. Schulze. From a plate in Zeitschriflfiir Wissen. Zoologie,
by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.)
FIG. 5. Plakina monolopha.
Spicules, a-e, tetracts or calthrops; f-k, triads or triradiates;
/-/, diacts, showing how the monaxon form (i) may be derived from
the primitive tetract (a) by suppression of actines.
speak of under the name " sponge." It consists of a very close
network of spongin fibres (closely resembling silk in chemical
composition), some of which, known 'as primaries, run towards the
surface at fairly regular intervals, while others, known as secondary
-jr.
P-f-
(After F. E. Schulze. From a coloured plate in Zeits. fiir Wissen. Zoologie.
by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.)
FIG. d.Euspongia officinalis (bath sponge). Part of vertical section
showing general arrangement of skeleton and canal-system.
p.f, Primary fibre of skeleton. i.c, Inhalant canals.
s.f, Secondary fibres. e.c, Exhalant canals.
d.p, Dermal pores (inhalant). f.c, Flagellated chambers,
fibres, connect the primaries in all directions and themselves
branch and anastomose freely. The primary fibres contain particles
of sand or foreign spicules which are taken in by their growing
(After F. E. Schulze. From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.)
FIG. 7. Euspongia officinalis (bath sponge). Skeleton. Fibre
surrounded by spongoblasts.
sp.f, Spongin fibre; sp.bl, Spongoblasts. Coll, Collen^ytes.
apices at the surface of the sponge, and the presence of which may
greatly injure the quality of the sponge. The connecting fibres
are only about 0-035 mm. in diameter, or even less, and the primaries
are a little thicker, while the meshes between the fibres are so narrow
as to permit of the soaking up of water by capillary attraction,
.0
(After F. E. Schulze.)
FIG. 8. Euspongia officinalis (bath sponge). Diagram of the
arrangement of the canal-system as seen in vertical sections of two
young individuals.
d.p, Dermal pores; o, Oscula; r, Rock to which the sponges are
attached.
7 i8
SPONGES
the property upon which the economic value of the bath sponge
depends. In the living sponge the fibres are embedded in the
mesogloea, where they are secreted by special cells known as spongo-
blasts, which are often found thickly clustering around them
(fig. 7). The canal-system (figs. 6, 8) is very complex and shows
but little indication of its origin from a folded rhagon. The in-
halant pores lead each into a short, narrow, inhalant canal; these
unite in roomy subdermal cavities lying in the ectosome, and from
these in turn the main inhalant canals come off. The latter divide
and subdivide, and thus ramify
through the deeper parts of the
sponge amongst the flagellated
chambers, to each of which a small
number of slender canaliculi are
ultimately given off (fig. 9). The
chambers themselves, lined by the
usual collared cells, are small and
approximately spherical, and each
one discharges its water through a
short and narrow exhalant canali-
culus (fig. 9). The openings of
the inhalant canaliculi into the
chambers, of which there are several,
correspond to the prosopyles of an
Olynthus, while the single exhalant
opening, or apopyle, may possibly
correspond to an Olynthus osculum.
(After F. E. Schulze. From a plate Th Ivi,,!.,.,* i-onaliriili nnitp tn
in Zeils.fur Wissen. Zoologie, by per- * n ? exhalant canaliculi unite to-
mission of Wilhelm Engdmann.) gether to form larger and larger
FIG. o.Euspongia offici- canals which finally lead the stream
nalis (bath sponge). Part of f wa ter to the vents onthe surface
a section such as is shown f the sponge (fig. 8). The various
in fig. 6, more highly magni- parts of the canal-system, other
fied, showing three flagellated than the chambers themselves are
chambers, with inhalant cana- llned b V a flat pavement-epithelium,
liculi on the left and exhalant and the mesogloea, occupying all
canaliculi on the right. the spaces between the different
parts of the canal-system, contains
cells of various kinds, embedded in a very granular matrix.
Comparative Anatomy.
External Characters. Amongst the simpler calcareous sponges,
which are all of comparatively small size, the external form is
usually symmetrical and is evidently a kind of outward expression
of the arrangement of the canal-system.
This is well seen in the simplest form of
all, the sac-shaped Olynthus, and also
in its simpler Syconoid and Leuconoid
derivatives (described later on), which
may be regarded either as individuals of
a higher order or as colonies of Olynthus
persons grouped around a central indi-
vidual whose large gastral cavity opens
to the exterior through the single oscu-
lum. In the more complex Leuconoids,
however, the process of colony formation
becomes very irregular and may give rise
to great compound masses, with many
vents. In these masses we may perhaps
recognize the presence of individuals of
three orders: (l) the primitive Olynthus
persons, represented by the individual
flagellated chambers; (2) the Leuconoid
persons, indicated each by its osculum;
and (3) the entire colony formed by the
union of many such Leuconoid persons
in an irregular manner. It is, however,
very doubtful how far the flagellated
chambers in such forms as this can be
regarded as morphologically equivalent
to Olynthus persons.
In the non-calcareous sponges we are
always dealing wi.th individuals of a high
order, which usually form complex aggre-
gates (colonies) of large size and very
various shape. As a general rule the
form of those non-calcareous sponges
which grow in shallow water is extremely
irregular and variable while at great
ocean depths the shape is usua'.ly defi-
nite, constant and often exquisitely
symmetrical, a fact which may perhaps
be accounted for in part by the absence
f disturbing influences such as are met
., by permission of the Controller With in shallow water. Perhaps the
of H.M. Stationery Office.) most extraordinary external form yet
FIG. 10. Esperiopsis discovered is that of Esperiopsis challen-
challengeri : a deep-water gm, discovered by the "Challenger"
Monaxonellid Sponge. expedition in deep water off the Philip-
pine Islands (fig. 10), a form which reminds one strikingty-
of a number of flowers arranged in a raceme, except that the
largest and oldest member of the compound colony is at the
top of the stalk and the smallest at the bottom. In other deep-
water species the external form may frequently be explained
(Alter Ridley and Dendy. From " Challenger" Reports, xx., by permission
of the Controller of H. M. Stationery Office.)
FIG. II. Cladorhiza longipinna: a deep-water Monaxonellid
Sponge, showing the " Crinorhiza " form, adapted for support on
soft ooze.
as an adaptation to the special exigencies of the environment.
Thus, for example, many species are provided with long stalks
which lift up the body of the sponge out of the soft ooze
in which it would otherwise be
smothered, while the bottom of
the stalk is frequently extended
in root-like processes which serve
to attach it to some solid object
(e.g. Stylocordyla). In other cases
the sponge supports itself on
the surface of the ooze by long
stiff processes, formed of bundles
of spicules which radiate from the
central, cap-shaped body; this is
known as the " Crinorhiza form,"
and is met with in several distinct
genera (fig. n). Amongst the Hex-
actinellida, which are essentially a
deep-water group, many very beauti-
ful external forms are met with, the
best known, perhaps, being the
so-called Venus's flower basket
(Euplectella, fig. 12).
Flabellate (or fan-shaped) and cup-
shaped forms are frequently met
with even amongst shallow-water
sponges, and in widely separated
genera, such as Poterion (the great
Neptune's cup sponge) and Reniera
testudinaria. In Phyllospongia the
flabellate and cup-shaped forms pass
insensibly into one another, the cup
being apparently merely a folded
lamella. Slender branching forms
are also not uncommon in shallow
water, as seen in the common
Chalina oculata of the British coast.
Spherical forms, such as Tethya,
likewise occur. By far the greater
number of shallow-water sponges,
however, are quite irregular in shape
and either form crusts of varying
thickness on the surface of rocks and
sea-v
gates which may-
able height above the substratum. (After F E s^^^.. From a plate
In the boring sponges (Family j n Challenger" Reports, Mi., by
Clionidae) the sponge occupies an permission of the Controller of H.M.
elaborate system of chambers and Stationery Office.)
passages which it excavates for FIG. 12. Euplectella asper-
itself in the shells of Mollusca and gillum, " Venus's Flower
other calcareous organisms. The Basket " : a Hexactmellid
common British Cliona celata begins Sponge.
-weed, or large and massive aggre-
:es which may rise to a consider-
SPONGES
719
life in this way, but soon outgrows the housing capacity of its host,
whose shell then serves merely as a base of attachment for the
large independent sponge-colony.
One of the most striking features of living sponges is their colour,
which is often very brilliant. Yellow, red, orange, purple, brown,
black, green and blue are all met with, in varying degrees of purity
and intensity, amongst the commoner Non-calcarea; whilst the
calcareous sponges are usually white. It appears probable that the
colour is more or less constant for each species, and may therefore
afford a useful guide to specific identification. As a rule the colour
is lost in spirit-preserved or dry specimens, but a noteworthy
exception is found in the brilliant purple Suberites ivilsoni of Port
Phillip, in which the colour, though soluble in water, is permanent
in dry specimens and in alcohol. The colouring matter is some-
times lodged in special pigment cells belonging to the sponge itself,
and sometimes in symbiotic algae, with which the mesogloea is
frequently filled.
Canal-system. Whether we start with the primitive Olynthus
form of the Calcarea or with the more advanced Rhagon of many
Non-calcarea, it is evident that further advance in the complication
of the canal-system is arrived at either by budding or folding,
or by a combination of these processes. As, however, the canal-
systems of the calcareous and of the main types of non-calcareous
sponges have been evolved along perfectly independent lines it
will be well to consider them separately.
In the genus Leucosolenia (Calcarea Homocoela) the primitive
Olynthus form may, as we have already seen, give rise, by branching
and anastomosing, to complex reticulate colonies of the Clathrina
type, in which a pseudoderm, pierced by inhalant pores, may cover
over a system of inhalant canals which are simply the inter-
spaces between the branching tubes of which the colony is
made up, while at the same time a centrally placed pseudogaster,
which is simply a space enclosed by upgrowth of the colony
around it, may form the main exhalant canal and open to the
exterior through a well-defined vent or pseudosculum. In this
direction perhaps the most remarkable modification arrived
at is that of Leucosolenia cavata,
in which the Clathrina tubes, lined
by collared cells, widen out into
large irregular spaces, while the
inhalant interspaces become con-
stricted into narrow canals lined
by collared cells on the outside.
We have here a kind of inversion
of the ordinary Clathrina canal-
system, but a perfectly gradual
transition from the ordinary to the
inverted condition is seen as we
pass from the older to the younger
parts of the colony.
In Leucosolenia (Dendya) tri-
podifera (fig. 13) we find a totally
different type of colony formation,
which is of great importance as
indicating in its canal-system the
possible starting-point of a line
of evolution which culminates in
the highest Calcarea. Here a
large central individual, whose
spacious gastral cavity is lined
by collared cells, gives off radial
buds from all sides, which branch
slightly and terminate in blind
ends in contact with one another,
so that the entire colony has an
approximately even surface. The
inhalant canals are represented by
the interspaces between the radial
tubes, between the blind extremi-
ties of which the water finds its
way in from the outside. There
is only a single vent, situate at
the extremity of the central cavity.
This cavity must be regarded as
the original gastral cavity of a
parent Olynthus, from which the
radial tubes have been produced
by budding.
( After Dendy. Simplified from a coloured " \Ve have next, amongst the
felbourrKPvot iff^pt ^i")' "* V ' c>ar " > ' Calcarea Heterocoela, the Sycon
; i -j. j- type of canal-system which differs
FIG. i 3 -Leuco S olemat n podi- { h forcgoing in that thc
{era with part of the sponge- collared cells O f thc central gastral
wall cut away to show the ^ ^ rep i accd by pav | m ent-
arrangement of the radial out- epith lium . The radi ^, ' tubes now
form definite flagellated chambers,
pierced as before by numerous prosopyles through which the water
enters from the spaces between the chambers, while the original
gastral cavity forms a central exhalant canal terminating in the
single vent, a true osculum, corresponding to the osculum of an
fox.
Olynthus. In the simplest Syconoid forms (Sycetta) the radial
chambers remain perfectly straight and unbranched. They do not
touch one another at all and
there is no trace of an ectosome ,pros
or dermal cortex, nd hence
there are no true inhalant
canals, and the water circulates
without interruption between
the chambers. In the genus
Sycon (fig. 14) the walls of
adjacent chambers come into
contact with one another and
fuse together and thus give rise t/.cnr 1
to more or less well-defined
inhalant " inter-canals." The
chambers themselves may
branch, and in some species
of Sycon a thin, pore-bearing
dermal membrane connects to-
gether their distal extremities ( Fr om Dendy, in Quart. Journ. Micro. Sti...
and covers over the entrances new series, xxjtv., by permission of. J. and
to the inhalant canals. The A - Chun-hill.)
canal-system now exhibits all FIG. 14. Sycon carteri, part of
the different parts found in a transverse (horizontal) section,
the most highly-organized showing three radial chambers, the
sponges: viz. dermal pores, middle one cut open,
inhalant canals, flagellated fl, c k, Flagellated chamber,
chambers, exhalant canal and ex.op, Its exhalant opening or
osculum. In the genus Cranlia apopyle.
and its allies (e.g. Ute, fig. 15) p r0 s, Prosopyle.
the thin dermal membrane c .g.c, Central gastral cavity,
of Sycon is converted into a ,-. C| Inhalant canal,
well-developed cortex, cover- g.cor, Gastral cortex,
ing the extremities of both g . ?i Gastral quadriradiate spi-
the inhalant canals and the cu ] e .
radial chambers, and some- s _ g _ St Subgastral sagittal trira-
times containing a system
of special cortical inhalant
canals. We may now dis-
diate spicules, forming the
first joint of the articulate
tubar skeleton.
tinguish between an ectosome t.ox. Tufts of monaxon spicules at
(the dermal cortex), which the ends of the chambers,
contains no flagellate cham-
bers, and a choanosome in which chambers are present. The
next stage has probably been arrived at by a kind of fold-
ing of the choanosome, for we find the chambers arranged
(After Polejaeff.)
FIG. 15. Ute argen.tea, part of transverse section, showing the
Syconoid canal-system, and thick dermal cortex containing huge
longitudinally placed monaxon spicules whose cross-sections are
represented by concentric circles.
radially, not around the central gastral cavity but around
diverticula of the latter which form special exhalant canals.
This condition, sometimes called the " sylleibid " type, is not
characteristic of any particular genus or family, but occurs
in a few isolated species, such as Leucilla connexiva (fig. 16). A
somewhat similar condition may be arrived at by branching of
the radial flagellated chambers, as in Heteropegma (fig. 17). The
next stage is marked by great reduction in the size of the chambers,
which may become almost spherical, and by further folding cl the
choanosome, so that in a section of the sponge-wall we see the small
chambers scattered irregularly in the mesogloea between the numer-
ous branches of complicated inhalant and exhalant canals. Each
720
SPONGES
chamber still has several prosopyles, through which it receives
water from the ultimate branches of the inhalant canals, while it
opens into a relatively large exhalant canal by a wide apopyle.
This is the highest type of canal-system met with amongst the
Calcarea. It is sometimes known as the Leucon type and is seen
in most species of the genus Leucandra, as well as in many others.
(After Polejaeff.)
FIG. 16. Leucilla connexiva, part of transverse section, showing
" sylleibid " type of canal system with folded chamber layer and
exhalant canals (E) into which the chambers open.
It is almost identical with one of the types commonly found in
non-calcareous sponges (e.g. Plakina, fig. 4), but has of course been
evolved independently. The various types of canal-system met with
in the Calcarea are connected together by numerous intermediate
forms, thus forming a very interesting evolutionary series, while
both the Sylleibid and Leucpnoid types appear to have been in-
dependently evolved several times, thus affording excellent examples
of the phenomenon of convergence, a phenomenon which is very
frequently met with amongst sponges.
(After Potejaeff.)
FIG. 17. Heteropegma nodus-gordii, part of transverse section,
showing branching flagellated chambers and huge subdermal
quadriradiate spicules, with greatly reduced tubar skeleton.
In describing the anatomy of Plakina as a type of non-calcareous
sponge, we have traced the development of a fairly complex canal-
system from the so-called Rhagon form. We can, however, hardly
regard the Rhagon as representing a fundamental type of canal-
system common to all the Ncn-calcarea, for in some of the Myxo-
spongida, which are the most primitive of all, and again in the
Hexactiuellida, we find a type characterized by the presence of
elongated sac-shaped flagellated chambers resembling those of the
Sycon type amongst the Calcarea, and these chambers are arranged
radially around the exhalant canals (Halisarca, Hexactinellida).
The first recognizable stage in the evolution of the canal-system of
the Non-calcarea would thus appear to be a condition not unlike
that of Sycon, with a number of elongated chambers arranged
radially around a central gastral cavity and having their blind
outer extremities covered over by a dermal membrane. This stage
is very nearly reproduced in the young form of a Hexactinellid
sponge, Lanuginella pupa. From some such form the Rhagon
type may perhaps be derived by flattening out of the lower end of
the sponge into a broad base of attachment, and by reduction in
the size of the flagellated chambers, accompanied by a more irregular
arrangement.
Starting from the primitive Myxosponge ancestor, with large
sac-shaped chambers, radially arranged, the Non-calcarea have
apparently developed along four main lines, giving rise to the exist-
ing Myxospongida, the Hexactinellida (Triaxonida), the Tetraxonida
osc.
(After F. E. Schulze. From Lankester's Treatise an Zoology.)
FIG. 18. Lanuginella pupa. O.S., Vertical section of a young
specimen (spicules omitted).
d.m, Dermal membrane. g.m, Gastral membrane.
sd. tr, Subdermal trabecular layer. G.C, Gastral cavity.
ft.c, Flagellated chamber. osc, Region of future osculum.
sg.tr, Subgastral trabecular layer.
and the Euceratosa. The Myxospongida have retained the large
size of the chambers in certain forms (Halisarca, Bajalus), but have
lost this primitive character in the more advanced members of the
group (Oscarella). The Hexactinellida have retained the large
size and radial arrangement of the flagellated chambers throughout
their entire series. The chamber layer, however, tends to become
more or less folded (fig. 19), and always lies between two layers of
. fft.
G.C
(After Schulze. From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.)
FIG. 19. Section of the Body- wall of Bathydorus fimbriatus,
F.E.S. (spicules omitted).
ex.c, Exhalant canals. sg.tr, Subgastral trabecular layer.
d.m, Dermal membrane. g.m, Gastral membrane.
sd.tr, Subdermal trabecular layer. G.C, Gastral cavity.
fl.c, Flagellated chambers.
Joose trabecular tissue in which the canals are represented by
irregular spaces. The Tetraxonida appear to have suffered reduction
in the size of the flagellated chambers at a very early date, and it
is of this group especially that the Rhagon type is characteristic
(e.g. Plakina, fig. 4). The Euceratosa exhibit a beautiful series,
SPONGES
721
beginning with forms (Aplysillidae') having large sac-shaped chambers
like those of Hexactinellids and ending with forms (Spongiidae,
Euspongia, figs. 6, 8, 9) having small spherical chambers.
Along all four lines of descent it is probable that folding of the
choanosome, or chamber-bearing layer of the sponge-wall, has
played a very important part in the evolution of the canal-system.
This folding is very clearly seen in the Hexactinellida and in such
forms as Oscarella (Myxospongida) and Plakina (Tetraxonida).
By this process inhalant and exhalant canal-systems have been
formed, and then the ends of the inhalant canals have in most cases
been closed in by development of an ectosome, as in Plakina trilopha
and Stelletta phrissens (fig. 20). In the majority of cases (e.g.
(After Sollas.)
FIG. 20. Young specimen of Stelletta phrissens (Sollas). Vertical
section through the osculum (o), showing the choanosome folded
within the ectosome.
Euspongia) the folding has become so complex that it is no longer
recognizable as such, and the origin of the now well-defined inhalant
and exhalant canals is completely disguised. In many cases the
principal exhalant canals may be surrounded by a layer of tissue
of considerable thickness in which there are no flagellated chambers
at all, known as the endosome, so that the folded choanosome may
be sandwiched in between ectosome on the outside and endosome
on the inside.
The manner in which the flagellated chambers communicate
with their respective branches of the inhalant and exhalant canal-
(After Sollas.)
FIG. 21. Transverse section across an exhalant canal and
surrounding choanosome of Cydonium eosaster (Sollas), showing the
aphodal flagellated chambers.
system varies considerably in different forms, and the following
types are recognizable, though by no means sharply distinguished
from one another. In the more primitive forms (e.g. Hexactinellida,
Aplysillidae, Spongeliidae) each chamber is provided with several
prosopyles and receives its water supply direct from relatively
large inhalant canals or even lacunae, discharging it again through
a wide mouth (apopylc) into a relatively large exhalant canal or
lacuna which also receives water directly from other chambers.
To this type (fig. 4, f) the name "eurypylous" has been given, and
we may include in it cases where there is only a single prosopyle, and
perhaps even a short, narrow
inhalant canal. In more ad-
vanced forms the water is dis-
charged from each chamber
through a narrow exhalant
canaliculus (aphodus) peculiar
to itself, and thence into wider
canals. This is known as the
" aphodal " type (e.g. Cydo-
nium, fig. 21). In the " dip-
lodal " type there is a special
inhalant canaliculus (prosodus)
as well as a special aphodus
to each chamber, with usually,
at any rate, only a single
prosopyle (e.g. Corticium, fig.
22). The progress from the
eurypylous to the diplodal
condition is accompanied by a
corresponding increase in the
development of the mesogloea,
whereby the canals are greatly
restricted in diameter, and at
the same time the mesogloea (After F. E. Schulze.)
tends to lose its transparent FIG. 22. Part of a section of
gelatinous character and to Corticium candelabrum, O.S., show-
become compact and granular, ing diplodal type of canal-system.
With the growth of the ectc The canal shown on the left is
some we necessarily get a inhalant and that on the right (e)
corresponding development of exhalant.
the proximal portion of the
inhalant canal-system. At first the ectosome is merely a thin mem-
brane, the dermal membrane, pierced by the inhalant pores, which
are usually arranged in groups.
Beneath the groups of pores
(pore-areas) lie spacious sub-
dermal cavities which form the
commencement of the inhalant
canal-system in the choanosome.
In more advanced types the
ectosome becomes greatly thick-
ened and may be specially
strengthened in a variety of
ways to form a cortex. The
inhalant pores now no longer
lead directly into the subdermal
cavities, but first into a series
of cavities lying in the cortex
and known as chones, which
may be separated from the
underlying subdermal cavities
(sub-cortical crypts) by definite
sphincters (Cydonium, fig. 23).
The arrangement of the oscula
and pores on the surface of the
sponge varies greatly in different
types, and sometimes gives rise
to very striking modifications
of the external form. The oscula
or vents are usually relatively (After Sollas.)
large openings situated on the FIG. 23. Section through the
more prominent parts of the CO rtex and part of the choano-
sponge, often on special eleva- som eof Cydonium eosaster (Sollas),
tions. Occasionally they are showing a pore-sieve and under-
replaced by sieve-like oscular l y j ng ^one in the cortex. The
areas (e.g. Geodia perarmala), a c hone communicates below with
modification which doubtless a subcortical crypt, from which
serves to prevent foreign bodies the inhalant canals originate. The
from entering the wide exhalant CO rtex contains numerous sterras-
canals. The inhalant pores terS) connected with one another
may be irregularly scattered by fibrous bands,
over the surface of the sponge
or collected in more or less well-defined pore-areas. In cup-shaped
sponges the pores are usually confined to the outer and the oscula
to the inner surface. In flabellate sponges we find pores on one
side and oscula on the other. In Tedania actiniiformis, a deep-
sea form, the pores are restricted to a narrow band surrounding
the columnar body of the sponge just beneath the flattened top,
which bears the vents; thus they are kept from being choked up
by the soft ooze on which the sponge lies. In Xenospongia, a flattened
discoid form, they are confined to narrow grooves on the upper
surface, the chief of which run round the margin of the disk. In
Esperella murrayi the pores are also confined to special grooves
on the surface of the sponge, and in both these cases the grooves
can apparently be opened and closed by special bands of muscle-
fibres, and the supply of water thus regulated. In some species
of Latrunculia we find the surface of the sponge covered with
722
SPONGES
conspicuous projections of two kinds, some conical and bearing
each a single vent, others truncated at the top and bearing the
inhalant pores.
Skeleton. The original ancestral form (Prololynthus) from which
all the Porifera are supposed to be descended, probably possessed
no proper skeleton at all, and this condition has been retained
in the existing Myxospongida, although these sponges have
made considerable progress in the evolution of their canal-
system. There appears to be little doubt that the Myxo-
spongida are primitively devoid of skeleton, and in this respect
they must becarefullydistinguishedfromthegenusCAoMdro^'a,
in which the skeleton has been secondarily suppressed, as
well as from numerous and divers species in which the proper
skeleton has been more or less completely replaced by grains
of sand or other foreign bodies. The Calcarea, Triaxonida,
Tetraxonida and Euceratosa, except in cases of extreme
degeneration, all possess a well-developed proper skeleton.
As this skeleton has been independently evolved in each of
these great groups it is necessary to deal with it separately in
each case.
Calcarea. The skeleton in this group is composed of spicules
of crystalline carbonate of lime (usually calcite), developed
within special mother-cells or scleroblasts. Each spicule is
enclosed in a delicate membranous spicule-sheath and
contains an axial thread of organic matter. Three main
types of calcareous spicule are met with, triradiate, quadri-
radiate and monaxon (fig. 24). The triradiates and quadri-
radiates, however, are not simple spicules, but spicule-
systems formed of three or four rays each originating
independently from its own scleroblaft (actinoblast) and all uniting
together secondarily. There is reason to believe that this may
also sometimes be the case with the monaxon or oxeate spicules.
In the most primitive triradiate spicules all three rays lie in the
quadriradiate spicules. These may be sagittal, in which case the
oral rays are turned towards the osculum while the basal ray is
directed downwards. If there is an apical ray it projects into the
gastral cavity. The walls of the radial chambers are supported by
a special " tubar " skeleton (cf. fig. 14), consisting exclusively of
sph
B
A,
(After E. A. Minchin. From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.)
FIG. 24. Spicules of Calcareous Sponges.
same plane. Three chief varieties may be distinguished: (i)
Regular (fig. 24, 6), with all the rays and all the angles equal;
(2) Sagittal (fig. 24, c, d, I, &c.), with two of the rays or two of the
angles forming a pair, differentiated in some respect from the re-
maining ray or angle, the paired rays being termed " oral " and
the odd ray " basal "; (3) Irregular (fig. 24, p), when conforming
to neither of the above types. It has been proposed to draw a
very sharp distinction between " equi-angular " triradiates and
" alate " forms (in which the angle between the oral rays differs
from the paired angles), but it may be doubted whether such a
distinction has any great value. The quadriradiate (fig. 24, e,
/, k, m) is formed by the addition of an " apical " or " gastral "
ray to the three " facial " rays of the triradiate; this ray lies in a
plant at right angles to that of the facial rays. The monaxon
spicules (fig. 24, h, i, q, r, s) are straight or curved and the two
ends are usually more or less sharply differentiated from one another.
In all these spicules the form and arrangement of the rays is usually
clearly correlated with their position in the sponge in such a manner
that they are specially adapted for the work which they have to do.
The arrangement of the spicules in the case of the genus Leucoso-
lenia has been dealt with above, and we must pass on at once to
the Calcarea Heterocoela. In this group the skeleton exhibits an
evolutionary series no less remarkable than that of the canal-system.
We may take as a convenient starting-point the genus Sycetta,
a typical Syconoid form, with the flagellated chambers radiating
independently from the central gastral cavity. The wall of the
(After J. J. Lister.)
FIG. 25. Astrosclera willeyana (Lister).
Entire sponge (x 3) : p.s., upper surface with openings of canal-
system; b, base of attachment.
B, Section of skeleton: sph, spherules of arragonite; c, canals.
triradiates with their basal rays directed towards the distal end
of each chamber. The oral rays are spread out at right angles
to the length of the chamber, and as several spicules generally lie
at the same level the tubar skeleton forms a series of more or less
definite joints and is said to be " articulate." This type of skeleton
is almost invariably associated with the Syconoid type of canal-
system. In the genus Sycon i-tself we find the distal ends of the
chambers specially protected by tufts of monaxon spicules (fig. 14),
but the next great advance in the evolution of the skeleton is brought
about by the development of a dermal cortex, in which a special
dermal skeleton is developed. This is well seen in the genus Vie
(fig- IS)- After this the skeleton of the chamber layer in the sponge-
wall begins to undergo modifications, some of which are obviously
correlated with the gradual change of the canal-system from the
Syconoid to the Leuconoid condition (cf. figs. 16 and 17). Finally
all trace of the articulate tubar skeleton is lost, and we get a " paren-
chymal " skeleton of scattered radiate spicules in the chamber
layer. The skeleton of the chamber layer, no matter what the type
of canal-system, may be supplemented by large subdermal sagittal
triradiates or subdermal quadriradiates (fig. 17), whose basal or
apical rays project inwards from the dermal cortex (Heteropidae
and Amphoriscidae). Very generally a special " oscular " skeleton
is developed in the form of a fringe of long monaxon spicules around
the vent.
Various aberrant types of skeleton are met with in the group.
In the genus Lelapia we find a partly fibrous skeleton, in which the
fibres are composed of bundles of triradiates shaped like tuning-
forks (fig. 24, o), and in Petrostoma the main skeleton is formed of
calcareous spicules actually fused together. In Astrosclera (fig. 25)
a very anomalous type of calcareous skeleton is found, consisting of
spherical masses of arragonite, each originating in a special sclero-
blast and having a radiate structure, recalling that of a siliceous
f\
gastral cavity is supported by a gastral skeleton of triradiate or ' /,
a
V
(After W. J. Sollas.)
FIG. 26. Typical Siliceous Megascleres.
Diactinal monaxon (oxeate). g,
Style.
Triad. h,
Primitive tetraxon (calthrops).
Hexact.
Polyaxon desma.
Stcrraster (often regarded as
a microsclere).
Part of section of sterraster,
showing two rays united
by intervening silica.
SPONGES
723
sterraster. These bodies become closely packed together over
large areas, and give the sponge a stony hardness.
Hexactinellida. In this group the skeleton is composed of spicules
of colloidal silica deposited in concentric lamellae around slender
axes of an organic substance which in life occupies the " axial
canal " of the spicule. Although varying greatly in detail and
often exhibiting great complication or, it may be, reduction in
structure, these spicules are all referable to the same fundamental
triaxonid and hexactinellid type, characterized by the possession
of three axes intersecting each other at right angles and each thereby
divided into two rays or actines (fig. 26, e). According as one,
two, three, four or five of these actines are suppressed we distinguish
between pentact, tetract, triact, diact and monact spicules, and
these may be further subdivided according to special modifications
of the rays due to secondary branching, ornamentation by spines,
(After F. E. Schulze.)
FIG. 27. Derivatives of the Hexact type of Spicule, found in
Hexactinellida.
a. Dagger. d, Amphidisc. /, Tetract (staurus).
b., c, Pinuli. , Pentact. g, Diact (rhabdus).
knobs, &c., or curvature, or to excessive development of certain
rays as compared with the remainder. Some of the most character-
istic of these special types are represented in figs. 27 and 28. Two
of them require special notice on account of their importance
in the classification of the group. These are the hexaster and the
(After F. E. Schulze.)
FIG. 28. Derivatives of the Hexact type of Spicule, found in
Hexactinellida.
a, Uncinaria; b, Clavula; c, Scopula.
amphidisc. A "hexaster ( = rosette) is a perfectly symmetrical
hexact whose actines branch out into secondary or terminal rays,
in a star-like manner (fig. 30, () Various sub-types are distinguished
according to the character of the rays (floricome, plumicome, &c.).
An amphidisc (fig. 27, d) is a diact spicule consisting of two opposite
rays each of which terminates in a disk-like or spherical expansion
surrounded by marginal teeth.
In some cases the spicules all remain disconnected from one
another (Lyssacine condition), in others some of them may be
united by siliceous cement into a continuous framework (Dictyoninc
condition), and the distinction between these two types of arrange-
ment was for a long time regarded as indicating a primary sub-
division of the Hexactinellida into Lyssacina and Dictyonina,
but this subdivision has now been abandoned. The term prostalia
is applied to spicules which project freely from the surface of the
sponge, and these ar further distinguished as basalia, pleuralia
and marginalia, according to their position at the base of the sponge,
on the sides, or round the margin of the osculum. The basalia
frequently form a root-tuft for attaching the sponge to the sub-
stratum (Hyalonema, Euplectella) and commonly have anchor-
like dista' extremities. They may be extremely long, as in the well-
known " glass-rope " of Hyalonema. In the remarkable genus
Menorhaphis we find a single gigantic diact spicule, which may attain
a length of two or three feet and the thickness of a lead pencil,
transfixing the body of the sponge like a skewer from above down-
wards. A special dermal skeleton is usually formed by a number
of spicules distinguished as dermalia, and a gastral skeleton may be
similarly formed by special gaslralia surrounding the central gastral
cavity. Between the dermal and gastral skeletons another set of
spicules, known as parenchymalia, form the most important part of
the skeleton, supporting the chamber-layer and adjacent tissues.
The distinction into large megascleres and small microscleres is
perhaps less well marked in this group than in the Tetraxonida.
' Tetraxonida. Here, again, the spicules are composed of colloidal
silica deposited around organic axial threads. The starting-point
in the evolution of the very complex series of tetraxonid spicules
is the primitive tetract or calthrops, characteristic of the most
primitive members of the group (e.g. Plakina). This fundamental
ground-form (fig. 26, d) consists of four rays or actines of equal
length, which all meet one another at equal angles in the centre
of the spicule, while their apices would occupy the four angles of
a regular pyramid whose sides are four equilateral triangles. It
is thus both tetraxonid (with four axes) and tetractinellid (with four
rays). In Plakina the spicules are all of about the same size,
neither very large nor very small, but in higher forms we usually
find some of the spicules enlarged to form megascleres and others
reduced to form microscleres. The megascleres play the principal
part in building up the skeleton while the microscleres are usually
scattered through the mesogloea.
Triaene Series of Megascleres. When three rays (cladi) of the
tetract resemble one another, while the fourth (shaft) differs in some
respect the spicule is termed a triaene. The simplest form is the
plagiotriaene (fig. 29, 2), with three short simple cladi and an elon-
n
FIG. 29. The Tetraxon type of Spicule and its derivatives, found in
Tetraxonida.
1, Primitive tetract. 140, 146, Pseudasters. 25, Chiaster.
2, Plagiotriaene. 15, Cladotylote. 26, Oxyaster.
3, Dchotriaene. 16, Acanthoxeate. 27, A s t e r with
4, Discotriaene. l6a, Pseudaster (am- branching rays.
5, Anatriaene. phidisc). 28, Rhaphis or tri-
6, Protriaene. 17, Strongyle. chite.
7, 8, Reduced tri- 18, Tylote. 29, Trichodragma.
aenes, becoming 19, Cladostrongyle. 30, Sigmata.
monaxon. 20, Rhabdocrepid 31, Isochela.
9, Tetracrepid desma. (monocrepid) 32, Anisochela.
10, Primitive diact. desma. 33, Diancistron.
n, Oxeate. 21, Aster. 34, Toxon.
12, Style. 22, Spheraster. 35, Labis (forcipi-
13, Tylostyle. 23, Sterraster. form).
14, Acanthotylostyle. 24, Spiraster.
gated shaft, the angles all remaining approximately equal. If
the angles between the cladi and shaft become approximately
right angles we have an orthotriaene. If the cladi point forward,
we have a protriaene (fig. 29, 6). If the cladi are turned backwards
towards the shaft we have an anatriaene (fig. 29, 5). If the
cladi branch each into two we have a dichotriaene (fig. 29, 3).
If the cladi are expanded laterally and fused together to form a
plate, while the shaft is reduced, we have a discotriaene (fig. 29, 4).
The cladi may be reduced in size or even suppressed (fig. 29, 7, 8),
leaving only the shaft, which may be either sharp at each end
(oxeate) or sharp at the apex and rounded at the base (stylote).
The spicule has now become monaxonid or monaxonellid (i.e.
with a single axis) and monactinellid (with only a single ray) ; but
this condition may also be arrived at in a different way, as we shall
see directly.
The lelracrepid desma (fig. 29, 9), characteristic of many Lithistids,
has been derived from the primitive tetract by ramification of the
ends of all the rays.
Monaxonid Series of Megascleres. We have already seen, m
Plakina, how a diactinellid spicule may arise by suppression of
two rays of the tetract (fig. 5). At first the two remaining axes
724
SPONGES
are distinctly indicated by the presence of an angle in the middle
of the spicule (fig. 29, 10) ; by straightening out of this angle we reach
a monaxonid but diactinellid condition the diactinellid oxeate,
with the organic centre of the spicule in the middle (fig. 29, n).
By rounding off of both ends this form passes into the strongylote
(fig. 29, 17), then if both ends become enlarged into knobs it is said
to be tylote (fig. 29, 18). If one end only is rounded off, which
apparently usually takes place by suppression of one ray, while
the other remains sharp, the spicule is termed stylote (fig. 29, 12).
It is now monactinellid as well as monaxonid. If the blunt end of
the style enlarges to form a knob we have the tylostyle (fig. 29, 13).
Acanthoxeates (fig. 29, 16), acanthostyles and acanthotylostyles (fig.
29, 14) are formed by the development of spines on the surface of
the spicule. The development of large recurved spines at the
apex of a tylostyle gives us the cladotylote or grapnel spicule (fig. 29,
15), which simulates an anatriaene. By enlargement of the spiny
base of an acanthotylostyle and suppression of the shaft we get
forms which simulate astrose microscleres and may be called
pseudasters (fig. 29, 140, 146). Pseudasters may also be developed
by shortening up of acanthoxeates, accompanied by enlargement
of the spines (e.g. Spongillinae, fig. 29, 160). The exotyle appears
to have been formed by enlargement of the outer end of a radially
placed oxeate at the surface of the sponge. By ramification of
both ends of a diactinal megasclere we get the monocrepid desma
(fig. 29, 20), characteristic of certain Lit hist ids and closely simu-
lating the tetracrepid desma. By ramification of one end of a
strongylote spicule we may get a cladostrongyle (fig. 29, 19).
Diactinal Series of Microscleres. The starting-point of this
series is the primitive angulate, diactinal oxeate (fig. 29, 10). This
has given rise to long hair-like forms or rhaphides (fig. 29, 28), short
hair-like forms associated in bundles and called trichodragmata
(fig. 29, 29), bow-shaped forms or toxa (fig. 29, 34), and C- and
S-shaped forms or sigmata (fig. 29, 30). From the sigmata may be
(After Sollas.)
FIG. 30. Typical Microscleres.
a, b, Sigmata (sigmaspires). /, Modified isochela of Melonan-
c, Toxon.
d, Spiraster.
e, Sanidaster.
/, Amphiaster.
f, Sigma.
, k, Isochelae.
j. End of a chela, showing the
teeth.
chora.
m, Spheraster.
n, o, p, Oxyasters.
q, r, Reduced asters.
5, Microxeate.
t, Hexaster (rosette).
derived the diancistra (fig. 29, 33), shaped like pocket-knives with
a blade half open at each end, and the wonderful series of chelae
(fig. 29, 31, 32), in which each end branches into a number of sharply
recurved teeth. These chelae are characteristic of the family
Desmacidonidae, and exhibit great variations in detail, while each
particular form is remarkably constant in the species in which it
occurs. The most curious and aberrant are those of Melonanchora
(fig. 30, /) and Guitarra. In isochelae the two ends of the spicule
are equal, in anisochelae they are unequal.
Astrose or Polyactinal Series of Microscleres. For the beginning
of this series we must go back to the primitive tetract. Reduction
in size, sometimes accompanied by increase in the number of rays,
has given rise to the oxyaster (fig. 29, 26), with sharp rays and no
conspicuous centrum. The development of a distinct centrum
from which numerous rays come off gives us the spheraster (fig. 29,
22). In the sterraster (fig. 26, g, h), characteristic of the family
Geodiidae, numerous slender rays become fused together side by
side to form a solid ball. In the spirasler (fig. 29, 24) the centrum
appears to have become elongated and twisted into a spiral. The
rays of the aster may terminate in knobs as in the chiaster (fig. 29,
25), or they may become branched (fig. 29, 27).
Arrangement of the Skeleton in the Tetraxonida. The most primi-
tive type of skeleton arrangement in this group was probably very
similar to that which we still find in Plakina or Dercitopsis, but
without any special dermal spicules, the skeleton consisting exclu-
sively of small isolated tetracts irregularly scattered through the
mesogloea between the chambers. We may call this the scattered
or diffuse type of skeleton. With the development of an ectosome
whether thin dermal membrane or thick cortex a special dermal
skeleton arose. Sometimes this consists of small specially differ-
entiated dermal spicules candelabra in Plakina, oxeates in Der-
citopsis but a much more important series of modifications was
(After W. J. Sollas. )
FIG. 31. Section of a young Stellettid Sponge, showing radial
arrangement of skeleton.
initiated by the development of the triaenes. The cladi of these
spicules are commonly extended in or beneath the ectosome and
form a very efficient dermal skeleton, while the shafts are directed
centripetally through the choanosome. In the genus Discodermia
the discotnaenes form a continuous dermal armour of siliceous
plates. When anatriaenes and protriaenes are developed their
cladi commonly project beyond the surface of the sponge and render
it more or less strongly hispid, thus forming a protection from the
attacks of enemies. The shafts of the triaenes, though greatly
reduced in Discodermia, usually become very much hypertrophied
and may be grouped together in bundles, often associated with
oxeate spicules. These spicules, or bundles of spicules, now form
the principal part of the skeleton, and inasmuch as they radiate
from the interior towards the surface of the sponge we distinguish
this as the radiate type of skeleton. The skeleton of the vast
majority of Tetraxonida is either actually radiate in structure or
derived from the radiate type by further modification. In many
Stellettidae, for example (fig. 31), we have a typical radiate skeleton
in which a large number of the spicules retain the primitive tetrac-
tinellid form, though associated with oxeates, while in Tethya the
skeleton is arranged in a similar manner but only monaxonid spicules
are present. From the radiate we pass to the reticulate type of
(After Minchin and Dendy. A, B, C from Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, D from
Trans, oj Zool. Soc. oj London, vol. xii.)
FIG. 32. Evolution of the Pseudoceratose Reticulate type of
Skeleton, as seen in A, Reniera; B, Pachychalina; C, Chalina;
D, Sptnosella plicifera.
sp, Spicules; spg., Spongin; m.f., Primary fibres; c.f., Secondary
(connecting) fibres.
SPONGES
725
skeleton which characterizes the majority of the so-called Monax-
onellida. This is derived from the former by the establishment
of secondary spicule-bundles connecting the primary or radial
bundles together, and the transition is usually accompanied by loss
of the cladi of the triaenes and by the development of a massive
irregular form on the part of the entire sponge. An intermediate
condition is found in some of the massive species of Telilla (e.g.
T. limicola), in which the spicule-bundles are very well defined
and form distinct primary " fibres " in the interior of the sponge,
but no distinct secondary or connecting fibres are yet developed.
(After Lendenfeld. Modified from Lendenfeld's Horny Sponges, by permission of the
Royal Society of London.)
FIG. 33. Dendritic, Euceratose Skeleton of Dendrilla rosea.
In the Sigmatomonaxonellida, derived from the Tetillidae, the
reticulate type of skeleton is almost universal, and in this group
an entirely new element is introduced into the skeleton with the
development of a " horny " cementing material (spongin) which
unites the spicules together in the fibres. At first small in quantity
(Reniera, fig. 32, A), the spongin cement gradually increases in
proportion to the spicules until in many Chalininae (fig. 32, B, C)
and Desmacidcnidae the spicules become completely embedded
in it, and the fibres may be formed chiefly of spongin, with only
a core of spicules. The complete enclosure of the spicules by
spongin at a very early stage cuts off their food supply and causes
arrest of development. Finally, in some Chalininae (fig. 32, D) and
Desmacidonidae the spicules entirely disappear from the interior
of the fibre, and if at the same time they happen to be absent from
the intervening mesogloea we get a skeleton composed exclusively
of horny matter or spongin, to which the term pseudoceratose
may be applied. In the sub-family Ectyoninae the skeleton be-
comes modified in an interesting manner by the development of
" echinating " spicules, usually acanthostyles or acanthotylostyles,
whose bases are cemented on to the fibre by spongin while their
apices project into the surrounding soft tissues. These doubtless
serve as a defence against internal parasites. In Agelas these
echinating spicules may persist after the spicules have entirely
disappeared from the interior of the strongly developed horny
fibre. In the Axinellidae all the spicules in the fibres are typically
more or less echinating in character and the fibres become plume-
like.
Very frequently a special dermal skeleton is developed in the
ectosome altogether distinct from that formed by the cladi of the
triaenes (when these are present). Thus in the Geodiidae (fig. 23)
the thick cortex is almost filled with densely packed sterrasters.
In many forms there is a dense layer of small radially arranged
monaxons at the surface of the sponge, whose projecting apices
form an efficient protection. In the reticulate forms the ectosome
is usually a thin dermal membrane supported by a reticulate dermal
skeleton of slightly different structure from the " main " skeleton.
In cases where a special stalk or a root-tuft if developed we
also find a special and appropriate skeleton in connexion there-
with.
In the so-called Lithistida alone amongst the Tetraxonida do
we find the spicules (desmas) united together by silica to form a
coherent skeleton, sometimes of stony hardness, very different
from the elastic, flexible skeleton resulting from the development
of spongin, and analogous to the condition met with in the Dictyo-
nine Hexactinellids.
The microscleres usually play quite a subordinate part in the
formation of the skeleton, being scattered irregularly throughout
the mesogloea, though sometimes (Geodia, Tethya) the asters may
form a definite cortical layer.
Euceratosa. In the true horny sponges, if we neglect for the
moment the presence of foreign bodies, we may say that the skeleton
consists from the first exclusively of spongin, secreted (by special
spongoblasts) in concentric layers to form very well defined fibres.
In the most primitive forms (Aplysillidae) this horny skeleton is
dendritic in arrangement (fig 33), composed of fibres which rise
vertically upwards from the base of the sponge (where they may
be expanded to form a horny basal cuticle which serves for attach-
ment) and ramify towards the surface, where their apices push
against the dermal membrane and cause it to project in the form
of " cqnuli." No reticulation is formed in the simplest cases
(Aplysilla, Dendrilla), but in Megalopastas secondary connecting
fibres are established (in relation, doubtless, to the increase in size
and massive form of the sponge), and the skeleton thus simulates
the pseudoceratose reticulate type of the Sigmatomonaxonellida.
In Darwinella we have, in addition to the dendritic skeleton, isolated
" spicules " of spongin scattered irregularly through the mesogloea.
The presence of these spicules, which are sometimes, though by no
means always, hexactinellid in form, has given rise to much specu-
lation as to the possible relationship of the Aplysillidae to the
siliceous Hexactinellida. Until we know more about their origin,
however, we may perhaps best regard them simply as detached
portions of the general skeleton secreted by isolated groups of
spongoblasts. The genus Megalopastas forms a natural transition
to the Spongeliidae, in which the reticulation of the horny skeleton
is an almost constant feature, and in which the tendency to supple-
ment or replace the spongin by foreign bodies (sand, broken spicules)
is very strongly marked. In extreme cases the skeleton is composed
almost exclusively of sand (e.g. Psammopemma), and the whole
sponge looks like a mass of sand stuck together by a minimum of
soft tissues arid spongin cement. Such " arenaceous " sponges
also occur in other groups (e.g. Desmacidonidae). The culminating
point in the development of the true horny skeleton is found in
the Spongiidae (e.g. Euspongia), but even in the bath sponge (fig. 6)
we commonly find sand grains or other foreign matter in the in-
terior of the primary fibres. The value of the sponge for domestic
purposes depends upon the softness and elasticity of the fibre, the
closeness of the meshes, and the relative absence of sand.
Histology.
There are two primary tissue-forms in sponges, the flat pavement
epithelium and the epithelium composed of choanocytes or collared
cells. The former covers the whole of the external surface of the
sponge and, except in the simpler Calcarea Homocoela, it also
lines a considerable portion of the canal-system. The latter lines
practically the whole of the primitive gastral cavity in the Calcarea
Homocoela, but in all higher types becomes restricted to well-
defined " flagellated chambers." A gelatinous "mesogloea," which
must be regarded primarily as an intercellular substance, appears
between the primitive outer and inner layers of the sponge-wall.
This contains primitive amoeboid wandering cells (archaeocy tes) ,
(After Dendy. From Quart. Joum. Micro. Science, new series, vol. X.TXV.,
by permission of J. and A. Churchill.)
FlG. 34. Histology.
1, Pavement epithelium from the upper surface of an oscular
diaphragm of Vosmaercpsis wilsoni.
2, Chamber diaphragm of Vermaeropsis macera; mus.c, Myocytes;
ex.op, Exhalant aperture of flagellated chamber.
3, 4, 5, Amoebocytes of Leucandra phillipensis (the one shown
in 5 appears to be feeding by means of pseudopodia upon the
collared cells (c.c.) of a flagellated chamber).
6, Section across an inhalant canal (i.e.) of Vie syconoides, showing
an ovum (ov.) suspended from the wall, apparently awaiting
fertilization; sp, spicules.
726
SPONGES
which give rise to the ova and spermatozoa, and also various other
cells which are now generally believed to migrate into it from the
primitive pavement epithelium (dermal epithelium) of the outer
surface, such as scleroblasts, various connective tissue elements
and contractile fibres.
Pavement Epithelium (fig. 34,1). This always consists of a single
layer of polygonal cells, which are usually flat and very rarely
(Oscarella) provided with cilia or flagella. They may be glandular
and may secrete a definite cuticle (as in many Euceratosa). They
may also be highly contractile.
Porocytes. In certain Calcareous sponges (Leucosolenia) it has
been shown (by E. A. Minchin) that the primitive inhalant pores
(prosopyles) are formed as perforations in certain of the pavement
epithelium cells, which acquire a tubular form and extend through
the mesogloea from the dermal to the gastral surface. The outer
portion of* each porocyte forms a contractile diaphragm which
doubtless regulates the admission of water to the gastral cavity.
The porocytes are sometimes conspicuous on account of their highly
granular character.
Scleroblasts. We may distinguish three kinds of scleroblasts,
according to the chemical character of the skeletal material which
they secrete; these are calcoblasts, silicoblasts and spongoblasts.
The calcoblasts and silicoblasts (fig. 35, h-n) form their respective
spicules, at any rate in the first instance, as intra-cellular (perhaps
sometimes intra-syncytial) secretions, though we must suppose
(After Schulze and Sollas.)
FIG. 35. Histology.
a, Collencytes from Thenea muricata.
b, Chondrenchyme (with spicules) from Corticium candelabrum.
c, Cystenchyme, from Pachymatisma johnstoni.
d, Desmacyte, from Dragmastra normani.
e, Myocytes and collencytes, from Cinachyra barbata.
f, Thesocyte, from Thenea muricata.
g, Collared cell (choanocyte), from Sycon raphanus.
h-n, Silicoblasts or mother-cells, in which different forms of siliceous
spicules are being secreted.
that in the case of large spicules the later stages in growth are accom-
plished by the activity of several or many scleroblasts in co-operation.
The spongoblasts (fig. 7) appear to co-operate with one another in
the formation of the spongin fibre from the beginning. They are
found only around the young, growing fibres, where they occur in
large numbers, forming a kind of sheath of somewhat flask-shaped
cells, each placed at right angles to the surface of the fibre and with
the nucleus in its broad distal end. The spongin is secreted in
concentric lamellae and is obviously intercellular in origin, and
probably of the same nature as the cuticle which often occurs on
the surface of the sponge.
Connective-tissue Elements. The following are the chief forms
assumed by the mesogloea according to the nature of its connective-
tissue cells and intercellular substance, (a) Collenchyme, consisting
of a clear gelatinous matrix with branching stellate collencytes (fig.
35, a) embedded in it; (b) Sarcenchyme, in which the quantity of
intercellular matrix is greatly reduced and the connective-tissue cells
are closely packed together; (c) Cystenchyme (fig. 7, Coll , fig. 35, c),
consisting of close-packed, oval, vesicular cells with fluid contents and
strands of protoplasm radiating from the nucleus to the periphery;
(d) Chondrenchyme (fig. 35, 6), somewhat resembling cartilage in
texture and with a very large amount of intercellular matrix.
The name desmacytes has been given to certain slender connective-
tissue fibres (fig. 35, d) often united in dense bundles or layers, which
occur especially in the ectosome of many Tetraxonida, giving rise
to a fibrous cortex of leathery consistence.
Contractile Fibres. Muscular fibres or myocytes (fig. 35, e) are
of common occurrence, especially in relation to various parts of the
canal-system, the diameter of which appears to be regulated by their
agency. They may form definite sphincters around the vents
or in other places (fig. 34, 2), or they may form transverse bands
lying in the floor of pore-bearing grooves, by the contraction of
which the lips of the groove are doubtless approximated and the in-
current stream of water shut off (Esperella murrayi, Xenospongia
patelliformis).
Endothelial Cells. In many sponges the developing embryos are
enclosed in definite capsules composed of flattened polygonal cells,
the whole being embedded in the mesogloea. The origin of the
endothelial cells forming the capsules is doubtful. They sometimes
aid in the nutrition of the developing embryo (e.g. in Stelospongus
flabelliformis).
No nervous elements, nor sensory cells of any kind, have as yet
been recognized with any degree of certainty in sponges, in spite
of various heroic attempts to demonstrate their existence.
Collared Cells or Choanocyles (fig. 35, g). These are quite the most
characteristic histological elements met with in sponges. Although
exhibiting various minor differences in structure, and still more as
regards size, they always show the same essential features. Each
consists usually of an oval or rounded body (frequently appearing
polygonal from the pressure of its fellows) surmounted by a more
or less cylindrical or funnel-shaped collar, which surrounds a single
long, whip-like flagellum
projecting from the apex
of the cell. The collar is
a filmy, transparent ex-
tension of the cytoplasm
(cell -protoplasm), which
can be completely with-
drawn. The flagellum may
also be withdrawn, and in
preserved specimens nei-
ther collar nor flagellum is
usually visible. The cell
is usually broadest at the
base and narrowed to form
a neck or " collum," be-
neath the collar. The
nucleus may be situated
either at the base or at ft.
the apex of the cell-body
or between the two. The
collar itself is often a more
complicated structure than (After F. E. Schulze.)
appears at first sight. It FIG. 36. Collared Cells of Schaudinnia
may be provided with one arctica
or two transverse hoops, n< Nucleus;^, Flagellum; c, Collar.
presumably serving to
stiffen it (Ascandra falcata). In many cases the collars of adjacent
choanocytes have been observed to be connected by a definite
membrane which stretches from one to the other at the level of their
margins. This is known as Sollas's membrane, but it is apparently
not a permanent structure, and the circumstances under which it
appears require elucidation. In the Hexartinellida the form of the
collared cells appears to be somewhat unusual (fig. 36).
Archaeocytes. The term " archaeocytes " has been applied to
certain undifferentiated amoeboid cells which make their appearance
at an extremely early stage in the ontogeny, and some of' which
persist throughout life, with little, if any, modification, as the amoe-
bocytcs of the adult sponge, while others become germ-cells, differ-
entiated into ova and spermatozoa.
SPONGES
727
Amoebocytes. These are amoeboid cells closely resembling the
leucocytes or white blood corpuscles of higher animals. They
commonly have blunt, lobose pseudopodia and the cytoplasm is
generally more or less densely charged with refractive granules.
They have the power of wandering from place to place through the
mesogloea (fig. 34, 3-5).
(Alter PolejaeB and Schulze.)
FIG. 37. Spermatozoa.
ah, Development of Spermatozoa in Sycon raphanus; h, Mature
Spermatozoa; j. Sperm-ball in Mesogloea of Oscarella lobularis;
k, Mature Spermatozoon.
the form of a free-swimming ciliated larva, which, after fixing itself
to some object, undergoes a metamorphosis and then grows into
the adult form. The details of development appear to differ widely
in different species and various interpretations have been placed
upon somewhat limited and discrepant observations.
One of the best-known cases is that of the calcareous genus Sycon
(fig- 3 8 )- The fertilized ova develop into ciliated larvae within the
parent sponge, embedded in the walls of the radial chambers, in
their endothelial capsules. Each divides first into two, then into
four, and then into eight equal and similar blastomeres by successive
vertical clefts. The eight-celled stage (fig. 38, b, c,) has the form of
a somewhat flattened cushion, with an axial cavity which is the
beginning of the blastocoel or segmentation cavity. A horizontal
cleft now divides each blastomere into a somewhat smaller upper
and a somewhat larger lower portion, and the sixteen blastomeres
arrange themselves in the form of a hollow sphere surrounding the
blastocoel. The smaller cells multiply rapidly and become columnar,
while still remaining as a single layer. Each one presently acquires
a flagellum (" cilium ") at its outer end. The larger cells multiply
more slowly and are characterized by their coarsely granular appear-
ance. They are destined to give rise to the dermal layer and its
derivatives (including archaeocytes ?) and never become flagellated. 1
The blastosphere or blastula (fig. 38, d, e,) is now complete, the
blastocoel being completely surrounded by a single layer of cells
differentiated, however, into two groups, gastral and dermal. The
large granula (dermal) cells now become invaginated, but this
Germ-Cells. The ova (fig. 34, 6) are formed from amoebo-
cytes, which grow to a large size and finally withdraw their
pseudopodia and acquire a rounded form. They have large
nuclei with a very distinct nuclear membrane and commonly
a conspicuous nucleolus. The spermatozoa (fig. 37) closely
resemble those of higher animals, consisting each of a small
head," composed chiefly of chromatin material, and a slender
vibratile " tail " composed of cytoplasm. In this case the
amoebocyte gives rise to a single sperm mother-cell (spermato-
cyte) sometimes enclosed in one or two covering cells. The
nucleus of the spermatocyte undergoes repeated mitosis and
a " sperm-ball " is produced which is either enclosed in the
covering cell or in a special endothelium similar to that which
surrounds the segmenting ovum. The germ-cells occur scat-
tered through the mesogloea and are not aggregated in gonads,
so that we cannot speak of " ovaries " and " testes " as in
higher types.
Reproduction.
Reproduction in sponges may be effected in one of three
ways: (l) The first is by vegetative budding, followed by
separation of the buds and thus differing from the ordinary
budding which leads merely to increase in the size of the
sponge-colony. This process has been observed in many
cases (e.g. Leucosolenia, Oscarella, Lophocalyx, Aplysilla).
(2) The second way is by the formation of specialized repro-
ductive bodies known as gemmules. This process is best
known in the fresh-water sponges (Spongillinae), where it has
been developed as a special means of tiding over unfavourable
periods during which the parent sponge is liable to be destroyed
by cold or drought. Each gemmule consists of an aggregation
of amoeboid cells (statpcytes) densely charged with nutrient
granules and enclosed in a protective horny envelope which
may be strengthened by a layer of special spicules. The ripe
gemmule is very resistant to adverse conditions and is capable
of remaining dormant for a lengthened period, and of develop-
ing into a new sponge on the return of favourable conditions.
In temperate climates the gemmules remain dormant through-
out the winter and develop in the spring, the development
being very similar to that of an ordinary fertilized ovum
except that it begins at the " morula " stage, with the
numerous statocytes representing the blastomeres. (3) The
third way is by the union of ova and spermatozoa to form ...
zygotes, which undergo segmentation and develop into the
adult through a more or less complex series of ontogenetic FIG. 38. Development 01 Sycon raphanus.
stages. Previous to fertilization the ovum undergoes a process Ovum
of maturation accompanied by the extrusion of two polar i' i? L -..\.
bodies, as in higher animals. Very little is known about the * C ' El ? A bry W -' th 8 b .lastomeres
actual process of fertilization, but it appears probable that rf R1 f (6 ' ^ P vl f-Y' ^ f^ V ' eW)-
this is effected in the inhalant canals of the parent sponge, * P'astosphere (blastula).
where the ova have been observed suspended from the epithe- e ' Larva at tlme of esca P e from
/, Invagination of flagellated
cells.
g, Gastrula attached by oral face.
Young sponge (Olynthus
Hal lining of the canal (e.g. in Ute, fig. 34, 6). After fertiliza-
tion they appear, usually at any rate, to migrate back into
the mesogloea, where they become surrounded by endothelial cap-
sules and undergo segmentation. In Stelospongus flabelliformis the
cells of the capsule are of gigantic size and are attached to the
superficial blastomeres of the developing embryo by protoplasmic
processes, through which, no doubt, nutriment is passed from the
parent to the embryo.
Embryology.
The segmentation of the ovum appears to be in all cases complete
or holoblastic, and the young sponge usually leaves the parent in
parent.
j, Top view of young sponge.
is only a temporary condition, probably to be explained as the
mechanical result of the pressure of the spicules of the parent sponge.
The so-called " pseudogastrula " thus formed escapes by rupture
1 According to E. A. Minchin, the first-formed granular cells are
" archaeocytes," which migrate into the interior of the larva while
their place is taken by granular cells formed by modification of the
neighbouring flagellated cells. The later-formed granular cells
are destined to give rise to the dermal layer of the adult, while the
remaining flagellated cells form the gastral layer.
728
SPONGES
of the parent tissues into a radial flagellated chamber and passes to
the exterior with the outgoing stream of water. The invaginated
dermal cells are pushed put again and the " amphiblastula " swims
away (rig. 38, e). (Possibly the granular dermal cells, by prolifera-
tion, may form a solid mass blocking up the blastocoel completely,
so that we have a solid embryo.) The larva now fixes itself by
the anterior flagellated pole (which, according to Schulze, becomes
permanently invaginated, thus giving rise to a true gastrula, fig.
38, /, g), and the dermal cells spread themselves out over the gastral
cells, which they completely cover. The fixed larva (" pupa ")
consists of a solid mass of gastral cells enclosed in a single layer of
now flattened dermal cells. Presently the gastral cavity appears
(or reappears) in the middle, around which the gastral cells arrange
themselves in a single layer. The young sponge elongates upwards,
some of the dermal cells form porocytes which become perforated
by prosopyles, others migrate into the gelatinous mesogloea and
form scleroblasts, from which spicules are developed. The cells
of the gastral layer acquire collars in addition to their flagella, an
osculum is formed by perforation at the apex, and the young sponge
begins to feed. It is now in the Olynthus condition (fig. 38, h)
and is exactly comparable to a simple Leucosolenia individual.
As it grows older radial flagellated chambers are budded out around
the central gastral cavity and the collared cells lining the latter
are replaced by pavement-epithelium derived from the dermal
layer.
An interesting account of the development of Leucosolenia
(Clathrina) bianco, has been given by E. A. Minchin. Segmentation
is regular and complete, resulting in the formation of a hollow,
ciliated, oval blastula (fig. 39, A), with a large blastocoel and a wall
composed of a single layer of columnar flagellated cells and a pair
of very large granular cells at the posterior pole. The latter are
primitive archaeocytes and are destined to give rise to the amoebo-
cytes and germ-cells of the adult. The flagellated cells will give
rise to all the other cells of the adult, both dermal and gastral.
The larva becomes free-swimming in this condition. Here and
there individual flagellated cells (destined to form the cells of the
dermal layer) lose their flagella and, becoming amoeboid, migrate
into the blastocoel, which presently becomes completely filled with
such cells. The larva is thus converted into a solid " parenchymula,"
in which the archaeocytes remain unchanged in their original position
at the posterior extremity. It now fixes itself and flattens out upon
the substratum in the pupal condition. During the metamorphosis
which now ensues the majority of the cells of the inner mass (dermal
cells) pass out to the exterior again between the flagellated cells
liny/
(After E. A. Minchin.)
FIG. 39. Types of Sponge Larvae (semi-diagrammatic). The ciliated
(gastral) cells are left blank; the dermal cells are shaded, and the archaeocytes
are granulated.
A , Larva of Leucosolenia (Clathrina) blanca.
B, Of Leucosolenia (Clathrina) reticulum.
C, Young larva of Leucosolenia (or pseudogastrula stage of Sycoti).
D, Late larva of Leucosolenia (or newly hatched larva of Sycon).
E, Larva of Oscarella.
F, Parenchymula larva of a siliceous Monaxonellid (Myxilla).
(gastral cells), over which they spread themselves in the form of a
dermal layer of flattened epithelium. Some of the dermal cells,
however, remain in the inner mass as porocytes; the primitive
archaeocytes have divided up into amoebocytes; and porocytes,
amoebocytes and the cells of the gastral layer are all crowded
together in the interior of the pupa. The pupa now elongates
vertically. A gastral cavity appears in the interior. The cells of
the gastral layer arrange themselves around this cavity and develop
their collars and flagella. At first, however, the gastral cavity is
lined by the porocytes, which presently separate and migrate out-
wards. 1 Scleroblasts migrate inwards from the dermal layer and
secrete spicules. An osculum and prosopyles are formed as in
Sycon and the Olynthus stage is reached.
The development of sponges in general appears to be characterized
by a remarkable want of uniformity in the arrangement of the
different kinds of cells of which the larva is composed. Two, or
possibly three, primary groups of cells are universally present; the
flagellated cells, which will give rise to the collared cells of the adult,
the non-flagellated (granular) cells, which will give rise to the dermal
layer and its derivatives, and possibly the primitive archaeocytes
(perhaps to be regarded as undifferentiated blastomeres). It may
be considered as doubtful, however, whether the primitive archaeo-
cytes can in all cases be distinguished from the primitive dermal
cells. The latter are in some cases (amphiblastula type) grouped
at the posterior pole of the larva (Sycon), while in other cases
(parenchymula type) they may pass inwards and completely fill the
interior, blocking up the blastocoel and perhaps also freely projecting
at the hinder end (fig. 39, F). At the time of the metamorphosis
the dermal cells pass to the outside and come to completely enclose
the gastral cells, so that the two layers acquire their proper relative
positions. The sponge larva in many respects closely resembles
the Coelenterate " planula," with its ectoderm and endoderm, but
it is very doubtful how far this comparison is valid, and in the present,
state of our knowledge it is perhaps better to avoid the use of the
terms ectoderm and endoderm in dealing with the sponges altogether.
The idea naturally suggests itself that the two primary layers ol
the Sponge correspond to those of the Coelenterate, but in a reversed
position, the inner layer of the one being the outer layer of the other,
and vice versa, and this idea has found expression in the name
Enantiozoa which has been proposed for the group by Yves Delage,
but which has not met with general acceptance.
Physiology.
Comparatively little is known of the physiology of sponges. The
most obvious expression of the vital activity of the
organism is the stream of water which flows in through
the dermal pores or ostia and out through the vents or
oscula. That this stream is maintained by the undulatory
movements of the flagella of the collared cells there can
be no doubt, but the fact that the movements of the flagella
of different cells are not co-ordinated, so that they do not
act in unison, indicates that the mechanical problem
involved is not so simple as is usually supposed. There
can be no doubt that the incoming stream brings with
it minute food-particles, consisting of fragments of organic
matter, alive or dead, and also the oxygen required for
purposes of respiration; while the outgoing stream removes
faecal products and waste matter (excreta). The rate of
flow appears to be regulated by the opening and closing
of the pores and vents, or of intermediate apertures such
as the apopyles or exhalent openings of the flagellate
chambers. This opening and closing may be effected by
the activity of definite muscular sphincters (fig. 34, 2) or,
in the case of some prosopyles, by the contractility of the
porocytes themselves.
The ingestion of the food particles is no doubt effected
in large measure by the collared cells, which seem to feed
much in the same manner as independent collared monads
(Choanoflagellata). It seems not improbable thatSpllas's
membrane may be a temporary structure which assists in
arresting food particles as they pass through the flagellate
chambers. There is reason to believe also that amoebocytes
(in this case therefore phagocytes) may capture minute
organisms on their way through the canal system, and
even porocytes are sometimes credited with this power.
Digestion, no doubt, is, at any rate chiefly, intracellular.
The amoebocytes probably serve not only to ingest food
themselves but also to receive surplus food from the
collared cells and distribute it through the sponge
Nothing definite is known as to the function of excretion,
but here, as in the case of nutrition, it seems likely that
collared cells and amoebocytes are both concerned.
1 The position of the porocytes inside the collared cells
appears at first sight very anomalous, but Minchin has
shown that this condition is actually repeated in the adult
sponge every time the gastral cavity is obliterated by
contraction.
SPONGES
729
Sponges, as we have already seen possess no special nervous system
and no special sense organs, and the power of response to stimuli
appears to be very limited. Many sponges probably have the power
of contracting as a whole, which may in some cases be due, in part at
any rate, to the presence of bands of muscular fibres, and Spllas
observes that in Pachymatisma irritation of the oscular margin is
invariably followed after a short interval by a slow closure of the
sphincter. The power of movement in adult sponges is, however,
chiefly confined to individual cells acting independently. The young
larvae, on the other hand, swim vigorously about by means of their
cilia or flagella, whose movements must obviously be co-ordinated in
order to ensure the progress of the entire organism in definite
directions.
The rate of growth of sponges appears to be very rapid. A British
species of Hymeniacidon is said to form a crust measuring a foot
in diameter in so short a period as five months. With this rapidity
of growth must be associated the fact that many sponges, marine
as well as fresh-water, appear to be annual.
Distribution.
The vast majority of sponges are marine, only a single sub-family,
the Spongillinae, having acquired the habit of living in fresh water.
The Spongillinae are, however, very widely distributed, being found
in lakes and rivers in all parts of the world. Marine sponges occur
everywhere, from low-water mark to the greatest depths, but certain
localities,, such as the Gulf of Manaar, Port Phillip and Port Jackson,
appear to be much richer than others both in individuals and species.
The Hexactinellida are essentially a deep-water group and are there-
fore much more rarely met with than other forms. The Tetraxonida.
and Euceratosa abound in shallow and in moderately deep water,
and a comparatively small number of species of Tetraxonida occur
at great depths. Both are dominant groups at the present day,
represented by very large numbers of species and individuals. The
Myxospongida are comparatively rare and represented by very few
species. The Calcarea are common in the littoral region, especially
in sheltered situations amongst rocks and seaweed. w
Most families and even genera of sponges enjoy a very wide
geographical range, very many being cosmopolitan. Species are
usually much more restricted in distribution, but even here there
are some noteworthy exceptions, and future researches will probably
show that many species from different localities which are at present
regarded as distinct are connected by intermediate forms living in
intermediate situations.
There appears to be a well-marked relation between temperature
and the power of spongin-secretion, and as a result we find that
sponges with a really well-developed horny skeleton (whether
Euceratosa or Pseudoceratosa) are usually only met with in com-
paratively warm waters. This fact brings about a striking contrast
between the sponge-faunas of different latitudes.
Classification.
The classification of the Phylum Porifera, the characters of which
have already been given, is as follows :
Sub-phylum and Class Calcarea. Sponges with a skeleton
composed of carbonate of lime, commonly in the form of isolated
spicules whose most usual shape is triradiate.
Order I. Homocoela. Calcarea in which the gastral cavity
and its outgrowths are lined throughout by collared cells. This
order is sometimes divided into two families, Clathrinidae and
Leucosoleniidae, but it is doubtful if this distinction can be maintained,
and by some writers only a single genus (Leucosolenid) is recognized.
Order 2. Heterocoela. Calcarea in which the- original lining
of the gastral cavity is partly replaced by pavement epithelium, so
that the collared cells are confined to separate flagellated chambers.
This order includes the living families Leucascidae, Sycettidae,
Grantidae, Heteropidae, Amphoriscidae and Pharetronidae (with
only two living representatives but numerous fossil forms). The
relationships of the anomalous Astrosclera (fig. 25), for which the
family Astroscleridae has been proposed by J. J. Lister, must still
be regarded as problematical.
Sub-phylum Non-Calcarea. Sponges without any calcareous
skeleton.
Class and Order MYXOSPONGIDA. Sponges with no skeleton ; with
simple canal system and usually large flagellate chambers. (The
absence of skeleton is primitive and not due to degeneration.) This
class is sometimes divided into two families Halisarcidae, with
elongated, sac-shaped chambers, and Oscarellidae, with more or less
spherical chambers.
Class TRIAXONIDA ( = HEXACTINELLIDA). Sponges with a
skeleton composed of siliceous spicules, either isolated or cemented
together by silica, and either triaxonid and hexactinellid in form
or derivable from the triaxonid and hexactinellid type. The canal
system is simple and the flagellated chambers are large and sac-
shaped, and more or less radially arranged in a network of trabecular
tissue. Spongin is never formed.
Order I. Amphidiscophora. Triaxonida with characteristic
amphidisc spicules, but no hexasters, and with a root-tuft of
anchoring spicules. The family Hyalonematidae, including the
well-known glass-rope cponges of the genus Hyalonema, is the only
family recognized in this order.
Order 2. Hexasterophora. Triaxonida whose most characteristic
spicules are hexasters. To this order belong the living families
Euplectellidae, Asconematidae, Rossellidae, Euretidae, Melittionidae,
Coscinoporidae, Tretodictyidae and Maeandrospongidae, and a
number of extinct families such as the Ventriculitidae so commonly
met with in the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks.
Class TETRAXONIDA. Sponges with a skeleton composed of
siliceous spicules, either isolated or cemented together (by silica
or by spongin), and either tetraxonid and tetractinellid in form or
derivable from the tetraxonid and tetractinellid type. The canal
system is usually complex, with small, more or less spherical
flagellated chambers.
Grade TETRACTINELLIDA. Tetraxonida in which some, at any
rate, of the megascleres retain the primitive tetractinellid form.
No desmas are developed.
Order I. Homosderophora. Tetractinellida in which microscleres
and megascleres are not yet sharply differentiated from one another
and no triaenes are developed. The canal system is comparatively
simple. This order includes the family Plakinidae (see Plakina,
ante) which forms the starting-point of the evolution of the class.
Order 2. Astrophora. Tetractinellida with triaenes and with
astrpse microscleres, without sigmata. This order includes the
families Pachastrellidae, Theneidae, Stellettidae, Geodiidae.
Order 3. Sigmatophora. Tetractinellida with triaenes, with
sigmata for microscleres (when present), without asters. This order
includes the families Tetillidae and Samidae.
Grade (? order) LITHISTIDA. Tetraxonida in which the mega-
scleres form desmas, typically united with each other by siliceous
cement to form a continuous skeleton, often of stony hardness. This
group inc'udes both tetractinellid and monaxonellid forms and
may possibly be of polyphy!etic origin. The Lithistida bear the
same relation to the other Tetraxonida that the dictyonine Hexac-
tinellids bear to the lyssacine forms, but in the present state of our
knowledge it is hardly possible to trace the natural affinities of the
numerous members of the group, many of which are only known in
the fossil state. The following are the principal families: Tetra-
ladidae, Desmanthidae, Corallistidae, Pleromidae, Neopeltidae,
Scleritodermidae, Cladopeltidae, Azoricidae, Anomocladidae.
Grade MONAXONELLIDA. -Tetraxonida in which the primitive
tetraxonid and tetractinellid condition of the megascleres has been
entirely lost through suppression of some of the spicule rays, so that
none but monaxonellid megascleres remain. No desmas are
developed. Owing to the extreme reduction or modification of the
skeleton, leading in many cases to convergence, the classification
of this group is extraordinarily difficult and the group is obviously
not monophyletic.
Order I. Aslromonaxonellida. Monaxonellida in which the
microsclere, when present, is some form of aster. The members
of this order are to be regarded as descended from aster-bearing
tetractinellid ancestors.
Families. Epipolasidae, Tethyidae, Spirastrellidae (including
Placospongiidae), Clionidae (the boring sponges), Suberitidae,
Chondrpsiidae. (In Chondrosia the skeleton is entirely suppressed,
so that it simulates the Myxospongida.)
Order 2. Sigmatomonaxonellida. Monaxonellida in which the
typical microscleres are sigmata, or other diactinal forms. Normal
astrose microscleres are absent (though secondary pseudasters are
occasionally present). The members of this order are to be regarded
as descended from sigma-bearing tetractinellid ancestors.
Families. Haploscleridae (chief sub-families : Gelliinae, Renierina
Chalininae, Spongillinae), Desmacidonidae (chief sub-families:
Esperellinae, Ectyoninae), Axinellidae.
Class and Order EUCERATOSA. Non-calcareous sponges without
siliceous spicules, but with a skeleton composed of horny fibres
developed independently, i.e. not in relation to any pre-existing
spicular skeleton. The skeleton is often supplemented, or even
largely replaced, by foreign bodies. This group includes the batta
sponges and their very numerous relations.
Families. Aplysillidae, Spongeliidae, Spongiidae.
[There are two groups of palaeozoic fossil siliceous sponges
which apparently do not fit into the above system,
viz. the Octactinellida
and Heteractinellida of
G. J. Hinde. The former,
represented by the genus
Aslraeospongia, have oc-
tactinal megascleres. The
latter, represented by the
genera Tholiasterella and
Asteractinella, have poly-
axon megascleres with an
(After G. J. Hinde.)
f FIG. 40. A, octactine and B, hexac-
mdefimte number of rays. tin icules of Astraeospongia.
These may indicate the
former existence of two distinct classes of siliceous sponges
730
SPONGES
which are, so far as we know, totally unrepresented at the
present day.
A B
(After G. J. Hinde.)
FIG. 41. Spicules of Heteractinellida.
A, Typical polyactine. B, Rosette-like form. C, D, E, Nail-like forms.
Phylogeny.
The most recent views as to the evolution and inter-relationships
of the principal groups of sponges above enumerated may be conveni-
ently expressed by the accompanying
phylogenetic tree (fig. 42). Starting
with the hypothetical Protolynthus
as the ancestral form of the entire
group, we see how two divergent
lines of descent are very early estab-
lished according to whether or not
a calcareous skeleton is developed.
The Calcarea are at first simple
Olynthus forms, Homocoela, differ-
ing only from the Protolynthus in the
presence of the calcareous spicules.
From these are derived, by the pro-
cess ol budding, on the one hand
reticulate forms (Clathrina) and on
the other radiate forms (e.g. Leuco-
solenia tripodifera), and some of the
latter (now probably extinct) form
the starting point for the evolution
of the Calcarea Heterocoela, begin-
ning with simple Syconoid forms
and ending with complex Leuconoids,
in which the original process of
simple budding has been followed up
by elaborate modifications of both
skeleton and canal system.
Turning to the other main line of
descent we find at once a conspicuous
gap between the Protolynthus and
the simplest known non-calcareous
sponge; though the analogy of the Calcarea makes it easy to
understand how the almost Syconoid canal system of the simplest
Hexactinellids, or the primitive Rhagon type of other groups, may
have been derived from the Protolynthus ancestor in the first
instance by simple budding. This line of descent may be regarded as
continued straight on into the existing Myxospongida, with increase
in the complexity of the canal system, due to folding of the chamber-
bearing layer and the accompanying development of inhalent
and exhalent canal systems, but without the development of any
skeleton. The Triaxonida and Euceratosa would seem to have
branched off independently at a very early stage from the Myxo-
sponge line, before the flagellated chambers had suffered that reduc-
tion in size which occurs in some existing Myxospong-da and in all
Tetraxonida. In the Triaxonid line of descent the evolution of the
siliceous skeleton of primitively hexactinellid spicules is the leading
feature, the canal system preserving remarkable uniformity through-
out the group. In the Tetraxonida also the skeleton has played
the principal part in the evolution of existing species, but the canal
system too has undergone great modifications. The primitive tetrax-
onid, tetractinellid siliceous spicules must have arisen quite indepen-
dently, their fundamental form being totally different from that of
the triaxonid hexactinellid type. The appearance of differentiated
microscleres in this group introduced new possibilities of variation,
of which full advantage has been taken, and we are confronted with
most interesting evolutionary series, terminating in many very
Protolvnthu*
FIG. 42. Phylogenetic Tree,
showing the supposed relation-
ships of the principal groups
of sponges to one another.
remarkable and at present inexplicable spicule forms (fig. 29). In
many of the more advanced Tetraxonida, especially in theChalininae,
the development of spongin cement also appears as a new factor in
the process of evolution. At first serving merely to glue the mega-
scleres together into a continuous framework, it ultimately, in some
extreme cases, completely replaces the siliceous skeleton and gives
rise to a purely " horny " skeleton in which all traces of spicules
have been lost by degeneration. Thus we arrive at a " Pseudo-
ceratose " condition (fig. 32, D) which must be carefully distinguished
from the condition of the Euceratosa, which have apparently
branched off quite independently from Myxosponge ancestors.
Here we have another typical example of that phenomenon of
" convergence " which has rendered the classification of sponges
so very difficult. In the Euceratose line of descent we start with
forms (Aplysilla) with large sac-shaped chambers and altogether
primitive canal system, accompanied by an arborescent horny
skeleton (fig. 33) of an entirely different type from that of the
pseudoceratose Tetraxonida. From this we can trace the evolution
gradually through the Spongeliidae to the Spongiidae, the skeleton
becoming reticulate and the canal system gradually more complex
with accompanying reduction in size of the chambers. The bath
sponge perhaps represents the culminating point in this direction.
Thus it appears that both the horny type of skeleton and the siliceous
spicular type have been twice independently produced in the evolu-
tion of the Non-calcarea. An analogous case of convergence is
seen in the union of originally separate spicules into a coherent
skeleton by means of cement of the same chemical composition as
themselves. This has taken place independently in the Calcarea
(Petrostoma), the Dictyonine Hexactinellida and the Lithistid
Tetraxonida.
Affinities of the Port/era.
Three main views have been put forward with regard to the
position of the Sponges in the animal kingdom: (i) that they are
colonies of Protozoa; (2) that they form a subdivision of the
Coelenterata; (3) that they are not Protozoa but have originated
from 'Protozoon ancestors quite independently from other
Metazoa (Enterozoa). The first of these views, associated
especially with the names of James Clark and Saville Kent, is
supported by the relative independence of the constituent cells
in the sponge-body and by the extraordinary resemblance of the
collared cells to the choanoflagellate or collared Monads. It is
also supported by the existence of a remarkable colonial form of
Choanoflagellata (Prater ospongia) in which the collared Monads
are partially embedded in the surface of a gelatinous matrix, in
the interior of which amoeboid cells are found. E. A. Minchin
has shown that even in the adult Leucosolenia (Clathrina) the
collared cells and porocytes have the power of changing their
relative positions, while migration of dermal and gastral cells
and consequent inversion of the layers appears to be a common
feature of the sponge larva at the time of metamorphosis.
These facts are certainly suggestive of Protozoon colonies rather
than of Metazoa. On the other hand it must not be forgotten
that migratory amoebocytes (leucocytes) occur in probably
ah 1 groups of Metazoa, while the degree of integration and the
amount of histological differentiation in Sponges are far greater
than in any other Protozoon colonies known to us. It has been
argued that the process of sexual reproduction by means of ova
and spermatozoa is fatal to the Protozoon-colony theory, but
this argument is completely disposed of by the discovery of
spermatozoa and ova in the unicellular Sporozoa. On the other
hand the occurrence of collared cells has been held to distinguish
the Sponges from all other Metazoa, and this argument has also
been answered by the discovery of collared cells in the larva of
Echinocyamus (an Echinoderm) by H. Theel. It would, in short,
be difficult to frame a definition of the Protozoa which should
absolutely exclude the Sponges, while at the same time our con-
ception of the nature of Protozoa will have to- be profoundly
modified if we are to admit the Sponges within the limits of
that group.
The second view, that the Sponges constitute a subdivision
of the Coelenterata, is maintained by some very eminent con-
tinental authors such as Ernst Haeckel and F. E. Schulze.
This view is supported by the structure of the Olynthus type,
which, as we have seen, forms the starting-point of Sponge
evolution. The dermal layer of the Olynthus is regarded as
ectoderm, the gastral layer as endoderm and the mesogloea
with its contained cells as mesoderm, more highly developed
SPONGES
than in most Coelenterates. It is also supported by a consider-
able amount of agreement in the early stages of development,
up to the formation of the ciliated larva. According to this
view the Olynthus, or at any rate the imaginary " Protolynthus "
is only a slightly modified gastrula, and the Sponges are there-
fore Enterozoa without any coelom, or in other words Coelen-
terata. The extraordinary histological differences between the
Sponges and other Coelenterates (Cnidaiia), combined with the
highly characteristic canal system and the absence of tentacles,
are, however, alone sufficient to throw grave doubts upon the
probability of a close relationship between the two groups, and
these doubts are greatly strengthened by recent embryological
researches, which tend to show that the so-called ectoderm and
endoderm are not homologous in the two cases.
There remains the third view, in accordance with which the
Sponges are multicellular animals which have originated quite
independently from Choanoflagellate Protozoon ancestors, and
this is the view which at present seems to have most in its
favour. It is especially associated with the name of W. J.
Sollas, who invented the term " Parazoa " for the group. In
support of this view it may be pointed out that the tendency to
form hollow, spherical colonies, resembling the blastosphere
stage in the development of Enterozoa, is met with in very
distinct groups of Protozoa (e.g. Volvox, Sphaerozoum). This
form of colony is obviously polyphyletic in origin. The fact
that the segmentation of the ovum leads to such a form in both
Sponges and Enterozoa is therefore by no means conclusive
evidence that Sponges and Enterozoa have originated from the
same Protozoon group. While, as has been repeatedly pointed
out, the universal and characteristic collared cells of sponges
point emphatically to a Choanoflagellate ancestry, it is impos-
sible, in the present state of our knowledge, to indicate the par-
ticular Protozoon group which has given origin to the Enterozoa.
We may then consider the Metazoa, or many-celled animals, as
'a polyphyletic, or at any rate diphyletic group, including two
perfectly distinct lines of descent from the ancestral Protozoa,
the Sponge-line on the one hand, which leads to nothing higher
than Sponges, which retain in many respects the characters of
Protozoa, and the Enterozoon line on the other, which leads
through the Coelenterata to the Coelomata and so on to the
highest divisions of the animal kingdom.
Economics.
All the bath sponges belong to the two genera Euspongia,
Bronn, and Hippospongia, Schulze, subdivisions of the old genus
Spongia, auctorum, distinguished from one another by the fact
that in Hippospongia the body of the sponge is traversed by
wide ramifying canals or vestibules, in addition to the proper
canal system of the sponge. Species of these two genera occur
in many parts of the world, probably wherever the temperature
of the sea-water is sufficiently high and the depth and bottom
suitable. It is only in a few localities, however, that they occur
in sufficient numbers and of sufficiently good quality to render
a sponge fishery practicable. The sponges of commerce are
obtained chiefly from the Mediterranean, the coast of Florida
and the Bahama Islands. From the Mediterranean three dis-
tinct species are obtained (i) Euspongia officinalis, which
includes the " fine sponges," with two chief varieties, mollissima
(the Levantine sponges, very soft and often cup-shaped), and
adriatica; (2) Euspongia zimocca, including the "hard" or
Zimocca sponges; (3) Hippospongia equina, the " common " or
" horse " sponge.
Of the Florida sponges five principal kinds are recognized
by the dealers (i) the sheep's wool sponge (Hippospongia
gossypina] this appears to be by far the most abundant in the
market and also the most valuable; (2) the yellow sponge
(Euspongia agaricina), resembling the Zimocca sponge of the
Mediterranean; (3) the grass sponges (including both Hippo-
spongia graminea and H. cerebriformis) ; (4) the velvet sponge
Hippospongia maeandriniformis), which is not so common as
the others; (5) the glove sponge (Euspongia tubulifera), which
is the least valuable. In the year 1900 the Florida sponge
fisheries yielded 418,125 Ib of sponges, valued at $567,685.
The Bahama sponges appear to be very similar to those of
Florida.
Bath sponges occur in comparatively shallow water and are
obtained by diving, by dredging, or by means of a trident or
long-handled fork. The preparation of the sponges for the
market is extremely simple. The slimy soft tissues very soon
begin to decay and run off when they are removed from the
water; after this has gone on for some time the sponges are
washed and beaten until the skeleton is clean, they are then
threaded on string and dried. They are frequently " loaded "
with foreign matter by the dealers in order to increase their
weight; rock-salt, glucose, molasses, lead, gravel, sand and stones
being used for the purpose. They are also often bleached by
means of chemicals to give them a better colour, but though
their appearance is thereby greatly improved, their durability
is said to be impaired.
In spite of the undoubted rapidity with which sponges grow,
as shown by the fact that on the coast of Florida marketable
sponges are found commonly in places that had been stripped
of saleable specimens in the preceding year, there appears to be
considerable danger of injury to the sponge industry by over-
fishing and by the reckless destruction of young specimens, and
it has been found necessary to introduce special legislation in
America to counteract these evil tendencies. The question of
the artificial propagation and cultivation of sponges has also
been much discussed, but although some very interesting
experiments have been made, they have not as yet led to any
great practical results. As far back as 1862 Oscar Schmidt
showed that " cuttings " of sponges will attach themselves and
grow. This idea was followed out in the experiments of G.
Buccich on the Island of Lesina, from 1863-1872, but these ex-
periments were brought to a close by the hostility of the native
fishermen. Similar experiments have since been made on the
Florida sponge-grounds. The possibility of rearing sponges in
this way from cuttings has thus been fully demonstrated, but
whether it can be done profitably is another question. Accord-
ing to the experience of G. Buccich it appeared that it would
take seven years for the cuttings to attain marketable size in
the Mediterranean. The Florida experiments, on the other
hand, indicate a much more rapid rate of growth, and it has
been stated that under favourable conditions the cuttings will
attain marketable size in as short a time as one year. It has
been doubted, however, whether the total weight of sponges
produced by cuttings would be greater than the weight of the
sponges from which the cuttings were taken if these sponges were
allowed to continue their growth undisturbed. H. V. Wilson
has suggested that sponges may be artificially reared from the
eggs, in the same way that fishes or oysters are reared. The
eggs of the bath sponge, like those of other sponges, develop into
free-swimming ciliated larvae, and these might be made to attach
themselves, like oyster-spat, to suitable objects, on which the
young sponges could be cultivated under appropriate conditions.
Detailed experiments are required to demonstrate the feasibility
or otherwise of this interesting suggestion.
For further information on the economic aspect of the subject
the student should consult the annual Bulletin and special papers
of the United States Bureau of Fisheries and also the work of Seurat
referred to in the bibliography.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A very full list of the literature of the group up to
1889 is given in Lendenfeld's work on the Horny Sponges, published
by the Royal Society. VVe have only space here to refer to a very
limited number of memoirs. Other references will be found in the
works cited.
(i) J. S. Bowerbank, Monograph of the British Spongiadae (Ray
Society) ; (2) H. J. Carter, a long series of memoirs, chiefly systematic,
in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1847 to 1887);
(3) Y. Delage, Embryogenie des eponges (Arch. Zool. Exp. (2), x.
1892); (4) A. Dendy, Monograph of Victorian Sponges," pt. i.,
Trans. Royal Soc., Victoria III. (1891); (5) idem, "Studies on
the Comparative Anatomy of Sponges," pts. i.-vi., Quart. Journ.
Mic. Sci. (1888-1894); (6) idem, "Report on the Sponges col-
lected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902 " (Royal Society,
1905); (7) E. Haeckel, Die Kalkschw dmme (Berlin, 1872); (8) G. J.
Hinde, Monograph of British Fossil Sponges (Palaeontological
Society, London) ; (9) A. Hyatt, " Revision of the North American
732
SPONSOR SPONTINI
Poriferae," Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. (1875-1877), vol. ii. ;
(10) R. Kirkpatrick, Descriptions of South African Sponges (Marine
Investigations in South Africa; Cape of Good Hope Department of
Agriculture, 1902-1903); (n) W. Lundbeck, Porifera (Danish
Ingolf-Expedition, vol. vi., 1902, &c.) ; (12) E. A. Minchin, " Mate-
rials for a Monograph of the Ascons," I., Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.
1 Monaxonida," " Challenger " Reports, " Zoology " (1888) vol!
xx.; (16) F. E. Schulze, " Untersuchungen iiber den Bau und die
Entwicklung der Spongien," Zeitschrift fur wiss. Zoologie (1875-
1881); (17) idem, " Hexactinellida " ("Challenger" Reports,
"Zoology," vol. xxi.); (18) idem, Amerikanische Hexactinelliden
(Gustay Fischer, Jena, 1899); (19) idem, Hexactinellida of the
" Valdivia " Expedition (Jena, 1904) ; (20) L. G. Seurat, L'Eponge
histoire naturelle; PSche; " Acclimatation " ; Spongiculture, Bull.
soc. nat. d' acclimatation de France, 48th year (1901); (21) W. J.
Sollas, " Tetractinellida " (" Challenger " Reports, " Zoology," vol.
xxv.); (22) I. B. J. Sollas, "Sponges," Cambridge Natural History
(1906), vol. i. ; (23) E. Topsent, Etudes monographiques des spongi-
aires de France (Arch. Zool. Exp. (3), 1894, vol. ii. &c.); (24) idem,
" Contribution a 1'etude des spongiaires de 1'Atlantique Nord "
(Campagnes scientifiques du prince de Monaco, 1892, vol. ii.) ; (25)
idem, " Spongiaires des Acores " (Campagnes scientifiques du
prince de Monaco, 1904, vol. xxv.); (26) G. C. J. Vpsmaer,
Spongien," Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs
(1887), vol. ii.; (27) H. V. Wilson, " On the Feasibility of Raisins;
Sponges from the Egg," Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission
(1897), vol. xvii. (A. DE.)
SPONSOR (from Lat. spondere, to promise), one who stands
surety for another, especially in the rite of Christian baptism, a
godfather or godmother. The practice originated not in infant
baptism, but in the custom of requiring an adult pagan who
offered himself for the rite to be accompanied by a Christian
known to the bishop, who could vouch for the applicant and
undertake his supervision, thus fulfilling the function performed
in the Eleusinian mysteries by the mystagogus. The Greek word
for the person undertaking this function is avaSoxos, to which
the Latin susceptor is equivalent. The word " sponsor " in this
ecclesiastical sense occurs for the first time, but incidentally
only, and as if it were already long familiar, in Tertullian's
treatise De baptismo (ch. 18), where, arguing that in certain
circumstances baptism may conveniently be postponed, especially
in the case of little children, he asks, " For why is it necessary
that the sponsors likewise should be thrust into danger, who
both themselves by reason of mortality may fail to fulfil their
promises, and may also be disappointed by the development of
an evil disposition [in those for whom they become sponsors] ? "
The sponsors here alluded to may have been in many cases the
actual parents, and even in the sth century it was not felt to be
inappropriate that they should be so; Augustine, indeed, in one
passage appears to speak of it as a matter of course that parents
should bring their children and answer for them " tanquam
fidejussores" (Epist. . . . ad Bonif. 98), and the oldest Egyptian
ritual bears similar testimony. Elsewhere Augustine contem-
plates the bringing of the children of slaves by their masters,
and of course orphans and foundlings were brought by other
benevolent persons. The comparatively early appearance,
however, of such names as compatres, commatres, propatres,
promatres, patrini, matrinae, is of itself sufficient evidence, not
only that the sponsorial relationship had come to be regarded
as a very close one, but also that it was not usually assumed by
the natural parents. How very close it was held to be is shown
by the Justinian prohibition of marriage between godparents
and godchildren. On the other hand, the anciently allowable
practice of parents becoming sponsors for their own children,
though gradually becoming obsolete, seems to have lingered
until the gth century, when it was at last formally prohibited
by the council of Mainz (813). For a long time there was no
fixed rule as to the necessary or allowable number of sponsors
and sometimes the number actually assumed was large. By the
council of Trent, however, it was decided that one only, or at
most two, these not being of the same sex, should be permitted.
The rubric of the Church of England according to which " there
shall be for every male child to be baptized two godfathers and
one godmother, and for every female one godfather and two
godmothers," is not older than 1661; the sponsors are charged
with the duty of instructing the child, and in due time presenting
it for confirmation, and in the Catechism the child is taught to
say that he received his name from his " godfathers and god-
mothers." At the Reformation the Lutheran churches retained
godfathers and godmothers, but the Reformed churches reverted
to what they believed to be the more primitive rule, that in
ordinary circumstances this function should be undertaken by a
child's proper parents. Most churches demand of sponsors
that they be in full communion. In the Roman Catholic Church,
priests, monks and nuns are disqualified from being sponsors,
either " because it might involve their entanglement in worldly
affairs," or more probably because every relationship of father-
hood or motherhood is felt to be in their case inappropriate.
The spiritual relationship established between the sponsor and
the baptized, and the sponsors and the parents of the baptized,
constitutes an impediment to marriage (see MARRIAGE: Canon
Law).
SPONTINI, GASPARO LUIGI PACIFICO (1774-1831), Italian
musical composer, was born on the i4th of November 1774 at
Majolati (Ancona) in Italy. He was the son of a poor cobbler
and was intended for the priesthood. His musical propensities
however were not to be restrained, and he obtained lessons from
Kapellmeister Quintiliani. In 1791 he went to the Conserva-
torio de' Turchini at Naples, where he was trained to write
operatic music under Paisiello, Cimarosa and Fiorivanti. His
first opera, L'Eroismo ridicolo, was successfully produced in 1796,
and by 1 799 he had already written and produced eight operas.
After becoming court composer to King Ferdinand of Naples
in this year an intrigue with a princess of the court compelled
Spontini to leave Naples in 1800. For the next few years he
wrote operas in Rome and Venice until 1803 when he settled
in Paris, where his reception was anything but flattering. His
comic opera Julie proved a failure; a successor, La Petite maison,
was hissed. Undaunted by these misfortunes, he abandoned
the light and somewhat frivolous style of his earlier works, and
in Milton, a one-act opera produced in 1804, achieved a real
success. Spontini henceforth aimed at a very high ideal, and
during the remainder of his life strove so earnestly to reach it
that he frequently remodelled his passages five or six times
before permitting them to be performed in public, and wearied
his singers by introducing new improvements at every rehearsal.
His first masterpiece was La Vestale, completed in 1805, but
kept from the stage through the opposition of a jealous clique
until the isth of December 1807, when it was produced at the
Academie, and at once took rank with the finest works of its
class. Spontini had abandoned the parlando of Italian opera for
an accompanied recitative; he had increased the strength of the
orchestra and introduced the big chorus freely. His opera,
Ferdinand Cortez, was received with equal enthusiasm in 1809;
but another, Olympia, was much less warmly welcomed in 1819.
Napoleon, whose approval of any work of art was at once a
compliment to the artist and a serious imputation on the value
of the work, professed immense admiration for Spontini's music.
Spontini had been appointed director of the Italian opera in
1810; but his quarrelsome and grasping disposition led to his
summary dismissal two years later, and, though reinstated in
1814, he voluntarily resigned his post soon afterwards. He was
in fact very ill fitted to act as director; yet on the 28th of May
1820, five months after the failure of Olympia, he settled in Berlin
by invitation of Frederick William III., commissioned to super-
intend ah 1 music performed at the Prussian court and compose
two new grand operas, or three smaller ones, every three years.
But he began by at once embroiling himself with the intendant,
Count Briihl. Spontini's life at Berlin may be best described
as a ceaseless struggle for precedence under circumstances which
rendered its attainment impossible. Yet he did good work.
Die Vestalin, Ferdinand Cortez and Olympia the last two
entirely remodelled were produced with great success in 1821.
A new opera, Nourmahal, founded on Moore's Lalla Rookh, was
performed in 1822, and another, entitled Alcidor, in 1825; and
in 1826 Spontini began the composition of Agnes von Hohen-
staufen, a work planned on a grander scale than any of his
SPONTOON SPOONBILL
733
former efforts. The first act was performed in 1827, and the
complete work in three acts graced the marriage of Prince
William in 1820. Though the German critics abused it bitterly,
Agnes von Hohenstaufen is undoubtedly Spontini's greatest
work. In breadth of conception and grandeur of style it exceeds
both Die Vestalin and Ferdinand Cortez, and its details are
worked out with untiring conscientiousness. Spontini himself,
however, was utterly dissatisfied with it, and at once set to work
upon an entire revision, so that on its re-presentation in 1837
many parts were scarcely recognizable by those who had heard
the opera in its original form.
This was his last great work. He several times began to
rewrite his early opera, Milton, and contemplated the treatment
of many new subjects, such as Sappho, La Colere d'Achille, and
other classical myths, but with no definite result. He had
never been popular in Berlin; and he has been accused of endea-
vouring to prevent the performance of Euryanthe, Oberon, Die
Hochzeit des Camacho, Jessonda, Robert the Devil, and other works
of genius, through sheer envy of the laurels won by their
composers. But the critics and reviewers of the period were so
closely leagued against him that it is difficult to know what to
believe. After the death of Frederick William III. in 1840
Spontini's conduct became so violent and imperious that
he was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment for lese-
majeste. The sentence was remitted by Frederick William IV.,
but on the 2nd of April 1841, when he appeared at the con-
ductor's desk to direct a performance of Don Juan, he was
greeted with hisses and groans, and his orders to raise the curtain
were ignored, so that he was compelled to leave the desk. The
king dismissed him on the 25th of August, with power to retain
his titles and live wherever he pleased in the enjoyment of his
full salary. He elected to settle once more in Paris, after a
short visit to Italy; but beyond conducting occasional perform-
ances of some of his own works he made but few attempts
to keep his name before the public. In 1847 he revisited Berlin
and was invited by the king to conduct some performances
during the winter. In 1848 he became deaf. In 1850 he
retired to his birthplace, Majolati, and died there on the I4th
of January 1851, bequeathing all he possessed to the poor of
his native town.
SPONTOON (Fr. esponton, Ital. spontone, from Lat. punctum,
point, pungere, to prick), a weapon carried by infantry officers
in the i7th and early i8th centuries. It was a type of the
partisan or halberd (q.v.), a shafted weapon with a special form
of spear head.
SPOON (O. Eng. span, a chip or splinter of wood, cf. Du. spaan,
Ger. Spahn, in same sense, probably related to Gr. <rtf>riv, wedge),
a table implement, bowl-shaped at the end, with a handle vary-
ing in length and size. From the derivation of the word the
earliest northern European spoon would seem to have been a
chip or splinter of wood; the Greek Kox^i-apLov (Lat. cochleare)
points to the early and natural use of shells, such as are still used
by primitive peoples. Examples are preserved of the various
forms of spoons used by the ancient Egyptians of ivory, flint,
slate and wood, many of them carved with the symbols of their
religion. The spoons of the Greeks and Romans were chiefly
made of bronze and silver, and the handle usually takes the
form of a spike or pointed stem. There are many examples
in the British Museum from which the form of the various types
can be ascertained, the chief points of difference being found in
the junction of the bowl with the handle. Medieval spoons
for domestic use were commonly made of horn or wood, but
brass, pewter and " latten " spoons appear to have been common
about the isth century. The full descriptions and entries re-
lating to silver spoons in the inventories of the royal and other
households point to their special value and rarity. The earliest
English reference appears to be in a will of 1259. In the ward-
robe accounts of Edward I. for the year 1300 some gold and
silver spoons marked with the fleur-de-lis, the Paris mark, are
mentioned. One of the most interesting medieval spoons is
the coronation spoon used in the anointing of the sovereign,
an illustration of which is given under REGALIA. The sets of
spoons popular as christening presents in Tudor times, the
handles of which terminate in heads or busts of the apostles,
are a special form to which antiquarian interest attaches (see
APOSTLE SPOONS). The earlier English spoon-handles ter-
minate in an acorn, plain knob or a diamond; at the end of
the i6th century the baluster and seal ending becomes common,
the bowl being " fig-shaped." At tha Restoration the handle
becomes broad and flat, the bowl is broad and oval and the
termination is cut into the shape known as the pied de biche, or
hind's foot. In the first quarter of the i8th century the bowl
becomes narrow and elliptical, with a tongue or " rat's tail "
down the back, and the handle is turned up at the end. The
modern form, with the tip of the bowl narrower than the base
and the rounded end of the handle turned down, came into
use about 1760.
See C. J. Jackson, " The Spoon and its History," in Archaeologia
(1892), vol. liii.; also Cripps, Old English Plate.
SPOONBILL. The bird now so called was formerly known in
England as the Shovelard or Shovelar, while that which used to
bear the name of Spoonbill, often amplified into Spoon-billed
Duck, is the Shoveler (q.v.) of modern days the exchange of
names having been effected as already stated (loc. cit.) about
200 years ago, when the subject of the present notice the
Platalca leucorodia of Linnaeus as well as of recent writers was
doubtless far better known than now, since it evidently was,
from ancient documents, the constant concomitant of Herons,
and with them the law attempted to protect it. 1 J. E. Harting
(Zoologist, 1886, pp. 81 seq.) has cited a case from the " Year-
Book " of 14 Hen. VIII. (1523), wherein the then bishop of
London (Cuthbert Tunstall) maintained an action of trespass
against the tenant of a close at Fulham for taking Herons and
" Shovelars " that made their nests on the trees therein growing,
and has also printed (Zoologist, 1877, pp. 425 seq.) an old
document showing that " Shovelars " bred in certain woods in
west Sussex in 1570. Nearly one hundred years later (c. 1662)
Sir Thomas Browne, in his " Account of Birds found in Norfolk ''
(Works, ed. Wilkin, iv. 315, 316), stated of the " Platea or
Shouelard " that it formerly " built in the Hernerie at Claxton
and Reedham, now at Trimley in Suffolk." Thislast isthelatest
known proof of the breeding of the species in England ; but more
recent evidence to that effect may be hoped for from other
sources. That the Spoonbill was in the fullest sense of the
word a " native " of England is thus incontestably shown; but
for mpjiy years past it has only been a more or less regular visitant,
though not seldom in considerable numbers, which would doubt-
less, if allowed, once more make their home there; but its
conspicuous appearance renders it an easy mark for the greedy
gunner and the contemptible collector. What may have been
the case formerly is not known, except that, according to P.
Belon, it nested in his time (1555) in the borders of Brittany
and Poitou; but as regards north-western Europe it seems of
late years to have bred only in Holland, and there it has been
deprived by drainage of its favourite resorts, one after the other,
so that it must shortly become merely a stranger, except in Spain
or the basin of the Danube and other parts of south-eastern
Europe.
The Spoonbill ranges over the greater part of middle and
southern Asia, 2 and breeds abundantly in India, as well as on
some of the islands in the Red Sea, and seems to be resident
throughout Northern Africa. In Southern Africa its place is
taken by an allied species with red legs, P. crislata or tenuiroslris,
1 Nothing shows better the futility of the old statutes for the
protection of birds than the fact that in 1534 the taking of the eggs
of Herons, Spoonbills (Shovelars), Cranes, Bitterns and Bustards was
visited by a heavy penalty, while there was none for destroying the
parent birds in the breeding season. All of the species just named,
except the Heron, have passed away, while there is strong reason to
think that some at least might have survived had the principle of the
Levitical law (Deut. xxii. 6) been followed.
2 Ornithologists have been in doubt as to the recognition of two
species from Japan described by Temminck and Schlegel under the
names of P. major and P. minnr. It has been suggested that the
former is only the young of P. leucorodia, and the latter the young of
the Australian P. regia.
734
SPORADES SPOROZOA
which also goes to Madagascar. Australia has two other species,
P. regia or melanorhynchus, with black bill and feet, and P.
flavipes, in which those parts are yellow. The very beautiful
and wholly different P. ajaja is the Roseate Spoonbill of
America, and is the only one found on that continent, the
tropical or juxta-tropical parts of which it inhabits. The rich
pink, deepening in some parts into crimson, of nearly all its
plumage, together with the yellowish green of its bare head and
its lake-coloured legs, sufficiently marks this bird; but all the
other species are almost wholly clothed in pure white, though
the English has, when adult, a fine buff pectoral band, and the
spoon-shaped expanse of its bill is yellow, contrasting with
the black of the compressed and basal portion. Its legs are
also black. In the breeding season, a pendent tuft of white
plumes further ornaments the head of both sexes, but is
longest in the male. The young of the year have the primary
quills dark-coloured.
The Spoonbills form a natural group, Plataleinae, allied to
the Ibididae, and somewhat more distantly to the Storks (see
STORK). They breed in societies, not only of their own kind,
but in company with Herons, either on trees or in reed-beds,
making large nests in which are commonly laid four eggs white,
speckled, streaked or blotched, but never very closely, with
light red. Such breeding stations have been several times
described, as for instance by P. L. Sclater and W. A. Forbes
(Ibis, 1877, p. 412), and H. Seebohm (Zoologist, 1880, p. 457),
while a view of another has been given by H. Schlegel (Vog.
Nederland, taf. xvii.). (A. N.)
SPORADES (Gr. ZTropdSes, from ffireipav, to sow), the
islands scattered about the Greek Archipelago, as distinguished
from the Cyclades, which are grouped round Delos, and from the
islands attached, as it were, to the mainlands of Europe and Asia.
Ancient and modern writers differ as to the list of the Sporades
(see Bursian, Griechenland, ii. 348 seq.). The Doric Sporades
Melos, Pholegandros, Sikinos, Thera, Anaphe, Astropalia and
Cos were by some considered a southern cluster of the Cyclades.
In modern times the name Sporades is more especially applied
to two groups the northern Sporades, which lie north-east
of Negropont (Euboea), Skiathos, Skopelos and Ikos being
included in the department of Magnesia and Scyros in that of
Euboea; and the southern Sporades, lying off the south-west
of Asia Minor, being included in the Turkish vilayet of the
" Islands of the White Sea." The northern, which have altogether
an area of 180 sq. m. and a population of 12, 250(1896), comprise
Skiathos (pop. 2790), Ikos (pop. 653), Skopelos (pop. 5295),
Pelagonisi, Giura, Pipari and Scyros (pop. 3512), with the
adjacent islets. Skiathos is a beautifully wooded and pictur-
esque island; the town stands on a declivity surrounding an
excellent harbour. The larger island of Skopelos is also well
wooded. Almost every householder in both islands is the owner,
joint owner or skipper of a sailing ship. The southern Sporades
are as follows: Icaria, Patmos, Leros, Calymnus, Astropalia
(Astypalaea or Stampalia), Cos (Stanko), Nisyros, Tilos or
Episcopi, Syme, Khalki, Rhodes, Crete and many smaller isles.
Icaria (pop. about 8000) derives its name from the legend of
Icarus. The forests which it once possessed have been destroyed
by the inhabitants for the manufacture of charcoal. Leros
(pop. about 3000) was in ancient times a seat of the worship of
Artemis. Calymnus (pop. about 7000) was once covered by
forests (Ovid, A. A. ii. 81, " silvis umbrosa Calymne " ), which
have disappeared. Nisyros (pop. about 2500) possesses hot
sulphur springs.
SPOROZOA, a large and most important section of the Proto-
zoa, all the members of which are exclusively parasitic in habitat.
They are of extremely widespread occurrence; there is hardly
one of the chief classes of animals which does not furnish hosts
for these parasites, scarcely one of the common tissues or organs
of the Metazoan body which may not be liable to infection.
Sporozoa differ greatly as regards the effects which they produce
upon their hosts. In many, perhaps in most, cases the general
health of the infected animal seems to be unimpaired, even
though the parasites may be fairly abundant. Some, however,
give rise to dangerous or fatal diseases, while others may cause
ravaging epidemics; instances of these are given under the
various orders.
Correlated with the mode of life are the two features character-
istic of all Sporozoa: (a) They absorb only fluid nutriment,
osmotically, and so lack any organs for ingesting and digesting
solid food; and (b) they reproduce by sporulation, i.e. the for-
mation of minute germs, which are in most instances very
numerous and are often enclosed in firm protective envelopes
or cases, each case with its contents forming a spore. In addition,
the great majority have also another method of reproduction,
for increasing the number of the parasites in any individual host ;
this is distinguished as multiplicative or endogenous repro-
duction, from the propagative or exogenous method (by means
of the resistant spores), which. serves for the infection of fresh
hosts and secures the dissemination and survival of the species.
Further, most if not all forms of Sporozoa undergo sexual
conjugation at some period or other of the life-cycle.
Beyond this, however, it is impossible to generalize. In
response to the exceeding diversity of habitat and of the con-
ditions of life, the parasites exhibit manifold and widely-different
types of form, organization and life-history. The recognition
of this fact is expressed, at the present day, by the division of
the Sporozoa into several well-defined orders, which are grouped
in two main divisions, each containing more or less closely
related forms. One of these groups consists of the Gregarines,
Coccidia and Haemosporidia (qq.v.). The other comprises the
Myxosporidia, Actinomyxidia, Sarcosporidia and Haplosporidia,
the parasites included in the last named order being of compara-
tively simple structure, and probably near the base of this
section. There are, in addition, various other forms (Sero- and
Exo-sporidia) , also primitive in character, but which are as yet
too insufficiently known for it to be certain whether they are of
distinct ordinal rank, or should be placed with the Haplosporidia.
The nomenclature assigned to these two principal divisions
of the Sporozoa by different writers has varied according to the
particular character on which they have primarily based the
arrangement. Of late years, the terms Telosporidia and
Neosporidia, proposed by F. Schaudinn (1900), have been
most in favour. In the Telosporidia (comprising the Gregarines,
Coccidia and Haemosporidia), sporulation does not begin until
the close of the vegetative or trophic period, i.e. until growth
has ceased; in the Neosporidia (including the remaining orders)
growth and sporulation go on coincidently. Recently, however,
considerable doubt has been thrown upon the general occurrence
of this latter condition in certain Myxosporidia (Microsporidia) ;
and the present writer adopts as preferable, therefore, the terms
Ectospora and Endospora (qq.v.), invented by E. Metschnikoff
and made use of by F. Mesnil (1899), which indicate a universal
distinction between the two groups in their manner of sporula-
tion. This distinction is probably the most fundamental one,
and itself supports a conclusion which is, on other grounds,
becoming more and more likely, namely, that these two divisions
are not related phylogenetically; but have, on the contrary, a
radically different origin. In other words, under the heading
Sporozoa, as at present used, are included two entirely inde-
pendent series of Protozoan parasites; the general resemblances
which these exhibit are due to convergence brought about by
their specialized mode of life.
The most recent and comprehensive account of the group is that
by E. A. Minchin (in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, pt. i., London,
1903), to which the present writer is much indebted; another useful
treatise is that of F. Doflein, Die Protozoen als Parasiten u. Krank-
heitserreger (G. Fischer, Jena, 1901). Earlier accounts are those of
M. Liihe, Ergebnisse der neuren Sporozoenforschung (Jena, 1900);
Wasielewski, Sporozoenkunde (Jena, 1896); Y. Delage and E.
Herouard in Traite de zoologie concrete, pt. i., Paris, 1896); E. R.
Lankester, art. "Protozoa in Ency. Brit. 9th ed. (1886), and
O. Biitschli in Bronn's Klassen u. Ordnungen des Thierreichs, I. i.
(1882). There is a systematic enumeration of the group by
A. Labbe in Das Thierreich, 5. (Berlin, 1899); and the classification
and phytogeny are considered by E. Mesnil (Soc. Biol., vol. jub. p. 258,
Paris, 1899), and by H. Crawley in Amer. Nat. (1905), xxxix. 607.
(H. M. Wo.)
SPORRAN SPOTTISWOODE, J.
735
SPORRAN (Gaelic sporan, purse, pouch), a pouch which is
worn, in Highland costume, hanging from the belt over the front
of the kilt. The older sporrans were quite modest objects
and ordinarily of leather; in modern Highland costume and in the
uniform of Highland kilted regiments it has become a highly
ornamental adjunct, with silver or metal rims, and a heavy long
backing of horsehair or fur.
SPORT (a contracted or shortened form of "disport," to
amuse, divert oneself, O. Fr. se disporter or deporter, to leave off
work, hence to play, Lat. dis-, away, and portare, to carry; the
origin of the meaning lies in the notion of turning away from
serious occupations, cf. " diversion "), play, amusement, enter-
tainment or recreation. The term was applied in early times to
all forms of pastime. It was, however, particularly used of
out-of-door or manly recreations, such as shooting with the
bow, hunting and the like. Modern usage has given several
meanings to " sport " and " sports. " Generally speaking
" sport " includes the out-of-door recreations, the " field-
sports," such as fishing, shooting, fox-hunting, &c., connected
with the killing or hunting of animals as opposed to organized
" games, " which are contests of skill or strength played according
to rules. It also includes the special class of horse-racing, the
votaries of which, and also of the prize-ring, have arrogated to
themselves sometimes the name of " sportsman, " applying that
word even to those who follow racing simply as an occasion for
betting. On the other hand, the plural " sports " is generally
confined to athletic contests such as running, jumping, &c.
(see ATHLETIC SPORTS and subsidiary articles).
In zoology and botany the word has a specific meaning of a
sudden or singular variation from type, a " diversion " in a
more etymological sense of the term.
SPORTS, THE BOOK OF, or more properly the DECLARATION
OF SPORTS, an order issued by James I. in 1617 on the recom-
mendation of Thomas Morton, bishop of Chester, for use in
Lancashire, where the king on his return from Scotland found
a conflict on the subject of Sunday amusements between the
Puritans and the gentry, many of whom were Roman Catholics.
Permission was given for dancing, archery, leaping, vaulting
and other harmless recreations, and of " having of May games,
Whitsun ales and morris dances, and the setting up of May-poles
and other sports therewith used, so as the same may be had in
due and convenient time without impediment or neglect of
divine service, and that women shall have leave to carry rushes
to church for the decorating of it." On the other hand, " bear
and bull-baiting, interludes, and (at all times in the meane sort of
people by law prohibited) bowling "were not to be permitted on
Sunday (Wilkins, Concilia, iv. 483). In 1618 James transmitted
orders to the clergy of the whole of England to read the declara-
tion from the pulpit; but so strong was the opposition that he
prudently withdrew his command (Wilson, in Kennet, ii. 709;
Fuller, Church History, v. 452). .In 1633 Charles I. not only
directed the republication of his father's declaration (Rushworth,
ii. 193) but insisted upon the reading of it by the clergy. Many
of the clergy were punished for refusing to obey the injunction.
With the fall of Laud all attempts to enforce it necessarily came
to an end.
SPOTSWOOD (SPOTTSWOOD or SPOTTISWOOD), ALEXANDER
(1676-1740), American colonial governor, was born, of an old
Scotch family, in Tangier, Africa, in 1676. He served under
Marlborou^h in the War of the Spanish Succession, and was
wounded at Blenheim. He became lieutenant governor of Virginia
in June 1710, when he was received with some enthusiasm,
because he brought to the colony the privilege of habeas corpus;
his tern as governor closed in September 1722 probably
because he meddled in ecclesiastical matters; but he remained
in Virginia, living near his ironworks in Germanna, a settlement
of Germans, on the Rapidan in Spottsylvania county (named in
his honour) and he was deputy postmaster-general of the colonies
from 1730 to 1739. He was the first representative of the
British government in America who fully appreciated the value
of the western territory. As governor he recommended the
establishment of a Virginia company to carry on trade with the
Indians, he urged upon the provincial government and also upon
the British authorities the wisdom of constructing forts along
the frontier, and he personally organized and conducted an
exploring expedition (Aug. 17 to Sept. 20, 1716) into the
Shenandoah Valley reaching the water-parting between the
Atlantic and the Ohio river. 1 These ambitious and expensive
schemes, coupled with his haughty and overbearing conduct,
involved him in a controversy with the rather niggardly House
of Burgesses. He developed the iron industry of Virginia,,
promoted the religious education of the Indians and tried to
advance the interests of education, and especially of the College
of William and Mary. In 1740 he was commissioned major-
general to conduct the expedition against Cartagena, but died
while attending to the embarcation, at Annapolis, Maryland,
on the 7th of June 1740. His library he left to the College of
William and Mary.
See R. A. Brock (ed.), " The Official Letters of Alexander Spots-
wood " (with a memoir), in The Collections of the Virginia Historical
Society (2 vols., Richmond, 1882-1885).
SPOTTISWOODE (SPOTTISWOOD, SPOTISWOOD or SPOTSWOOD),
JOHN (1565-1639), archbishop of St Andrews and historian of
Scotland, eldest son of John Spottiswood, minister of Calder
and " superintendent " of Lothian, was born in 1565. He was
educated at Glasgow University (M.A. 1581), and succeeded his
father in the parish of Calder in 1583. In 1601 he attended
Ludowick, duke of Lennox, as his chaplain, in an embassy to the
court of France, returning in 1603. He followed James to Eng-
land on his accession, but was the same year nominated to the
see of Glasgow, his consecration in London, however, not
taking place until October 1610. Spottiswoode had originally
become prominent as an ardent supporter of the strict Presby-
terian party, but gradually came to see the inconveniences of
" parity in the Church," attributed little importance to the
existing matters of dispute, and thought that the interests of
both church and state w"ere best secured by keeping on good
terms with the king. He was therefore ready to co-operate with
James in curtailing the powers of the Kirk which encroached
on the royal authority, and in assimilating the church of Scotland
to that of England. On the 3oth of May 1605 he became a
member of the Scottish privy council. In 1610 he presided as
moderator over the assembly in which presbytery was abolished,
in 1615 he was made archbishop of St Andrews and primate of
Scotland, and in 1618 procured the sanction of the privy council
to the Five Articles of Perth with their ratification by parliament
in 1621. In 1633 he crowned Charles I. at Holyrood. In 1635
he was appointed lord chancellor of Scotland, an office which
he retained till 1638. He was opposed to the new liturgy as.
inexpedient, but when he could not prevent its introduction
he took part in enforcing it. He was a spectator of the riot of
St Giles's, Edinburgh, on the 23rd of July 1637, endeavoured
in vain to avoid disaster by concessions, and on the taking of
the Covenant perceived that " now all that we have been doing
these thirty years past is thrown down at once." He escaped to
Newcastle, was deposed by the assembly on the 4th of December
on a variety of ridiculous charges, and died in London on the
26th of November 1639, receiving burial in Westminster Abbey.
Spottiswoode published in 1620 Refutalio libelli de regimine
ecclesiac scolicanae, an answer to a tract of Calderwood, who
replied in the Vindiciae subjoined to his Altare damascenum,
(1623). The only other writing published during his lifetime
was the sermon he preached at the Perth assembly. His most
considerable work was The History of the Church and State of
Scotland (London, 1655, seq.). It displays considerable research
and sagacity, and even when dealing with contemporary events
gives a favourable impression, upon the whole, of the author's
candour and truth. The opposite side can be studied in
Calderwood's History.
Spottiswoode married Rachel, daughter of David Lindsay,
bishop of Ross, and besides a daughter left two sons, Sir John
Spottiswoode of Dairsie in Fife, and Sir Robert, president of
1 To each of his comrades in this journey Spotswood presented a
small golden horseshoe, lettered " Sic juvat transcendere monies."
736
SPOTTISWOODE, W. SPRATT
the Court of Session, who was captured at the battle of Philip-
haugh in 1645 an( i executed in 1646.
See the accounts prefixed to the first edition of Spottiswoode's
History of Scotland and to that published by the Spottiswoode
Society in 1851 ; also David Calderwood's Hist, of the Kirk of Scotland
(1842-1849).
SPOTTISWOODE, WILLIAM (1825-1883), English mathema-
tician and physicist, was born in London on the nth of January
1825. His father, Andrew Spottiswoode, who was descended
from an ancient Scottish family, represented Colchester in parlia-
ment for some years, and in 1831 became junior partner in the
firm of Eyre & Spottiswoode, printers. William was educated
at Laleham, Eton, Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford. His
bent for science showed itself while he was still a schoolboy, and
indeed his removal from Eton to Harrow is said to have been
occasioned by an accidental explosion which occurred whilst he
was performing an experiment for his own amusement. At
Harrow he obtained in 1842 a Lyon scholarship, and at Oxford
in 1845 a first-class in mathematics, in 1846 the junior and in
1847 the senior university mathematical scholarship. In 1846
he left Oxford to take his father's place in the business, in which
he was engaged until his death. In 1847 he issued five pamphlets
entitled Meditaliones analyticae. This was his first publication
of original mathematical work; and from this time scarcely a
year passed in which he did not give to the world further mathe-
matical researches. In 1856 Spottiswoode travelled in eastern
Russia, and in 1860 in Croatia and Hungary; of the former
expedition he has left an interesting record entitled A Taran-
tasse Journey through Eastern Russia in the Autumn of 1856
(London, 1857). In 1870 he was elected president of the London
Mathematical Society. In 1871 he began to turn his attention
to experimental physics, his earlier researches bearing upon the
polarization of light and his later work upon the electrical
discharge in rarefied gases. He wrote a popular treatise upon
the former subject for the " Nature " Series (1874). In 1878
he was elected president of the British Association, and in the
same year president of the Royal Society, of which he had been
a fellow since 1853. He died in London of typhoid fever on the
27th of June 1883, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
As a mathematician he occupied himself with many branches
of his favourite science, more especially with higher algebra, includ-
ing the theory of determinants, with the general calculus of
symbols, and with the application of analysis to geometry and
mechanics. The following brief review of his mathematical work
is quoted from the obituary notice which appeared in the Proceedings
of the Royal Society (xxxviii. 34) : " The interesting series of com-
munications on the contact of curves and surfaces which are
contained in the Philosophical Transactions of 1862 and subsequent
years would alone account for the high rank he obtained as a
mathematician. . . . The mastery which he had obtained over the
mathematical symbols was so complete that he never shrank from
the use of expressions, however complicated nay, the more com-
plicated they were the more he seemed to revel in them provided
they did not sin against the ruling spirit of all his work symmetry.
To a mind imbued with the love of mathematical symmetry the
study of determinants had naturally every attraction. In 1851
Mr Spottiswoode published in the form of a pamphlet an account of
some elementary theorems on the subject. This having fallen out
of print, permission was sought by the editor of Crelle to reproduce
it in the pages of that journal. Mr Spottiswoode granted the request
and undertook to revise his work. The subject had, however, been
so extensively developed in the interim that it proved necessary
not merely to revise it but entirely to rewrite the work, which
became a memoir of 1 16 pages. To this, the first elementary treatise
on determinants, much of the rapid development of the subject is
due. The effect of the study on Mr Spottiswoode's own methods
was most pronounced; there is scarcely a page of his mathematical
writings that does not bristle with determinants." His papers,
numbering over 100, were published principally in the Philosophical
Transactions, Proceedings of the Royal Society, Quarterly Journal of
Mathematics, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society and
Crelle, and one or two in the Comples rendus of the Paris Academy ;
a list of them, arranged according to the several journals in which
they originally appeared, with short notes upon the less familiar
memoirs, is given in Nature, xxvii. 599.
SPOTTSYLVANIA, a county of Virginia, U.S.A., so called after
Alexander Spotswood (q.v.), lieutenant governor of Virginia in
1710-1722, who owned extensive estates and mines therein. It is
bounded on the N. by the Rapidan and Rappahannock rivers and
on the S. by the North Anna. It is celebrated as containing several
of the most famous battlefields of the Civil War Fredericksburg,
Chancellorsville, the Wilderness, and particularly that of
Spottsylvania Court House, where the armies of Grant and Lee
contended for nearly two weeks (May 8-21, 1864). The battles
of Chancellorsville, Wilderness and Spottsylvania are described
in the article WILDERNESS.
SPOUSE, (O. Fr. espous, mod. tpoux, espouse, (pause, Lat.
sponsus, sponsa, a betrothed or promised man or woman, from
spondere, to promise), a husband or wife, properly one promised
or betrothed to another in marriage.
SPRAT, THOMAS ( 1635-1713), English divine, was born at
Beaminster, Dorsetshire, and educated at Wadham College,
Oxford, where he held a fellowship (1657-1670). Having taken
orders he became a prebendary of Lincoln in 1660. In the pre-
ceding year he had gained a reputation by his poem To the Happie
Memory of the most Renowned Prince Oliver, Lord Protector
(London, 1659), and he was afterwards well known as a wit,
preacher and man of letters. His chief prose works are the
Observations upon Monsieur de Sorbier's Voyage into England
(London, 1665), a satirical reply to the strictures on Englishmen
in Samuel de Sorbiere's book of that name, and a History of the
Royal Society of London (London, 1667), which Sprat had helped
to found. In 1669 he became canon of Westminster, and in
1670 rector of Uffington, Lincolnshire. He was chaplain to
Charles II. in 1676, curate and lecturer at St Margaret's, West-
minster, in 1679, canon of Windsor in 1681, dean of Westminster
in 1683 and bishop of Rochester in 1684. He was a member of
James II. 's ecclesiastical commission, and in 1688 he read the
Declaration of Indulgence to empty benches in Westminster
Abbey. Although he opposed the motion of 1689 declaring the
throne vacant, he assisted at the coronation of William and
Mary. As dean of Westminster he directed Wren's restoration
of the abbey. He died on the zoth of May 1713.
SPRAT, a marine fish (Clupea sprattus), named " garvie " in
Scotland, one of the smallest species of the genus Clupea or
herrings, rarely exceeds 5 in. in length, and occurs in large shoals
on the Atlantic coasts of Europe. Sprats are very often con-
founded with young herrings, which they much resemble, but
can always be distinguished by the following characters: they
do not possess any teeth on the palate (vomer), like herrings;
their gill-covers are smooth, without the radiating striae which
are found in the shad and the pilchard; the anal fin consists of
.from seventeen to twenty rays, and the lateral line of forty-seven
or forty-eight scales. The ventral fins are slightly anterior to
the origin of the dorsal fin; and the spine consists of from forty-
seven to forty-nine vertebrae. The sprat spawns in the open
sea from February to May and is only occasionally captured
in the ripe condition. Its eggs are buoyant and pelagic and
easily recognized. The sprat is one of the more important food-
fishes on account of the immense numbers which are caught when
the shoals approach the coasts. They are somewhat capricious,
however, as regards the place and time of their appearance, the
latter falling chiefly in the first half of winter. They are caught
with the seine or with the bag-net in the tideway. Large
quantities are consumed fresh, but many are pickled or smoked
and others prepared like anchovies. Frequently the captures
are so large that the fish can be used as manure only.
SPRATT, THOMAS ABEL BRIMAGE (i8ii-i883), English
vice-admiral, hydrographer and geologist, was born at East
Teignmouth on the nth of May 1811. He was the eldest son
of Commander James Spratt, R.N., and entered the navy in
1827. He was attached to the surveying branch, ivnd was
engaged almost continuously until 1863 in surveying the
Mediterranean. As commander of the " Spitfire " he rendered
distinguished service in the Black Sea during the Crimean War,
and was appointed C.B. in 1855. At an earlier date he was
associated with Edward Forbes, then naturalist to the " Beacon,"
and during the years 1841-1843 they made observations on the
bathymetrical distribution of marine life. To Forbes he was
specially indebted for his interest in natural history and geology,
SPRECKELS SPRENGTPORTEN, COUNT
737
and together they published Travels in Lycia, &c. (1847). Spratt
investigated the caves at Malta and obtained remains of the
pigmy elephant (Elephas melitensis), which was described by
Dr H. Falconer. He investigated the geology of several Greek
islands, also the shores of Asia Minor, and made detailed observa-
tions on the Delta of the Nile. He was especially distinguished
for his Travels and Researches in Crete (2 vols., 1865), in which
he ably described the physical geography, geology, archaeo-
logy and natural history of the island. He was commissioner
of fisheries from 1866 to 1873; and acting conservator of
the Mersey from 1879 until the close of his life. He died at
Tunbridge Wells on the loth of March 1888.
SPRECKELS, CLAUS (1828-1908), American capitalist,
was born in Lanstedt, Hanover, in 1828. In 1846, to escape
army service, he emigrated to the United States and became a
grocer. In 1856 he removed from New York City to San
Francisco, where he set up as a grocer, then a brewer, and later
a sugar refiner. He gradually obtained control of most of the
sugar refineries on the Pacific coast ; he was able to undersell his
competitors because he bought his raw sugar in Hawaii, where
he purchased large plantations and contracted for the produce
of others. He built a large refinery in Hawaii, and his influence
with the Hawaiian government was for a time paramount.
By financing the Pacific Steamship Company he was able to
reduce the freight charges on his sugar, and he also introduced
various improvements in the methods of manufacture. It was
he who built the railway from Salinas to San Francisco, by
buying which the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe first made a
through line into San Francisco. Spreckels died in San Francisco
on the 26th of December 1908. His eldest son, John Diedrich
Spreckels (b. 1853), became proprietor of the San Francisco
Morning Call and succeeded to his father's steamship interests;
and another son, Rudolph Spreckels (1873- ), became
president of the First National Bank of San Francisco.
SPREE, a river of Prussia, Germany, rising in the district of
Upper Lusatia, in the kingdom of Saxony, close to the Bohemian
frontier, and flowing nearly due north past Bautzen, Spremberg
and Cottbus, dividing between the first two towns for a time
into two arms. Below Cottbus the river splits into a network
of channels, and swings round in a big curve to the west forming
the peculiar marshy region (30 m. long and 3 to 6 m. wide)
known as the Spreewald. Having returned to its predominant
direction, it turns W.N.W., and passing Furstenwalde and
Kopenick threads Berlin in several arms, and joins the Havel
at Spandau. Its length is 227 m. of which 112 are navigable;
the area of its drainage . basin is 3660 sq. m. It is connected
with the Oder by the Friedrich Wilhelm or Miillrose Canal
made in 1862-1868, which is 17 m. long, and by the Oder-Spree
Canal, made in 1887-1888, and with the Havel by the Berlin-
Spandau Navigation Canal, 5! m. long, and by theTeltow Canal
completed in 1905.
SPREEWALD, a district of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, a marshy depression of the middle Spree valley,
extending to some 106 sq. m., its length being 27 m. and its
width varying from i to 7 m. It owes its marshy character
to the river Spree, which above Liibben splits into a network
of over two hundred arms, and in seasons of flood generally
overflows considerable portions of the region. In the parts
which are especially liable to inundation, as, for example, the
villages of Lehde, Leipe and Burg, many of the homesteads
are built each on a little self-contained island, approachable
in summer only by boat, and in winter over the ice. In spite
of its marshy character the Spreewald is in part cultivated, in
part converted into pasturage, and almost everywhere, but
more especially in the lower districts, wooded like a park, the
predominant trees being willows. Fishing, cattle-breeding
and the growing of vegetables, more particularly small pickling
cucumbers, are the chief occupations of the people, about
30,000 in all. In great part they are of Wendish blood, and
though the majority have been Germanized, there is a small
residue who have faithfully preserved their national speech,
customs, and their own peculiar styles of dress. The attractive
xxv. 24
blending of wood and water makes the Spreewald in summer a
resort of the people of the Prussian capital; but also in winter
the district is largely visited by people bent on skating, sleighing
and other winter pastimes. The chief town is Liibben, 45 m.
south from Berlin on the railway to Gorlitz.
See W. von Schulenburg, Wendische Volkssagen und Gebrauche
aus dem Spreewald (Leipzig, 1880) ; Kiihn, Der Spreewald und seine
Bewohner (Cottbus, 1889); and Braunsdorf, Spreewaldfahrien
(Lubbenau, 1901).
SPREMBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, situated partly on an island in the river Spree
and partly on the west bank, 76 m. S.E. of Berlin by the railway
to Gorlitz. Pop. (1905) 11,188. There are a Roman Catholic
and two Evangelical churches, a pilgrimage chapel, dating from
i loo, a ducal chateau, built by a son of the elector John George
about the end of the i6th century (now utilized as government
offices), classical, technical and commercial schools and a
hospital. It carries on considerable manufactures of woollen
cloth.
SPRENGEL, KURT (1766-1833), German botanist and physi-
cian, was born on the 3rd of August 1766 at Bodelkow in Pome-
rania. His uncle, Christian Konrad Sprengel (1750-1816), is
remembered for his studies in the fertilization of flowers by
insects a subject in which he reached conclusions many years
ahead of his time. His father, a clergyman, provided him with
a thorough education of wide scope; and the boy at an early
age distinguished himself as a linguist, not only in Latin and
Greek, but also in Arabic. He appeared as an author at the
age of fourteen, publishing a small work called Anleitung zur
Botanik fur Frauenzimmer in 1780. In 1784 he began to study
theology and medicine at the university of Halle, but soon
relinquished the former. He graduated in medicine in 1787.
In 1789 he was appointed extraordinary professor of medicine
in his alma mater, and in 1795 was promoted to be ordinary
professor. He devoted much of his time to medical work and
to investigations into the history of medicine; and he held a
foremost rank as an original investigator both in medicine and
botany. Among the more important of his many services to
the latter science was the part he took in awakening and stimu-
lating microscopic investigation into the anatomy of the tissues
of the higher plants, though defective microscopic appliances
rendered the conclusions arrived at by himself untrustworthy.
He also made many improvements in the details of both the
Linnaean and the " natural " systems of classification. He
died of an apoplectic seizure at Halle on the isth of March
1833-
Sprengel's more important works were: Beitrdge zur Geschichte des
Pulses (1787); Galens Fieberlehre (1788); Apologie des Hippokrates
(1789); Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneikunde
(1792-1799); Handbuch der Pathologie (1795-1797); Inslitutiones
medicae (6 vols., 1809-1816); Geschichte der Medicin (completed in
1820); Antiquitatum botanicarum specimen (1798); Historia rei
herbariae (18071808); Anleitung zur Kenntniss der Gewachse
(1802-1804; and again 1817-1818); Geschichte der Botanik (1817-
1818); Von dem Bau und der Natur der Gewachse (1812); Flora
halensis (1806-1815; ar) d in 1832); Species umbelliferarum minus
cognitae (1818); Neue Entdeckung im ganzen Umfang der Pflanzen-
kunde (1820-^1822). He edited an edition of Linnaeus's Syslema
vegetabiiium in 1824 and of the Genera plantarum in 1830. A list
of his botanical papers from 1798 onwards will be found in the
Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers.
SPRENGER, JAKOB (/. 1500), the Dominican inquisitor of
Cologne, who with Heinrich Kramer (institor) published
Malleus maleficarum or Hexenhammer, the standard textbook
on witchcraft, especially in Germany. The book gives (i)
evidences of witchcraft; (2) rules for discovering it; (3)
proceedings for punishment.
SPRENGTPORTEN, GORAN MAGNUS, COUNT (1740-1819),
Swedish and Russian politician, younger brother of Jakob
Magnus Sprengtporten, entered the army and rose to the rank
of captain during the Seven Years' War. He assisted his
brother in the revolution of 1772, and in 1775 was made a colonel
and brigadier in east Finland. Here he distinguished himself
greatly as an organizer and administrator. The military school
which he founded at Brahelinnd subsequently became a state
738
SPRENGTPORTEN, J. M. SPRINGBUCK
institution. Irritable and suspicious like his brother he also
came to the conclusion that his services had not been adequately
appreciated, and the flattering way in which he was welcomed
by the Russian court during a visit to St Petersburg in 1779
still further incensed him against the purely imaginary ingrati-
tude of his own sovereign. For the next two years he was in
the French service, returning to Finland in 1781. It was now
that he first conceived the plan of separating the grand duchy
from Sweden and erecting it into an independent state under
the protection of Russia. During the riksdag of 1786 he openly
opposed Gustavus III., at the same time engaging in a secret
and treasonable correspondence with the Russian ministers
with the view of inducing them to assist the Finns by force of
arms. In the following year, at the invitation of Catherine II.,
he formally entered the Russian service. When the Russo-
Swedish War of 1788-90 began, Sprengtporten received the
command of a Russian army corps directed against Finland.
He took no direct part in the Anjala conspiracy (see SWEDEN:
History), but urged Catherine to support it more energetically.
His own negotiations with his fellow countrymen, especially
after Gustavus III. had brought the Finlanders back to their
allegiance, failed utterly. Nor was he able to serve Russia
very effectively in the field for he was seriously wounded at
the battle of Parosalmi (1790). At the end of the war, indeed,
his position was somewhat precarious, as the High Court of
Finland condemned him as a traitor, while Catherine regarded
him as an incompetent impostor who could not perform his
promises. For the next five years, therefore (1793-1798), he
thought it expedient to quit Russia and live at Toplitz in
Bohemia. He was re-employed by the emperor Paul who, in
1800, sent him to negotiate with Napoleon concerning the
Maltese Order and the interchange of prisoners. After Paul's
death Sprengtporten was again in disgrace for seven years,
but was consulted in 1808 on the eve of the outbreak of hos-
tilities with France. On the ist of December 1808 he was
appointed the first Russian governor-general of Finland with
the title of count, but was so unpopular that he had to resign
his post the following year. The last ten years of his life were
lived in retirement.
See Finska Tidskrift (Helsingfors, 1877-1889); and Svenska
Letteratursdllskapets i Finland forhandlingar (Helsingfors, 1887).
(R. N. B.)
SPRENGTPORTEN, JAKOB MAGNUS (1727-1786), Swedish
soldier and politician. In his twelfth year he chose the pro-
fession of arms, and served his country with distinction. The
few and miserable triumphs of Sweden during the Seven Years'
War were due almost entirely to young Sprengtporten, and he
emerged from it with a lieutenant-colonelcy, a pension of 20,
and the reputation of being the smartest officer in the service.
Sprengtporten, above all things a man of action, had too hearty
a contempt for " Hats " and " Caps " to belong to either. He
regarded the monstrous system of misrule for which they were
primarily responsible with indignation, made no secret of his
sentiments, and soon gathered round him a band of young
officers of strong royalist proclivities, whom he formed into a
club, the so-called Svenska Batten (Sweden's groundwork).
The club was suppressed by the dominant " Caps," who also
sought to ruin Sprengtporten financially by inciting his tenants
in Finland to bring actions against him for alleged extortion,
not in the ordinary courts but in the riksdag itself, where Sprengt-
porten's political adversaries would be his judges. The enraged
Finnish colonel thereupon approached Gustavus III. with the
project of a revolution against their common enemies, the
" Caps." It was to begin in Finland where Sprengtporten 's
regiment, the Nyland dragoons, was stationed. He undertook
to seize the impregnable fortress of Sveaborg by a coup de main.
The submission of the whole grand duchy would be the natural
consequence of such a success, and, Finland once secured,
Sprengtporten proposed at the head of his Finns to embark for
Sweden, meet the king and his friends near Stockholm, and
surprise the capital by a night attack. This plan, subsequently
enlarged by a suggestion of a fellow plotter, J. K. Toll (q.v.),
was warmly approved of by the king. On the 22nd of July
1772 Sprengtporten left Stockholm. On the 9th of August
he reached Helsingfors. On the i6th he persuaded the fortress
of Sveaborg to submit to him. Helsingfors followed the example
of Sveaborg. A week later all Finland lay at the feet of the
intrepid colonel of the Borga dragoons. By the 23rd of August
Sprengtporten was ready to re-embark for Stockholm with 780
men, but contrary winds kept him back, and in the meantime
Gustavus III. himself had carried out his revolution unaided.
On his return to Sweden, however, Sprengtporten was received
with the greatest distinction and made a lieutenant-general and
colonel of the guards. He was also appointed the president
of a commission for strengthening the defences of Finland. But
Sprengtporten was still dissatisfied. He could never forgive
Gustavus for having forestalled the revolution, and his morbidly
irritable and suspicious temper saw slights and insults in the
most innocent conjunctures. His first quarrel with Gustavus
happened in 1774 when he refused to accept the post of com-
mander-in-chief in Finland on the eve of threatened war with
Russia. The king good-naturedly overlooked his outrageous
insolence on this occasion, but the inevitable rupture was only
postponed. A most trumpery affair brought matters to a head.
Sprengtporten had insulted the guards by giving precedence
over them at a court-martial to some officers of his own dragoons.
The guards complained to the king, who, after consulting with
the senate, mildly remonstrated with Sprengtporten by letter.
Sprengtporten thereupon tendered his resignation as colonel
of the guard, and at a personal interview with Gustavus was so
violent and insolent that anything like agreement between them
became impossible. Sprengtporten was haunted by the fixed
idea that the jeunesse doree of the court was in league with his
old enemies to traduce and supplant him, and not all the for-
bearance of the king could open his eyes. He received a
pension of 2400 a year on his retirement and was allowed the
extraordinary privilege of a guard of honour as long as he
lived. Nevertheless, to the end of his career, he continued to
harass and annoy his long-suffering benefactor with fresh
impertinences.
See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries, yol. i.
(London, 1895) ; C. Julin, Gustavus III. och J. M. Sprengtporten,
sv. Hist. Tid. (Stockholm, 1903). (R. N. B.)
SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst
out," O. Eng., springan, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springen,
possibly allied to Gr. <rirepxfcrOa.i, to move rapidly), primarily the
act of springing or leaping. The word is hence applied in various
senses: to the season of the year in which plant life begins
to bud and shoot; to a source of water springing or welling
up from below the surface of the earth and flowing away as a
stream or standing in a pool (see WATER SUPPLY) ; or to an elastic
or resilient body or contrivance for receiving and imparting
mechanical power. The most common form in which springs in
this last sense are made is that of a spiral coil of wire or narrow
band of steel. There are many uses to which they are put,
e.g. for communicating motion, as in a clock or watch (qq.v.),
or for relieving concussion, as in the case of carriages (q.v.).
SPRINGBUCK, or SPRINGBOK (Antidorcas euchore), an aberrant
South African gazelle inhabiting the country south of the
Zambezi, but ranging north-westwards to Mossamedes. In the
more settled parts of Cape Colony, the Transvaal and the Orange
Free State it now only exists within the enclosures of the
large farms, and can hardly be said to be any longer truly wild.
Both sexes carry lyrate horns; the shoulder-height of an adult
male is about 30 in., and an average pair of horns measures
14 in. along the curve; in the female the horns are more slender.
The general colour above is reddish fawn, separated from the
white of the under-parts by a dark band on the flanks. Along
the middle of the hinder half of the back is a line of long erectile
white hairs, forming the " fan," continued down over the
rump; in repose this is concealed by the surrounding hair, but is
conspicuously displayed when the animal takes the great leaps
from which it derives its popular name. The periodical migra-
tions of springbuck are well known, and though the treks are
SPRINGER SPRINGFIELD
739
small compared with those of about 1850, they still include very
large herds. In 1896 there was a great trek, and about then
in the north of Cape Colony a herd was seen which was estimated
at 500,000 head.
SPRINGER, ANTON HEINRICH (1825-1891), German writer,
was born at Prague on the i3th of July 1825 and was educated
at the university of his native city. Taking an interest in art,
he visited Munich, Dresden and Berlin, and spent some months
in Italy; afterwards he settled at Tubingen and in 1848 he
returned to Prague and began to lecture at his own university
on the history of the revolutionary epoch. The liberal tone
of these lectures brought him into disfavour with the ruling
authorities, and in 1849 he left Bohemia and passed some time
in England, France and the Netherlands. In 1852 he settled
at Bonn, where he lectured on art and became a professor in
1859; in 1872 he went to the university of Strassburg and in
1873 to Leipzig. As a journalist and a publicist Springer
advocated the federal union of the states ruled by the Austrian
emperor, and asserted the right of Prussia to the headship of
Germany; during the Crimean War he favoured the emancipation
of the small states in the south-east of Europe from Turkish
supremacy. After many years of feeble health, he died at
Leipzig on the 315! of May 1891.
Springer is known as a writer both on history and on art. In the
former connexion his most important work is his Geschichte Oester-
reichs seit dent wiener Frieden (Leipzig, 1863-1865), which has been
translated into Czech (Prague, 1867). His other historical works
are: Geschichte des Revolutionszeitalters (Prague, 1849); Oesterreich
nach der Revolution (Prague, 1850); Oesterreich, Preussen und
Deutschland (Prague, 1851) ; Paris imxiii. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1856) ;
and Protokolle des Verfassungs-Ausschusses im oesterreichischen
Reichstage 1848-1849 (Leipzig, 1885). His principal works on art
are: Baukunst des christlichen Mittelalters (Bonn, 1854) ; the valuable
Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte (7th ed., Leipzig, 1906), a revised
edition of his Grundziige der Kunstgeschichte (Leipzig, 1887-1888);
Geschichte der bildenden Kunste im xix. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1858) ;
Bilder aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte (Bonn 1867, and again 1886) ;
Raffael und Michelangelo (Leipzig, 1877 and 1885); and Die Kunst
des xix. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig 1880-1881). Springer wrote two bio-
graphies: Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (Leipzig, 1870-1872), and
Albrecht Diirer (Berlin, 1892); and was responsible for the German
edition of Crowe and Cavalcaselle's Lives of the Early Flemish Painters,
which was published at Leipzig in 1875. His book of reminiscences,
Aus meinem Leben (Berlin, 1892), containing contributions by G.
Freytag and H. Janitschek, was edited by his son Jaro Springer
(b. 1856), who is also known as a writer on art.
SPRINGER (Fr. rein), the term given in architecture to the
stone from which an arch springs (see ARCH) ; in some cases this
is the stone resting on the impost or capital, the upper surface
of which is a plane directed to the centre of the arch. In
vaulting, however, where the lower stone of the arch or rib
is laid in horizontal courses, so as to bond it well into the wall,
constituting a system of construction known in France as the
tas-de-charge, the springer may be considerably higher. The
term is sometimes applied to the lowest stone of a gable.
SPRINGFIELD, the capital of Illinois, U.S.A., and the county-
seat of Sangamon county, on the Sangamon river, in the central
part of the state. Pop. (1890), 24,963; (1900), 34,159, of whom
4654 were foreign-born (1940 Germans, 1106 Irish and 499
English) and 2227 negroes; (1910 census) 51,678. Land
area (1906), 7-07 sq. m., of which 3-37 sq. m. had been annexed
since 1890. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western,
the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis, the Illinois
Central, the Wabash, and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton
railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. The city has a
park and a boulevard system ; the principal parks are Washington ,
Lincoln, Reservoir and Mildred. The chief public building
is the state capitol (built in 1868-1888 at a cost of about
$4,500,000), in the form of a Greek cross, with porticoes of granite
and a dome 361 ft. high. It is the fifth state capitol of Illinois
and the second erected in Springfield. Other prominent build-
ings are the Supreme Court building, the county court house
(the old state capitol, finished in 1853), the city-hall, the state
arsenal, the high school and the public library. In Oak Ridge
cemetery, adjacent to the city, is the Lincoln monument, erected
over Abraham Lincoln's grave with funds raised throughout
the country by a Lincoln Monument Association. It was de-
signed by Larkin G. Mead, and consists of a granite obelisk
121 ft. above the centre of a mausoleum, which is 119! ft. long
and 72 | ft. wide, and in which there are six crypts for the burial
of members of Lincoln's family, and a memorial hall, a museum
of Lincolniana. Around the foot of the obelisk (besides an
heroic statue of Lincoln) are four groups of figures in bronze,
symbolizing the army and navy of the United States. The
monument was completed and dedicated in 1874, was transferred
to the state in 1895, and restored and in large part rebuilt in
1899-1901. Lincoln's home (erected in 1839 and bought by
Lincoln in 1844) in Springfield is well preserved by the state.
In the city are the state library (1842), the state law library
(1839), the Illinois historical library (1889), of which the State
Historical Society (1903) is a department, and the Illinois
Supreme Court library; several educational institutions,
including Concordia-Seminar (Evangelical Lutheran), the
Ursuline Academy (Roman Catholic), and the Academy of the
Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic); the Springfield hospital
(1897; Lutheran), and the St John's hospital (1875; under
the Sisters of St Francis), two orphanages, two homes for aged
women, and a sanatorium; the permanent grounds of the State
Fair (157 acres), and a state rifle range and militia camp-ground
(160 acres). Springfield is a trading and shipping centre for
a prosperous agricultural region, and ships large quantities
of bituminous coal from the immediate vicinity. The Wabash
and the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis railways have large repair
shops here. Among the manufactures are agricultural imple-
ments, watches and watch material the Illinois Watch
Company has a large factory here lumber, flour, foundry and
machine-shop products, automobiles, shoes and boilers. The
total value of the factory product in 1905 was $5,976,637
(67-2 % more than in 1900). The first settlement was made in
1818. In 1821 the place was chosen to be the county-seat
of the newly created Sangamon county and was named Spring-
field. In 1823 it was platted, and was named Calhoun in honour
of John C. Calhoun, but this name was not popular and the
former name was soon restored. Springfield was incorporated
as a town in 1832 and chartered as a city in 1840. In 1837
the state legislature passed a bill making Springfield the capital,
and in December 1839 the legislature first met here.
SPRINGFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Hampden
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 99 m. W. by S. of Boston
and 26 m. N. of Hartford, Connecticut, on the east bank of the
Connecticut river. Pop. (1800), 2312; (1850), 11,766; (1890),
44,179; (1900), 62,059, of whom 14,381 were foreign-born (5462
Irish, 2474 French Canadians, 1144 English-Canadians, 1321
English), 33,710 were of foreign parentage (either parent foreign-
born), and 1021 were negroes; (1910, census), 88,926. Spring-
field is served by the Springfield division of the New York &
New England, the Hartford division of the New York, New
Haven & Hartford, the Connecticut River division of the Boston
& Maine, and the Athol division and the main line of the Boston
& Albany railways, and by inter-urban electric railway lines.
The river is crossed here by four large bridges. The area of
the city, which until 1852 was a township, is 38-53 sq. m. In
its extreme eastern part is the small village of Sixteen Acres;
north-west of the main part of the city on the Connecticut
river is another village, Brightwood (on the Boston & Maine
railway) and on the Chicopee river, north-east of the business
part of the city, is the village of Indian Orchard, served by
the Athol division of the Boston & Albany railway.
The city contains many public and private buildings of
architectural importance. Among these are some of the earlier
works of H. H. Richardson, such as the Court House, the Union
railway station (1889), the Church of the Unity on State Street,
and the North Congregational Church. Among other buildings
are: Christ Church (Protestant Episcopal) St Michael's Cathe-
dral (Roman Catholic), the South Congregational Church, the
Memorial Church, and the Church of the Sacred Heart; the
Art Museum (1894-1896), which contains the George Walter
Vincent Smith art collection and an art library; the Horace
740
SPRINGFIELD
Smith Hall of Sculpture; the Museum of Natural History
(1898), organized in 1859; a group of municipal buildings, with
a tower 270 ft. high and a large auditorium; a government
building (1891) containing the post office and custom house,
the Hampden County Hall of Records, the City Library with
175,000 volumes, and two branch libraries given by Andrew
Carnegie; a state armoury, and the business buildings of the
Springfield Fire & Marine Insurance Company, the Union Trust
Company, and the Institution for Savings. The Public Library,
the Art Museum, and the Museum of Natural History are
controlled by the City Library Association, organized in 1857.
In the city are a government arsenal and armoury. The arsenal
was established by the Continental Congress during the War of
Independence and began to be used as a repository for arms and
ammunition about 1777. The armoury, in the midst of a park
on Armory Hill immediately east of the railway station, was
established in 1794. Here the famous Springfield muskets
used by the Federal forces during the Civil War were manufac-
tured (800,000 having been made during that struggle) and it
is still the principal manufactory of small arms for the United
States army. Springfield has a good system of parks (under a
board of park commissioners) with a total acreage of 550
acres. Forest Park (464 acres), in the southern part of the
city, is the largest and most attractive; it contains a good
zoological collection, and in its ponds is one of the finest collec-
tions in America of lotus plants and Oriental aquatic flora;
at its southern entrance is a monument to President McKinley
by Philip Martiny. In Merrick Park, adjoining the City
Library, there is St Gaudens's famous statue of " The Puritan,"
commemorative of Deacon Samuel Chapin, one of the early
settlers of the city. In Court Square are a statue of Miles
Morgan (1616-1699), an early settler, by J. S. Hartley, and a
monument in memory of the soldiers and sailors of the Civil
War. In Carew Triangle in the northern part of the city is a
monument in honour of soldiers of the Spanish-American War.
In the suburbs of the city is Hampden Park, once a famous
race track. There are two large cemeteries, in one of which
are buried many of Springfield's famous men, including Samuel
Bowles and J. G. Holland, whose grave is marked by a medallion
by St Gaudens. Among the hospitals are the Mercy Hospital
(1896, under the Sisters of Divine Providence), the Wesson
Memorial (formerly Hampden Homeopathic) Hospital (1900),
the Wesson Maternity Hospital (1906), and the Springfield
Hospital (1883). The Springfield public school system is
excellent, and in addition to the regular high school there
are a technical high school, a vocational school, and a kinder-
garten training school. Other schools in Springfield are: the
training school of the International Young Men's Christian
Association (1885); the American International College, estab-
lished in Lowell (1885) as the French- American College for
the education of French-Canadians, and now working among
various immigrant races; and the MacDuffie school (1890) and
the Elms (1866), both schools for girls.
Springfield is noted for the diversity of its industries. In
1905 the capital invested in manufacturing establishments
was $24,081,099, and in the value of its factory products
($25,860,250, not including those of the U.S. Arsenal; 42-4%
more than in 1900) Springfield ranked ninth among the
cities of Massachusetts. The largest single item in point of
value was the product ($3,053,008) of the slaughtering and
meat-packing establishments. Other important products were
foundry and machine-shop products ($1,749,054); paper goods
($1,481,427, not including envelopes, which had an additional
value of almost $700,000); cars, automobiles, firearms (besides
the Federal arsenal there is the Smith & Wesson revolver
factory); and printing and publishing ($1,165,544).
The principal newspapers are the Springfield Republican
(Independent; weekly, 1824; morning, 1844), one of the most
able and influential journals in New England, which since its
establishment by Samuel Bowles (q.v.) has been the property
of the Bowles family; the Union (Republican; morning, evening,
and weekly; 1864); the Daily News (Democratic- 1880); and
the Springfield Homestead (tri-weekly; 1878). The New England
Homestead (weekly; published by the Orange Judd Company),
Farm and Home, a semi-monthly, and Good Housekeeping, a
monthly (published by the Phelps Publishing Company), and
the Kindergarten Review (monthly, published by the Milton-
Bradley Company, who publish other educational matter) are
important periodicals.
The city is governed by a mayor, a board of aldermen (one
from each of eight wards) and a common council of eighteen
members (two or three from each ward, according to population),
elected in December every other year. The city owns and
operates the waterworks.
Springfield was founded in 1636 by a company of settlers
from Roxbury led by William Pynchon (1590-1662). Pynchon,
who had been one of the original patentees of the Massachusetts
Bay Colony, was dissatisfied with the government of Roxbury,
of which he had been a founder. On a trip to the Connecticut
Valley he selected a spot for a new colony which should have a
limited membership and in which his ideas as to government
might be put into execution. Accompanied by a dozen families
he removed thither early in 1636. The settlers found there
a settlement of Agawam Indians (probably allied with the
Pacomtuc), and the settlement was at first known as Agawam.
For some time the political affiliation was with the Connecticut
river towns in Connecticut, but later the authority of the Massa-
chusetts General Court was recognized. In 1640 the name was
changed to Springfield, after the native place of William Pyn-
chon in Essex, England. For several years Pynchon was the
dominating influence in the colony, ruling it with the power of an
autocrat. In 1650 he published a tract (The Meritorious Price
of Our Redemption) in which he attacked the Calvinistic doctrine
of the atonement, and which was burned on Boston Common
by order of the General Court. He was removed from the
magistracy and returned to England in 1652. In King Philip's
War Springfield was a centre of hostilities. In October 1675
a force of hostile Indians, joined by the hitherto friendly Aga-
wams, surprised the settlers, killed some of them, drove the
others into the three fortified houses, and burned the remaining
buildings. They were preparing to storm the fortified houses
when they were in turn attacked and driven off by a force of
militia. Springfield was somewhat out of the track of operations
of the warfare between the French and English in America, as
it was later in the War of Independence; but men from Spring-
field served in all these conflicts. In 1777 the armoury was
established and the place became an important military supply
depot for the Continental forces. In July of that year representa-
tives of the New England States and New York met here in
convention to consider plans of co-operation for meeting Bur-
goyne's invasion. During Shays's rebellion there was a riot
here in September 1786, and on the 25th of January 1787 the
insurgent forces under Daniel Shays attacked the arsenal, but
were dispersed by the militia under Brigadier-General William
Shepard (1737-1817). Springfield remained little more than a
large country market town until the completion of the Boston &
Albany railway in 1839. From that time its growth as a railway
and manufacturing centre was marked. Springfield was a
strong abolition centre before the Civil War, and from here
active plans were put in operation for sending material aid in
the form of men and arms to the " free state " party in Kansas.
The city was chartered in 1852.
See H. M. Burt, First Century of the History of Springfield (2
vols., Springfield, 1898-1899); J. E. Tower (ed.), Springfield, Present
and Prospective (ibid., 1905); M. A. Green, Springfield, 16361886
(ibid., 1888) ; Moses King, Handbook of Springfield (ibid., 1884).
SPRINGFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Greene county,
Missouri, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, about 238 m.
from St Louis. Pop. (1890), 21,850; (1900), 23,267, of whom
2268 were negroes and 1057 foreign-born; (1910, census), 35,201.
It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Missouri Pacific,
and the Kansas City, Clinton & Springfield railways. The city
is pleasantly situated on the Ozark Dome, about 1300 ft. above
sea-level, is regularly laid out on an undulating site, and has
SPRINGFIELD SPRUCE
attractive residential districts. The principal building is that
of the Federal government (1894), which is built of Indiana cut
stone. Springfield is the seat of Loretto Academy, of a state
normal school, and of Drury College (co-educational; founded in
J 873 by Congregationalists, but now undenominational), which
comprises, besides the college proper, an academy, a conserva-
tory of music and a summer school, and which in 1908-1909 had
500 students. >]ear the city is the Academy of the Visitation
under the Sisters of St Chantal. The municipal water-supply
is drawn from springs 3 m. north of the centre of the city. There
are four large private parks (340 acres) on the outskirts, and
two municipal cemeteries a Confederate cemetery, maintained
by associations, the only distinctively Confederate burial
ground in Missouri; and a National cemetery, maintained by
the United States government. Springfield is one of the two
chief commercial centres of this region, which has large mining,
fruit, grain, lumber and livestock interests. The jobbing trade
is important. Springfield ranks fourth among the manufac-
turing cities of the state; in 1905 the value of its factory pro-
ducts was $5,293,315 (28-2% more than in 1900). Flour and
grist mill products constituted in 1905 a third of the total;
and carriages and wagons ranked next. The St Louis & San
Francisco railway has large shops here.
Springfield was settled in the years following 1829, and was
laid out in 1833, though the public lands did not pass from the
United States for sale until 1837. In 1838 and again in 1846
Springfield was incorporated as a town, and in 1847 was
chartered as a city; though government lapsed during much of
the time up to 1865, when prosperous conditions became settled.
At the opening of the Civil War, Springfield was one of the most
important strategic points west of the Mississippi river. In
1861-62 it was occupied or controlled a half dozen times in
succession by the Confederate and the Union forces, the latter
retaining control of it after the spring of 1862. In the battle of
Wilson's Creek (August 10, 1861), fought about 10 m. south of
the city, and one of the bloodiest battles of the war, relatively to
numbers engaged, a force of about 5500 Union soldiers under
General Nathaniel Lyon was defeated by about 10,000 Con-
federates under Generals Benjamin McCulloch (1811-1862) and
Sterling Price. The other occupations and abandonments were
unattended by serious conflicts in the immediate vicinity. In
January 1863, after Springfield had been made an important
Union supply post, it was attacked without success by a
Confederate force of about 2000 men under General
J. S. Marmaduke. The year 1870 was marked by the arrival
of the first railway. In the same year North Springfield
was laid out, and was incorporated as a town in 1870 and
1871. In 1881 Springfield was chartered as a city of a
higher class, and in 1887 it absorbed North Springfield.
After 1902 the city's growth in population and in industries
was very rapid.
SPRINGFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Clark county,
Ohio, U.S.A., at the confluence of Mad river and Lagonda
Creek, about 45 m. W.S.W. of Columbus. Pop. (1890), 31,895;
(1900), 38,253, of whom 3311 were foreign-born (including
T 337 German, 1097 Irish and 308 English) and 4253 were
negroes; (1910, census), 46,921. Springfield is served by the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis; the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis; the Erie, and the Detroit,
Toledo & Ironton railways, and by an extensive inter-urban
electric system. The older portion of the city is in the narrow
valley of Lagonda Creek, but from here the city has spread
over the higher and more undulating surface farther back j
until it occupies an area of about 8j sq. m. Among the public I
buildings are the United States government building, the
Clark county court house, the City building (the first floor
of which is occupied by the city market), the Warder public
library (established 1872), which in 1908 contained 25,000
volumes, the city hospital, and the city prison and work-
house. On hills near the city border are the Ohio state homes
for the Masons, the Independent Order of Oddfellows, and the
Knights of Pythias. The city park contains more than 250
acres, and in 1908 the city adopted plans for an extensive park
system. Ferncliff cemetery is a picturesque burial-ground.
On a hill on the north side of the city is Wittenberg College
(Lutheran; 1845), which in 1909 had 35 instructors and 710
students. Springfield is in a productive farming region, and
water power is provided by Lagonda Creek, so that manufac-
tures closely related to agriculture have always been prominent.
The value of the factory product in 1905 was $13,654,423,
of which $4,051,167 was the value of agricultural imple-
ments, $2,914,493 of foundry and machine-shop products, and
$1,025,244 of flour and grist-mill products. The municipality
owns and operates the waterworks. Natural gas is piped from
Fairfield county.
In 1799 Simon Kenton and a small party from Kentucky
built a fort and fourteen cabins near Mad river 3 or 4 m.
beyond the present western limits of the city. Later in
the same year James Demint built a cabin on a hill-side over-
looking Lagonda Creek. In 1801 he engaged a surveyor to
plat a town here and soon after this the site of the Kenton
settlement was abandoned. The new town was near the border-
line that had been fixed between the Whites and the Indians,
and the latter threatened trouble until 1807, when in a council
held on a large hill in the vicinity, at which Tecumseh was the
principal speaker for the Indians, peace was more firmly estab-
lished. In 1818, when Clark county was erected, Springfield
was made the county-seat. It was incorporated as a town in
1827, and in 1850 it was chartered as a city.
See E. S. Todd, A Sociological Study of Clark County, Ohio (Spring-
field, 1904).
SPRING-GUN, a device formerly in use against poachers
and trespassers. Wires were attached to the trigger of a gun
in such a manner that any one stumbling over or treading
on them would discharge it and wound himself. Since 1827
spring-guns and all man-traps are illegal in England,
except within a house between sunset and sunrise as a
protection against burglars. Spring-guns are sometimes used
to trap wild animals.
SPRINGTAIL, the common name of a gioup of small insects,
so named from the presence of a pair of tail-like appendages
at the end of the abdomen, which acts as a spring. When the
insect is undisturbed these appendages are turned forwards
and held in position by a catch beneath the abdomen; but in
case of alarm they are kicked forcibly downwards and back-
wards, jerking the body into the air. This action may be
rapidly repeated until a place of safety is reached. These
insects usually live under fallen leaves, stones or the bark of
trees, and sometimes occur in such quantities as to resemble
patches of powder or dust. One species (Podura aquatica)
may be seen floating in this way in masses upon the surface of
standing water. Another (Achontles socialis) may sometimes be
found in abundance in the snow. Zoologically the springtails
belong to the sub-order Collembola of the order Aptera (q.v,).
SPRING VALLEY, a city of Bureau county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
on the north bank of the Illinois River, in the northern part of
the state, about 104 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890), 3837;
(1900), 6214 (2845 foreign-born); (1910) 7035. It is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific, the Chicago & North Western, and the Chicago,
Ottawa & Peoria (electric) railways. Spring Valley is a shipping
and distributing point for a large number of bituminous coal-
mines in its vicinity. It was chartered as a city in 1886.
SPRUCE, i.e. spruce-fir, a coniferous tree belonging to the
genus Picea, of which there are several species, such as the Norway
spruce, Picea excelsa; the black spruce, Picea nigra, &c. (see FIR)'.
The name has a curious origin, which explains also the particular
meaning of the adjective " spruce," neatly dressed, smart in
appearance, fine. From a number of early quotations given by
Skeat (Etym.Dict.) it is clear that " spruce " a variant of "pruce,"
simply stood for Prussian; the form "spruce," rather than
" pruce," being established partly by the German Sprossen,
sprouts or young shoots (seen in Sprossen-bier, spruce beer,
made of the sprouts of this fir).
742
SPRUE SPURGEON
SPRUE, a tropical disease, prevalent in India, China, Java,
and the West Indies. It is described by Sir Patrick Manson
as characterized by a peculiar, inflamed, superficially ulcerated,
exceedingly sensitive condition of the mucous membrane of
the tongue and mouth; great wasting and anaemia; and more
or less diarrhoea, with pale and frothy fermenting stools. It
is an obscure disorder, and the treatment recommended is
rest and milk diet.
SPULLER, EUGENE (1835-1896), French politician and
writer, was born at Seurre (C6te d'Or) on the 8th of December
1835, his father being a German who had married and settled
in France. After studying law at Dijon he went to Paris,
where he was called to the bar, and entered into close relations
with Gambetta, collaborating with him in 1868 in the foundation
of the Revue politique. He had helped Emile Ollivier in his
electoral campaign in Paris in 1863, but when in 1869 Ollivier
was preparing to " rally " to the empire he supported the
republican candidate. During the siege of Paris he escaped
from the city with Gambetta, to act as his energetic lieutenant
in the provinces. After the peace he edited his chief's Parisian
organ, the Republique fran$aise, until in 1876 he entered the
Chamber of Deputies for the department of the Seine. He was
minister of foreign affairs during part of the brief Gambetta
administration, and subsequently one of the vice-presidents of
the chamber, serving also on the budget commission and on a
special industrial and agricultural inquiry. His Parisian con-
stituents thought his policy too moderate on the clerical question,
and he had to seek election in 1885 in the C6te d'Or, which in
later years he represented in the Senate. He was minister of
education, religion and the fine arts in the Rouvier cabinet of
1887, minister of foreign affairs under Tirard (1889-1890), and
minister of education in 1894 in the Casimir-Perier cabinet.
He died on the 28th of July 1896. His published works include
some volumes of speeches and well-known studies of Ignatius
Loyola (1876) and of Michelet (1876).
SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to
kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn), an instrument
attached to the heel of a rider's boot for the purpose of goading
the horse. The earliest form of the horseman's spur armed the
heel with a single prick. In England the rowel spur is shown
upon the first seal of Henry III., but it does not come into
general use until the i4th century. In the I5th century spurs
appear with very long shanks, to reach the horse's flank below
the outstanding bards. After this time, and until the beginning
of the modern period of costume at the Restoration, they
take many decorative forms, some of which remain in the great
spurs worn by Mexican cavaliers. Gilded spurs were reckoned
the badge of knighthood, and in the rare cases of cere-
monious degradation they were hacked from the knight's
heels by the cook's chopper. After the battle of Courtrai, in
1302, the victors hung up bushels of gilt spurs in the churches
of Courtrai and^Maestricht as trophies of what is still remembered
by the Flemings as the Goudensporendag. For another reason
the English named the French rout beside Therouanne as the
Battle of Spurs.
^ln architecture, a spur (Fr. griffe, Ger. Knoll), is the
ornament carved on the angles of the base of early columns;
it consists of a projecting claw, which, emerging from the lower
torus of the base, rests on the projecting angle of the square
plinth. It is possibly to these that Pliny refers (Hist. Nat.
xxvi. 42) when speaking of the lizard and frog carved on the
bases (spirae) of the columns of the temples of Jupiter and
Juno in the Portico of Octavius; the earliest known example
is that of Diocletian's palace at Spalato. In Romanesque
work the oldest examples are those found on the bases in
crypts, where they assumed various conventional forms;
being, however, close to the eye, the spur soon developed into
an elaborate leaf ornament, which in French 13th-century
work and in the early English period is of great beauty;
sometimes the spur takes the form of a fabulous animal, such
as a griffin.
SPURGEON, CHARLES HADDON (1834-1892), English
Nonconformist divine, was born at Kelvedon, Essex, on the
1 9th of June 1834. He was the grandson of an Essex pastor,
and son of John Spurgeon, Independent minister at Upper
Street, Islington. He went to school at Colchester and Maidstone,
and in 1849 he became usher at a school in Newmarket. He
joined the Baptist communion in 1851, and his work at once
attested his"" conversion." He began distributing tracts and
visiting the poor, joined the lay preachers' association, and gave
his first sermon at Teversham, near Cambridge. In 1852 he
became pastor of Waterbeach. He was strongly urged to enter
Stepney (now Regent's Park) College to prepare more fully
for the ministry, but an appointment with Dr Joseph Angus,
the tutor, having accidently fallen through, Spurgeon interpreted
the contretemps as a divine warning against a college career.
The lack of early systematic theological training certainly had a
momentous effect upon his development. Broad in every other
respect, he retained to the last the narrow Calvinism of the early
igth century. His powers as a boy preacher became widely
known, and at the close of 1853 he was " called " to New Park
Street Chapel, Southwark. In a very few months' time the
chapel was full to overflowing. Exeter Hall was used while
a new chapel was being erected, but Exeter Hall could not
contain Spurgeon 's hearers. The enlarged chapel at once
proved too small for the crowds, and a huge tabernacle was
projected in Newington Causeway. The preacher had recourse
to the Surrey Gardens music hall, where his congregation
numbered from seven to ten thousand. At twenty-two he was
the most popular preacher of his day. In 1857, on the day of
national humiliation for the Indian Mutiny, he preached at the
Crystal Palace to 24,000 people. The Metropolitan Tabernacle,
with a platform for the preacher and accommodation for 6000
persons, was opened for service on the 25th of March 1861.
The cost was over 30,000, and the debt was entirely paid off
at the close of the opening services, which lasted over a month.
Spurgeon preached habitually at the Tabernacle on Sundays
and Thursdays. He frequently spoke for nearly an hour,
and invariably from heads and subheads jotted down upon half
a sheet of letter paper. His Sunday sermons were taken down
in shorthand, corrected by him on Monday, and sold by his
publishers, Messrs Passmore & Alabaster, literally by tons.
They have been extensively translated. Clear and forcible in
style and arrangement, they are models of Puritan exposition
and of appeal through the emotions to the individual conscience,
illuminated by frequent flashes of spontaneous and often highly
unconventional humour. In his method of employing illustration
he is suggestive of Thomas Adams, Thomas Fuller, Richard
Baxter, Thomas Manton and John Bunyan. Like them, too,
he excelled in his vigorous command of the vernacular. Among
more recent preachers he had most affinity with George White-
field, Richard Cecil and Joseph Irons. Collected as The Taber-
nacle Pulpit, the sermons form some fifty volumes. Spurgeon's
lectures, aphorisms, talks, and " Saplings for Sermons "
were similarly stenographed, corrected and circulated. He
also edited a monthly magazine, The Sword and Trowel; an
elaborate exposition of the Psalms, in seven volumes, called
The Treasury of David (1870-1885) ; and a book of sayings called
John Ploughman's Talks; or, Plain Advice for Plain People
(1869), a kind of religious Poor Richard. In the summer of
1864 a sermon which he preached and printed on Baptismal
Regeneration (a doctrine which he strenuously repudiated,
maintaining that immersion was only an outward and visible
sign of the inward conversion) led to a difference with the bulk
of the Evangelical party, both Nonconformist and Anglican.
Spurgeon maintained his ground, but in 1865 he withdrew from
the Evangelical Alliance. Subsequently in 1887 his distrust
of modern biblical criticism led to his withdrawing from the
Baptist Union. His powers of organization were strongly
exhibited in the Pastors' College, the Orphanage (at Stockwell),
the Tabernacle Almshouses, the Colportage Association for
selling religious books, and the gratuitous book fund which grew
up under his care. He received large money testimonials
SPURN HEAD SQUALL
743
(6000 on his silver-wedding day and 5000 on his fiftieth
birthday), which he handed over to these institutions. He died
at Mentone on the 3ist of January 1892, leaving a widow with
twin sons (b. 1856). One of them, Rev. Thomas Spurgeon,
after some years of pastorate in New Zealand, succeeded his
father as minister of the Tabernacle, but resigned in 1908 and
became president of the Pastors' College.
An Autobiography^ was compiled by his widow and his private
secretary from his diary, sermons, records and letters (1897-1900).
SPURN HEAD, or SPURN POINT, a foreland of the North Sea
coast of England, in Yorkshire, projecting across the mouth
of the Humber. Its length is nearly 4 m. from the village of
Kilnsea, but its breadth seldom exceeds 300 yds., and it rises only
a few feet above sea-level. It is formed of sand and shingle,
the debris of the soft coast of Holderness to the north, from which
it is estimated that six million tons of material are annually
removed by southerly currents along the shore. Deep water is
found close off the seaward side of Spurn Head, the formation
of which appears to have taken place within historic times, even
since about the close of the i6th century. There are two light-
houses and a lifeboat station on the head.
SPURZHEIM, JOHANN CHRISTOPH [KASPAR] (1776-1832),
German phrenologist, was born near Treves on the 3ist of
December 1776. He made the acquaintance of F. J. Gall
while studying medicine in Vienna, and for some years assisted
him in spreading his phrenological doctrines, but in 1813 the
two separated. Spurzheim lectured with considerable success in
England and France, and was extending his propaganda
to the United States when he died at Boston, Massachusetts,
on the loth of November 1832. His works include: Anatomic
et physiologic du systeme nerveux (1810-1820); Observations sur
la phrenologie (1810); The Physiognomical Systems of Drs Gall
and Spurzheim (1815), and Essai philosophique sur la nature
de I'homme (1820). (See PHRENOLOGY.)
SPY, a commune near Namur, Belgium. Here in 1886, in
Betche aux Roches cavern, Maximin Lohest and Marcel de Puydt
found two nearly perfect skeletons (man and woman) at the
depth of 1 6 ft., with numerous implements of the Mousterian
type. All the human remains are now in the Lohest Collec-
tion, Liege. The skulls were characterized by enormous brows,
retreating forehead, massive jaw-bones, rudimentary chin and
large posterior molars. The skeletons were further marked by
a divergent curvature of the bones of the fore-arm; the tibia
were shorter than in any other known race, and stouter than in
most; the tibia and femur, being so articulated that to maintain
equilibrium the head and body must have been thrown forward,
as in the gait of the larger apes. These characteristics justify
placing " the man of Spy in the lowest category . . . the
dentition is inferior to that of the neolithic man in France
. . . approximates near to the apes, although there is still,
to use the language of Fraipont and Lohest, an abyss
between the man of Spy and the highest ape " (E. D. Cope,
" The Genealogy of Man " in The American Naturalist, April
1893, p. 334). With the skeletons were found bones of extinct
mammals, the woolly rhinoceros (Rhinoceros lichorhinus) ,
mammoth (Elephas primi- genius), and the cave-bear (Ursus
spelaeus) .
See also L'Homme conlemporain du mammouth a Spy (Namur,
1887); G. de Mortillet, Le Prehistorique (1900).
SPY (from " to spy " or " espy"; O. Fr. espie, espier, to spy,
watch; cf. Ger. spa'hen, Lat. specere, to look; the Fr. term
"espionage " is of course from the same source) , in war a person
who, disguised or without bearing the distinguishing marks of
belligerent forces, mixes with the enemy for the purpose of
obtaining information useful to the army he is serving. As by
the law of war a spy is liable, if caught, to the penalty of death,
the Hague " Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of
War on Land " are very precise on the subject. A soldier not
wearing a disguise is not a spy, though he may be found within
the zone of the hostile army and though his object may be to
obtain information; nor are soldiers or civilians spies who cross
enemy lines openly carrying messages. This applies even to
persons sent in balloons for the purpose of carrying despatches.
In short, it is essential to the character of a spy that he should
act clandestinely or on false pretences, that he should be caught
within the zone of operations of the hostile belligerent forces,
and that his object should be to obtain information for use
against them (art. 29). The regulations also provide that he
cannot be " punished " without previous trial (art. 30). Nor
can he be treated as a spy if he is captured after he has rejoined
his army. He must then be treated as an ordinary prisoner of
war (art. 31). (T. BA.)
The term " spy " is applied also to those who in time of peace
secretly endeavour to obtain information concerning the forces,
armaments, fortifications or defences of a country for the purpose
of supplying it to another country. Every country has always
endeavoured to guard jealously its military and naval secrets,
and with this object denies admittance to fortified places or
arsenals to those who cannot produce the proper credentials.
Notwithstanding the utmost precautions, it is impossible to
prevent some amount of leakage to countries which are prepared
to pay for information otherwise unobtainable. Consequently,
most countries have legislation dealing with " spying " in time
of peace. In the United Kingdom, the Official Secrets Act
1889 makes it a misdemeanour wrongfully to obtain information
as to any fortress, dockyard, office, &c., of his majesty, or, having
such information or any information relating to the naval
or military affairs of his majesty, to communicate the same
to any person to whom it ought not in the interest of the
state to be communicated at the time. If the information is
communicated, or intended or attempted to be communicated,
to any foreign state, the offence becomes a felony. In
Germany an imperial law of 1893 deals similarly with such an
offence.
SQUADRON, a military and naval term for a body of mounted
troops or a detachment of war vessels. The word is derived
from squadra, a square, as a military term, according to Florio,
applied to a " certain part of a company of souldiers of 20 or
25 whose chiefe was a corporal," and so called no doubt as being
formed on parade or in battle array in squares. Squadra,
square, is derived from the Low Latin exquadrare, an intensive
form of quadrare (quadrus, four-cornered, quattuor, four). In
military usage the term "squadron" is applied to the principal
units into which a cavalry regiment is divided, corresponding to
the company in an infantry battalion. The normal modern
division of a cavalry regiment is into four squadrons of two to
four troops each, this squadron numbering 120 to 200 men (see
CAVALRY). In naval usage a squadron is a group of vessels
either as forming one of the divisions of a fleet or as a separate
detachment under a flag officer despatched on special service.
In military use, "squad" (a shortened form of "squadron") is
used of any small detachment of men detailed for drill, fatigue
or other duty.
SQUAILS (from skail or kail, aninepin), an old English game
in which disks are snapped or struck with the palm from the
edge of a table or board at a mark at its centre. Its early
prototype was shove-groat, called also slyp-groat or slide-thrift,
which in the i8th century went under, the name of jervis or
jariiis. This last variation was played on a table marked with
chalk into alleys divided into squares numbered from i to
9 or 10, the object being to send a halfpenny into a high-num-
bered space. If it went beyond nothing was scored. The
highest aggregate of a certain number of plays won. The most
scientific development of this class of games is the modern
Shuffle-board (q.v.).
SQUALL, the name given to any sudden increase of wind to
gale force. Generally speaking a squall is understood to be of
short duration, but the word " gust " would be used to indicate
an increase of wind force of more transient character than a
squall. Gusts may succeed one another several times within
the compass of a minute. A squall may comprise a succession
of gusts, with intervening partial lulls, and would last with
varying intensity for some minutes at least. The distinction
744
SQUALL
between gusts and squalls is best illustrated by the traces of
a Dines pressure-tube anemograph. The trace reproduced in
fig. i for an ordinary steady wind shows that the force of the
wind is constantly oscillating. The general appearance of the
trace is a ribbon which has a breadth proportional to the mean
wind velocity. The breadth of the ribbon is also dependent
upon the nature of the reference; the better the exposure the
narrower the ribbon; for an anemograph at a coast station the
ribbon is wider for a shore wind than for a sea wind.
From the records obtained at Scilly and Holyhead, Dr G. C.
Simpson concluded that a wind of mean hourly velocity v was
composed of alternations of gusts and lulls ranging on the average
between limits -5 + 1-211 and -5 + -761; with occasional recurrences
to extreme velocities of 1-5 + 1-311 and i-o+-65t>. In other
words, the average range of the ribbon is -5 + -45^ for the two
stations during the hour when the mean velocity is v, and the
extreme range within the same period is 2 -o+ -68 y.
The differences of gust velocity at stations with different exposures
may be illustrated by quoting the breadth of the ribbon for a 30 m.
wind at the following stations:
Southport (Marshside) 10 m.
Scilly
Shoeburyness
Holyhead
Pendennis Castle (Falmouth) . .
M M tj ...
Aberdeen 30
Alnwick Castle
Kew
Fig. 2 represents a succession of squalls occurrin
gusty wind; the squalls succeed one another wit
about every twenty minutes and last in full force for a few minutes. A
15
20
(from W.)
IO
(from E.N.E.)
15
8
(from S.)
16
(from W.)
3
(from N.W.)
25
3.
irrin
g in an ordinary
wit
^ r
h fair regularity
WIND VELOCITY AT I HOIJYHE|AD
FIG. i.
WIND VELOCITY AT SCILLY
January
6p.m. $
Midi. 1a.m. 2
FIG. 2.
SQUALL
745
August ' 1906
succession of squalls of this kind is a common experience with
westerly wind at Scilly, and the onset of squalls is generally associated
with the veering of the wind to the north-west. Changes in wind
velocity, either in the form of gusts or squalls, are generally associated
with some change in direction of the
wind, but the relation between the
changes in gusts have not yet been
studied.
A characteristic of squalls is the
suddenness with which the increase
of wind velocity occurs. At sea
the ruffling of the surface can be
seen travelling over the water, and
the wind producing it and travel-
ling with it strikes a sudden blow
when it reaches a ship. If squalls
are of sufficient violence to do
damage to trees or buildings their
progress can be traced in a like
manner over the land.
These phenomena are exhibited
in their most striking form in
" line squalls." The characteristic
feature of a line squall is that a
number of places arranged, roughly
speaking, in a straight or slightly
curved line across the country
experience a similar sequence of
events at the same time, and the
line of action sweeps across the
front
ioo country as a front advancing
50 nearly uniformly throughout its
This march of a linear
IOO
so
MIDT.
from the
(Redrawn by permission
British Association Report, 1908.)
FiG.S.-yariationof Mete-
orological Elements in a Line
Squall.
length. This march ol a
front gives the impression of a wave
or bore with an advancing front
hundreds of miles long, sweeping
the country with a velocity
that can be identified from the
time of occurrence of the various
changes at different places. The associated events are very
well marked by those recorded for the line of squall of
the 2nd of August 1906 (fig. 3). They comprise a sudden
increase of wind with a veer of direction of 45 to 90, a sudden
rise of pressure known in France as the crochet d'orage, and in
Germany as the Gewitter Nase, a pronounced and permanent
fall of temperature, and a shower of rain, hail or snow. While
these various phenomena are indicated all along the advancing
line their intensity may be very different at different points
along it. The squall often exhibits greater violence in the middle
portion, and it becomes more intense as the whole line advances.
In the most fully developed portions the weather phenomena
take the form of thunderstorms with violent wind and rain.
The course of events in a typical line squall has been most care-
fully worked out by R. G. K. Lempfert in a paper on the " Line
Squall " of the 8th of February 1906 (Quart. Journ. Roy. Met.
Soc. vol. xxxii.). Fig. 4 (reproduced from the papers) shows
the successive positions of the line of the front from which its
rate of travel can be estimated. The line of advance of a line
squall is generally from some point between south and north
on the western side, the change of wind being from a warm
southerly or westerly wind to a colder westerly or northerly
one. So far as is known to the writer there is no case of a line
squall exhibiting a backing wind. The date and direction of
advance appear to be, generally speaking, those of the final
wind, but in cases where the thunderstorms are developed there
is a local violence of the wind bearing no relation to the isobaric
distribution of the final wind.
Endeavours have been made to explain the phenomena of
line squalls as due to vortex motion of particular character.
The violent wind blowing out in front of the storm is part of
the circulation of a vortex with horizontal axis. It supplies
the air for the rainfall of the stations in front. Its place is taken
by descending air at the back, which becomes in its turn the
surface supply for stations farther in. But such an explanation
xxv. 24 a
seems in many ways incomplete. Although perhaps if the wind
velocities in a vertical plane were plotted there might be some
evidence of circulation in the mathematical sense by integrating
round a closed curve, yet the idea of circulation in a vertical
plane as suggesting the primary constitution of the phenomena
is very inadequate. The change of air which takes place during
the passage of the line squall is altogether different from that
which we would get by passing the surface air through a complete
vertical cycle and condensing a large quantity of water vapour
on the way. If vertical circulation were complete the air would
FIG. 4. Times of occurrence of sudden meteorological changes,
and isochronous lines showing the advance of the squall. The
hours are numbered consecutively from I to 18, starting at I a.m.
(Feb. 8), and the minutes are expressed as decimal fractions of an
hour. Hail and thunder storms occurred in the region to the east of
the dotted line.
return to the surface warmed and dried. A few revolutions
would produce a very considerable elevation of temperature.
The air which remains after the passage of a line squall is, how-
ever, distinctly colder, of an entirely different kind from that
which it replaces and, in those cases which have been investigated,
can be traced back to a different point of the compass. More-
over, the smallness of vertical dimensions in the atmosphere as
compared with the horizontal dimensions makes it difficult to
allow that there is really room for an effective vortex with a
horizontal axis. To carry air up 5 m. and bring it back again
would practically deprive it of all its moisture and raise its
temperature 72 F. Yet 5 m. would be a very small allowance
for the horizontal spread of the phenomena of the squall.
The sudden replacement of warm air by cold with a change
of wind seems much more likely to be associated with the flooding
of the country by an advancing sweep of cold air. The pressure
changes are continuous in the old layer and in the new
layer, but discontinuous with varying degrees of discontinuity
along the line of junction, where instability of the upper air
may be set up. Fig. 5 shows the discontinuity of pressure in
the example discussed by Mr Lempfert. It is clear that as
the discontinuity of pressure becomes accentuated there arise
746
SQUALL
(Redrawn by permission from the Quart. Joum. Roy. Met. Soc.)
FIG. 5. Distribution of Pressure (Feb. 8, 1906). Isobars
are shown for each o-i in.
Shepherds Bush
(Redrawn by permission from
the British Association Report,
1008.)
FIG. 6. Records of
wind velocity on June I,
1908.
in the localities on the line of advance
very steep pressure gradients for which
there are corresponding winds. The
violent winds may therefore be attri-
buted to the breakdown of the dynami-
cal system under the stress of these
local differences of pressure.
From this point of view the pheno-
mena of the line squall are to be
regarded as a development of the
ordinary phenomena of the V-shaped
depression. A sudden change of wind
and a line of rain that pass over the
country with the velocity of the same
order as that of the following wind
are quite common features of the S.W.
quadrant of a cyclonic depression, and
they, too, seem to point to the juxta-
position of currents of different tem-
perature coming from different regions
but forming adjacent components of
supply for the depression.
Examples of all degrees between the
comparatively unimportant rain line
and the most violent tornado-like
squall could be put side by side with
cases in which the typical pressure,
temperature and weather changes are
accompanied by a sudden lull in the
wind, as in the example quoted in the
Life History of Surface Air Currents
(M. 0. publication, No. 174, 1906).
An example of a line squall in its most
violent and destructive form is shown in the records for the
ist of June 1908. In the record for Kew the squall of wind
which destroyed a number of the trees of Bushey Avenue is
shown as lasting for a very long period (fig. 6).
A line squall of historic interest is that which capsized H.M.S.
" Eurydice " off the Isle of Wight on the 24th of March 1878.
The occurrence is discussed by the Hon. Ralph Abercromby in
1884 (Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc. x. 172) and previously by the
Rev. Mr Clementhey (Symon's Met. Mag., April 1878). The shift
of wind in this case appears to have been from west to north,
and the change in the wind was accompanied by the transitions
from fine blue sky to snow. The records at the seven obser-
vatories belonging to the Meteorological Council are repro-
duced in the Quarterly Weather Report, from which fig. 7 is
taken.
Whatever explanation may be given of the cause and origin
of the phenomena of line squalls, it must take account of
the fact that a first squall is often succeeded by others of
a similar character but often of less intensity than the first.
After the sudden shift of wind, with accompanying weather
changes, the conditions seem to revert more or less to the original
state. The warm southerly wind reasserts itself, but is driven
out again by another attack, and ultimately the cold wind holds
the field. It is easy to suggest, but at present not easy to verify,
the course of replacement of the warm wind. Upper air observa-
tions in such circumstances with kites or manned balloons are
dangerous, both for the apparatus and the observer; but it
may be possible to trace the actual course of events by the records
of rounding balloons supplemented by observations of the motive
balloon by means of theodolites.
Little has been said about the actual force of the wind in gusts
or squalls, and in the present state of anemometry it is difficult to
u.-SI'ae'B-H |(8*34OPr I*T S3 SOilO-U Hfli.JOO-7rt L * T 50 _" 9 ,' 2 1* II 8 *' 2l ?,iV
Lntt. D I8.47W |l AovtWSt. Lo-c 2 .28 IO 2 W fl A Mvt M.S.L lo*t 3 3 3O W || .evr M 5 L.
(By permission of the Controller of His Majesty's Stationery Office.)
FIG. 7. " Eurydice " Squall, from the Quarterly Weather Report.
SQUAW SQUIRREL
747
regard the figures hitherto obtained as final ; moreover, the large
wind force in squalls is probably subject to large local variations,
the difference between the record of the squall of the 1st of June
1908 at Kew and Shepherd's Bush suggests that it may have been
much stronger at Bushey, where the damage was done. The highest
velocity in a gust hitherto recorded upon instruments belonging to
the office is 106 5 m. per hour at Pendennis Castle on the I4th of
March 1905. Gale force is defined for the purposes of the meteoro-
logical office as that of a wind which has an average velocity during
an hour of 38 m. per hour. According to Simpson's results at Scilly
or Holyhead, where the exposure is good, a wind that just got within
the reckoning of gales would reach 44 m. per hour in the ordinary
gusts, with occasional records of 51 m. per hour. Squalls with
velocities reaching 55 m. per hour are not uncommon, and the range
of wind velocity which constitutes a squall may be anything between
40 m. an hour and upwards of 100 m. an hour. (W. N. S.)
SQUAW, the anglicized word for woman among the North
American Indians; the Massachusetts Indian form is squa or
schqua, the Narraganset squawo, the Cree eskwuo, Delaware
ochqueu, khqueu, &c. It is also used in composition with names
of animals to denote the female.
SQUIB, supposed to be derived from the German word schieben,
to push or shove forward with a sliding movement, the name for
a projected kind of firework that is flung out of a groove and
breaks with a flash and a clatter. Hence, in the literary sense,
a squib is a slight satirical composition put forth on an occasion;
and it is intended that it should make a noise by its explosion,
not by the possession of any permanent importance. Steele
says, in the Taller, that " squibs are those who in the common
phrase of the world are call'd libellers, lampooners and pam-
phleteers," showing that, at the beginning of the i8th century,
the man who composed the satire, as well as the satire itself,
was called a squib. Swift speaks of the rapidity with which
these little literary fireworks flew about from place to place, and
he himself was a proficient in the making of noisy squibs.
Perhaps the best type of a squib in English literature is Gray's
Candidate, which was written and circulated among the electors
in 1764, when Lord Sandwich was canvassing for the office of
high-steward of the university of Cambridge. The object of
this poem was, by ridicule and defamation, to injure Lord
Sandwich's prospects of success. When once the election was
over the verses served no further purpose, and they have sur-
vived simply in consequence of their fluent wit and of the
reputation of the great poet who composed them. (See also
LAMPOON.)
SQUILL, the name under which the bulbous root of Urginea
Scilla is used in medicine. It belongs to the natural order
Liliaceae. The name of " squill " is also applied by gardeners
to the various species of Scilla. The medicinal squill is a native
of the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and grows from
the sea-level up to an elevation of 3000 ft. The bulbs are
globular and of large size, often weighing, more than 4 Ib.
Two varieties are met with, the one having white and the other
pink scales. They are collected in August, when they are
leafless, the membranous outer scales being removed and the
fleshy portion cut transversely into slices and dried in the sun.
These are then packed in casks for exportation. They are
chiefly imported into the United Kingdom from Malta. When
reduced to powder and exposed to the air the drug rapidly
absorbs moisture and cakes together into a hard mass.
Squill has been used in medicine from a very early period. The
ancient Greek physicians prescribed it with vinegar and honey
almost in the same manner as it is used at present. The composition
of the drug, first efficiently studied by Merck in 1878, is very com-
plex. The chief constituent is scillitoxin, a bitter and intensely
irritant principle. A somewhat similar substance, scillipiain, is also
physiologically active. The bitter glucoside scillin, or scillain, is
unimportant. The bulb also contains mucilage, and a considerable
quantity of an irritant resin. It has been shown that a definite
action on the heart is not obtainable unless so large a dose of
squill is given that some gastro-intestinal irritation or even
inflammation is set up by this resin. The dose of squill is from
I to 3 grains. Of the numerous pharmacopoeial preparations only
three are of any importance: the syrup of squill, composed of
one part of squill, eight of dilute acetic acid and four of sugar;
the Pilula Ipecacuanha* cum Scilla, in which ipecacuanha and
opium are the chief constituents; and the tincture of squill, which
is still widely used, made by macerating one part of squill
with five of alcohol. The action of the drug is that of a cardiac
stimulant, with three important further properties all dependent on
its irritant constituents. Even in small doses, such as will not
affect the heart, it is a gastro-intestinal, a bronchial and a renal
irritant. The two latter properties constitute it a powerful
expectorant and a fairly active diuretic. The drug must not
be given alone, owing to its irritant action. It is very frequently
given as a diuretic in cardiac cases in the form of a pill containing
one grain each of mercury, digitalis and squill. Combined with
a sedative, such as opium, it may be given in chronic bronchitis. It
must not be given m acute bronchitis, which it only aggravates;
nor in phthisis, which is invariably accompanied by a hypersensitive
state of the alimentary tract. For similar reasons squill should
not be given in any form of Bright's disease. The textbook pro-
hibition against its use in acute Bright's disease should certainly be
extended to chronic nephritis in all its forms. The use of this
irritating drug, while still extensive, is yearly diminishing. It does
not accomplish anything that may not otherwise be achieved at less
cost to the secreting surfaces of the patient.
An allied species, Urginea indica, is used in India in the same
manner as the European species. The true squills are represented
in Great Britain by two species, Scilla autumnalis and 5. verna.
The former has a racemose inflorescence and leaves appearing in
autumn after the flowers; the latter has the flowers arranged in a
corymbose manner, leaves appearing in spring, and is confined
to the sea-coast. Several species are cultivated in gardens,
5. bifolia and 5. sibirica being remarkable for their beautiful
blue flowers, which are produced in early spring; Chinese squill
is 5. chinensis, a half-hardy species; Roman squill is a popular
name for species of Bellevalia, a genus now generally included in
Hyacinthus; striped squill is Puschkinia scilloides, a liliaceous
plant resembling the squill in habit.
SQUINCH, possibly a corruption of sconce (French equiva-
lents are pendentive, trompe), the term in architecture applied
to a corbelling out by means of arched rings in stone thrown
across the angles of a square tower, to carry an octagonal spire
or a dome. The earliest examples are found in the palaces of
Serbittan and Firuzabad constructed by the Sassanian dynasty
(A.D. 350-450), and in the mosque at Damascus, where it takes
the form of a niche. In early French Romanesque work a small
niche with additional rings above is employed; a greater impor-
tance is sometimes given by small shafts at the sides, of which
there are examples in the Coptic churches of Egypt, and in
France in the cathedral at Le Puy and the church of St
Martin at Dijon. (See PENDENTIVE.)
SQUINT (possibly connected with Swed. svinka, to flinch;
O. Eng. swiccan, avoid), properly an adjective meaning looking
different ways, hence oblique, indirect vision, particularly a
strabismus, an affection of the eyes consisting in non-coincidence
of the optic axes (see EYE, Diseases; and VISION). In architec-
ture "squint" is used of a slit or opening usually on one or
both sides of the chancel arch, giving a view of the altar from the
transepts or aisles; it is also styled " hagioscope " (q.ii.).
SQUIRE, an abbreviated form of " esquire " (<?..), originally
with the same meaning of an attendant on a knight. In this
form, however, the word has developed certain special connota-
tions. Thus in England it is used partly as a courtesy title,
partly as a description of the chief landed proprietor, usually
the lord of the manor, in a parish the lesser proprietors being
" gentlemen " or yeomen. In some parts also it is not uncom-
mon for the title of " squire " to be given to small freeholders
of the yeoman class, known in Ireland half contemptuously as
" squireens." In the United States the title has also survived
as applied to justices of the peace, local judges and other digni-
taries in country districts and towns. In another sense " squire "
has survived in its sense of " attendant," " to squire " being
used so early as Chaucer's day as synonymous with " to wait
upon." A " squire of dames " is thus a man very attentive
to women and much in their company. Footpads and high-
waymen were termed sometimes " squires of the pad " as well
as " gentlemen of the road."
SQUIRREL (Fr. ecureuil), properly the name of the well-
known red, bushy-tailed British arboreal mammal, Sciurus
vulgaris, typifying the genus Sciurus and the family Sciuridae,
but in a wider sense embracing all the rodents included in this
SQUIRREL MONKEY SRINAGAR
and a few nearly allied genera. For the characteristics of the
family Sciuridae and the different squirrel-like genera by which
it is represented, see RODENTIA.
What may be called typical, that is to say arboreal, squirrels
are found throughout the greater part of the tropical and temper-
ate regions of both hemispheres, although they are absent both
from Madagascar and Australasia. The species are both largest
and most numerous in the tropics, and reach their greatest
development in the Malay countries. Squirrels vary in size
from animals no larger than a mouse, such as Nannosciurus
soricinus of Borneo, or N. minutus of West Africa, to others as
large as a cat, such as the black and yellow Ratufa bicolor of
Burma and the Malay area. The larger species, as might be
expected from their heavier build, are somewhat less strictly
arboreal in their habits than the smaller ones. The common
squirrel, whose habits are too well known to need special descrip-
tion, ranges over the whole of Europe and Northern Asia, from
Ireland to Japan, and from Lapland to North Italy; but speci-
mens from different parts of this wide range differ so much in
colour as to constitute distinct races. Thus, while the squirrels
of north and west Europe are of the bright red colour of the
British animal, those of the mountainous regions of southern
Europe are of a deep blackish grey; while those from Siberia
are a clear pale grey colour, with scarcely a tinge of rufous.
There is also a great seasonal change in appearance and colour
in this squirrel, owing to the ears losing their tufts of hair and
to the bleaching of the tail. The pairing time of the squirrel
is from February to April; and after a period of gestation of about
thirty days the female brings forth from three to nine young.
In addition to all sorts of vegetables and fruits, the squirrel is
exceedingly fond of animal food, greedily devouring mice, small
birds and eggs. The squirrels of the typical genus Sciurus are
unknown in Africa south of the Sahara, but otherwise have a
distribution co-extensive with the rest of the family.
Although the English squirrel is a beautiful little animal,
it is surpassed by many of the tropical members of the group,
and especially by those of the Malay countries, where nearly
all the species are brilliantly marked, and many are ornamented
The Burmese Red-bellied Squirrel (Sciurus pygerythrus) .
with variously coloured longitudinal stripes along their bodies.
Every one who has visited India is familiar with the pretty
little striped palm-squirrel, which is to a considerable extent
a purtially domesticated animal, or, rather, an animal which has
taken to quarter itself in the immediate neighbourhood of human
habitations. It has been generally supposed that there is only
one palm-squirrel throughout India, but there are really two
distinct types, each with local modifications. The first or
typical palm-squirrel, Funambulus palmarum, inhabits Madras,
has but three light stripes on the back, and shows a rufous band
on the under-side of the base of the tail. In Pennant's palm-
squirrel, F. pennanti, on the other hand, there is a pair of faint
additional lateral white stripes, making five in all, and the
under-surface of the tail is uniformly whitish olive. As this
species has been obtained in Surat and the Punjab, it is believed
to be the northern type. One Oriental species (Sciurus
caniceps) presents almost the only known instance among
mammals of the assumption during the breeding season of a
distinctly ornamental coat, corresponding to the breeding
plumage of birds. For the greater part of the year the animal
is of a uniform grey colour, but about December its back
becomes a brilliant orange-yellow, which lasts until about March,
when it is again replaced by grey. The squirrel shown in the
illustration is a native of Burma and Tenasserim, and is closely
allied to S. caniceps, but goes through no seasonal change
of colour. Another Burmese squirrel, S. haringtoni, differs as
regards colour in a remarkable manner from all other known
members of the group. It is a medium-sized species of a pale
creamy buff colour above, lighter beneath, and with a whitish
tail, while it is further characterized by the absence of the first
upper premolar, which shows that it is not an albino or pale
variety. Two examples were obtained by Captain H. H.
Harington, of one of the Punjabi regiments, on the Upper
Chindwin river. It may be added that generic subdivisions
of the squirrels are based mainly on the characters of the
skull and teeth. That they are essential is evident from the
circumstance that the African spiny squirrels Xerus (see SPINY
SQUIRREL) come between Sciurus and some of the other African
genera. (R. L.*)
SQUIRREL MONKEY, the English name of a small golden-
haired South American monkey, commonly known as Chryso-
thrix sciurea, and also applied to the two other members of the
same genus, whose collective range extends from Costa Rica to
Bolivia and Brazil. It has, however, been proposed to transfer
the name Chrysothrix to the marmosets of the genus Hapale,
to which 4t is stated to have been originally applied, and to
replace it by Saimiris. The squirrel-monkeys were formerly
classed with the douroucoulis (see DOUROUCOULI), but, on accqunt
of their brain-structure, they have been transferred to the
Cebinae (see CAPUCHIN-MONKEY), from the other members of
which they differ by their practically non-prehensile tails and
smaller size, while they are further distinguished by their com-
paratively large eyes and the backward prolongation of the
hinder part of the head. They are exceedingly pretty little
monkeys. (See PRIMATES.) (R. L.*)
SRINAGAR, capital of the state of Kashmir, in Northern
India, 5250 ft. above sea-level, on both banks of the river Jhelum,
which winds through the city with an average width of 80 yds.
and is crossed by seven wooden bridges. The houses occupy
a length of about 3 m. and a breadth of about i| m. on either
side of the river; but the greater part of the city lies on the
right bank. No two buildings are alike. The curious grouping
of the houses, the frail tenements of the poor, the substantial
mansions of the wealthier, the curious carving of some, the
balconies of others, the irregular embankment and the moun-
tains in the background, form a quaint and picturesque
spectacle. Area, 3795 acres. Pop. (1901), 122,618. The city
is exposed to both fire and flood. In 1893 six of the seven
bridges were swept away, and great damage was again caused
in 1903. A regular water-supply has been provided. The
artisans of Srinagar enjoy a high reputation. Unfortunately,
the historic industry of shawl-weaving is now practically extinct.
The loss of the French market after the war of 1870 was followed
by the famine of 1877-1879, which drove many of the weavers
into the Punjab, and the survivors have taken to the manufac-
ture of carpets. Other industries are paper, leather, papier
SRIRANGAM STADE, B.
749
machS, silver and copper ware, wood-carving and boat-making.
The three chief routes of communication with India are: (i)
along the Jhelum valley to Murree and Rawalpindi, which has
been opened throughout for wheeled traffic (195 m.); (2) over
the Banihal pass (9200 ft. above the sea) to Jammu (163 m.);
(3) over the Pir Panjal pass (11,400 ft.) to Gujrat (180 m.).
See Sir Walter R. Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir (1895);
M. A. Stein, Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir (1900).
SRIRANGAM, or SERINGHAM, a town of British India, in
Trichinopoly district, Madras presidency, 2 m. N. of Trichinopoly
city. Pop. (1901), 23,039. It stands on an island of the same
name, formed by the bifurcation of the river Cauvery and by
the channel of the Coleroon. The town is celebrated for its
great temple, dedicated to Vishnu, composed of seven square
enclosures, one within another, and 350 ft. distant from each
other. Each enclosure has four gates with high towers, placed
one in the centre of each side opposite to the four cardinal
points. The successively widening enclosures and the greater
elaboration of the outer as compared with the inner buildings
mark the progress of the shrine in fame and wealth. The outer
wall of the temple is not less than 4 m. in circumference. Not
far distant is the smaller but more beautiful Jambukeswaram,
a temple dedicated to Siva. From 1751 to 1755 the island and
its pagodas were the object of frequent contests between the
French and the English.
STAAL, MARGUERITE JEANNE CORDIER DELAUNAY,
BARONNE DE (1684-1750), French author, was born in Paris
on the 30th of August 1684. Her father was a painter named
Cordier. He seems to have deserted her mother, who then
resumed her maiden name, Delaunay, which was also adopted
by her daughter. She was educated at a convent at Evreux,
of which Mme de la Rochefoucauld, sister of the author of the
Maximes, was superior. Here she became attached to Mme de
Grieu, who, being appointed abbess of the convent of St Louis
at Rouen, took her friend with her. Mile Delaunay lived there
until 1710 in the enjoyment of the utmost consideration. There
she held a little court of her own, which included Brunei, the
friend of Fontenelle, the sieur de la Rey and the abbe Vertot.
She describes her own first passion for the marquis de Silly, the
brother of a friend with whom she was visiting. Her affection
was not returned, but she entered on a correspondence with
him in which she plays the part of director. After the death
of her patron, Mme de Grieu, poverty compelled her to
enter the household of the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux in
the capacity of femme de chambre. Her literary talent soon
manifested itself in the literary court of the duchess, and secured
for her, among other friendships, the somewhat undesirable
admiration of the abbe Chaulieu. The duchess is said, but chiefly
on the waiting -lady's own authority, to have been not a little
jealous of her attendant. Enough, however, is known of the
duchess's imperious and capricious temper to make it improb-
able that her service was agreeable. Mile Delaunay, however,
enjoyed a large share of her confidence and had a considerable
share in drawing up the Memoire des princes legitimes which
demanded the meeting of the states-general. She was implicated
in the affair of the Cellamare conspiracy, and was sent in 1718
to the Bastille, where she remained for two years. Even here,
however, she made conquests, though she was far from beautiful.
Her own account of her love for her fellow prisoner, the chevalier
de Menil, and of the passion of the chevalier de Maisonrouge,
her gaoler, for her, is justly famous. She returned on her
liberation to the service of the duchess, who showed no gratitude
for the devotion, approaching the heroic, that Mile Delaunay
had shown in her cause. She received no promotion and still
had to fulfil the wearisome duties of a waiting-maid. She refused,
it is said, Andrd Dacier, the widower of a wife more famous than
himself, and in 1733, being then more than fifty, married the
Baron de Staal. Her dissatisfaction with her position had be-
come so evident that the duchess, afraid of losing her services,
arranged the marriage to give Mile Delaunay rank sufficient
to allow of her promotion to be on an equality with the ladies
of the court. On this footing she remained a member of the
household. It was at this time that she became the friend and
correspondent of Mme du Deffand. She died at Gennevilliers
on the i $th of June 1750. Her Memoires appeared about five
years later, and have often been reprinted, both separately and
in collections of the memoirs of the I7th and i8th centuries, to
both of which the author belonged both in style and character.
She has much of the frankness and seductive verve of Mme
de Sevigne and her contemporaries, but more than a little alloyed
with the sensibilile of a later time. It may be doubted whether
she does not somewhat exaggerate the discomforts of her
position and her sense of them. In her lack of illusions she was
a child of the i8th century. Sainte-Beuve says that the most
fit time for the reading of the Memoires is the late autumn, under
the trees of November. But her book is an extremely amusing
one to read, as well as not a little instructive. The humours
of the " court of Sceaux " are depicted as hardly any other
society of the kind has ever been. " Dans cet art enjoue de
raconter," says Sainte-Beuve, " Madame de Staal est classique."
Besides her Memoires Mme de Staal left two excellent short
comedies, performed at the court of Sceaux, and some letters, the
answers to which are in some cases extant, and show, as well as the
references of contemporaries, that the writer did not exaggerate
her own charm. Her Memoires were translated by S. Bathurst
(1877) and by C. H. Bell (1892). See the edition (1877) of her
Memoires by M. de Lescure.
STABIAE, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, on the coast
at the east extremity of the Gulf of Naples (mod. Castellam-
mare di Stabia). It was dependent upon Nuceria Alfaterna
(q.v.) until it joined the revolt against Rome in the Social War
(90 B.C.). In 89 it was taken and destroyed by Sulla, and its
territory given to Nuceria as a reward for fidelity to Rome. The
place, however, continued to be visited for its natural beauties,
its mineral springs and its pure milk. Remains of fine villas
have been found about half a mile to the east of the modern
town, and also the remains of a temple to the genius of Stabiae,
which no doubt occupied the same site as it had done in Oscan
times. None of these remains is now visible. The town was
destroyed by the eruption of A.D. 79 (in which the elder Pliny
met his death), but was soon rebuilt on the site now occupied
by the modern Castellammare. Above the town on the east is
the Mons Lactarius (from lac, milk). Here took place the battle
between Narses and Teias in A.D. 553, which put an end to the
Gothic domination in Italy.
See M. Ruggiero, Scavi di Stabia del 1749 al 1782 (Naples, 1881);
J. Beloch, Campanien, 2nd ed. p. 248 sqq. (Breslau, 1890). (T.As.)
STABLE, a building in which horses are kept, including the
stall in which they stand, furnished with manger and rack, the
room in which the harness is kept and attended to, the loft in
which the hay and corn are stored, and other accessory rooms, &c.
(See HORSE.) This is the current usage, but the word was
formerly applied, as was the Latin stabulum, i.e. standing-
place (from stare, to stand), to a stall or enclosure for all kinds
of domestic animals, cows, sheep, &c. The adjective " stable,"
meaning firmly established, comes directly from Latin stabilis,
also from stare, to stand.
STADE, BERNHARD (1848-1906), German Protestant theo-
logian, was born on the nth of May 1848, at Arnstadt, in
Thuringia. He studied at Leipzig and Berlin, and in course of
time became (1875) professor ordinarius at Giessen. Once a
member of Franz Delitzsch's class, he became a convinced
adherent of the newest critical school. In 1881 he founded the
Zeitschrift fur alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, which he continued
to edit; and his critical history of Israel (Geschichte des Volks
Israel, 2 vols., 1887-1888; vol. ii. in conjunction with Oscar
Holtzmann) has made him very widely known. With C.
Siegfried he has revised and edited the Hebrew lexicon, Hebr.
Worlerbuch zum Allen Testament (1892-1893). Stade's other
works include Uber die alttestamentlichen Vorstellungen iiom
Zustand nach dem Tode (1877), Lehrbuch der hebr. Grammatik
(vol. i., 1879), Ausgewahlte akademische Reden und Abhandlungen
(1899), and Biblische Theologie des Allen Testaments (1905,
&c.). He died on the 6th of December 1906.
See O. Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890).
750
STADE STAEL, MADAME DE
STADE, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of
Hanover, situated on the navigable Schwinge, 32 m. above its
confluence with the Elbe, 20 m. N.W. of Hamburg on the railway
to Cuxhaven. Pop. (1905), 10,837. It carries on a number of
small manufactures and has some shipping trade, chiefly with
Hamburg, but the rise of Harburg has deposed it from its former
position as the chief port of Hanover. In the neighbourhood
are deposits of gypsum and salt. The fortifications, erected in
1755 and strengthened in 1816, were demolished in 1882.
According to the legend, Stade was the oldest town of the
Saxons and was built in 321 B.C. Historically it cannot be
traced farther back than the loth century, when it was the capital
of a line of counts. In the i3th century it passed to the arch-
bishopric of Bremen. Subsequently entering the Hanseatic
League, it rose to some commercial importance. 1 In 1648 Stade
became the capital of the principality of Bremen under the
Swedes; and in 1719 it was ceded to Hanover, the fate of which it
has since shared. The Prussians occupied it without resistance
in 1866.
See Jobelmann and Wittpennig, Geschichte der Stadt Stade (Stade,
STADION, JOHANN PHILIPP KARL JOSEPH (1763-1824),
Austrian statesman, entered the diplomatic service and rose
early to a high position. In 1790-1793 he was ambassador in
London. After some years of retirement he was entrusted
(1800) with a mission to the Prussian court, where he endea-
voured in vain to effect an alliance with Austria. He had
greater success as envoy at St Petersburg, where he played a
large part in the formation of the third coalition against
Napoleon (1805). Notwithstanding the failure of this alliance
he was made foreign minister, and in conjunction with the
archduke Charles pursued a policy of quiet preparation for a
fresh trial of strength with France. In 1808 he abandoned
the policy of procrastination, and with the help of Metternich
hastened the outbreak of a new war. The unfortunate results
of the campaign of 1809 compelled his resignation, but in 1813
he was commissioned to negotiate the convention which finally
overthrew Napoleon. The last ten years of his life were spent
in a strenuous and partly successful attempt to reorganize the
disordered finances of his country.
See A. Beer, Zehn Jahre osterreichischer Politik, 1801-1810 (Leipzig,
1877); Die Finanzen Oesterreichs im 19 Jahrhundert (Prague,
1877); Krones, Zur Geschichte Oesterreichs, 1792-1816 (Gotha, 1886).
STADIUM, the Latin form of this Greek name for a standard
of length, a stade=ioo opryviai (about 6 ft., or I fathom) = 6
ir\tdpa (100 Gr. about 101 Eng. ft.), equivalent to about 606
Eng. ft. ; as being about one-eighth of the Roman mile, it is often
translated by " furlong." The course for the foot-race at Olympia
(<?.i>.) was exactly a stade in length, and hence the name was
given to the Greek foot-race and to the amphitheatre in which
the races took place (see GAMES, CLASSICAL).
STADTHOLDER (Du. stadhouder, a delegate or representa-
tive), the title of the chief magistrate of the seven states which
formed the United Netherlands by the union of Utrecht in
1579. Though the word stad means a town, it has also the force
of the kindred English " stead." A stadhouder was not the
governor of a " stad " or " stead " in the sense of a place or
town. He was in the place, or stead, of the sovereign.
The word is translated into Latin by legatus, gubernator and
praefectus. The office of stadtholder is a proconsulates, and
the High German equivalent is Statthalter , a delegate.
When the northern Netherlands revolted from Philip II.
of Spain, who had inherited his sovereign rights from
the house of Burgundy (see NETHERLANDS: History), the stad-
1 The Stade Elbe-dues (Stader Elbezoll) were an ancient impost
upon all goods carried up the Elbe, and were levied at the village of
Brunshausen, at the mouth of the Schwinge. The tax was abolished
in 1267 by the Hanseatic League, but it was revived by the Swedes
in 1688, and confirmed by Hanover. The dues were fostered by the
growing trade of Hamburg, and in 1861, when they were redeemed
(for 427,600) by the nations trading in the Elbe, the exchequer of
Hanover was in the yearly receipt of about 45,000 from this source.
Hamburg and Great Britain each paid more than a third of the
redemption money.
houder passed from being the representative of an absent sove-
reign prince and became the chief magistrate of the states in
whom the sovereignty resided. Six of the seven states forming
the confederation of the United Netherlands took as their
stadtholder William of Orange-Nassau, called " the Silent," and
his descendants during three generations. The seventh,
Friesland, had for stadtholder William's brother, John " the
Old," and his descendants. The younger line became stadt-
holders of the other states after the extinction of the elder, and
were the ancestors of the present royal family of the Netherlands.
Though the stadtholdcrs of the house of Orange-Nassau were of
princely rank and intermarried with the royal families of Europe,
they were not sovereign princes. They exercised large admini-
strative powers, and commanded the land and sea forces, but it
was with delegated authority given them by each state in.
domestic affairs, and by the states-general of the confederation
in all common and foreign affairs. The states-general and some
of the individual states not only claimed but exercised the right
of suspending the stadtholdership, as for instance after the death
of William II., 1650, and of William III., 1702.
STAEL, MADAME DE. ANNE LOUISE GERMAINE NECKER,
BARONNE DE STAEL-HOLSTEIN (1766-1817), French novelist
and miscellaneous writer, was born at Paris on the 22nd of April
1766. Her father was the famous financier Necker, her mother
Suzanne Curchod, almost equally famous as the early love of
Gibbon, as the wife of Necker himself, and as the mistress of
one of the most popular salons of Paris. Between mother
and daughter there was, however, little sympathy. Mm&
Necker, despite her talents, her beauty and her fondness for
philosophe society, was strictly decorous, somewhat reserved,
and disposed to carry out in -her daughter's case the rigorous
discipline of her own childhood. The future Mme de Stael
was from her earliest years a romp, a coquette, and passionately
desirous of prominence and attention. There seems moreover
to have been a sort of rivalry between mother and daughter for
the chief place in Necker's affections, and it is not probable that
the daughter's love for her mother was increased by the conscious-
ness of her own inferiority in personal charms. Mme Necker
was of a most refined though somewhat lackadaisical style of
beauty, while her daughter wasa plain child and a plainer woman,
whose sole attractions were large and striking eyes and a buxom
figure. She was, however, a child of unusual intellectual power,
-and she began very early to write though not to publish. She
is said to have written her father a letter on his famous
Compte-Rendu and other matters when she was not fifteen, and
to have injured her health by excessive study and intellectual
excitement. But in reading all the accounts of Mme de Stael's.
life which come from herself or her intimate friends, it must be
carefully remembered that she was the most distinguished and
characteristic product of the period of sensibilite the singular
fashion of ultra-sentiment which required that both men and
women, but especially women, should be always palpitating with
excitement, steeped in melancholy, or dissolved in tears. Still,,
there is no doubt that her father's dismissal from the ministry,
which followed the presentation of the Comple, and the conse-
quent removal of the family from the busy life of Paris, were bene-
ficial to her. During part of the next few years they resided at
Coppet, her father's estate on the Lake of Geneva, which she
herself made famous. But other parts were spent in travelling
about, chiefly in the south of France. They returned to Paris,
or at least to its neighbourhood, in 1785, and Mile Necker
resumed literary work of a miscellaneous kind, including a
novel, Sophie, printed in 1786, and a tragedy, Jeanne Grey,
published in 1 790. It became, however, a question of marrying
her. Her want of beauty was compensated by her fortune.
But her parents are said to have objected to her marrying a
Roman Catholic, which, in France, considerably limited her
choice. There is a legend that William Pitt the younger thought
of her; the somewhat notorious lover of Mile de Lespinasse,.
Guibert, a cold-hearted coxcomb of some talent, certainly paid
her addresses. But she finally married Eric Magnus, Baron
of Stael-Holstein, who was first an attache of the Swedish
STAEL; MADAME DE
751
legation, and then minister. For a great heiress and a very
ambitious girl the marriage scarcely seemed brilliant, for Stae'l
had no fortune and no very great personal distinction. A singular
series of negotiations, however, secured from the king of Sweden
a promise of the ambassadorship for twelve years and a pension
in case of its withdrawal, and the marriage took place on the
i4th of January 1786. The husband was thirty-seven, the
wife twenty. Mme de Stae'l was accused of extravagance, and
latterly an amicable separation of goods had to be effected between
the pair. But this was a mere legal formality, and on the whole
the marriage seems to have met the views of both parties,
neither of whom had any affection for the other. They had three
children; there was no scandal between them; the baron obtained
money and the lady obtained, as a guaranteed ambassadress
of a foreign power of consideration, a much higher position at
court and in society than she could have secured by marrying
almost any Frenchman, without the inconveniences which might
have been expected had she married a Frenchman superior to
herself in rank. Mme de Stae'l was not a persona grata at
court, but she seems to have played the part of ambassadress,
as she played most parts, in a rather noisy and exaggerated
manner, but not ill. Then in 1788 she appeared as an author
under her own name (Sophie had been already published, but
anonymously) with some Lettres sur J. J. Rousseau, a fervid
panegyric showing a good deal of talent but no power of criticism.
She was at this time, and indeed generally, enthusiastic for a
mixture of Rousseauism and constitutionalism in politics. She
exulted in the meeting of the states-general, and most of all
when her father, after being driven to Brussels by a state
intrigue, was once more recalled and triumphantly escorted into
Paris. Every one knows what followed. Her first child, a
boy, was born the week before Necker finally left France in
unpopularity and disgrace; and the increasing disturbances of
the Revolution made her privileges as ambassadress very
important safeguards. She visited Coppet once or twice, but
for the most part in the early days of the revolutionary period
she was in Paris taking an interest and, as she thought, a part
in the councils and efforts of the Moderates. At last, the day
before the September massacres, she fled, befriended by Manuel
and Tallien. Her own account of her escape is, as usual, so
florid that it provokes the question whether she was really in
any danger. Directly it does not seem that she was; but she
had generously strained the privileges of the embassy to protect
some threatened friends, and this was a serious matter.
She betook herself to Coppet, and there gathered round her a
considerable number of friends and fellow-refugees, the beginning
of the quasi-court which at intervals during the next five-and-
twenty years made the place 'so famous. In 1793, however, she
made a visit of some length to England, and established herself
at Mickleham in Surrey as the centre of the Moderate Liberal
emigrants Talleyrand, Narbonne, Jaucourt and others.
There was not a little scandal about her relations with Narbonne;
and this Mickleham sojourn (the details of which are known
from, among other sources, the letters of Fanny Burney) has
never been altogether satisfactorily accounted for. In the
summer she returned to Coppet and wrote a pamphlet (Reflexions
sur le proces de la reine) on the queen's execution. The next
year her mother died, and the fall of Robespierre opened the
way back to Paris. M de Stae'l (whose mission had been in
abeyance and himself in Holland for three years) was accredited
to the French republic by the regent of Sweden; his wife reopened
her salon and for a time was conspicuous in the motley and
eccentric society of the Directory. She also published several
small works, the chief being an essay De I'lnfluence des passions
(1796), and another De la Literature consid&rec dans ses rapports
avec les institutions sociales (1800). It was during these years
that Mme de Stae'l was of chief political importance. Nar-
bonne's place had been supplied by Benjamin Constant, whom
she first met at Coppet in 1 794, and who had a very great influence
over her, as in return she had over him. Both personal and
political reasons threw her into opposition to Bonaparte. Her
own preference for a moderate republic or a constitutional
monarchy was quite sincere, and, even if it had not been so,
her own character and Napoleon's were too much alike in some
points to admit of their getting on together. For some years,
however, she was able to alternate between Coppet and Paris
without difficulty, though not without knowing that the First
Consul disliked her. In 1797 she, as above mentioned, separated
formally from her husband. In 1799 he was recalled by the
king of Sweden, and in 1802 he died, duly attended by her.
Besides the eldest son Auguste Louis, they had two other children
a son Albert, and a daughter Albertine, who afterwards became
the duchesse de Broglie.
The exact date of the beginning of what Mme de Stael's
admirers call her duel with Napoleon is not easy to determine.
Judging from the title of her book Dix annees d'exil, it should
be put at 1804; judging from the time at which it became pretty
clear that the first man in France and she who wished to be the
first woman in France were not likely to get on together, it might
be put several years earlier. The whole question of this duel,
however, requires consideration from the point of view of common
sense. It displeased Napoleon no doubt that Mme de Stae'l
should show herself recalcitrant to his influence. But it probably
pleased Mme de Stae'l to quite an equal degree that Napoleon
should apparently put forth his power to crush her and fail.
Both personages had a curious touch of charlatanerie. If Mme
de Stae'l had really desired to take up her parable against
Napoleon seriously, she need only have established herself in
England at the peace of Amiens. But she lingered on at Coppet,
constantly hankering after Paris, and acknowledging the
hankering quite honestly. In 1802 she published the first of
her really noteworthy books, the novel of Delphine, in which
the " femme incomprise " was in a manner introduced to French
literature, and in which she herself and not a few of her intimates
appeared in transparent disguise. In the autumn of 1803 she
returned to Paris. Whether, if she had not displayed such
extraordinary anxiety not to be exiled, Napoleon would have
exiled her remains a question; but, as she began at once appealing
to all sorts of persons to protect her, he seems to have thought
it better that she should not be protected. She was directed not
to reside within forty leagues of Paris, and after considerable
delay she determined to go to Germany. She journeyed, in
company with Constant, by Metz and Frankfort to Weimar,
and arrived there in December. There. she stayed during the
winter and then went to Berlin, where she made the acquaintance
of August Wilhelm Schlegel, who afterwards became one of her
intimates at Coppet. Thence she travelled to Vienna, where,
in April, the news of her father's dangerous illness and
shortly of his death (April 8) reached her. She returned to
Coppet, and found herself its wealthy and independent mistress,
but her sorrow for her father was deep and certainly sincere.
She spent the summer at the chateau with a brilliant company;
in the autumn she journeyed to Italy accompanied by Schlegel
and Sismondi, and there gathered the materials of her most
famous work, Corinne. She returned in the summer of 1805, and
spent nearly a year in writing Corinne; in 1806 she broke the
decree of exile and lived for a time undisturbed near Paris. In
1807 Corinne, the first aesthetic romance not written in German,
appeared. It is in fact, what it was described as being at the
time of its appearance, " a picturesque tour couched in the form
of a novel." The publication was taken as a reminder of her
existence, and the police of the empire sent her back to Coppet.
She stayed there as usual for the summer, and then set out once
more for Germany, visiting Mainz, Frankfort, Berlin and Vienna.
She was again at Coppet in the summer of 1808 (in which year
Constant broke with her, subsequently marrying a German lady)
and set to work at her book, De I'Allemagne. It took her nearly
the whole of the next two years, during which she did not travel
much or far from her own house. She had bought property in
America and thought of moving thither, but chance or fatality
made her determine to publish De I'Allemagne in Paris. The
submission to censorship which this entailed was sufficiently
inconsistent and she wrote to the emperor one of the unfortunate
letters, at once undignified and provoking, of which she had the
752
STAFF
secret. A man less tyrannical or less mean-spirited than Napo-
leon would of course have let her alone, but Napoleon was
Napoleon, and she perfectly well knew him. The reply to her
letter was the condemnation of the whole edition of her book
(ten thousand copies) as " hot French," and her own exile, not
as before to a certain distance from Paris, but from France
altogether. The act was unquestionably one of odious tyranny,
but it is impossible not to ask why she had put herself within
reach of it when her fortune enabled her to reside anywhere and
to publish what she pleased. She retired once more to Coppet,
where she was not at first interfered with, and she found con-
solation in a young officer of Swiss origin named Rocca, twenty-
three years her junior, whom she married privately in 1811.
The intimacy of their relations could escape no one at Coppet,
but the fact of the marriage (which seems to have been happy
enough) was not certainly known till after her death.
The operations of the imperial police in regard to Mme de
Stael are rather obscure. She was at first left undisturbed, but
by degrees the chateau itself became taboo, and her visitors
found themselves punished heavily. Mathieu de Montmorency
and Mme Recamier were exiled for the crime of seeing her;
and she at last began to think of doing what she ought to have
done years before and withdrawing herself entirely from Napo-
leon's sphere. In the complete subjection of the Continent
which preceded the Russian War this was not so easy as it would
have been earlier, and she remained at home during the winter of
181 1, writing and planning. On the 23rd of May she left Coppet
almost secretly, and journeyed by Bern, Innsbruck and Salz-
burg to Vienna. There she obtained an Austrian passport to the
frontier, and after some fears and trouble, receiving a Russian
passport in Galicia, she at last escaped from the dungeon of
Napoleonic Europe.
She journeyed slowly through Russia and Finland to Sweden,
making some stay at St Petersburg, spent the winter in Stock-
holm, and then set out for England. Here she received a brilliant
reception and was much lionized during the season of 1813.
She published De I'Allemagne in the autumn, was saddened
by the death of her second son Albert, who had entered the
Swedish army and fell in a duel brought on by gambling, under-
took her Considerations sur la revolution franfaise, and when
Louis XVIII. had been restored returned to Paris. She was in
Paris when the news pf Napoleon's landing arrived and at once
fled to Coppet, but a singular story, much discussed, is current
of her having approved Napoleon's return. There is no direct
evidence of it, but the conduct of her close ally Constant may be
quoted in its support, and it is certain that she had no affection
for the Bourbons. In October, after Waterloo, she set out for
Italy, not only for the advantage of her own health but for that
of her second husband, Rocca, who was dying of consumption.
Her daughter married Duke Victor de Broglie on the 2Oth of
'February 1816, at Pisa, and became the wife and mother of
French statesmen of distinction. The whole family returned to
Coppet in June, and Byron now frequently visited Mme de
Stael there. Despite her increasing ill-health she returned to
Paris for the winter of 1816-1817, and her salon was much
frequented. But she had already become confined to her room,
if not to her bed. She died on the i4th of July, and Rocca
survived her little more than six months.
Mme de Stael occupies a singular position in French
literature. The men of her own time exalted her to the skies,
and the most extravagant estimates of her (as " the greatest
woman in literary history," as the " foundress of the romantic
movement," as representing " ideas," while her contemporary
Chateaubriand only represented words, colours, and images,
and so forth) are to be found in minor histories of literature.
On the other hand, it is acknowledged that she was soon very
little read. No other writer of such eminence is so rarely
quoted; none is so entirely destitute of the tribute of new and
splendid editions. The abundant documents in the hands of
her descendants, the families of Broglie and Haussonville, have
indeed furnished material for books and papers, but these are
almost wholly on the social aspect of Mme de Stael, not on her
literary merit. Nor, when the life and works are examined is the
neglect without excuse. Her books are seen to be in large part
merely clever reflections of other people's views or views current
at the time. The sentimentality of her sentiment and the florid
magniloquence of her style equally disgust the reader. But to
state this alone would be in the highest degree unfair. Mme de
Stael's faults are great; her style is of an age, not for all time;
her ideas are mostly second-hand and frequently superficial.
But nothing save a very great talent could have shown itself so
receptive. Take away her assiduous frequentation of society,
from the later philosophe coteries to the age of Byron take
away the influence of Constant and Schlegel and her other
literary friends and probably little of her will remain. But
to have caught from all sides in this manner the floating
notions of society and of individuals, to reflect them with such
vigour and clearness, is not anybody's task. Her two best
books, Corinne and De I'Allemagne, are in all probability almost
wholly unoriginal, a little sentiment in the first and a little
constitutionalism in the second being all that she can claim.
But Corinne is still a very remarkable exposition of a certain
kind of aestheticism. while De I'Allemagne is still perhaps the
most remarkable account of one country, by a native and
inhabitant of another, which exists in literature.
Baron Auguste de Stael (d. 1827) edited the complete works
of his mother in seventeen volumes (Paris, 18201821), with a
notice by Mme Necker de Saussure, and the edition was after-
wards republished in a compacter form, and, supplemented by some
(Euvres inedites, is still obtainable in three volumes, large 8vo
(Didot). The Considerations and the Dix annees d'exil had been
published after Mme de Stael's death. Some Leltres inedites to
II. Meister were published in 1903. There is no recent reissue of
the whole, and the minor works have not been reprinted, but Corinne,
Delphine and De I'Allemagne are easily accessible in cheap and sepa-
rate forms. Of separate works on Mme de Stael, or rather on
Coppet and its society, besides those of MM Caro and Othenin
d'Haussonville, may be mentioned the capital work of A. Sorel in
the Grands ecrivains frangais. In English there are biographies by
A. Stevens (London, 1880), and Lady Blennerhasset (1889). (G. SA.)
STAFF (O. Eng. slaef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; led. stafr
meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the
alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a
cask is made, is a doublet), a long stick or pole, used either as
an aid in walking, as a weapon as in the old quarter-staff (q.v.)
or as a symbol of dignity and office, e.g. the pastoral staff (q.v.).
Further the word is applied to the pole on which a flag is hoisted
and to various measuring surveying instruments. Probably
from the early use of the word for the letters of the alphabet,
" staff " and its doublet " stave " came to be used of a line,
verse or stanza, and in musical notation (q.v.) of the horizontal
lines on which notes are placed to indicate the pitch. A par-
ticular use, perhaps derived from the sense of an aid or help,
is that of a body of assistants, particularly military.
The military staf organization of to-day, with its subdivision
and specialization, is a modern product. Although generals
have always provided themselves with aides-de-camp and order-
lies, the only official corresponding to a modern staff officer in a
i6th or i7th century army was the " sergeant-major-general "
or " major-general," in whom was vested the responsibility of
forming the army in battle array and also the command of
the foot. In those days armies, large and small, were arrayed
in deep formations and, occupying but a narrow front both in
camp and in battle, were easily manageable by one man and
his "messengers. A little later, however, we find a "quarter-
master-general" and his assistants charged with the duties of
selecting camps, reconnoitring the country and collecting infor-
mation generally. The quartermaster-general himself was some-
times used, as Marlborough used Cadogan (q.v.), not only as
chief-of-staff and as quartermaster-general in the strict sense,
but also as the general's authorized representative with detach-
ments, advanced guards, &c. But there was no subdivision of
functions in the modern sense. A staff was a group of officers
attached temporarily to headquarters and available for any
mission which the commander thought fit to give them, and
in the highly centralized armies of those days these missions
STAFF
753
(as regards junior officers) were practically limited to orderly
work and reconnaissance, especially topographical reconnais-
sance. Subordinate generals had aides-de-camp only. Apart,
then, from the "adjutants" or personal staffs (amongst whom
must be reckoned the commander-in-chief's secretary, generally
a civilian) , the staff in the field in Frederick the Great's day
was the quartermaster-general's staff, and it was chiefly con-
cerned, both in peace and war, with military engineering duties.
In the Seven Years' War Frederick's Q.M.G. staff 1 comprised
two to six officers, usually engineers, and by 1806 the quarter-
master-general had practically monopolized engineering and
scientific appointments at headquarters. Summer the staff
officers devoted to surveying and topographical reconnais-
sance; winter to the codification of the information obtained.
None of them were employed or trained with troops, although
Frederick the Great sometimes made the quartermaster-general's
officers at Berlin do duty with the guards.
With the French Revolution, however, the organization
of the staff gradually modified itself to suit the new conditions
of warfare. The size of armies necessitated subdivision and
separate staffs for the subordinate leaders, their mobility re-
duced the importance of minute topographical reconnaissance,
and the necessity of communicating between the several groups
of an army produced an increased demand for orderly officers.
But naturally a fully developed staff system did not spring to
life immediately. Only by degrees were generals evolved who
could handle large and mobile armies, and the highly gifted
army leaders who in time appeared, Napoleon of course
above all, scarcely needed a general staff. Napoleon had a
chief of staff, Marshal Berthier, who bore the old title of " major-
general," but Berthier was practically a chief clerk, a man of
extraordinary aptitude for business. Berthier's staff was dis-
tinctly a mobile war office, and the great captain who needed
not advice, but obedience, was wont to despatch his orders
by a crowd of subalterns. The principal contribution, there-
fore, made by Napoleon to the development of staff organiza-
tion was the thorough establishment of the principle of corps
and divisional autonomy. Corps and divisions to be self-
contained required, and they were furnished with, their own
staffs. The old type of " quartermaster," whose " castra-
metation " and engineering science had been essential in the
days of rigid indivisible armies, disappeared and gave way
to a type of staff officer whose duty was to translate his chief's
general instructions (other than those delivered in the field
by the gallopers of the personal staff) into orders for the
various subordinate commanders. The general staff officer's
functions as strategical assistant to his chief were non-existent.
This system worked satisfactorily in the main while Berthier
was at the head of the central office, somewhat less satisfactorily
in the Waterloo campaign when Marshal Soult occupied his place,
and worst of all it worked in various wars of the ipth century
in which the self-contained great general was not forthcoming.
The general staff became a mere bureau, divorced from the
army. Thus on the French side in 1870 Marshal Bazaine so
far distrusted his general staff that he forbade it to appear on
the battlefield, and worked the army almost wholly by means of
his personal staff. Thus the latter, the mere mouthpiece of the
marshal, issued sketchy strategical orders for movements, and
so reduced the rate of marching of the army to five or six
miles a day; while the former, kept in the dark by the com-
mander-in-chief, issued either no orders at all or orders that had
no reference to the real condition of affairs and the marshal's
intentions. The army at large distrusted both staffs equally.
The Prussian general staff was as different from this staff of
bureaucrats and amateurs as day from night. Even before
1806 Massenbach (q.v.) had added the preparation of strategical
plans to the work of the quartermaster-general's staff, obtaining
thus at the expense of the adjutant-general's side the powers
of a general staff in the modern sense. That he was incapable
of using these powers is shown by the mournful history of
Jena. But another quartermaster-general in the war of 1806,
1 The " general staff " was simply the list of general officers.
Scharnhorst (q.v.), took up his work and in a very different
spirit. In Scharnhorst's first instructions of 1808 it was laid
down that an accurate knowledge of troops and a general know-
ledge of country were essential to a staff officer who was to be
practised in exercises with troops and also in surveying. Scharn-
horst, moreover, distributed general staff officers in peace to
the provincial commands. The business-like habits which he
instilled into his pupils, and their close touch with com-
manders and troops, began a tradition of efficient and accurate
staff work in the field, work in which the previous Prussian
staff (and indeed all contemporary staffs except Napoleon's)
had failed. Thus it was that although the battle of Gravelotte-
Saint-Privat was fought on the German side by over 200,000
men and in two or three distinct phases with little central
direction, and, moreover, was not finished until after dark,
Moltke had in his hands at dawn next morning a complete
account of the events of the battle, and of the losses and con-
dition of the troops of each corps. This was the fruit not only
of methodical training in the theory of staff duties but of
constant practice with troops in field manoeuvres.
Another very important feature of the Scharnhorst system
was the periodical return of all general staff officers to regimental
duty. This indeed has often been considered the keynote of
efficiency. It did not at first meet with universal approval,
but, like so many other military institutions in Prussia, finan-
cial considerations helped to ensure its retention until its in-
trinsic merits were proved in war. Just as the army was
kept at a low peace effective and augmented on mobilization
from a numerous reserve, so the staffs were small in peace, but
as many officers as possible were passed through them so as
to form a staff reserve within the regimental strength of the
army.
But above all, the circulation of staff officers made it possible
to educate the regimental officer in the approved doctrines of
strategy and tactics. " Unity of doctrine " meant that instead
of the complicated instructions hitherto issued for any operation,
a brief note or even a hint was sufficient. In an army with a
" doctrine " all ranks from general to subaltern _speak the same
language and use the same term in the same sense. There
must always be shades of interpretation, varying with the
individual officer, as was notably the case in all that Prince
Frederick Charles and Blumenthal did in execution of Moltke's
" directives " in 1866 and 1870. But the general lines of action
in such an army are thoroughly fixed.
A further consequence of the new conception of staff work
was an enormous increase in the " discretionary " powers of all
officers. If there is to be one and only one doctrine, that doctrine
must be comprehensive and elastic, and education in it must
consist chiefly in applying the general principle to the specific
case. Thence it was not a long step to the notion that an officer
could disregard a superior's orders if the situation on which
they were based was wrongly conceived or had changed in the
meantime. For the test of such independent action is that the
" inferior should be conscientiously satisfied that the superior,
in his place, would act as he himself proposes to do," and this,
of course, is the very purpose of unity of doctrine. The exercise
of initiative was peculiarly useful and necessary in the case of
the staff officer. He could not only disobey superior orders,
but give orders in the name of superior authority. He was
better able than any other person to say, not only what
action the Field Service Regulations laid down generally for
such problems as that in hand, but also what solution his own
general, possessing better information than the regimental officers,
would adopt if present. The latitude in this respect accorded
to German staff officers as well as to German commanders, is a
most striking phenomenon of the war of 1870 (e.g. Colonel von
Caprivi before Vionville and Colonel von der Esch at Worth).
The result of unity of doctrine, then, was that a properly
qualified officer could act as a substitute for his superior, and
that the orders which he gave in that capacity were obeyed
even by officers higher in rank than the originator of the order.
This principle, owing to the peculiar circumstances of the
754
STAFF
German army, was carried to an extreme in the case of the
chiefs of staff. Moltke himself was a chief of staff, the king,
although more experienced than any officer in his army, deli-
berately accepting Moltke's guidance and assuming the respon-
sibility for the orders that Moltke issued in his name. On several
occasions the king indeed formed a different conclusion from
Moltke's and gave his orders accordingly, but these were
exceptions. The effect of this, however, is not to deprive or
to relieve the actual commander from the responsibility for
the results of his action, whether that action was suggested by
his own brain or by his staff officer's. Such an arrangement
depends moreover on mutual confidence. The self-sufficing
great commander does not need a Moltke, an average general
is wholly ruled by his mentor; and between these two extremes
the influence of the chief of staff varies according to circum-
stances and the character of the general. In the German
armies of 1870, for example, the chief staff officer was in one
case the reflector of his chief's views, in another he was the real
army commander, in a third the characters of the two men
were opposed in an almost paralysing equilibrium, while in a
fourth the staff officer's business was to soothe and encourage an
angry and disheartened commander and at the same time to
" keep him straight."
This delicate adjustment is a necessary result of the absorp-
tion inevitable under modern conditions of war of strategical
and even tactical functions by the general staff. The serious
risks of disunion within the headquarters and 1870 proves
that even " unity of doctrine " does not altogether eliminate
this disunion has to be faced, and is best insured against by the
selection of officers appropriate to each other. The imagina-
tion and technique of Hess supplemented the vigorous common-
sense of Radetzky; B Richer, with the single supreme military
quality of character, could leave all the brain-work to his Gneis-
enau. But usually, unless other than purely military considera-
tions determine the selection of the general-in-chief (in which
case he can make the best soldier in the army irrespective
of seniority his adviser), smooth and efficient working is
best secured when the general and his chief of staff possess
the same military qualities in different balance, each compen-
sating the other's weaknesses and deriving strength from the
other's good qualities. In the Prussian account of the war
of 1859 Moltke writes:
" Great captains have no need of counsel. They study the ques-
tions which arise, and decide them, and their entourage has only
to execute their decisions. But such generals are stars of the first
magnitude, who scarcely appear once in a century. In the great
majority of cases the leader of the army cannot do without advice.
This advice may be the outcome of the deliberations of a small
number of qualified men. But within this small number one and
only one opinion must prevail. The organization of the military
hierarchy must ensure subordination even in thought, and give the
right and duty of presenting a single opinion for the examination
of the general-in-chief to one man, and one only. He will be
appointed, not by seniority, but by reason of the confidence he
inspires. The general-in-chief will always have, as compared with
his adviser, the infinitely weightier merit of having assumed the
responsibility of executing what he advises."
Thus the chief of the general staff is defined in the British
Field Service Regulations as the general's " responsible adviser
on all matters affecting military operations, through whom
he exercises his functions of command and by whom all orders
issued by him will be signed."
Staff Duties in the Field. The manifold duties essential and
incidental to commanding and administering an army, which the
S:neral performs, as above defined, through his staff, are in the
ritish service classified broadly into three headings general staff
work, adjutant-general's work and quartermaster-general's work.
The immediate head of the general staff, and (if the general delegates
the duty) the supervising authority over the other staffs, is the chief
of the general staff. The link between the army and the inspector-
general or controller of its lines of communication is the quarter-
master-general. All details required for insertion in general staff
(i.e. " operation ") orders that come within the adjutant-general's
or the quartermaster-general's branch are drafted by those branches
in accordance with the general lines laid down by the general staff,
and inserted in the orders issued by the general staff. " Routine "
orders are drafted and issued by the other staffs themselves.
o. General Staff Duties (Operations). The study of proposed opera-
tions ; the framing, issue and despatch of the operation orders ; plans
for movements to the points of concentration and for strategic
deployment; general allotment of areas for quarters; measures
of security; intercommunication; reconnaissance; acquisition,
collation and distribution of information as to the enemy and the
country ; flags of truce and correspondence with the enemy ; censor-
ship; provision, distribution and revision of 'maps; reports and
despatches relating to operations ; furnishing of the adjutant-general's
and quartermaster-general's staffs with information as to the situa-
tion and probable requirements of the troops, and receiving from
these branches such information as affects the operations in prospect.
6. Adjutant-General's Staff (Personnel). Discipline; application
of military law, martial law and international law, both to the
army and to the civil population of occupied areas; questions of
promotion, appointments of officers, pay, rewards, enlistments;
chaplain's services; casualties and invaliding; medical and sanitary
services; organization of new corps and drafts; prisoners of war;
police; routine and interior economy; ceremonial.
c. Quartermaster-General's Staff (Materiel). Distribution of camps
and quarters within allotted areas ; supplies, equipment and cloth-
ing (except medical stores); transport by land and sea; railway
administration; remounts; veterinary service; postal service.
The work of the lower staffs divisions and brigades is similarly
subdivided as far as necessary. There are, moreover, the small
personal staffs (aides-de-camp) of the army and divisional com-
manders. The work of the latter is not of course as important as
it was under the old system, and is partly of a social character,
partly orderly work. The headquarters staff of an army of six
infantry and one cavalry divisions consists of: Personal Staff, 5
officers; General Staff, chief and 10 other officers; Adjutant-General's
Staff, adjutant-general and 4 officers; Quartermaster-General's Staff,
quartermaster-general and 3 officers; attached in various capacities,
28 officers. 232 non-commissioned officers and men are employed
in the work of headquarters as clerks, printers, cooks, servants, &c.
The staff of a division consists of: Personal, 2 aides-de-camp;
General, 3 or 4 officers; Adjutant-General's, I officer; Quartermaster-
General's, i officer; attached, 8 officers; rank and file attached, 64-80
men. A brigade staff consists of one general staff officer for opera-
tions, a brigade major for administration, and one aide-de-camp:
attached, I officer ; rank and file, 33-45.
Staff Duties in Peace. In modern conditions peace is normal
and war exceptional ; moreover, as between European nations, the
need of a swift decision of a quarrel is so urgent that immediately
after mobilization and concentration, if not indeed during these
preliminaries, the decisive action of the war may be begun. Success
in such a war is the consequence of national spirit in the first place
and of the peace training of all ranks in the second. The direction
and supervision of the latter is the principal duty of a staff in time
of peace, and therefore the specialization of staff functions, referred
to above, in the three branches of operations, personnel and materiel,
is as well marked in peace as in war. The two latter branches,
which are concerned with the maintenance rather than the use of
an army, are necessarily quite as fully occupied in peace as in war,
for the life of the army is uninterrupted. But the " general staff "
branch would not have enough work to justify a separate existence,
were it not for the fact that on the battlefield nothing can be reaped
that has not been sown. Nowadays, as the decisive battle immedi-
ately follows the concentration of the armies, the crop that is expected
to be reaped must be sown in peace time. To this end the modern
general staff in peace not only has an existence apart from the
routine and supply staffs, but, as in war, occupies the first place in
importance. In Great Britain, perhaps more than in any other
state, the functions of training and administration are very sharply
differentiated. Each commander-in-chief of a large group of garri-
sons has under him not only a brigadier-general at the head of the
general staff, but a major-general " in charge of administration,"
who in all questions of administration is the alter ego of the com-
mander-in-chief. The latter is thus free to devote himself to the
training of his troops, which he carries out through the medium of
his general staff officers. Only those administrative questions that
involve important decisions come before him, the whole of the
routine work being carried out by the general in charge of adminis-
tration in his own office and on his own responsibility.
In the War Office, the general staff work, under the Chief of the
Imperial General Staff, is classified into three main heads, for each
of which there is a general officer as " director." These are:
(o) Military Operations, in which all strategical matters connected
with imperial defence and operations overseas are studied. (6)
Staff Duties, which organizes and co-ordinates the whole of the general
staff work, and also deals with questions of war organization.
(c) Military Training, which supervises the Staff College and other
educational institutions and also the Officers' Training Corps, and
controls and in some cases conducts the professional examinations
of officers and candidates for commissions. Under this branch is
placed the section which arranges questions of home defence.
The administrative work is divided between the three depart-
ments of the Adjutant-General (peace organization, mobilization
arrangements, record offices and routine orders, medals, regimental
STAFFA STAFFORD (FAMILY)
755
distinctions, titles, &c.; certain artillery and engineer services; and
the large and exceedingly important service of personnel, discipline,
recruiting, casualties, drafts and reliefs) ; the Quartermaster-General
(movements and quartering, barracks, railway administration,
mobilization arrangements for rail and sea transportation; remounts
and registration of horses for service in war; Army Service Corps
work, including horse and mechanical transport, vehicles, &c.;
training of administrative personnel-, veterinary duties; provision
and maintenance of supplies, clothing and stores); the Master-
General of the Ordnance (armaments and weapons of all kinds,
ammunition and explosive stores, military engineering and fortifica-
tions, barrack and building construction). Besides these three
departments there are the civil departments of the Civil Member of
the Army Council, under whom, on account of its citizen character,
has been placed the administration of the Territorial Force, and who
has further all duties connected with war department lands, roads,
&c.; and of the Finance Minister, which works out the annual
estimates, examines financial proposals such as contracts, administers
the Army Pay Department, and deals with accounts and audits.
Directly under the Army Council isthe department of the Inspector-
General of the Forces, whose duties are to review and report upon
the training and efficiency of all troops under the home government,
the state of stores, remounts, &c., with regard to war requirements,
and the condition of fortifications.
See Bronsart von Schellendorf, Duties of the General Staff (Eng.
trans., 1904); Spenser Wilkinson, The Brain of an Army, British
official Field Service Regulations (1909), pt. ii.; King's Regulations,
and Field Service Pocket Book; v. Janson, Generalstabsdienst im
Frieden (1901) ; French official Aide-Memoirede I'officier d'etat-major.
STAFFA (Norse for staff, column, or pillar island), an island
of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland, 54 m. W. of Oban
by steamer, about 7 m. from the nearest point of Mull, and 6 m.
N. by E. of lona. It lies almost due north and south, is f m. long
by about $ m. wide, is 15 m. in circumference, has an area of 71
acres, and its highest point is 135 ft. above sea-level. In the north-
east it shelves to a shore, but otherwise the coast is rugged and
much indented, numerous caves having been carved out by rain,
stream and ocean. There is enough grass on the surface to feed
a few cattle, and the island contains a spring, but it is unin-
habited. During the tourist season it is visited every week-day
by steamer from Oban. The island is of volcanic origin, a
fragment of an ancient stream of lava. In section the isle is
seen to possess a threefold character: there is first a basement
of tufa, from which rise, secondly, colonnades of basalt in pillars
forming the faces and walls of the principal caves, and these in
turn are overlaid, thirdly, by a mass of amorphous basalt.
Only the chief caves have been named. On the south-east coast
is the Clam-shell or Scallop Cave. It is 30 ft. high, about 18 ft.
wide at the entrance, and some 130 ft. long, and on one side of it
the ridges of basalt stand out like the ribs of a ship. Near this
cave is the rock of Buachaille (" The Herdsman," from a supposed
likeness to a shepherd's cap), a pile of columns, fully seen only
at low water. On the south-west shore are the Boat Cave and
Mackinnon's or the Cormorants' Cave. Fingal's Cave is, how-
ever, the most famous of all. It was discovered in 1772 by Sir
Joseph Banks, who visited Staffa on his expedition to Iceland.
The grotto, situated in the southern face of the isle, is 227 ft. long,
42 ft. wide, 66 ft. high and 25 ft. deep at ebb. On its western
side the pillars are 36 ft. high, on its east 18 ft. high. From its
mouth to its extremity a pavement of broken pillars runs up one
side. The cave is the haunt of seals and sea birds. In suitable
atmospheric conditions its beauty is unique. The play of colour
is exquisite, the basalt combining every tint of warm red, brown
and rich maroon; sea-weeds and lichens paint the cave green and
gold; while the lime that has filtered through has crusted the
pillars here and there a pure snow-white. From the sombre
roof of smooth rock or broken pillars hang yellow, crimson and
white stalactites. The floor of the cave is the green sea, out of
which the columns rise on either side with a regularity so perfect
as to suggest the hand of man rather than the work of Nature.
The murmur of the sea won for the cave a Gaelic name meaning
" the Cave of Music." At times of storm the compressed
air, as it rushes out, produces a sound as of thunder. When
the sea is very smooth visitors may be rowed directly into
the cave, but the more usual landing-place is near the Clam-
shell Cave, where the columns have been worn down until they
form a kind of terrace running all the way to Fingal's Cave. The
Wishing Chair is formed out of a column that has broken short.
From the Causeway a ladder affords access to the summit of Staffa.
STAFFORD (FAMILY). This famous English house was
founded in England by Robert, a younger brother of Ralf de
Tosny (Toeni), of a noble Norman house, who was standard-
bearer of the duchy. Robert received, like his elder brother, at
the Conquest a great fief which extended into seven counties
and became known as Robert de Stafford from his residence at
Stafford Castle. The military service due from the fief was no
less than sixty knights, as is proved by his grandson Robert's
return in 1166. With this Robert's son the male line became
extinct, and his sister's husband, Hervey Bagot, one of his
knightly tenants, succeeded to the fief in her right (1194): their
descendant Edmund de Stafford (that surname having been
assumed) was summoned as a baron in 1299. His son, Ralph,
a warrior like his father, attained fame in the French wars.
He conducted the brilliant defence of Aiguillon against the
host of France, fought at Crecy and in the siege of Calais.
Chosen a Knight of the Garter at the foundation of the order, he
was further created earl of Stafford in 1351.
His son Hugh, who succeeded as 2nd earl in 1372, served
in the French wars. From 1376 he became prominent in
politics, probably through his marriage to a daughter of the
earl of Warwick, being one of the four lords on the committee
in the Good Parliament, and also serving on the committee
that controlled Richard II., 1378-1380. He was friendly,
however, with that king, and was with him on his Scottish* ex-
pedition in 1385. He died next year on pilgrimage at Rhodes.
The marriage of his son, Thomas, the 3rd earl, in 1392 to the
daughter and eventual heiress of Thomas, duke of Buckingham
(son of Edward III.), by a coheiress of the great house of Bohun,
proved a decisive turning-point in the history of the Staffords;
for, although he died childless, this great lady, styled " countess
of Stafford, Buckingham, Hereford and Northampton " in her
will, married in 1398 his brother Edmund, the 5th earl, who
obtained, in addition to her great possessions, her ancestors'
office of lord high constable in 1403, but was slain the same year
at Shrewsbury, commanding the van of the king's host. Their
son, Humphrey (1402-1460), the first Stafford duke of Bucking-
ham, was placed by his descent and his possessions in the front
rank of the English nobility.
The Staffords fell.from their pinnacle of greatness, which had
aroused the jealousy of the Crown, by the attainder of Henry
the 2nd duke in 1483, but were completely restored for the
time, on the triumph of Henry VII. in 1486, when Edward, the
3rd duke (1478-1521), regained the title and estates. Under
Henry VIII. his great position, fortified by his relationship to
the Percys, Howards and Nevilles, made him a natural leader
of the old nobility, while his recovery of the ancestral office of
lord high constable in 1509 increased his prestige. He had not
sufficient force of character to take an active part in politics,
but the king's easily roused suspicions were excited by private
accusations in 1521, and, after a nominal trial by his peers, he
was beheaded on the i7th of May 1521, a subsequent act (1523)
confirming his attainder. His fate, even under such a king,
made a great sensation, exciting sympathy at home, and moving
the emperor Charles V. to say that a butcher's dog (Wolsey) had
pulled down the noblest buck in England. It is noteworthy
that the 2nd and 3rd dukes were both beheaded, while the ist
duke fell in the Wars of the Roses.
Henry (1501-1563), the son of the last duke, was granted by
the Crown some of his father's manors for his support, and,
espousing the Protestant cause (though married to a daughter of
Margaret, countess of Salisbury and sister of Cardinal Pole),
was restored in blood on Edward VI. 's accession and declared
Lord Stafford, as a new creation, by act of parliament. His
second surviving son, Thomas, eventually assumed the royal
arms, on the ground of his lofty descent, sailed from Dieppe
with two ships in April 1557, landed at Scarborough, seized the
castle, and proclaimed himself protector. He was captured and
executed for high treason. His father's new barony, in 1637,
passed to a cadet in humble circumstances, who was called on, as
756
STAFFORD, EARLS OF STAFFORD
a pauper, to surrender it to the king, which he did (illegally, it is
now held) in 1639. The king thereupon bestowed it on Mary
Stafford (the heir general of the line) and her husband, William
Howard, in whose descendants it is now vested. Roger, who had
surrendered the title, died in 1640, the last heir male, apparently,
of the main line of this historic house.
Of the junior lines the most important was that known as
Stafford of Hooke (Co. Dorset), which had branched off from
the parent stem at a very early date. Sir John Stafford of this
line married his kinswoman, a daughter of the ist earl of Stafford.
From their younger son, Ralf, descended the Staffords of
Grafton and other families; the elder, who fought in the French
wars, was grandfather of John (Stafford), archbishop of Canter-
bury. This prelate came to the front under Henry VI., becoming
treasurer (1422), bishop of Bath and Wells (1425), and lord chan-
cellor (1432-1450). Archbishop from 1443 to his death in 1452,
he steered an even course between parties as a moderate man and
useful official. His elder brother obtained Hooke by marriage,
and left two sons, of whom the younger was grandfather of
Humphrey Stafford, who succeeded to Hooke, fought for
Edward IV. at Towton, and was summoned as Lord Stafford of
South wick in July 1461, and was advanced to the earldom of
Devon on the 7th of May 1469, after the execution of the
Courtenay earl, which he is said to have intrigued for. Failing
to support the earl of Pembroke against the rebels a few
months later, he was responsible for their victory, for which
he Vas arrested and beheaded (Aug. 17). With him ended
the Staffords of Hooke.
Sir Humphrey Stafford of Grafton (of their cadet line) was
an active supporter of Richard III., and was executed for high
treason by Henry VII. in 1485. From him descended Sir
Edward Stafford (whose mother was a daughter of Henry,
Lord Stafford), an Elizabethan diplomatist, who was appointed
resident ambassador to France in 1583, a post which he held with
success to 1590, sitting afterwards in parliament for Stafford, and
dying in 1605. His brother William (1554-1612) was concerned
in some obscure plots under Elizabeth.
Another offshoot from the main line was that of the Staffords
of Clifton (Co. Stafford) , founded by Sir Richard, younger brother
of the ist earl of Stafford, who was closely associated with him
in French warfare and negotiation, fought, like him, at Crecy,
and acted as seneschal of Gascony (1361-1362). Clifton came
to him in marriage with a Camville heiress, and he was summoned
as a baron in 1371. His eldest surviving son, Edmund (1344-
1419), a churchman, became bishop of Exeter in 1395, and
was lord chancellor from 1396 to 1399. He lost the office on
Henry IV. 's accession, but held it again from 1401 to 1403. He
then devoted himself to his diocese till his death in 1419. His
patronage of learning is commemorated by Exeter College, Oxford.
The male line of the Staffords of Clifton ended about 1445.
Of younger sons of the main line who attained peerage rank
Sir Hugh Stafford, K.G., a son of the 2nd earl, was summoned
as a baron from 1411 to 1413 (probably in right of his wife, a
Bourchier heiress), but died childless in 1420. John, a son of the
ist duke of Buckingham, received the garter and an earldom
of Wiltshire (1470), which became extinct with his son in 1499,
but was revived in 1510 for Henry Stafford, K. G., a son of the
2nd duke, who, however, died childless in 1523.
The Staffords made illustrious marriages from the day of the
ist earl; a son of the ist duke married the mother of Henry
VII. The badge of the family was " the Stafford knot," at one
time as famous as " the ragged staff " of the earls of Warwick.
See Dugdale, Baronage (1675), vol. i.; G. E. C(okayne), Complete
Peerage; Wrottesley, History of the Family of Bagot (1908) and Crecy
and Calais (1898). The important Stafford MSS. in Lord Bagot's
possession are calendared in the 4th Report on Historical MSS., and
the Salt Arch. Soc.'s collections for the history of Staffordshire are
valuable for early records. Harcourt's His Grace the Steward and
the Trial of Peers (1907) should also be consulted. The bishop of
Exeter's Register was edited by Hingeston- Randolph in 1886.
Papers relating to the two Baronies of Stafford (1807), and Campbell's
The Stafford Peerage (1818) are useful for the pedigree, and there
are collections fora history of the family in Add. MSS. (Brit. Mus.)
14,409; 19,150. (J. H. R.)
STAFFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The earldom
of Stafford, created in 1351, was held at first by the family of
Stafford (see above). In 1521 it became extinct, and in Sep-
tember 1640 Sir William Howard (1614-1680), a son of Thomas
Howard, earl of Arundel and Surrey, having three years previously
married Mary (d. 1694), sister and heiress of Henry Stafford,
5th Baron Stafford, was created Baron Stafford and two months
later viscount of Stafford. Accused by Titus Gates of partici-
patingjin the popish plots, he was found guilty, and was beheaded
on the 29th of December 1680, his titles being forfeited.
His son, Henry Stafford Howard (1658-1719), who, but for
his father's attainder, would have inherited the barony and the
viscounty, was created earl of Stafford in 1688, his mother
being created countess of Stafford at the same time; he was
succeeded by his nephew William (c. 1690-1734). When John
Paul, the 4th earl (1700-1762), died, the earldom became
extinct, but the title to the barony, which was under attainder,
fell into abeyance.
The 4th earl's sister Mary (d. 1765) married Francis Plowden
(d. 1712), and in 1824 their descendant, Sir George William
Jerningham, Bart. (1771-1851), of Costessy Park, Norfolk,
obtained a reversal of his ancestor's attainder and was recognized
as Baron Stafford. The barony is still held by the Jerninghams.
In 1758 Granville Leveson-Gower (1721-1803) was created
marquess of Stafford. He was the son of John Leveson-Gower
(d. 1754), who was created Viscount Trentham and Earl Gower
in 1746. The public positions held by him included that of
lord privy seal, which he filled from 1755 to 1757, and again
from 1784 to 1794; of master of the horse; of lord chamberlain
of the royal household; and of lord president of the council,
which he held from 1767 to 1769 and in 1783-1784. This wealthy
and influential nobleman, who was the last survivor of the
associates of the duke of Bedford, the " Bloomsbury gang,"
died at Trentham Hall, in Staffordshire, on the 26th of October
1803. His son and successor, George Granville Leveson-Gower,
was created duke of Sutherland in 1833. A younger son was
Granville Leveson-Gower, who was created Earl Granville in
1833. The title of marquess of Stafford is now borne by the
eldest son of the duke of Sutherland.
STAFFORD, a market town, municipal and parliamentary
borough, and the county town of Staffordshire, England, on
the river Sow, a western tributary of the Trent. Pop. (1901),
20,895. It is an important junction on the main line of the
London & North- Western railway, by which it is 133! m. N.W.
from London. Branches of this company diverge to Wolver-
hampton and Birmingham, and to Walsall; a joint line of the
North- Western and Great Western companies to Shrewsbury and
Welshpool; the Great Northern serves the town from the eastern
counties, and the North Staffordshire runs north through the
Potteries district. The town, while largely modernized, contains
a number of picturesque half-timbered houses. The church of
St Mary, a fine cruciform building having a transitional Norman
nave, and Early English and Decorated in other parts, was
formerly collegiate, its canons having mention in Domesday,
though the complete foundation is attributed to King John.
It contains a memorial to the famous angler, Izaak Walton,
born at Stafford in 1593. The older church of St Chad contains
good Norman details, but is chiefly a reconstruction. It formerly
provided sanctuary. There are county council buildings, a
shire hall and a borough hall. The grammar school is an ancient
foundation enlarged in 1550 by Edward VI. The county technical
institution is in Stafford. A museum, consisting principally of
the collections of Clement Wragge, and called by his name,
contains a specially fine series of fossils. The William Salt
library, presented to the borough in 1872 after the death of the
collector, has a large collection of. books and MSS., deeds and
pictures relating to the county. Charitable institutions include
a general infirmary, county asylum, and the Colon Hill intitution
for the insane. The burgesses of Stafford had formerly common
rights over a considerable tract known as Colon Field and Stone
Flat; the first is now divided into allotmenls and Ihe second is a
recrealion ground. The staple trade is Ihe manufaclure of
STAFFORDSHIRE
757
boots and shoes; there are ironworks, and salt is prepared from
brine wells in the neighbourhood. These also supply baths.
The parliamentary borough was extended in 1885, when the
representation was reduced from two members to one. The
town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors.
Area, 1084 acres.
In the beautiful well-wooded neighbourhood an interesting
site is that of Stafford Castle, on a hill commanding a wide
prospect. The existing ruin is that of an unfinished mansion
dating from 1810, which replaced an old stronghold. Beyond
it is an early encampment, Bury Ring.
Stafford (Stadford, Stafort, Stafforde) is said to have originally
been called Betheney from Berthelin, a hermit who lived here.
The first authentic mention of it is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
where it is stated that Aethelflead, lady of the Mercians, in 913
built a fort at Stafford. It was a place of considerable importance
in later Anglo-Saxon times, and the evidence of coins shows
that a mint then existed here. Stafford is described as a
borough in Domesday Book, and at the time of the survey it
was the chief place in the county though many of the houses
were " wasted." The king received all the dues, two-thirds
coming to him as king, the other third as earl of Stafford. From
the Domesday Survey it appears that the Conqueror took certain
land out of the manor of Chelsea in order to erect a castle at
Stafford; this was destroyed in the wars of the i7th century.
A charter from John in 1 206 constituted Stafford a free borough.
In 1399 the government was by bailiffs. In 1501 it was ordered
that two bailiffs should be elected annually out of a council of
twenty-five burgesses. Charters were granted by Edward VI.
in 1551 and by James I. in 1605, the latter incorporating it
under the title of the mayor and burgesses of the borough of
Stafford: owing to irregularities in elections, another almost
similar charter was given by George IV., under which the town
was governed until 1835. In Elizabeth's reign Stafford was in a
depressed condition owing partly to the decay of the cap manu-
facture which formerly had been considerable. Speed (d. 1629)
states that Lichfield is "more large " than Stafford: in the middle
of the 1 8th century the town had " greatly encreased of late by
their manufacture of cloth: " about the same time the shoe trade
began. Two fairs, to be held on St Matthew's day and on the 4th
of December, were granted in 1261 and 1685 respectively, and are
still kept up. There are now eight annual fairs in all.
STAFFORDSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded
N.E. by Derbyshire, E. by that county and Leicestershire,
S.E. by Warwickshire, S. by Worcestershire, S.W. by Shropshire
and N.W. by Cheshire. The area is 1171-2 sq. m. The county
includes the valley of the Trent from its source to the point
at which it becomes navigable, Burton-upon-Trent. It rises
in the extreme north of the county, and follows a southerly
course, turning eastward and finally north-eastward through the
centre of the county. Its tributaries on the left bank follow a
course roughly parallel with it; the chief are the Blythe and the
Dove, which receives the Churnet from the west, and forms the
county boundary with Derbyshire. The country between
Trent, Churnet and Dove is undulating and beautiful; the hills
rise to some 1800 ft. on the Derbyshire border in Axe Edge near
Buxton, and continue by Mow Cop or Congleton Edge along the
Cheshire border to the coal-bearing hills above the Potteries
district. Dovedale, the name applied to a portion of the upper
valley of the Dove (q.v.), attracts many visitors on account of its
beauty, and is in favour with anglers for its trout-fishing. South
of the Trent, about the middle of the county, an elevated area is
known as Cannock Chase, formerly a royal preserve, now a
wealthy coalfield, and the high ground, generally exceeding 500 ft.,
continues south to surround the great manufacturing district of
south Staffordshire (the Black Country), and to merge into the
Clent and Lickey Hills of Worcestershire. A small area in the
north-west drains to the Weaver, and so to the Mersey, and from
the west and south-west the Severn receives some small feeders
and itself touches the county in the extreme south-west. The
only considerable sheet of water is Aqualate Mere, in the grounds
of the mansion of that name near Newport in Shropshire.
Geology. The Pennine folding gently plicates the northern of two
Carboniferous tracts interrupting the Midland Triassic plateau in
Staffordshire, but affects the unconformable Trias less. It isolates
the Pottery and smaller coalfields mainly in synclines, but elevates
the western margin of the former anticlinally. A prolongation
arches the South Staffordshire Coal Measures, with minor saddles
disclosing Silurian inliers, intermediate formations being absent
there. Faults depressing the Trias bound the southern coalfield
on both sides, the northern Carboniferous westward. At Walsall
Upper Llandovery Sandstone with Stricklandinia lens and Barr
(Woolhope) Limestone (Illaenus barriensis) underlie Wenlock
Shales, succeeded, as at Wren's Nest and Dudley, by Wenlock
Limestone in two beds, honeycombed with old lime-workings and
famous for trilobites. At Sedgley there follow Lower Ludlow Shales,
Sedgley (Aymestry) Limestone (Pentamerus knighti) and some
Upper Ludlow Shale. Carboniferous Limestone, with gently-
sloping hills and deep valleys, enters the northern region on the east.
It contains brachiopods and corals of the Dibunophyllum zone, with
lead and copper, once worked at Ecton. Marine Pendleside
(Yoredale) Shales, with thin limestones and higher sandstones,
ascend around a central syncline and the northern margins of the
coalfields into the Millstone Grit, whose four grits in massive
escarpments, only the " First " and " Third " persisting westward,
alternate with shales. The Pottery Coalfield, the centre of pottery
manufacture, though local clays now furnish only coarse ware and
the " saggars " in which pottery is baked, includes 8000 ft. of Coal
Measures, chiefly shales, clays and sandstones, diminishing south-
ward. The Lower and Middle Measures (5000 ft.) contain the princi-
pal coals, about forty, with comparatively barren strata (1000 ft.)
preceding the Winpenny, Bullhurst, Cockshead, Bambury, Ten-foot,
and higher coals associated with " clayband " ironstones. The
neighbouring Cheadle Coalfield comprises the lower 2000 ft., with
the Crabtree, Woodhead and Dilhorne coals; two other little coal-
fields comprise only the lowest strata. The South Staffordshire
coalfield has 500-1000 ft. of equivalent measures, with the Bottom,
Fireclay, New Mine, Heathen, the composite Tenyard and other
coals, besides ironstones to which the Black Country originally
owed its hardware industry. Plants (Lepidodendron, Neuropteris
heterophylla), fresh-water shells (Carbonicola acuta, C. robusta) and
fishes are characteristic fossils; but the roof of the North Stafford-
shire Crabtree Coal (Lower Measures) and several higher bands
yield marine goniatites, &c. Shales, pottery-clays and " black-
band " ironstones with thin Spirorbis-limestones, Entomostraca
and Anthracomya phillipsi (Blackband Series), succeed in the Pottery
Coalfield. Then follow red brick-clays with ashy grits (Etruria
Marls) ; white sandstones with Pecopteris arborescens (Newcastle-
under-Lyme Series) ; red sandstones and clays with Spirorbis-\ime-
stones (Keele Series); paralleled in South Staffordshire respectively
by Red Coal Measure Clays, Halesowen Sandstone, and beds like
the Keele Series. Around this the Triassic sequence ascends out-
wards through Bunter (Pebble-Beds between Mottled Sandstones),
Keuper Sandstone and Waterstones into Keuper Marl, which,
containing gypsum and brine-springs, covers the central plateau, the
sandstones emerging marginally and axially. The Pebble-Beds <
rise in Cannock Chase, and fringe the northern coalfields. Rhaetic
outliers on Needwood Forest contain Axinus doacinus. The Rowley
and other doleritic sills and dikes invade the southern, one dike
the Pottery Coalfield and the Trias.
Glacial drift partly conceals the rocks. Irish Sea ice, entering on
the west, left boulder-clay with stratified sands, and mingled with
local material, Lake District and Scotch erratics, and shells swept
from the sea-bed. It threw down a gravelly moraine before the
marginal hills of the Pottery Coalfield, and concentrated countless
boulders between Rugeley and Enville. Barred northward by this
ice, the Arenig glacier carried Welsh erratics across South Stafford-
shire to Birmingham. "North Sea ice with Cretaceous and Jurassic
debris reached east Staffordshire.
Agriculture. Nearly four-fifths of the total area of the county is
under cultivation, and of this more than two-thirds is in permanent
pasture, cattle being largely kept, and especially cows for the supply
of milk to the towns. Like most of the midland counties, Stafford-
shire is well wooded. The acreage under corn crops is steadily
diminishing, and wheat, which formerly was the principal corn crop,
is now superseded in this respect by oats, which occupiesover one-half
of the corn acreage, little more being under wheat than under barley.
Turnips are grown on about half the acreage under green crops.
Manufactures. The manufactures of Staffordshire are varied and
important. Out of the three great coalfields in the north, south
and centre (Cannock Chase), the two first have wholly distinct
dependent industries. The southern industrial district is commonly
known as the Black Country (q.v.) ; it is the principal seat in Eng-
land of iron and steel manufacture in all its branches. It covers
an area, between Birmingham and Wolverhampton, resembling
one great town, and includes such famous centres as Walsall,
Wednesbury, Dudley (in Staffordshire) and West Bromwich. The
northern industrial district is called the Potteries (q.v.). Cheadle,
east of the Potteries, is the centre of a smaller coalfield. Burton-
upon-Trent is famous for its breweries. Chemical works are found
in the Black Country, brick and tile works in the Black Country
758
STAFFORDSHIRE
and at Tunstall, glassworks at Tutbury ; there are also a considerable
textile industry, as at Newcastle-under-Lyme, paper-mills in that
town and at Tamworth, and manufactures of boots and shoes at
Stafford and Stone.
Communications. The main line of the London & North-Western
railway runs from south-east to north-west by Tamworth, Lichfield
(Trent Valley), Rugeley and Stafford. This company and the Great
Western serve the towns of the Black Country by many branches
from Birmingham, and jointly work the Stafford-Shrewsbury line.
The London & North-Western has branches from Trent Valley to
Burton-upon-Trent, and from Rugeley through the Cannock Chase
coalfields. The North Staffordshire railway runs from Stafford and
from Burton-upon-Trent northward through the Potteries, with a
line from Uttoxeter through Leek to Macclesfield. The Manifold
Valley light railway serves part of the Dovedale district. The
west-and-north line of the Midland railway (Bristol-Derby) crosses
the south-eastern part of the county from Birmingham by Tam-
worth and Burton, with a branch to Wolverhampton. The Great
Northern, with a branch from its main line at Grantham, serves
Uttoxeter, Burton and Stafford. A considerable amount of coal-
transport takes place along canals, the Black Country especially
being served by numerous branches. The principal canals are
the Grand Trunk, which follows the Trent over the greater part of
Southern part of
STAFFORDSHIRE
Scale, i.-38o.i6o at
its course within the county, the Coventry, Birmingham and Fazeley,
Daw End and Essington canals, connecting the Grand Trunk with
Warwickshire, the Black Country and Cannock Chase; the Liverpool
and Birmingham junction; the Staffordshire and Worcestershire,
running from the Severn at Stourport by Wolverhampton and
Penkridge to the Grand Junction near Stafford, and the Caldon
canal running eastward from the Potteries into the Churnet Valley.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 749,602 acres, with a population in 1891 of 1,083,424;
and in 1901 of 1,234,506. The area of the administrative
county is 744,984 acres. Staffordshire contains five hundreds,
each having two divisions. The municipal boroughs are:
in the southern industrial district, Smethwick (pop. 54,539),
Walsall (86,430), Wednesbury (26,554), West Bromwich
(65,175)1 Wolverhampton (94,187); in the northern indus-
trial district, Newcastle-under-Lyme (19,914), and the
several formerly separate boroughs amalgamated under the
" Potteries Federation " Scheme (1908) under the name of Stoke-
on-Trent (q.v.); elsewhere, Burton-upon-Trent (50,386), Lich-
field (7902), Stafford (20,895), Tamworth (7271). Burton,
Hanley, Smethwick, Walsall, West Bromwich and Wolver-
hampton are county boroughs; Lichfield is a city, and Stafford
is the county town. The urban districts are in the southern
industrial district, Amblecote (3218), Bilston (24,034), Brierley
Hill (12,042), Coseley (22,219), Darlaston (15,395), Handsworth
(52,921), Heath Town or Wednesfield Heath (9441), Perry Bar
(2348), Quarry Bank (6912), Rowley Regis (34,670), Sedgley
(15,951), Short Heath (3531), Tettenhall (5337), Tipton (30,543),
Wednesfield (4883), Willenhall (18,515); in the northern
industrial district, Audley (13,683), Biddulph (6247), Fenton
(22,742), Kidsgrove (4552), Smallthorne (6263), Tunstall
(19,492), Wolstanton (24,975); elsewhere, Brownhills (15,252),.
Cannock (23,974), Leek (15,484), Rugeley (4447), Stone (5680),
Uttoxeter (5133). Among other towns may be mentioned
Abbots Bromley (1318), firewood (2535), Cheadle (5186)
and Eccleshall (3799). The county is in the Oxford circuit,
and assizes are held at Stafford. It has one court of quarter
sessions, and is divided into 23 petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs of Hanley, Lichfield, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Walsall,
West Bromwich and Wolverhampton have separate commissions
of the peace and courts of quarter sessions, and
those of Burslem, Burton, Longton, Stafford,
Stoke-upon-Trent, Smethwick, Tamworth and
Wednesbury have separate commissions of the
peace only. The total number of civil parishes
is 277. The county is almost wholly in the
diocese of Lichfield, but has small parts in
those of Worcester, Hereford, Southwell and
Chester; it contains 348 ecclesiastical parishes
or districts, wholly or in part. Staffordshire
is divided into seven parliamentary divisions
each returning one member Burton, Hands-
worth, Kingswinford, Leek, Lichfield, North-
West and West. The parliamentary borough of
Wolverhampton returns a member for each of
three divisions, and the boroughs of Hanley,
Newcastle-under-Lyme, Stafford, Stoke-upon-
Trent, Walsall, Wednesbury and West Bromwich
each return one member.
History. The district which is now Stafford-
shire was invaded in the 6th century by a tribe
of Angles who settled about Tamworth, after-
wards famous as a residence of the Mercian
kings, and later made their way beyond Can-
nock Chase, through the passages afforded by
the Sow valley in the north and Watling Street
in the south. The district was frequently
overrun by the Danes, who in 910 were defeated
at Tettenhall, and again at Wednesfield, and it
was after Edward the Elder had finally expelled
the Northmen from Mercia that the land of the
south Mercians was formed into a shire around
the fortified burgh which he had made in 914.
The county is first mentioned by name in the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in ioi6when it was harried by Canute.
The resistance which Staffordshire opposed to the Conqueror
was punished by ruthless harrying and confiscation, and the
Domesday Survey supplies evidence of the depopulated and
impoverished condition of the county, which at this period
contained but 64 mills, whereas Dorset, a smaller county,
contained 272. No Englishman was allowed to retain estates
of any importance after the Conquest, and the chief lay pro-
prietors at the time of the survey were Earl Roger of Mont-
gomery; Earl Hugh of Chester; Henry de Ferrers, who held
Burton and Tutbury castles; Robert de Stafford; William Fitz-
Ansculf, afterwards created first Baron Dudley; Richard
Forester; Rainald Bailgiol; Ralph Fitz Hubert and Nigel de
Stafford. The Ferrers and Staffords long continued to play
a leading part in Staffordshire history, and Turstin, who held
Drayton under William Fitz Ansculf, was the ancestor of the
Bassets of Drayton. At the time of the survey Burton was the
only monastery in Staffordshire, but foundations of canons
existed at Stafford, Wolverhampton, Tettenhall, Lichfield,.
at Stafford.
STAG STAHL, F. J.
759
Penkridge and Tamworth, while others at Hanbury, Stone,
Strensall and Trentham had been either destroyed or absorbed
before the Conquest. The five hundreds of Staffordshire have
existed since the Domesday Survey, and the boundaries have
remained practically unchanged. Edingale, however, was then
included under Derbyshire, and Tirley under Shropshire,
while Cheswardine, Chipnall and part of Bobbington, now in
Shropshire, were assessed under Staffordshire. The hundreds
of OrHow and Totmonslow had their names from sepulchral monu-
ments of Saxon commanders. The shire court for Staffordshire
was held at Stafford, and the assizes at Wolverhampton,
Stafford and Lichfield, until by act of parliament of 1558
the assizes and sessions were fixed at Stafford, where they
are still held.
In the i3th century Staffordshire formed the archdeaconry
of Stafford, including the deaneries of Stafford, Newcastle,
Alton and Leek, Tamworth and Tutbury, Lapley and Creigull.
In 1535 the deanery of Newcastle was combined with that of
Stone, the deaneries remaining otherwise unaltered until 1866,
when they were increased to twenty. The archdeaconry of
Stoke-on-Trent was formed in 1878, and in 1896 the deaneries
were brought to their present number; the archdeaconry of
Stafford comprising Handsworth, Himley, Lichfield, Penkridge,
Rugeley, Stafford, Tamworth, Trysull, Tutbury, Walsall,
Wednesbury, West Bromwich and Wolverhampton; the arch-
deaconry of Stoke-on-Trent comprising Alstonfield, Cheadle,
Eccleshall, Hanley, Leek, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Stoke-on-
Trent, Trentham and Uttoxeter.
In the wars of the reign of Henry III. most of the great
families of Staffordshire, including the Bassets and the Ferrers,
supported Simon de Montfort, and in 1263 Prince Edward
ravaged all the lands of Earl Robert Ferrers in this county and
destroyed Tutbury Castle. During the Wars of the Roses,
Eccleshall was for a time the headquarters of Queen Margaret,
and in 1459 the Lancastrians were defeated at Blore Heath.
In the Civil War of the iyth century Staffordshire supported
the parliamentary cause and was placed under Lord Brooke.
Tamworth, Lichfield and Stafford, however, were garrisoned
for Charles, and Lichfield Cathedral withstood a siege in 1643,
in which year the Royalists were victorious at Hopton Heath,
but lost their leader, the earl of Northampton. In 1745 the
Young Pretender advanced as far as Leek in this county.
A large proportion of Staffordshire in Norman times was waste
and uncultivated ground, but the moorlands of the north afforded
excellent pasturage for sheep, and in the i4th century Wolver-
hampton was a staple town for wool. In the i3th century
mines of coal and iron are mentioned at Walsall, and ironstone
was procured at Sedgley and Eccleshall. In the i$th century
both coal and iron were extensively worked. Thus in the i7th
century the north of the county yielded coal, lead, copper,
marble and millstones, while the rich meadows maintained
great dairies; the woodlands of the south supplied timber,
salt, black marble and alabaster; the clothing trade flourished
about Tamworth, Burton, and Newcastle-under-Lyme; and
hemp and flax were grown all over the county. The potteries
are of remote origin, but were improved in the i7th century by
two brothers, the Elers, from Amsterdam, who introduced the
method of salt glazing, and in the i8th century they were
rendered famous by the achievements of Josiah Wedgwood.
Staffordshire was represented by two members in the parlia-
ment of 1290, and in 1295 the borough of Stafford also returned
two members. Lichfield was represented by two members in 1304,
and Newcastle-under-Lyme in 1355. Tamworth returned two
members in 1562. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county _
returned four members in four divisions, and the boroughs
of Stoke-on-Trent and Wolverhampton were represented by
two members each, and Walsall by one member. Under the
act of 1868 the county returned six members in three divisions
and Wednesbury returned one member.
Antiquities. Early British remains exist in various parts of
the county; and a large number of barrows have been opened
in which human bones, urns, fibulae, stone hammers, armlets,
pins, pottery and other articles have been found. In the
neighbourhood of Wetton, near Dovedale, on the site called
Borough Holes, no fewer than twenty-three barrows were
opened, and British ornaments have been found in Needwood
Forest, the district between the lower Dove and the angle of the
Trent to the south. Several Roman camps also remain, as at
Knave's Castle on Watling Street, near Brownhills. The most
noteworthy churches in the county are found in the large towns,
and are described under their respective headings. Such are
the beautiful cathedral of Lichfield, and the churches of
Eccleshall, Leek, Penkridge St Mary's at Stafford, Tamworth,
Tutbury, and St Peter's at Wolverhampton. Checkley, 4 m.
south of Cheadle, shows good Norman and Early English details,
and there are carved stones of pre-Norman date in the church-
yard. Armitage, south-east of Rugeley, has a church showing
good Norman work. Brewood church, 4 m. south-west of
Penkridge, is Early English. This village gives name to an
ancient forest. Audley church, north-west of Newcastle-
under-Lyme, is a good example of Early Decorated work.
Remains of ecclesiastical foundations are generally slight,
but those of the Cistercian abbey of Croxden, north-west of
Uttoxeter, are fine Early English, and at Ranton, west of
Stafford, the Perpendicular tower and other portions of an
Augustinian foundation remain. Among medieval domestic
remains may be mentioned the castles of Stafford, Tamworth
and Tutbury, with that of Chartley, north-east of Stafford,
which dates from the i3th century. Here is also a timbered hall,
in the park of which a breed of wild cattle is maintained.
Beaudesert, south of Rugeley, is a fine Elizabethan mansion in a
beautiful undulating demesne. In the south-west, near Stour-
bridge, are Enville, a Tudor mansion with grounds laid out
by the poet Shenstone, and Stourton Castle, embodying por-
tions of the 1 5th century, where Reginald, Cardinal Pole, was
born in 1500. Among numerous modern seats may be named
Ingestre, Ham Hall, Alton Towers, Shugborough, Patteshull,
Keele Hall, and Trentham.
See Robert Plot, Natural History of Staffordshire (Oxford, 1686);
S. Erdeswick, Survey of Staffordshire (London, 1717; 4th ed., by T.
Harwood, London, 1844); Stebbing Shaw, History and Antiquities
of Staffordshire, &c., vol. i., ii., pt. i. (London, 1798-1801); William
Pitt, Topographical History of Staffordshire (Newcastle-under-Lyme,
1817); Simeon Shaw, History of the Staffordshire Potteries (Hanley,
1829); Robert Garner, Natural History of the County of Stafford
(London, 1844-1860); William Salt, Archaeological Society, Collec-
tions for a History of Staffordshire (1880), vol. i.; Victoria County
History; Staffordshire.
STAG (O. Eng. stagga, a Norse word, cf. Icel. steggr, steggi,
a male animal, cf. Steggander, a drake; it is usually referred to
stigan, to climb, to mount, but this is doubtful), the common
name of the male of many species of the deer tribe, but
usually confined to the male of the red deer (Cervus daphus),
" buck " being used in other cases, as of the fallow-deer (see
DEER and PECORA). In Stock Exchange slang the term is used
of an operator who applies for a portion of a new security being
issued, not with a view to holding it, but with the intention of
immediate realization, at a profit if possible.
STAGE (Fr. etage; from Lat. stare, to stand), in architecture,
an elevated floor, particularly the various storeys of a bell-tower,
&c. The term is also applied to the plain parts of buttresses
between cap and cap where they set back, or where they are
divided by horizontal strings and panelling. It is used, too, by
William of Worcester to describe the compartments of windows
between transom and transom, in contradistinction to the word
bay, which signifies a division between mullion and mullion
(see STOREY). From the sense of the floor or platform on which
plays were acted the term came to signify both the theatre
(q.v.) and the drama (?..). And from its etymological meaning
of a station comes the sense of a place for rest on a journey, the
distance between such places, &c.
STAHL, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1802-1861), German ecclesi-
astical lawyer and politician, was born at Munich on the i6th
of January 1802, of Jewish parentage. Although brought up
strictly in the Jewish religion, he was allowed to attend the
STAHL, G. E. STAIR, IST VISCOUNT
gymnasium, and, as a result of its influence, was at the age of
nineteen baptized into the Lutheran Church. To this faith he
clung with earnest devotion and persistence until his death.
Having studied law at Wiirzburg, Heidelberg and Erlangen,
Stahl, on taking the degree of doctor juris, established himself
as privatdozent in Munich, was appointed (1832) ordinary pro-
fessor of law at Wiirzburg, and in 1840 received the chair of
ecclesiastical law and polity at Berlin. Here he immediately
made his mark as an ecclesiastical lawyer, and was appointed
a member of the first chamber of the synod. Elected in 1850
a member of the short-lived Erfurt parliament, he bitterly
opposed the idea of German federation. Stahl early fell under
the influence of Schelling, and at the latter's insistence, began
in 1827 his great work: Die Philosophic des Rechts nach
geschichtticher Ansicht (an historical view of the philosophy
of law), in which he bases all law and political science upon
Christian revelation, denies rationalistic doctrines, and, as a
deduction from this principle, maintains that a state church
must be strictly confessional. This position he further eluci-
dated in his Der christliche Staal und sein Verhallniss zum
Deismus und Judenthum (The Christian State and its relation
to Deism and Judaism; 1874). As Oberkirchenrath (synodal
councillor) Stahl used all his influence to weaken the Evan-
gelical Union (i.e. that compromise between the Calvinist and
Lutheran doctrines which is the essence of the Prussian Evan-
gelical ^Church) and to strengthen the influence of the Lutheran
Church (cf. Die Lutherische Kir die und die Union, 1859). The
Prussian minister von Bunsen attacked, while King Frederick
William IV. supported, Stahl in his ecclesiastical policy, and
the Prussian Evangelical Church would probably have been
dissolved had not the regency of Prince William (afterwards
the emperor William I.) supervened in 1858. Stahl's influence
fell under the new regime, and, resigning his seat on the synod,
he retired into private life and died at Briickenau on the loth
of August 1 86 1.
See " Biographie von Stahl," in Unsere Zeit, vi. 419-447 (anony-
mous, but probably by Gneist) ; Pernice, Savigny, Stahl (anonymous ;
Berlin, 1862).
STAHL, GEORG ERNST (1660-1734), German chemist and
physician, was born on the 2ist of October 1660 at Anspach.
Having graduated in medicine at Jena in 1683, he became
court physician to the duke of Weimar in 1687. From 1694 to
1716 he held the chair of medicine at Halle, and was then ap-
pointed physician to the king of Prussia in Berlin, where he died
on the i4th of May 1734. In chemistry he is chiefly known in
connexion with his doctrine of phlogiston, the essentials of
which, however, he owed to J. J. Becher; and he also propounded
a view of fermentation which in some respects resembles that
supported by Liebig a century and half later. In medicine
he professed an animistic system, in opposition to the material-
ism of Hermann Boerhaave and Friedrich Hoffmann.
The most important of his numerous writings are Zymotechnia
fundamental sive fermentationis theoria generalis (1697), which
contains the phlogistic hypothesis; Specimen Becherianum (1702);
Experimenta, observationes, animadversiones . . . chymicae et physicae
(1731); Theoria medico, vera (1707); Ars sanandi cum expectatione
(1730)-
STAINER, SIR JOHN (1840-1901), English composer and
organist, was born at Southwark on the 6th of June 1840.
He was the second son of the schoolmaster of the parish school
of St Thomas's, Southwark, who was enough of a musician to
teach his son the organ and the art of reading music, in which
he was already proficient when, in 1847, he entered the choir of
St Paul's Cathedral. He remained there till 1856, and often
took the organ in emergencies; he held the post of organist of
St Benet's and St Paul's, Upper Thames Street, during the
last year of his choristership; and in 1856 was given the ap-
pointment of organist to St Michael's College, Tenbury, where
his musical and general education benefited greatly from the
intercourse with Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley. He was appointed
to Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1860, and became university
organist in the following year. While at Oxford he did much to
bring the choir of Magdalen to a remarkable state of excellence;
he took a keen interest in the foundation of various musical
societies; and as a sign of his appreciation of the value of general
culture, it is worth recording that he took the degree of B.A.
in 1864, that of Mus. D. in 1865, and procured M.A. in 1867, being
appointed a university examiner in music in the same year. In
1868 he was engaged frequently as solo organist at the Crystal
Palace; and in 1872 was appointed organist of St Paul's,
where he raised the standard of choral music to something very
like perfection. He was professor of the organ in the National
Training School of Music from 1876, and in 1881 succeeded
his lifelong friend Sullivan as principal. In 1878 he was a
juror at the Paris Exhibition, and was created Chevalier of the
Legion d'Honneur. In 1882 he became inspector of music in
training colleges. In 1888 he retired from the organistship of
St Paul's owing to failing eyesight, and was knighted. In
1889 he succeeded Ouseley as professor of music in the univer-
sity of Oxford, holding the post till 1899. Besides these official
distinctions he received a great number of honorary degrees:
he was vice-president of the Royal College of Organists, and
president of the Plain-song and Medieval Music Society, the
London Gregorian Association, and the Musical Association.
His compositions include four oratorios: Gideon (1865), The
Daughter of Jairus (Worcester, 1878), St Mary Magdalen
(Gloucester, 1887), Crucifixion (London, 1887^; forty-two
anthems, some of them very elaborate; many hymn-tunes,
organ pieces, madrigals, &c. His professorial lectures were of
great value, and he made many contributions to the literature
of music. He was a man of wide influence, with a remarkable
faculty of organization, and his work in regard to the conditions
of the musical profession was of considerable importance. His
own music has many of the defects of his qualities, for his breadth
of artistic views led him to admire and adopt many styles that
are not always compatible with each other. He died while on
a holiday at Verona on the 3ist of March 1901.
STAINES, a market town in the Uxbridge parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, on the river Thames at the
junction of the Colne, 19 m. W.S.W. of London on the
London & South Western and Great Western railways. Pop. of
urban district (1901), 6688. Breweries and mustard mills
employ many hands. A rifle range for the Metropolitan Volun-
teers and others was opened in 1892. A British village was
situated here at the crossing of the Thames on the main road
from London to south-western Britain, and the crossing was
certainly one of the earliest bridged. A grant of oaks from
Windsor forest for the repair of the bridge is recorded in 1262.
The existing bridge, from the designs of George Rennie, was
opened in 1831, after three bridges had failed in the previous
forty years. The name of Staines appears in the Domesday
Survey, and it has been supposed that the town is so called from
a stone which marks the limit of the former jurisdiction of the
City of London over the lower Thames. This is still considered
to be the boundary between the upper and lower Thames. In
the immediate neighbourhood, though included in the parish
of Egham, Surrey, is Runnimede Island, where King John
signed the Magna Carta.
STAIR, JAMES DALRYMPLE, ist VISCOUNT (1610-1695),
Scottish lawyer and statesman, was born in May 1619, at
Drummurchie in Ayrshire. He was descended from a family
for several generations inclined to the principles of the Reforma-
tion, and had ancestors both on the father's and the mother's
side amongst the Lollards of Kyle. His father, James Dalrymple,
laird of the small estate of Stair in Kyle, died when he was an
infant; his mother, Janet Kennedy of Knockdaw, is described
as " a woman of excellent spirit," who took care to have him
well educated. From the grammar school at Mauchline he
went, in 1633, to the university of Glasgow, where he graduated
in arts on the 26th of July, 1637. Next year he went to
Edinburgh, probably with the intention of studying law, but
the troubles of the times, then approaching a crisis, led him to
change his course, and we next find him serving in the earl of
Glencairn's regiment in the War of the Covenant. What part
he took in it is not certainly known, but he was in command of
STAIR, IST VISCOUNT
761
a troop when recalled in 1641 to compete for a regency (as a
tutorship or professorship was then called) in the university
of Glasgow. He was elected in March. Mathematics, logic,
ethics and politics were the chief subjects of his lectures,
and a notebook on logic by one of his students has been pre-
served. His activity and skill in matters of college business
were praised by his colleagues, who numbered amongst them
some of the leading Covenanting divines, and his zeal in teaching
was gratefully acknowledged by his students. After nearly
seven years' service he resigned his regency, and removed to
Edinburgh, where he was admitted to the bar on the I7th of
February 1648. This step had probably been rendered easier
by his marriage, four years before, to Margaret Ross, co-heiress
of Balneil in Wigtown. Stair's practice at the bar does not
appear to have been large; his talents lay rather in the direction
of learning and business than of oratory or advocacy. His
reputation and the confidence reposed in him were shown by
his appointment in 1649 as secretary to the commission sent to
the Hague to treat with Charles II. by the parliament of Scot-
land. The negotiation having been broken off through the
unwillingness of the young king to accept the terms of the
Covenanters, Stair was again sent in the following year to Breda,
where the failure of Montrose's expedition forced Charles to
change his attitude and to return to Scotland as the covenanted
king. Stair had preceded him, and met him on his landing in
Aberdeenshire, probably carrying with him the news of the
execution of Montrose, which he had witnessed.
During the Commonwealth Stair continued to practise at the
bar; but like most of his brethren he refused in 1654 to take
the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. Three years later,
on the death of Lord Balcomie, Stair was appointed one of the
commissioners for the administration of justice in Scotland,
on the recommendation of Monk. His appointment to the
bench on the ist of July 1657, by Monk, was confirmed by
Cromwell on the 26th. Stair's association with the English
judges at this time must have enlarged his acquaintance with
English law, as his travels had extended his knowledge of the
civil law and the modern European systems which followed it.
He thus acquired a singular advantage when he came to write
on law, regarding it from a cosmopolitan, or international,
rather than a merely local or national point of view. His
actual discharge of judicial duty at this time was short, for after
the death of Cromwell the courts in Scotland were shut a new
commission issued in 1660 not having taken effect, it being
uncertain in whose name the commission ought to run. It was
during this period that Stair became intimate with Monk, who
is said to have been advised by him when he left Scotland
to call a full and free parliament. Soon after the Restora-
tion Stair went to London, where he was received with favour
by Charles, knighted, and included in the new nomination
of judges in the court of session on the i3th of February
1661. He was also put on various important commissions,
busied himself with local and agricultural affairs, and, like
most of the Scottish judges of this and the following
century, acted with zest and credit the part of a good country
gentleman.
In 1662 he was one of the judges who refused to take the
declaration that the national covenant and the solemn league
and covenant were unlawful oaths, and, forestalling the deposi-
tion which had been threatened as the penalty of continued
non-compliance, he placed his resignation in the king's hands.
The king, however, summoned him to London, and allowed him
to take the declaration under an implied reservation. The
next five years of Stair's life were comparatively uneventful,
but in 1669 a family calamity, the exact facts of which will
probably never be ascertained, overtook him. ' His daughter
Janet, who had been betrothed to Lord Rutherfurd, was married
to Dunbar of Baldoon, and some tragic incident occurred on
the wedding night, from the effects of which she never recovered.
As the traditions vary on the central fact, whether it was the
bride who stabbed her husband, or the husband who stabbed
the bride, no credence can be given to the mass of superstitions
and spiteful slander which surrounded it, principally levelled
at Lady Stair. 1 In 1670 Stair served as one of the Scottish
commissioners who went to London to treat of the Union; but
the project, not seriously pressed by Charles and his ministers,
broke down through a claim on the part of the Scots to what
was deemed an excessive representation in the British parlia-
ment. In January 1671 Stair was appointed president of the
court of session. In the following year, and again in 1673, he
was returned to parliament for Wigtownshire, and took part
in the important legislation of those years in the department of
private law. During the bad time of Lauderdale's government
Stair used his influence in the privy council and with Lauder-
dale to mitigate the severity of the orders passed against ecclesi-
astical offenders, but for the most part he abstained from
attending a board whose policy he could not approve. In 1679
he went to London to defend the court against charges of
partiality and injustice which had been made against it, and
was thanked by his brethren for his success. When, in the
following year, the duke of York came to Scotland Stair dis-
tinguished himself by a bold speech, in which he congratulated
the duke on his coming amongst a nation which was entirely
Protestant. This speech can have been little relished, and the
duke was henceforth his implacable enemy. His influence
prevented Stair from being made chancellor in 1681, on the
death of the duke of Rothes.
The parliament of this year, in which Stair again sat, was
memorable for two statutes, one in private and the other in
public law. The former, relating to the testing of deeds, was
drawn by Stair, and is sometimes called by his name. The
other was the infamous Test Act, probably the worst of the
many measures devised at this period with the object of fettering
the conscience by oaths. Stair also had a minor share in the
form which this law finally took, but it was confined to the
insertion of a definition of " the Protestant religion "; by this
he hoped to make the test harmless, but his expectation was
disappointed. Yet, self-contradictory and absurd as it was,
the Test Act was at once rigidly enforced. Argyll, who de-
clared he took it only in so far as it was consistent with itself
and the Protestant religion, was tried and condemned for treason
and narrowly saved his life by escaping from Edinburgh Castle
the day before that fixed for his execution. Stair, dreading a
similar fate, went to London to seek a personal interview with
the king, who had more than once befriended him, perhaps
remembering his services in Holland; but the duke of York
intercepted his access to the royal ear, and when he returned
to Scotland he found a new commission of judges issued, from
which his name was omitted. He retired to his wife's estate
in Galloway, and occupied himself with preparing for the press
his great work, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland, which
he published in the autumn of 1681, with a dedication to the
king.
He was not, however, allowed to pursue his legal studies in
peaceful retirement. His wife was charged with attending
conventicles, his factor and tenants severely fined, and he was
himself not safe from prosecution at any moment. A fierce
dispute arose between Claverhouse and Stair's son, John,
master of Stair, relative to the regality of Glenluce; and, both
having appealed to the privy council, Claverhouse, as might
have been expected, was absolved from all the charges brought
against him and the master was deprived of the regality. Stair
had still powerful friends, but his opponents were more powerful,
and he received advice to quit the country. He repaired to
Holland in October 1684, and took up his residence, along with
his wife and some of his younger children, at Leiden. While
there he published the Decisions of the Court of Session between
1666 and 1671, of which he had kept a daily record, and a
small treatise on natural philosophy, entitled Physiologic, nova,
experimentalis.
In his absence a prosecution for treason was raised against
1 Sir Walter Scott took the plot of his Bride of Lammermoor from
this incident, but he disclaimed any intention of making Sir William
Ashton a portrait of Lord Stair.
762
STAIR
him and others of the exiles by Sir G. Mackenzie, the lord
advocate. He was charged with accession to the rebellion of
1679, the Rye House plot, and the expedition of Argyll. With
the first two he had no connexion; with Argyll's unfortunate
attempt he had no doubt sympathized, but the only proof of
his complicity was slight, and was obtained by torture. The
proceedings against him were never brought to an issue, having
been continued by successive adjournments until 1687, when
they were dropped. The cause of their abandonment was the
appointment of his son, the master of Stair, who had made
his peace with James II., as lord advocate in room of Mac-
kenzie, who was dismissed from office for refusing to relax the
penal laws against the Roman Catholics. The master only held
office as lord advocate for a year, when he was " degraded to
be justice clerk " the king and his advisers finding him not a
fit tool for their purpose. Stair remained in Holland till the
following year, when he returned under happier auspices in the
suite of William of Orange. William, who had made his ac-
quaintance through the pensionary Fagel, was ever afterwards
the firm friend of Stair and his family. The master was made
lord advocate; and, on the murder of Lockhart of Carnwath in
the following year, Stair was again placed at the head of the
court -of session. An unscrupulous opposition, headed by
Montgomery of Skelmorlie, who coveted the office of secretary
for Scotland, and Lord Ross, who aimed at the presidency of
the court, sprang up in the Scottish parliament; and an anony-
mous pamphleteer, perhaps Montgomery himself or Ferguson
the Plotter, attacked Stair in a pamphlet entitled The Late
Proceedings of the Parliament of Scotland Stated and Vindicated.
He defended himself by publishing an Apology, which, .in the
opinion of impartial judges, was a complete vindication.
Shortly after its issue he was created Viscount Stair (1690).
He had now reached the summit of his prosperity, and the few
years which remained of his old age were saddened by private
and public cares. In 1692 he lost his wife, the faithful partner
of his good and evil fortune for nearly fifty years. The massacre
of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (Feb. 13, 1692), which has
marked his son, the master of Stair, with a stain which his great
services to the state cannot efface for he was undoubtedly the
principal adviser of William in that treacherous and cruel deed,
as a signal way of repressing rebellion in the Highlands was
used as an opportunity by his adversaries of renewing their
attack on the old president. His own share in the crime was
remote; it was alleged that he had as a privy councillor declined
to receive Glencoe's oath of allegiance, though tendered, on the
technical ground that it was emitted after the day fixed, but
even this was not clearly proved. But some share of the odium
which attached to his son was naturally reflected on him.
Other grounds of complaint were not difficult to make up, which
found willing supporters in the opposition members of parlia-
ment. A disappointed suitor brought in a bill in 1693 com-
plaining of his partiality. He was also accused of domineering
over the other judges and of favouring the clients of his sons.
Two bills were introduced without naming him but really aimed
at him one to disqualify peers from being judges and the other
to confer on the Crown a power to appoint temporary presidents
of the court. The complaint against him was remitted to a
committee, which, after full inquiry, completely exculpated
him; and the two bills, whose incompetency he demonstrated
in an able paper addressed to the commission and parliament,
were allowed to drop. He was also one of a parliamentary
commission which prepared a report on the regulation of the
judicatures, afterwards made the basis of a statute in 1695
supplementary to that of 1672, and forming the foundation of
the judicial procedure in the Scottish courts for many years.
On the 29th of November 1695 Stair, who had been for some
time in failing health, died in Edinburgh, and was buried in the
church of St Giles.
. In 1695 there was published in London a small volume with the
title A Vindication of the Divine Perfections, Illustrating the Glory of
God in them by Reason and Revelation, methodically digested By a
Person of Honour. It was edited by the two Nonconformist
divines, William Bates and John Howe, who had been in exile in
Holland along with Stair, and is undoubtedly his work. Perhaps
it had been a sketch of the " Inquiry Concerning Natural Theology "
which he had contemplated writing in 1681. It is of no value as a
theological work, for Stair was no more a theologian than he was a
man of science, but it is of interest as showing the serious bent of his
thoughts and the genuine piety of his character.
Stair's great legal work, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland
deduced from its Originals, and collated with the Civil, Canon and
Feudal Laws and with the Customs of Neighbouring Nations, affords
evidence of the advantage he had enjoyed from his philosophical
training, his foreign travels and his intercourse with Continental
jurists as well as English lawyers. Unfortunately for its permanent
fame and use, much of the law elucidated in it has now become anti-
quated through the decay of the feudal part of Scottish law and the
large introduction of English law, especially in the departments of
commercial law and equity.
The Physiologia was favourably noticed by Boyle, and is inter-
esting as showing the activity of mind of the exiled judge, who
returned to the studies of his youth with fresh zest when physical
science was approaching its new birth. But he was not able to
emancipate himself from formulae which had cramped the education
of his generation, and had not caught the light which Newton
spread at this very time by the communication of his Principia to
the Royal Society of London.
Stair was fortunate in his descendants. " The family of
Dalrymple," observes Sir Walter Scott, " produced within two
centuries as many men of talent, civil and military, of literary,
political and professional eminence, as any house in Scotland."
His five sons were all remarkable in their professions. John,
master of Stair (1648-1707), who was created ist earl of Stair
in 1703, an able lawyer and politician, who is, however,
principally remembered for his part in the massacre of Glencoe,
is dealt with above. Sir James Dalrymple of Borthwick,
created a baronet in 1698, was one of the principal clerks of
session, and a very thorough and accurate historical anti-
quary. Sir Hew Dalrymple of North Berwick (1652-1737)
succeeded his father as president, and was reckoned one of
the best lawyers and speakers of his time; he, too, was created
a baronet in 1698. Thomas Dalrymple became physician to
Queen Anne. Sir David Dalrymple of Hailes (d. 1721), who was
created a baronet in 1700, was lord advocate under Anne and
George I. ; and his grandson was the famous judge and historian,
Lord Hailes (<?..).
Stair's grandson, John, 2nd earl (1673-1747), who rose to be
a field-marshal, gained equal credit in war and diplomacy. He
was ambassador in Paris (1715-1720), and, besides seeing service
under Marlborough, was commander-in-chief of the British
forces on the Continent in 1742, showing great gallantry at the
battle of Dettingen. He had no son, and in 1707 had selected
his nephew John (1720-1789) as heir to the title; but through
a decision of the House of Lords in 1748 he only became
5th earl, after his cousin James and James's son had suc-
ceeded as 3rd and 4th earls. John's son, the 6th earl, died
without issue, and a cousin again succeeded as 7th earl, his two
sons becoming 8th and gth earls. The 8th earl (1771-1853)
was a general in the army, and keeper of the great seal of
Scotland. The gth earl's son and grandson succeeded as loth
and nth earls.
For a fuller account of the life of Stair, see J. Murray Graham,
Annals of the Viscount and First and Second Earls of Stair (1875);
A. J. G. Mackay, Memoir of Sir James Dalrymple, First Viscount
Stair (1875); and Sir R. Douglas, Peerage of Scotland, new ed.,
by Sir J. B. Paul.
STAIR (0. Eng. staeger, step, from stigan, to climb, cf. Ger.
steigen; the root is also seen in " stile " and " stirrup "), in
architecture, the term (Fr. escalier) given to a series of steps
rising one above the other, either in one straight line or with
returns, or round a newel, or open well-hole, either square,
rectangular, circular or elliptical. A series of continuous steps
is called a " flight." The ordinary staircase of two flights with
landing between is known as a " pair "; " two pair back "
therefore would be the room at the back on the second floor;
in houses where the space occupied by the staircase is very
limited there is no landing, but the stairs wind round the corner
post or newel, and are known as " winders."
The steps of a stair consist of " tread " and " riser," the
STAIRCASE
763
respective dimensions of which vary according to the impor-
tance of the staircase and the space which has been given to it;
in external flights or stairs, such as those at Persepolis, the
tread is so wide and the riser so small in height as to allow of a
horse ascending, and generally in garden terraces there is the
same slight rise. For the stairs of a palace or municipal build-
ing, 14 in. tread and 5 in. riser would be required, but as a
rule 1 2 in. tread and 6 in. riser is adopted. In the stone staircase
in the palace at Cnossus in Crete, the treads were 18 in. and
the risers 55 in. In ordinary houses 9 in. or 10 in. is generally
given for the tread, and 63 in. to 7 in. for the riser. In the
stairs leading to lofts, and in yachts or steamers, the ascent is
much steeper, having sometimes 10 in. rise and 5 in. tread.
The series of stairs provided to ascend from one floor to
another when enclosed with walls is known as a staircase (g.v.).
Unenclosed flights of steps placed in front of a building are
known by the French term perron (q.v.), usually applied
to a structure like the horseshoe staircase of the palace at
Fontainebleau, the stairs of which are carried on a support
independent of the main wall of the palace. From this point
of view the great return flight of steps at Persepolis might be
looked upon as a staircase, because on one side the steps are all
embedded in the main wall of the platform.
Belonging to the same type are the great flights of steps
which led to the successive stages of the Ziggurats or Assyrian
stage towers; those in front of the Propylaea, leading to the
Acropolis at Athens; the stairs leading to the Propylaea (150 ft.
in width) at Baalbek; others in Palmyra; and generally all the
Roman temples. In medieval times should be included the
great flights of steps which stood in front of the cathedrals of
Europe, some of which, as those at Le Puy in France, Ste Gudule
at Brussels, the cathedral at Erfurt in Germany, S. Miniato at
Florence in Italy, and others, still exist, not having yet been
buried by the gradual raising of the ground-level in great towns;
also the immense flights of steps in Rome, leading up to the
Trinita del Monte and the Capitol, and those found in all towns
built on hills, when an architectural composition has guided
their plan.
In Egyptian architecture inclined planes took the place of
stairs, as in the sloping corridors of the Great Pyramid, the
descent leading to the temple of the Sphinx, and the approaches
to the two temples of Deir el-Bahri, one of them the oldest
temple found. Inclined planes were also provided in front of
some of the Greek temples, where the steps of the stylobate
were of great height; similar contrivances were adopted by the
Mahommedans in Egypt to ascend the minaret of Ibn Tulun
and el Hakim; in the great circular tower at Amboise, and in
the fallen campanile of St Mark's, Venice. (R. P. S.)
STAIRCASE, the term usually applied (Fr. cage d'escalier,
Ger. Treppenhaus) to the stairs leading to the upper floors
in a building, including the enclosure walls. In the ordinary
house a single staircase only is provided; in larger ones a second
or service staircase; in those of more importance, especially
where the principal reception rooms are on the first floor, a
grand staircase leading to the latter, and other subsidiary stairs
or staircases.
Architecture. Among the earliest examples are those found
in Egypt, generally built in the thickness of the walls, as in the
pylons and temples; a remarkable example was found by Dr
Arthur Evans in Cnossus, in Crete, consisting of a staircase in
stone, 6 ft. wide, with return flights of stairs, rising through
two floors; the staircase in the temple of Zeus at Olympia
leading to the gallery, is supposed to have been in wood, but
in some of the Greek temples have been found stairs in stone
with return flights. In the Tabularium at Rome there is a long
flight of 67 steps leading up from the Forum to a hall at the
back, but otherwise there are few examples of ancient Roman
staircases, and none of any importance have been found in
Pompeii. Of medieval staircases the principal examples are
those in stone built round a circular newel, to provide means
of ascent to the various stages of the church towers. One of
these, at St Gilles in Provence, is covered with a semicircular
rising vault, which is known as Vis St Gilles; some of these
circular staircases are 12 ft. in diameter, others, like those in
the campanile of Pisa, are built in the thickness of a circular
hall with well-hole in centre. In the i$th century some of the
stone staircases leading to the rood loft, with open tracery round
the edge, are of great elaboration and beauty, as at St Maclou,
Rouen. In the i6th century in France, in the chateaux of the
Loire, are many examples, among which the circular staircases
at Blois, two of them in square towers, the third octagonal in
plan and on one side open at intervals to the court, has a
great circular newel enriched with arabesque carving, and a
rising elliptical barrel vault with ribs and bosses. In the
chateau of Chambord the great staircase in the middle, which
is built round a circular well-hole, had two separate flights, one
over the other, so that, starting from opposite sides on the
ground floor, two persons could ascend without seeing one
another. At Azay le Rideau, Loire, and in the chateau of
St Germain-en-Laye, the staircases in return flights are built
between walls, and the same is found in the ducal palace at
Venice and most of the palaces of Rome. At Venice, in the
Palazzo Minelli, the staircase is in a circular tower with open
arcades and balustrades. The most famous staircase in Spain
is that in the north transept of Burgos Cathedral, remarkable
for the magnificent iron- work of its balustrade; and in England
the staircase leading to the hall of Christ Church, Oxford, with
a magnificent fan vault, is a fine example. In the i6th and
1 7th, centuries in England the grand staircases of the great
mansions were usually in wood, the finest examples being those
at Hatfield, Knole, Audley End, &c. They would seem also
to have been regarded as part of the great entrance halls, but
in France and Italy they assumed greater importance, being
always in stone or marble, with colonnades or arcades round the
staircase on the first floor. Of these there were three types.
The first is the straight staircase with two or more landings, of
which examples existed in Paris in the Tuileries and the old
H6tel de Ville, having been reproduced in the new H6tel de
Ville, and the staircase in the Vatican. The second is the
staircase with return flights right and left, at the top of a
first flight, sometimes built in long rectangular halls, but un-
satisfactory owing to the want of concentration and to the
difficulty of deciding whether to turn to the right or left at the
top of the first flight; examples are in the Herrenchiemsee
Palace, Bavaria, the Palazzo Reale at Naples, the Madama
Palace at Turin, and the government offices in London. In
the new opera house in Paris, J. L. Gamier (q.v.) solved the
problem better by placing his staircase in a square hall, which,
seen from the first floor surrounded with open balconies, forms
one of the finest staircase halls known. The third alternative
is that of the staircase in three flights, built round a square
well-hole, of which the staircase in Holford House is the best
example. The vestibule staircases in Genoa which lead to a
raised ground-storey, such as those in the Palazzo Durazzo, or in
the university, are extremely fine in effect and are executed all in
white marble. As the vestibules are open to the narrow streets,
it is possible that the title of the " marble palaces of Genoa "
refers to those marble staircase halls, because the external walls
of the palaces are either in ordinary stone or in brick covered
with stucco. (R. P. S.)
Construction. The primary object of stairs, in house-building,
is to afford a safe and easy communication between floors at
different levels. To make the communication easy the " rise "
and width (or " tread ") of the steps should be regular and
suitably proportioned to each other with convenient landings;
there should be no winding steps, and the rail which is fixed to
render the use of the staircase safe should be strongly fixed
with its top at a convenient height for the hand.
The first person that attempted to fix the relation between the
height and width of a step upon correct principles was, we believe,
Blondel, in his Cours d' architecture. His formula is applicable to
very large buildings but not to ordinary dwellings. Asnpitel.who
investigated the subject at length (in Handrails and Staircases),
gives the following rules for different proportions of treads and
764
STAIRCASE
Width of tread Height of rise
in inches. in inches.
12 5|
n 6
10 6J
9* 6}
9 7
These dimensions give angles of ascent varying from 24 to 37.
The projection of the nosings is not reckoned in the width of the
treads and must be added to determine the full width of the treads.
It will be seen upon examination that these proportions may be
expressed in the following simple formula: 23= twice the rise in
inches + the tread in inches. An American rule is to make the sum
of the rise and tread equal to 17 or 17$ in.
The forms of staircases are various, the simplest being a straight
flight, which type should only be used to a low storey. In towns,
where space cannot be allowed for convenient forms, they are often
made angular, circular or elliptical, with winding steps, or are
constructed of composite form partly straight and partly circular.
In large buildings, where convenience and beauty are the chief objects
of attention, winding steps are seldom introduced when it is possible
to avoid them. Well-designed stairs should be planned as simply
as possible to afford easy and convenient access to the higher level.
The staircase must be placed. in a position easy of approach, and
convenient for both the lower and upper apartments. It must be
well ventilated and lighted the absence of sufficient light may
prove the cause of serious, accidents. At no part should the head
room (that is, the height between the level of a tread and that
portion of the structure immediately above it) be less than 7 ft.
Straight flights should be composed of not less than four and not
more than twelve steps. If it is desired to continue more than this
number of steps in a straight line, a landing equal in length at' least
to the width of the stairs should be provided before starting up the
next flight. Winders should be avoided if possible, but should they
be found necessary it is advisable to put them at the bottom of a
flight rather than at the top, the reason being that should they
be the cause of an accident the unfortunate individual will not have
far to fall.
Besides the straight flight of stairs, stairs may be designed in
almost numberless different ways to suit the position which they are
to occupy or with a view to architectural effect, but whatever
position or form they are made to take their chief purpose of provid-
ing convenient and easy access to a higher level must be steadily
borne in mind. Some of the most ordinary forms from which
staircases of a more ambitious character are elaborated are the
dog-legged or newel stair, open newel stair, geometrical stair, circular
newel stairs (see fig. i).
StroigKr
puarlcr
Space
K
1
;
s
....
-
Ocular Cxomttncal
in. to foot.)
The newel or dog-legged stair is so termed from its supposed
resemblance to a dog's hind leg. In this form the staircase is divided
in width into two equal parts and the outer string of the upper
return of the stairs rises in a vertical plane immediately above that
of the lower flight. There is therefore no well-hole in this form of
construction (see fig. 4, plan and section).
Open newel stairs, as in the previous example, have newels placed
at the angles, but are so arranged as to enclose a well. This is more
convenient for the distribution of light than the dog-legged stairs,
especially when the lighting is effected by means of a lantern sky-
light placed at the top of the staircase.
Geometrical stairs usually enclose a well, which may vary very
much in size and shape from merely a narrow slit between the flights
to a square opening admitting of ample ventilation and lighting.
This form has continuous strings and handrail, and may be rectangu-
lar, circular or elliptical in plan, although it is especially adapted for
the curved forms and most satisfactory when so treated. Such
stairs are more difficult to construct than the newel stairs already
mentioned and lack their strength, as in the absence of the strong
framed newel posts the handrail depends for support entirely upon
the balusters, which must therefore be very securely fastened to the
treads. When wood balusters for the most part are used bars of
iron are often introduced at intervals to afford additional stiffness.
Circular geometrical stairs are built on a circular plan around a well.
Each step is necessarily a winder radiating from the outer string to
the wall string. If in wood they must be very carefully framed,
especially if the well-hole is small, owing to the difficulty of intro-'
ducing proper carriages for support, and the number of pieces of which
the work must be built up on account of its curvature. This type
of stairs is more suitable for building in stone, and in this case support
is obtained by pinning the end of the stone step well into the wall
and supporting each step upon the one below. The balusters and
handrail also, in the case of stone, are much more firmly fixed by the
former, which are usually of iron, being let into mortices in the tread
or end of the step and run in with molten lead and caulked to secure
a firm fixing.
Solid newel or spiral stairs are circular or polygonal on plan and
built around a central pillar or newel, which may be square, poly-
gonal or circular in section. This also is a form of stair-building
especially suitable for erection in stone, the central newel being
formed on the step itself, and the other end well pinned into
the masonry of the wall. Each succeeding step should be dowelled
at the newel to the one below and should lap for a matter of two or
three inches at least for its entire length over the one below and in
this way obtain extra support.
The newel stair was at its best in Elizabethan and later Renais-
sance times. The older form of staircase with circular newel and
narrow winding steps was found ill adapted to the altered conditions
when convenience and elegance were becoming more sought after.
The designers of this period found in the open newel stair a construc-
tion capable of being developed into a dignified and beautiful
feature of domestic architecture, and they certainly brought out
its possibilities in a remarkable manner. This is evidenced by the
many fine examples, handed down to us by the architects of the
Tudor period, to be found in the great mansions which date back to
the time of the early Renaissance. Steps were arranged in broad
short flights with wide treads and easy rise. Landings were freely
used, and in many cases were large enough to be used as galleries
for the display of pictures. The work was generally solidly executed
in oak, and carved and moulded decoration was lavished upon
every detail. The newels, much enriched, were frequently carried
up to the ceiling and formed a portion of the arcading which was
often a prominent feature around the well. In the period of the
later Renaissance the newel principle of construction was still
retained and the main features were the same, but they were planned
with longer flights and the manner of decoration partook of a more
severely classic nature. One of the first examples is that of the
Chateau de Blois, and of modern treatment that of the Grand Opera
House, Paris. In the period of the Georgian era the geometrical
staircase was much favoured and very generally used in domestic
buildings. Although more difficult to build it must be admitted
that this type of stair is not so satisfactory in a number of ways as
the newel form. With its continuous curving strings and handrail
it has a certain elegance of its own, but in principle of construction it
is not so good, nor can it compete with the open newel stair in
regard to the ease with which the latter lends itself to schemes of
artistic decoration. As before remarked, however, it is well adapted
for stairs circular and elliptical in plan.
Experience has proved concrete to have fire-resisting properties
of the most effective character, and it does not possess the propensi-
ties for splitting
and flying under aadstoae
the action of
33"i afcire. apandril atdion
FIG. 2.
heat that belong
to stone. Steel or iron
is often employed as an
additional support for
stone and concrete stairs.
In the case of concrete
work iron bars are fre-
quently embedded in the
steps for their full length,
and are in this way hidden
from sight while at the
same time serving the pur-
poses of support. When
a more ornate appearance
is desired than is obtained
by the use of plain concrete
the steps may be encased in other material to secure a richer effect.
Marbles, tiles and mosaic are the principal materials used for this
STAIRCASE
765
1 Store. stare - square-
FIG. 3.
in. to foot.)
purpose. Stairs of fine concrete to which is given the name of
" artificial stone " have largely superseded those constructed of
genuine stone. It is very strong and capable of being further forti-
fied by the introduction of steel core bars without detriment to
its appearance; it is consistent in quality and special shapes
are readily moulded ; it is very hard-wearing, especially when the
aggregate consists of a hard nature such as granite chippings.
The stairs are built by pinning each step in the wall either at one
or at both ends. In the first case they are termed cantilever or
hanging steps, and it is advisable to use steel reinforcement and pin
the end of the step at least 9 in.
into the wall. When fixed at
both ends the pinning need not
be so deep, and unless the stairs
are very wide the steel core may
be omitted. The steps are either
rectangular or spandrel-shaped
in section (figs. 2 and 3); the
former are stronger and easier
to fix than the latter, which,
however, give a better appear-
ance and can be finished with a
plain smooth soffitt. Iron balus-
ters are generally used for stone
and concrete staircases, and are
fitted with lug terminations which are let into dovetailed mortices
formed in the top or side of the stair tread and held fast by
molten lead, neat Portland cement, or a mixture of sulphur and
sand.
The construction of wood staircases forms a special branch of
the joinery craft, and many books have been written on the subject.
Numerous methods of setting out the handrails have
Stalrcaslng been p ut f orwarc j by different authors, among them
and Hand- being the tangent system, which gives excellent results
railing. a( . p er ij a p s t h e smallest cost compatible with good work.
It is noteworthy that the common practice in England with regard
to wood stairs is to frame and form the finished work in the workshop
and fix it bodily in the position it has to occupy. In America,
especially in the eastern states, the finished staircase is built up
piece by piece upon a rough framework which has been used by the
workmen during the erection of the carcase of the building. In
many instances the strings consist of easings and panellings nailed
upon the rough skeleton work.
Stairs are built in many kinds of materials, such as wood, stone,
concrete, iron and brick. Often two or more kinds of materials
are used in the same staircase, as when constructions of concrete
or stone are reinforced with iron or steel. It is common also to
fit to a staircase handrails, balusters and newels of a different nature
from the steps themselves. The spandrel or triangular-shaped
space between a flight of stairs and the floor is frequently enclosed
with wood-panelled framing and fitted with a door so that it may
be made use of for cupboard accommodation.
There are a number of technical terms connected with staircases
which require some explanation to enable the drawings to be easily
understood:
Staircase.-, This comprises the whole of the stair construction
and is the name given to the space or enclosure which contains
the stairs.
Well-hole, the open space enclosed by the stairs.
Flight, a continuous series of steps between two landings.
Landing, a platform forming a kind of halting-place between
two flights of stairs. A quarter-space landing forms a space, usually
a rectangle, equal in width and length to the breadth of the two
flights wnich it separates. A half-space landing extends the total
width of the staircase.
Flier. Fliers are steps that have the nosings of the treads parallel
one to another.
Winder. This is an angular-shaped step. A winder fitted into
a wall angle is often termed a kite winder, from the fact that it
resembles a kite. In planning stairs the width of the winder tread
at a distance of 18 or 20 in. from the handrail should equal the
width of a flier.
Curtail 'Step. This may be either a flier or a winder. One or both
ends of the step are projected to form a base for the newel and are
shaped to a scroll which often follows the line of the curve terminat-
ing the handrail. It is usually the step or steps at the base of a
staircase that are formed in this way.
- Bull-nosed step, one having a blunt rounded end. It may be
shaped to a quarter or half circle.
Dancing Stairs. The introduction of winders in geometrical
staircases brings about awkward complications in the curve of the
handrail and strings, for the width of the winding steps at the hand-
rail being much less than that of the fliers, while at the same time
the rise is necessarily equal, causes an unsightly knee in the handrail
and in the strings. To obviate this the whole of the steps are made
to dance, that is, they are all shaped as winders in order to divide
the going equally between them and thus obtain a regular slope
for the strings and handrail. Often the first and last three or four
steps of a flight are made ordinary fliers. In a polygonal or elliptical
staircase the whole of the flight is constructed in this way so as to
obtain a regular sweep up from the bottom to the top step. Each
step may be divided into several different parts such as the tread,
the riser and the nosing. The tread is the horizontal upper surface
of the step which supports the foot when ascending or descending
the stairs. The riser is the upright member of a step which supports
the tread. It tills in the vertical space between the nosing of one
tread and the back edge of the one below. The edge of the tread
usually projects some little distance beyond the face of the riser
and is formed into a rounded or moulded nosing. S v tone stairs and
those of concrete usually have each step formed separately in a
solid piece of stone of square or triangular section, and these are
fixed in position by being pinned into the wall at one or both ends
with each step resting upon the back edge of the one below. Stairs
of costly marble are frequently built up in a manner somewhat
similar to that adopted for wood construction.
Rise, the vertical distance between the surface of one tread and
that of the next.
Going, the horizontal measurement between two adjacent risers.
In America this is termed the run.
Newels, strong posts occurring at intervals in a newel staircase.
They are placed at the ends of flights where junction is made to
landings, at turnings, and at the top and bottom of the staircase.
They should be strongly framed in the stair construction, and have
the string and handrail housed into them. Newels are sometimes
of iron, and in large stone staircases of stone. They are sometimes
of elaborate form and often designed as a pedestal carrying a lamp
or statuette, or they may be carried up to form part of some orna-
mental framing around the staircase. In America the newel is the
main post where the stairs begin, and the remainder of the posts
used in the framing are termed angle posts.
Handrail. This is a rail commonly of hard wood which runs up
at the same slope as the stairs at a height above the nosing line of
about 2 ft. 8 in. (that is 3 ft. minus half a rise) to the upper surface
of the rail. On the level, such as on landings, it is usually fixed
3 ft. above the surface. These are the heights at which a handrail
is found to give most assistance to persons going up or down stairs.
Handrails are made in other materials such as iron and bronze.
A handrail is generally upheld by balusters, which are vertical bars
or posts filling in the space between the handrail and the string or
the treads. They are made in many shapes and in many different
materials such as wood, iron, bronze, stone and marble. Sometimes
in the place of balusters the space usually occupied by them is filled
in with scrollwork of wrought or cast iron or bronze, or with panels
of wood perforated, perhaps, and richly carved.
Core-rail. An iron band is frequently used in geometrical stairs
to give extra strength and stiffness to the handrail. It is generally
about | in. thick, being screwed into a groove formed in the under-
side of the handrail. It is especially necessary for the curved
portions of the handrail, where the grain of the wood is often cut
across.
String. Strings are the members that carry the treads and risers
which in wood stairs are housed into them or else fitted into notches
cut in the strings to receive them. In the former case the supporting
member is termed a close string, but if notched out for the steps it
is known as a cut string (see details, fig. 4). A cut and mitred string
is similar to this last, but has the vertical cut of each notch splayed
and the riser is mitred to it so as not to show the joint. Strings are
either wall strings or outer strings; the former are fixed against the
wall, the latter run up from newel to newel or in geometrical stairs
ramp and curve according to the nosing line. Rough strings or
rough carriages are placed between the inner and outer strings to
afford additional support to the treads and risers, and rough brackets
about I in. thick are fitted into the steps and spiked to the
carriages.
Ramp. This is a concave curve formed in one plane when
changing the direction of the handrail or string. In America it is
known as an easing.
Knee. This is a convex curve in one direction. When used in
conjunction with a ramp it forms a swan-neck, which is a combination
of ramp and knee.
. Wreath. This is a curve formed both horizontally and vertically
in the handrail or string. It is often necessary in geometrical stairs
where a change of direction takes place.
Although more in the nature of a mechanical lift or elevator than
a stair, moving stairways may perhaps find a place in this article
owing to their resemblance and to the fact that their
object is to convey the passenger quickly and easily Iactia j s
to a higher level without the necessity of a tedious
climb up stairs, or of a wait such as is often entailed with a
vertical lift. The contrivance consists of an endless inclined
platform formed of links bolted together, which allow it to travel
round wheels fixed at the top and bottom of the stairway and hidden
within its framing. This is kept in continual motion by mechanical
means, usually by an electric motor, which causes it to travel at
the rate of about 100 ft. a minute. The handrail also moves at
the same rate, so that a passenger merely steps on to the lower portion
of the stair, places his hand upon the handrail, and is carried swiftly
and safely up to the next floor, where he is deposited without any
effort on his part. The process of stepping on and getting off the
stairway is amazingly simple and without any element of danger
766
STALACTITES
to the passenger. For high buildings, underground railways and
similar positions, a spiral form is used which winds round in a circular
shaft to the highest level and returns in the opposite direction in
a similar manner, taking up and setting down passengers as it
revolves. Although this type of elevator is probably not so rapid
as the vertical lift working in a straight line to the point it is desired
to reach, its great advantage is that it does away with the waiting
which often causes so much annoyance with ordinary lifts.
Section AA
A--
-A
Plan
(J in. to foot.)
FIG. 4.
in. to foot.)
The by-laws of the London County Council contain many stipula-
tions regulating the construction of staircases, and these are summar-
, ized below. In every public or other building of more than
125,000 cub. ft. constructed to be used as a dwelling for
separate families the floors of lobbies, corridors, passages, landings,
and also the flights of stairs, shall be of fire-resisting materials. The
principal staircase of every dwelling-house shall be ventilated by
means of a window or skylight opening directly into the external air.
In buildings occupied in separate tenements by more than two families
the common staircase shall be ventilated upon each storey above
the ground storey by windows or skylights, or otherwise adequately
ventilated. Staircases in churches, chapels, public halls, lecture
rooms, exhibition rooms and buildings for similar purposes are
subject to the following conditions: Stairs shall be supported and
enclosed by brick walls at least 9 in. thick. The treads of each
flight shall be of uniform width, and stairs, corridors or passages
shall be 4 ft. 6 in. wide unless the building is for the accommodation
of less than two hundred persons, when it may be 3 ft. 6 in. wide.
If for more than four hundred persons the width must increase
by 6 in. for each additional hundred persons up to a maximum
of 9 ft. Staircases 6 ft. wide and upwards shall be divided by a hand-
rail. Two staircases may be substituted for one large one, each to
be two-thirds the width required for the single stair, but not less
than 3 ft. 6 in. Accommodation upon different levels must be pro-
vided with separate stairs leading directly to the street or open.
Exit doors must open outwards. Under the theatre regulations
dated 1892 the same widths hold good, but the minimum width is
increased to 4 ft. 6 in. Every staircase for the use of the audience
shall have solid square section steps of approved stone or concrete
with treads of uniform width not less than 1 1 in. wide or rise greater
than 6 in. Winders are prohibited, and the flights must have not
more than twelve steps nor less than three steps each. Both ends
of each step shall be pinned into the wall. The several flights shall
be supported and enclosed on all sides by brick walls not less than
9 in. thick carried down to the level of the footings. Not more than
two flights of twelve steps each shall be constructed without a turn.
Landings to be 6 in. thick, square on plan and supported under the
middle by 9 in. brick arches. A continuous handrail supported
on strong metal brackets tor be fixed on both sides of steps and land-
ings, and if possible chased into the wall to avoid projection. The
roof over the staircase shall be of fire-resisting materials. Separate
exits are required for different parts of the theatre or hall.
The Factory and Workshop Act 1901 contains somewhat similar
conditions, but in this case the staircases communicate with each
floor and the roof. The minimum width of tread shall be 10 in.
and the maximum rise 7i in. Steps of spandrel section may be
used having a thickness of 3 in. at the smallest part for staircases
3 ft. 6 in. wide, and not less than 4$ in. thick for
staircases 4 ft. 6 in. wide. External fire escape stairs
must be constructed with dead bearings and without
cantilever work. They must comply with the require-
ments for enclosed staircases as regards width, going,
width of treads, height of risers, doors, handrails, &c.
They must deliver at the ground-level into a public
way or some large space. Where in general use the
treads must be of non-slippery material as distinguished
from perforated iron or chequered iron plates.
The second schedule of the London Building Act
1894 sets forth the materials that are deemed fire-resist-
ing under the act, and specific in the case of staircases
" oak or teak or other hard timber with treads and
risers not less than 2 in. thick."
The law regulating the construction of buildings in
the city of New York provides that "stairways serving
for the exit of fifty people must, if straight, be at
least 4 ft. wide between railings or between walls, and
if curved or winding 5 ft. wide, and for every additional
fifty people to be accommodated 6 in. must' be added
to their width. In no case shall the risers of any stairs
exceed 7j in. in height, nor shall the treads exclusive of
nosings be less than loj in. wide in straight stairs. In
circular or winding stairs the width of the tread at the
narrowest end shall not be less than 7 in."
AUTHORITIES. The principal works of reference on
this subject are J. Riddell, Carpenter, Joiner, Stair-
builder and Handrailer; W. H. Wood, Stair Building,
and Handrailing; J. H. Monckton, Stair Building in
its Various Forms; J. Newland, Carpenter and Joiner's
Assistant; G. L. Sutcliffe, Modern Carpenter, Joiner
and Cabinetmaker; W. Mowat, Handrailing and Stair
Building; W. R. Purchase, Practical Masonry; F. E.
Kidder, Building Construction and Superintendence,
pt.ii. (J. BT.)
STALACTITES (Gr. oraXaio-os, from oraXdcraeii',
to drip), pendent masses formed where water con-
taining mineral solutions drops very slowly from
an elevation. They are seen, for example, beneath
bridges, arches and old buildings as water per-
colating through the joints of the masonry has dissolved very
small quantities of the lime present in the cement and mortar
between the stones. On exposure to the air part of the water
evaporates and the solution of carbonate of lime becomes
supersaturated; a deposit of this substance ensues j and as the
drop continues to fall from the same spot a small column of
white calcite very slowly grows downwards in a vertical direc-
tion from the roof of the arch. In a very similar manner
stalactites of ice are produced in frosty weather as the water
dropping from eaves of buildings, beams, branches of trees,
&c., very gradually freezes. Other minerals than ice and
calcite often occur in stalactitic growths. Thus we find in
mines and in the cavities of mineral veins stalactites of limonite,
fluorspar, opal, chalcedony and gibbsite. These stalactites
are never of great size, usually not more than 2 or 3 in. in
length, and probably the method of origin is exactly the same
as that of the larger and more common stalactites of ice and of
calcite.
The conditions essential to the perfect development of stalac-
tites appear to be (i) a very slow trickle of water from a fissure;
(2) regular evaporation; (3) absence of disturbance, such as
currents of air. If the discharge of water is fast, irregular
encrustations may be produced, or the precipitate of solid matter
may be entirely washed away by the mechanical force of the
currents. Changes of temperature will interfere with evapora-
tion, sometimes accelerating and sometimes retarding it, and
the stalactites tend under such circumstances to stop growth
or to develop irregularities and excrescences. Currents of
wind produce the same effect. For these reasons ice stalactites
form most readily on calm cold nights, and stalactites of ice or
calcite are seen in greatest perfection in the interior of caves,
STALL
767
where the sun's light does not penetrate, the temperature is
steady, and there are no strong currents of air.
In all limestone caves stalactites form in great abundance
as glimmering white columns covered with a thin film of water.
The great caves, such as those of Adelsberg (in Styria), Jcnolan
(Australia), the Mammoth Cave (Kentucky), the Gausses district
in France, and the grottos of Belgium, are divided into chambers
which are richly festooned with stalactites, and fanciful names
are given to various groups according to their similarity to
different objects, natural or artificial. Ice caves of considerable
size occur in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and are draped
with ice stalactites often wonderfully like those of limestone
caves.
Where the water drops upon the floor of one of these caves
evaporation still goes on and an encrustation forms which may
cover the whole surface as an irregular sheet. If the air be
perfectly still, however, the drop which falls from a stalactite
on the roof will always land on the same place and a pillar of
deposit will rise vertically, till in course of time it meets and
joins with the stalactite above. In this way a column is pro-
duced, which sometimes has a graceful form with a long straight
shaft expanding somewhat at its upper and lower extremities.
As the stalactites thicken by deposit of layer upon layer of
carbonate of lime, they rarely continue to be cylindrical but
assume tapering forms with irregular surfaces. They seldom
branch, but sometimes they give off excrescences which may
curve upwards or downwards and occasionally long thin stalac-
tites take their rise from these and grow downwards parallel
to the main stalactite. Large stalactites may be three or
four feet thick, but in that case they have usually formed by
the coalescence of adjacent ones which enlarged till they met
and were then covered with a continuous layer of deposit.
Single stalactites 2 ft. in diameter are not rare. It is known
that they are of very slow growth, and much speculation has
gone on regarding the length of time required for the formation
of some of the largest stalactites. From data obtained by
measurement of the rate of growth at the present day it has been
estimated that as much as two hundred thousand years may
have elapsed since certain thick stalactites began to grow.
We know that many caves are of great antiquity from the fossil
remains they contain, but these estimates are probably ill-
founded, seeing that there is no certainty that the conditions
have remained the same during the whole period of growth.
Sir Archibald Geikie records that stalactites i in. in diameter
had formed beneath a bridge in Edinburgh which was a
hundred years old; in caves, however, the rate of formation
is rarely so great as this. Inscriptions on stalactites in the
Adelsberg cave after thirty years had been covered with a
scarcely perceptible film of new deposit. In one of the Moravian
caves a stalactite, about as thick as a goose quill, was broken
across in 1880 and in 1891 it had grown three or four centimetres;
from careful observations it has been calculated that one
of these stalactites, 7 ft. long, may have been formed in
4000 years. The stalagmitic crust on the floor of caves is
usually mixed with blocks which have fallen from the roof,
sand, mud and gravel carried in by floods, and the bones of
animals and men which have inhabited the cave if it had an
accessible entrance. Its formation must have been interrupted
by many changes in the physical conditions of the district, and
consequently it often occurs in layers which alternate with beds
of a different character.
Some particulars regarding the internal structure and growth of
stalactites have been ascertained by Professor W. Rinz of Brussels.
The first stage of every stalactite is a low circular ring of deposit on
the roof of the cave. The diameter of this ring corresponds to the
breadth of a drop of water which is so large that it is on the point
of falling. At the outer surface of the drop evaporation goes on
and supersaturation results in the deposit of a thin ring-shaped band.
At the centre of the drop no deposition takes place, and as this goes
on after some time a short tube is produced ; the width of this tube
is about 5 millimetres and is fairly constant. The tube very slowly
lengthens as deposit gathers at its lower end : water is constantly
dropping from it and its interior is always full. Very little material
is deposited except at the orifice hence in many caves long straight
tubular stalactites can be seen not much more than a quarter of
an inch wide, and with delicate thin walls. A little water, however,
makes its way from the interior to the outside of the tube and is
exposed to evaporation there, consequently the tube walls gradually
grow thicker. The end of a simple tubular stalactite of this type
has small sharp teeth or points which are the corners of crystals.
These haye the rhombohedral faces of calcite, and are usually of a
simple description: their corresponding faces are parallel, and an
examination of the material of the tube proves that the whole mass
has the same crystalline structure. We may, in fact, describe these
stalactites as rounded, tubular crystals continuously growing but
provided with crystalline facets only at their lower ends. Small
lateral passages sometimes allow the water to escape from the interior
of the tube and their apertures become surrounded with lime deposits.
In this way horns, twigs and branches arise, often curving upwards
or downwards; they are always provided with a central tubule
which may be a mere capillary. The substance of these offshoots
is in crystalline continuity with that of the main stalactite, and the
whole mass has a uniform optical orientation. In the majority
of cases the long axis of the stalactite corresponds to the optic
axis of the calcite crystal, but in one group of stalactites these two
make an angle of 15 with one another. An interruption in the
supply of water or an accidental fracture of the stalactite induce
abnormal growth. ' The end of the tube becomes obstructed or
completely closed, and nodular or tuberculate growths are often the
result. If the outer surface dries the next layer which is laid down
may often be readily detached, as it is not firmly united with the
underlying material. In any case a second stage of growth ulti-
mately arrives, when the central tube is no longer the chief conduit
but a general drip of water from the roof bathes the whole outer
surface of the stalactite. Then small, flat crystals of calcite appear
with their basal planes directed outwards. These increase in number
till they cover the whole mass, and as they grow outwards they
develop into prisms whose axes are directed radially. In very old
spherulites the initial tube is covered with a great 'thickness of radiat-
ing calcite crystals deposited from the mineral solutions which
trickle down along the external surface. When they are cut across
they show concentric rings, some of which are due to stains of iron
or manganese oxides or insoluble materials brought down by the
water; others are lines of cavities produced by interrupted or
irregular crystallization. They resemble the rings of the wood of
trees, but probably do not depend on seasonal changes but on purely
accidental factors, so that they afford no clue to the rate of growth.
Stalactites also occur in the interior of lava caves in the
Sandwich Isles, Samoa, &c. Often the upper surface of a lava
flow has cooled to form a crust, while the interior is still perfectly
fluid, and it sometimes happens that the liquid basalt has made
its escape, leaving great cavities below the hollow roof of the
lava. The interior of these caves is covered with a black shining
film of glassy basalt, and black stalactites of lava hang down-
wards. Their surface is sometimes changed to brown or red
by the oxidizing action of the acid vapours which occupied the
cave after the lava retired. These stalactites are tubular,
with bluntly rounded ends, and probably their mode of growth
is somewhat analogous to that of ice-stalactites. In micro-
scopic section they prove to be glassy with small crystals of
olivine and augite; in this they differ from the ice and calcite
stalactites which are crystalline throughout.
STALL (O. Eng. steall, stael, cf. Du. stal, Ger. and Swed. Stall, a
common Teutonic word for a place, station, place for standing
in; the root is the Indo-European sla-, to stand, seen also in
Latin stabulum, Greek 0ra0juos, and in stallion, an entire
horse, properly one kept in a stall and not worked), a word
which means literally a place where one may stand, and so
is applied to a separate division in a stable, shed, &c., in which
a single horse, cow or other domestic animal may be kept,
to a separate booth, bench or table in a market or other building,
or in the street, on which goods are exposed for sale by the
person owning or licensed to use the same, and in England
to the higher-priced seats on the ground floor of a theatre.
The word is more particularly applied to a special form of seat
in an ecclesiastical building. In cathedrals, monastic churches
and the larger parish churches the stalls are fixed seats
enclosed at the back and separated at the sides by high project-
ing arms, and placed in one or more rows on the north and
south sides of the choir or chancel, running from the sanctuary
to the screen or chancel arch. These separate enclosed seats
are properly reserved for the clergy, and more usually the choir
are seated in open benches in front of the stalls. In a cathedral
the canons and prebendaries have each a stall assigned to them.
768
STALLBAUM STAMBOLOV
In the chapels of the various knightly orders the stalls are
assigned to the members of the order, thus, in St. George's
Chapel, Windsor, are the stalls of the Knights of the Garter,
in Henry VII. 's Chapel in Westminster Abbey are those of
the Knights of the Bath, adorned with the stall plates
emblazoned with the arms of the knight occupying the stall,
above which is suspended his banner.
Architecturally and artistically considered, the stalls of a
cathedral or church are a marked feature of the interior adorn-
ment. They are richly carved, and are frequently surmounted
by canopies of tabernacle work. The seats generally can be
folded back so as to allow the occupant to stand upright or
kneel; beneath the seat, especially in monastic churches, is
fixed a small bracket, a miserere (q.v.), which affords a slight
rest for the person while standing. Among beautiful specimens
of carved stalls may be mentioned the Early Decorated stalls
in Winchester Cathedral, the Early Perpendicular ones in
Lincoln Minster, and the early i sth-century canopies in Norwich
Cathedral. The stalls, especially the towering corner-stalls with
their ornate carving filled with figures, in Amiens Cathedral are
very fine; they date from 1508-1520.
STALLBAUM, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1793-1861), German
classical scholar, was born at Zaasch, near Delitzsch in Saxony,
on the 25th of September 1793. From 1820 until his death
on the 24th of January 1861 Stallbaum was connected with the
Thomasschule at Leipzig, from 1835 as rector. In 1840 he was
also appointed extraordinary professor in the university. His
reputation rests upon his work on Plato, of which he published
two complete editions: the one (1821-1825) a revised text
with critical apparatus, the other (1827-1860) containing
exhaustive prolegomena and commentary written in excellent
Latin, a fundamental contribution to Platonic exegesis. A
separate edition of the Parmenides (1839), with the commentary
of Proclus, deserves mention. Stallbaum also edited the com-
mentaries of Eustathius on the Iliad and Odyssey, and the
Grammaticae latinae institutiones of Thomas Ruddiman.
See C. H. Lipsius in the Osterprogramm of the Thomasschule (1861) ;
R. Hoche in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, vol. xxxv.
STALYBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Cheshire, England; the parliamentary borough extending into
Lancashire. ' Pop. (1901), 27,673. It lies on the river Tame,
in a hilly district, 6 m. E. of Manchester, and is served by
the London & North- Western, Great Central, and Lancashire &
Yorkshire railways. Immediately to the west lie the towns of
Dukinfield, and across the river in Lancashire, Ashton-under-
Lyne; while 2 m. south of Stalybridge is the town of Hyde.
The whole district is thus very densely populated. Stalybridge
is one of the oldest seats of the cotton manufacture in this
locality, the first cotton mill having been erected in 1776, and
the first steam engine in 1795. There are also machine works,
nail works, paper mills, and iron and brass foundries. The
development of the town is modern, as it was created a market
town in 1828, incorporated in 1857, and created a parliamentary
borough, returning one member, in 1867. It is under a mayor,
7 aldermen and 22 councillors. Area, 3130 acres.
STAMBOLOV, STEFAN (1854-1895), Bulgarian statesman,
was born on the 3ist of January 1854 at Trnovo, the ancient
Bulgarian capital, where his father kept a small inn. Under
Turkish rule it was impossible to obtain a liberal education in
Bulgaria, and young Stambolov, after attending the communal
school in his native town, was apprenticed to a tailor. During
the politico-religious agitation which preceded the establish-
ment of the Bulgarian exarchate in 1870, a number of Bulgarian
youths were sent to Russia to be educated at the expense of the
Imperial government; among them was Stambolov, who was
entered at the seminary of Odessa in order to prepare for the
priesthood. His wayward and independent nature, however,
rebelled against the discipline of school life; he was expelled
from the seminary on the ground of his association with Nihilists,
and, making his way to Rumania, he entered into close relations
with the Bulgarian revolutionary committees at Bucharest,
Giurgevo and Galatz. In 1875, though only 'twenty years of
age, he led an insurrectionary movement at Nova Zagora in
Bulgaria, and in the following year organized another rising at
Orekhovitza. In the autumn of 1876 he took part as a volunteer
in the Servian campaign against Turkey, and subsequently
joined the Bulgarian irregular contingent with the Russian army
in the war of 1877-78. After the signature of the Berlin Treaty
in 1878 Stambolov settled at Trnovo, where he set up as a lawyer,
and was soon elected deputy for his native town in the Sobranye.
His force of character, his undoubted patriotism, his brilliant
eloquence, and his disinclination to accept office a rare charac-
teristic in a Bulgarian politician combined to render him one
of the most influential men in Bulgaria. The overthrow of the
Zankoff ministry in 1884 was largely due to his influence, and in
that year he was nominated to the presidency of the Sobranye.
He held this important office for the next two years, a critical
period in the national history. The revolution of Philippopolis,
which brought about the union of Bulgaria with eastern Rumelia,
took place on the i8th of September 1885, and it was largely
owing to Stambolov's advice that Prince Alexander decided to
identify himself with the movement. The war with Servia
followed, and Stambolov, notwithstanding his official position,
served as an ordinary soldier in the Bulgarian army. After
the abduction of Prince Alexander by a band of military con-
spirators (Aug. 21, 1886) Stambolov, who was then at Trnovo,
acted with characteristic promptitude and courage. In his
capacity as president of the Sobranye he established a loyal
government at Trnovo, issued a manifesto to the nation, nomi-
nated his brother-in-law, General Mutkurov, commander-in-
chief of the army, and invited the prince to return to Bulgaria.
The consequence of these measures was the downfall of the
provisional government set up by the Russophil party at Sofia.
On the abdication of Prince Alexander (Sept. 8) Stambolov
became head of a council of regency, with Mutkurov and
Karavelov as his colleagues; the latter, however, soon made
way for Jivkov, a friend and fellow townsman of the first regent.
Invested with supreme power at this perilous juncture, Stambolov
displayed all the qualities of an able diplomatist and an energetic
ruler. He succeeded in frustrating the mission of General
Kaulbars, whom the Tsar despatched as special commissioner
to Bulgaria; in suppressing a rising organized by Nabokov, a
Russian officer, at Burgas; in quelling military revolts at Silistra
and Rustchuk; in holding elections for the Grand Sobranye,
despite the interdict of Russia, and in securing eventually the
election of Prince Ferdinand of Coburg to the vacant throne
(July 7, 1887). Under the newly-elected ruler he became prime
minister and minister of the interior, and continued in office for
nearly seven years (see BULGARIA). The aim of his foreign policy
was to obtain the recognition of Prince Ferdinand, and to win the
support of the Triple Alliance and Great Britain against Russian
interference in Bulgaria. In his dealings with Turkey, the
suzerain power, he displayed .considerable acuteness; he gained
the confidence of the Sultan, whom he flattered and occasionally
menaced; and aided by the ambassadors of the friendly powers,
he succeeded in obtaining on two occasions important concessions
for the Bulgarian episcopate in Macedonia (see MACEDONIA),
while securing the tacit sanction of the Porte for the technically
illegal situation in the principality. With the assistance of
Austria-Hungary and Great Britain he negotiated large foreign
loans which enabled him to develop the military strength of
Bulgaria. Under Prince Ferdinand he pursued the same
despotic methpds of government which had characterized his
administration during the regency; Major Panitza, who had
organized a revolutionary conspiracy, was tried by court-martial
and shot at Sofia in 1890; four of his political opponents were
hanged at Sofia in the following year, and Karavelov was sen-
tenced to five years' imprisonment. His tyrannical disposition
was increased by the assassination of his colleague, Beltchev,
in 1891, and of Dr Vlkovitch, the Bulgarian representative at
Constantinople, in 1892, and eventually proved intolerable to
Prince Ferdinand, who compelled him to resign in May 1894.
He was now exposed to the vengeance of his enemies, and sub-
jected to various indignities and persecutions; he was refused
STAMFORD, IST EARL OF STAMFORD
769
permission to leave the country, and his property was confiscated.
On the isth of July 1895 he was attacked and barbarously muti-
lated by a band of Macedonian assassins in the streets of Sofia,
and succumbed to his injuries three days later. His funeral, which
was attended by the representatives of the powers at Sofia, was
interrupted by disgraceful riots, and an effort was made to
perpetrate an outrage on his remains. No attempt was made to
arrest his murderers; two persons were, however, arraigned for
the crime in 1806, and subjected to almost nominal penalties.
(J. D. B.)
STAMFORD, HENRY GREY, ist EARL OF (c. 1599-1673),
eldest son of Sir John Grey, succeeded his grandfather, Henry
Grey as Baron Grey of Groby in July 1614. He married Anne,
daughter of William Cecil, 2nd earl of Exeter, the heiress of the
borough and manor of Stamford, and in March 1628 was created
earl of Stamford. Just before the outbreak of the Civil War he
ranged himself definitely among the king's opponents, and was
made lord-lieutenant of Leicestershire. After some operations
around Leicester he occupied Hereford, and, when compelled
to abandon the city, marched into Cornwall. At Stratton, in
May 1643, his troops were beaten by the Royalists; driven into
Exeter, Stamford was forced to surrender this city after a siege
of three months. The earl, who was certainly no general, was
charged with cowardice, and took no further part in the military
operations of the war, although once or twice he was employed
on other business. The ravages of the Royalists had reduced
him to poverty, and, distrusted by the House of Commons, he
had great difficulty in getting any compensation from parlia-
ment. After a period of retirement Stamford declared for
Charles II. during a rising in August 1659, and was arrested, but
was soon released. He died on the 2ist of August 1673. One
of his sons was Anchitell Grey (d. 1702), the compiler of the
Debates of the House of Commons, 1667-1694 (10 vols. 1769).
His eldest son, Thomas, Lord Grey of Groby (c. 1623-1657), was
member of parliament for Leicester during the Long Parliament,
and an active member of the parliamentary party. In January
1643 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of the
parliament in the midland counties and governor of Leicester.
In 1648 he won some credit for his share in the pursuit and
capture of the duke of Hamilton; he assisted Colonel Pride to
" purge " the House of Commons later in the same year; and
he was a member of the court which tried the king, whose death-
warrant he signed. A member of the council of state under the
Commonwealth, Grey fought against the Scots in 1651, and in
February 1655 he was arrested on suspicion of conspiring against
Cromwell. He was, however, soon released, but he predeceased
his father in April or May 1657.
THOMAS (c. 1654-1720), only son of the last named, succeeded
his grandfather as 2nd earl of Stamford. He took some part in
resisting the arbitrary actions of Charles II., and was arrested in
July 1685; then after his release he took up arms on behalf of
.William of Orange, after whose accession to the throne he was
made a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Devonshire. In
1697 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1699
president of the board of trade, being dismissed from his office
on the accession of Anne in 1702. From 1707 to 1711, however,
he was again president of the board of trade. On his death
without children on the 3ist of January 1720 his titles passed
to his cousin HENRY (d. 1739), a grandson of the first earl, from
whom the later earls were descended.
STAMFORD, a city of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
in a township of the same name, in the south-western part of
the state, on Long Island Sound, 33! m. (by rail) N.E. of New
York City. Pop. of the city (1900), 15,997, of whom 4078 were
foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,138; of the township, including
the city (1900), 18,839; (i9 lo )> 28,836. The city is served by
the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway (which has
other stations in the township at Glenbrook, Springdale and
Talmadge Hill), by electric railway to Darien, Greenwich, &c.,
and by two lines of steamboats to New York City and ports on
the Sound. The city is pleasantly situated with the Rippowam
river flowing through it, the Mianus river on the west and the
xxv. 25
Noroton on the east. It is the place of residence of many New
York business men. Among its institutions are the Ferguson
Library (1882; with 16,000 volumes in 1909), several private
schools, a Y.M.C.A., the Stamford Hospital (private, 1893), two
private sanatoria, the Convent of our Lady of Lourdes, St
John's Church House, a day nursery (1902), with dispensary and
kindergarten, and the Stamford Children's Home (1895). The
Stamford and the Corinthian Yacht Clubs have club-houses
here. Shippan Point, on the Sound, 15 m. south of the city, is
a summer resort, near which the city bought land for a public
park in 1906. Stamford's factory product in 1905 was valued
at $5,890,416, 50-3% more than in 1900. The principal manu-
factures are builders' hardware, locks and keys (the works of
the Yale & Towne Manufacturing Company are here), woollen
goods, dye stuffs, &c. The township of Stamford, known until
1642 by the Indian name of Rippowam, was settled in 1641 by
twenty-nine persons who for religious reasons seceded from the
Wethersfield church and joined the colony of New Haven. Dis-
content with the religious policy of New Haven, however, caused
a number of the Stamford citizens to withdraw and to found
Hempstead, Long Island, and for the same reason many of the
people of Stamford approved of the union of the New Haven
colony and Connecticut by the charter of 1662; and in Octo-
ber 1662 Stamford submitted to Connecticut. Stamford was
chartered as a borough in 1830 and as a city in 1894.
See E. B. Huntingdon, History of Stamford (Stamford, 1868) ; and
C. B. Gillespie, Picturesque Stamford (Stamford, 1893).
STAMFORD, a market town and municipal borough, chiefly
in the South Kesteven or Stamford parliamentary division of Lin-
colnshire, but partly in Northamptonshire, on the river Welland,
at the landward edge of the fen country. Pop. (1901), 8229.
The town stands picturesquely on the steep banks of the river,
and is of the highest antiquarian interest. It formerly possessed
fourteen parish churches, but now has only six, viz. St Mary's,
erected at the end of the I3th century, possessing an Early
English tower, with Decorated spire, the principal other parts
of the building being Perpendicular; All Saints', also of the i3th
century, the steeple being built at the expense of John Browne,
merchant of the staple at Calais, in the beginning of the isth
century; St Michael's, rebuilt in 1836 on the site of the one
erected in 1269; St George's, Early English, Decorated, and
Perpendicular, for the most part rebuilt in 1450 at the expense
of William Bruges, first garter king-at-arms; St John Baptist's,
Perpendicular, erected about 1452; and St Martin's, Perpendicu-
lar, in which Lord Treasurer Burghley is buried. Formerly
there were several religious houses: the Benedictine monastery
of St Leonard's, founded in the 7th century, of which there are
some Norman and later remains; the Carmelite monastery
(1291), of which the west gate still stands; and houses for Grey
Friars (time of Henry III.), Dominicans (1240), Gilbertines
(1291), and Augustinians (1316). The principal secular build-
ings are the town hall (rebuilt 1776), the corn exchange (1859),
and the literary and scientific institute (1842), with a library of
6000 volumes. There are a large number of charitable institu-
tions, including the Stamford and Rutland infirmary (1828),
Browne's hospital, founded in the time of Richard III., with
its picturesque Late Perpendicular building, Snowden's alms-
houses (1604), Truesdale's almshouses (1700), and Burghley
hospital, founded by Lord Treasurer Burghley (1597). The
modern grammar school building incorporates remains of the
church of St Paul. To the south of Stamford, in Northampton-
shire, is Burghley House, the seat of the marquis of Exeter, a fine
quadrangular mansion dating from 1587, containing a note-
worthy art collection. It stands in a well-wooded park. The
prosperity of the town depends chiefly on its connexion with
agriculture. It possesses iron foundries, agricultural implement
works, wagon factories and breweries. There is also some trade
in coal, timber, stone and slates. The town is governed by a
mayor, 6 aldermen and 1 8 councillors. Area, 1918 acres.
Apart from the tradition preserved by Henry of Huntingdon
that the Saxons here defeated the Picts and Scots in 449, Stam-
ford (Staunford) is a place of great antiquity. The Danes built
770
STAMMERING
a fort here on the north bank of the Welland, round which a town
existed when in 922 King Edward fortified the opposite side of
the stream. It passed again into Danish hands and was one of
the five boroughs recaptured by Edmund ^Etheling in 941. The
priory of St Leonard was a cell of Durham, and a charter of
Edgar dated 972 mentions a market and a mint. In the reign
of Edward the Confessor Stamford was a royal borough governed
by twelve lawmen, reduced in 1086 to nine, and divided into
six wards. The Norman castle, built before 1086, was thrice
besieged by Henry II. while Duke of Normandy, but only
yielded in 1153. Two years later he granted it and the manor
to Richard Humet; forfeited by his son it was given to John,
earl of Warenne, in 1206. In 1337 it passed to William de
Bohun, earl of Northampton, and thence to Edmund Langley,
afterwards duke of York, finally reverting to the Crown on the
death of Cicely, duchess of York. Elizabeth granted it to the
first Lord Burghley. The barons met here in 1215 on their
march to London, and in 1309 a parliament was held at Stam-
ford. In 1256 Henry III. gave the burgesses freedom from
tolls, the right of receiving tolls and immunity of their goods
from arrest; privileges confirmed and enlarged in the following
year. William, earl of Warenne, in 1275 permitted the burgesses
to choose their chief officer or alderman, who was still sworn in
at the manor court as late as 1615 and was first called " mayor "
in 1663. Edward IV. incorporated Stamford by the name of
the alderman and burgesses in 1461 and granted the town
immunity from all external jurisdiction and gave it a common
seal. The charters have been frequently confirmed. As early
as 1292 Stamford was well known for its monastic schools, and
in 1333 was chosen as the headquarters of the students who
seceded from Oxford, and an Early Decorated gateway remains
of Brasenose Hall. The attempt to establish a regular univer-
sity was prohibited by royal authority. The defeat of the
Yorkists here was followed by the decay of the castle in the
reign of Richard III., and the history of the place henceforth
centred chiefly round the family of Cecil, whose ancestor, David
Seyceld, settled here about 1566. Stamford occasionally re-
turned two members to parliament from 1295 until 1832. The
representation was reduced to one by the act of 1867, and was
abolished in 1885. The fairs are of ancient origin, and are
mentioned in 1245 and the reign of Edward I. These are the
May fair, town fair, and spring fair, and fairs on various dates
representing Candlemas, mid-Lent, the feasts of Corpus Christi,
St James and SS. Simon and Jude. A market is still held every
Friday. In 1182 there were dyers, weavers and fullers here,
but these were only the usual home industries. In 1822 silk
throwsting was successfully carried on, but this has long ceased.
See E. C. Mackenzie-Walcott, Memorials of Stamford, past and
present (Stamford, 1867); John Drakard, The History of Stamford
in the County of Lincoln, comprising its ancient progressive and modern
state (Stamford, 1822); Charles Nevinson, History of Stamford
(Stamford, 1879); Victoria County History : Lincoln.
STAMMERING, or STUTTERING, a spasmodic affection of the
organs of speech in which the articulation of words is suddenly
checked and a pause ensues, often followed by a repetition in
rapid sequence of the particular sound at which the stoppage
occurred. Of this distressing affection there are many grades,
from a slight inability to pronounce with ease certain letters or
syllables, or a tendency to hesitate and to interject unmeaning
sounds in a spoken sentence, to the more severe condition in
which there is a paroxysm of spasms of the muscles, not only of
the tongue and throat and face, but even of those of respiration
and of the body generally. To understand in some degree the
explanation of stammering it is necessary to consider shortly
the physiological mechanism of articulate speech. Speech is the
result of various muscular movements affecting the current of air
as it passes in expiration from the larynx through the mouth. If
the vocal cords are called into action, and the sounds thus pro-
duced are modified by the muscular movements of the tongue,
cheek and lips, we have vocal speech; but if the glottis is widely
open and the vocal cords relaxed the current of air may still .be
moulded by the muscular apparatus so as to produce speech
without voice, or whispering (see VOICE). In both cases, how-
ever, the mechanism is very complicated, requiring a series of
nervous and muscular actions, all of which must be executed
with precision and in accordance. In vocal speech, for example,
it is necessary that the respiratory movements, more especially
those of expiration, occur regularly and with nice adjustment
to the kind of articulate expression required; that the vocal
cords be approximated and tightened by the muscles of the
larynx acting with delicate precision, so as to produce the sound
of the pitch desired; that the rima gloltidis (or aperture of the
larynx) be opened so as to produce prolonged sounds, or
suddenly closed so as to cut off the current of air; that the move-
ments of the muscles of the tongue, of the soft palate, of the
jaws, of the cheeks and of the lips occur precisely at the right
time and to the requisite extent; and finally that all of these
muscular adjustments take place with rapidity and snroothness,
gliding into each other without effort and without loss of time.
Exquisite co-ordination of muscular movement is therefore
necessary, involving also complicated nervous actions. Hence
is it that speech is acquired by long and laborious effort. A child
possesses voice from the beginning; it is born with the capacity
for speech; but articulate expression is the result of education.
In infancy, not only is knowledge acquired of external objects,
and signs attached in the form of words to the ideas thus
awakened, but the nervous and muscular mechanisms by which
these signs or words receive vocal expression are trained by
long practice to work harmoniously.
It is not surprising, therefore, that in certain cases, owing to
some obscure congenital defect, the co-ordination is not effected
with sufficient precision, and that stammering is the result.
Even in severe cases no appreciable lesion can be detected either
in the nervous or muscular mechanisms, and the condition is
similar to what may affect all varieties of finely co-ordinated
movements. The mechanism does not work smoothly, but
the pathologist is unable to show any organic defect. Thus the
co-ordinated movements necessary in writing are disturbed
in scrivener's palsy, and the skilful performer on the piano or
on any instrument requiring minute manipulation may find that
he is losing the power of delicate adjustment. Stammering is
occasionally hereditary. It rarely shows itself before the age
of four or five years, and as a rule it is developed between this
age and puberty. Men stammer in a much larger proportion
than women. It may occur during the course of nervous
affections, such as hysteria, epilepsy or locomotor ataxia; some-
times it follows febrile disorders; often it develops in a child
in a feeble state of health, without any special disease. In
some cases a child may imitate a stammerer and thus acquire
the habit. Any general enfeeblement of the health, and
especially nervous excitement, aggravates the condition of a
confirmed stammerer.
Stammerers, as a rule, find the explosive consonants b, p, d,
t, k and hard g the most difficult to articulate, but many also
are unable easily to deal with the more continuous consonants,
such as ,/, th, s, z, sh, m, n, y, and in severe cases even the vowels
may cause a certain amount of spasm. Usually the defect is
not observed in whispering or singing; but there are exceptions
to this statement. In pronouncing the explosive sounds the
part of the oral apparatus that ought suddenly to open or close
remains spasmodically closed, and the stammerer remains for
a moment voiceless or strives pitifully to overcome the obstruc-
tion, uttering a few successive puffs or sounds like the beginning
of the sound he wishes to utter. The lips thus remain closed
at the attempted utterance of b and p; the tip of the tongue is
pressed against the hard palate or the back of the upper front
teeth in d and I; and the back of the tongue presses against the
posterior part of the palate in pronouncing g hard and k. In
attempting the continuous consonants, in which naturally the
passage is not completely obstructed, the stammerer does not
close the passage spasmodically, but the parts become fixed in
the half-opened condition, or there are intermittent attempts
to open or close them, causing either a drawling sound or coming
to a full stop. In severe cases, where even vowels cannot be
freely uttered, the spasm appears to be at the rima g!.nttidis
STAMP
771
(opening of the larynx). Again, in some cases, the spasm may
affect the respiratory muscles, giving rise to a curious barking
articulation, in consequence of spasm of the expiratory muscles,
and in such cases the patient utters the first part of the sentence
slowly, gradually accelerates the speed, and makes a rush
towards the close. In the great majority of cases the spasm
affects the muscles of articulation proper, that is, those of the
pharynx, tongue, cheeks and lips.
A condition named aphihongia is particularly distressing. It
totally prevents speech, and may, at intervals, come on when
the person attempts to speak; but fortunately it is only of
temporary duration, and is usually caused by exceptional
nervous excitement. It is characterized by spasm of the
muscles supplied by the hypoglossal nerve, including the sterno-
hyoid, sterno-thyroid and thyro-hyoid muscles. In almost all
cases of stuttering it is noticed that the defect is most apparent
when the person is obliged to make a sudden transition from
one class of sounds to another, and the patient soon discovers
this for himself and chooses his words so as to avoid dangerous
muscular combinations. When one considers the delicate
nature of the adjustments necessary in articulate speech, this
is what may be expected. It is well known that a quickly
diffusible stimulant, such as alcohol, temporarily removes the
difficulty in speech.
Stuttering may be successfully overcome in some cases by a
careful process of education under a competent tutor. Not a
few able public speakers were at first stutterers, but a prolonged
course of vocal gymnastics has remedied the defect. The
patient should be encouraged to read and speak slowly and
deliberately, carefully pronouncing each syllable, and when he
feels the tendency to stammer, he should be advised to pause
for a short time, and then by a strong voluntary effort to
attempt to pronounce the word. He should also be taught how
to regulate respiration during speech, so that he may not fail
from want of breath. In some cases aid may be obtained by
raising the voice towards the close of the sentence. Sounds or
combinations of sounds that present special difficulties should
be made the subject of careful study j and the defect may be
largely overcome by a series of graduated exercises in reading.
The practice of intoning is useful in many cases; and many per-
sons who habitually stutter in conversation show no sign of the
defect when they come to sing. In ordinary conversation it
is often important to have some one present who may by a look
put the stammerer on his guard when he is observed to be talking
too quickly or indistinctly. Thus by patience and determination
many stammerers have so far overcome the defect that it can
scarcely be noticed in conversation; but even in such cases
mental excitement or slovenly inattention to the rules of speech
suitable for the condition may cause a relapse. In very severe
cases, where the spasmodic seizures affect other muscles than
those of articulation, special medical treatment is necessary,
as such are on the borderland of serious nervous disturbance.
All measures tending to improve the general health, the removal
of any affection of the mouth or gums that may aggravate
habitual stammering, the avoidance of great emotional excite-
ment, a steady determination to overcome the defect by volun-
tary control, and a system of education such as has been sketched
will do much in the great majority of cases to remedy stam-
mering.
STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence
to impress, O. Eng. slempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence,
O. Fr. eslamper, mod. Clamper), an instrument for crushing or
pounding or for making impressions or marks on other bodies;
thus, in mining, the stamp is that part of the machinery of a
mill which crushes the ore to the fineness necessary for the
separation of the valuable portions; in coining, &c., it is an
engraved block or die by which the mark is impressed, hence
in the most general sense of the word an impression or mark
made with a " stamp," and particularly such a mark impressed on
a document for purposes of certification, validity and the like, or
as showing that certain duties or charges have been paid. For
the first class, viz., stamps for purposes of taxation, see Stamp
Duties below; For the second class, of which the most familiar
are the small adhesive pieces of paper used as the sign that
postal charges have been duly paid on letters, parcels, &c.,
transmitted by the postal service of a country, see POST AND
POSTAL SERVICE and PHILATELY.
Stamp Duties. The stamp duty is a tax imposed upon a
great variety of legal and other documents, and forms a branch
of the national revenue. The stamp is a cheap and convenient
mode of certifying that the revenue regulations have been com-
plied with. Stamp duties appear to have been invented by
the Dutch in 1624. They were first imposed in England by an
act of 1694 as a temporary means of raising funds for carrying
on the war with France. Stamp duties in the United Kingdom
form part of the inland revenue, and are placed under the con-
trol of the commissioner of inland revenue. The principal
acts in force on the subject are the Stamp Act 1891 and the
Stamp Duties Management Act 1891. Amendments of the
law are also included in the Customs and Inland Revenue
Act 1893, the Finance Acts of subsequent years, and the
Revenue Act 1898. The death duties, the corporation duty,
the duties on patent medicines and playing cards, and postage
duties, are also technically "stamp duties"; but in ordinary
use the expression is limited to those imposed on the various
classes of legal instruments, such as conveyances, leases,
transfers, mortgages, bonds, &c., on bills of exchange, pro-
missory notes, contract notes, bank notes and bankers' drafts,
receipts, insurance policies, bills of lading, and a few other
documents. Stamps are either adhesive or impressed. The
adhesive stamps, which can only be used for certain
documents, can be obtained at inland revenue offices through-
out the United Kingdom, and at all post offices which are
money order offices. Stamps can only be impressed at the
inland revenue offices in certain of the larger towns. For
duties not exceeding 23. 6d. the adhesive inland revenue or
postage stamps may (in most cases) be used indiscriminately.
This arrangement was first introduced in 1881, when it was
applied to the penny stamp, and it has since been extended to
other denominations. The commissioners of inland revenue
are authorized to make allowance under certain conditions
for stamps which have been inadvertently spoiled or rendered
useless for their intended purposes. In order to obtain
such allowance the parties must present the stamps within
two years from the time when they became useless. The
commissioners may be required by any person to express their
opinion as to the amount of duty, if any, which is chargeable
on any instrument; and such person, if dissatisfied with the
assessment made, may appeal to the courts.
The stamp duty on the transfer of certain kinds of securities
can be commuted by the payment of a lump sum or (in some
cases) an annual composition, and the transfers then become
exempt from duty.
Stamp duties are either fixed, such as the duty of one penny on
every cheque irrespective of its amount, or ad valorem, as the duty
on a conveyance, which varies according to the amount of the
purchase money. The duty is denoted generally by an impressed,
less frequently by an adhesive, stamp, sometimes by either at the
option of the person stamping. Thus an inland bill of exchange
(unless payable on demand) must have an inipressed stamp, a
foreign bill of exchange an adhesive stamp, while an agreement or
receipt stamp may be of either kind. It should be noticed that
certain documents falling within a class which as a rule is subject to
stamp duty are for reasons of public policy or encouragement of trade
exempted from the duty by special legislation. Examples of such
documents are Bank of England notes, agreements within 17
(but not those within 4) of the Statute of Frauds (see FRAUD),
agreements between a master of a ship and his crew, transfers of
ships or shares in ships, indentures of apprenticeship for the sea
service, petitions forwarded by post to the Crown or a House of
Parliament and most instruments relating to the business of building
and friendly societies.
As a general rule a document must be stamped at the time of
execution, or a penalty (remissible by the commissioners of inland
revenue) is incurred. The penalty is in most cases 10, sometimes
much more; in the case of policies of marine insurance it is 100.
Some instruments cannot be stamped at all after execution, even
with payment of the penalty. Such are bills of exchange and pro-
missory notes (where an impressed stamp is necessary), bills of lading,
772
STANCHION STANDISH
proxies for voting at meetings of proprietors of joint-stock companies
and receipts after a month from date. An unstamped instrument
cannot be pleaded or given in evidence except in criminal proceed-
ings or for a collateral purpose. If an instrument chargeable with
duty be produced as evidence in a court, the officer whose duty it
is to read the instrument is to call the attention of the judge to any
omission or insufficiency of the stamp, and if the instrument is one
which may legally be stamped after execution, it may, on payment
of the amount of the unpaid duty and the penalty payable by law,
and a further sum of l, be received in evidence, saving all just
exceptions on other grounds. The rules of the supreme court, 1883
(Ord. xxxix. r. 8, re-enacting a provision of the Common Law Pro-
cedure Act), provide that a new trial is not to be granted by reason
of the ruling of a judge that the stamp upon any document is sufficient
or that the document does not require a stamp. The stamp upon
a document subject to the stamp laws of a foreign state is usually
admissible in evidence in a court of the United Kingdom if it conform
in other respects to the rules governing the admissibility of such
documents, even though it be improperly stamped according to the
law of the foreign country. The admissibility of documents belongs
to the ordinatoria litis rather than the decisoria litis, and is governed
by the lexfori rather than the lex loci contractus, unless indeed that
law makes a stamp necessary to the validity of the instrument.
Certain offences, such as forging a die or stamp, selling or using a
forged stamp,' &c., are made felonies punishable with penal servitude
for life as a maximum.
United States. The subject of stamp duties is of unusual historical
interest, as the passing of Grenville's Stamp Act of 1765 (see UNITED
STATES: History) directly led to the American War of Independ-
ence. The act was, indeed, repealed the next year as a matter of
expediency, but an act of the same year dealing with the dependency
of American colonies declared the right of the British legislature
to bind the colonies by its acts. The actual yield of the stamp duties
under the act of 1765 was, owing to the opposition in the American
colonies, only 4000 less than the expenses of putting the act into
force. The stamp duties of the United States are now under the
superintendence of the commissioner of internal revenue.
STANCHION (Fr. etan^on, a wooden post), an architectural
term applied to the upright iron bars in windows which pass
through the eyes of the saddle bars or horizontal irons to steady
the lead lights. The French call the latter traverses, the stan-
chions monlants, and the whole arrangement armature. Stan-
chions frequently finish with ornamental heads forged out of
the iron.
STANDARD, a term with three main meanings: (i) an ensign
or flag; (2) a fixed weight, measure, value or quality established
by law or customarily recognized as a unit of comparison by
which the correctness of others can be determined; (3) an upright
or standing object, such as a large candelabrum, or, particularly,
a fruit-tree which stands without support. With regard to the
derivation, the word which appears in most European languages,
e.g. Du. standaard, Ger. Standarte, O. Fr. eslandart, estendard, mod.
etendard, Ital. stendale, steiidardo, &c., is to be referred to the
Teut. standan, to stand, and refers to the fixed pole to which an
object or a pole was attached. The " standard " as a military
ensign was properly stationary and served as the signal of the
position of its owner on the ordered field of battle. The O. Fr.
form estendard points to the influence of Lat. extendere, to spread
out, extend, of the flag when hung upon the pole (see further
FLAG for the various meanings of the word and its history). The
use of the term for a recognized unit of comparison is due probably
to the fact that it is something fixed or set up, stable, and not
to any fanciful reference to the ensign or flag as the object to
which one turns as a rallying-point. For the standard weights
and measures see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES and STANDARDS
DEPARTMENT below. There are many other standards, such as
electrical standards (see ELECTRICITY), standard solutions in
chemistry (q.v.) for the purpose of volumetric analysis, &c. In
engineering, the component parts of machines or other structures
are " standardized " in accordance with agreed measurements.
For " standard time " see TIME, STANDARD.
STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE, a name given to the battle of
the 22nd of August 1138 near Northallerton, in which the Scottish
army under King David was defeated by the English levies
of Yorkshire and the north Midlands, who arrayed them-
selves round a chariot carrying the consecrated banners of
St Peter of York, St John of Beverley, St Wilfrid of Ripon
and St Cuthbert of Durham.
See C. Oman, Art of War: Middle Ages, pp. 389 sqq. '
STANDARDS DEPARTMENT, a department of the English
Board of Trade, having the custody of the imperial standards
of weights and measures. As far back as can be traced, the
standard weights and measures, the primary instruments for
determining the justness of all other weights and measures used
in the United Kingdom, were kept at the exchequer, and the
duties relating to these standards were imposed upon the
chamberlains of the exchequer. The office of chamberlains
was abolished in 1826, under the operation of 23 Geo. III. c.
82, passed in 1783, but the custody of the standards and any
duties connected therewith remained attached to an officer
in the exchequer (q.v.) until that department was abolished in
1866. Meanwhile, in pursuance of recommendations of Standard
Commissions of 1841 and 1854 and a House of Commons Com-
mittee of 1862, the Standards of Weights, Measures and Coinage
Act 1866 was passed. This act created a special department of
the Board of Trade, called the " Standard Weights and Measures
Department," and a head of that department styled the " Warden
of the Standards." His duty was to conduct comparisons,
verifications and operations with reference to the standards
in aid of scientific research and otherwise. The first indeed,
the only real holder of the office was Henry Williams Chisholm
(1809-1901), previously chief clerk of the old exchequer, under
whose direction the department was organized; and before his
retirement in 1877 it embraced not merely the re-verification
of the imperial standards, but the making of local standards for
local authorities, the re-verification of standards and instruments
for all parts of the United Kingdom and colonies, for foreign
countries which did not possess standardizing departments, the
verification of manufacturers' standards and instruments, gas-
measuring standards, apparatus for determining the flash-point
of petroleum, &c. The Weights and Measures Act of 1878 left
out all reference to the title and office of warden of the standards,
and this opportunity was taken, in the words of the then per-
manent secretary of the Board of Trade, T. H. (afterwards Lord)
Farrer, to make the office " more strictly a department of the
Board of Trade." It was put in charge of an officer (Mr H. J.
Chancy) termed " Superintendent of Weights and Measures,"
but on his death in 1906 an attempt was made partially to
restore dignity and importance to the office by the appointment
of Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S., with the title of " Deputy
Warden of the Standards." l
There are Standards departments under the charge of experi-
enced scientists in Berlin, St Petersburg, Paris, Vienna, Rome,
Madrid, Lisbon, Brussels, Bucharest and Constantinople and at
Ottawa, Melbourne and Sidney. The United States Bureau of
Standards is in the department of Commerce and Labor. It
was established in 1901 and is under the charge of a director.
Its work follows that of the English department and embraces
also research in the domain of physics, extending from chemistry
on the one side to engineering on the other. It also tests and
investigates standards and methods of constructing measuring-
instruments for scientific societies, educational institutions,
manufacturers and others.
STANDERTON, a town of the Transvaal, 114 m. S.E. of
Johannesburg, on the railway from that city, via Newcastle to
Durban, distant 369 m. Pop. (1904), 4589, of whom 2136 were
white. Standerton is 5025 ft. above the sea and is built on
the north bank of the Vaal, here spanned by two fine bridges.
It is the chief town of a district of the same name and the centre
of an important agricultural and pastoral region. A government
stud farm is maintained here. In the neighbourhood are coal-
fields. The name of the town is derived from that of the former
owner of the site, an Adrian Slander, who fought against the
British at Boomplaats in 1848. The town was laid out in
1870. Since 1903 it has been governed by a municipality.
STANDISH, MILES, or MYLES (c. 1584-1636), American
colonist, was born about 1584 in Lancashire, probably of the
1 The act of 1878, which repealed the act of 1866, merely declared
that the Board of Trade should have all powers and perform all duties
relative to the standards vested in or imposed upon the warden of
the standards by the act of 1866 or otherwise, and the title "deputy
warden of the standards " is therefore a departmental creation.
STANFIELD STANHOPE, EARLS
773
Duxbury Hall branch of the family. Nothing definite is known
of him before 1620, when with his wife, Rose (d. 1621), he emi-
grated to New England in the " Mayflower." He became the
military leader of the Plymouth colony; was sent to London in
1625 on an unsuccessful mission to secure the intervention of
the Council for New England in the affairs of the colony; and
in 1628 was one of the eight members of the colony who pledged
themselves to pay 1800 and thus buy out the merchant adven-
turers. In 1631 with William Brewster and others he settled
at Duxbury, where he died on the 3rd of October 1656, and
where on " Captain's Hill, " near the site of his home, there is
a monument to him, consisting of a stone shaft, no ft. high,
and a bronze statue of him. Longfellow's Courtship of Miles
Standish apparently has no basis in fact; Standish's second wife,
Barbara, a sister of Rose, must have been summoned to Ply-
mouth a year before the marriage of John Alden to Priscilla
Mullins. Lowell's Interview with Miles Standish misrepresents
him : he was not a typical Puritan.
See William Bradford's History of Plimouth Plantation. Tudor
Jenks's Captain Myles Standish (New York, 1905) and Henry
ohnson's Exploits of Myles Standish (New York, 1897) are popular
sketches.
STANFIELD, WILLIAM CLARKSON (1794-1867), English
marine painter, was born of Irish parentage at Sunderland in
1794. As a youth he was a sailor, and during many long voyages
he acquired that intimate acquaintance with the sea and ship-
ping which was admirably displayed in his subsequent works.
In his spare time he diligently occupied himself in sketching
marine subjects, and so much skill did he acquire that, after
having been incapacitated by an accident from active service, he
received an engagement, about 1818, to paint scenery for the
" Old Royalty, " a sailor's theatre in Wellclose Square, London.
Along with David Roberts he was afterwards employed at the
Cobourg theatre, Lambeth; and in 1826 he became scene-painter
to Drury Lane theatre, where he executed some admirable work,
especially distinguishing himself by the production of a drop-
scene, and by decorations for the Christmas pieces for which
the house was celebrated. Meanwhile he had been at work upon
some easel pictures of small dimensions, and was elected a member
of the Society of British Artists. Encouraged by his success at
the British Institution, where in 1827 he exhibited his first
important picture " Wreckers off Fort Rouge " and in 1828
gained a premium of 50 guineas, he before 1830 abandoned
scene-painting, and in that year made an extended tour on the
Continent. He now produced his " Mount St Michael, " which
ranks as one of his finest works ; in 1832 he exhibited his " Opening
of New London Bridge " and " Portsmouth Harbour " commis-
sions from William IV. in the Royal Academy, of which he was
elected an associate in 1832 and an academician in 1835; and
until his death on the i8th of May 1867 he contributed to its
exhibitions a long series of powerful and highly popular works,
dealing mainly with marine subjects, but occasionally with
scenes of a more purely landscape character. Among these may
be named: the " Battle of Trafalgar " (1836), executed for the
United Service Club; the " Castle of Ischia " (1841), " Isola Bella "
(1841), among the results of a visit to Italy in 1839; "French troops
Fording the Margra " (1847), " The ' Victory ' Bearing the Body of
Nelson Towed into Gibraltar" (1853), " The Abandoned "(1856).
He also executed two notable series of Venetian subjects, one
for the banqueting-hall at Bo wood, the other for Trentham.
He was much employed on the illustrations for The Picturesque
Annual, and published a collection of lithographic views on the
Rhine, Moselle and Meuse; and forty of his works were engraved
in line under the title of " Stanfield's Coast Scenery. " The
whole course of Stanfield's art was powerfully influenced by
his early practice as a scene-painter. But, though there is
always a touch of the spectacular and the scenic in his works,
and though their colour is apt to be rather dry arid hard, they
are large and effective in handling, powerful in their treatment
of broad atmospheric effects and telling in composition, and they
evince the most complete knowledge of the artistic materials
with which their painter deals.
STANFORD, SIR CHARLES VILLIERS (1852- ), Irish
musical composer, was born in Dublin on the 3Oth of September
1852, being the only son of Mr John Stanford, examiner in the
court of chancery (Dublin) and clerk of the Crown, Co.
Meath. Both parents of the composer were accomplished
amateur musicians, the father being the possessor of a splendid
bass voice, and the mother a very clever pianist. Under R. M.
Levey (violin), Miss Meeke, Mrs Joseph Robinson, Miss Flynn
and Michael Quarry (piano), young Stanford's musical powers
were trained in the early days; and Sir Robert Stewart taught
him composition and organ. Various feats of precocity are
recorded in an article in the Musical Times for December 1898.
He came to London as a pupil of Arthur O'Leary and Ernst
Pauer in 1862, and in 1870 won a scholarship at Queen's College,
Cambridge, whence he migrated to Trinity College in 1873, and
succeeded J. L. Hopkins as college organist, a post he held till
1892. His appointment as conductor of the Cambridge Univer-
sity Musical Society gave him great opportunities, and the fame
which the society soon obtained was in the main due to Stan-
ford's energies. Before his time ladies were not admitted into
the chorus, but during his tenure of the office of conductor many
most interesting performances and revivals took place. In
the years 1874 to 1877 he was given leave of absence for a portion
of each year in order to complete his studies in Germany, where
he learnt from Reinecke and Kiel. He took the B.A. degree in
1874 and M.A. in 1878, and was given the honorary degree of
Mus. D., at Oxford in 1883, and at Cambridge in 1888. He
first came prominently before the public as a composer with his
incidental music to Tennyson's Queen Mary (Lyceum, 1876);
and in 1881 his first opera, The Veiled Prophet, was given at
Hanover (revived at Covent Garden, 1893); this was succeeded
by Savonarola (Hamburg, April, and Covent Garden, July 1884),
and The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884). A long inter-
val separates these from his later operas, Shamus O'Brien, a
delightful piece of Irish dramatic writing (Opera Comique, 1896)
and Much Ado About Nothing (Covent Garden, 1901). For the
main provincial festivals, works by Stanford were commissioned
as follows; "Orchestral serenade" (Birmingham, 1882); "Elegiac
Ode" (Norwich, 1884); The Three Holy Children (Birming-
ham, 1885); The Revenge (Leeds, 1886); The Voyage of Maeldune
(Leeds, 1889); The Battle of the Baltic (Hereford, 1891); Eden
(Birmingham, 1891) ; The Bard (Cardiff, 1895) ; Phaudrig Crohoore
(Norwich, 1896); Requiem (Birmingham, 1897); Te Deum (Leeds,
1898); TheLastPost (Hereford, 1900); StabatMater (Leeds, 1907).
Besides these, his music includes a few choral works of importance,
such as The Resurrection (Cambridge, 1875) ; Psalm XLVI. (Cam-
bridge, 1877); Carmen Saeculare (Jubilee Ode, 1887); " Installa-
tion Ode " (Cambridge, 1892) ; East to West (London, 1893) ; Psalm.
CL. (Manchester, 1887); Mass in G (Brompton Oratory, 1893).
He was appointed professor of composition at the Royal College
of Music, 1883; conductor of the Bach choir in 1885; professor of
music in the university of Cambridge, succeeding Sir G. A.
Macfarren, 1887; conductor of the Leeds Philharmonic Society,
1897, and of the Leeds Festival from 1901 onwards. He
was knighted in 1902. His instrumental works include six.
symphonies, many chamber compositions, among them two
string quartets; besides many songs, part-songs, madrigals,
&c., and incidental music to the Eumenides and Oedipus Rex
(as performed at Cambridge), as well as to Tennyson's Becket.
His church music holds an honoured place among modern
Anglican compositions; and his editions of Irish and other
traditional songs are well known. In 1908 he published an
interesting volume of Studies and Memories, a collection of
contributions to reviews, &c., in past years.
STANHOPE, EARLS. JAMES STANHOPE, ist EARL STANHOPE
(c. 1673-1721), English statesman and soldier, was the eldest
son of Alexander Stanhope (d. 1707), a son of Philip Stanhope, ist
earl of Chesterfield. Educated at Eton and at Trinity College,
Oxford, he accompanied his father, then British minister at
Madrid, to Spain in 1690, and obtained some knowledge of that
country which was very vseful to him in later life. A little
later, however, he went to Italy where, as afterwards in Flanders,
774
STANHOPE, EARLS
he served as a volunteer against France, and in 1695 he secured
a commission in the British army. In 1701 Stanhope entered
the House of Commons, but he continued his career as a soldier
and was in Spain and Portugal during the earlier stages of the
War of the Spanish Succession. In 1705 he served in Spain
under Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough, and in 1706 he
was appointed British minister in Spain, but his duties were
still military as well as diplomatic, and in 1708, after some
differences with Peterborough, who favoured defensive measures
only, he was made commander-in-chief of the British forces in
that country. Taking the offensive he captured Port Mahon,
Minorca, and after a visit to England, where he took part in the
impeachment of Sacheverell, he returned to Spain and in 1710
helped to win the battles of Almenara and of Saragossa, his
perseverance enabling the archduke Charles to enter Madrid
in September. However, at Brihuega he was overwhelmed by
the French and was forced to capitulate on the pth of December
1710. He remained a prisoner in Spain for over a year and
returned to England in August 1712. He now definitely aban-
doned the army for politics, and became one of the leaders of
the Whig opposition in the House of Commons. He had his
share in establishing the house of Hanover on the throne, and
in September 1714 he was appointed secretary of state for the
southern department, sharing with Walpole the leadership of the
House of Commons. He was mainly responsible for the measures
which were instrumental in crushing the Jacobite rebellion of
1715, and he forwarded the passing of the Septennial Act.
He acted as George I.'s foreign minister, and only just failed to
conclude a treaty of alliance with France in 1716. In 1717,
consequent on changes in the ministry, Stanhope was made
first lord of the treasury, but a year later he returned to his
former office of secretary for the southern department. In
1717 he was created Viscount Stanhope of Mahon and in 1718
Earl Stanhope. His activity was now shown in the conclusion
of the quadruple alliance between England, France, Austria
and Holland in 1718, and in' obtaining peace for Sweden, when
threatened by Russia and Denmark, while at home he promoted
the bill to limit the membership of the House of Lords. Just
after the collapse of the South Sea Scheme, for which he was
partly responsible but from which he did not profit, the earl
died in London on the 5th of February 1721. Stanhope married
Lucy, daughter of Thomas Pitt, governor of Madras, and he
was succeeded by his eldest son Philip (1717-1786), a distin-
guished mathematician and a fellow of the Royal Society.
CHARLES STANHOPE, 3rd EARL STANHOPE (1753-1816), states-
man and man of science, son of the 2nd earl, was born on the
3rd of August, 1753, and educated under the opposing influences
of Eton and Geneva, devoting himself whilst resident in the
Swiss city' to the study of mathematics, and acquiring from the
associations connected with Switzerland an intense love of
liberty. In politics he took the democratic side. As Lord
Mahon he contested the city of Westminster without success
in 1774, when only just of age; but from the general election of
1780 until his accession to the peerage on the 7th of March 1786
he represented through the influence of Lord Shelburne the Buck-
inghamshire borough of High Wycombe, and during the sessions
of 1783 and 1784 he gave his support to the administration of
William Pitt, whose sister, Lady Hester Pitt, he married on
the igth of December 1774. When Pitt ceased to be inspired
by the Liberal principles of his early days, his brother-in-law
severed their political connexion and opposed with all the im-
petuosity of his fiery heart the arbitrary measures which the
ministry favoured. Lord Stanhope's character was without
any taint of meanness, and his conduct was marked by a lofty
consistency never influenced by any petty motives; but his
speeches, able as they were, had no weight on the minds of his
compeers in the upper chamber, and, from a disregard of their
prejudices, too often drove them into the opposite lobby. He
was the chairman of the " Revolution Society, " founded in
honour of the Revolution of 1688, the members of which in
1790 expressed their sympathy with the aims of the French
republicans. He brought forward in 1794 the case of Muir, one
of the Edinburgh politicians who were transported to Botany
Bay; and in 1795 he introduced into the Lords a motion depreca-
ting any interference with the internal affairs of France. In all
these points he was hopelessly beaten, and in the last of them he
was in a " minority of one " a sobriquet which stuck to him
throughout life whereupon he seceded from parliamentary
life for five years. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
so early as November 1772, and devoted a large part of his income
to experiments in science and philosophy. He invented a
method of securing buildings from fire (which, however, proved
impracticable), the printing press and the lens which bear his
name and a monochord for tuning musical instruments, sug-
gested imprpvements in canal locks, made experiments in
steam navigation in 1795-1797 and contrived two calculating
machines. When he acquired an extensive property in Devon-
shire, he projected a canal through that county from the Bristol
to the English Channel and took the levels himself. Electricity
was another of the subjects which he studied, and the volume of
Principles of Electricity which he issued in 1779 contained the
rudiments of his theory on the " return stroke " resulting from
the contact with the earth of the electric current of lightning,
which were afterwards amplified in a contribution to the Philo-
sophical Transactions for 1787. His principal labours in litera-
ture consisted of a reply to Burke's Reflections on the French
Revolution (1790) and an Essay on the rights of juries (1792),
and he long meditated the compilation of a digest of the statutes.
The lean and awkward figure of Lord Stanhope figured in a
host of the caricatures of Sayers and Gillray, reflecting on his
political opinions and his personal relations with his children.
His first wife died in 1780, and he married in 1781 Louisa,
daughter and sole heiress of the Hon. Henry Grenville (governor
of Barbadoes in 1746 and ambassador to the Porte in 1762), a
younger brother of the ist Earl Temple and George Grenville;
who survived him and died in March 1829. By his first wife
he had three daughters, one of whom was Lady Hester Stanhope
(q.v.). His youngest daughter, Lady Lucy Rachael Stanhope,
eloped with Thomas Taylor of Sevenoaks, the family apothe-
cary, and her father refused to be reconciled to her; but Pitt
made Taylor controller-general of the customs, and his son was
one of Lord Chatham's executors. His second wife was the
mother of three sons. Lord Stanhope died at the family seat
of Chevening, Kent, on the isth of December 1816, being
succeeded as 4th earl by his son Philip Henry (1781-1855),
who inherited many of his scientific tastes, but is best known,
perhaps for his association with Kaspar Hauser (q.v.).
PHILIP HENRY STANHOPE, 5th EARL STANHOPE (1805-1875)
English historian, better known as Lord Mahon, son of the 4th
earl and his wife, the daughter of the ist Baron Carrington,
was born on the 3oth of January 1805. He took his degree at
Christ Church, Oxford, in 1827, and entered parliament in 1830.
He was under secretary for foreign affairs for the early months
of 1835, and secretary to the India Board in 1845, but though
he remained in the House of Commons till 1852, he made no
special mark in politics. He was chiefly interested in literature
and antiquities, and in 1842 took a prominent part in passing
the Copyright Act. He was a trustee of the British Museum,
and in 1856 he proposed the foundation of a National Portrait
Gallery; its subsequent creation was due to his executors. It
was mainly due to him that in 1869 the Historical Manuscripts
Commission was started. As president of the Society of Anti-
quaries (from 1846 onwards), it was he who called attention in
England to the need of supporting the excavations at Troy.
And in 1855 he founded the Stanhope essay prize at Oxford.
Of his own works the most important are his Life of Bclisarius
(1829); History of the War of Accession in Spain (1832), largely
based on the first earl's papers; History of England from the Peace
of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles (1836-1853); Life of William
Pitt (1861-1862); and History of England, comprising the reign of
Queen Anne until the Peace of Utrecht (1870). A new edition of
this last work was published in 1908. The two histories and the
Life of Pitt are of great importance on account of Stanhope's
unique access to manuscript authorities, and they remain
STANHOPE, LADY HESTER STANISLAUS I.
775
standard works; and though here and there he has been found
to give credit for too much to Lord Chatham, his industry, clear
though not brilliant style, and general impartiality in criticism,
have been deservedly praised. His position as an historian was
already established when he succeeded to the earldom in 1855,
and in 1872 he was made an honorary associate of the Institute
of France. He was president of the Literary Fund from 1863
until his death. He died on the 24th of December 1875, being
succeeded as 6th earl by his son Arthur Philip (1838-1905), father
of the 7th earl. His second son, Edward Stanhope (1840-1893),
was a well-known Conservative politician, who filled various
important offices, and was finally secretary of state for war
(1886-1892).
STANHOPE, LADY HESTER LUCY (1776-1839), the eldest
child of the 3rd Earl Stanhope by his first wife Lady Hester Pitt,
was born on the i2th of March 1776, and dwelt at her father's seat
of Chevening in Kent until early in 1800, when his excitable
and wayward disposition drove her to her grandmother's house
at Burton Pynsent. A year or two later she travelled abroad,
but her cravings after distinction were not satisfied until she
became the chief of the household of her uncle, William Pitt,
in August 1803. She sat at the head of his table and assisted
in welcoming his guests, gracing the board with her stately
beauty and enlivening the company by her quickness and
keenness of conversation. Although her brightness of style
cheered the declining days of Pitt and amused most of his
political friends, her satirical remarks sometimes created enemies
when more consideration for the feelings of her associates would
have converted them into friends. Lady Hester Stanhope
possessed great business talents, and when Pitt was out of office
she acted as his private secretary. She was with him in his
dying illness, and some of his last thoughts were concerned
with her future, but any anxiety which might have arisen in
her mind on this point was dispelled through the grant by a
nation grateful for her uncle's qualities of a pension of 1200
a year, dating from the 3oth of January 1806, which Lady
Hester Stanhope enjoyed for the rest of her days. On Pitt's
death she lived in Montagu Square, London, but life in London
without the interest caused by associating with the principal
politicians of the Tory party proved irksome to her, and she
sought relief from lassitude in the fastnesses of Wales. Whilst
she remained on English soil happiness found no place in her
heart, and her native land was finally abandoned in February
1810. After many wanderings she settled among the Druses
on Mt Lebanon, and from this solitary position she wielded
an almost absolute authority over the surrounding districts.
Her control over the natives was sufficiently commanding to
induce Ibrahim Pasha, when about to invade Syria in 1832, to
solicit her neutrality, and this supremacy was maintained by
her commanding character and by the belief that she possessed
the gift of divination. Her cherished companion, Miss Williams,
and her trusted medical attendant, Dr Charles Lewis Meryon
(1783-1877), dwelt with her for some time; but the formerdied
in 1828, and Meryon left Mt Lebanon in 1831, only returning
for a final visit from July 1837 to August 1838. In this lonely
residence, the villa of Djoun, 8 m. from Sidon, in a house
" hemmed in by arid mountains, " and with the troubles of a
household of some thirty servants, only waiting for her death
to plunder the house, Lady Hester Stanhope's strength slowly
wasted away, and at last she died on the 23rd of June 1839.
The dissappointments of her life, and the necessity of overawing
her servants as well as the chiefs who surrounded Djoun, had
intensified a temper naturally imperious. In appearance as
in voice she resembled her grandfather, the first Lord Chatham,
and like him she domineered over the circle, large or small,
in which she was placed.
Some years after her death there appeared three volumes of
Memoirs of the Lady Hester Stanhope as related by herself in Con-
versations with her Physician (Dr Meryon, 1845), and these were
followed in the succeeding year by three volumes of Travels of Lady
Hester Stanhope, forming the Completion of her Memoirs^ narrated
by her Physician. They presented a lively picture of this strange
woman's life and character, and contained many anecdotes of Pitt
and his colleagues in political life for a quarter of a century before
his death. See also Mrs Charles Roundell, Lady Hester Stanhope
(1910).
STANIMAKA, a town of Bulgaria in Eastern Rumelia; on
the Derin Dere, an affluent of the Maritza, 12 m. S.S.E. of
Philippopolis. Pop. (1906), 14,120. It is an important seat
of the wine trade and also possesses a distillery. Sericulture
is carried on under British auspices. To the south of the town
are the ruins of the medieval citadel. Under its Greek name
Stenimachos, the town is frequently mentioned in connexion
with the Bulgarian wars from the nth century onwards.
STANISLAU (Polish, Stanislawow) , a town in Galicia, Austria,
87 m. S.E. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 30,410, about half
Jews. It possesses a beautiful parish church, which contains
the tombs of the Potocki family. The principal industries
include tanning, dyeing, tile-making, milling, the production
of yeast and there is a large establishment for the manufacture
of railway stock. Stanislau is an important railway junction,
and has a considerable trade, principally in agricultural produce.
Stanislau was founded by Stanislav Potocki (d. 1683), and has
been newly rebuilt since it was devastated by a great fire
in 1868.
STANISLAUS I. [LESZCZYNSKI] (1677-1766), king of Poland,
born at Lemberg in 1677, was the son of Rafael Leszczynski,
palatine of Posen, and Anne Catherine Jablonowska. He
married Catherine Opalinska by whom he had one daughter.
In 1697, as cupbearer of Poland, he signed the confirmation of
the articles of election of Augustus II. In 1703 he joined the
Lithuanian Confederacy, which the Sapiehas with the aid of
Swedish gold had formed again.; i Augustus, and in the following
year was selected by Charles XII. to supersede Augustus.
Leszczynski was a young man of blameless antecedents, respect-
able talents, and ancient family, but certainly without sufficient
force of character or political influence to sustain himself on so
unstable a throne. Nevertheless, with the assistance of a bribing
fund and an army corps the Swedes succeeded in procuring his
election by a scratch assembly of half a dozen castellans and a
few score of gentlemen (July 2, 1704). A few months later
Stanislaus was forced by a sudden inroad of Augustus to seek
refuge in the Swedish camp, but finally on the 24th of September
1705 he was crowned king with great splendour, Charles himself
supplying his nominee with a new crown and sceptre in lieu of
the ancient regalia which had been carried off to Saxony by
Augustus. The first act of the new king was to conclude an
alliance with Charles XII. whereby Poland engaged to assist
Sweden against the tsar. Stanislaus did what he could to assist
his patron. Thus he induced Mazeppa the Cossack hetman to
desert Peter at the most critical period of the war, and placed
a small army corps at the disposal of the Swedes. But he
depended so entirely upon the success of Charles's arms that after
Poltava (1709) his authority vanished as a dream at the first
touch of reality. The vast majority of the Poles hastened to re-
pudiate him and make their peace with Augustus, and Leszczyn-
ski, henceforth a mere pensioner of Charles XII., accompanied
Krassau's army corps in its retreat to Swedish Pomerania. On
the restoration of Augustus, Stanislaus resigned the Polish Crown
(though he retained the royal title) in exchange for the little
principality of Zweibrucken. In 1716 he was saved from
assassination at the hands of a Saxon officer, Lacroix, by
Stanislaus Poniatowski, the father of the future king. He now
resided at Weissenburg in Lorraine, and in 1725 had the satisfac-
tion of seeing his daughter Mary become the consort of Louis XV.
and queen of France. His son-in-law supported his claims
to the Polish throne after the death of Augustus II. in 1733, which
led to the war of the Polish Succession. On the gth of September
1733 Stanislaus himself arrived at Warsaw, having travelled
night and day through central Europe disguised as a coachman,
and on the following day, despite many protests, was duly
elected king of Poland for the second time. But Russia, opposed
to any nominee of France and Sweden, at once protested against
his election; declared in favour of the new elector of Saxony, as
being the candidate of her Austrian ally; and on the 3Oth of June
776
STANISLAUS II. STANLEY (FAMILY)
1734 a Russian army of 20,000 under Peter Lacey, after pro-
claiming Augustus III. at Warsaw, proceeded to besiege Stanislaus
in Danzig where he had intrenched himself with his partisans
(including the primate and the French and Swedish ministers)
to await the promised succour from France. The siege began
in October 1734. On the lyth of March 1735 Marshal Miinnich
superseded Lacey, and on the 2oth of May the long expected
French fleet appeared in the roads and disembarked 2400 men. A
week after its arrival this little army gallantly attempted to
force the Russian intrenchments, but was beaten ofi and finally
compelled to surrender. This, by the way, was the first time
France and Russia met as foes in the field. On the 3Oth of June
1735 Danzig capitulated unconditionally, after sustaining a
siege of 135 days which cost the Russians 8000 men. Stanislaus,
disguised as a peasant, had contrived to escape two days before.
He was first heard of again at Konigsberg, whence he issued a
manifesto to his partisans which resulted in the formation of a
confederation on his behalf, and the despatch of a Polish envoy
to Paris to urge France to invade Saxony with at least 40,000
men. In the Ukraine too, Count Nicholas Potocki kept on foot
to support Stanislaus a motley host of 50,000 men, which was
ultimately scattered by the Russians. In 1736 Stanislaus again
abdicated the throne, but received by way of compensation the
dukedom of Lorraine and Bar, which was to revert to France on
his death. He settled at Luneville, founded there the Academia
Stanislai, and devoted himself for the rest of his life to science and
philanthropy. He died in 1766 at the age of 80. Among his
works -may be mentioned: (Euvres du philosophe bienfaisant
(Paris, 1763; 1866).
See Robert Nisbet Bain, Charles XII. (London, 1895) ; ibid., Pupils
of Peter the Great, cap. vi. (London, 1897); Czarnowski (Jan
Neppmucen), Stanislaw Leszczynski in Poland (Pol. ; Warsaw, 1858) ;
Louis Lacroix, Les Opuscules inedites de S. L. (Nancy, 1866); Lettres
inedites de S. L., ed. P. Boyd (Paris, 1901) ; Marchioness Des Reaulx,
Le Roi Stanislas et Marie Leszczynski (Paris, 1895). (R. N. B.)
STANISLAUS II. AUGUSTUS [PONIATOWSKI] (1732-1798),
king of Poland, the son of Stanislaw Poniatowski, palatine of
Cracow, the friend and companion of Charles XII. of Sweden.
Born in 1732 he owed his advance in life to the" influence of his
uncles the powerful Czartoryscy, who sent him to St Petersburg
in the suite of the English ambassador Hanbury Williams.
Subsequently, through the influence of the Russian chancellor,
Bestuzhev-Ryumin, he was accredited to the Russian court as
the ambassador of Saxony. Through Williams he was introduced
to the grand duchess Catherine, who was irresistibly attracted
to the handsome and brilliant young nobleman, for whom she
abandoned all her other lovers. Poniatowski was concerned
in the mysterious and disreputable conspiracy which sought to
set aside the succession of the grand duke Peter and his son
Paul in favour of Catherine, a conspiracy frustrated by the
unexpected recovery of the empress Elizabeth and the conse-
quent arrest of the conspirators. Stanislaus returned to
Warsaw much discredited, but nevertheless was (Sept. 7, 1764)
elected king of Poland through the overwhelming influence of
Catherine (she had promised him the crown as early as October
1763), and was crowned on the 25th of November, to the disgust
of his uncles, who would have preferred another nephew, Prince
Adam Casimir Czartoryscy, as king, but were obliged to submit
to the dictation of the Russian court. The best that can be said
for Stanislaus as king of Poland is that with all his romantic
ideas and excellent intentions he remained from first to last the
creature of circumstances. He had climbed to the throne by
very slippery ways, he was dependent for a considerable part of
his enormous income on the woman who had compensated him
with a crown for the loss of her affections, he was detested by the
nobility, who regarded him as a base-born upstart and yet had
to put up with him. Thus in every way his position was most
difficult; yet he tried to do his duty. In the beginning of his
reign he broke away from the leading-strings of his uncles and
inaugurated some useful economical reforms. After the first
partition (as a result of which, by the way, his debts amounting
to 7,000,000 guldens were paid by the Diet and his civil list
was raised to 216,000 guldens per annum) he entered enthusiasti-
cally into the attempts of the patriots to restore the power and
prosperity of their country, while the eloquent oration which
he delivered before the Diet on taking the oath to defend the
constitution of the 3rd of May 1791, moved the susceptible
deputies to tears. But when the confederation of Targowica,
with the secret support of Russia, was formed against the consti-
tution, he was one of the first to accede to it, thus completely
paralysing the action of the army which, under his younger
brother Prince Joseph and Thaddeus Kosciuszko, was performing
prodigies. In fact, by the end of his life, Stanislaus had become
an expert in the art of " acceding " and " hedging. " Of resolute
and independent action he was quite incapable; in fact, his whole
career is little more than a record of humiliations. Thus in
1782 when he waited upon Catherine at Kaniow during her
triumphal progress to the Crimea, she kept her ancient, grey-
haired lover waiting for weeks, and while half contemptuously
promising to respect the integrity of Poland, she curtly declined
to be present at a supper which he had prepared for her at great
cost. A few years later he was forcibly abducted by the Confede-
rates of Bar, who did not know what to do with their captive,
and allowed him to return to his court in a confused, bedraggled
condition. On the outbreak of the insurrection of 1794 he was
obliged to sue for his very life to Kosciuszko, and suffered the
indignity of seeing his effigy expunged from the coinage a year
before he was obliged to abdicate his throne. The last years of
his life were employed in his sumptuous prison at St Petersburg
(where he died in 1798) in writing his memoirs. Of his innumer-
able mistresses the most notable was Mme Lullie, the widow
of an upholsterer, on whom he lavished a fortune. He also
contracted a secret marriage with the countess Grabowska.
Yet he was capable of the most romantic friendships, as witness
his correspondence with Mme Geoffrin, whom he invited to
Warsaw, where on her arrival she found rooms provided for her
exactly like those she had left at Paris the same size, the same
kind of carpets, the same furniture, down even to the very book
which she had been reading the evening before her departure,
placed exactly as she had left it with a marker at the very place
where she had left off. Stanislaus had indeed a generous heart,
frequently paid the debts of his friends or of deserving scholars
whose cases were brought to his notice, and was exceedingly
good to the poor. He also encouraged the arts and sciences, and
his Wednesday literary suppers were for some time the most
brilliant social functions of the Polish capital. The best descrip-
tion of Stanislaus is by the Swedish minister Engestrom, who was
presented to him early in 1788. " The king of Poland, " he says,
" has the finest head I ever saw, but an expression of deep
melancholy detracts from the beauty of his countenance. ... He
is broad-shouldered, deep-chested, and of such lofty stature that
his legs seem disproportionately short. ... He has all the dazzling
qualities necessary to sustain his dignity in public. He speaks
the Polish, Latin, German, Italian, French and English tongues
perfectly . . . and his conversation fills strangers with admira-
tion. ... As a grand-master of the ceremonies he would have
done the honours most brilliantly. . . . Moral courage he alto-
gether lacks and allows himself to be completely led by his
entourage, which for the most part consists of women. "
See Lars von Engestrom, Minnen och Anteckningar,.\o\. \. (Stock-
holm, 1876); Correspondance inedite de Stanislas Poniatowski avec
Madame Geoffrin (Paris, 1875); Jan Kibinski, Recollections of the
Times of Stanislaw Augustus (Pol. Cracow, 1899) ; Memoires secrets
et inedits de Stanislas Auguste (Leipzig, 1862) ; Stanislaw and Prince
Joseph Poniatowski in the Light of their Private Correspondence,
in French, edited in Polish by Bronislaw Dembinski (Lemberg, 1904).
Stanislaus's diaries and letters, which were for many years in the
Russian foreign office, have been published in the Vestnik Evropy
for January 1908. See also R. N. Bain's, The Last King of Poland
and his Contemporaries (1909). (R. N. B.)
STANLEY (FAMILY). This ancient and historic English family
derived its name from Stanley in Leek (in the Staffordshire
" moorlands "). Its first known ancestor is Adam de Stanley,
brother of Liulf de Audley, ancestor of the lords Audley, who
lived in the time of King Stephen. His descendant William de
STANLEY, A. P.
777
Stanley acquired the forestership of Wirral, with an heiress, in
1284, and was ancestor of two brothers, Sir William and Sir John
Stanley. The former married the heiress of Hooton in Wirral
and was ancestor of the Stanleys of Hooton, whose baronetcy,
created in 1661, became extinct in 1893. The younger brother
was lieutenant of Ireland under Richard II. and Henry IV.,
obtained from the latter the Isle of Man in fee, built a fortified
house at Liverpool, and became K.G. He married the heiress
of the Lathoms, a native family who had held Lathom in thanage
from the Conquest at least and Knowsley by knight-service
from the I2th century. His grandson Thomas was father of
the first earl of Derby (see DERBY, EARLS OF) and of Sir William
Stanley of Holt, whose great wealth led to his execution for
treason in 1495, and also of Sir John Stanley, ancestor of the
Stanleys of Alderley, who obtained a baronetcy in 1660 and a
barony in 1839.
Of the second earl's younger brothers, Sir Edward was raised
to the peerage as Lord Monteagle in 1514 for his services at
Flodden, but the dignity passed with an heiress to the Parkers
in 1581; and Sir James was ancestor of the Stanleys of Bicker-
staffe, who obtained a baronetcy in 1628 and succeeded to the
earldom in 1736. Their father had married the heiress of Lord
Strange of Knockyn, and was summoned in that peerage from
1482 to 1497, but did not live to inherit the earldom. His wife
was a first cousin of Henry VII. 's queen.
The 4th earl was summoned as Lord Strange, in his father's
lifetime, as was the sth earl, but the barony fell into abeyance
between his three daughters, who contested possession of the
family estates with his brother, the 6th earl. He bought out
their rights in the Isle of Man, and, by his marriage with a sister
and co-heir of the i8th earl of Oxford, acquired a claim to the
great chamberlainship, which he advanced in 1626 and which
was renewed by their descendants. His son was summoned as
Lord Strange in 1628 in the erroneous belief that the family
retained the dignity, and a fresh barony of Strange was thus
created. But on the death of the loth earl (1736) this barony,
with the lordship of Man and other great estates, passed to the
and duke of Atholl, whose heir, the present duke, holds the
title. The earldom with large estates in Lancashire, passed to
the heir male (see above).
Although the present wealth of the Stanleys is largely derived
from the great industrial development of Lancashire, they were
already a power to be reckoned with in that county and in Cheshire
at the time of the Wars of the Roses, and have held a leading
position ever since among English nobles. For three centuries
they were in succession lords-lieutenant of Lancashire and
occasionally of Cheshire as well, and they have always lived in
considerable state. Lathom House, their ancient seat, in the
hundred of West Derby (whence possibly the style of their
earldom), was wrecked in the Civil War, and, though rebuilt by
the ninth earl, was sold by his daughters. But Knowsley, with
its great park, is still theirs, lying to the east of Liverpool, in
which their feudal tower still stood in 1821.
See Young's Hundred of Wirral (Liverpool, 1909) ; Round's Peerage
and Pedigree (London, 1910); County Histories of Lancashire and
Cheshire, and works on the peerage passim. (J. H. R.)
The barony of STANLEY OF ALDERLEY was created in 1839 for
Sir John Thomas Stanley, Bart. (1766-1850), of Alderley Park,
Cheshire, a brother of Edward Stanley (1770-1849), bishop of
Norwich and father of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley. A member of
parliament and a fellow of the Royal Society, he married Maria
Josepha (d. 1863), daughter of John Holroyd, ist earl of Sheffield.
Their eldest son, Edward John Stanley, 2nd baron (1802-1869),
entered the House of Commons in 1831 and became under-
secretary to the home department in 1841, patronage secretary
to the treasury from 1835 to 1841, paymaster-general in 1841,
and under-secretary for foreign affairs from 1846 to 1852. In
1848, two years before he succeeded to the barony of Stanley, he
was created Baron Eddisbury of Winnington. He was president
of the board of trade from 1855 to 1858, and postmaster-general
from 1860 to 1866. His wife, Henrietta Maria (1807-1895),
a daughter of Henry Augustus Dillon-Lee, I3th Viscount Dillon,
xxv. 25 a
was a remarkable woman. Before her marriage in 1826 she had
lived in Florence, and had attended the receptions of the countess
of Albany, the widow of Charles Edward, the Young Pretender;
and in London she had great influence in social and political
circles. When he was patronage secretary her husband was
described by Lord Palmerston as " joint-whip with Mrs Stanley."
Later in life Lady Stanley of Alderley helped to found the
Women's Liberal Unionist Association, and she was a strenuous
worker for the higher education of women, helping to establish
Girton College, Cambridge, the Girls' Public Day School Company,
and the Medical College for Women. She died on the i6th of
February 1895. Her younger son, Edward Lyulph Stanley
(b. 1839), who in 1903 succeeded his brother Henry Edward John
(1827-1903) as 4th baron, had previously had an active career
as an educationist and a Liberal politician. He was a fellow
of Balliol College, Oxford, and was M.P. for Oldham from 1880
to 1885. He was for many years a member of the London
School Board. In 1909 on the death of the 3rd earl of Sheffield,
he inherited the barony of Sheffield, and that of Stanley of
Alderley now became merged in it.
STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (1815-1881), English divine,
dean of Westminster, was born on the i3th of December 1815,
at Alderley in Cheshire, where his father, afterwards bishop of
Norwich, was then rector. He was educated at Rugby under
Arnold, and in 1834 went up to Balliol College, Oxford. After
obtaining the Ireland scholarship and Newdigate prize for an
English poem (The Gypsies), he was in 1839 elected fellow of
University College, and in the same year took orders. In 1840
he travelled in Greece and Italy, and on his return settled
at Oxford, where for ten years he was tutor of his college and
an influential element in university life. His personal relations
with his pupils were of a singularly close and affectionate nature,
and the charm of his social gifts and genial character won him
friends on all sides. His literary reputation was early established
by his Life of Arnold, published in 1844. In 1845 he was
appointed select preacher, and published in 1847 a volume of
Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age, which not only laid
the foundation of his fame as a preacher, but also marked his
future position as a theologian. In university politics, which at
that time wore mainly the form of theological controversy, he
was a strong advocate of comprehension and toleration. As
an undergraduate he had entirely sympathized with Arnold in
resenting the agitation led by, but not confined to, the High
Church party in 1836 against the appointment of R. D. Hampden
to the regius professorship of divinity. During the long agitation
which followed the publication ini84i of Tract No. XC. and which
ended in the withdrawal of J. H. Newman from the Anglican
Church, he used all his influence to protect from formal
condemnation the leaders and tenets of the "Tractarian"
party. In 1847 he resisted the movement set on foot at Oxford
against Hampden's appointment to the bishopric of Hereford.
Finally, in 1850, in an article published in the Edinburgh
Review in defence of the " Gorham judgment " he asserted two
principles which he maintained to the end of his life first,
" that the so-called supremacy of the Crown in religious matters
was in reality nothing else than the supremacy of law," and,
secondly, "that the Church of England, by the very condition
of its being, was not High or Low, but Broad, and had always
included and been meant to include, opposite and contradictory
opinions on points even more important than those at present
under discussion."
It was not only in theoretical but in academical matters that
his sympathies were on the liberal side. He was greatly inter-
ested in university reform and acted as secretary to the royal
commission appointed in 1850. Of the important changes in
administration and education which were ultimately carried out,
Stanley, who took the principal share in drafting the report
printed in 1852, was a strenuous advocate. These changes
included the transference of the initiative in university legislation
from the sole authority of the heads of houses to an elected and
representative body, the opening of college fellowships and
scholarships to competition by the removal of local and other
778
STANLEY, A. P.
restrictions the non-enforcement at matriculation of subscription
to the Thirty-nine Articles, and various steps for increasing the
usefulness and influence of the professoriate. Before the report
was issued, Stanley was appointed to a canonry in Canterbury
Cathedral. During his residence there he published his Memoir
of his father (1851), and completed his Commentary on the Epistles
to the Corinthians (1855). In the winter and spring of 1852-1853
he made a tour in Egypt and the Holy Land, the result of which
was his well-known volume on Sinai and Palestine (1856). In
1857 he travelled in Russia, and collected much of the materials
for his Lectures on the Eastern Church (1861). His Memorials
of Canterbury (1855), displayed the full maturity of his power of
dealing with the events and characters of past history. He was
also examining chaplain to Bishop A. C. Tait, his former tutor.
At the close of 1856 Stanley was appointed regius professor
of ecclesiastical history at Oxford, a post which, with the attached
canonry at Christ Church, he held till 1863. He began his
treatment of the subject with " the first dawn of the history of
the church," the call of Abraham; and published the first two
volumes of his History of the Jewish Church in 1863 and 1865.
From 1860 to 1864 academical and clerical circles were agitated by
the storm which followed the publication of Essays and Reviews,
a volume to which two of his most valued friends, Benjamin
Jowett and Frederick Temple, had been contributors. Stanley's
part in this controversy may be studied in the second and third
of his Essays on Church and Stale (1870). The result of his action
was to alienate the leaders of the High Church party, who had
endeavoured to procure the formal condemnation of the views
advanced in Essays and Reviews. In 1836 he published a
Letter to the Bishop of London, advocating a relaxation of the
terms of clerical subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles and
the Prayer-book. An act amending the Act of Uniformity, and
carrying out in some degree Stanley's proposals, was passed in
the year 1865. In 1862, Stanley, at Queen Victoria's wish,
accompanied the prince of Wales on a tour in Egypt and
Palestine.
Towards the close of 1863 he was appointed by the Crown to
the deanery of Westminster. In December he married Lady
Augusta Bruce, sister of Lord Elgin, then governor-general of
India. His tenure of the deanery of Westminster was memorable
in many ways. He recognized from the first two important
disqualifications his indifference to music and his slight
knowledge of architecture. On both these subjects he availed
himself largely of the aid of others, and threw himself with charac-
teristic energy and entire success into the task of rescuing from
neglect and preserving from decay the treasure of historic monu-
ments in which the abbey is so rich. In 1865 he pubh'shed his
Memorials of Westminster Abbey, a work which, despite occasional
inaccuracies, is a mine of information. He was a constant
preacher, and gave a great impulse to Trench's practice of
inviting distinguished preachers to the abbey pulpit, especially
to the evening services in the nave. His personal influ-
ence, already unique, was much increased by his removal to
London. His circle of friends included men of every denomina-
tion, every class and almost of every nation. He was untiring
in literary work, and, though this consisted very largely of
occasional papers, lectures, articles in reviews, addresses, and
sermons, it included a third volume of his History of the Jewish
Church, a volume on the Church of Scotland, another of Addresses
and Sermons preached in America, and another on Christian
Institutions (1881). He was continually engaged in theological
controversy, and, by his advocacy of all efforts to promote the
social, moral, and religious amelioration of the poorer classes
and his chivalrous courage in defending those whom he held
to be unjustly denounced, undoubtedly incurred much and grow-
ing odium in influential circles. Among the causes of offence
might be enumerated not only his vigorous defence of one from
whom he greatly differed, Bishop Colenso, but his invitation to
the Holy Communion of all the revisers of the translation of the
Bible, including a Unitarian among other Nonconformists. Still
stronger was the feeling caused by his efforts to make the recital
of the Athanasian Creed optional instead of imperative in the
Anglican Church. In 1874 he spent part of the winter in Russia,
whither he went to take part in the marriage of the duke of Edin-
burgh and the grand duchess Marie. He lost his wife in the spring
of 1876, a blow from which he never entirely recovered. But in
1878 he was deeply interested by a tour in America, and in the
following autumn visited for the last time northern Italy and
Venice. In the spring of 1881 he preached funeral sermons in
the abbey on Thomas Carlyle and Lord Beaconsfield, concluding
with the latter a series of sermons preached on public occasions.
In the summer he was preparing a paper on the Westminster
Confession, and preaching in the abbey a course of Saturday
Lectures on the Beatitudes. He died on the i8th of July, and
was buried in Henry VII. 's chapel, in the same grave as his
wife. His pall-bearers comprised representatives of literature,
of science, of both Houses of Parliament, of theology, Anglican
and Nonconformist, and of the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. The recumbent monument placed upon the spot,
and the windows in the chapter-house of the abbey, one of them
a gift from Queen Victoria, were a tribute to his memory from
friends of every class in England and America.
Stanley was undoubtedly the leading liberal theologian of his
time in England. Throughout his writings we see the impress, not
only of his distinctive genius and of his extraordinary gifts, but
also of his special views, aims and aspirations. He looked on
the age in which he lived as a period of transition, to be followed
either by an " eclipse of faith ' or by a '' revival of Christianity in
a wider aspect," a catholic, comprehensive, all-embracing Christi-
anity " that " might yet overcome the world. " He was never tired of
asserting his belief " that the Christian Church had not yet presented
its final or its most perfect aspect to the world "; that " the belief
of each successive age of Christendom had as a matter of fact varied
enormously from the belief of its predecessor " ; that " all confessions
and similar documents are, if taken as final expressions of absolute
truth, misleading "; and that " there still remained, behind all the
controversies of the past, a higher Christianity which neither assail-
ants nor defenders had fully exhausted." " The first duty of a
modern theologian " he held to be " to study the Bible, not for the
sake of making or defending systems out of it, but for the sake of
discovering what it actually contains." To this study he looked
for the best hope of such a progressive development of Christian
theology as should avert the danger arising from " the apparently
increasing divergence between the intelligence and the faith of
our time." He enforced the duty " of placing in the background
whatever was accidental, temporary or secondary, and of bringing
into due prominence what was primary and essential." In the
former group Stanley would, without doubt or hesitation, have
placed all questions connected with Episcopal or Presbyterian orders,
or that deal only with the outward forms or ceremonies of religion,
or with the authorship or age of the books of the Old Testament.
Even to the question of miraculous and external evidence he would
have been inclined to assign a secondary place.
The foremost and highest place, that of the " essential and super-
natural " elements of religion, he would have reserved for its moral
and spiritual truths, " its chief evidence and chief essence," " the
truths to be drawn from the teaching and from the life of Christ,"
in whose character he did not hesitate to recognize " the greatest
of all miracles."
With such views it was not to be wondered at that, from first to
last, as has already been indicated, he never lost an opportunity
of supporting a policy of width, toleration and comprehension in
the Church of England. So again he was always eager to insist
on the essential points of union between various denominations of
Christians. He was throughout his life an unflinching advocate
of the connexion between Church and State. By this he under-
stood: (i) " the recognition and support on the part of the state
of the religious expression of the faith of the community," and
(2) " that this religious expression of the faith of the community
on the most sacred and most vital of all its interests should be con-
trolled and guided by the whole community through the supremacy
of law." At the same time he was in favour of making the creed
of the Church as wide as possible " not narrower than that which
is even now the test of its membership, the Apostles' Creed " and
of throwing down all barriers which could be wisely dispensed with
to admission to its ministry. As an immediate step he even advo-
cated the admission under due restrictions of English Nonconformists
and Scottish Presbyterians, to preach in Anglican pulpits.
Apart from the great impulse which he gave to the study alike
of the Bible and Church history, his influence mayi"be said in a very
true sense to colour the writings of many of those who most differ
from him. The subjects to which he looked as the most essential
of all the universality of the divine love, the supreme importance
of the moral and spiritual elements of religion, the supremacy of
conscience, the sense of the central citadel of Christianity as being
contained in the character, the history, the spirit of its divine
STANLEY, E. STANLEY, H. M.
779
Founder have impressed themselves more and more on the teaching
and the preaching of every class of clergy in the Church.
See G. G. Bradley, Recollections of A. P. Stanley (1883); R. E.
Prothero and G. G. Bradley, Life and Correspondence of Dean Stanley
(2 vols., 1893).
STANLEY, EDWARD (1779-1849), bishop of Norwich, the
younger brother of the ist Baron Stanley of Alderley, was born
in London and educated at St John's College, Cambridge (i6th
wrangler, 1802). He was ordained in 1802 and became rector
of Alderley, Cheshire, three years later. Here he took a great
interest in education, and encouraged especially the teaching
of secular subjects at his school. In 1837 he was consecrated
bishop of Norwich. The diocese at this time was conspicuous
for laxity and want of discipline, and this he proceeded to
remedy, although at first he met wlLh much opposition. Ordina-
tions and confirmations were held more regularly and frequently,
the schools were properly inspected, the Plurality Act was
enforced and undesirable clergy were removed. He was tolerant
towards Dissenters and supported all missionary undertakings
without regarding their sectarian associations. In politics he
was a Liberal and devoted himself especially to educational
questions. Dean Stanley (see above) was his third son.
Stanley's letters, Before and after Waterloo (edited by J. H. Adeane
and M.. Grenfell, 1907), are full of interest to students of Napoleonic
history.
STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (1840-1904), British
explorer of Africa, discoverer of the course of the Congo, was
born at Denbigh, Wales, on the xoth of June 1840.' His parents
were named Rowlands or Rollant, and his father, who died in
1843, was the son of a small farmer. John Rowlands, by which
name Stanley was baptized, was brought up first by his maternal
grandfather, and after his death was boarded out by his mother's
brothers at half a crown a week. In 1847 he was taken to the St
Asaph Union workhouse, where he was noted for his activity and
intelligence. The schoolmaster at the workhouse, James Francis
(who eventually died in a madhouse), was a tyrant of the Squeers
type, and in May 1856, Rowlands, after giving Francis a thrashing,
ran away from school. He sought out his paternal grandfather
a well-to-do farmer who refused to help him . A cousin .however,
who was master of a national school at Brynford, took him in
as a pupil teacher. But within a year he was sent to Liverpool,
where he lived with an uncle who was in straitened circumstances.
The lad, after working at a haberdasher's and then at a butcher's
shop, engaged himself as a cabin boy on a sailing ship bound for
New Orleans, in which city he landed early in 1859. There he
obtained a situation through the good offices of a merchant
named Henry Morton Stanley, who subsequently adopted the
lad as his son, designing for him a mercantile career. To this
end young Stanley (as he was henceforth known) was sent to a
country store in Arkansas. The merchant shortly afterwards
died, without having made further provision for his protege.
When the Civil War broke out in 1861 Stanley enlisted in the
Confederate army; he was taken prisoner at the battle of Shiloh
(April 1862), and after two months' experience of the hardships
of Camp Douglas, Chicago (where the prisoners of war were
confined), he obtained release by enrolling in the Federal artillery.
In less than a month he was discharged as unfit. In November
1862 he returned to Liverpool " very poor, in bad health and in
shabby clothes," and made his way to Denbigh, but was turned
away from his mother's door. This incident deeply affected him.
Naturally of a sensitive, affectionate nature, henceforth he prac-
tised strong self-suppression and reserve. For a livelihood he
took to the sea was wrecked off Barcelona and in August
1864 enlisted in the United States navy. According to an
apparently authentic story 2 he obtained promotion for swimming
500 yds. and tying a rope to a captured steamer, while exposed
to the shot and shell of a battery of ten guns. After the war he
crossed the plains to Salt Lake City, Denver, and other parts,
acquiring a reputation as a vivid descriptive writer for the press.
This is the usually accepted date, but from Stanley's Auto-
biography it would appear that the year of his birth was 1842.
1 See C. Rowlands, Henry M. Stanley, p. 102.
Thus began a series of adventures in search of " copy." In the
autumn of 1866 we hear of him travelling in Asia Minor "en
route for Tiflis and Tibet," and as being attacked, with his two
companions, by brigands, robbed and imprisoned, the Porte sub-
sequently paying through the American minister an indemnity
for the outrage. In December of the same year Stanley revisited
Denbigh and St Asaph, returning thence to America. In 1867
he joined General Hancock's expedition against the Red Indians,
acting as correspondent for the Missouri Democrat and other
papers. His reports induced the New York Herald to send him
to accompany the British expedition of 1867-68 against
the emperor Theodore of Abyssinia. Succeeding in sending
through the first news of the fall of Magdala, Stanley attracted
the special attention of the proprietor of the Herald, James
Gordon Bennett, and received from him a roving commission.
He went to Crete, then in rebellion, in the latter part of 1868,
and thence to Spain, where he arrived in time to witness the
scenes following the flight of Queen Isabella from Madrid. He
chronicled the events of the Republican rising in 1869 and was
at Madrid in October of that year, when he received a telegram
from Mr Gordon Bennett, jun., summoning him to Paris.
Arrived in Paris Stanley was informed that he was to go and
find Livingstone. 3 Stanley then shared the common opinion
that Livingstone had died somewhere in Central Africa, but
Bennett was sure he was alive and Stanley was to find and help
him to the best of his ability. The journey, which was to be
kept secret to avoid suspicion, was to begin next day. Strangely
enough, though so urgent in the matter, Bennett cumbered
Stanley with a large number of commissions to fulfil before the
quest for Livingstone could be begun. In accordance with these
instructions, Stanley went to Egypt to witness the opening of
the Suez Canal in November, thence to Philae, and in January
1870 he arrived in Jerusalem, where he met Captain (afterwards
Sir) Charles Warren. Next, by way of Constantinople, he visited
the battlefields of the Crimea, and, passing through the Caucasus
from Baku, he made an adventurous journey across Persia to
Bushire, whence he sailed to Bombay. From Bombay he sailed
for Africa, reaching Zanzibar on the 6th of January 1871.
The journey to the interior was begun on the 2ist of March;
on the loth of November, having overcome innumerable difficul-
ties, Stanley arrived at Ujiji, where Livingstone then was; the
young traveller greeting the famous veteran with the words,
" Dr Livingstone, I presume ? " With Livingstone Stanley
navigated the northern shores of Tanganyika and settled the
question as to whether the Rusizi was an effluent or an affluent
a point then much debated in connexion with the hydrography
of the Nile basin. Leaving Tanganyika on the 9th of January
1872 Stanley regained Zanzibar on the 7th of May. He had
accomplished his mission, and by it he established his reputation
as a leader of men and an explorer of great promise. His story,
made public in a picturesque narrative, How I Found Livingstone
(1872), was at first received in London with some incredulity,
owing in part to his connexion with American journalism of a
type then unfamiliar and distasteful; but the journals of Living-
stone, which he brought home, silenced the critics, and from Queen
Victoria Stanley received a gold snuff-box set with brilliants and
her thanks for the services he had rendered. Nevertheless
Stanley records that all the actions of his life, and all his thoughts,
since 1872, were strongly coloured by the storm of abuse and
the wholly unjustifiable reports circulated about him then.
A series of public lectures in England and America followed.
In 1873, as war correspondent of the Herald, he accompanied
Wolseley's expedition to Ashanti, which he described, together
with his Abyssinian experiences, in a volume entitled Coomassie
and Magdala: Two British Campaigns (London, 1874). On
reaching the island of St Vincent from Ashanti in 1874 he first
heard that Livingstone was dead, and that the body was on its
way to England. After the funeral of Livingstone some time
was spent in negotiations for sending Stanley again to Africa,
* Previously, in November 1868, Stanley had been sent to Egypt
by the Herald " to meet Livingstone," at the time reported to be
on his way home. Stanley got as far as Aden when he was recalled.
y8o
STANLEY, H. M.
there to determine geographical problems left unsolved by
the deaths of Livingstone and Speke, and the discovery by
Sir Samuel Baker of Albert Nyanza, a lake then reputed to extend
inimitably in a southerly direction. Finally, Sir Edward Lawson
(afterwards Lord Burnham), the editor and proprietor of the
Daily Telegraph, to whom Stanley had communicated his
desires, and Sir Edwin Arnold of that journal, induced Mr
Gordon Bennett to join them in raising a fund for an Anglo-
American expedition under Stanley's command. This expedi-
tion lasted from October 1874 to August 1877 and accomplished
more than any other single exploring expedition in Africa.
Politically, also, the journey had momentous consequences;
it led directly to the foundation of the Congo State and to the
partition of the hitherto unappropriated regions of Africa between
the states of western Europe. Stanley started from the east
coast and reached the ocean again at the mouth of the Congo,
having demonstrated the identity of that river with Livingstone's
Lualaba by navigating its course from Nyangwe the point at
which both Livingstone and Lovett Cameron had turned aside.
This wonderful achievement was accomplished in the face of
difficulties so great that they could have been overcome only by
such a man as Stanley proved himself to be a man of inflexible
will, who having conceived a vast design carried it to its conclu-
sion regardless of any obstacles, sparing neither himself nor his
associates and, if opposed, prepared to shed blood to attain his
object. Of the three white men who accompanied him all died
during the journey; Stanley himself was prematurely aged.
The discovery of the course of the Congo, though the greatest,
was but one of many geographical problems solved during this
memorable expedition. The part played by the Kagera in the
Nile system, the unity and approximate area of Victoria Nyanza,
the true length and area of Tanganyika and the whereabouts of
its outlet, and the discovery of a new lake, Dweru, which at the
time Stanley believed to be a branch of Albert Nyanza, are some
of the other discoveries made by Stanley at this time. The
story of the expedition was given at length in Through the Dark
Continent (London, 1878). Stanley's letters from Uganda and
his call for missionaries to go to the court of Mtesa met with an
immediate response and proved the first step in bringing the
region of the Nile sources under the protection of Great Britain.
Important as was this result of his journey it was eclipsed by the
events which followed his revelation of the Congo as a magnificent
waterway piercing the very heart of Africa. Of the commercial
possibilities of the region he had made known Stanley was well
aware. The one other man who at once grasped the situation
was Leopold II., king of the Belgians, who sent commissioners
to intercept Stanley at Marseilles, when he was on his way back
to England, with proposals to return to the Congo, proposals
which Stanley, much needing rest, put aside for the time. Ap-
proached again in the summer of 1878 Stanley lent a more favour-
able ear to Leopold's suggestions. Efforts made by the explorer
in the autumn to arouse British merchants to the importance of
the Congo basin were unavailing, and in November Stanley went
to Brussels and committed himself to the schemes of the king of
the Belgians. A Comite d'etudes du Haul Congo was formed and
Stanley was entrusted with the leadership of the new expedition,
which was, in his own words, " to prove that the Congo natives
were susceptible of civilization and that the Congo basin was rich
enough to repay exploitation." Stanley reached the Congo in
August 1879, and the work he accomplished there in the ensuing
five years enabled the Comite, which had meantime changed its
name to that of Association Internationale du Congo, to obtain
the recognition of America and Europe to its transformation into
an independent state (" The Congo Free State ") under the
sovereignty of King Leopold. Stanley described his labours in
The Congo and the Founding of its Free State (London, 1885), a
book which throws valuable light on the manner in which the
promoters of that enterprise set to work, and the object at which,
from the beginning, they aimed. For the political aspects of
this question see AFRICA ( 5) and CONGO FREE STATE. Here it
is only necessary to indicate what Stanley actually accomplished
.on the Congo. At the outset the area of his activities was
restricted by the enterprise of the French traveller de Brazza,
who, reaching Stanley Pool by a more northern route, placed
September and October 1880 the neighbouring districts on the
north bank of the Congo under French protection. De Brazza's
journey was directly inspired by Stanley's discoveries, and thus
early had those discoveries led to international rivalries. Not-
withstanding this check Stanley, without much trouble with the
natives, founded stations for his association along the banks of
the river as high up as Stanley Falls. A more difficult task was
the making of a road through the cataract region and the carry-
ing over it in sections of four small steamers, all of which were
launched on the middle river. This road-making exploit earned
for Stanley from the natives the name of Bula Matari, the
rock-breaker, the all-powerful a fit description of the man
who allowed no obstacles to turn him from the achievement
of his purpose.
Stanley returned to Europe in the middle of 1884 and attended
the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, which dealt with African
affairs, acting as technical adviser of the American plenipoten-
tiaries. While in Germany he lectured in various cities on the
benefits which would result from the opening up of Central
Africa, and found the Germans more alive than the British to the
great interests at stake. The revelation of what the Association
Internationale had done intensified the struggle among the
powers for the possession of African territory. Stanley did not
return to the Congo on the recognition of the Free State but took
up his residence in London. With James F. Hatton, a leading
Manchester merchant, he promoted the Royal Congo Railway
Company to connect Stanley Pool with the lower river, but the
scheme at the time came to nought, partly owing to the indiffe-
rence of English capitalists and partly in consequence of a clause
inimical to British interests in the charter which King Leopold
proposed to grant the company.
Though still an American citizen Stanley's interests and ambi-
tions were becoming distinctly British, his sympathies in that
direction being joined to a personal loyalty to the king of the
Belgians. 1 A desire to serve both parties was one of the leading
motives in his next African adventure. Stanley had become
deeply interested in the schemes of Mr (afterwards Sir) William
Mackinnon, chairman of the British India Steam Navigation Com-
pany, for establishing a British protectorate in East Equatorial
Africa, and it was believed that this object could be furthered
at the same time that relief was afforded to Emin Pasha (q.v.),
governor of the Equatorial Province of Egypt, who had been
isolated by the Mahdist rising of 1881-1885. Stanley agreed
to conduct an expedition, nominally in the service of the khedive
of Egypt, for the relief of Emin. The major part of the funds
needed was supplied by a committee, of which Mackinnon was
chairman. Instead of choosing the direct route via Zanzibar or
Mombasa, Stanley decided to go by way of the Congo, as thereby
he would be able to render services to the infant Congo State,
then encountering great difficulties with the Zanzibar Arabs
established on the upper Congo. Stanley left Europe in January
1887 and at Zanzibar entered into an agreement with Tippoo
Tib, the chief of the Congo Arabs, appointing him governor
of Stanley Falls station on behalf of the Congo State, and
making another arrangement with him to supply carriers for the
Emin relief expedition. Stanley and Tippoo Tib travelled
together up the Congo as far as Bangala, reached on the 3oth of
May. Thence Tippoo Tib went on to Stanley Falls and Stanley
prepared for a journey to Albert Nyanza, where he expected to
meet Emin. On the isth of June Yambuya, on the lower
Aruwimi, was reached, and here Stanley left his rear-guard
under command of Major E. M. Barttelot and Mr J. S. Jameson.
On the z8th Stanley and the advance-guard started for Albert
Nyanza, " and until the 5th of December, for 160 days, we
marched through the forest, bush and jungle, without ever having
seen a bit of greensward of the size of a cottage chamber floor.
1 Of the later policy pursued in the Congo State Stanley wrote,
in 1896, that it was " erring and ignorant." To go back to the Congo
" would be to disturb a moral malaria injurious to the reorganizer "
(Autobiography, p. 537).
STANLEY, T.
781
Nothing but miles and miles, endless miles of forest." Starva-
tion, fever, the hostility of the tribes, were daily incidents of this
terrible march, during which Stanley lost nearly 50% of his men.
On the i3th of December Albert Nyanza was reached, and after
some delay communication was opened with Emin, who came
down the lake from the Nile in a steamer, the two chiefs meeting
on the 2gth of April 1888. Disquieted by the non-arrival of his
rearguard, Stanley retraced his steps, and on the i;th of August,
a short distance above Yambuya, found that Tippoo Tib had
broken faith, that Barttelot had been murdered, that Jameson
(who soon afterwards died of fever) was absent at Stanley Falls,
and that only one European, William Bonny, was left in the
camp. Collecting those who survived of the rearguard Stanley
for the third time traversed the primeval forest, and in January
1889 all that was left of the expedition was assembled at Albert
Nyanza. Of 646 men with whom he entered the Congo, but
246 remained. In April the return journey to Zanzibar by way
of Uganda was begun, Emin reluctantly accompanying Stanley.
On this homeward journey Stanley discovered Ruwenzori (the
Mountains of the Moon), traced the course of the Semliki
River, discovered Albert Edward Nyanza and the great south-
western gulf of Victoria Nyanza. During his stay in the Congo
forests he had also obtained much information concerning the
pygmy tribes. As to the political results of the expedition,
Stanley's proposals to Emin to hold the Equatorial Province for
the Congo State or to move nearer Victoria Nyanza and enter
the service of Mackinnon's British East Africa Company had not
been accepted, but he concluded agreements with various chiefs
in the lake regions in favour of Great Britain, agreements which
were handed over to the East Africa Company. Zanzibar was
reached on the 6th of December 1889 and the expedition was at
an end. Stanley's account of it, In Darkest Africa, was published
(in six languages) in 1890.
Returning to England, Stanley was received with much
honour, among the many distinctions conferred upon him being
the degrees of D.C.L. from Oxford and of LL.D. from Cambridge
and from Edinburgh. On the i2th of July 1890 he married a
lady whose graceful work as an artist was well known, Miss
Dorothy Tennant, second daughter of Mr Charles Tennant,
sometime M.P. for St Albans. Later in the year he visited the
United States, where he made a pilgrimage to the places where
his youth had been spent, and in 1891-1892 went to Australia
and New Zealand on lecturing tours. On his return he was
renaturalized as a British subject, and at the solicitation of
his wife he stood at the general election in the summer of 1892
as candidate for North Lambeth in the Liberal Unionist interest,
being defeated by a small majority. In 1895 he again stood for
the same constituency and was elected, but he had no Eking for
parliamentary life, and (being also in ill-health) he did not seek
re-election in 1900. In 1895 Stanley published My Early Travels
and Adventures in America and Asia, in which he retold the story
of his experiences with the Red Indians and of his eastern journey
of 1869-1870. In 1897 Stanley paid his last visit to Africa. He
went to the Cane as the guest of the British South Africa Company,
spoke at the opening of the railway from the Cape to Bulawayo,
visited the Victoria Falls of the Zambezi and had an interview
with President Kruger, of whom he gives a characteristic pen-
picture. One result of this journey was Through South Africa
(1898), the last of his published works. In 1899 in recognition
of his services in Africa he was made a Knight Grand Cross of
the Bath. The last few years of his life were spent mainly in
retirement on a small estate he had purchased, Furze Hill, near
Pirbright. He died at his London residence in Richmond Terrace,
Whitehall, on the loth of May 1904. After a service in West-
minster Abbey he was buried at Pirbright on the I7th of May.
His widow, Lady Stanley, afterwards married, in 1907, Mr
Henry Curtis, F.R.C.S. By Sir Henry Stanley she had a son,
Denzil, born 1896.
In geographical discoveries Stanley accomplished more than
any other explorer of Africa, with which continent his name is
indissolubly connected. Notwithstanding his frequent conflicts
with Arabs and negroes, he possessed in extraordinary degree
the power of managing native races; he was absolutely fearless
and ever ready to sacrifice either himself or others to achieve his
object. His books differ widely from the ordinary books of travel.
Stanley had a gift of dramatic narrative, and his power of
portraiture was remarkable. Curiously, the least successful of
his works was the only one which he cast in the form of fiction,
My Kalulu, Prince, King and Slave. Another volume from his
pen, My Dark Companions and their Strange Stories (1893), is
a valuable contribution to folklore.
The Autobiography of Sir Henry Morion Stanley, ed. by his wife,
Dorothy Stanley, appeared in 1909. Henry M. Stanley, the Story of
his Life . . . (London, n.d. [1872]), by C. Rowlands, contains,
notwithstanding many inaccuracies, valuable information concern-
ing his family and early career. The following books may also be
consulted: Mrs J. S. Jameson, Story of the Rear Column of the
Emin Pasha Relief Expedition (1890); W. G. Barttelot, The Life of
Edmund Musgrave Barttelot . . . (1890); H. Erode, Tippoo Tib, the
Story of his Career in Central Africa (1907). (F. R. C.)
STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-1678), English poet and philo-
sopher, son of Sir Thomas Stanley of Cumberlow, in Herts, was
born in 1625. His mother, Mary Hammond, was the cousin of
Richard Lovelace, and Stanley was educated in company with
the son of Edward Fairfax, the translator of Tasso. He pro-
ceeded to Cambridge in 1637, in his thirteenth year, as a gentle-
man commoner of Pembroke Hall. In 1641 he took his M.A.
degree, but seems by that time to have proceeded to Oxford. He
was wealthy, married early, and travelled much on the Continent.
He was the friend and companion, and at need the helper, of
many poets, and was himself both a writer and a translator of
verse. His Poems appeared in 1647 ; his Europa, Cupid Crucified,
Venus Vigils, in 1649; his Aurora and the Prince, from the Spanish
of J. Perez de Montalvan, in 1647; Oronta, the Cyprian Virgin,
from the Italian of G. Preti (1650); and Anacreon; Bion;
Moschus; Kisses by Secundus ... a volume of translations, in
1651. Stanley's most serious work in life, however, was his
History of Philosophy, which appeared in three successive
volumes between 1655 and 1661. A fourth volume (1662),
bearing the title of History of Chaldaick Philosophy, was trans-
lated into Latin by J. Le Clerc (Amsterdam, 1690). The three
earlier volumes were published in an enlarged Latin version by
Godfrey Olearius (Leipzig, 1711). In 1664 Stanley published in
folio a monumental edition of the text of Aeschylus. He died at
his lodgings in Suffolk Street, Strand, on the I2th of April 1678,
and was buried in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields. His
portrait was painted by Sir Peter Lely; his wife was Dorothy,
daughter and coheir of Sir James Emyon, of Flower, in North-
amptonshire. Stanley is a very interesting transitional figure
in English literature. Born into a later generation than that of
Waller and Denham, he rejected their reforms, and was the last
to cling obstinately to the old prosody and the conventional
forms of fancy. He is the frankest of all English poets in his
preference of decadent and Alexandrine schools of imagination;
among the ancients he admired Moschus, Ausonius, and the
Pervigilium Veneris; among the moderns, Joannes Secundus,
Gongora and Marino. The English metaphysical school closes
in Stanley, in whom it finds its most delicate and autumnal
exponent, who went on weaving his fantastic conceits in elabor-
ately artificial measures far into the days of Dryden and Butler.
When Stanley turned to prose, however, his taste became trans-
formed. He abandoned his decadents for the gravest masters of
Hellenic thought. As an elegant scholar of the illuminative
order, he secured a very high place indeed throughout the second
half of the i7th century. His History of Philosophy was long
the principal authority on the progress of thought in ancient
Greece. It took the form of a series of critical biographies of the
philosophers, beginning with Thales; what Stanley aimed at was
the providing of necessary information concerning all " those
on whom the attribute of Wise was conferred." He is par-
ticularly full on the great Attic masters, and introduces, " not
as a comical divertisement for the reader, but as a necessary
supplement to the life of Socrates," a blank verse translation of
the Clouds of Aristophanes. Bentley is said to have had a very
high appreciation of his scholarship, and to have made use of the
782
STANLEY, SIR W. STANS
poet's copious notes, still in manuscript (in the British Museum),
on Callimachus.
Stanley's original poems, which had been collected in 1651, were
imperfectly reprinted in Sir S. Egerton Brydges's edition of 150
copies in 1814, but never since; his " Anacreon " was issued, with
the Greek text, by Mr Bullen in 1892. His prose works have not
been collected. (E. G.)
STANLEY, SIR WILLIAM (1548-1630), English soldier and
traitor, was the eldest son of Sir Rowland Stanley (d. 1612) of
Hooton, Cheshire, a member of the famous family of that name.
As a volunteer under the duke of Alva he gained his earliest
military experiences in the service of Spain; then about 1570
he joined the English forces in Ireland, where he remained for
fifteen years, being knighted by Sir William Drury in 1579.
He was very prominent in the guerrilla warfare against the
Irish rebels; he was made sheriff of Cork, and he acted as deputy
for Sir John Norris, the president of Munster, where by 300
executions he terrified the inhabitants " that a man now may
travel the whole country and none to molest him." Having,
says William Camden, " singulari fide et fortitudine in Hibernico
bello moruerat," he returned to England in October 1585,
undoubtedly annoyed that his services had not been more
generously rewarded. In December of this year, however, he
crossed to the Netherlands with the English forces, but almost
as soon as he reached his destination he was sent to Ireland to
collect recruits, of whom he ;enlisted about 1400. Although
a strong Roman Catholic, Stanley had hitherto served Elizabeth
loyally, but lingering in London on his return from his Irish
errand, he seems to have entered into the schemes of the Jesuits
against the queen, and he was probably aware of Anthony
Babington's plot. But the time for more active and personal
treachery had not yet arrived, and with his Irish levies he
reached Holland in August 1586, fought gallantly at Zutphen
and helped Sir William Pelham to seize Deventer. In spite
of some remonstrances, Stanley was made governor of this town,
being given extended powers by Leicester, and his opportunity
had now come. In January 1587 he surrendered Deventer
to the Spaniards, and while most of his men entered the Spanish
service, he travelled to Madrid to discuss the projected invasion
of England, his idea being to make Ireland the base for this
undertaking. These and subsequent plans were ruined by the
defeat of the Armada, but he made several journeys to Spain,
and did not abandon the hope that England might be invaded.
In the intervals between his travels he fought under the Spanish
flag in the Netherlands and in France. Later he became
governor of Mechlin, and he died at Ghent on the 3rd of March
1630. His descendant, William Stanley, was created a baronet
in 1661, the male line of the family becoming extinct when
Sir John Stanley-Errington, the I2th baronet, died in 1893.
See R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (1890), vol. iii. ; and
J. L. Motley, The United Netherlands (1904), vol. ii.
STANNARD, JOSEPH (1796-1830), British painter, was
born in Norwich. He there received some training in art from
Robert Ladbrooke, the brother-in-law of Crome, and he also
visited Holland and studied the pictures of the Dutch masters.
His short life he died when he was thirty-four was spent
in his native town, and he contributed to the exhibitions of
the Norwich Society, of which he was a member, and also
occasionally showed his work in London. Most of his pictures
represent coast subjects or river scenes, but he had some
reputation as a portrait-painter also, and in this branch of
practice he achieved locally a fair measure of success. In his
large picture, " The Annual Water Frolic at Thorpe," he com-
bined landscape with portraiture. He attained no little skill
as an etcher and published several plates which have a
considerable degree of merit.
STANNARIES (Lat. stannum, Cornish, stean, tin), tin mines.
Stannary courts exercised a jurisdiction peculiar to Cornwall
and Devon. So 'far as regards Cornwall the jurisdiction is an
immemorial one. By ancient charters, the tinners of Corn-
wall were exempt from all other jurisdiction than that of the
stannary courts, except in cases affecting land, life and limb.
The tin-mining industry of Cornwall, dating, as it does, from the
very earliest times, was always prosecuted in accordance with a
particular code of customs; the earliest charter which embodies
them is that of Edmund, earl of Cornwall, but the freedom then
assured was rather confirmed than given for the first time, and
it is impossible to say how far these customs of the stannaries
courts go back. Twenty-four stannators were returned for the
whole of Cornwall. Their meeting was termed a parliament,
and when they assembled they chose a speaker. In earlier times,
the combined tinners of Devon and Cornwall assembled on
Kingston Down, a tract of highland on the Cornish side of the
Tamar. After the charter of Earl Edmund, the Cornish stan-
nators met (apparently) at Truro; those of Devonshire at
Crockern Tor on Dartmoor. An officer was appointed by the
duke of Cornwall or the Crown, who was lord warden of the
stannaries, and the parliaments were assembled by him from
time to time, in order to revise old or to enact new laws. The
last Cornish stannary parliament was held at Truro in 1752.
For a long series of years little or no business was transacted in
the stannary courts; but the necessity for a court of peculiar
jurisdiction, embracing mines and mining transactions of every
description within the county of Cornwall having become more
and more apparent, a committee was appointed to report on
the subject, and an act of parliament was afterwards (1836)
passed, suppressing the law courts of the stewards of the differ-
ent stannaries, and giving to the vice-warden their jurisdiction,
besides confirming and enlarging the ancient equity juris-
diction of that office. By the Stannaries Act 1855 the respec-
tive parliaments or stannaries courts of Cornwall and Devon
were consolidated. From the judgments of the vice-warden
an appeal lay to the lord warden, and from him to the Supreme
Court. By the Stannaries Courts Abolition Act 1896 the
jurisdiction of the courts was transferred to the county courts.
The most important customs may be briefly stated: (a) " free
tinners " had the right to work upon rendering the " toll-tin,"
usually one-fifteenth of the produce, to the owner or lord of the
soil; (b) the right of " tin-bounding," that is, the right of bounding
any unappropriated waste lands, or any several or enclosed
lands which had once been waste land, subject to the custom
and to the delivery of tin-toll. The bound was marked by
turf or stone, and was about an acre in extent. The estate
of a bounder in Devonshire is real property, but in Cornwall
is personal property.
For many centuries a tax on the tin, after smelting, was
paid to the earls and dukes of Cornwall. The smelted blocks
were carried to certain towns (Liskeard, Lostwithiel, Penzance,
Truro) to be coined, that is, a corner of the block was cut off,
and the block was then stamped with the duchy seal as a guar-
antee of the quality. By an act of 1838 the dues payable on
the coinage of tin were abolished, and a compensation was
awarded to the duchy instead of them.
See T. Pearce, Laws and Customs of the Stannaries in the Counties
of Cornwall and Devon (1725); Bainbridge, Law of Mines and Minerals ;
C. R. Lewis, The Stanneries: a Study of the English Tin Mines
(" Harvard Economic Studies," 1908).
STANNITE, a rare mineral consisting of tin, copper and iron
sulphide (a sulpho-stannate, Cu2FeSnS4), containing, when pure,
tin 27-5, copper 29-5%. It has a metallic lustre, and, when
pure, is iron-black in colour: more often, however, it is bronze-
yellow, owing to tarnish or to the presence of intimately ad-
mixed chalcopyrite: for this reason it is known to miners as
" bell-metal-ore " or as " tin pyrites." The hardness is 3^
and the specific gravity 4-45. It usually occurs as granular
to compact masses, rarely as crystals. Minute crystals from
Bolivia have been shown to be tetragonal and hemihedral,
like chalcopyrite; and to be invariably twinned, giving rise to
pseudocubic forms. The mineral has been found in a number
of Cornish tin mines, and was formerly worked to a limited
extent as an ore. At Zinnwald in Bohemia it occurs with
blende and galena, and in Bolivia with silver ores. (L. J. S.)
STANS, the capital of the eastern half (or Nidwalden) of the
Swiss canton of Unterwalden. It stands amid orchards at a
STANSFELD STANTON, E. C.
783
height of 1493 ft. above the sea-level on a plain at the north
foot of the conical Stanserhorn (6238 ft.). It is, by electric
railway, about 2 m. from Stansstad, its port on the south shore
of the lake of Lucerne, and 12 m. from Engelberg (with its great
Benedictine monastery, founded about 1120), now a much-
frequented summer resort, while there is also an electric rail-
way from Stans up the Stanserhorn. In 1900 Stans had a
population of 2798, all German-speaking and Romanists.
Stans was the home of the Winkelried family (q.v.) and has a
modern monument to the memory of Arnold von Winkelried,
the legendary hero of the battle of Sempach (1386). In 1481 the
holy Nicholas von der Flue composed at Stans by his advice
the strife between the Confederates, while in 1798 many persons
were massacred here by the French. (W. A. B. C.)
STANSFELD, SIR JAMES (1820-1898), English politician,
was born at Moorlands, Halifax, on the sth of October 1820,
the son of James Stansfeld, a county-court judge. Educated
at University College, London, he was called to the bar in 1849.
In 1847 he was introduced through his father-in-law, W. H.
Ashurst, to Mazzini, with whom he formed a close friendship.
In 1859 he was returned to parliament as Radical member for
Halifax, which town he continued to represent for over thirty-
six years. He voted consistently on the Radical side, but his
chief energies were devoted to promoting the cause of Italian
unity. He was selected by Garibaldi as his adviser when the
Italian patriot visited England in 1862. In 1863 he moved
in the House of Commons a resolution of sympathy with the
Poles, and two months later was made a junior lord of the
admiralty. In 1864, as' the result of charges made against him
by the French authorities, in connexion with Greco's conspiracy
against Napoleon III., Disraeli, in the House of Commons,
accused him of being "in correspondence with the . assassins
of Europe." Stansfeld was vigorously defended by Bright
and Fbrster, and his explanation was accepted as quite satis.-
factory by Palmerston. Nevertheless he only escaped a vote
of censure by ten votes, and accordingly resigned office. In
1865 he was re-elected for Halifax, and in 1866 became under-
secretary of state for India. In the first Gladstone admin-
istration he held a variety of public offices, finally becoming,
in 1871, the first president of the local government board.
The remainder of his life was mainly spent in endeavouring to
secure the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts, and in 1886
this object was attained. In the same year Stansfeld again
became president of the local government board. He died
on the 1 7th of February 1898.
STANTON, EDWIN M'MASTERS (1814-1869), American
statesman, was born at Steubenville, Ohio, on the I9th of
December 1814. He attended Kenyon College at Gambier,
Ohio, from 1831 to 1833, was admitted to the bar in 1836, was
prosecuting attorney of Harrison county in 1837-1839, and
practised in Cadiz, O., until 1839, when he returned to Steu-
benville. In 1847 he removed to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania,
where he took a leading place at the bar. One of his most
famous cases was that of The State of Pennsylvania v. The
Wheeling and Belmont Bridge Company (1849-1856), in which,
as counsel for the state, he invoked successfully the aid of the
Federal government in preventing the construction of a bridge
over the Ohio river at Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia)
on the ground that -the structure would interfere with the navi-
gation of that stream by citizens of Pennsylvania. His large
practice before the United States Supreme Court caused him to
remove to Washington in 1856. In 1858 he was sent to
California by the United States attorney-general as special
Federal agent for the settlement of land claims, and he succeeded
in breaking up a conspiracy by which the government would
have been defrauded of vast tracts of land of almost inestimable
value. Before the Civil War Stanton was a Democrat, opposed
to slavery, but a firm defender of the constitutional rights of
the slaveholders, and was a bitter opponent of Lincoln, whose
party he then hated and distrusted. In the reorganization
of President Buchanan's cabinet in 1860 Stanton became
attorney-general, and he did what he could to strengthen the
weak policy of the president in the last months of his admin-
istration. Although he had often violently denounced
President Lincoln, the latter thought he saw in Stanton
a good war minister, and in January 1862 invited him
into his cabinet. In his administration of the war office
Stanton was vigorous, rigid, and often harsh, and his peremp-
tory manner, in speech and correspondence, was the cause
of considerable friction between the war department and the
generals, one of the last and most conspicuous instances being
his controversy with General Sherman over the terms of
surrender granted to J. E. Johnston's army. But he removed a
horde of fraudulent contractors, kept the armies in the field
well equipped, and infused energy into procrastinating generals.
Not the least of his achievements was the peaceable disband-
ment of 800,000 soldiers at the end of the war. Remaining
in the cabinet of President Andrew Johnson, Stanton exerted
all his energies toward thwarting the policies of that executive,
especially those related to the reconstruction of the Southern
states. He expressed disapproval of the Tenure of Office
Act, making the consent of the Senate necessary for the removal
of civil officers, and drafted the supplementary act on Recon-
struction, passed over the president's veto on the igth of July
1867. Stanton was finally asked to resign, and on his
refusal to do so the president suspended him (Aug. 12) from
office and appointed General Grant (who had disapproved of
the secretary's removal) secretary ad interim. When the
Senate, however, under the terms of the Tenure of Office Act,
refused (Jan. 13, 1868) to concur in the suspension, Grant
left the office and Stanton returned to his duties. On the
aist of February 1868 Johnson appointed General Lorenzo
Thomas secretary of war ad interim, and ordered Stanton to
vacate, but on the same day the Senate upheld Stanton, and
by way of reply the secretary made oath to a complaint against
Thomas for violating the Tenure of Office Act, and invoked
military protection from General Grant, who placed General
E. A. Carr in charge of the war department building, while
Congress came to Stanton's rescue by impeaching the presi-
dent, the principal article of impeachment being that based on
the removal of Stanton (see JOHNSON, ANDREW). When the
impeachment proceedings failed (May 26) Stanton resigned
and returned to the practice of law. In 1869 President Grant
appointed him a justice of the United States Supreme Court,
but he died on the 24th of December, four days after his appoint-
ment. Stanton had a violent temper and a sharp tongue, but
he was courageous, energetic, thoroughly honest and a genuine
patriot.
See George C. Gorham, Life and Public Services of Edwin M.
Stanton (2 vols., Boston, 1899), and Frank A. Flower, Edwin
Me Masters Stanton: The Autocrat of Rebellion, Emancipation, and
Reconstruction (New York, 1905).
STANTON, ELIZABETH CADY (1815-1902), American
reformer, was born in Johnstown, New York, on the i2th of
November 1815, the daughter of Daniel Cady (1773-1859),
a Federalist member of the National House of Representatives
in 1815-1817 and a justice of the supreme court of New York
state in 1847-1855. She was educated at the Johnstown
Academy and at the Troy Female Seminary (now the Emma
Willard School), where she graduated in 1832. In 1840 she
married Henry Brewster Stanton (1805-1887), a lawyer and
journalist, who had been a prominent abolitionist since his
student days (1832-1834) in Lane Theological Seminary, and
who took her on a wedding journey to London, where he was a
delegate to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention. He was a
member of the New York Senate in 1850-1851, was one of the
founders oi the Republican party in New York, and from 1868
until his death was on the staff of the New York Sun. Mrs
Stanton, who had become intimately acquainted in London with
Mrs Lucretia Mott, one of the women delegates barred from the
anti-slavery convention, devoted herself to the cause of women's
rights. She did much by the circulation of petitions to secure
the passage in New York in 1848 of a law giving a married woman
property rights; and in the same year on the igth and 2oth of
7 8 4
STANYHURST STAR
June in Seneca Falls (?..), whither the Stantons had removed
in 1847 from Boston, was held, chiefly under the leadership of
Mrs Mott and Mrs Stanton, the first Woman's Rights Con-
vention. She spoke before the New York legislature on the
rights of married women in 1854 and on drunkenness as a ground
for divorce in 1860, and for twenty-five years she annually
addressed a committee of Congress urging an amendment to
the Federal constitution giving certain privileges to women.
With Parker PUlsbury (1809-1898) she edited in 1867-1870
The Revolution, a radical newspaper, which in 1870 was con-
solidated with the Christian Enquirer. To the Woman's Tribune
she made important contributions, publishing in it serially
parts of the Woman's Bible (1895), which she and others pre-
pared, and her personal reminiscences, published in 1898
as Eighty Years and More. With Susan B. Anthony and
Mathilda Joslyn Gage she wrote The History of Woman Suf-
frage (3 vols., 1880-1886). She was president of the National
Woman Suffrage Association in 1865-1890. Her daughter,
Harriot Stanton Blatch (1856- ), also became prominent as
a worker for woman's suffrage.
STANYHURST, RICHARD (1547-1618), English translator
of Virgil, was born in Dublin in 1547. His father was recorder
of the city, and Speaker of the Irish House of Commons in
1557, 1560 and 1568. Richard was sent in 1563 to University
College, Oxford, and took his degree five years later. At
Oxford he became intimate with Edmund Campian. After
leaving the university he studied law at Furnival's Inn and
Lincoln's Inn. He contributed in 1557 to Holinshed's Chroni-
cles " a playne and perfecte description " of Ireland, and a
history of the country during the reign of Henry VIII., which
were severely criticized in Barnabe Rich's New Description
of Ireland (1610) as a misrepresentation of Irish affairs written
from the English standpoint. After the death of his wife, Janet
Barnewall, in 1579, Stanyhurst went to the Netherlands. After
his second marriage, which took place before 1585, with Helen
Copley, he became active in the Catholic cause. He spent some
time in Spain, ostensibly practising as a physician, but his
real business seems to have been to keep Philip II. informed of
the state of Catholic interest in England. After his wife's death
in 1602 he took holy orders, and became chaplain to the arch-
duke Albert in the Netherlands. He never returned to England,
and died at Brussels, according to Wood, in 1618. He trans-
lated into English The First Foure Bookes of Virgil his Aeneis
(Leiden, 1582), to give practical proof of the feasibility of
Gabriel Harvey's theory that classical rules of prosody could
be successfully applied to English poetry. The translation is
an unconscious burlesque of the original in a jargon arranged
in what the writer called hexameters. Thomas Nashe in his
preface to Greene's Menaphon ridiculed this performance as
his " heroicall poetrie, infired . . . with an hexameter furie
... a patterne whereof I will propounde to your judge-
ments. . . .
Then did he make heaven's vault to rebounde, with rounce robble
hobble
Of ruffe raffe roaring, with thwick thwack thurlery bouncing."
This is a parody, but not a very extravagant one, of
Stanyhurst's vocabulary and metrical methods.
His son, William Stanyhurst (1602-1663), was a voluminous
writer of Latin religious works, one of which, Dei immortalis
in corpore mortali patientis historia, was widely popular, and
was translated into many languages.
Only two copies of the orginal Leiden edition of Stanyhurst's
translation of Virgil are known to be in existence. In this edition
his orthographical cranks are preserved. A reprint in 1583 by Henry
Bynneman forms the basis of J. Maidment s edition (Edinburgh,
1836), and of Professor E. Arbor's reprint (1880), which contains
an excellent introduction. Stanyhurst's Latin works include
De rebus in Hibernia gestis (Antwerp, 1584) and a life of St Patrick
(1587).
STANZA (Low Lat. stantia, Ital. stantia or stanza), properly
an apartment or storey in a house, the term being hence adopted
for literary purposes to denote a complete section, of recurrent
form, in a poem. A stanza is a strophe of two or more lines,
usually rhyming, but always recurring, the idea of fixed re-
petition of form being essential to it. At the close of the
1 6th century the word stanza began to be used with an ad-
jective to designate a particular species, as the " Spenserian
stanza," because Spenser had invented that nine-lined form
for his Faerie Queen; or " Ariosto's stanza " as Drayton de-
scribed what is now known as ottava rima, because Ariosto had
written prominently in it. By " stanzaic law" is meant the
law which regulates the form and succession of stanzas. The
stanza is a modern development of the strophe of the ancients,
modified by the requirements of rhyme. (See VERSE; STROPHE;
SPENSERIAN STANZA.)
STAPLE, a word which has had a curious and interesting
development of meaning. The O. Eng. stapul meant a prop or
support, and is to be referred to the root seen in step,
stamp, &c.; the meaning is also seen in the cognate Du.
stapel, stocks, pile, Ger. Staffel, step of a ladder, &c. The
application, in current usage, of the word to a loop of wire or
metal with two sharpened points used to fix a pin or bolt, or to
fasten wire, &c., to wood, preserves the original sense. A special
development in Low German of stapel gave the meaning of an
orderly arranged heap of goods or stores, hence a store-house in
which goods were arranged in a settled order, the idea of firmness
or stability being that which runs through the changes of meaning
to which the word has been subjected. This Low German word
and sense was adapted in Old French as estaple, mod. etape, and
applied to an established market or town, particularly to one
which was the centre of the trade in some specific commodity.
Thence the word has in modern usage been transferred to a
principal or chief commodity or article of consumption.
In English economic history the term " staple " was applied
to those towns which were appointed by the king as the centres
for the trade of the company of the merchants of the staple.
These merchants had a monopoly in the purchase and export
of the staple commodities of England, viz. wool, woolfels,
leather, tin and lead. The merchants of the staple were the
origin of all English trading companies. The trade of the staple
towns was under the management of a mayor and constables,
sometimes appointed by the merchants themselves, sometimes
by the mayor of the town and sometimes by the king himself.
W. Stubbs (Const. H}st. vol. ii.) dates the growth of the system
from the reign of Edward I. The monopolies of the staple
were from time to time abolished and restored, but they were
consolidated by a statute of 1353, the number and place of the
staples being fixed, the custom declared, and the rights and
privileges of the merchants confirmed. (See C. Gross, Gild
Merchants; W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and
Commerce.)
STAPLEDON, WALTER DE (i 261-1326), English bishop,
was born at Annery in North Devon on the ist of February
1261. He became professor of canon law at Oxford and
chaplain to Pope Clement V. and in 1307 was chosen bishop of
Exeter. He went on errands to France for both Edward I
and Edward II., and attended the councils and parliaments of
his time. As lord high treasurer of England, an office to which
he was appointed in 1320, the bishop was associated in the
popular mind with the misdeeds of Edward II., and consequently,
after the king fled before the advancing troops of Queen Isabella,
he was murdered in London by the mob on the 1 5th of October
1326. Stapledon is famous as the founder of Exeter College,
Oxford, which originated in Stapledon Hall, established in 1314
by the bishop and his elder brother, Sir Richard Stapledon,
a judge of the king's bench. He also contributed very liberally
to the rebuilding of his cathedral at Exeter.
STAR, the general term for the luminous bodies seen in the
heavens; used also by analogy for star-shaped ornaments (see
MEDAL; Orders and Decorations) or other objects, and figura-
tively for persons of conspicuous brilliance. The word is
common to many branches of languages: in Teutonic two forms
appear, starre or sterre (cf. Du. ster), and sterne, or stern (cf.
Ger. Stern, and the Scand. stjarna, stjerna, &c.). From
Lat. Stella, are derived Span, and Port, estrella, and Fr. etoile.
STAR
785
The Greek is dorijp, and the Sanskrit tara, for stara. The
ultimate root is unknown, but may be connected with that
meaning " to strew," and the word would thus mean the points
of light scattered over the heavens. The study of the stars
is coeval with the birth of astronomy (see ASTRONOMY: History);
and among the earliest civilizations bene-
ficent or malevolent influences were as-
signed to them (see ASTROLOGY). With
the development of observational astro-
nomy the sidereal universe was arbitrarily
divided into areas characterized by special
noticed that they fall into two fairly well-marked classes. The
following table, based on S. C. Chandler's " Third Catalogue "
(Astronomical Journal, vol. xvi.), supplemented by A. W.
Roberts's list of southern variables (ibid. vol. xxi.), classifies
the lengths of the periods of 330 stars.
Period
o
5
IOO
ISO
20O
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
6OO
in
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
days
50
100
150
2OO
250
300
350
400
450
500
55
600
650
Stars
73
8
12
22
41
45
49
50
20
6
i
2
I
assemblages of stars; these assemblages were named asterisms
or constellations, and each received a name suggested by
mythological or other figures. The heavenly bodies fall into two
classes: (i) the fixed stars, or stars proper, which retain the same
relative position with respect to one another; and (2) the
planets, which have motions of a distinctly individual character,
and appear to wander among the stars proper.
Numerous counts of the number of stars visible to the naked
eye have been made; it is doubtful whether more than 2000
can be seen at one time from any position on the earth.
When a telescope is employed this number is enormously in-
creased, and still more so with the introduction of photographic
methods; with modern appliances more than a hundred million
of these objects may be rendered perceptible.
The recognition of stars is primarily dependent on their
brightness or " magnitude "; and it is clear that stars admit
of classification on this basis. This was attempted
Number and fry pt o i ern y ; w ho termed the brightest stars "of the
^Ae'siare. first magnitude," and the progressively fainter
stars of progressively greater magnitude. Ptolemy's
classification has been adopted as the basis of the more exactly
quantitative modern system. In this system one star is defined
to be unit magnitude higher than another if its light is less in
the ratio 1:2-512. This ratio is adopted so that a difference
of five magnitudes may correspond to a light-ratio of i : 100.
This subject is treated in the article PHOTOMETRY, CELESTIAL.
The faintest stars visible to the naked eye on clear nights are
of about the sixth magnitude; exceptionally keen, well-trained
eyes and clear moonless nights are necessary for the perception
of stars of the seventh magnitude. According to E. Heis
the numbers and magnitudes of stars between the north pole
and a circle 35 south of the equator are:
ist mag.
2nd mag.
3rd mag.
4th mag.
5th mag.
6th mag.
H
48
152
313
854
2OIO
From the value of the light-ratio we can construct a table
showing the number of stars of each magnitude which would
together give as much light as a first magnitude star, viz.:
ist mag.
2nd mag.
3rd mag.
4th mag.
5th mag.
6th mag.
I
2*
6
16
40
IOO
Comparing these figures with the numbers of stars of each
magnitude we notice that the total light emitted by all the
stars of a given magnitude is fairly constant.
Variable Stars. Although the majority of the stars are
unchanging in magnitude, there are many exceptions. Stars
whose brightness fluctuates are called variable stars. The
number of known objects of this class is being added to rapidly,
and now amounts to over 4000. The systematic search made
at Harvard Observatory is responsible for a large proportion
of the recent discoveries. Many of these stars seem to vary
quite irregularly; the changes of magnitude do not recur in
any orderly way. Others, however, are periodic, that is to say,
the sequence of changes is repeated at regular intervals, and
it is thus possible to predict when the maximum and minimum
brightness will occur. Of the periodic variable stars, the
lengths of the periods range from 3 hours 12 minutes, which
is the shortest yet determined, to 610 days, the longest. When
statistics of the lengths of the periods are collected, it is at once
It will be noticed that there are very few periods between 50
and 150 days, that a considerable number are less than 50 days
(actually a large majority of these are less than 10 days), and
that from 150 days upwards the number of periods increases to a
maximum at about 350 days and then diminishes. We thus
recognize two classes of variables, of which (i) the long-period
variables have periods ranging in general from 150 to 450 days,
though a few are outside these limits, and (2) the short-period
variables have periods less than 50 days (in the majority of cases
less than 10 days). There is some over-lapping of these two
classes as regards length of period, and it is doubtful in which
class some stars, whose periods are between 10 days and 1 50 days,
should be placed; but the two classes are quite distinct physically,
and the variability depends on entirely different causes.
Long-period Variables. The best known and typical star of
this class is Mira or o Ceti. This was the first variable star to be
discovered, having been noticed in 1596 by David Fabricius, who
thought it was a new star (a Nova). The varying brightness,
ranging from the ninth to the second magnitude, was recognized
in 1639 by John Phocylides Holwarda, and in 1667 Ismael Boulliau
(1605-1694) established a periodicity of 333 days. Although the
periodic outbursts of light have taken place without intermission
during the two and a half centuries that the star has been under
observation, they are somewhat irregular. The different maxima
differ considerably in brightness; thus in 1906 (the brightest maxi-
mum since 1779) the second magnitude was reached, but in other
years (as in 1868) it has failed to reach the fifth magnitude. The
minima likewise are variable, but only slightly so. Also, the period
varies somewhat; the maxima occur sometimes early and sometimes
late as compared with the mean period, but the difference is never
more than forty days. No general law has been discovered govern-
ing these irregularities. The change of magnitude takes place
gradually, but the rise to maximum brilliance is rather more rapid
than the decline. Spectroscopic observation shows that the in-
creased light accompanies an actual physical change or conflagration
in the star. The spectrum is of the third type with bright hydrogen
emission lines (see below, Spectra of Stars). Stars having this type
of spectrum are always variable, and a large proportion of the more
recently discovered long-period variables have been detected through
their characteristic spectrum.
X Cygni is another star of this class, remarkable for its range of
magnitude. In its period of 406 days it fluctuates between the
thirteenth and the fourth magnitudes; thus at maximum it emits
4000 times as much light as at minimum. The mean range of 75
long-period variables observed at Harvard (Harvard Annals, vol.
Ivii.) was five magnitudes. Another variable, R Normae 1 is of
interest as having a pronounced double maximum in each period.
It is natural to compare the periodic outbursts occurring in these
stars with the outbursts of activity on the sun, which have a period
of about eleven years. In both cases no extraneous cause can be
assigned ; the period seems to be inherent in the star itself and not
to be determined by the revolution of a satellite (no variability of
the line-of-sight motion of Mira has been found, so that it is probably
not accompanied by any large companion). In both cases the rise
to a maximum is more rapid than the decline to a minimum, and in
fact some of the minor peculiarities of the sunspot curve are closely
imitated by the light-curves of variable stars. H. H. Turner has
analysed harmonically the light-curves of a number of long-period
variables, and has shown that when they are arranged in a natural
series the sun takes its place in the series near, but not actually at,
one end. It is necessary to suppose, if the analogy is to hold, that
the sun is brightest when sunspots and faculae are most numerous;
this is by no means unlikely. On the other hand, the variations
in the light of the sun must be very small compared with the
enormous fluctuations in the light of variable stars. Moreover, the
solar period (n years) is far outside the limits of the periods of
1 yariable stars (except those sufficiently bright to have received
special names) are denoted by the capital letters R to Z followed by
the name of the constellation. The first nine variables recognized
in each constellation are denoted by single letters, after which
combinations RR, RS, &c., are used.
786
STAR
variables. It is therefore perhaps misleading actually to class the
sun with them; but it seems highly probable that whatever cause
produces the periodic outbursts of spots and faculae on our sun
differs only in degree from that which, in stars under a different
physical condition of pressure and temperature, results in the
gigantic conflagrations which we have been considering.
Short-period Variables. Besides the shortness of.the period these
variables possess other characteristics which differentiate them
from the long-period variables. The range of variation is much
smaller, the difference between maximum and minimum rarely
exceeding two magnitudes. Also the variations recur with perfect
regularity. There is reason to believe that all the stars of this class
are binary systems, and that the variations of brightness are deter-
mined by the different aspects presented by the two component
stars during the period of revolution. There are several well-
marked varieties of short-period variables; the most important are
typified by the stars Algol, /3 Lyrae, f Geminorum and S Cephei.
In the Algol variables one of the component stars is dark (that
is to say, dark in comparison with the other), and once in each revolu-
tion, passing between us and the bright component, partially hides
it. This class of variables is accordingly characterized by the fact
that for the greater part of the period the star shines steadily with
its maximum brilliancy, but fades away for a short time during each
period. The variability of Algol (0 Persei) was discovered in 1783
by John Goodricke (1764-1786), but, judging from its name, which
signifies " the demon," it seems possible that its peculiarity may have
been known to the ancient astronomers. Algol is ordinarily of
magnitude 2-3, but once in a period of 2 d - 2O>>- 49 m - it suffers partial
eclipse and fades to magnitude 3-5. The duration of each eclipse is
9i hours. Ever since the variability of Algol was observed it was
suspected to be due to a partial eclipse of the star by a dark body
nearly as large as itself revolving round it; but the explanation
remained merely a surmise until K. H. Vogel of Potsdam, by
repeated measurements of the motion of Algol in the line of sight,
showed that the star is always receding from us before the loss of
light and approaching us afterwards. This leaves no room for doubt
that an invisible companion passes between us and Algol about the
time the diminution of light takes place, and so proves the correct-
ness of the explanation. The dimensions of the Algol system have
been calculated, with the result that Algol appears to have'a diameter
of 1,000,000 m. and its companion a diameter of 830,000 m. ; the
distance between their centres cannot be deduced without making
certain doubtful assumptions, but may be about 3,000,000 m.
When this distance is compared with those prevailing in the
solar system, it seems an extraordinarily small separation between
two such large bodies; we shall, however, presently come across
systems in which the two components revolve almost or actually
in contact. About 56 Algol variables were known in 1907 ; the
variables of this class are the most difficult to detect, for the short
period of obscuration may easily escape notice unless the star is
watched continuously.
The variable star fi Lyrae, which is typical of another class, was
also discovered by Goodricke in 1784. It differs from the Algol
type in having two unequal minima separated by two equal maxima.
Thus in a period of I2 d - 22 h - from a maximum of magnitude
3-4 it falls to 3-9, rises again to 3-4, then falls to 4-5 and returns
to magnitude 3-4. The changes take place continuously, so that
there is no period of steady luminosity. The hypothesis of G. W.
Myers (Astro physical Journal, vol. vii.) affords at least a partial
explanation of the phenomena. Two stars are supposed to revolve
about one another nearly or actually in contact. In such a system
the tidal forces must be very great, and under their influence the
stars will not be spherical, but will be elongated in the direction of
the line joining their centres. When the line of centres is at right
angles to our line of sight, the stars present to us their greatest
apparent surface, and therefore send us the maximum light. This
happens twice in a revolution. As the line of centres becomes more
oblique, the surface is seen more and more foreshortened and the
brilliancy diminishes continuously. Supposing that the two stars
are of unequal surface brilliancy, the magnitude at minimum will
depend on which of the two stars is the nearer to us, accordingly
there are two unequal minima in each revolution. When the two
stars are of equal brilliancy the minima are equal; this is the case
in variables of the f Geminorum type. When the orbits are
eccentfic, the tidal disturbance varying with the distance between
the two components will probably cause changes in their absolute
brilliancy; the variation due to change in the aspect of the system
presented to us may thus be supplemented by a real intrinsic varia-
tion, both, however, being regulated by the orbital motion. A large
eccentricity also produces an unsymmetrical light variation, the
minimum occurring at a time not midway between two maxima;
stars of this character are called Cepheid variables, after the typical
star S Cephei. All the best-known short-period variables have
been proved to be binary systems spectrpscopically, and to have
periods corresponding with the period of light variation, so that to
this extent the hypothesis we have described is well founded ; but
it is doubtful if it is the whole explanation. S. Albrecht has shown
that, of the 10 members of the 5 Cephei class for which both the
orbits and the light-variations are thoroughly known, the maximum
light always' occurs approximately at the time when the brighter
component is approaching us most rapidly; this relation, which
seems to be well established, is a most perplexing one.
No hard and fast physical distinction can be drawn between the
various classes of short-period variables; as the distance between
the components diminishes the Algol variable merges insensibly into
the /3 Lyrae type. The latter, on the other hand, is perhaps connected
by insensible gradations with the ordinary simple star. Sir G. H.
Darwin and H. Poincar6 have investigated the forms taken up by
rotating masses of fluid. When the angular momentum is too
great for the usual spheroidal form to persist, this gives place to an
ellipsoid with three unequal axes; this is succeeded by a pear-shaped
form. The subsequent sequence of events cannot be traced with
certainty, but it seems likely that the pear-shaped form is succeeded
by an hour-glass-shaped form, which finally separates at the neck
into two masses of fluid. Ellipsoidal, pear-shaped or hour-glass-
shaped stars would all give rise to the phenomena of a short-period
variable, and doubtless examples of these intermediate forms exist.
Certain clusters contain a remarkable number of short-period
variables. Thus the cluster Messier 5 was found at Harvard to
contain 185 variables out of 900 stars examined. Solon I. Bailey,
on examining 63 of them, found that with one exception their
periods lay between lo h - 48 m - and I4 h - 59 m -, and the range of varia-
tion between 0-7 and 1-4 magnitudes. Moreover, the light-curves
were all of a uniform type, a distinctive feature of " cluster variables "
being the rapid rise to a maximum and slow decline.
Temporary Stars or Novas. From time to time a star, hitherto
too faint to be noticeable, blazes out and becomes a prominent object,
and then slowly fades into obscurity. According to Miss Agnes
Clerke there are records of ten such stars appearing between
134 B.C. and A.D. 1500. Since that time nine novas have appeared,
which have attained naked-eye visibility; and in recent years a
number of very faint objects of the same class have been detected.
The brightest star of all these was the famous " Tycho's star " in
Cassiopeia. It was first observed on the 6th of November 1572 by
Wolfgang Schuler. In five days its light had reached the first
magnitude, and a little later it even equalled Venus in brilliancy
and was observed in full daylight. After three weeks it began to
decline, but the star did not finally disappear until March 1574.
" Kepler's " nova in Ophiuchus broke out in 1604 and attained a
brightness greater than that of Jupiter; it likewise gradually waned,
and disappeared after about fifteen months. For nearly three
centuries after these two remarkable stars no nova attained a
brilliancy greater than that of the ordinary stars, until in 1901
Nova Persei appeared. This star was discovered by T. D. Anderson
on the 2ist-22nd of February, its magnitude at that time being
2-7. In the next two days it reached zero magnitude, thus becoming
the brightest star in the northern heavens, but after that it rapidly
decreased. On the I5th of March it was of the fourth magnitude;
during the next three months it oscillated many times between
magnitudes 4 and -6, and by the end of the year it had faded to
the seventh magnitude. In July 1903 it was of the twelfth magni-
tude, and its light has remained constant since then. In the case
of this star there is evidence that the outburst must have been
extremely rapid, for the region where Nova Persei appeared had
been photographed repeatedly at Harvard during February, and in
particular no trace of the star was found on a plate taken on the 1 9th
of February, which showed eleventh magnitude stars. Thus a rise
of at least eight magnitudes in two days must have occurred.
On the 2 1st of August, six months after the discovery of Nova
Persei, C. Flammarion and E. M. Antoniadi discovered that a nebula
surrounded it. Subsequent photographs showed that this nebula,
which consisted mainly of two incomplete rings of nebulosity, was
expanding outwards at the rate of from 2" to 3* per day. This
expansion continued at the same rate until the following year.
Spectroscopic examination had already suggested prodigious veloci-
ties of the order of 1000 m. per second in the gases of the atmos-
phere of the nova ; but the velocity implied by this expansion of the
nebula was unprecedented and comparable only with the velocity
of light. The suggestion was made, and seems to be the true
explanation, that what was actually witnessed was the wave of light
due to the outburst of the nova, spreading outwards with its velocity
of 186,000 m. per second, and rendering luminous as it reached
them the particles of a pre-existing nebula, w,hose own light had been
too faint to be visible.
Two possible explanations of the phenomena of temporary stars
have been held. The collision theory supposes that the outburst
is the result of a collision between two stars or between a star and
a swarm of meteoric or nebulous matter. The explosion theory
regards the outburst as similar to the outbreak of activity of a long-
period variable. Probably the latter hypothesis is the one more
generally accepted now. There is one unique star, which is of
special interest as occupying rather an intermediate position between
a nova and a long-period variable. This is the southern star
T) Argus (sometimes called -n Carinae). From 1750 until about 1832
it seems to have varied irregularly between the second and the fourth
magnitudes. For the next ten years it slowly increased (though
with slight check), and in 1843 was nearly as bright as Sirius; since
then it has slowly faded, but it was not till 1869 that it ceased to be
visible to the naked eye. It is now about magnitude 7-5. The
slowness both of the rise and decline is in great contrast with the
STAR
787
progress of a nova.' it Argus is surrounded by a nebula, the famous
" Keyhole nebula " ; in this respect it resembles Nova Persei.
System of Stars. On examining the stars telescopically, many
which appear single to the unaided eye are found to be composed
of two or more stars very close together. In some
cases the p rox ; m ity i s only apparent; one star may
be really at a vast distance behind the other, but,
being in the same line of vision, they appear close together. In
many cases, however, two or more stars are really connected,
and their distance from one another is (from the astronomical
standpoint) small. The evidence of this connexion is of two
kinds. In a number of cases measures of the relative positions
of the two stars, continued for many years, have shown that
they are revolving about a common centre; when this is so
there can be no doubt that they form a binary system, and that
the two components move in elliptic orbits about the common
centre of mass, controlled by their mutual gravitation. But
these cases form a very small proportion of the total number
of double stars. In many other double stars the two com-
ponents have very nearly the same proper motion. Unless
this is a mere coincidence, it implies that the two stars are nearly
at the same distance from us. For otherwise, if they had from
some unknown cause the same actual motion, the apparent motion
in arc would be different. We can therefore infer that the two
stars are really comparatively close together, and, moreover,
since they have the same proper motion, that they remain close
together. They may thus be fairly regarded as constituting
a binary system, though the gravitational attraction between
some of the wider pairs must be very weak.
Several double stars were observed during the lyth century,
f Ursae Majoris being the first on record. In 1784 Christian Mayer
published a catalogue of all the double stars then known, which
contained 89 pairs. Between 1825 and 1827 F. G. W. Struve at
Dorpat examined 120,000 stars, and found 3112 double stars whose
distance apart did not exceed 32". W. S. Burnham'sGenera/ Catalogue
of Double Stars (1907) contains 13,655 pairs north of declination
-31. Undoubtedly a large number of these are only optical pairs,
but mere considerations of probability show that the majority must
be physically connected. For only 88 of them has it been possible
as yet to deduce a period, and at least half even of these periods are
very doubtful. The rates of motion are so slow that many centuries'
observations are needed to determine the orbit.
The most rapid visual binary (leaving aside Capella for the moment)
is S Equulei, which completes a revolution in 5-7 years. Next to it
come 13 Ceti, period 7-4 years, and K Pegasi, period 11-4 years.
From a list of systems with determined periods given by Aitken
(Lick Observatory Bulletin, No. 84) there are 20 with periods less than
50 years, and 16 between 50 and 100 years. & Equulei, 13 Ceti and
K Pegasi are all extremely close pairs, and can only be resolved with
the most powerful instruments. Capella, whose period is only 104
days, was discovered to be double by means of the spectroscope,
but has since been measured frequently as a visual binary at Green-
wich. With the best instruments a star can be distinguished as
double when the separation of the two components is a little
less than o-i". From the very few orbits that have as yet been
determined one interesting result has been arrived at. Most of the
orbits are remarkably eccentric ellipses, the average eccentricity
being about 0-5. There is a very striking relation between the
eccentricity and the period of a system; in general the binaries of
longest period have the greatest eccentricities. The relation applies
not only to the visual but to the spectroscopic binaries; these,
having shorter periods than the visual binaries, have generally
quite small eccentricities. Another interesting feature is that,
where the two components differ in brightness, the fainter component
is often the one possessing the greater mass.
Far within the limit to which telescopic vision can extend binary
systems are now being found by the spectroscope. These systems
appear as a connecting link between short-period
Spectra- variable stars on the one hand and telescopic double
scopic stars on the otner Stars of the class to which the Algol
Binaries. tvpe of var j a bles belongs will appear to us to vary only in
the exceptional case when the plane of the orbit passes so near our
sun that one body appears to pass over the other and so causes
an eclipse. Except when the line of sight is perpendicular to the
plane of the orbit, the revolution of the two bodies will result in
a periodic variation of the motion in the line of sight. Such a
variation can be detected by the spectroscope. If both the bodies
are luminous, especially if they do not differ much in brilliancy, the
motion of revolution is shown by a periodic doubling of the lines
of the spectrum ; when one body is moving towards us and the other
away their spectral lines are displaced (according to Doppler's
principle) in opposite directions, so that all the lines strong enough
to appear in both spectra appear double ;. when the two bodies are in
conjunction, and therefore moving transversely, their spectra are
merged into one and show nothing unusual. More usually, however,
only one component is sufficiently luminous for its spectrum to
appear; its orbital motion is then detected by a periodic change in
the absolute displacement of its spectral lines. Up to 1905, 140
spectroscopic binaries had been discovered ; a list of these is given
in the Lick Observatory Bulletin, no. 79. Details of the calculated
orbits of 63 spectroscopic binaries are given in Publications of the
Alleghany Observatory, vol. i. No. 21. According to W. W. Campbell
one star in every seven examined is binary.
A continuous gradation can be traced from the most widely
separated visual binaries, whose periods are many thousand years, to
spectroscopic binaries, Algol and (3 Lyrae variables, whose periods
are a few hours and whose components may even be in contact,
and from these to dumb-bell shaped stars and finally to ordinary
single stars. It is a legitimate speculation to suppose that these in
the reverse order are the stages in the evolution of a double star.
As the simple star radiates heat and contracts, it retains its angular
momentum ; when this is too great for the spheroidal form to per-
sist, the star may ultimately separate into two components, which
are driven farther and farther apart by their mutual tides. Tidal
action also accounts for the progressively increasing eccentricities
of the orbits, already referred to. This theory of the genesis of
double-stars by fission is not, however, universally accepted; in
particular objections have been urged by T. C. Chamberlin and F. R.
Moulton. It is true that rotational instability alone is not com-
petent to explain the separation into two components; but the exist-
ence of gravitational instability, pointed out by J. H. Jeans, enables
the principal difficulties of the theory to be surmounted. Whilst
there is thus no well-defined lower limit to the dimensions of systems
of two stars, on the other hand we cannot set any superior limit
either to the number of stars which shall form a system or to the
dimensions of that system. No star is altogether removed from
the attractions of its neighbours, and there are cases where some sort
of connexion seems to relate stars which are widely separated in space.
A curious case of this sort is that of the five stars /3, y, S, e and f of
Ursa Major. These have proper motions which are almost identical
in amount and in direction. The agreement is too close to be dis-
missed as a mere coincidence, and it is confirmed by a corresponding
agreement of their radial motions determined by the spectroscope;
and yet, seeing that and f Ursae Majoris are 19 apart, these two
stars must be distant from each other at least one-third of the dis-
tance of each from the sun; thus the members of this singular
group are separated by the ordinary stellar distances, and probably
each has neighbours, not belonging to the system, which are closer
to it than the other four stars of the group. Further, E. Hertzsprung
has shown that Sirius also belongs to this same system and shares
its motion, notwithstanding that it is in a nearly opposite part of
the sky. It is difficult to understand what may be the connexion
between stars so widely separated ; from the equality of their motions
they must have been widely separated for a very long period.
Of multiple stars the most famous is 8 Orionis, situated near the
densest part of the great Orion nebula. It consists of four principal
stars and two faint companions. From the more complex star-
systems of this kind, we pass to the consideration of star- clusters
clusters, which are systems of stars in which the compo-
nents are very numerous. When examined with a telescope of power
insufficient to separate the individual stars, a cluster appears like
a nebula. The " beehive cluster " Praesepe in Cancer is an example
of an easily resolved cluster composed of fairly bright stars. The
great cluster in Hercules (Messier 13), on the other hand, requires
the highest telescopic power for its complete resolution into stars.
Doubtless with improved telescopes many more apparent nebulae
would be shown to be clusters, but there are certainly many nebulae
which are otherwise constituted. Many of the clusters are of very
irregular forms, either showing no well-marked centre of condensa-
tion, or else condensed in streams along certain lines. .There is,
however, a well-marked type to which many of the richest clusters
belong; these are the globular dusters. They have a symmetrical
tircular shape, the condensation increasing rapidly towards the centre.
The Hercules cluster is of this form ; another example is w Centauri,
in which over 6000 stars have been counted, comprised within a
circle of about 40' diameter. These clusters present many unsolved
problems. Thus Perrine, from an examination of ten globular
clusters (including Messier 13 and o> Centauri), has found in each
case that the stars can be separated into two classes of magnitudes.
About one-third of the stars are between magnitudes II and 13,
and the remaining two-thirds are between magnitudes 15-5 and 16-5.
Stars of magnitudes intermediate between these two groups are
almost entirely absent. Thus each cluster seems to consist of two
kinds of stars, which we may distinguish as bright and faint; the
bright stars are all approximately of one standard size, and the
faint stars of another standard size and brightness.
The question of the stability of these clusters is one of much
interest. The mutual gravitation of a large number of stars crowded
in a comparatively small space must be considerable, and the indivi-
dual stars must move in irregular orbits under their mutual attrac-
tions. It does not seem probable, however, that they can escape the
fate of ultimately condensing into one confused mass. If this sur-
mise be correct, we are witnessing in clusters a counter-process of
788
STAR
evolution to that which is taking place in double stars; the latter
appear to be separating from a single original mass and the former
condensing into one.
Colours and Spectra of Stars. The brighter stars show a
marked variety of colour in their light, and with the aid of a
telescope a still greater diversity is noticeable. It is,
Colours. }j Oweverj only the red stars that form a clearly marked
class by themselves. For purposes of precise scientific investiga-
tion the study of spectra is generally more suitable than the
vague and unsatisfactory estimates of colour, which differ with
different observers. Of the first magnitude red stars Antares
is the most deeply coloured, Betelgeux, Aldebaran and Arcturus
being successively less conspicuously red. Systematic study
of red stars dates from the publication in 1866 of Schjellerup's
Catalogue, containing a list of 280 of them.
The two components of double stars often exhibit complementary
colours. As a rule contrasted colours are shown by pairs having a
bright and a faint component which are relatively wide apart ;
brilliant white stars frequently have a blue attendant this is
instanced in the case of Regulus and Rigel. That the effect is due
to a real difference in the character of the light from the two compo-
nents has been shown by spectrum analysis, but it is probably
exaggerated by contrast.
The occurrence of change, either periodic or irregular, in the
colour of individual stars, has been suspected by many observers;
but such a colour-variability is necessarily very difficult to establish.
A possible change of colour in the case of Sirius is noteworthy. In
modern times Sirius has always been a typical white or bluish-white
star, but a number of classical writers refer to it as red or fiery. There
is perhaps room for doubt as to the precise significance of the words
used; but the fact that Ptolemy classes Sirius with Antares, Alde-
baran, Arcturus, Betelgeux and Procyon as " fiery red " (uiri/a/i/ioi)
as compared with all the other bright stars which are " yellow "
(tarfoi) seems almost conclusive that Sirius was then a redstar.
When examined with the spectroscope the light of the stars is
found to resemble generally that of the sun. The spectrum consists
<: . of a continuous band of light crossed by a greater or
Spectra of | esg num be r o f dark absorption lines or bands. As in
the case of the sun, this indicates an incandescent body
which might be solid, liquid, or a not too rare gas, surrounded by
and seen through an atmosphere of somewhat cooler gases and
vapours; it is this copier envelope whose nature the spectroscope
reveals to us, and in it the presence of many terrestrial elements
has been detected by identifying in the spectrum their characteristic
absorption lines. Stellar spectroscopy dates from 1862, when Sir
William Huggins (with a small slit-spectroscope attached to an
8-in. telescope) measured the positions of the chief lines in the
spectra of about forty stars. In 1876 he successfully applied
photography to the study of the ultra-violet region of stellar spectra.
Various schemes of classification of spectra have been used. The
earliest is that due to A. Secchi (1863-1867) who distinguished four
" types " ; subsequent research, whilst slightly modifying, has in the
main confirmed this classification. Secchi's Type I. or " Sirian "
type includes most of the bright white stars, such as Sirius, Vega,
Rifjel, &c. ; it is characterized by strong broad hydrogen lines,
which are often the only absorption lines visible. Type II. includes
the "Solar" stars, as Capella, Arcturus, Procyon, Aldebaran,
their spectra are similar to that of the sun, being crossed by very
numerous fine lines, mostly due to vapours of metals. The great
majority of the visible stars belong to these first two types. Type 1 1 1 .
or " Antarian " stars are of a reddish colour, such as Antares,
Betelgeux, Mira, and many of the long-period variables. The
spectrum, which closely resembles that of a sunspot, is marked by
flutings or bands of lines sharply bounded on the violet side and
fading off towards the red. It has been shown by A. Fowler that
these flutings are due to titanium oxide ; this probably indicates
a relatively low temperature, for at a high temperature all compounds-
would be dissociated. Type IV. also consists of red stars with
banded spectra, but the bands differ in arrangement and appearance
from those in the third type, and are sharply bounded on the red
side. These stars are also believed to have a comparatively low
surface temperature, and the bands are attributed to the presence
of compounds of carbon. About 250 Type IV. stars are known,
but none conspicuous ; 19 Piscium, the brightest, is of magnitude 5 -5.
Other classifications which are extensively used are those
respectively of K. H. Vogel, J. N. Lockyer and the Draper
Catalogue. The divergences depend mainly on the different
views taken by their authors as to the order of stellar evolu-
tion. Apart from these considerations, the chief modification
in the classification introduced by more recent investigators
has been to separate Secchi's Type I. into two divisions, called
helium and hydrogen stars respectively. The former are often
called " Orion " stars, as all the brighter stars in that constellation
with the exception of Betelgeux belong to the helium type. Helium
stars are generally considered to be the hottest and most luminous
_(in proportion to size) of all the stars. Type II. is now subdivided
into " Procyon," " Solar " and " Arcturian stars. The " Procyon "
or calcium stars form a transition between Type I. and Type II.
proper, and show the lines of calcium besides those of hydrogen.
An important variety of Type III. spectra has been recognized, in
which, as well as the usual absorption bands, bright emission lines
of hydrogen appear; stars having this particular spectrum are always
variable. Finally, a fifth type has been added, the Wolf-Rayet
stars; these show a spectrum crossed by the usual dark lines and
bands, but showing also bright emission bands of blue and yellow
light. About 100 Wolf-Rayet stars are known, of which 7 Velorum
is the brightest ; they are confined to the region of the Milky Way and
the Magellanic Clouds. (See PLANET.)
Evolution of Stars. The absence of the distinctive lines of an
element in the spectrum does not by any means signify that that
clement is wanting or scarce in the star. The spectroscope only
yields information about the thin outer envelope of the star; and
even here elements may be present which do not reveal themselves,
for the spectrum shown depends very greatly on the temperature
and pressure. Stars of the different types are therefore not neces-
sarily of different chemical constitution, but rather are in different
physical conditions, and it is generally believed that every star in
the course of its existence passes through stages corresponding to
all (or most of) the different types. The stars are known to be
continually losing enormous quantities of energy by radiating their
heat into space. Ordinary solid or liquid masses would cool very
rapidly from this cause and would soon cease to shine. But a
globe of gaseous matter under similar conditions will continually
contract in volume, and in so doing transforms potential energy into
heat. It was shown by Homer Lane that a mass of gas held in
equilibrium by the mutual gravitation of its parts actually grows
hotter through radiating heat ; the heat gained by the resulting
contraction more than counterbalances that lost by radiation. Thus
in the first stage of a star's history we find it gradually condensing
from a highly diffused gaseous state, and growing hotter as it does
so. But this cannot continue indefinitely; when the density is too
great the matter ceases to behave as a true gas, and the contraction
is insufficient to maintain the heat. Thus in the second stage the
star is still contracting, but its temperature is decreasing. The
greatest temperature attained is not the same for all stars, but
depends on the mass of the star. It is, however, important to bear
in mind that Lane's theory is concerned with the temperature
of the body of the star; the temperature of the photosphere and
absorbing layers, with which we are chiefly concerned, does not
necessarily follow the same law. It depends on the rapidity with
which convection currents can supply heat from the interior to
replace that radiated, and on a number of other nicely balanced
circumstances which cannot well be calculated.
Conflicting opinions are held as to the various steps in the process
of evolution and the order in which the various types succeed one
another, but the following perhaps represents in the main the most
generally accepted view. Starting from a widely diffused nebula,
more or less uniform, we find that, in consequence of gravitational
instability, it will tend to condense about a number of nuclei.
Jeans has even estimated theoretically the average distances apart
of these nuclei, and has shown that it agrees in order of magnitude
with the observed distances of the stars from one another (Astro-
physical Journal, vol. xxii.). As the first condensation takes place,
the resulting development of heat causes the hydrogen, helium and
light gases to be expelled. This may explain the existence of
gaseous nebulae, which are often found: intimately associated with
star-clusters, a good example being the nebulosity surrounding the
Pleiades. As the nuclei grow by the attraction of matter they begin
to be capable of retaining the lighter gases, and atmospheres of hydro-
gen and helium are formed. The temperature of the photosphere
at this stage has reached a maximum, and the star is now of the
helium type. Then follows a gradual absorption of first the helium
and then the hydrogen, the photosphere grows continually cooler,
and the star passes successively through the stages exemplified
by Sirius, Procyon, the Sun, Arcturus and Antares. Some authori-
ties, however, consider the Antarian (Type III.) stars to be in a very
early stage of development and to precede the helium stars in the
order of evolution; in that case they are in the stage when the
temperature is still rising. Type IV. (carbon) stars are placed
last in the series by all authorities; they seem, however, to follow
more directly the solar stars than the Antarian. If the latter are
considered to be in an early state this presents no difficulty ; but
if both Antarian and carbon stars are held to be evolved from solar
stars, we may consider them to be, not successive, but parallel
stages of development, the chemical constitution of the star deciding
whether it shall pass into the third or fourth type. The Wblf-
Rayet stars must probably be assigned to the earliest period of
evolution; they are perhaps semi-nebulous. In this connexion
it may be noted that the spectrum of Nova Persei, after passing
through a stage in which it resembled that of a planetary nebula,
has now become of the Wolf-Rayet type.
Density of Stars. Interesting light is thrown on the question of
the physical state of the stars by some evidence which we possess
as to their densities. The mean density of the sun is about ij times
that of water; but many of the stars, especially the brighter ones,
have much lower densities and must be in a very diffused state.
We have necessarily to turn to binary systems for our data. When
STAR
789
the orbit and periodic time is known, and also the parallax, the
masses of the stars can be found. (If only the relative orbit is
known, the sum of the masses can be determined; but if absolute
positions of one component have been observed, both masses can
be determined separately.) But even when, as in most cases, the
parallax is unknown or uncertain, the ratio of the brightness to
the mass can be accurately found. Thus it is found that Procyon
gives about three times as much light as the sun in proportion to
its mass, Sirius about sixteen times, and f Orionis more than ten
thousand times. In these cases evidently either the star has a
greater-intrinsic brilliancy per square mile of surface than the sun,
or is less dense. Probably both causes contribute. The phenomena
of long-period variables show that the surface brilliancy may vary
very greatly, even in the same star. The Orion stars have the
highest temperature of all and have admittedly the greatest surface-
luminosity, but the extreme brilliancy of f Orionis in proportion
to its mass must be mainly due to a small density. For the Algol
variables it is possible to form even more direct calculations of the
density, for from the duration of the eclipse an approximate estimate
of the size of the star may be made. A. W. Roberts concluded in
this way that the average density of the Algol variables and their
eclipsing companions is about one-eighth that of the sun. For
/3 Lyrae G. W. Myers found a density a little less than that of air;
the density is certainly small, but J. H. Jeans has shown that for
this type of star the argument is open to theoretical objection, so
that Myers's result cannot be accepted.
There are many stars, however, of which the brightness is less
than that of the sun in proportion to the mass. Thus the faint
companion of Sirius is of 'nearly the same mass as the sun, but gives
only njVjj of its li.^ht. In this case the companion, being about
half the mass of Sirius itself, has probably cooled more rapidly,
and on that account emits much less light. T. Lewis, however,
has shown that the fainter component of the binary system is often
the more massive. It may be that these fainter components are
still in the stage when the temperature is rising, and the luminosity
is as yet comparatively small; but it is not impossible that the
massive stars (owing to their greater gravitation) pass through the
earlier stages of evolution more rapidly than the smaller stars.
Distances and Parallaxes of the Stars. As the earth traverses
annually its path around the sun, and passes from one part of
its orbit to another, the direction in which a fixed star is seen
changes. In fact the relative positions are the same as if the
earth remained fixed and the star described an orbit equal to
that of the earth, but with the displacement always exactly
reversed. The star thus appears to describe a small ellipse in
the sky, and the nearer the star, the larger will this ellipse
appear. The greatest displacement of the star from its mean
position (the semi-axis major of the ellipse) is called its parallax.
If TT be the parallax, and R the radius of the earth's orbit, the
distance of the star is R/sin ir. The determination of stellar
parallaxes is a matter of great difficulty on account of the minute-
ness of the angle to be measured, for in no case does the parallax
amount to i"; moreover, there is always an added difficulty
in determining an annual change of position, for seasonal in-
strumental changes are liable to give rise to a spurious effect
which will also have an annual period. Very special precautions
are required to eliminate instrumental error before we can
compare observations, say, of a star on the meridian in winter
at 6 p.m. with observations of the same star in summer on the
meridian at 6 a.m. The first determination of a stellar parallax
was made by F. W. Bessel in the years 1837-1840, using a helio-
meter. He chose for his purpose the binary star 61 Cygni,
which was the star with the most rapid apparent motion then
known and therefore likely to be fairly near us, although only
of the sixth magnitude. He found for it a parallax of 0-35" a
value which agrees well with more modern determinations.
T. Henderson at the Cape of Good Hope measured the parallax
of a Centauri, but his resulting value i" was considerably too
high. More accurate determinations have shown that this star,
which is the third brightest star in the heavens, has a parallax
of 0-75", this indicates that its distance is 25,000,000,000,000 m.
So far as is known a Centauri is our nearest neighbour.
Formerly attempts were made to determine parallaxes by mea-
suring changes in the absolute right ascensions and declinations
of the stars from observations with the meridian circle. The results
were, however, always untrustworthy owing to annual and diurnal
changes in the instrument. Nowadays the determination is more
usually made by measuring the displacement of the star relatively
to the stars surrounding it. Hitherto the heliometer has been
most extensively used for this purpose, D. Gill, W. L. Elkin, B. E. A
Peter and others have made their important determinations with
it. The photographic method, however, now appears to yield
results of equal precision, and is likely to be used very largely in
the future. The quantity determined by these methods is the
relative parallax between the star measured and the stars with
which it is compared. To obtain the true parallax, the mean
parallax of the comparison stars must be added to this relative
parallax. It is, however, fair to assume that the comparison stars
will rarely have a parallax as great as o-oi * ; for it must be remembered
that it is quite the exception for a star taken at random to have an
appreciable parallax; particularly if a star has an ordinarily small
proper motion, it is likely to be very distant. Still exceptional
cases will occur where a comparison star is even nearer than the
principal star; it is one of the advantages of the photographic
method that it involves the use of a considerable number of compari-
son stars, whereas in the heliometric method usually only two stars,
chosen symmetrically one on each side of the principal star, are used.
In. the table are collected the parallaxes and other data of all
stars for which the most probable value of the parallax exceeds
0-20". Although much work has been done recently in measuring
parallaxes, the number of stars included in such a list has not been
increased, but rather has been considerably diminished ; many large
parallaxes, which were formerly provisionally accepted, have been
reduced on revision. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that
many of these determinations are subject to a large probable error,
or even altogether uncertain. For one or two of the more famous
stars such as a Centauri the probable error is less than 0-01"; but
for others in the list it ranges up to O-O5". To convert parallaxes
into distance we may remember that a parallax of I* denotes a
distance of l8J billion miles, or 206,000 times the distance of the
sun from the earth. A parallax of o-oi * denotes a distance a hundred
times as great, and so on, the distance and parallax being inversely
proportional. A unit of length, which is often used in measuring
stellar distances, is the light year or distance that light travels in a
year; it is rather less than six billion miles.
Stars with Large Parallax.
Star.
Position
R.A. Dec.
Mag.
Annual
Proper
Motion.
Parallax.
Authority
for
Parallax
h. m. sec.
i
*
Gr. 34 . .
o 13 +43
8-1
2-8
27
R, Sc, C
T Ceti
i 39 -16
3'7
1-9
31
S
C.Z. 5h243.
5 8 -45
8-5
8-7
31
S
Sirius
6 41 -17
-1-4
i'3
38
G, E
Procyon .
7 34 + 5
o-5
1-2
3
A, E
LI. 21185
10 58 +37
7-6
4-8
37
R, C
LI. 21258 .
ii o +44
8-5
4.4
21
A, k, K, R
LI. 25372 .
13 40 +15
8-5
2-3
2O
R, E
a Centauri .
14 33 -60
O-2
3-7
- 7 6
G, E
O.A. 17415-6
17 37 +68
9-1
1-4
22
k
2 2398 . .
18 42 +59
8-8
2-3
29
Sc, R
a Draconis .
19 32 +70
4-8
1-9
22
s, P
Altair . .
19 46 + 9
0-9
0-6
24
E
6 1 Cygni
21 2 +38
4-8
5-2
31
many
e Indi
21 56 -57
4-8
4'7
28
G, E
Krueger 60 .
22 24 +57
9-2
0-9
26
B,Sc,R
Lac. 9352 .
22 59 -36
7-4
7-0
28
G
Authorities. A A.Auwers; B E. E. Barnard; C F. L. Chase;
E W. L. Elkin ; C Sir David Gill ; K J. C. Kapteyn ; k K. N. A.
Kriiger; P B. Peter; R H. N. Russell and A. R. Hinks; S W. de
Sitter; s M. F. Smith; Sc F. Schlesinger.
The stars selected to be examined for parallax are usually either
the brightest stars or those with an especially large proper motion.
Neither criterion is a guarantee that the star shall have a measur-
able parallax. Brightness is particularly deceptive; thus Canopus,
the second brightest star in the heavens, has probably a parallax
of less than O'Ol", and so also has Rigel. These two stars must
have an intrinsic brilliancy enormously greater than that of the sun,
for if the sun were removed to such a distance (parallax o-oi"),
it would appear to be of about the tenth magnitude.
Although the parallaxes hitherto measured have added greatly to
our general knowledge of stellar distances and absolute luminosities
of stars, a collection of results derived by various observers choosing
specially selected stars is not suitable for statistical discussion. For
this reason a series of determinations of parallax of 16} stars on a uni-
form plan by F. L. Chase, M. F. Smith and W. L. Elkin ( Yale Trans-
actions, vol. ii., 1906) constitutes a very important addition to the
available data. The stars chosen were those with centennial proper
motions greater than 40*, observable at Yale, and not hitherto
attacked. It is noteworthy that no parallaxes exceeding 0-20" were
found; the mean was about o-os". It is greatly to be desired that a
general survey of the heavens, or of typical regions of the heavens,
should be made with a view to determining all the stars which have
an appreciable parallax. This is now made possible by photography.
If three plates (or three sets of exposures on one plate) are taken at
intervals of six months, when the stars in the region have their
maximum parallactic displacements, the first and third plates serve
790
STAR
to eliminate the proper motion of the star, and the detection of a
parallax is easy. Some progress with this scheme has been made.
But even such an attempt to systematically plumb the universe can
only make us acquainted with the merest inside shell. We should
learn perhaps the distribution and luminosities of the stars within a
sphere of radius sixty light years (corresponding to a parallax of
about 0-05"), but of the structure of the million-fold greater system
of stars, lying beyond this limit, yet visible in our telescopes, we
should learn nothing except by analogy. Fortunately the study
of proper motions teaches us with some degree of certainty some-
thing of the general mean distances and distribution of these more
distant stars, though it cannot tell us the distances of individual stars.
There is another method of determining stellar distances, which is
applicable to a few double stars. By means of the spectroscope
it is possible to determine the relative orbital velocity of the two
components, and this when compared with the period fixes the
absolute dimensions of the orbit; the apparent dimensions of the
orbit being known from visual observations the distance can then
be found. The method is of very limited application, for in
general the orbital velocity of a visual binary is far too small to be
found in this way;one of its first applications has been made to
a Centauri, with the result that the parallax found in the ordinary way
is completely confirmed.
Proper Motions of Stars. The work of cataloguing the stars
and determining their exact positions, which is being pursued
on so large a scale, naturally leads to the determination of their
proper motions. The problem is greatly complicated by the
fact that the equator and equinox, to which the observed posi-
tions of the stars must be referred, are not stationary in space,
and in fact the movements of these planes of reference can only
be determined by a discussion of the observations of stars.
Halley was the first to suspect from observation the proper
motions of the stars. From comparisons between the observed
places of Arcturus, Aldebaran and Sirius and the places assigned
to them by Alexandrian astronomers, he was led to the opinion
that all three are moving towards the south (Phil. Trans. 1718).
Jacques Cassini also proved that Arcturus had even since the
time of Tycho Brahe shifted five minutes in latitude; for TJ Bootis,
which would have shared in the change, if it had been due to a
motion of the ecliptic, had not moved appreciably. It was
early realized that the proper motions of the stars were changes
of position relative to the sun, and that, if the sun had any
motion of its own as compared with the surrounding stars
as a whole, this would be shown by a general tendency of the
apparent motions of the stars to be directed away from the
point to which the sun was moving.
To determine proper motions it is necessary to have observations
separated by as long a period of time as possible. Old catalogues
of precision are accordingly of great importance. By far the most
valuable of these is Bradley's catalogue of 3240 stars observed at
Greenwich about 1750-1763, which has been re-reduced according
to modern methods by A. Auwers. These stars include most of the
brighter ones visible in the latitude of Greenwich, ranging down
to about the seventh magnitude. An early catalogue which includes
large numbers of stars of magnitude as low as 8-5 is that of S. Groom-
bridge, containing 4200 stars within 52 of the north pole observed
between 1806 and 1816. This has been re-reduced by F. W. Dyson
and W. G. Thackeray, and proper motions derived by comparison
with modern Greenwich observations. A very extensive determina-
tion of proper motions from a comparison of all the principal
catalogues has been made by Lewis Boss. The results are given in
his Prelimina.y General Catalogue (1910), which comprises the
motions of 6188 stars fairly uniformly distributed over the sky,
including all the stars visible to the naked eye. Of rather a different
nature are J. G. Porter's catalogue (Publications of the Cincinnati
Observatory, No. 12) and J. F. Bossert's catalogue (Paris Observa-
tions, 1890), which consist of lists of stars of large proper motion
determined from a variety of sources. Recently the proper motions
of faint stars have been determined by comparing photographs
of the same region of the sky, taken with an interval of a number of
years. At present the available intervals are too small for this
method to have met with marked success. Large proper motions
can however be found in this way. Their detection is especially
simple when the stereo-comparator is used ; this instrument enables
the two eyes to combine the images of each star on two plates into
one image (as in the stereoscope) ; when the star has moved consider-
ably in the interval between the taking of the two plates, it appears
to stand out from the rest in relief and is at once noticed.
The star with the greatest proper motion yet known was found
by J. C. Kapteyn on the plates of the Cape Photographic Durch-
musterung. Its motion of 8-7" per year would carry it over a portion
of the sky equal to the diameter of the full moon in about two
Name.
R.A.
1900.
Dec.
1900.
Annual Proper
Motion.
Mag.
h. m.
o
n
C.Z. 5 k 243
5 8
-45-0
8-70
8-5
Gr. 1830
it 47
+38-4
7-04
6-9
Lac. 9352 . .
22-59
-36-4
6-94
7'5
Cor-324i6 .
-37-8
6-07
8-5
6i l Cygni
21 2
+38-3
5-20
5-5
LI. 21185 . .
10 58
+36-6
4-76
7-3
e Indi
21 56
-57'2
4-61
5-2
LI. 21258 . .
II O
+44-0
4-41
8-7
o 2 Eridani
4 II
- 7-8
4-05
4-6
M Cassiop
I 2
+54-4
3-73
5'6
O.A. 14318
15 5
16-0
3-68
9'i
O.A. 14320
15 5
-15-9
3-68
9'i
a Centauri .
H 33
60-4
3-60
O-2
Lac. 8760 .
21 II
-39-2
3-53
7-3
e Eridani . .
3 16
-43-4
3-12
4'4
O.A. 11677
ii 15
+66-4
3-02
9-0
centuries. In the table is given a list of the stars now known to
have an annual proper motion of more than 3". The faintness
of the majority of the stars appearing in this list is noteworthy.
Stars with Large Proper Motion.
The Solar
Motion.
The majority of the stars have far smaller proper motions than
these. Only 24% of the stars of Auwers-Bradley have proper
motions exceeding 10" per century, and 51 % exceeding 5" per
century. With catalogues containing fainter stars the proportion
of large proper motions is somewhat smaller, thus the corresponding
percentages for the Groombridge stars are 12 and 31 respectively.
When the parallax of a star is known, we are able to infer from
its proper motion its actual linear speed in miles per hour, in so far
as the motion is transverse to the line of sight. The velocity in
the line of sight can be determined by spectroscopic observation,
so that in a few cases the motion of the star is completely known.
Several stars appear to have speeds exceeding 100 m. per second,
buf~of these the only one reliably determined is Groombridge 1830,
whose speed is found to be about 150 m. per second. Probably
the velocity of Arcturus is also over 100 m. per second; there is,
however, no real evidence for the velocity of 250 m. per second
which has sometimes been credited to it. The above are velocities
transverse to the line of sight. The greatest radial velocities that
have yet been found are about 60 m. per second; several stars
(Groombridge 1830 among them) have radial speeds of this amount.
The stars of the Helium type of spectrum are remarkable for the
smallness of their velocities; from spectroscopic observations of
over 60 stars of this class, J. C. Kapteyn and E. B. Frost have
deduced that the average speed is only 8 m. per second. Accord-
ing to W. W. Campbell the average velocity in space of a star is
21-2 m. per second.
When the proper motions of a considerable number of stars
are collected and examined, a general systematic tendency is
noticed. The stars as a whole are found to be moving
towards a point somewhere in or near the constellation
Canis Major. The motions of individual stars, it is true,
vary widely, but if the mean motion of a number of stars is considered
this tendency is always to be found. Now it is necessary to bear
in mind that all observed motions are relative; and, especially in
dealing with stellar motions, it is arbitrary what shall be considered
at rest, and used as a standard to which to refer their movements.
Accordingly this mean motion of the stars relative to the sun has
been more generally regarded from another point of view as a motion
(in the opposite direction towards the constellation Lyra) of the
sun relatively to the stars. In what follows we shall speak of this
relative motion as a motion of the sun or of the stars indifferently,
for there is no real distinction between the two conceptions. One
of the problems, which has engaged a large share of the attention
of astronomers in the last century, has been the determination of
the direction of this " solar motion."
The first attempt to determine the solar apex (as the point
towards which the solar motion is directed is termed) was made
in 1783 by Sir William Herschel. Although his data were the proper
motions of only seven stars, he indicated a point near X Herculis
not very far from that found by modern researches. Again in
1805 from Maskelyne's catalogue of the proper motions of 36 stars
(published in 1790), he found the position, R.A. 245 52' and Dec.
49 38' N. The systematic tendency of the proper motions is so
marked that the motions of a very few stars are quite sufficient to
fix roughly the position of the solar apex; but attempts to fix its
position -to within a few degrees have failed, notwithstanding the
many thousands of determined proper motions now available.
The difficulties of the determination are twofold. There is a close
interdependence between the constant of procession and ihe solar
motion; the two determinations must generally be made simul-
taneously, and both depend very considerably on the systematic
STAR
791
corrections required by the catalogues compared. But further, if
these practical difficulties could be considered overcome in the best
determinations, there is a vagueness in the very definition of the
solar motion. The motion of the sun relative to the stars depends
on what stars are selected as representative. There is no a priori
reason to expect the same result from the different classes of stars,
such as the brighter or fainter, northern or southern, nearer or more
distant, Solar type or Sirian stars. There is for example some
evidence that the declination of the solar apex is really increased
when the motion is referred to fainter stars. For these reasons
a really close agreement between the results of different investigators
is not to be expected.
Of the various modern determinations of the apex, we give first
those which depend, wholly or mainly, on the Auwers-Bradley proper
motions. Setting A for the right ascension, D for the declination
of the apex, these are:
L. Boss A = i7 h 48 m D=+42-8
L. Struve A = i8 h zo m D = +23-5
S. NewcombA = l8 h jo D=+3i-3
J. C. Kapteyn A =i8 h 14- D=+29-5.
The large differences between these results, derived from the
same material, depend mainly on the different systematic corrections
applied by each astronomer to the declinations of Bradley. From
the data of his Preliminary General Catalogue (1910), L. Boss found
A = l8 h 2 m , D = +34-3. Having regard to the special precautions
taken to eliminate systematic error, and to the fact that the stars used
were distributed nearly equally over both hemispheres, it is fair to
conclude that this is the most accurate determination yet made.
From the Groombridge proper motions Dyson and Thackeray found
A = i8 k 2o m , D = +37. Other determinations have been made by
O. Stumpe (Ast. Nach. No. 3000) and J. G. Porter (Ast. Journ. xii. 91),
using mainly stars of large proper motions derived from various
sources; their results are of the same general character. Most of
the above investigators, besides giving a general result, have deter-
mined the apex separately for bright and faint stars, for stars of
greater or less proper motion, and in some cases for stars of Sirian
and Solar spectra. Considerable divergences in the resulting
position of the apex are found.
It will be seen that the proper motion of any star may be regarded
as made up of two components. The part of the star's apparent
Speed of displacement, which is due to the solar motion, is gener-
the Solar a "y 9 a "ed the parallactic motion ; the rest of its motion
Motion. (*- e - ' ts . motion relative to the mean of all the stars, is
called its peculiar motion (motus peculiaris). Regarded
as a linear velocity, the parallactic motion is the same for all stars,
being exactly equal and opposite to the solar motion ; but its amount,
as measured by the corresponding angular displacement of the star,
is inversely proportional to the distance of the star from the earth,
and foreshortening causes it to vary as the sine of the angular dis-
tance from the apex. To arrive at some estimate of the speed of
the solar motion, we may consider the motions of those stars whose
parallaxes have been measured, and whose actual linear speed is
accordingly known (disregarding motion in the line of sight). If a
sufficient number of stars are considered, their peculiar motions
will mutually cancel and the parallactic or solar motion can then be
derived. But not much reliance can be placed on this kind of
determination. A very weighty objection is that the stars whose
parallaxes are determined are mainly those of large proper motion
and therefore not fairly representative of the bulk of the stars;
in fact their peculiar motions will not neutralize one another in the
mean. A better method is to derive the speed from the radial
motions observed with the spectroscope. In this way W. W.
Campbell from the radial motions of 280 stars found the velocity to be
20 kilometres per second with a probable error of Ij km. per second
(Astrophysical Journal, 1901, vol. xiii). This result depends on the
northern stars only. By the addition of the data for southern
stars, so as to obtain a distribution fairly symmetrical over the
whole sphere, S. S. Hough and J. Halm deduced a velocity of 20-8 km.
per second towards the apex A=l8 h 5 m , D=+26. The speed
is very nearly four radii of the earth's orbit per year; thus the annual
parallactic motion is equal to four times the parallax, for a star lying
in a direction 90 from the solar apex; for stars nearer the apex or
antapex it is foreshortened. This result, while it does not afford
any means of determining the parallaxes of individual stars, enables
us to determine the mean parallax of a group of stars, if we may
assume their peculiar motions practically to cancel one another.
In researches on the solar motion the assumption is almost
always made that the motions of the stars relatively to one another
the peculiar motions are at random. The correctness cf this
hypothesis has long been under suspicion, but it has generally been
accepted as the best simple approximation to the actual distribution
of the motions that could be made. Naturally exceptional regions
must be recognized; for example, a connected system such as the
Pleiades, whose stars have the same proper motion, must constitute
an exception. There can occasionally be traced a certain commu-
nity of motion over a much larger area. Thus R. A. Proctor found
that between Aldebaran and the Pleiades most of the stars have a
motion positive in right ascension and negative in declination, a
phenomenon which he designated " star-drift." A more precise
investigation by L. Boss has shown that there is in this region a
" moving cluster " of globular form. The stars composing this
all have equal and parallel motions; about 40 stars brighter than
the seventh magnitude are known to belong to it. The group
consisting of five stars of Ursa Major together with Sirius has already
been alluded to; another very marked group of 1 6 stars in Perseus,
all of the Helium type of spectrum, form a similar association.
Spectroscopic evidence has indicated that most of the stars of
Orion are associated, and share nearly the same motion (or rather,
in this case, absence of motion).
But, whilst recognizing the existence of local drifts and systems,
and admitting the possibility of relative motion between the nearer
and more distant, or other classes of stars, it is;only recently that
astronomers have seriously doubted the correctness of the hypothesis
of random distribution of stellar motions as at least a rough repre-
sentation of the truth. The hypothesis was put to the test by J. C.
Kapteyn, with the result that it appears to be not even approxi-
mately accordant with the facts. His researches indicate that,
instead of being haphazard, the proper motions of the star show
decided preference for two " favoured " directions, _. _
apparently implying that the stars surrounding us do i* e
not constitute a simple system but a dual one. The ^
motion of the stars in the mean towards Canis Major
is thus a resultant motion, which, when examined more minutely,
is found to be due to the intermingling of two great streams of stars
moving in very different directions. These two streams or drifts
prevail in every part of the sky examined, and contain nearly equal
numbers of stars; that is to say, in whatever part of the sky we look
about half the stars are found to belong to one and half to the other
of the two great drifts. This hypothesis of two star-drifts does not
imply that all the stars move in one or other of two directions.
The stars have on this theory random peculiar motions in addition
to the motion of the drift to which they belong, just as on the older
theory the stars have peculiar motions in addition to the solar or
parallactic motion shared by all of them. But the two theories lead
to a very different statistical distribution of the stellar motions.
The older one which may be called the " one-drift " hypothesis,
since according to it the stars appear to form a single drift moving
away from the solar apex requires that the apparent directions
of motion should be so distributed that fewest stars are moving
directly towards the solar apex, and most stars along the great circle
away from the solar apex, the number decreasing symmetrically,
for directions inclined on either side of this great circle, according
to a law which can be calculated. This is found not to agree with
the facts at all. The deviation is unmistakable; in general the
direction from the solar apex is not the one in which most stars are
moving; and, what is even more striking, the directions, in which
most and fewest stars respectively move, are not by any means
opposite to one another. It seems difficult to account for the very
remarkable and unsymmetrical distribution of the motions, unless
we suppose that the stars form two more or less separate systems
superposed; and it has been found possible by assuming two drifts
with suitably assigned velocities to account very satisfactorily for
the observed motions.
The phenomenon of two drifts was discovered by an examination
of the Bradley proper motions (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1905, p. 257), and
has subsequently been confirmed by a discussion of the Groombridge
proper motions (Man. Not. R.A.S., 1906, 67, p. 34; 1910, 71, p. 4).
By an examination of the stars of very large proper motion F. W.
Dyson has traced the presence of the two drifts in all parts of the sky.
They have been shown to prevail among fainter stars down to
magnitude 9-5, by an examination of the Greenwich-Carrii-gton
proper motions; these, however, only cover a region within 9 of
the north pole. Of the behaviour of stars fainter than magnitude
9-5 there is at present no direct evidence. About 10,000 stars
altogether were dealt with in the above-mentioned investigations.
The general results indicate that one of the drifts is moving (rela-
tively to the sun) directly away from a point near a Ophiuchi
(about R.A. 270, Dec. +12), and the other from a point in Lynx
(R.A. 83, Dec. +60). These two points may be called the apices
of the two drifts, for they are analogues of the solar apex on the
one-drift theory; they are about no apart. The velocities of the
drifts differ considerably, the one whose apex is in Ophiuchus
having about i times the speed of the other. We may conveniently
distinguish the two drifts as the slow-moving and fast-moving drifts
respectively; but it should be remembered that, since these motions
are measured relatively to the sun, this distinction is not physically
significant. The stars appear to be nearly equally divided between
the two drifts. The magnitudes of the stars are distributed in the
same way in each drift. There is also clear evidence that the mean
distances of both drifts from us are very approximately the same.
Thus we are led to regard the two systems as completely intermingled,
a fact which adds considerably to the difficulty of explaining the
phenomena otherwise than as produced by two great systems- uni-
verses they have been called which have come together, perhaps,
by their mutual attraction, and are passing through one another.
The chances of individual stars of the two systems colliding are
infinitesimal. Until the hypothesis has been thoroughly tested by an
792
STAR
examination of the line-of-sight velocities of stars from the same
point of view, this physical interpretation must be received with some
degree of caution; but there can be no doubt of the reality of the
anomalies in the statistical distribution of proper motions of the
stars, and of these it offers a simple and adequate explanation.
Having determined the motions of the two drifts, and knowing
also that the stars are nearly equally divided between them, it is
evidently possible to determine the mean motion of the drifts com-
bined. This is of course that relative motion of the sun and stars
which we have previously called the solar motion. The position of
the solar apex calculated in this way agrees satisfactorily with that
found by the usual methods. It is naturally fairly close to the apex
of the faster drift, but is displaced from it in the direction of the apex
of the other drift. In this connexion it may be noticed that, when
the smaller and larger proper motions are discussed separately,
the latter category will include an unduly great proportion of stars
belonging to the fast-moving drift, and the resulting determination
will lead to a solar apex too near the apex of that drift, i.e. with too
low a declination. This appears to be the explanation of Stumpe's
and Porter's results ; they both divided their proper motions into
groups according to their numerical amount, and found that the
declination of the solar apex progressively increased as the size of
the motions used diminished. Another anomalous determination
of the apex, due to H. A. Kobold (Astro. Nach., 3163, 3451, and 3491)
is also explained when the two drifts are recognized. Kobold,
using a peculiar and ingenious method, found for it a declination
3, which disagrees very badly with all other determinations;
but it is a peculiarity of Kobold s method that it gives the line of
symmetry of motion, which joins the apex and antapex, without
indicating which end is the apex. Now the position of this line,
as found by Kobold, actually is a (properly weighted) mean between
the corresponding lines of symmetry of the two drifts, but naturally
it lies in the acute angle between them, whereas the line of the solar
motion is also a weighted mean between the two lines of drift, but
lies in the obtuse angle between them.
The Structure of the Universe. We now arrive at the greatest
of all the problems of sidereal astronomy, the structure and
nature of the universe as a whole. It can by no means be taken
for granted that the universe has anything that may properly
be called a structure. If it is merely the aggregate of the stars,
each star or small group of stars may be a practically independent
unit, its birth and development taking place without any rela-
tion to the evolution of the whole. But it is becoming more
only enables us to see stars more remote than before, but also reveals
very many smaller stars within the limits previously penetrated.
But notwithstanding the great variety of intrinsic brightness of the
stars, the ratio of the number of stars of one magnitude to the
number of the magnitude next lower (the " star-ratio ") is a guide
to the uniformity of their distribution. If the uniform distribution
extends indefinitely, or as far as the telescope can penetrate, the
star-ratio should have the theoretical value 3-98, l any decrease in
density or limit to the distribution of the stars will be indicated
by a continual falling off in the star-ratio for the higher magnitudes.
H. H. Seeliger, who investigated this ratio for the stars of the
Bonn Durchmusterung and Southern Durchmusterung, came to the
conclusion (as summarized by Simon Newcomb) that for these
stars the ratio ranges from 3-85 to 3-28, the former value being
found for regions near the Milky Way and the latter for regions
near the galactic poles. There is here evidence that even among
stars of the Durchmusterung (9^5 magnitude), a limit of the universe
has been reached, at least in the direction normal to the plane of
the Milky Way. For the higher magnitudes J. C. Kapteyn has
shown that the star-ratio diminishes still further.
In all investigations into the distribution of the stars in space
one fact stands out pre-eminently, viz. the existence of a certain
plane fundamental to the structure of the heavens.
This is the galactic plane, well known from the fact that
it is marked in the sky by the broad irregular belt of
milky light called the Galaxy or Milky Way. But it
is necessary to make a careful distinction between the galactic
plane and the Galaxy itself; the latter, though it is neces-
sarily one of the most remarkable features of the universe, is not
the only peculiarity associated with the galactic plane. Its par-
ticular importance consists in the fact that the stars, bright as well
as faint, crowd towards this plane. This apparent relation of the
lucid stars to the Galaxy was first pointed out by Sir W. Herschel.
For the stars visible to the naked eye a very thorough investigation
by G. V. Schiaparelli has shown the relation in a striking manner.
He indicated on planispheres the varying density of distribution
of the stars over the sky. On these the belt of greatest density
can be easily traced, and it follows very closely the course of the
Milky Way; but, whereas the latter is a belt having rather sharply
defined boundaries, the star-density decreases gradually and con-
tinuously from the galactic equator to the galactic poles. The
same result for the great mass of fainter stars has been shown by
Seeliger. The following table shows the density with which stars
brighter than the ninth magnitude are distributed in each of nine
zones into which Seeliger divided the heavens:
The
dalactk
Plane.
Galactic latitude ]
N. Pole
to
70 N.
to
50 N.
to
30 N.
to
10 N.
to
10 S.
to
30 S.
to
50 s.
to
70 S.
to
Number of stars per square degree .
70 N.
278
50 N.
3-03
30 N.
3-54
10 N.
5-32
10 S.
8-17
30 S.
6-07
50 s.
3-71
70 S.
3-2i.
S. Pole
3-14
and more generally recognized that the stars are not unrelated;
they are parts of a greater system, and we have to deal with,
not merely the history of a number of independent units, but
with a far vaster conception, the evolution and development
of an ordered universe.
Our first inquiry is whether the universe extends indefinitely
in all directions, or whether there are limits beyond which the stars
Limits fthe are no t distributed. It is not difficult to obtain at least
Universe a P ar . t ' a ' answer to this question ; anything approaching
a uniform distribution of the stars cannot extend
indefinitely. It can be shown that, if the density of distribution
of the stars through infinite space is nowhere less than a certain
limit (which may be as small as we please), the total amount of light
received from them (assuming that there is no absorption of light in
space) would be infinitely great, so that the background of the sky
would shine with a dazzling brilliancy. We therefore conclude that
beyond a certain distance there is a thinning out in the distribution
of the stars ; the stars visible in our telescopes form a universe having
a more or less defined boundary; and, if there are other systems
of stars unknown to us in the space beyond, they are, as it were,
isolated from the universe in which we are. It is necessary however
to emphasize that the foregoing argument assumes that there is no
appreciable absorption of light in interstellar space. Recently,
however, the trend of astronomical opinion has been rather in
favour of the belief that diffused matter may exist through space
in sufficient quantity to cause appreciable absorption; so that the
argument has no longer the weight formerly attached to it.
Another line of reasoning indicates that the boundary of the universe
is not immeasurably distant, and that the thinning out of the stars
is quite perceptible with our telescopes. This depends on the law
of progression in the number of stars as the brightness dimin-
ishes. If the stars were all of the same intrinsic brightness it is
evident that the comparison of the number of stars of successive
magnitudes would show directly where the decreased density of
distribution began. Actually we know that the intrinsic brightness
varies very greatly, so that each increase of telescopic power not
The table, which is based on over 130,000 stars, shows that along
the galactic circle the stars are scattered nearly three times more
thickly than at the north and south poles of the Galaxy. What,
however, is of particular importance is that the increase is gradual.
No doubt manv of the lucid stars which appear to lie in the Milky
Way actually belong to it, and the presence of this unique cluster
helps to swell the numbers along the galactic equator; but, for
example, the increased density between latitudes 30 to 50 (both
north and south) as compared with the density at the poles cannot
be attributed to the Galaxy itself, for the Galaxy passes nowhere
near these zones. The star-gauges of the Herschels exhibit a
similar result; the Herschels counted the number of stars visible
with their powerful telescopes in different regions of the sky, and
thus formed comparative estimates of the density of the stars,
extending to a very high magnitude. According to their results
the star-density increases continuously from 109 per square degree
at the poles to 2019 along the galactic equator. In general, the
fainter the stars included in the discussion the more marked is their
crowding towards the galactic plane. Various considerations tend
to show that this apparent crowding does not imply a really greater
density or clustering of the stars in space, but is due to the fact
that in these directions we look through a greater depth of stars
before coming to the boundary of the stellar system. Sir William
Herschel and afterwards F. G. W. Struve developed the view that
the stars are contained in a comparatively thin stratum bounded
by two parallel planes. The shape of the universe may thus be
compared to that of a grind- A p Q jj
stone or lens, the sun being i ~^~^
situated about midway be- ! ^'
tween the two surfaces. Thus g 1^ - R
the figure represents a section
the (ideally simplified) uni- L, .
verse cut perpendicular to c
the planes AB and CD between which the stars are contained,
1 This number is the 3/2th power of the ratio of the brightness of
stars differing by a unit magnitude.
STARAYA RUSSA
793
S being the sun. Imagine this stratum to be uniformly filled with
stars (of course in the actual universe instead of sharply defined
boundaries AB and CD, we shall have a gradual thinning out of the
stars) it follows that in the two directions SP and SP' the fewest
stars will be seen; these then are the directions of the galactic
poles. As we consider a direction such as SQ farther and farther
from the pole the boundary of the universe in that direction
becomes more and more remote so that more stars are seen, and
finally in the directions SR and SR' in the galactic plane, the
boundary is perhaps beyond the limits of our telescopes. That the
universe must have a boundary in the directions SR and SR', we
can hardly doubt, but nothing is known of its shape or distance
except that in all directions it must be far greater than SP or SP' ;
in particular it is not known whether the sun is near the centre
or otherwise. That the sun is nearly midway between the two
boundary planes can be tested by comparing the star-densities of
the northern and southern galactic hemispheres. These are zone
for zone very nearly equal; the slight excess of stars in the southern
hemisphere perhaps implies that the sun is a little north of the
central position. This is confirmed by the fact that the Milky
Way is not quite a great circle of the celestial sphere, but has a
mean south galactic latitude of about 1-7.
If, instead of considering the whole mass of stars, attention is
directed to those of large proper motion, which are therefore in the
mean relatively near us, the crowding to the galactic plane is
much less noticeable, if not indeed entirely absent Thus Kapteyn
found that the Bradley stars having proper motions greater than
5" per century were evenly distributed over the sky, Dyson and
Thackeray's tables show the same result for the Groombridge stars
down to magnitude 6'5; but the fainter stars (with centennial
proper motions greater than 5") show a marked tendency to draw
towards the galactic circle. The result is precisely what should
be expected from the theory of the shape of the universe which
has been set forth. If in the fig. we describe a sphere about S with
radius SP so as just to touch the boundaries of the stratum of
stars, then, provided a class of stars is considered wholly or mainly
included within this sphere, no concentration of stars in the galactic
plane is to be expected, for the shape of the universe does not enter
into the question. It is only when some of the stars considered
are more remote and lie outside this sphere (but of course between
the two planes) that there is a galactic crowding. We infer that
nearly all the stars down to magnitude 6-5, whose proper motions
exceed 5*, are at a distance from the sun less than SP, whilst of
the fainter stars with equally great proper motions a large proportion
are at a distance greater than SP. This result enables us to form
some sort of idea of the distance SP.
On considering the distribution of the stars according to their
spectra, it appears that the Type II. (solar) stars show no tendency
to congregate in the galactic plane. The result of course only
applies to the brighter stars, for we have very little knowledge of the
spectra of stars fainter than about magnitude 7-5. The explanation
indicated in the last paragraph applies to this case also Type II.
stars are in general much less intrinsically luminous than Type I.,
so that the stars known to be of this type must be comparatively
near us, for otherwise they would appear too faint to have their
spectra determined. They are accordingly within the sphere of
radius SP (fig.), and consequently are equally numerous in every
direction. The Type I. stars, being intrinsically brighter, are not
so limited. According to F. McClean, of the stars brighter than
magnitude 3-5, only the helium and not the hydrogen stars of Type I.
show a condensation towards the galactic plane. Thus we see
that the effect of limiting the magnitude to 3-5 is that the hydrogen
stars are now practically all within the sphere SP, and it is only
the helium stars, whose absolute luminosity is still greater, that are
more widely distributed. Of the rarer types of spectra, stars of
Type III. agree with those of Type II. in being evenly distributed
over the sky; Types IV. and V. however, congregate towards the
galactic plane. The most remarkable are the Type V. (Wolf-
Rayet) stars; in their case the condensation into the galactic regions
is complete, for of the Ql known stars of this type, 70 are actually
in the Milky Way and the remaining 21 are in the Magellanic
Clouds (two large clusters in the southern hemisphere, which re-
semble the Milky Way in several respects). Excluding the latter,
the 70 Wolf-Rayet stars have a mean distance from the central
galactic circle of only 2-6. There can be little doubt that these
stars belong to the Milky Way cluster, so that their presence is a
property of the cluster rather than of the galactic plane in general.
Spiral nebulae have the remarkable characteristic of avoiding the
galactic plane, and it has been suggested that the space outside the
limits of the stellar universe is filled with them. It does not,
however, seem probable that their apparent anti-galactic tendency
has such a significance; in the Magellanic Clouds spiral nebulae
are very abundant, a fact which shows that there is no essential
antipathy between the stars and the spiral nebulae.
As might be expected, the relative motion of the two great
star-drifts is parallel to the galactic plane.
A glance at the Milky Way, with its sharply defined irregular
boundaries, its clefts and diverging spur, is almost sufficient to
.assure us that it is a real cluster of stars, and does not merely
indicate the directions in which the universe extends farthest.
Barnard's photographs of its structure leave little doubt on the
matter; the numerous rifts and dark openings show that _
its thickness cannot be very great. To complete our T!' e " t " k y
representation of the universe, it is therefore necessary " ay -
to add to the fairly uniform distribution of stars between two
planes a gigantic cluster of an annular or spiral form, also lying
between the planes and completely surrounding the sun. The Milky
Way is' not of uniform brightness, so that we are perhaps nearer to
some parts of it than to others, but it is everywhere very distant
from the sun. Estimates of this distance vary, but it may probably
be put at more than three thousand light years (parallax less than
o-ooi"). Nevertheless the Milky Way contains a fair proportion
of lucid stars, for these are considerably more numerous in the bright
patches of the Milky Way than in the rifts and dark spaces.
It has been seen that the parallaxes afford little information
as to the distribution of the main bulk of the stars and that the
chief evidence on this point must be obtained indirectly
from their proper motions. Our principal knowledge Dlstrlb " m
of this subject is due to Kapteyn (Groningen Publications, \* on **
Nos. 8 and ll), and though much of his work is pro- L "'"' aosHy
visional, and perhaps liable to considerable revision ~ t
when more extensive data are obtainable, it probably s
gives an idea of the construction of the universe sufficiently accurate
in all essential respects. As has been explained the mean distance
of a group of stars can be readily determined from the parallactic
motion, which, when not foreshortened, is approximately four
times the parallax; but to obtain a complete knowledge of the
distribution of stars it is necessary to know, not merely the mean
parallax of the group, but also the frequency law, i.e. what proportion
of stars have a quarter, half, twice or three times, &c., the mean,
parallax. One result of Kapteyn's investigations may be given here.
Taking a sphere whose radius is 560 light years (a distance about
equal to that of the average ninth magnitude star), it will contain:
I star giving from 1 00,000 to 10,000 times the light of the sun
26 stars 10,000 1,000
1,300 1,000 100
22,000 100 10
140,000 10 i
430,000 i o-i
650,000 o-i o-oi
Whether there is an increasing number of still less luminous stars is
a disputed question.
The comparative nearness of the stars of the solar type, which we
have had occasion to allude to, is confirmed by the fact that their
proper motions are on the average much larger than those of
the Sirian stars. Kapteyn finds that magnitude for magnitude, the
absolute brightness of the solar stars is only one-fifth of that of the
Sirian stars, so that in the mean they must be at less than half
the distance. As the numbers of known stars of the two types are
nearly equal, it is clear that, at all events in our immediate neigh-
bourhood, the solar stars must greatly outnumber the Sirian.
REFERENCES. Of modern semi-popular works entirely devoted
to and covering the subjects treated of in this article the principal
is Simon Newcomb's The Stars, a Study of the Universe; mention
must also be made of Miss A. M. Clerke's The System of the Stars
(2nd ed., 1905), which contains full references to original papers;
Problems in Astrophysics, by the same author, may also be consulted.
The following works of reference and catalogues deal with special
branches of the subject; for variable stars, Chandler's "Third
Catalogue," Astronomical Journ. (1896), vol. xvi., is now very
incomplete; Harvard Annals, vol. lv., pt. I, and vol. lx., No. 4,
together constitute a catalogue of 3734 variable stars ; ephemerides
of over 800 variables are given in the Vierteljahrsschrift of the
Astronomische Gesellschaft. For double stars see Burnham's
General Catalogue (1907), and Lewis, Memoirs of the R.A .S., vol. Ivi. ;
the orbits of the principal binaries are discussed in T. J. J. See,
Evolution of Stellar Systems, and another list will be found in Lick
Observatory Bulletin, No. 84. A list of spectroscopic binaries dis-
covered up to 1905 is given in Lick Observatory Bulletin, No. 79.
For the spectrum analysis of stars, Scheiner's Astronomical Spectro-
scopy (trans, by Frost) may be consulted. The " Draper Catalogue,"
Harvard Annals, vol. xxvii., gives the classification according to
spectrum of over 10,000 stars; for the brighter stars Harvard Annals,
vol. 1. forms a more complete catalogue. Of the numerous memoirs
discussing stellar spectra in relation to evolution, A. Schuster,
" The Evolution of Solar Stars," Astrophysical Journ. (1903),
vol. xvii., may be mentioned as giving a concise survey of the
subject. (A. S. E.)
STARAYA RUSSA, a town of Russia, in the government
of Novgorod, 58 m. S. of the city of Novgorod, on the river
Polista, by means of which and Lake Ilmen it is brought into
steamer communication with St Petersburg. Pop., 15,234.
Brine springs on the east of the town were used as a source for
the supply of salt as late as 1865; at present they are used only
as mineral waters (temperature 51-54 F.), having a great
794
STARA ZAGORA STARCH
resemblance to those of Kreuznach in Germany. Some
thousands of visitors resort to them every summer, and owing
to this circumstance Staraya Russa is better built and better
kept than any other town in the government of Novgorod. The
inhabitants are supported chiefly by the summer visitors. There
is a trade in rye, oats and flax shipped to St Petersburg. The
name of Staraya Russa occurs in Russian annals as far back
as 1167. It belonged to the republic of Novgorod, and suffered
continually in the wars between Russia, Lithuania and Livonia.
It was afterwards annexed to Moscow.
STARA ZAGORA (Turk. Eski-Zagra), the capital of a depart-
ment of Bulgaria, in Eastern Rumelia, on the southern slope of
the Karaja Dagh, 70 m. N.W. of Adrianople, with which it is
connected by railway. Pop. (1906), 20,647. It is surrounded
by vineyards, and has also cloth and carpet manufactures,
copper foundries and tanneries. The production of silk and
attar of roses is carried on in the district, which contains nume-
rous mineral springs. The town having been almost wholly
destroyed during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, was rebuilt
on a regular plan, with wide and broad streets radiating from a
fine central square, where are situated the principal public
buildings. During the rebuilding, important Thracian, Roman,
Byzantine and Turkish antiquities were discovered.
Stara Zagora, founded probably by the Macedonians, was
known to the Romans as Augusta Traiana, but afterwards,
to distinguish it from a Macedonian town of this name, it was
named Beroe or Berrhoea. By the Turks the name was changed
in the i7th century to Eski-Zagra or Eski-Zaara, but after 1878
the Bulgarian name of Stara Zagora came into general use.
STARBOARD AND LARBOARD, nautical terms for the right
and left sides respectively of a ship, looking towards the bows.
The final part of these is Old English bord, board, the side of a
ship, now used for a plank of wood. In starboard (O. Eng.
steorbord) the first part certainly means " steer," and " steering
side " therefore refers to the time when vessels were steered by
a paddle or sweep worked from the right side. In Old English
the left side of a ship was known as baecbord, back board,
the side of the vessel to the back of the steersman. This is
paralleled in all other Teutonic languages, cf. German backbord,
and has been adopted in Romanic languages, cf. French bdbord.
Baecbord did not survive in Middle English, in which its place
was taken by laddeborde or lallteborde. In .the i6th century
the word takes the forms lerbord, leercbord or larbord, probably
by assimilation to ster-, steere-, and slar-bord. There is much
doubt as to the origin of the term and the curious change from
laddebord to larboard. Skeat (Etym. Diet.) suggests that these
may be two distinct words. The earlier form is usually con-
nected with " lade," to put cargo on board a vessel, the left
side being that on which this was usually done, for the ship
when in port would lie with her left side against the quay wall,
her head pointing to the entrance. If the later form is not
due to mere assimilation to starboard, it may contain a word
meaning empty (O. Eng. gelar, Ger. leer), and refer to that side
of the vessel where the steersman does not stand. Owing to
the similarity in sound between starboard and larboard, the
word port is now used for the left side. The substitution of
this for the older term was officially ordered in the British
navy by an admiralty order of 1844, and in the United States
of America by a navy department notice in 1896. The use
of port in this sense is much older; it occurs in Manwaring's
Seaman's Dictionary (1625-1644). In this usage port may
either mean " harbour " (Lat. portus), the ship lying with its
left side against the port or quay for unloading, or " opening,"
"entrance" (Lat. porta, gate), for the cargo to be taken on
board; cf. "porthole."
STARCH, an organized product of the vegetable kingdom,
forming one of the most important and characteristic elements
of plant life. It originates within the living vegetable cell
through the formative activity of chlorophyll under the in-
fluence of light, and is consequently an unfailing characteristic
of all plants containing that body. Starch found within leaves
and other green parts of plants is assimilated and transformed
with great rapidity; accumulations of it are carried as starch-
formers, and redeposited as starch in special reservoirs or portions
of plants as the period of maturity approaches. In this way
the body is found to gorge the stems of certain palms the sago,
&c. just before these plants begin to form their fruit; it is the
principal constituent of the underground organs of biennial and
perennial plants, tap-roots, root-stocks, corms, bulbs and tubers;
and it is abundantly stored in many fruits and seeds, as in the
cereals and pulses, in bananas, bread-fruit, &c. It occurs in
minute, granules varying in diameter from -002 to -185 milli-
metres; and the granules from different sources have each a
distinct microscopic character. Under the microscope these
granules are seen to consist of a nucleus or hilum surrounded
by layers arranged concentrically or excentrically, and the
relations of hilum and layers are the most distinctive features
of individual starches (see H. Gait, Microscopy of the Starches,
1900). Starch consists of a white or yellowish-white glistening
powder. It is only slightly acted on by cold water, but under
the influence of heat in water it swells up, forming according to
the proportions of starch and water a clouded opalescent paste.
The soluble portion is called granulose, and the insoluble starch-
cellulose; from the aqueous solution alcohol precipitates soluble
starch. Iodine acts on it in water, producing a brilliant blue
coloration, this reaction forming a very delicate and character-
istic test. The colour disappears on heating, but is recovered
when the mixture is cold. Diastase and dilute boiling sulphuric
acid convert starch into a form soluble in hot water, whence it
passes into a series of easily soluble dextrins, and finally into
the condition of the sugars, dextrose and maltose. Chemically,
starch is a carbohydrate with the formula (C 6 Hi O 6 ) n , where n
is four or more.
As an economic product starch in its separate condition is a
most important alimentary substance, the chief pure food
starches being arrowroot, sago, tapioca and cornflour. In its
combined condition, in cereals, &c., starch is a useful nutritive
element. In its other industrial relations starch is used: (i)
directly, as a thickening material in calico printing, for the
dressing and finishing of many textiles, for laundry purposes,
adhesive paste, and powder; and (2) indirectly, for the pre-
paration of dextrin and British gum and starch sugar. Indian
corn, wheat and rice starch are principally employed for the
direct applications; and for the dextrin and starch-sugar
manufacture potato starch is almost exclusively selected.
In the preparation of starch the object of the manufacturer is to
burst the vegetable cell walls, to liberate the starch granules, and
to free them from the other cell contents with which they are
associated. When, as in the case of the potato, the associated
cell contents, &c., are readily separated by solution and levigation
the manufacture is exceedingly simple. Potato starch is prepared
principally by carefully washing the potatoes and in a kind of
rasping machine reducing them to a fine pulp, which is deposited
in water as raw starch. The impurities of this starch cellulose,
albuminoids, fragments of potato, &c. are separated by washing
it in fine sieves, through the meshes of which the pure starch alone
passes. The sieves are variously formed, some revolving, others
moving horizontally or .in such manner as to keep the material in
agitation. The starch is then received in tanks, in which it settles,
and so separates from the soluble albuminoids and salts of the
potatoes. (The waste pulp which passes over the sieve is pressed,
dried q ( uickly, and sold as a low-grade cattle food.) The settling
of the starch is much retarded by the dissolved albuminoids, and to
hasten the separation small quantities of alum or sulphuric acid
are employed. Alum coagulates the albumen and to that extent
contaminates the starch, while the acid acts on the starch itself and
is difficult of neutralization. After the starch has settled, the brown-
coloured supernatant liquor is drawn off and the starch again washed
either in tanks or in a centrifugal machine. Finally it is dried
by spreading it in layers over porous bricks (a process not required
in the case of starch washed in a centrifugal machine) and by
exposure to the air, after which it still retains a large proportion
of water, but is in a condition for making dextrin or starch-sugar.
For further drying it is ground to a rough powder, and dried
thoroughly in a hot chamber, then reduced to a powder and sifted.
Potato starch is also made by a " rotting " process, in which
potatoes are reduced to a pulp by slicing and are then heaped
up till fermentation takes place; 100 Ib of potatoes yield 15-16 Ib
of dry starch.
In dealing with the starches of the cereals, there is greater
STAR CHAMBER
795
difficulty, owing to the presence of gluten, which with water forms
a tough elastic body difficult of solution and removal. The diffi-
culty is experienced in greatest measure in dealing with wheat,
which contains a large proportion of gluten. Wheat starch is
separated in two different ways: (i) the fermentation method,
which is the original process, and (2) by mechanical means without
preliminary fermentation. In the fermentation process whole
wheat or wheaten meal is softened and swollen by soaking in
water. Wheat grains are, in this condition, ground, and the pulp,
mixed to a thickish fluid with water, is placed in tanks, where it
ferments, developing acids which dissolve the gummy constituents
of the wheat, with part of the gluten, and render the whole less
tenacious. After full fermentation, the period of which varies
with the weather and the process employed, the starch is separated
in a washing drum. It is subsequently washed with water, which
dissolves out the gluten, the starch settling in two layers one
comparatively pure, the other mixed with gluten and some branny
particles. These layers are separated, the second undergoing
further washing to remove the gluten, &c., and the remaining
operations are analogous to those employed in the preparation of
potato-starch. By the mechanical process wheaten flour is kneaded
into a stiff paste, which, after resting for an hour or two, is washed
over a fine sieve so long as the water passing off continues milky,
whereby the starch is liberated and the greater part of the gluten
retained as a gluey elastic mass in the sieve. The starch is sub-
sequently purified by fermentation, washing and treatment in centri-
fugal machines. The gluten thus preserved is a useful food for
diabetic patients, and is made with flour into artificial macaroni
and pastes, besides being valuable for other industrial purposes.
The fermentation process gives about 59 Ib of starch and II of
bran from 100 Ib of wheat, whilst the mechanical process gives
about 55 Ib of starch and 12 of gluten.
Maize (Indian corn) starch is obtained by analogous processes,
but, the proportion of gluten in the grain being smaller and less ten-
acious in its nature, the operations, whether chemical or mechanical,
present fewer difficulties. Under one method the separation
of maize starch is facilitated by steeping, swelling and softening
the grain in a weak solution of caustic soda, and favourable results
are also obtained by a process in which the pulp from the crushing
mill is treated with water acidulated with sulphurous acid.
In the preparation of rice-starch a weak solution of caustic soda
is also employed for softening and swelling the grain. It is then
washed with pure water, dried, ground and sifted, and again
treated with alkaline water, by which the whole of the nitrogenous
constituents are taken up in soluble form. An acid process for
obtaining rice-starch is also employed, under which the grain,
swollen and ground, is treated repeatedly with a solution of hydro-
chloric acid, which also dissolves away the non-starchy constituents
of the grain. The yield is about 85 ft per 100 of rice. Laundry
starches are principally made from rice and from pulse.
See O. Saare, Die Fabrication der Kartoffelstdrke (1897).
STAR CHAMBER, the name given in the i5th, i6th and r/th
centuries to an English court of justice. The name is probably
derived from the stars with which the roof of the chamber
was painted; it was the camera stcllata. But it has also been
derived from a Hebrew word shelar or sh'tar, a bond, on the
supposition that the chamber of meeting was the room in
which the legal documents connected with the Jews were kept
prior to their expulsion from England by Edward I.
The origin and early history of the court are somewhat obscure.
The curia regis of the I2th century, combining judicial, delibera-
tive and administrative functions, had thrown off several
offshoots in the court of king's bench and other courts, but the
Crown never parted with its supreme jurisdiction. When in the
I3th century the king's council became a regular and permanent
body, practically distinct from parliament, this supreme juris-
diction continued to be exercised by the king in council. As
the ordinary courts of law became more important and more
systematic, the indefinite character of the council's jurisdiction
gave rise to frequent complaints, and efforts, for the most part
fruitless, were made by the parliaments of the I4th century to
check it. The equitable jurisdiction of the chancellor, which
grew up during the reign of Edward III. like the courts of law
under Henry II., was derived from this supreme judicial power,
which was yet unexhausted.
It is in the reign of Edward III., after an act of 1341, that we
first hear of the chancellor, treasurer, justices and other members
of the king's council exercising jurisdiction in the old chamber,
or chambre de esloiles, at Westminster. In Henry VI. 's reign
one Danvers was acquitted of a certain charge by the council
in the camera slcllata. Hitherto such acts of parliament as had
recognized this jurisdiction had done so only by way of limita-
tion or prohibition, but in 1453, about the time when the
distinction between the ordinary and the privy council first
became apparent, an act was passed empowering the chancellor
to enforce the attendance of all persons summoned by the privy
seal before the king and his council in all cases not determinable
by common law. At this time, then, the jurisdiction of the
council was recognized as supplementary to that of the ordinary
courts of law. But the anarchy of the Wars of the Roses and the
decay of local justice, owing to the influence of the great barons
and the turbulence of all classes, obliged parliament to entrust
wider powers to the council. This was the object of the famous
act of 1487, which was incorrectly quoted by the lawyers of the
long parliament as creating the court of star chamber, which
was in reality of earlier origin.
The act of 1487 (3 Hen. VII.) created a court composed of
seven persons, the chancellor, the treasurer, the keeper of the
privy seal, or any two of them, with a bishop, a temporal lord
and the two chief justices, or in their absence two other justices.
It was to deal with cases of " unlawful maintainance, giving of
licences, signs and tokens, great riots, unlawful assemblies ";
in short with all offences against the law which were too serious
to be dealt with by the ordinary courts. The jurisdiction thus
entrusted to this committee of the council was not supplemen-
tary, therefore, like that granted in 1453, but it superseded the
ordinary courts of law in cases where these were too weak to
act. The act simply supplied machinery for the exercise, under
special circumstances, of that extraordinary penal jurisdiction
which the council had never ceased to possess. By an act of
1529 an eighth member, the president of the council, was added
to the star chamber, the jurisdiction of which was at the same
time confirmed. At this time the court performed a very
necessary and valuable work in punishing powerful offenders
who could not be reached by the ordinary courts of law. It
was found very useful by Cardinal Wolsey, and a little later
Sir Thomas Smith says its object was " to bridle such stout
noblemen or gentlemen who would offer wrong by force to any
manner of men, and cannot be content to demand or defend
the right by order of the law."
It is popularly supposed that the star chamber, after an exis-
tence of about fifty years, disappeared towards the end of the
reign of Henry VIII., the powers obtained by the act of 1487
being not lost, but reverting to the council as a whole. This
may have been so, but it is more probable that the star chamber
continued to exist side by side with the council, and the two
bodies were certainly separate during the latter part of Eliza-
beth's reign. The act of 1540, which gave the king's pro-
clamation the force of law, enacted that offenders against them
were to be punished by the usual officers of the council, together
with some bishops and judges " in the star chamber or else-
where." It is difficult, if not impossible, to draw a clear
distinction between the duties of the privy council and the
duties of the star chamber at this time, although before the
abolition of the latter there was a distinction " as to their com-
position and as to the matters dealt with by the two courts."
During the reign of Elizabeth Sir Thomas Smith remarks' that
juries misbehaving "were many times commanded to appear
in the star chamber, or before the privy council for the matter."
The uncertain composition of the court is well shown by Sir
Edward Coke, who says that the star chamber is or may be
compounded of three several councils: (i) the lords and others
of the privy council; (2) the judges of either bench and the
barons of the exchequer; (3) the lords of parliament, who are
not, however, standing judges of the court. William Hudson
(d. 1635), on the other hand, considers that all peers had the
right of sitting in the court, but if so they had certainly given
up the privilege in the i7th century.
The jurisdiction of the star chamber was as vague as its
constitution. Hudson says it is impossible to define it without
offending the supporters of the prerogative by a limitation of
its powers, or the lawyers by attributing to it an excessive
latitude. In practice its jurisdiction was almost unlimited.
796
STARFISH
It took notice of riots, murder, forgery, felony, perjury, fraud,
libel and slander, duels and acts tending to treason, as well as of
some civil matters, such as disputes about land between great
men and corporations, disputes between English and foreign
merchants, and testamentary cases; in fact, as Hudson says,
" all offences may be here examined and punished if the king
will." Its procedure was not according to the common law.
It dispensed with the encumbrance of a jury; it could proceed
on rumour alone; it could apply torture; it could inflict any
penalty but death. It was thus admirably calculated to be
the support of order against anarchy, or of despotism against
individual and national liberty. During the Tudor period it
appeared in the former light, under the Stuarts in the latter.
Under the Tudors, as S. R. Gardiner says, it was "a tribunal
constantly resorted to as a resource against the ignorance or
prejudices of a country jury," and adds that "in such inves-
tigations it showed itself intelligent and impartial." Under
James I. and Charles I. all this was changed; the star chamber
became the great engine of the royal tyranny. Hateful and
excessive punishments were inflicted on those brought before the
court, notable among whom were Prynne, Bastwick and Burton,
and the odium which it gathered around it was one of the causes
which led to the popular discontent against Charles I. As it
became more unpopular its jurisdiction was occasionally ques-
tioned. An example of this kind occurred in 1629, but the
barons of the exchequer who heard the case declared that the
star chamber was created many years before the statute of
Henry VII. and that it was " one of the most high and honour-
able courts of justice." It was abolished by an act of parlia-
ment of July 1641. In 1661 a committee of the House of Lords
reported " that it was fit for the good of the nation that there
be a court of like nature to the star chamber "; but nothing
further was done in the matter.
For the history of the star chamber see Sir Thomas Smith,
Commonwealth of England (1633) ; Lord Bacon, History of Henry VII.,
edited by J. R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1881); William Hudson,
" Treatise of the Court of Star Chamber," in vol. ii. of Collectanea
Juridica; H. Hallam, Constitutional History of England (1876);
W. S. Holdsworth, History of English Law (fol. 1902) ; G. W.
Prothero, Statutes and Constitutional Documents 1559-1625 (1894);
W. Busch, England under the Tudors (1895) ; S. R. Gardiner, History
of England 1603-1642 (1883-1884); D. J. Medley, English Con-
stitutional History (1907); and A. V. Dicey, The Privy Council.
The pleadings in the star chamber are in the Record Office, London ;
the decrees appear to have been lost.
STARFISH, a popular term under which are included a large'
number of sea-animals, belonging all to the great group of Echino-
derms, but to three dis-
tinct divisions of that
group: the Asterids,
the Ophiurids and the
Crinoids (see ECHINO-
DERMA). The Asterids
or starfish proper in-
clude the cross-fish, the
sun-star (see ECHINO-
DERMA, fig. 17), the
cushion-star, the butt-
horn, and many with-
out a popular name.
The common cross-fish
or five-finger, Asterias
rubens, of British seas,
may be taken as typical
(** ' -d 2), and the
description will apply
also to the American
species A. forbesi and
FIG. i .
An Asterid, A sterias rubens,
a, Madreporit U e PPer ""**
d, The same magnified.
b, Anus.
This starfish may be 9-12 in. across.
A. vulgaris. The animal consists of a central body or disk,
produced into five arms or rays. The upper surface is covered
with a leathery skin, strengthened by a rafter-work of little
bones or plates, made of crystalline carbonate of lime, many
of them bearing prickles of the same substance and small
pincer-like bodies the pedicellariae (see SEA-URCHIN). In the
middle of the body is a small anal opening, and near the angle
between two rays is a furrowed plate pierced by many
minute pores and called
the madreporite. The
under surface of the
body has the mouth in
the centre, and from it
deep grooves radiate to
the ends of the arms. At
the bottom of each
groove is a water-vessel,
which gives off branches
to the podia or sucking-
feet on each side of it.
A section across this
groove is given in the
article ECHINODERMA,
fig. 12 B. The arrange-
ment and working of this FlG - 2 ~ Asterias rubens, under surface,
hydraulic system is a ' Th f l*~ r s with its row f sucking ~
essentially the same as b, End of a podium, magnified,
in the sea-urchin, except
for the presence of plates at the bottom of the groove beneath the
radial water-vessel, and the absence of any plates covering the
groove. At the end of each ray is, as in the urchin, a single
tentacle surrounded by pigment and connected with a definite
plate called " terminal." Thus the terminals of a starfish cor-
respond to the oculars of a sea-urchin (see ECHINODERMA, fig. 3).
The stomach is not a long coil, but a simple sac with branched
blind tubes extending into each ray. A generative gland also
passes down the side of each ray, and emits the milt or eggs
when ripe through a pore near the body. Spawning takes place
in spring or early summer. A starfish can crawl in any direction
by means of its sucking-feet, whether the surface be hard or
rough or polished, or the softest silt, whilst its supple body
can squeeze through incredibly narrow crevices. The rate of
progress is about six inches a minute.
The starfish are the scavengers of the sea, but unfortunately do
not confine their attentions to decaying matter; they eat oysters,
clams, mussels, barnacles, sea-snails, worms, Crustacea and even
smaller starfish. There is constant war between oyster-fishers
and starfish; no less than 42,000 bushels of starfish were removed
from the oyster-beds of Connecticut in a single year, but not till
they had worked damage to the amount of $631,500. The simplest
way in which a starfish eats is by taking small bits of food into the-
stomach, and ejecting the refuse again through the mouth. But
since the mouth is quite small and the food often large, the starfish
finds it more convenient to turn its stomach inside out and to wrap
it around the animal to be eaten, which is then digested quietly
and the stomach withdrawn again. In the case of oysters and similar
bivalves, the starfish first has to open them; and this it does by
fixing the suckers of one or two rays to one valve and those of the
opposite rays to the other valve, while it may get a purchase by
also holding on to some neighbouring object. It then begins to
straighten out its rays. The oyster can withstand a very strong
pull, but it cannot hold out against a long pull, and the starfish
does not hurry. At last the oyster gives way, and the starfish
has its reward; but its companions often join in, and you may see
a whole ball of them interlaced round half-digested molluscs and
rolling about. Starfish begin to eat voraciously when quite young;
one less than fth in. across has been observed to eat over fifty
young clams of half that length in six days. The more a starfish
has to eat the quicker it grows, and it may become sexually mature
in less than a year, then producing many thousands of young.
Fortunately the increase is kept in check by many causes. The
young, while still in the stage of free-swimming larvae, are swallowed
;n millions by various fish. When they settle down on seaweed
their bright colours attract eels and many small fishes. Later in
life they are attacked by parasites, while those which stray inta
shallow water are eaten by gulls and crows. Freshets and cold
currents are also destructive.
Probably the best way in which man can keep down the numbers
of starfish is by dredging the seaweed in the latter half of July
when it is covered with young; a single cartload thrown on shore
would capture many millions. At a later stage tangles of hemp
or cotton waste may be dragged over the oyster-beds, when the
starfish will cling to them by their pedicellariae. They make
excellent manure, but are of no further service to man. Fishermen
who catch them in their nets or on their lines often tear them in
half and throw them back into the sea. Some of these mutilated
STARGARD STARK, JAMES
797
animals may, however, grow fresh rays, and thus one may find
a starfish consisting of one large ray and four quite small ones,
the whole shaped like a comet.
The Ophiurids (the name means " snake-tails ") include the
brittle-stars, sand-stars, and basket-fish or medusa-heads.
FIG. 3. An Ophiurid, the Daisy Brittle-star (Ophiopholis aculeata) ;
upper surface, (f natural size.)
The two former, which may often be found hiding under the
rocks, or in the seaweed, or in pools at low tide, resemble the
ordinary starfish in having five distinct arms. These, however,
as shown in fig. 3, are long and serpent-like, and are attached
to a relatively small body or disk. The digestive and generative
systems do not extend to the rays but are confined to the body.
The arms are cylindrical and have no groove on the under side
such as exists in starfish; but the water- vessel traverses the
solid bones that form the axis of the arm, and the podia pass
out through special openings (see ECHINODERMA, fig. 18).
In Ophiurids it is the arms that are used for locomotion and not
the podia, so that the latter have no terminal suckers. The axial
ossicles, which correspond to the plates flooring the arm-groove in
a starfish, resemble vertebrae connected by pairs of straight muscular
bundles, and articulated by tenon-and-mortise joints, according to
whose degree of development the arms vary in their power of coil-
ing. These vertebrae are encased in the tough outer skin of the
arm, in which are developed plates. Spines borne by these plates
aid the animal in locomotion. The skin of the disk also bears small
plates, which are often covered with prickles. The mouth is on
the under surface of the disk, and round it are a number of short,
flat processes, the mouth-papillae, which serve as strainers. Inside
the mouth are seen the five tooth-plates, borne on a strong frame
of complicated structure. In the sand-stars the rays are com-
paratively short, with their spines closely pressed to their sides,
so that they look like lizards' tails; in the brittle-stars the rays are
much longer and more flexible, with the spines standing out, so
that they look like wriggling centipedes attached round a little
sea-urchin. The brittle-stars are more active than the sand-stars,
and can go more than two yards in a minute; some of them, if
seized, break off their arms, which continue breaking into smaller
pieces; but the body can soon grow new ones. Sand-stars and
brittle-stars are found in all seas, usually occurring in quantities,
but are most abundant in the rock-pools of the tropics. By con-
stantly sweeping their arms over the sea bottom, they gather
food consisting of minute animals. They eat the bait of fishermen,
and their fish as well if they find any already dead, but they are
themselves a favourite food with many fish, notably the cod.
The basket-fish or medusa-heads are Ophiurids whose arms
branch several times, their ends often curling and interlacing.
They live in deeper water and are often brought up clinging to
fishermen's lines.
The feather-stars (fig. 4) have a central body and five arms,
each forking at least once and fringed with small branches
(pinnules) which give the feathery appearance. The mouth
is in the middle of the body, and from it grooves pass along
the arms and all their branches. The animal lives with the
mouth upwards, and although it can crawl and even swim by
movement of its arms, it generally fixes itself to a stone or
seaweed or some zoophyte, by means of a bunch of small jointed
and hooked processes (cirri) growing from the back or under
side of the body. It gets its food in this way: the arm-grooves
(ECHINODERMA, fig. 12, C) are lined with minute hairs (cilia)
always waving in the direction of the mouth, towards which
they drive a stream of water; this stream, containing minute
organisms, constantly flows through the coiled gut, which
extracts nourishment from it. The feather-stars were formerly
placed with the starfish, but they really belong to another
class of Echinoderms the Crinoidea.
FIG. 4. The Rosy Feather-star, Antedon bifida, attached by its
cirri to a small stone, from which it is moving in the direction
of the spectator by pushing with the branches of one arm and
pulling with three branches of two arms. (Natural size.)
In 1823 J. V. Thompson, of Cork, discovered that the feather-
star when quite young was fixed by a stalk, just as are nearly all
crinoids (see ECHINODERMA, figs. I and 2). The stalked crinoids
are not so numerous as they once were, but feather-stars belonging
to about half a dozen genera (Antedon, Actinometra, &c.) are
found in all seas at all depths, often in enormous numbers.
(F. A. B.)
STARGARD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, situated on the left bank of the navigable Ihna,
20 m. E. of Stettin on the railway to Danzig and at the junction
of lines to Posen, Schneidemuhl and Custrin. Pop. (1905),
26,908. Formerly a member of the Hanseatic League, the town
retains memorials of its early importance in the large church
of St Mary, built in the I4th century, the 16th-century town-
hall, and some gateways and towers dating from the i4th century.
The walls which formerly surrounded it have been mostly
converted into promenades. Extensive new law-courts and
three large barracks are among the modern buildings. Stargard
has a considerable market for cattle and horses, and carries on
trade in grain, spirits and raw produce. Its manufactures
include cigars, tobacco, wadding and stockings; and there are
also iron-foundries, and linen and woollen factories in the
town.
Stargard, mentioned as having been destroyed by the Poles
in it 20, received civic rights in 1229, and became the capital
of eastern Pomerania. As a Hanseatic town it enjoyed consider-
able commercial prosperity, but it had also to undergo siege
and capture in the middle ages and during the Thirty Years'
War. In 1807 it was taken by Schill. The name Stargard
(from the Slavonic Starogad or Starigrod, meaning " old town ")
is common to several other towns in the north of Germany, of
which the chief are Preussisch-Stargard, near Danzig, and
Stargard an der Linde in Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
See Zuck, Fiihrer durch Stargard (Stargard, rgoo).
STARK, JAMES (1794-1859), British painter, was born in
Norwich, and as he showed strong artistic inclinations early in life
was, at the age of seventeen, articled to John Crome for three
years. He was elected in 181 2 a member of the Norwich Society,
to the exhibitions of which he had already contributed; but in
iSr? he migrated to London and entered the Royal Academy
Schools. He soon returned to Norwich and did not finally
settle in the metropolis until 1830, though he was meanwhile
a regular contributor to the British Institution and Suffolk
Street Galleries. In 1840 he moved to Windsor, but after an
interval of some years went back to London, where he died in
1859. Between 1831 and 1859 most of his pictures were shown
at the Royal Academy, though he still continued to exhibit
occasionally in other galleries. He undertook in 1827 the
publication of a work on The Scenery of the Rivers of Norfolk,
which was completed seven years later; the illustrations he
98
prepared for it have much topographical and artistic interest
and show well the better qualities of his work. In his pictures
the influence of Crome is plainly perceptible, and there is evi-
dence also of his study of the Dutch landscape-painters; but he
had little of Crome's largeness and power and his works charm
rather by their gentle truth and quietness of manner than by
their robustness of view or by their decisiveness of execution.
There is one picture by him, " The Valley of the Yare," in the
National Gallery of British Art.
STARK, JOHN (1728-1822), American soldier, was born at
Nutfield, now Londonderry, New Hampshire, on the 28th of
August 1728. In 1752 he was taken prisoner by the Indians
but was ransomed by Massachusetts. During the Seven Years'
War he served under Robert Rogers, first as a lieutenant and
later as a captain, taking part in the battle of Lake George in
1755, the disastrous attack upon Ticonderoga in 1758, and the
Ticonderoga-Crown Point campaign in 1759- At the beginning
of the War of Independence he raised a regiment and as colonel
did good service in the Battle of Bunker Hill, in the Canadian
expedition, and in Washington's New Jersey campaign in the
winter of 1776-77. In March 1777 he resigned his commission
because other officers had been promoted over him. Later
in the year, however, he was placed in command (by New
Hampshire), with the rank of brigadier-general of militia, of a
force of militiamen, with whom, on the i6th of August, near
Bennington (?..), Vermont, he defeated two detachments
of Burgoyne's army under Colonel Friedrich Baum and Colonel
Breyman. For this victory, which did much to bring about the
capitulation of General Burgoyne, Stark received the thanks
of Congress and a commission as brigadier-general in the
Continental Army (Oct. 4, 1777). He took part in the opera-
tions about Saratoga, and for a short time in 1778 and again in
I78r he was commander of the northern department. In
September 1783 he was breveted major-general. He died at
Manchester, New Hampshire, on the 8th of May 1822. John
Stark's brother, William (1724-1776), served in the Seven
Years' War and afterwards on the frontier; and at the outbreak
of the War of Independence, piqued because he was not put in
command of a regiment, he entered the British service.
See Memoir and Official Correspondence of General John Stark
(Concord, N.H., 1860) by his grandson Caleb Stark (1804-1864),
who wrote in 1831 Reminiscences of the French War containing
Rogers's Expeditions with the New England Rangers and an Account
. . . of John Stark.
STARLEY, JAMES (1830-1881), British inventor, the son
of a farmer, was baptized at Albourne, Sussex, on the I3th of
June 1830. At eighteen he ran away from home and started
on foot for London, but on the way obtained work as a gardener
at Lewisham, Kent, where he lived for a number of years.
He had always been an ingenious mechanic, inventing trifling
novelties and repairing watches and clocks in the neighbourhood,
and when sewing machines began to be much used they attracted
his practical attention, and aroused his inventive genius.
Leaving his garden he went up to London and became working
mechanic for a firm of sewing-machine makers. Here he was
in his element, and in several particulars improved his principal's
machines, and invented a new one with an arm attachment
that permitted circular as well as straightforward work. With
a fellow workman he moved in 1857 to Coventry, and started
the manufacture of the " European " and other sewing machines
from his patents. This was the beginning of the Coventry
Machinists' Company, the pioneer of all the great bicycle and
tricycle works which afterwards made that city the centre of
the industry. Former acquaintances of Starley at Lewisham
and elsewhere migrated to Coventry to become skilled mechanics
for this company. In 1868 they began the manufacture, after
a Paris model and at first for French use, of bicycles, several of
the earliest suggested improvements being Starley's. A number
of firms were soon devoting themselves exclusively to the
manufacture of bicycles, and for one of these Starley whose
financial successes were always for others designed the
Coventry tricycle. As it was harder to propel than the bicycle
he invented the balance gear, and applied it in the Salvo, which
STARK, JOHN STARLING
is the type of the present tricycle (q.v.). Starley died on the
1 7th of June 1881, and a public monument has been erected
to his memory in Coventry. His nephew, J. K. Starley, patented
the tangent wheel in 1874.
STARLING (0. Eng. staer steam, and sterlyng; Lat. sturnus;
Fr. etourneau), a well-known bird about the size of a thrush;
though at a distance it appears to be black, when near at hand
its plumage is seen to be brightly shot with purple, green and
steel-blue, most of the feathers when freshly grown being tipped
with buff. These markings wear off in the course of the winter,
and in the breeding season the bird is almost spotless. It is
the Slurnus mdgaris of ornithologists.
A full description of the habits of the starling 1 is unnecessary
in this p'ace. A more engaging bird scarcely exists, for its
familiarity during some months of the year gives opportunitie -,
for observing its ways that few others afford, while its varied
song, its sprightly gestures, its glossy plumage, and, above all, its
character as an insecticide which last makes it the friend of the
agriculturist and the grazier render it an almost universal
favourite. The worst that can be said of it is that it occasionally
pilfers fruit, and, as it flocks to roost in autumn and winter
among reed-beds, does considerable damage by breaking down
the stems. 2 The congregations of starlings are indeed very
marvellous, and no less than the aerial evolutions of the flocks,
chiefly before settling for the night, have attracted attention
from early times, being mentioned by Pliny (Hist, naluralis,
x. 24) in the ist century. The extraordinary precision with
which the crowd, often numbering several hundreds, not to say
thousands, of birds, wheels, closes, opens out, rises and descends,
as if the whole body were a single living thing all these move-
ments being executed without a note or cry being uttered
must be seen to be appreciated, and may be seen repeatedly
with pleasure. For a resident the starling is rather a late
breeder. The nest is commonly placed in the hole of a tree
or of a building, and its preparation is the work of some little
time. The eggs, from 4 to 7 in number, are of a very pale blue,
often tinged with green. As the young grow they become very
noisy, and their parents, in their assiduous attendance, hardly
less So, thus occasionally making themselves disagreeable in a
quiet neighbourhood. The starling has a wide range over
Europe and Asia, reaching India; but examples from Kashmir,
Persia and Armenia have been considered worthy of specific
distinction, and the resident starling of the countries bordering
the Mediterranean is generally regarded as a good species, and
called 5. unicolor from its unspotted plumage.
Of the many forms allied to the genus Sturnus, some of which
have perhaps been needlessly separated therefrom, those known
as Crackles (q.v.), are separately dealt with, and here we shall
only notice one other, Pastor, containing a beautiful species
P. roseus, the Rose-coloured Starling, which is not an unfrequent
visitor to the British Islands. It is a bird of most irregular and
erratic habits a vast horde suddenly arriving at some place
to which it may have hitherto been a stranger, and at once
making a settlement there, leaving it wholly deserted as soon
as the young are reared. This happened in the summer of
1875 at Villafranca, in the province of Verona, the castle of which
was occupied in a single day by some 12,000 or 14,000 birds
of this species, as has been graphically told by Sig. de Betta
(AM del r. ist. veneto, sth series, vol. ii.); 3 but similar instances
have been before recorded as in Bulgaria in 1867, near Smyrna
in 1856, and near Odessa in 1844, to mention only some of which
particulars have been published. 4
1 They are dwelt on at some length in Yarrell's British Birds,
ed. 4, vol. ii. pp. 229-241.
2 A most ridiculous and unfounded charge has been, however,
more than once brought against it that of destroying the eggs of
skylarks. There is little real evidence of its sucking eggs, and
much of its not doing so; while, to render the allegation still more
absurd, it has been brought by a class of farmers who generally
complain that skylarks themselves are highly injurious.
8 A partial translation of this paper is given in the Zoologist for
1878, pp. 18-22.
4 It is remarkable that on almost all of these occasions the locality
pitched upon has been, either at the time or soon after, ravaged
STARNBERG STATE
799
STARNBERG, a village and climatic health resort of Germany,
in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Starnberger See, 16 m. by
rail S. from Munich. Pop. (1905), 3257. It has an evangelical
and a Roman Catholic church, an old castle (now government
offices) and a bathing establishment. The Starnberger See
(or Wiirmsec) is a lake with a length of 12 m., a breadth of 3 m.,
and covering 23 sq. m. Its greatest depth is about 400 ft.
The lake is girdled by hills, studded with attractive villa
residences, commanding beautiful and extensive views of the
Alps. On the Roseninsel, an island in the lake, remains of
lacustrine dwellings have been discovered. The waters abound
in fish. In the summer steamboats ply, touching at all the
villages lying on the shores.
See Ule, Der Wiirmsee in Oberbayern (Leipzig, 1901).
STAR-NOSED MOLE (Condylura crisiata), a North American
species, the single representative of its genus. In burrowing
habits it resembles the European mole, but is distinguished from
all other members of the family Talpidae by the presence of a
ring of tentacles round the nostrils, probably serving as organs
of touch.
STARODUB, a town of Russia, in the government of Chernigov,
98 m. N.E. of the city of Chernigov. It is regularly built, with
broad straight streets, and the houses are surrounded by large
gardens. Pop. 12,451; Little Russians with about 5000 Jews.
Tanning and the manufacture of copper wares are carried on,
and there is a trade in corn and hemp exported to Riga and
St Petersburg. As early as the nth and I2th centuries Starodub
was a bone of contention between different Russian princes, who
appreciated its strategic position. The Mongols seem to have
destroyed it in the middle of the I3th century, and its name does
'not reappear until the following century. During the i5th and
i6th centuries the Russians and Lithuanians were continually
disputing the possession of its fortress, and at the beginning of
the i yth century it became a stronghold of Poland.
STARVATION, the state of being deprived of the essentials
of nutrition, particularly of food, the suffering of the extremities
of hunger and also of cold (see HUNGER AND THIRST). The word
is an invented hybrid, attributed, according to the accepted
story, to Henry Dundas, ist Viscount Melville, who used it in a
parliamentary debate on American matters in 1775 and gained
thereby the nickname of " Starvation Dundas " (see H. Walpole's
Letters, ed. Cunningham, viii. 30; and Notes and Queries
no. 225). The English word "to starve " meant originally
" to die," as in O. Eng. stcorfan, Du. stenien, Ger. slerben, but
was particularly applied to death from hunger or cold.
STAS, JEAN SERVAIS (1813-1891), Belgian chemist, was
born at Lou vain on the 2ist of August 1813. He studied for
a medical career and took his doctor's degree, but soon turned
to chemistry. In 1835 after much trouble he gained admission
to J. B. A. Dumas's laboratory in Paris in order to continue ,a
research on phloridzin which he had begun in an attic in his
father's house, and he was associated with that chemist in several
researches, including his redetermination of the atomic weight
of carbon. In 1840 he left Paris on his appointment to the
chair of chemistry at the Ecole Royale Militaire in Brussels.
There he remained for more than a quarter of a century, but
before he had served the thirty years necessary to secure a
pension he was obliged to resign through a malady which
affected his speech. He was then appointed to a post in con-
nexion with the Mint, but gave it up in 1872, and spent the rest
of his life in retirement in Brussels, where he died on the i3th
of December 1891. Stas's name is best known for his determina-
tion of the atomic weights of a number of the more important
elements. His work in this field was marked by extreme care,
and he adopted the most minute precautions to avoid error, with
such success that the greatest variation between his numerous
by locusts, which the birds greedily devour. Another fact worthy
of attention is that they are often observed to affect trees or shrubs
bearing rose-coloured flowers, as Nerium oleander and Robinia
' viscosa, among the blossoms of which they themselves may easily
escape notice, for their plumage is rose-pink and black shot with
blue.
individual determinations for each element was represented
by from 0-005 to o-oi. Though he started with a predilection
in favour of Prout's hypothesis he was later led by the results
he obtained and by his failure to find any evidence of dissociation
in the elements to regard it as a pure illusion and to look upon
the unity of matter as merely an attractive speculation unsup-
ported by proof. Nevertheless, a few years before his death,
a propos of the close approximation to integers presented by a
number of the atomic weights of the elements when hydrogen
is taken as unity, he remarked, " II faut croire qu'il y a quelque
chose la-dessous." In connexion with the poisoning of Count
Hippolyte de Bocarme with nicotine in 1850 Stas worked out a
method for the detection of the vegetable alkaloids, which,
modified by Friedrich Julius Otto (1809-1870), professor of
chemistry at Brunswick, has been widely used by toxicologists
as the Stas-Otto process.
STASINUS, of Cyprus, according to some ancient authorities
the author of the Cypria (in 1 1 books), one of the poems belonging
to the epic cycle. Others ascribed it to Hcgesias (or Hegesinus)
of Salamis or even to Homer himself, who was said to have
written it on the occasion of his daughter's marriage to Stasinus.
The Cypria, presupposing an acquaintance with the events
of the Homeric poem, confined itself to what preceded, and
thus formed a kind of introduction to the Iliad. It contained
an account of the judgment of Paris, the rape of Helen, the
abandonment of Philoctetes on the island of Lemnos, the
landing of the Achaeans on the coast of Asia, and the first
engagement before Troy. It is probable that the list of the
Trojans and their allies (Iliad, ii. 816-876), which formed an
appendix to the catalogue of the Greek ships, is abridged from
that in the Cypria, which was known to contain a list of the
Trojan allies. Proclus, in his Chrestomathia, gave an outline
of the poem (preserved in Photius, cod. 239).
See F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cyclus (1862); D. B. Monro,
Appendix to his edition of Odyssey, xiii.-xxiv. (1901); T. W. Allen,
"The Epic Cycle," in Classical Quarterly (Jan. 1908, sqq.); and
CYCLE.
STASSFURT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, and one of the chief scats of the German salt -pro-
ducing industry, situated on both sides of the Bode, 20 m. S.W.
of Magdeburg by the railway to Aschersleben. Pop. (1905),
18,310. It is still surrounded in part by the ruins of its ancient
walls, but, with the exception of the parish church of St John
(ijth century), there are no buildings worthy of special notice.
Although saline springs are mentioned here as early as the
i3th century, the first attempt to bore for salt was not made
until 1839, 'while the systematic exploitation of the salt-beds,
to which the town is indebted for its prosperity, dates only from
1856. The shafts reached deposits of salt at a depth of 850 ft.,
but the finer and purer layers lie more than noo ft. below the
surface. Besides the rock-salt, which is excavated by blasting,
the saline deposits of Stassfurt yield a considerable quantity
of deliquescent salts and other saline products, which have
encouraged the foundation of numerous chemical factories in
the town and in the neighbouring village of Leopoldshall, which
lies in Anhalt territory. The rock-salt works are mainly govern-
ment property, while the chemical factories are in private
hands.
See Precht, Salzinduslrie von Stassfurt und Umgebung (Stassfurt,
1891) ; and Westphal, Ceschichte des koniglichen Salzwerks zu Stassfurt
(Berlin, 1901).
STATE. As currently employed in that department of
political science which concerns itself, not with the relations
of separate political entities, but with the political e /y n #; on
composition of society as a whole, the word state
expresses the abstract idea of government in general, or the
governing authority as opposed to the governed, and is thus
used by Herbert Spencer in all his discussions of government
and society. Louis XIV.'s " l'6tat, c'est moi," Rousseau's
theory of the "contrat social," Bastiat's "donne a 1'etat le
strict necessaire et garde le reste pour toi," all imply this opposi-
tion. Hobbes regards the state, or, as he calls it, the common-
wealth, as " one person for whose acts a great multitude by
8oo
STATE
mutual covenants, one with another, have made themselves
very one the author, to the end he may use the means and
strength of them all as he shall think expedient for their peace
and common defence."
The term is also used to distinguish the civil from the ecclesi-
astical authority in countries where they are or have been in
conflict.
A large number of definitions and classifications, according
to political structure, international status, national homogeneity,
&c., have been attempted, but it is beyond the scope of a short
article to do more than mention these different senses of a word
so variously employed.
In international law the term has a more precise meaning,
according to which the state is the external personality or
Attributes outward agency of an independent community.
la later- In its fullest form its attributes are: (a) possession
national o f sovereign power to pledge the community in its
relations with other similarly sovereign communities,
(b) independence of all external control, and (c) dominion over
a determinate territory. In practice, however, there are still
incomplete forms of states which join in the international life
of states, paramount states whose relations to subordinate
parts of their empire are in a condition of uncertainty, and
there is, at any rate, one body carrying on international state
intercourse without dominion over any territory at all. Thus,
Great Britain, has diplomatic relations, purely formal though
they may be, with several of the subordinate states forming
the German Empire. Egypt, while legally under the suzerainty
of the Porte, is practically a British protectorate. Great
Britain treats Cyprus as a dependency, though she is in mere
occupation of the island for the purpose of carrying out certain
reforms for the protection of Christians. Austria-Hungary
considered herself in the same position, though she occupied
Bosnia and Herzegovina " without affecting the rights of
sovereignty of his majesty the Sultan on those provinces."
Though Bulgaria, by the Treaty of Berlin, was an " autonomous
and tributary principality under the suzerainty of his imperial
majesty the Sultan," Turkey did not consider her suzerainty
to involve her in the war of 1885 between her vassal and Servia.
The Roman Catholic Church has permanent diplomatic relations
as an independent state, though it has no independent territory
against which international rights can be enforced. We saw
in the Boer War the army of an annexed community wandering
from place to place recognized as a belligerent with whom Great
Britain negotiated as an independent state.
A new and somewhat shadowy form of suzerainty is growing
up in the " paramountcy " first enunciated (with the concurrence
of Great Britain) by the President of the United States in 1823
(see MONROE DOCTRINE), asserted with a certain measure of
success against Great Britain in 1896 (see VENEZUELA, also
ARBITRATION), and proclaimed formally by the United States
at the Hague peace conference in 1899 as a condition of her
.signature of the Peace Convention. While the Spanish republics
of Central and South America are recognized in international
law as sovereign states, they can only be said to fulfil the condi-
tions of absolute independence subject to the limitations which
the Monroe Doctrine has placed upon their treaty-making
powers with Europe. 1
1 Great Britain, in acceding to the arbitration imposed by Presi-
dent Cleveland, has, in the opinion of a number of American and
Continental publicists, recognized the Monroe Doctrine. See
Chretien, Pnncipes; De Beaumarchais, La Doctrine de Monroe;
De Bustamente, Le Canal de Panama et le droit international;
De Pressense', " La Doctrine de Monroe et le conflit anglo-
ameYicain," Revue des deux mondes (1896); also the writings of
Ridgway, W. L. Scruggs, Sibley and G. F. Tucker, and the Annales de
iurisprudencia (Colombia), June 1897 and following numbers. M
Pradier-Fode're', Professor of International Law at Lyons University,
and formerly professor of the University of Lima, observes that
" En declarant que la grande re'publique am6ricaine consideYerait
comme dangereuse pour sa tranquillity et sa s6curit6 toute tentative
de la part des puissances europeennes d'etendre leur systime
politique & une partie quekonque du continent ameYicain, il (le
prdsident) s'est mg!6 indirectement des affaires inteYieures des
republiques du Nouveau Monde, autres que les Etats Unis; il a fait
" In constitutional law, the state," says a leading English
authority, " is the power by which rights are created and
maintained, by which the acts and forbearances
necessary for their maintenance are habitually aa< icoa-
enforced " (Anson, Law and Custom of the Constilu- tiaeatal
tion, pt. i. p. 2). In France, where the state embraces Co0 '
a hierarchy of bodies and authorities culminating in cep '
the president of the republic, whose acts are the final form of a
series of incomplete acts of the members of the hierarchy, it
comes nearer to the theoretical meaning of the word. In Great
Britain the sovereign power of the state is diffused among a
number of authorities which have rights against each other and
stand in independent relation towards the individual citizens.
Actions can be brought by private citizens in the ordinary law
courts against individual authorities, and there is no system of
hierarchical responsibility which prevents a state official from
being personally accountable for his administrative conduct.
In A. V. Dicey's admirable Introduction to the Study of the Law
of the Constitution, this distinction between the French, or, as
we should rather call it, continental system of entire subordi-
nation of the organs to the state as a whole, and the less logical
British system is dwelt upon. " Few things," he observes,
" are more instructive than the examination of the actions
which have been brought in Great Britain against officers for
retaining ships about to proceed to sea. Under the Merchant
Shipping Act 1876 the board are open to detain any ship
which, from its unsafe and unseaworthy condition, is a serious
danger to human life." " Most persons would suppose that the
officials of the board of trade, so long as they- bona fide and
without malice or corrupt motive endeavour to carry out the
provisions of the statute, would be safe from action at the hands
of a shipowner. This, however, is not so. The board and its
officers have more than once been sued with success. They
have never been accused of either malice or negligence, but the
mere fact that the board acts in an administrative capacity
is not a protection to the board; nor is mere obedience to the
orders of the board an answer to an action against its servants "
(P- 324).
In England, we may say, the notion of state, from the constitu-
tional point of view, is still inchoate, but the play of international
intercourse seems to be gradually leading to a clearer conception
of the fact that an increasing national responsibility requires
a corresponding increase in the power of co-ordinate state
control. An instance of its absence is shown by the loose way
in which the British Crown has granted governing powers to
chartered companies (see RAID). This uncertainty applies as
much to the United States-as to Great Britain. In the Louisiana
lynching riots, of which some Italian citizens were the victims,
it was contended that the United States government was not
responsible, and that the responsibility fell upon the government
of Louisiana alone. This contention could not be pressed, and
compensation was of course paid to Italy. Similar difficulties
arose in connexion with the Japanese school question in Cali-
fornia. The subject is well known to have raised apprehension
as to the adequacy of the United States system to meet its
centralized state responsibilities.
Another, and, in some respects, more dangerous feature of
an inchoate conception of state responsibility is the growing
apart, so to speak, of certain British dependencies. The British
state, for international purposes, is the British Empire, for
domestic purposes it is the United Kingdom. Any limb of
the former's huge body can have interests different from those of
the United Kingdom, and involve its responsibility. A signifi-
cant step towards concentration of liability and control was
taken by the Australian colonies in the federation brought about
by the Commonwealth Act of 1900. Under this act, by the way,
an element of confusion has been created by the application of
the term " state " to the federating colonies. Section 6 of the act
provides " the states " shall mean such of the colonies of New
de 1'intervention par anticipation et au profit de 1'Union; car,
c'est d'intervenir que d'interdire aux autres gouvernements
d'intervenir."
STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF STATEN ISLAND 80 1
South Wales, New Zealand, Queensland, Tasmania, Victoria,
West Australia and South Australia as for the time being
are parts of the Commonwealth, and such colonies or territories
as may be admitted into or established by the Commonwealth
as states; and each of such parts of the Commonwealth shall be
called " a state." " Original states " shall mean " such states
as are parts of the Commonwealth at its establishment." Fol-
lowing out this distinction between the Commonwealth and
the states, articles 106 to 124 of the Commonwealth constitution
deal with the respective positions of the Commonwealth, the
original states, and the new states. Article 109 in particular
provides that " when a law of a state is inconsistent with the
law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the
former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid," thus
paving the way for the ultimate consolidation of the federal
power.
Much has been written on the " science " of the state, or,
as we prefer, in Anglo-Saxon lands, to call it, " political science."
In Germany the subject is dealt with as an independent branch
of university education. Several of her universities
Science have a staatswissenschaftliche Facultat, granting a
special degree in the subject. In consequence of
the great attention paid to the subject in Germany, her state
polity has been largely the work of her political writers. The
result has not unnaturally tended to a system bearing some
resemblance to that of the American Union, with this very
important difference, however, that whereas in the United
States the federal power is derived from the democratic forces
of the individual states, in Germany it is derived from their
aristocratic and absolutist forces. German political thinkers,
in fact, have worked out Staatsrecht as a comparative study,
in which arguments in favour of absolute government have
received as much careful consideration as those in favour of
democratic institutions, and the German state has developed
upon lines based on the best theoretical arguments of these
thinkers. There is, therefore, no anomaly in its practically
absolutist government working out the most democratic reforms
as yet put into legislative form. It follows, however, that
German theories are of little use in the consideration of the state
problems with which British and American political thinkers
have to deal. Anglo-Saxon institutions are following their
independent development, and if the influence of foreign institu-
tions is felt at all, it is probably that of the clear logical detail
and cohesion of French institutions.
AUTHORITIES. Rehm, Geschichteder Staatsrechtswissenschaft(i&<)6) ,
Allgemeine Staatslehre (1899); R. von Mohl, Geschichte und Litteratur
der Staatswissenschaften (1855-1858); Hildebrand, Geschichte
und System der Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie (1866); Gierke, Das
deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht (1881); I. F. Stahl, Die Staatslehre
und die Principien des Staatsrechts (1870); Bluntschli, Geschichte
des allgemeinen Staatsrechts und der Politik (1867); Lehre
vom modernen Staate (1884-1885), i., ii.; Politik^ (1876); Seydel,
Grundziige der allgemeinen Staatslehre (1873); Lingg, Empirische
Untersuchungen zur allgemeinen Staatslehre (1890); Bornhak,
Allgemeine Staatslehre (1896); Jellinek, Recht des modernen Staates
(1900); R. Schmidt, Allgemeine Staatslehre (1901); von Treitschke,
Politik (1898); Laband, Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, 2 Bde.
(1895); Haenel, Deutsches Staatsrecht (1892); Janet, Histoire de la
science politique (1887); Boutmy, Etudes de droit constitutional
(1899); Combothecra, La Conception juridique de I'etat (1899);
Esmein, Elements de droit constitutional francais et Stranger (1899);
Hauriou, Precis de droit administralif et de droit public general
(1900); Le Fur, Etat federal et confederation d'etats (1896); Henry
Michel, L'Idee de I'etat (1896); Michaud, " De la Responsabilit6 de
l'6tat it raison des fautes de ses agents," Revue du droit public et
de la science politique (1895); Fillet, Recherches sur les droits fonda-
mentaux des etats dans I'ordre des rapports internationaux (1899);
Fabreguettes, Societe, etat, patrie (1898); Dalloz, Repertoire du
droit fran$ais, t. 21, p. 37; Amos, Science of Politics (1883); Green,
Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation (1895); Pollock,
Introduction to the History of the Science of Politics (1890; 3rd ed.,
1900) ; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (3rd ed., pt. i.,
1897); Holland, Jurisprudence (loth ed., 1906); Dicey, Introduction
to the study of the Law of Constitution (5th ed., 1897); Ilbert, Legis-
lative. Methods and Forms (1901); Kovalevsky, Russian Political
Institutions (Chicago, 1902). (T. BA.)
STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF, a designation popularly
applied to all the principal ministers of the British Crown, but
xxv. 26
strictly applicable only to the lord high steward, the lord high
chancellor, the lord high treasurer, the lord-president of the
(privy) council, the lord (keeper of the) privy seal, the lord great
chamberlain, the lord high constable, the earl marshal, and the
lord high admiral. Of these, three the lord chancellor, the
lord-president of the council, and the lord privy seal the first
and second are always, and the third almost always, cabinet
ministers. The offices of two more those of the lord treasurer
and the high admiral are now executed by commission, the
chief of the lords commissioners, known severally as the first
lord of the treasury and the first lord of the admiralty, being
likewise members of the cabinet, while the first lord of the
treasury is usually at the head of the government. But, although
it has become the rule for the treasury and the admiralty to be
put in commission, there is nothing except usage of longer or
shorter duration to prevent the Crown from making a personal
appointment to either of them, and the functions which formerly
appertained to the lord treasurer and the high admiral are still
regularly performed in the established course of the national
administration. The four offices of the high steward, the great
chamberlain, the high constable, and the earl marshal stand on
a different footing, and can be regarded at the present day as
little else than survivals from an earlier condition of society.
They have practically ceased to have any relation to the ordinary
routine of business in the country or of ceremonial in the palace,
and the duties associated with them have either passed entirely
into abeyance or are restricted within extremely narrow limits,
save on certain occasions of exceptional pomp and solemnity.
All of them were once hereditary, and, taking the three kingdoms
together, they or their counterparts and equivalents continue
to be held by right of inheritance in one or other of them even
now. These and the more important foreign great offices
of state are all dealt with under their proper headings, and other
information will be found in the articles CABINET, MINISTRY,
PRIVY COUNCIL, TREASURY, and HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL.
On the subject of the great offices of state generally, see Stubbs,
Constitutional History, ch. xi.; Freeman, Norman Conquest, ch.
xxiv. ; Gneist, Constitution of England, ch. xvi., xxv. and liv.; also
Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. liii., and Bryce, Holy Roman Empire,
ch. xiv.
STATEN ISLAND, an island constituting the borough of
Richmond, New York City, and Richmond county, the southern-
most of the counties of the state of New York. It is separated
from Long Island on E. by the Narrows which connect Upper
and Lower New York Bay; from New Jersey on the N. by the
narrow channel of Kill van Kull which connects New York Bay
with Newark Bay; and from New Jersey on the W. by the
narrow channel of Staten Island Sound or Arthur Kill; and on
its S.E. coast are Lower New York, Raritan and Prince's Bays,
Great Kills, and. the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1890), 51,693;
(1900), 67,021; (1905), 72,845; (1910), 85,969. Staten Island is
connected by ferry with the borough of Manhattan, 5 m. distant,
and with Perth Amboy, New Jersey. The Staten Island Rapid
Transit railway extends along the north shore and the south-east
side, and there are several electric lines and pleasant drives.
The island is triangular in shape, is 135 m. long from north-east to
south-west, has a maximum width of nearly 8 m. at its north end,
and has an area of about 70 sq. m. The north-east quarter is
broken by two ranges of hills having a precipitous east slope
and rising to a maximum height of about 400 ft., i m. inland
from the Narrows; but on the west and south the hills fall gently
to the Coastal Plain, which, occupying the greater part of the
island, is broken only by low morainal ridges and terminates
in salt marshes along much of the west coast. There are many
species of forest trees and more than 1300 species of flowering
plants and ferns. The climate is subject to sudden changes,
but the temperature rarely rises above 90 F. or falls below zero.
The island is chiefly a residential district, and in the picturesque
hill section are many fine residences. Forts Wadsworth and
Tompkins commanding the passage of the Narrows constitute
one of the strongest defences of New York Harboi. The
principal villages are New Brighton, West New Brighton, Port
Richmond, Stapleton, and Tompkinsville on the north coast,
8oa
STATE RIGHTS
and Tottenville (or Bentley Manor) on the south-west coast.
Richmond, the county-seat since 1727, is a small village near
the centre of the island. South Beach, below the Narrows, is a
popular seaside resort. At West New Brighton is a large dyeing
establishment, there are also ship-building yards, oyster fisheries,
and truck farms, and among the maufactures are linoleum,
paper, white lead, linseed oil, brick, and fire-clay products.
When discovered by Europeans Staten Island was occupied
by the Aquehonga Indians, a branch of the Raritans, and
several Indian burying-grounds, places where wampum was
manufactured, and many Indian relics, including a stone head
with human features, have been found here. In 1630 the
Dutch West India Company granted the island to Michael
Pauw as a part of his patroonship of Pavonia, and it was bought
at this time from the Indians for " some duffels, kettles, axes,
hoes, wampum, drilling awls, Jew's harps, and divers other
small wares "; but before Pauw had established a settlement
upon it he sold his title back to the company. A portion of
it was regranted to David Pietersen de Vries in 1636 and in
1642 the remainder was erected into a patroonship and granted
to Cornelis Melyn. In 1641 de Vries established a settlement
at Oude Dorp (Old Town), near Arrochar Park, near South
Beach. It was destroyed by the Indians in the same year, was
immediately rebuilt, was again destroyed in 1642 and was again
rebuilt, but was abandoned after its destruction for the third
time in 1655. A company of Waldenses founded a second
settlement in 1658, at Stony Brook, about 2 m. west of the ruins
of Oude Dorp; this was the principal village for many years
and from 1683, when the island was erected into a county, until
1727 it was the county-seat. Melyn surrendered his rights
as a patroon in 1661 and during the remainder of the Dutch
regime many small grants of land were made to French, Dutch,
and English settlers. In 1664 the duke of York became pro-
prietor of the newly erected province of New York and by his
grant in the same year to Berkeley and Carteret of all that
portion which lay west of the Hudson river, Staten Island
became properly a part of New Jersey, but in 1668 the duke
decided that all islands within New York Bay which could be
circumnavigated in twenty-four hours should be adjudged to
New York. Captain Christopher Billopp made the trip within
the time limit and was rewarded with a grant of 1163 acres at
the south end of the island. He erected this into the Manor of
Bentley and the manor house, built about this time, still stands
in the village of Tottenville. It was in this house that Lord
Howe on the nth of September 1776 held a peace conference
with Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge
representing the Continental Congress. The British army under
Sir William Howe landed at the Narrows on the 3rd of July 1777
and until the close of the war Staten Island was held by the
British and Loyalists. From it the British made frequent
predatory raids into New Jersey and the Americans made
several retaliatory raids into the island. Under the direction
of General Hugh Mercer some American troops reached Rich-
mond on the morning of the i6th of October 1776, and in an
engagement which immediately followed they were victorious;
but, as they were retreating with their prisoners, British rein-
forcements arrived and in a second engagement at Fresh Kill
(now Green Ridge) they were routed with considerable loss.
A second raid was made against Richmond early in August 1777:
and on the 22nd of the same month American troops under
General John Sullivan fought the British at several places,
inflicted a loss of about 200 killed, wounded and prisoners and
destroyed considerable quantities of stores. In the War of
1812 Fort Richmond was built at the Narrows and Fort Tompkins
in the rear of it. The Federal government bought the site in
1847 and after destroying the old forts began the erection of the
present works. In 1898 Staten Island became the borough of
Richmond in Greater New York.
See I. K. Morris, Memorial History of Staten Island (2 vols.,
New York, 1808-1900); R. M. Bayles, History of Richmond County
(New York, 1887); and J. J. Clute, Annals of Staten Island (New
York, 1877).
STATE RIGHTS, a term used generally in political science
to denote those governmental rights which belong to the indi-
vidual states of a federal union, there being a certain sphere of
authority in which these individual states may act without
interference from the central government. Thus in the United
States there were certain rights reserved to themselves by the
states when forming the union under the constitution of 1787.
These rights the central government is by fundamental law bound
to respect, and they can be reduced only by amendment to the
constitution. For a thousand years the various German states
were so jealous of any curtailment of their individual rights
as to prevent the formation of an efficient federal government;
in Austria-Hungary the larger states still jealously guard their
liberties. In federal unions, such as Mexico and Brazil where
a central authority existed first and created the states, the
belief in state rights is much weaker than it is in unions composed
of originally independent states. The rights of a state are
said to be delegated when, as in Mexico, Brazil and Colombia,
the constitution is created by a central national authority
which also makes the states; state rights are residuary when
independent states unite to delegate by a constitution certain
powers to a central government, as in the case of the German
Empire, Austria-Hungary, the United States, Switzerland,
and until 1905, Sweden-Norway. History shows that states
forming, unions of the second class are certain in after time to
deny or assert that the sovereignty of the state is one of the
rights reserved, according as the state belongs to a stronger or
weaker section or faction; state sovereignty being the defence
of the weaker state or faction, and being denied by the stronger
group of states which controls the government and which
asserts that a new sovereign state was created by a union of the
former independent ones. This dispute is usually ended by
civil war and the destruction of state sovereignty. The evolu-
tion of state rights as shown in the history of the United States,
is typical. Thirteen independent states formed a union in
1787 under a constitution reserving certain rights to the states.
The sphere of the state authority embraced most of the powers,
of government, except, for instance, those relating to foreign
affairs, army and navy, inter-state commerce, coinage and the
tariff; the powers of the central government were specified in
the fundamental law. Most of the states claimed at one time
or another that sovereignty was one of the reserved rights of
the states and on this theory the Southern states acted in the
secession in 1861. The war that resulted destroyed all claims
of state sovereignty. The other rights of the states consisted
of those not delegated to the central government or forbidden
to the states by the constitution. In case of doubt the presump-
tion was in favour of the state. Since the beginning, however,
the central government has gained strength at the expense
of the states, seldom by direct usurpation (except during the
Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861-76), but indirectly through
use and custom, as the country and people developed and new
conditions of government arose. The field of state rights
had not increased, while centralization has slowly but surely
taken place. This centralization is shown not only by the
increased power and activity of the Federal government as
compared with the state governments, but in the change in
popular opinion indicated by the use of the terms National,
Union, &c., where formerly Confederate, Federal, &c., were used,
and in the use of singular verbs after the words Congress and the
United States, where formerly they were followed by plural
verbs.
The central authority in the United States, formerly almost
unheard of by the average citizen, now touches him in many
of the activities of life and sometimes intrudes even into the
domain of local self-government. The history of the decay
of state rights makes it seem doubtful if the federal form of
government is a permanent one, or is only a transient form
between independent state governments or loose confederacies
and a centralized national government.
See J. W. Burgess, Political Science and Comparative Constitutional
Law (New York, 1895); Woodrow Wilson, The State (new ed.,
STATES-GENERAL
803
New York, 1903) ; A. H. Stephens, Constitutional View of the War
Between the States (Philadelphia, 1868-1870); and A. L. Lowell,
Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (Boston, 1896).
STATES-GENERAL, the English translation of (i) the
tals-Generaux of France before the Revolution, (2) the Staten-
Generaal of the Dutch Netherlands. The name in both cases
signifies, whatever the ultimate divergence in character of the
two bodies, the assembly of the representatives of the various
estates of the realm, called together for purposes of legislation
or deliberation.
The French States-General. In France the States-General
owed their origin to the same causes which produced the Parlia-
ment of England, the Cortes of Spain, the Diet of the Holy
Roman Empire and the Diets (Landtage) of the states of Ger-
many, and they resembled these assemblies in their constitution.
In these countries the royal or ducal power, when it began to
extend its scope, found itself limited by the feudal system and
had to turn to the forces of feudalism to obtain from them
aid and counsel, i.e. pecuniary assistance and moral support.
Instead of treating severally with the local representatives
of these forces the ruler found it useful and convenient to enter
into contact with them as a whole, treating with them through
their principal representatives.
In France these conditions led in 1302 to a general assembly
consisting of the chief lords, both lay and ecclesiastical, and the
representatives of the principal privileged towns, which were
like distinct lordships. There had, of course, been certain pre-
cedents before 1302 which had, as it were, paved the way for
this institution; the representatives of the principal towns had
several times been convoked by the king, and under Philip III.
there had been assemblies of nobles and ecclesiastics in which
the two orders had deliberated separately. It was the dis-
pute between Philip IV. the Fair and Boniface VIII. which led
to the States-General of 1302; the king of France desired that,
in addition to the officers of the Crown, the principal authorities
of the country should come and testify solemnly that they
were at one with the king in this serious crisis. The letters
summoning the assembly of 1302 are published by M. Georges
Picot in his collection of Documents inedils pour sermr a I'hisloire
de France. In 1302 the States-General had been called upon
only to give counsel to the king; but during the same reign they
were several times assembled to give him aid, i.e. to grant him
subsidies, and in course of time this came to be the most frequent
motive of their convocation.
In one sense the composition and powers of the States-
General have always been the same. They have always in-
cluded representatives of the clergy, nobility and third estate,
and they have always been summoned either to grant subsidies
or to advise the Crown, to give aid and counsel. Their composi-
tion, however, as well as their effective powers, have varied
greatly at different times.
In their primitive form, i.e. in the i4th and the first half of
the isth centuries, the States-General had only a limited elective
element. The lay lords who appeared therein were not elected,
but directly chosen and summoned by the king, and the same
was the case with the prelates, bishops and clergy, who were
summoned qud ecclesiastical lords. In the order of the clergy,
however, since certain ecclesiastical bodies, e.g. abbeys and
chapters of cathedrals, were also summoned to the assembly,
and as these bodies, being persons in the moral but not in the
physical sense, could not appear in person, their representative
had to be chosen by the monks of the convent or the canons
of the chapter. It was only the representation of the third
estate which was furnished by election. Originally, moreover,
the latter was not called upon as a whole to seek representation
in the estates. It was only the bonnes miles, the privileged
towns, which were called upon. They were represented by
elected procureurs, who were frequently the municipal officials
of the town, but deputies were often elected for the purpose.
The country districts, the plat pays, were not represented.
It was during the last thirty years of the i6th century that
the States-General became an entirely elective body and really
representative of the whole nation as divided into three parts.
This was brought about by various causes. On the one hand,
the nobles and prelates who were summoned were not always
inclined to attend the estates, so had themselves represented
by an envoy, a procureur, as they had the right to do, and fre-
quently the lords or prelates of the same district chose the same
procureur to represent them. On the other hand, the Crown
seems at that time to have felt the need of having the con-
sent of representatives really expressing the will and feelings
of all the orders, and especially of the third estate as a whole.
The letters of summons to the States-General of 1484 invited
the ecclesiastics, nobles and third estate in general, to meet at
the chief town of their bailliage or senechaussee and elect deputies.
An intermediate form had been employed in 1468 when the
prelates and lords had still been summoned personally, but the
towns had each elected three deputies, an ecclesiastic, a noble
and a burgess.
At the estates of 1484 there seems to have been universal
and direct suffrage for all the three orders. But the roturiers
of the country districts could not in practice avail themselves
of this power; so the country communities and small towns
spontaneously elected delegates to represent them at the elec-
toral assembly. Thus a system of indirect election arose for
the third estate which became confirmed and subsequently con-
tinued to be used. To a certain extent there were sometimes
more than two degrees in the suffrage; the delegates nominated
by the country communities would gather together with the
electors chosen by the neighbouring little town, and appoint
with them new delegates to represent them at the electoral
assembly of the bailliage. This ultimately became the system.
For the clergy and nobles the suffrage remained direct; but as
a rule only such ecclesiastics were admitted to the assembly
of the bailliage as possessed a benefice, and only such lords as
had a fief.
The effective powers of the States-General likewise varied in
the course of time. In the i4th century they were actually
great. The king could not, in theory, levy general taxation.
Even in the provinces attached to the domain of the Crown, he
could only levy it where he had retained the haute justice
over the inhabitants, but not on the subjects of lords having
the haute justice. The privileged towns had generally the right
of taxing themselves. In order to obtain general taxes, the
king had to obtain the consent of the lay and ecclesiastical lords
and of the towns; this amounted to obtaining the authorization
of the States-General, which only granted these subsidies
temporarily for a fairly short period. The result was that they
were summoned fairly frequently and that their power over the
Crown might be considerable.
But in the second half of the i4th century certain royal taxes
levied throughout the whole of the domain of the Crown, tended
to become permanent, and independent of the vote of the estates.
This sprang from many causes, but from one in particular; the
Crown endeavoured by transforming and changing the nature
of the " feudal aid " to levy a general tax by right, on its
own authority, in such cases as those in which a lord could
demand feudal aid from his vassals. For instance, it was in
this way that the necessary taxes were raised for twenty years
to pay the ransom of King John without a vote of the States-
General, although they met several times during this period.
Custom confined this tendency. Thus during the second half
of the 1 5th century the chief taxes, the tattle, aids and gabellc
became definitely permanent for the benefit of the Crown,
sometimes by the formal consent of the States-General, as
in 1437 in the case of the aids. The critical periods of the
Hundred Years' War had been favourable to the States-General,
though at the price of great sacrifices. Under the reign of
King John they had had for a few years, from 1355 to 1358,
not only the voting, but through their commissaries, the
administration of and jurisdiction over the taxes. In the
first half of the reign of Charles VII. they had been summoned
almost every year and had patriotically voted subsidies. And
when the struggle was over they renounced, through weariness
STATES-GENERAL
and a longing for peace, their most precious right, the power
of the purse.
At the estates of 1484, however, after the death of Louis XI.,
there was a kind of awakening. The deputies of the three orders
united their efforts in perfect harmony in the hope of regaining
the right of periodically sanctioning taxation. They voted
the laille for two years only, at the same time reducing it
to the amount which it had reached at the end of the reign of
Charles VII. They even demanded, and obtained, the promise
of the Crown that they should be summoned again before the
expiry of the two years. But the promise was not kept, and
we do not find the States-General summoned again till 1560.
There was then a first interruption of 76 years in the working
of the institution, while the absolute monarchy was establishing
itself. But there was a revival of its activity in the second
half of the i6th century caused by the scarcity of money and
the quarrels and wars of religion. The estates of Orleans in
1560, followed by those of Pontoise in 1561, and those of Blois
in 1576 and 1588 were most remarkable for the wisdom, courage
and efforts of the deputies, but on the whole were lacking in
effect. Those of 1 588 were ended on a regular coup d'etat effected
by Henry III., and the States summoned by the League, which
sat in Paris in 1593 and whose chief object was to elect a Catholic
king, were not a success. The States-General again met in Paris
in 1614, on the occasion of the disturbances which followed the
death of Henry IV.; but though their minutes bear witness to
their sentiments of exalted patriotism, the dissensions between
the three orders rendered them weak and they were dissolved
before having completed their work, not to be summoned again
till 1789.
As to the question whether the States-General formed one
or three chambers for the purposes of their working, from the
constitutional point of view the point was never decided.
What the king required was to have the consent, the resolution
of the three estates of the realm; it was in reality of little import-
ance to him whether their resolutions expressed themselves in
common or separately. At the States-General of 1484 the
elections were made in common for the three orders, and the
deputies also arrived at their resolutions in common. But after
1560 the rule was that each order should deliberate separately;
the royal declaration of the 23rd of June 1789 even stated that
they formed three distinct chambers. But Necker's report
to the conseil du roi according to which the convocation of 1789
was decided, said (as did the declaration of the 23rd of June),
that on matters of common interest the deputies of the three
orders could deliberate together, if each of the others decided
by a separate vote in favour of this, and if the king consented.
The working of the States-General led to an almost exclusive
system of deliberation by committee, as we should say nowa-
days. There were, it is true, solemn general sessions, called
seances royales, because the king presided; but at these there
was no discussion. At the first, the king or his chancellor
announced the object of the convocation, and set forth the
demands or questions put to them by the Crown; at the other
royal sessions each order made known its answers or observations
by the mouth of an orateur elected for the purpose. But almost
all useful work was done in the sections, among which the depu-
ties of each order were divided. At the estates of 1484 they
were divided into six nations or sections, corresponding to the
six generalites then existing. Subsequently the deputies belong-
ing to the same gouvernement formed a group or bureau for
deliberating and voting purposes. Certain questions, however,
were discussed and decided in full assembly; sometimes, too,
the estates nominated commissaries in equal numbers for each
order. But in the ancient States-General there was never any
personal vote. The unit represented for each of the three
orders was the bailliage or senechaussee and each bailliage had
one vote, the majority of the deputies of the bailliage deciding
in what way this vote should be given. At the estates of the
i6th century voting was by gouvernements, each gouvernement
having one vote, but the majority of the bailliages composing
the gouvernement decided how it should be given.
The States-General, when they gave counsel, had in theory
only a consultative faculty. They had the power of granting
subsidies, which was the chief and ordinary cause of their
convocation. But it had come to be a consent with which the
king could dispense. We have seen how permanent taxation
became established. In the i6th century, however, the estates
again claimed that their consent was necessary for the establish-
ment of new taxation, and, on the whole, the facts seem to be
in favour of this view at the time. But in the course of the i7th
century the principle gained recognition that the king could
tax on his own sole authority. Thus were established in the
second half of the i7th century, and in the i8th, the direct
taxes of the capitation and of the dixieme or vinglieme, and
many indirect taxes. It was sufficient for the law creating them
to be registered by the cours des aides and the parlements
It was only in 1787 that the parlement of Paris declared that
it could not register the new taxes, the land-tax and stamp-
duty (subvention territoriale and impot du timbre), as they did
not know whether they would be submitted to by the country,
and that the consent of the representatives of the tax-payers
must be asked.
The States-General had legally no share in the legislative
power, which belonged to the king alone. The States of Blois
demanded, it is true in 1576, that he should be bound to turn
into law any proposition voted in identical terms by each of the
three orders; but the king would not grant this demand, which
would not even have left him a right of veto. In practice,
however, the States-General contributed largely to legislation.
Those who sat in them had at all times the right of presenting
complaints (doleances), requests and petitions to the king; in
this, indeed, consisted their sole initiative. They were usually
answered by an ordonnance, and it is chiefly through these
that we are acquainted with the activity of the estates of the
1 4th and isth centuries. In the latest form, and from the
estates of 1484 onwards, this was done by a new and special pro-
cedure. The States had become an entirely elective assembly,
and at the elections (at each step of the election if there were
several) the electors drew up a cahier des doleances (statement
of grievances) which they requested the deputies to present;
this even appeared to be the most important feature of an
election. The deputies of each order in every bailliage also
brought with them a cahier des doleances, which was arrived at,
for the third estate, by a combination of the statements drawn
up by the primary or secondary electors. On the assembly
of the estates the cahiers of the bailliages were incorporated into
a cahier for each gouvernement, and these again into a cahier
general or general statement, which was presented to the king,
and which he answered in his council. When the three orders
deliberated in common, as in 1484, there was only one cahier
general; when they deliberated separately, there were three,
one for each order. The drawing up of the cahier general was
looked upon as the main business (le grand oiuvre) of the session.
By this means the States-General furnished the material
for numerous ordonnances, though the king did not always adopt
the propositions contained in the cahiers, and often modified
them in forming them into an ordonnance. These latter were
the ordonnances de reforme (reforming ordinances), treating
of the most varied subjects, according to the demands of the
cahiers. They were not, however, for the most part very well
observed. The last of the type was the grande ordonnance of
1629 (Code Michau) drawn up in accordance with the cahiers of
1614 and with the observations of various assemblies of notables
which followed them.
The States-General had, however, peculiar power which was
recognized, but was of a kind that could not often be exer-
cised; it was what might be called a constituent power. The
ancient public law of France contained a number of rules called
" the fundamental laws of the realm (lois fondamentales du
royaume), though most of them were purely customary; chief
among them were the rules of determining the succession to the
Crown and those forbidding the alienation of the domain of
the Crown. The king, supreme though his power might be.
STATES OF THE CHURCH
805
could not abrogate, modify or infringe them. But it was
admitted that he might do so by the consent of the States-
General. The States could give the king a dispensation from a
fundamental law in a given instance; they could even, in agree-
ment with the king, make new fundamental laws. The States
of Blois of 1576 and 1588 offer entirely convincing precedents
in this respect. It was universally recognized that in the event
of the line of Hugh Capet becoming extinct, it would be the func-
tion of the States-General to elect a new king.
The States-General of 1614 had been the last. A new con-
vocation had indeed been announced to take place on the
majority of Louis XIV., and letters were even issued in view of
the elections, but this ended in nothing. Absolute monarchy
was becoming definitely established, and was incompatible with
the institution of the States-General. Liberal minds, however,
in the entourage of the duke of Burgundy, who were preparing
a new plan of government in view of his accession to the throne,
thought of reviving the institution. It figures in the projects
of St Simon and Fenelon, though the latter would have preferred
to begin with an assembly of non-elected notables. But though
St Simon was high in the favour of the regent Orleans, the
States were not summoned at the death of Louis XIV.
In 1789 they were summoned. They were preceded, as
Fenelon had wished in former days, by an assembly of notables
in 1787, which already displayed great independence. It was
the refusal of the parlement of Paris to register the fiscal edicts
submitted to the Notables which led to the convocation of the
States-General. The Notables, who had sat in 1787, were again
summoned in 1788 to inquire into and fix the rules for the elec-
tions and the procedure of the States. Necker, in the Memoire
which he submitted to the conseil du roi in December 1788,
granted for these States the doublement du tiers, i.e. that the
third estate should have a number of deputies equal to that
of the deputies of the other two orders combined, this is what
had happened previously in the few provincial assemblies
created by Necker during his first administration and in those
created by an edict of 1787 for all the pays d' elections. But
Necker's report, as to the subject of deliberating separately
(par ordre) or in common, simply referred to the ancient prin-
ciples; and he seems also to have proposed to maintain the
system of voting by bailliages. Now the doubling of the tiers
could yield it no real advantage unless the deliberation was in
common and the voting by individuals, and it was this question
which from the 6th of May 1789 onwards was the subject of the
separate deliberations and negotiations between the three
orders. On the I3th of June the third estate had arrived at a
resolution to examine and settle in common the powers of the
three orders, and invited to this common work those of the
clergy and nobles. Certain of the latter and the majority of
the clergy joined the tiers, and on the i7th of June it arrived
at the celebrated decision by which it affirmed the principle
of the national supremacy residing in the mass of the nation;
the deputies, without any distinction of order, constituted a
national assembly, which assembly was called upon to regenerate
France by giving her a constitution, while the royal power
(which in reality became provisional) could not negative its
decisions. The king tried to resist. In the seance royale of
the 23rd of June 1789, where he took the attitude of granting
a charts octroyee (a constitution granted of the royal favour), he
affirmed, subject to the traditional limitations, the right of
separate deliberation for the three orders, which constitutionally
formed three chambers. We know how this move failed; soon
that part of the deputies of the nobles who still stood apart
joined the National Assembly at the request of the king. The
States-General had ceased to exist, having become the National
Constituent Assembly, though it consisted of the deputies
elected by the order.
See G. Picot, Hisloire des 6tats-g6neraux (2nd ed., Paris, 1888).
(J. P. E.)
The Dutch States-General. In the Netherlands the convoca-
tion of the States-General, consisting of delegates from the
provincial estates, dates from about the middle of the
century, under the rule of the dukes of Burgundy The name
was transferred, after the separation of the northern Nether-
lands from the Spanish dominions, to the representatives
elected by the seven sovereign provincial estates for the general
government of the United Provinces. The States-General, in
which the voting was by provinces each province having one
vote was established from 1593 at the Hague. The States-
General came to an end after the revolution in 1795, with the
convocation of the National Assembly (March i, 1796). See
HOLLAND (History). The title of Staten-Generaal is, however,
still borne by the Dutch parliament. (W. A. P.)
STATES OF THE CHURCH, or PAPAL STATES (Ital. Stato
della Chiesa, Stato Pontifico, Stato Romano, Stato Ecclesiastico;
Fr. tats de I'Eglise, Pontifical Souverain de Rome, &c. ; Ger.
Kirchenstaat; in ecclesiastical Latin often Patrimonium Sancti
Petri), that portion of central Italy which, previous to the unifica-
tion of the kingdom, was under the direct government of the
see of Rome. The territory stood in 1859 as in the annexed
table.
With the exception of Benevento, surrounded by the Nea-
politan province of Principato Ulteriore, and the small state
of Pontecorvo, enclosed within the Terra di Lavoro, the States
of the Church formed a compact territory, bounded on the N.W.
by the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, on the N.E. by the Adriatic,
on the S.E. by the kingdom of Naples, on the S.W. by the
Mediterranean, and on the W. by the grand-duchy of Tuscany
and the duchy of Modena. On the Adriatic the coast extended
140 m. from the mouth of the Tronto (Truentus) to the
southern mouth of the Po, and on the Tyrrhenian Sea 130 m.
from 41 20' to 42 22' N. lat.
Area in
English sq. m.
Population
in 1853.
Comarca of Rome
1752-8
326,509
.
Bologna
1359-2
375,631
c
Ferrara
1094-0
2 44,524
o
Forli
718-8
218,433
(0 '
bo
0)
} i
Ravenna
Urbino, with Pesaro .
701-5
1414-6
175,994
257,751
: Velletri
571-3
62,013
Ancona
441-8
176,519
Macerata
895-0
243,104
Camerino
320-0
42,991
Fermo
335-7
110,321
E/>
El
Ascoli
476-3
91,916
_O
Perugia
1555-5
234,533
1a<
Spoleto
"75-9
135,029
JU
Rieti
531-7
73,683
"o3
Viterbo
1158-9
128,324
Orvieto
316-6
29,047
Civita Vecchia ....
380-0
20,701
Frosinone, with Pontecorvo .
739-9
154,559
Benevento
61-3
23,176
16,000-8
3,124,758
The divisions shown above were adopted on the 2ist of
December 1827, the legations being ruled by a cardinal and the
delegations by a prelate. Previously the several districts formally
recognized were Latium, the Marittima (or sea-board) and
Campagna, the patrimony of Saint Peter, the duchy of Castro,
the Orvietano, the Sabina, Umbria, the Perugino, the March of
Ancona, Romagna, the Bolognese, the Ferrarese, and the
duchies of Benevento and of Pontecorvo. The former papal
territories are now comprised within the Italian provinces of
Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, Ravenna, Pesaro and Urbino, Ancona,
Macerata, Ascoli-Piceno, Perugia, Rome and Benevento.
The question of the origin of the territorial jurisdiction of the
pope is treated under PAPACY. With the moral and ecclesiastical
decay of the papacy in the gth and loth centuries much of its
territorial authority slipped from its grasp; and by the middle of
the nth century its rule was not recognized beyond Rome and the
immediate vicinity. By the treaty of Sutri (February mi)
Paschal II. was compelled by the emperor Henry V. to surrender
all the possessions and royalties of the Church ; but this treaty was
soon afterwards repudiated, and by the will of Matilda, countess
of Tuscany, the papal see was enabled to lay claim to new territories
8o6
STATE TRIALS STATISTICS
of great value. By the capitulation of Neuss (1201) the emperor
Otto IV. recognized the papal authority over the whole tract from
Radicofani in Tuscany to the pass of Ceperano on the Neapolitan
frontier the exarchate of Ravenna, the Pentapolis, the March of
Ancona, the bishopric of Spoleto, Matilda's personal estates, and the
countship of Brittenoro; but a good deal of the territory thus
described remained for centuries an object of ambition only on the
part of the popes. The actual annexation of Ravenna, Ancona,
Bologna, Ferrara, &c., dates from the i6th century. The States
of the Church were of course submerged for a time by the ground-
swell of the French Revolution, but they appeared again in 1814.
In 1849 they received a constitution. On the formation of the king-
dom of Italy in 1860 they were reduced to the Comarca of Rome,
the legation of Velletri, and the three delegations of Viterbo, Civita
Vecchia and Frosinone; and in 1870 they disappeared from the
political map of Europe. See ITALY : History.
STATE TRIALS, in English law, a name which primarily
denotes all trials relating to offences against the state, but in
practice is often used of cases illustrative of the law relating
to state officers or of international or constitutional law. The
first collection of accounts of state trials was published in 1719
in four volumes. Although without an editor's name, it appears
that Thomas Salmon (1679-1767), an historical and geographical
writer, was responsible for the collection. A second edition,
increased to six volumes, under the editorship of Sollom Emlyn
(1697-1754), appeared in 1730. This edition contained a
lengthy preface critically surveying the condition of English
law at the time. A third edition appeared in 1742, in eight
volumes, the seventh and eighth volumes having been added
in 1835. Ninth and tenth volumes were added in 1766, and
a fourth edition, comprising ten volumes, with the trials arranged
chronologically, was published the same year. A fifth edition,
originated by William Cobbett, but edited by Thomas Bayly
Howell (1768-1815) and known as Cobbett's Complete Collection
of State Trials, was published between 18039 an d 1826. This
edition is in thirty-three volumes; twenty-one of them, giving
the more important state trials down to 1781, were edited by
T. B. Howell, and the remaining volumes, bringing the trials
down to 1820, by his son Thomas Jones Howell (d. 1858). A
new series, under the direction of a parliamentary committee,
was projected in 1885, with the object of bringing the trials
down to a later date. Eight volumes were published in 1888-
1898, bringing the work down to 1858. The first three of these
were edited by Sir J. Macdonell, the remaining five by J. E. P.
Wallis. Selections have also been edited by H. L. Stephen
and others. The trials are invaluable not only for their
reports of criminal cases, in which the whole course of criminal
procedure and evidence may be traced, but for their historical
information.
STATICS (from Gr. root ara.-, stand, or cause to stand), the
branch of mechanics which discusses the conditions of rest or
equilibrium of forces (see MECHANICS).
STATIONERY, a term embracing all the various articles
sold by " stationers," who were originally booksellers having
" stations " or stands in markets, near churches or other build-
ings for the sale of their goods (see BOOKSELLING for the further
history of the word). The stationers were formed into a gild
in 1403, the Livery Company not being incorporated till 1556.
At the hall of the company in London, " Stationers' Hall,"
is kept a book for the registration of copyrights (see COPYRIGHT).
The " Stationery Office " is a British government department
which supplies stationery to parliament and the government
offices and generally controls the printing required by them.
Under the name of stationery are now included all writing
materials and implements, together with the numerous appli-
ances of the desk and of mercantile and commercial offices.
The principal articles and operations of the stationery trade
are dealt with under such headings as BOOKBINDING; COPYING
MACHINES; INK; LITHOGRAPHY; PAPER; PEN; and PENCIL.
STATIONS OFi THE CROSS, a series of 14 pictures or images
representing the closing scenes in the Passion of Christ, viz.
(i) the condemnation by Pilate, (2) the reception of the cross,
(3) Christ's first fall, (4) the meeting with His mother, (5) Simon
of Cyrene carrying the cross, (6) Veronica wiping the face of
Jesus, (7) the second fall, (8) the exhortation to the women of
Jerusalem, (9) the third fall, (10) the stripping of the clothes,
(u) the crucifixion, (12) the death, (13) the descent from the
cross, (14) the burial. Sometimes a i5th the finding of the
cross by Helena is added; on the other hand in the diocese
of Vienna, the stations were at the end of the i8th century
reduced to eleven. They form a very popular item in Roman
Catholic devotion. The representations are usually ranged
round the church; sometimes they are found in the open air,
especially on the ascent to some elevated church or shrine.
The devotion began among the Franciscans, who, as the
guardians of the holy places in Jerusalem, sought by this means
to enable Christians to make a pilgrimage at least in spirit.
Pope Innocent XII. in 1694 declared that the indulgences
granted for visiting Palestine might be gained by members of
the order who, simply visiting the stations of the cross wherever
represented, exercised a devout meditation as they passed from
station to station. These indulgences were extended by Bene-
dict XIII. in 1726 to all the faithful, and Clement XII. five
years later granted the privilege to churches other than Francis-
can, provided the stations were erected by a Franciscan. In
1857 the Roman Catholic bishops in England received faculties,
renewed quinquenially, permitting them to erect the stations
with the accompanying indulgences, and they often delegate
this faculty to priests.
STATISTICS. The word " statistic " is derived from the
Latin status, which, in the middle ages, had come to mean a
" state " in the political sense. " Statistic," therefore, originally
denoted inquiries into the condition of a state. Since the
i8th century the denotation of the word has been extended,
while at the same time its scope has become more definite,
and may now be said, for all practical purposes, to be fixed.
History. The origin of what is now known as " statistics "
(Ger. die Statistik; Fr. la statistique; Ital. statistica) can only
be referred to briefly here. As human societies became more
and more highly organized, there can be no doubt that a very
considerable body of official statistics must have come into
existence, and been constantly used by statesmen, solely with a
view to administration. The Romans were careful to obtain
accurate information regarding the resources of the state, and
they appear to have taken the census with a regularity which
has hardly been surpassed in modern times.
Statistics, or rather the material for statistics, therefore
existed at a very early period, but it was not until within the
last three centuries that systematic use of the information
available began to be made for purposes of investigation and
not of mere administration. A volume compiled by Francesco
Sansovino, entitled Del Governo et amministrazione di diversi
regni et repuUiche, was printed in Venice and bears the date
1583. Other works of a similar kind were published towards
the end of the i6th century in Italy and France. Works on
state administration and finance continued to be published
during the first half of the I7th century, and the tendency
to employ figures, which were hardly used at all by Sansovino,
became more marked, especially in England, where the facts
connected with " bills of mortality " had begun to attract
attention.
G. Achenwall is usually credited with being the first to use the
word " statistics," but statistics, in the modern sense of the word,
did not really come into existence until the publication (1761) by
J. P. Siissmilch, a Prussian clergyman, of a work entitled
Die gottliche Ordnung in den Veranderungen des menschlichen
Geschlechts aus der Geburt, dem Tode, und der Fortpflanzung
desselben erunesen. In this book a systematic attempt was made
to make use of a class of facts which up to that time had been
regarded as belonging to " political arithmetic," under which
description some of the most important problems of what modern
writers term " vital statistics " had been studied, especially in
England. Siissmilch had arrived at a perception of the advan-
tage of studying what Quetelet subsequently termed the " laws
of large numbers." He combined the method of " descriptive
statistics " with that of the " political arithmeticians," who had
confined themselves to investigations into the facts regarding
STATISTICS
807
mortality and a few other similar subjects, without much
attempt at generalizing from them.
Political ariLhmetic had come into existence in England
in the middle of the lyth century. The earliest example
of this class of investigation is the work of Captain John
Graunt of. London, entitled Natural and Political Annota-
tions made upon the Bills of Mortality, which was first published
in 1666. This remarkable work, which dealt with mortality
in London only, ran through many editions, and the line of
inquiry it suggested was followed up by various other writers,
of whom the most distinguished was Sir William Petty, who
published in 1683 his Five Essays in Political Arithmetick.
Other writers, of whom Halley, the celebrated mathematician
and astronomer, was one, entered on similar investigations,
and during the greater part of the i8th century the number of
persons who devoted themselves to " arithmetical " inquiries
into problems of the class now known as statistical was steadily
increasing. Much attention was given to the construction
of tables of mortality. Attempts were also made to deal
with figures as the basis of political and fiscal discussion by
Arthur Young, Hume and other historical writers, as well as by
the two Mirabeaus.
It is now necessary to return to Siissmilch, who, as already
mentioned, endeavoured to form a general theory of society,
based on what were then termed " arithmetical " premises.
In modern language, he made use of quantitative aggregate-
observation as an instrument of social inquiry. It is true he
did not enter on his investigation' with an " open mind." He
desired to support a foregone conclusion, as the title of his work
shows. But nevertheless his work was a most valuable one, since
it pointed out a road which others who had no desire to procure
evidence in favour of a particular system of thought were not
slow to follow. Although for many years after the appear-
ance of Siissmilch 's book there was a good deal of resistance
to the introduction of " arithmetic " as the coadjutor of moral
and political investigations, yet, practically there was a tacit
admission of the usefulness of figures, even by the chiefs of the so-
called " descriptive " school. On the other hand, Siissmilch's suc-
cess was the origin of a ^mathematical" school of statisticians,
some of whom carried their enthusiasm for figures so far
that they refused to allow any place for mere " descriptions "
at all. These two schools have now coalesced, each admitting
the importance of the point of view urged by the other. They
were, however, still perceptibly distinct even as late as 1850, and
the ignorant hostility with which many people even among the
cultivated classes still regard statistical inquiries into the nature
of human society may be regarded as a survival of the much
stronger feeling which showed itself among " orthodox " pro-
fessors of law and economics on the publication of Siissmilch's
treatise.
To the impulse given by the great Belgian, Quetelet, must be
attributed the foundation in 1834 of the Statistical Society of
London, a body which, though it has contributed little to the
theory of statistics, has had a considerable influence on the
practical work of carrying out statistical investigations in
the United Kingdom and elsewhere. Quetelet was above
all things an exponent of the " laws of large numbers." He
was especially fascinated with the tendency to relative con-
stancy of magnitude displayed by the figures of moral statistics,
especially those of crime, which inspired him with a certain
degree of pessimism. His conception of an average man
(I'homme moyen) and his disquisition on the " curve of possibility "
were most important contributions to the technical development
of the statistical method.
The influence exercised by Quetelet on the development
of statistics is clearly seen from the fact that, though there is
still considerable controversy among statisticians, the old
controversy between the " descriptive " and arithmetical
schools has disappeared, or perhaps we should say has been
transformed into a discussion of another kind, the question now
at issue being whether there is a science of statistics as well as
a statistical method. It is true that a few books were published
between 1830 and 1850 in which the politico-geographical
description of a country is spoken of as " statistics," which is
thus distinguished from " political arithmetic." The title of
Knies's great work, Die Slalistik als selbstandige Wissenschaft
(Cassel, 1850), is especially noteworthy as showing that the
nature of the controversy was changing. Knies claimed
that the really " scientific " portion of statistics consisted of
the figures employed. As Haushofer says, " his starting point
is political arithmetic."
Some eminent statisticians of the latter half of the igth
century accepted the view of Knies, but the majority of modern
writers on the theory of statistics, especially in Germany, have
adopted a slightly different standpoint according to which
statistics is at once a science relating to the social life of man
and a method of investigation applicable to all sciences. This
view was ably maintained by von Mayr, Haushofer, Gabaglio
and Block, whose views, published fifteen to twenty years before
the close of last century, still substantially represent the opinions
held by the majority of statisticians in Germany, and probably
on the European continent. In France, however, several writers
of importance have recently published works on the subject
in which, in spite of the influence of M. Block, the claim of
statistics to be considered as an independent sociological science
has been rejected. There has been little systematic exposition
of the subject in the United Kingdom. Isolated dicta have been
furnished by authorities on the practice of statistics, such as
the late Dr W. A. Guy, Professor J. K. Ingram, Sir Rawson W.
Rawson, Sir Robert Giffen and others, Professor Foxwell has
lectured on statistics at University College, London. The
most important English work dealing with the matter is that
of Mr A. L. Bowley. His volume, Elements of Statistics (first
published in 1901), is intended as a practical handbook for
teaching the principles on which statistics should be handled.
The nature of Mr Bowley's book is, indeed, an indication
of the fact that in the United Kingdom the study of statistics
has been, in the main, of a practical character, the in-
vestigation of the theoretical basis of the statistical method
attracting little interest. On the other hand, numerous mono-
graphs have been published by English writers on particular
points connected with the technique of statistical investigation,
as was natural considering the excellence of the practical use
made of statistics in the United Kingdom.
With regard to the few earlier invasions of the domain of
theory attempted by English writers, it may be observed that
the authorities above mentioned were not unanimous. Dr
Guy as well as Sir Rawson W. Rawson both claim that statistics
is to be regarded as an independent science, apart from sociology,
while Professor Ingram maintained that statistics cannot
occupy a position co-ordinate with that of sociology, and
that they " constitute only one of the aids or adminicula
of science." Sir Robert Giffen has also expressed himself
adversely to the continental doctrine that there is an in-
dependent science of statistics, and this opinion appears to
be the correct one, but, as Dr Guy and Sir Rawson W. Rawson
had the support of the great body of systematic teaching emana-
ting from distinguished continental statisticians in support of
their view, while their opponents have so far only the obiter
dicta of a few eminent men to rely upon, it appears needful to
examine closely the views held by the continental authorities,
and the grounds on which they are based.
The clearest and shortest definition of the science of statistics
as thus conceived is that of M. Block, who describes it as " la
science de I'homme vivant en societe en tant qu'elle peut 6tre
exprimee par les chiffres." He proposes to give a new name
to the branch of study thus defined, namely " demography."
Von Mayr's definition is longer. He defines the statistical
science as " die systematische Darlegung und Erorterung der
thatsachlichen Vorgange und der aus diesen sich ergebendcn
Gesetze des gesellschaf tlichen menschlichen Lebens auf Grundlage
quantitativer Massenbeobachtungen " (the systematic statement
8o8
STATISTICS
and explanation of actual events, and of the laws of man's
social life that may be deduced from these, on the basis of the
quantitative observation of aggregates). Gabaglio's view is
practically identical with those adopted by von Mayr and Block,
though it is differently expressed. He says " statistics may be
interpreted in an extended and in a restricted sense. In the
former sense it is a method, in the latter a science. As a
science it studies the actual social-political order by means of
mathematical induction." Most German writers on the subject
have endorsed the views of Block and von Mayr. Among them
may be mentioned Professors J. Conrad, Lexis and Westergaard,
but Dr Augst Meitzen of Berlin, a second edition of whose
Geschichte, Theorie und Technik der Statistik was published in
1903, makes a much less wide claim. In France opinions are
divided, Professors Andre Liesse and Fernand Faure and others
accepting the view that statistics is essentially a method.
This discussion regarding the nature of statistics is to a large
extent a discussion about names. There is really no difference
of opinion among statistical experts as to the subject-matter of
statistics, the only question being Shall statistics be termed a
science as well as a method ? That there are some investigations
in which statistical procedure is employed which certainly
do not belong to the domain of the supposed statistical science
is generally admitted. But, as already shown, an attempt has
been made to claim that the phenomena of human society, or
some part of those phenomena, constitute the subject-matter
of an independent statistical science. It is not easy to see why
this claim should be admitted. There is no reason either of
convenience or logic why the use of a certain scientific method
should be held to have created a science in one department of
inquiry, while in others the said method is regarded merely as
an aid in investigation carried on under the superintendence
of a science already in existence. It is impossible to get over
the fact 'that in meteorology, medicine, and other physical
sciences statistical inquiries are plainly and obviously examples
of the employment of a method, like microscopy, spectrum
analysis, or the use of the telescope. Why should the fact of
their employment in sociology be considered as authorizing
the classification of the phenomena thus dealt with to form a
new science ?
The most effective argument put forward by the advocates
of this view is the assertion that statistics are merely a conve-
nient aid to investigation in the majority of sciences, but are the
sole method of inquiry in the case of sociology. When, indeed,
it is tested by reference to the important class of social facts
which are named economic, it becomes obvious that the argu-
ment breaks down. Economics is a branch the only scientific-
ally organized branch of sociology, and statistics are largely
used in it, but no one, so far as we are aware, has proposed to call
economics a department of statistical science.
Although, however, the above considerations forbid the
acceptance of the continental opinion that the study of man in
the social state is identical with statistics, it must be admitted
that without statistics the nature of human society could never
become known. For society is an aggregate, or rather a congeries
of aggregates. Not only that, but the individuals composing
these aggregates are not in juxtaposition, and what is, from the
sociological point of view, the same aggregate or organ of the
" body politic " is not always composed of the same individuals.
Constancy of social form is maintained concurrently with the
most extensive changes in the collocation and identity of the
particles composing the form. A " nation " is really changed,
so far as the individuals composing it are concerned, every
moment of time by the operation of the laws of population.
But the nation, considered sociologically, remains the same
in spite of this slow change in the particles composing it, just
as a human being is considered to be the same person year by
year, although year by year the particles forming his cr her
body are constantly being destroyed and fresh particles substi-
tuted. Of course the analogy between the life of a human being
and the life of a human community must not be pressed too far.
Indeed, in several respects human communities more nearly
resemble some of the lower forms of animal life than the more
highly organized forms of animal existence. There are organ-
isms which are fissiparous, and when cut in two form two fresh
independent organisms, so diffused is the vitality of the original
organism; and the same phenomenon may be observed in regard
to human communities. ."'
Now the only means whereby the grouping of the individuals
forming a social organism can be ascertained, and the changes
in the groups year by year observed, is the statistical method.
Accordingly the correct view seems to be that it is the function
of this method to make perceptible facts regarding the consti-
tution of society on which sociology is to base its conclusions. It
is not claimed, or ought not to be claimed, that statistical inves-
tigation can supply the whole of the facts a knowledge of which
will enable sociologists to form a correct theory of the social life
of man. The statistical method is essentially a mathematical
procedure, attempting to give a quantitative expression to
certain facts; and the resolution of differences of quality into
differences of quantity has not yet been effected, even in chemical
science. In sociological science the importance of differences
of quality is enormous, and the effect of these differences on
the conclusions to be drawn from figures is sometimes neglected,
or insufficiently recognized, even by men of unquestionable
ability and good faith. The majority of politicians, social
" reformers " and amateur handlers of statistics generally are in
the habit of drawing the conclusions that seem good to them
from such figures as they may obtain, merely by treating as
homogeneous quantities which are heterogeneous, and as com-
parable quantities which are not comparable. Even to the
conscientious and intelligent inquirer the difficulty of avoiding
mistakes in using statistics prepared by other persons is very
great. There are usually " pit-falls " even in the simplest
statistical statement, the position and nature of which are known
only to the persons who have actually handled what may be
called the " raw-material " of the statistics in question; and in
regard to complex statistical statements the " outsider " cannot
be too careful to ascertain from those who compiled them as
far as possible what are the points requiring elucidation.
The Statistical Method. This method is a scientific procedure
(i) whereby certain phenomena of aggregation not perceptible
to the senses are rendered perceptible to the intellect, and (2)
furnishing rules for the correct performance of the quantitative
observation of these phenomena. The class of phenomena of
aggregation referred to includes only such phenomena as are
too large to be perceptible to the senses. It does not, e.g.
include such phenomena as are the subject-matter of micro-
scopy. Things which are very large are often quite as difficult
to perceive as those which are very small. A familiar example
of this is the difficulty which is sometimes experienced in finding
the large names, as of countries or provinces, on a map. Of
course, the terms " large," " too large," " small " and " too
small " must be used with great caution, and with a clear com-
prehension on the part of the person using them of the standard
of measurement implied by the terms in each particular caste.
A careful study of the first few pages of De Morgan's Differential
and Integral Calculus will materially assist the student of statis-
tics in attaining a grasp of the principles on which standards
of measurement should be formed. It is not necessary that
he should become acquainted with the calculus itself, or even
possess anything more than an elementary knowledge of mathe-
matical science, but it is essential that he should be fully con-
scious of the fact that " large " and " small " quantities can
only be so designated with propriety by reference to a common
standard. It is also necessary that he should be acquainted
with the theory of probability as applied to statistical investi-
gations, the need of which is well set forth by Mr A. L. Bowley
in Part II. of his work, already referred to, and by other writers.
Valuable instruction on this technical subject can be obtained
from monographs by Professor F. Y. Edgeworth, Professor Karl
Pearson, Dr John Venn, Mr Udney Yule and many other
contributors to the Transactions of the Royal Society, the
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, the Economic Journal,
STATISTICS
809
the Quarterly Journal of Economics and similar publications in
different countries.
Sources whence Statistics are Derived. The term " statistics "
in the concrete sense means systematic arrangements of figures
representing " primary statistical quantities." A primary statis-
tical quantity is a number obtained from numbers representing
phenomena, with a view to enable an observer to perceive a certain
other phenomenon related to the former as whole to parts. They
represent either a phenomenon of existence at a given point of time
or a phenomenon of accretion during a given period. As examples
may be mentioned the number of deaths in a given district during a
given time, the number of pounds sterling received by the London &
North Western railway during a given time, and the number
of " inches of rain " that fell at Greenwich during a given time.
Other examples are the number of tons of pig-iron lying in a par-
ticular store at a given date, the number of persons residing (the
term " residing " to be specially defined) in a given territory at a
given date, and the number of pounds sterling representing the
"private deposits" of the Bank of England at a given date.
Primary statistical quantities are the result of labours carried
on either (A) by governments or (B) by individuals or public or
private corporations.
A Government Statistics. I. A vast mass of statistical material
of more or less value comes into existence automatically in modern
states in consequence of the ordinary administrative routine of
departments. To this class belong the highly important statistical
information published in England by the registrar-general, the
returns of pauperism issued by the local government board, the
reports of inspectors of prisons, factories, schools, and those of
sanitary inspectors, as well as the reports of the commissioners of
the customs, and the annual statements of trade and navigation
prepared by the same officials. There are also the various returns
compiled and issued by the board of trade, which is the body most
nearly resembling the statistical bureaus with which most foreign
governments are furnished. Most of the government departments
publish some statistics for which they are solely responsible as
regards both matter and form, and they are very jealous of their
right to do so, a fact which is to some extent detrimental to that
uniformity as to dates and periods which should be the ideal of a
well-organized system of statistics. Finally may be mentioned the
very important set of statistical quantities known as the budget,
and the statistics prepared and published by the commissioners of
inland revenue, by the post office, and by the national debt com-
missioners. All these sets of primary statistical quantities arise
out of the ordinary work of departments of the public service.
Many of them have been in existence, in some form or other, ever
since a settled government existed in the country. There are
records of customs receipts at London and other ports of the time
of Edward III., covering a period of many years, which leave
nothing to be desired in point of precision and uniformity. It may be
added that many of these sets of figures are obtained in much the
same form by all civilized governments, and that it is often possible
to compare the figures relating to different countries and thus obtain
evidence as to the sociological phenomena of each, but in regard to
others there are differences which make comparison difficult.
2. Besides being responsible for the issue of what may be called
administration statistics, all governments are in the habit of
ordering from time to time special inquiries into special subjects
of interest, either to obtain additional information needful for
administrative purposes, or, in countries possessed of representative
institutions, to supply statistics asked for by parliaments or con-
gresses. It is not necessary to refer particularly to this class of
statistical information, except in the case of the census. This is
an inquiry of such great importance that it may be regarded as one
of the regular administrative duties of governments, though as the
census is only taken once in a series of years it must be mentioned
under the head of occasional or special inquiries undertaken by
governments. In the United Kingdom the work is done by the
registrars-general who are in office when the period for taking the
census comes round. On the Continent the work is carried out
by the statistical bureaus of each country except France, where
it is under the supervision of the minister of the interior. The
new regulations as to income-tax assessment and the new land
taxes will furnish the government with much fresh information
as to incomes; and the census of production ordered in the
session of 1907 and already carried out as regards a number of
trades will also be useful.
B. The primary statistical quantities for which individuals or
corporations are responsible may be divided into three categories:
1. Among those which are compiled in obedience to the law of
the land are the accounts furnished by municipal corporations, by
the Bank of England, by railway, gas, water, banking, insurance
and other public companies making returns to the board of trade,
by trades unions, and by other bodies which are obliged to make
returns to the registrar of friendly societies. The information
thus obtained is published in full by the departments receiving it,
and is also furnished by the companies themselves to their pro-
prietors or members.
2. An enormous mass of statistical information is furnished
xxv. 26 a
voluntarily by public companies in the reports and accounts
which, in accordance with their articles of association, are pre-
sented to their proprietors at stated intervals. With these statistics
may be classed the figures furnished by the various trade associa-
tions, some of them of great importance, such as Lloyd's, the
London Stock Exchange, the British Iron Trade Association, the
London Corn Exchange, the Institute of Bankers, the Institute
of Actuaries, and other such bodies too numerous to mention.
3. There are cases in which individuals have devoted themselves
with more or less success to obtaining original statistics on special
points. The great work done by Messrs Behm and Wagner in
arriving at an approximate estimate of the population of the earth
does not belong to this category, though its results are really primary
statistical quantities. Many of these results have not been arrived
at by a direct process of enumeration at all, but by ingenious
processes of inference. It need hardly be said that it is not easy
for individuals to obtain the materials for any primary statistical
quantity of importance, but it has been done in some cases with
success. The investigations of Mr Charles Booth into labour and
wages questions, carried out with care over many years, are a
remarkable example of this.
Operations Performed on Primary Statistical Quantities. Only
a brief description of matters connected with the technique of the
statistical method can be given in this article. In order to form
statistics properly so called the primary statistical quantities must
be formed into tables, and in the formation of these tables lies the
art of the statistician. It is not a very difficult art when the
principles relating to it have been properly grasped, but those who
are unfamiliar with the subject are apt to underrate the difficulty
of correctly practising it.
Simple Tables. The first thing to be done in the construction
of a table is to form a clear idea of what the table is to show, and
to express that idea in accurate language. This is a matter which
is often neglected, and it is a source of much waste of time and
occasionally of misapprehension to those who have to study the
figures thus presented. No table ought to be considered complete
without a " heading " accurately describing its contents, and it is
frequently necessary that such headings should be rather long. It
has been said that " you can prove anything by statistics." This
statement is, of course, absurd, taken absolutely, but, like most
assertions which are widely believed, it has a grain of truth in it.
If this popular saying ran " you can prove anything by tables with
slovenly and ambiguous headings," it might be assented to without
hesitation. The false " statistical " facts which obtain a hold of
the public mind may often be traced to some widely circulated
table, to which, either from stupidity or carelessness, an erroneous
or inaccurate " heading " has been affixed.
A statistical table in its simplest form consists of " primaries "
representing phenomena of the same class, but existing at different
points of time, or coming into existence during different portions
of time. This is all that is essential to a table, though other things
are usually added to it as an aid to its comprehension. A table
stating the number of persons residing in each county of England
on a given day of a given year, and also, in another column, the
corresponding numbers for the same counties on the corresponding
day of the tenth year subsequently, would be a simple tabular
statement of the general facts regarding the total population of
those counties supplied by two successive censuses. Various
figures might, however, be added to it which would greatly add to
its clearness. There might be columns showing the increase or
decrease for each county and for the whole kingdom during the
ten years, and another column showing what proportion, expressed
in percentages, these increases or decreases bore to the figures for
the earlier of the two years. Then there might be two columns,
showing what proportions, also expressed as percentages, the
figures for each county bore in each year to the figures for the
whole kingdom. The nine-column table thus resulting would
still be simple, all the figures being merely explicit assertions of
facts which are contained implicitly in the original " primaries."
Complex Tables. Suppose now we have another table precisely
similar in form to the first, and also relating to the counties of
England, but giving the number of houses existing in each of them
at the same two dates. A combination of the two would form a
complex table, and an application of the processes of arithmetic
would make evident a number of fresh facts, all of which would be
implied in the table, but would not be obvious to most people until
explicitly stated.
The technical work of the statistician consists largely in operations
of which the processes just referred to are types.
Proportions. The most usual and the best mode of expressing
the proportion borne by one statistical quantity to another is to
state it as a percentage. In some cases another method is adopted,
viz. that of stating the proportion in the form " one in so many."
This method is generally a bad one, and its use should be dis-
couraged as much as possible, the chief reason being that the
changing portion of this kind of proportional figure becomes greater
or less inversely, and not directly, as the phenomenon it represents
increases or diminishes.
Averages. Averages or means are for statistical purposes
divided into two classes, the arithmetical and weighted. An
8io
STATISTICS
arithmetical mean is the sum of all the members forming the series
of figures under consideration divided by their number, without
reference to their weight or relative importance among themselves.
A weighted mean is the sum of such figures divided by their
number, with due allowance made for their weight. An example
will make this clear, and the simplest example is taken from a
class of statistical quantities of a peculiar kind, viz. prices. The
price of a given article is the approximate mathematical expression
of the rates, in terms of money, at which exchanges of the article
for money were actually made at or about a given hour on a given
day. A quotation of price such as appears in a daily price list is,
if there has been much fluctuation, only a very rough guide to the
actual rates of exchange that have been the basis of the successive
bargains making up the day's business. But let us suppose that
the closing price each day may be accepted as a fair representative
of the day's transactions, and let us further suppose that we desire
to obtain the average price for thirty days. Now, the sum of the
prices in question divided by thirty would be the arithmetical
mean, and its weak point would be that it made no allowance for
the fact that the business done on some days is much larger than
that done on others; in other words, it treats them as being all of
equal weight. Now if, as is actually the case in some markets,
we have a daily account of the total quantities sold we can weight
the members accurately, and can then obtain their weighted mean.
There, are cases in which the careless use of arithmetical means
misleads the student of the social organism seriously. It is often
comparatively easy to obtain arithmetical means, but difficult to
obtain weighted means. Inferences based on the former class
of average should be subjected to the most rigid investigation.
There are many methods of weighting averages; for descriptions
of these statistical processes the reader must be referred to the works
on the technique of statistics. In chapter v. of Mr Bowley's
volume, the subject is dealt with in a manner suitable for students.
Before closing this short survey of the very important subject of
averages or means, it is needful to discuss briefly the nature of the
phenomena which they may safely be regarded as indicating, when
they have been properly obtained. Given a weighted mean of a
series of numbers referring to no matter what phenomenon, it is
obvious that the value of the mean as a type of the whole series will
depend entirely on the extent of divergence from it of the members of
the series as a body. If we are told that there are in a certain district
1000 men, and that their average height is 5 ft. 8 in., and are told
nothing further about them, We can make various hypotheses
as to the structure of this body from the point of view of height.
It is possible that they may consist of a rather large number of
men about 6 ft. high, and a great many about 5 ft. 5 in. Or the
proportions of relatively tall and short men may be reversed, that
is, there may be a rather large number of men about 5 ft. 4 in.,
and a moderate number of men about 5 ft. 1 1 in. It is also possible
that there may be very few men whose height is exactly 5 ft. 8 in.,
and that the bulk of the whole body consists of two large groups
one of giants and the other of dwarfs. Lastly, it is possible that
5 ft. 8 in. may really give a fair idea of the height of the majority
of the men, which it would do if (say) 660 of them were within an
inch of that height, either by excess or deficiency, while of the re-
mainder one half were all above 5 ft. 9 in. and the other half all
below 5 ft. 7 in. This latter supposition would most likely be
found to be approximately correct if the men belonged to a race
whose average height was 5 ft. 8 in., and if they had been collected
by chance. The extent of the divergence of the items composing
an average from the average itself may be accurately measured
and expressed in percentages of the average, the algebraic signs +
and being employed to indicate the direction of the variation
from the mean. An average may, therefore, advantageously be
supplemented: (l) by a figure snowing what proportion of the
members from which it is derived differs from the average by a
relatively small quantity, and (2) by figures showing the maximum
and minimum deviations from the average. The meaning of the
term " relatively small " must be considered independently in each
investigation. Fuller remarks on averages will be found in the
works mentioned at the conclusion of this article
Prices. Reference has already been made to the peculiar class
of statistical quantities known as prices. Prices in their widest
sense include all figures expressing ratios of exchange. In modern
society the terms of exchange are always expressed in money, and
the things for which money is exchanged are: (l) concrete entities
with physical attributes, such as iron or wheat; (2) immediate
rights, such as those given by interest-bearing securities of all kinds,
by bills of exchange, by railway or steamship contracts to carry
either passengers or goods, and by bargains relative to the foreign
exchanges; (3) contingent rights, such as those implied in policies
of insurance. All these rates of exchange belong to the same
category, whether they are fixed within certain limits by law, as
in the case of railway charges, or are left to be determined by the
" higgling of the market." All these cases of price may con-
ceivably come within the operation of the statistical method, but
the only matter connected with price which it is necessary to refer
to here is the theory of the index number.
Index Numbers. The need for these became conspicuous during
the investigations of Tooke, Newmarch and others into the general
cyclical movements of the prices of commodities; and to construct
a good system of these may be said to be one of the highest technical
aims of the statistical method. In comparing the prices of different
years it was soon observed that, though whole groups of articles
moved upwards or downwards simultaneously, they did not all
move in the same proportion, and that there were nearly always
cases in which isolated articles or groups of articles moved in the
opposite direction to the majority of articles. The problem pre-
sented to statisticians therefore was, and is, to devise a statistical
expression of the general movement of prices, in which all prices
should be adequately represented. The first rough approximation
to the desired result was attained by setting down the percentages
representing the movements, with their proper algebraic signs
before them, and adding them together algebraically. The total
with its proper sign was then divided by the number of articles,
and the quotient represented the movement in the prices of the
whole body of articles during the period under consideration. It
was soon seen, however, that this procedure was fatally defective,
inasmuch as it treated all prices as of equal weight. Cotton weighed
no more than pimento, and iron no more than umbrellas. Accord-
ingly an improvement was made in the procedure, first by giving
the prices of several different articles into which cotton, iron and
other important commodities entered, and only one price each in
the case of the minor articles, and secondly by fixing on the price
of some one article representing iron or cotton, and multiplying
it by some number selected with the view of assigning to these
articles their proper weights relatively to each other and to the
rest. The objection to both these plans is the same that the
numbers attached to the various articles or groups of articles
are purely arbitrary; and attempts have been made to obtain
what may be called natural index numbers, the most successful
so far being that of Sir Robert Giffen, whose index numbers were
obtained from the declared values of the imports or exports into
or from the United Kingdom of the articles whose prices are dealt
with. In the case of both imports and exports Sir Robert worked
out the proportion borne by the value of each article to the total
value for a series of years. Deducting the " unenumerated "
articles, a series of numbers was thus obtained which could be used
as the means of weighting the prices of the articles in an investiga-
tion of a movement of prices. This procedure is no doubt sus-
ceptible of further improvement, like its predecessors. The index
numbers prepared and published every month by the Economist,
and by Mr Augustus Sauerbeck, which are weighted, are of great
value; owing to the frequency of their appearance they make it
possible to watch the tendency of prices closely.
The Desirability of Increased Uniformity in Statistics. One of the
most serious difficulties in connexion with statistical investigations
is the variety of the modes in which primaries of the same order
are obtained, as regards dates and periods. This is a matter of
which all persons who have occasion to use statistics are made
painfully aware from time to time. Some attempts have lately
been made to introduce more harmony into the official statistics
of the United Kingdom, and many years ago a committee of the
treasury sat to inquire into the matter. The committee received
a good deal of evidence, and presented a report, from which, how-
ever, certain members of the committee dissented, preferring to
express their views separately. The evidence will be found, very
interesting by all who wish to obtain an insight into the genesis
of the official statistics of the country.
The International Institute of Statistics. The absence of uni-
formity in statistics which is felt in England is not so marked in
foreign countries, where the principle of centralization in arrange-
ments of a political character is more powerful. In several con-
tinental countries and in the United States there are statistical
bureaus with definite duties to perform. In the United Kingdom,
as already remarked, the nearest approach to a central statistical
office is the commercial and statistical department of the board of
trade, on which the work of furnishing such statistics as are not
definitely recognized as within the province of some other state
department usually falls. Various attempts have been made
to introduce more uniformity into the statistics of all countries.
It was with this object that statistical congresses have met from
time to time since 1853. An endeavour was made at the congress
held in 1876 at Budapest to arrange for the publication of a system
of international statistics, each statistical bureau undertaking a
special branch of the subject. The experiment was, however,
foredoomed to be only a very partial success, first because all
countries were not then and are not yet furnished with central
statistical offices, and secondly because the work which fell on
the offices in existence could only be performed slowly, as the
ordinary business of the offices necessarily left them little leisure for
extra work. In 1885, at the jubilee of the London Statistical
Society, a number of eminent statistical officials from all parts of
the world except Germany were present, and the opportunity was
taken to organize an International Institute of Statistics with a
view to remedying the defects already ascertained to exist in the
arrangements made by the congresses. The only obstacle to secur-
ing a proper representation of all countries was the absence of
any German delegates, none of the official heads of the German
statistical office being allowed to attend apparently on political
STATIUS, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS
811
grounds. Since then assurances of a satisfactory kind have been
given to the German government that their servants would be in
no way committed to any course disapproved by that government
if they gave their assistance to the Institute, from the formation
of which it is hoped that much advantage may result. For in-
formation as to the constitution and objects of the Institute refe-
rence may be made to a paper by the late Dr F. X. von Neumann-
Spallart in vol. i. (1886) of the Bulletin de I'institut international
de statistique (Rome, 1886). Meetings of the Institute have been
held annually ever since its formation in various cities of the world.
LITERATURE. E. Blaschke, Vorlesungen iiber malhematische
Statistik (die Lehre von den statistischen Masszahlen) (Leipzig and
Berlin, 1906) ; Maurice Block, Traite theorique et pratique de statistique
(Paris, 1878); Luigi Bodio, Delia Statistica nei suoi rapporti coll'
economia politica, &c. (Milan, 1869); Arthur L. Bowley, Elements
of Statistics (London, 1901); J. Conrad, " Statistik," Grundriss zum
Studieren der politischen Oekonomie, vierter Teil; (2nd ed., Jena,
1902) (vierter Teil) ; Elderton (W. Palin and Ethel M.), Primer of
Statistics (London, 1910) ; F. Faure, Elements de statistique (Paris,
1906); A. Gabaglio, Sloria e teoria della Statistica (Milan, 1880);
Max Haushofer, Lehr- und Handbuch der Statistik (2nd ed., Vienna,
1882) ; K. Knies, Die Statistik als selbstandige Wissenschaft (Cassel,
1850); A. Liesse, La Statistique (Paris, 1905); R. Mayo-Smith,
Science of Statistics (1895); G. von Mayr, Die Gesetzmassigkeit im
Gesellschaftsleben (Munich, 1877), abridged translation in Journ.
Roy. Stat. Soc. (Sept. 1883); idem, Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre,
pts. i. and ii. (Freiburg, 1897); A. Meitzen, Geschichte, Theorie und
Technik der Statistik (2nd ed., Stuttgart and Berlin, 1903); A.
Buetelet, various works, but especially that entitled Sur I'homme et
developpement de ses facultes, ou Essai de physiqw sociale (Paris,
1837); and Letters on the Theory of Probability; idem, Lettres d
s.a.r. le due regnant de Saxe-Coburg et Gotha sur la theorie des
probabilites (Brussels, 1846); A. C. F. Schaffle, Ban und Leben des
socialen Korpers (Tubingen, 1881), especially pt. ii. pp. 463 seq.,
and pt. iv. pp. 493 sqq. ; Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology
(London, 1877), especially pt. ii. p. 465 seq.; A. Wagner, article
"Statistik," in Buntschli-Brater's Staatsworterbuch, vol. x. ; H.
Westergaard, Die Grundzuge der Theorie der Statistik (Jena, 1890).
(W. Ho.)
STATIUS, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS (c. A.D. 45-96), Latin poet,
was born at Naples. He was, to a great extent, devoted by
birth and training to the profession of a poet. The Statii were
of Graeco-Campanian origin, and were of gentle extraction,
though impoverished, and the family records were not without
political distinctions. The poet's father taught with marked
success at Naples and Rome, and from boyhood to age he proved
himself a champion in the poetic tournaments which formed an
important part of the amusements of the early empire. The
younger Statius declares that his father was in his time equal
to any literary task, whether in prose or verse. Probably
the poet inherited a modest competence and was not under the
necessity of begging his bread from wealthy patrons. He cer-
tainly wrote poems to order (as Sihae, i. i, 2, ii. 7, and iii. 4),
but there is no indication that the material return for them was
important to him, in spite of an allusion in Juvenal's seventh
satire. Of events in the life of Statius we know little. From
his boyhood he was victorious in poetic contests many times
at his native city Naples, thrice at Alba, where he received the
golden crown from the hand of the emperor Domitian. But
at the great Capitoline competition (probably on its third cele-
bration in 94 A.D.) Statius failed to win the coveted chaplet of
oak leaves. No doubt the extraordinary popularity of his
Thebais had led him to regard himself as the supreme poet of
the age, and when he could not sustain this reputation in the
face of rivals from all parts of the empire he accepted the judges'
verdict as a sign that his day was past, and retired to Naples,
the home of his ancestors and of his own young years. We still
possess the poem he addressed to his wife on this occasion (Silv.
iii. 5). There are hints in this poem which naturally lead to the
surmise that Statius was suffering from a loss of the emperor's
favour; he may have felt that a word from Domitian would
have won for him the envied garland, and that the word ought
to have been given. In the preface to book iv. of the Sihae there
is mention of detractors who hated our poet's style, and these
may have succeeded in inducing a new fashion in poetry at court.
Such an eclipse, if it happened, must have cut Statius to the
heart. He appears to have relished thoroughly the role of
court-poet. The statement sometimes made that the elder
Statius had been the emperor's teacher, and had received many
favours from him, so that the son inherited a debt of gratitude,
seems to have no solid foundation. Statius lauds the emperor,
not to discharge a debt, but rather to create an obligation.
His flattery is as far removed from the gentle propitiatory tone
of Quintilian as it is from the coarse and crawling humiliation
of Martial. It is in the large extravagant style of a nature in
itself healthy and generous, which has accepted the theme and
left scruples behind. In one of his prefatory epistles Statius
declares that he never allowed any work of his to go forth
without invoking the godhead of the divine emperor. Statius
had taken the full measure of Domitian's gross taste, and,
presenting him with the rodomontade which he loved, puts
conscience and sincerity out of view, lest some uneasy twinge
should mar his master's enjoyment. But in one poem, that in
which the poet pays his due for an invitation to the Imperial
table, we have sincerity enough. Statius clearly feels all the
raptures he expresses. He longs for the power of him who told
the tale of Dido's banquet, and for the voice of him who sang
the feast of Alcinous, that he may give forth utterance worthy
of the lofty theme. The poet seemed, he says, to dine with
great Jove himself and to receive nectar from Ganymede the cup-
bearer (an odious reference to the imperial favourite Earinus).
All his life hitherto has been barren and profitless. Now only
has he begun to live in truth. The palace struck on the poet's
fancy like the very hall of heaven; nay, Jove himself marvels at
its beauty, but is glad that the emperor should possess such an
earthly habitation; he will thus feel less desire to seek his
destined abode among the immortals in the skies. Yet even so
gorgeous a palace is all too mean for his greatness and too small
for his vast presence. " But it is himself, himself, that my eager
eye has alone time to scan. He is like a resting Mars or Bacchus
or Alcides." Martial too swore that, were Jove and Domitian
both to invite him to dinner for the same day, he would prefer
to dine with the greater potentate on the earth. Martial and
Statius were no doubt supreme among the imperial flatterers.
Each was the other's only serious rival. It is therefore not
surprising that neither should breathe the other's name. Even
if we could by any stretch excuse the bearing of Statius towards
Domitian, he could never be forgiven the poem entitled " The
Hair of Flavius Earinus," Domitian's Ganymede (Silv. iii. 4),
a poem than which it would be hard to find a more repulsive
example of real poetical talent defiled for personal ends. Every-
thing points to the conclusion that Statius did not survive his
emperor that he died, in fact, a short time after leaving Rome
to settle in Naples. Apart from the emperor and his minions,
the friendships of Statius with men of high station seem to have
been maintained on fairly equal terms. He was clearly the
poet of society in his day as well as the poet of the court.
As poet, Statius unquestionably shines in many respects when
compared with most other post-Augustans. He was born with
exceptional talent, and his poetic expression is, with all its faults,
richer on the whole and less forced, more buoyant and more felicit-
ous, than is to be found generally in the Silver Age of Latin poetry.
Statius is at his best in his occasional verses, the Silvae, which
have a character of their own, and in their best parts a charm of
their own. The title was proper to verses of rapid workrranship,
on everyday themes. Statius prided himself on his powers of
improvisation, and he seems to have been quite equal to the feat,
which Horace describes, of dictating two hundred lines in an hour
while standing on one leg. The improvisatore was in high honour
among the later Greeks, as Cicero s speech for the poet Archias
indicates; and the poetic contests common in the early empire did
much to stimulate ability of the kind. It is to their velocity that
the poems owe their comparative freshness and freedom, along with
their loose texture and their inequality. There are thirty-two
poems, divided into five books, each with a dedicatory epistle.
Of nearly four thousand lines which the books contain, more than
five-sixths are hexameters. Four of the pieces (containing about
450 lines) are written in the hendecasyllabic metre, the " tiny
metre of Catullus," and there is one Alcaic and one Sapphic ode.
The subjects of the Silvae are very various. Five poems are
devoted to flattery of the emperor and his favourites; but of these
enough has already been said. Six are lamentations for deaths,
or consolations to survivors. Statius seems to have felt a special
pride in this class of his productions; and certainly, notwithstand-
ing the excessive and conventional employment of pretty mytho-
logical pictures, with other affectations, he sounds notes of pathcs
8l2
STATUTE
such as only come from the true poet. There are oftentimes traits of
an almost modern domesticity in these verses, and Statius, the child-
less, has here and there touched on the charm of childhood in lines
for a parallel to which, among the ancients, we must go, strange to
say, to his rival Martial. One of the epicedia, that on Priscilla
the wife of Abascantus, Domitian's freedman (Silv. v. i), is full of
interest for the picture it presents of the official activity of a high
officer of state. Another group of the Silvae give picturesque
descriptions of the villas and gardens of the poets friends. In
these we have a more vivid representation than elsewhere of the
surroundings amid which the grandees of the early empire lived
when they took up their abode in the country. It was of these
pieces that Niebuhr thought when he said that the poems of Statius
are charming to read in Italy. They exhibit, better even than
Pliny's well-known letters, the passion of the rich Roman for so
constructing his country house that light, air, sun and leafage
should subserve his luxury to the utmost, while scope was left
for displaying all the resources of art which his wealth enabled
him to command. As to the rest of the Silvae, the congratu-
latory addresses to friends are graceful but commonplace, nor do
the jocose pieces call for special mention here. In the " Kalendae
decembres ' we have a striking description of the gifts and amuse-
ments provided by the emperor for the Roman population on the
occasion of the Saturnalia. In his attempt at an epithalamium
{Silv. i. 2) Statius is forced and unhappy. But his birthday ode
in Lucan's honour (Silv. ii. 7) has, along with the accustomed
exaggeration, many powerful lines, and shows high appreciation
of preceding Latin poets. Some phrases, such as " the untaught
muse of high-souled Ennius " and " the lofty passion of sage
Lucretius, " are familiar words with all scholars. The ode ends
with a great picture of Lucan's spirit rising after death on wings of
fame to regions whither only powerful souls can ascend, scornfully
surveying earth and smiling at the tomb, or reclining in Elysium
and singing a noble strain to the Pompeys and the Catos and all
the " Pnarsalian host, " or with proud tread exploring Tartarus
and listening to the wailings of the guilty, and gazing at Nero,
pale with agony as his mother's avenging torch glitters before his
eyes. It is singular to observe how thoroughly Nero had been
struck out of the imperial succession as recognized at court, so that
the " bald Nero " took no umbrage when his flatterer-in-chief
profanely dealt with his predecessor's name.
The epic poems of Statius are less interesting because cast in a
commoner mould, but they deserve study in many respects. They
are the product of long elaboration. The Thebais, which the poet
says took twelve years to compose, is in twelve books, and has
for its theme the old " tale of Thebes " the deadly strife of the
Theban brothers. There is also preserved a fragment of an Achilleis,
consisting of one book and part of another. In the weary length
of these epics there are many flowers of pathos and many little
finished gem-pictures, but the trammels of tradition, the fashionable
taste and the narrow bars of education check continually the poet's
flight. Not merely were the materials for his epics prescribed to
him by rigid custom, but also to a great extent the method by which
they were to be treated. All he could do was to sound the old
notes with a distinctive timbre of his own. The gods must needs
wage their wonted epic strife, and the men, their puppets, must
dance at their nod; there must needs be heavenly messengers,
portents, dreams, miracles, single combats, similes, Homeric and
Virgilian echoes, and all the other paraphernalia of the conventional
epic. But Statius treats his subjects with a boldness and freedom
which contrast pleasingly with the timid traditionalism of Silius
Italicus and the stiff scholasticism of Valerius Flaccus. The voca-
bulary of Statius is conspicuously rich, and he shows audacity,
often successful, in the use of words and metaphors. At the same
time he carried certain literary tricks to an aggravating pitch, in
particular the excessive use of alliteration, and the misuse of mytho-
logical allusion. The most well-known persons and places are
described by epithets or periphrases derived from some very remote
connexion with mythology, so that many passages are as dark as
Heraclitus. The Thebais is badly constructed. The action of the
epic is hindered and stopped by enormous episodes, one of which
fills one-sixth of the poem. Nor had Statius a firm grasp or clear
imagination of character. So trying are the late ancient epics to
a modern reader that he who has read any one of the three
Statius, Silius and Valerius Flaccus (Lucan stands apart) will
with difficulty be persuaded to enter on the other two. Yet, if he
honestly reads them all, he can hardly fail to rank Statius the highest
of the three by a whole sphere.
The editio princess of the epics is dated 1470, of the Silvae 1472.
Notable editions since have been those of Bernartius (Antwerp,
1595), Gronovius (1653) and Barth (1664). Recent texts are the
Teubner (the Achilleis and Thebais by Kohlmann, the Silvae by
Baehrens) and that contained in the new edition of the Corpus
poetarum latinorum; and of the Silvae only, texts by Klotz (1899),
and Vollmer (1898), the last with an explanatory commentary.
Among editions of portions of Statius's works, that of the Silvae by
Jeremiah Markland, fellow of Peterhouse in Cambridge (1728),
deserves special attention. A translation of the Silvae with intro-
duction and notes was published by D. A. Slater in 1908 (Oxford
Library of Translations). A critical edition of the Thebais and
Achilleis was begun by O. Miiller (1870) but not completed. The
condition of the text of the Silvae is one of the most curious facts
in the history of ancient literature. Poggio discovered a MS. at
St Gallen and brought it into Italy. This MS. has disappeared,
but from it are derived all our existing MSS., except one of the birth-
day ode to Lucan, now at Florence, and of the loth century.
Politian collated Poggio's MS. with the editio princeps, and the
collation has come down to us, and is the principal basis of the text.
The MSS. of the epics are numerous, as was to be expected from their
great popularity in the middle ages, to which Dante is witness
(see Purg. xxi., where an interview with the shade of Statius is
described at some length). (J. S. R.)
STATUTE, a law made by the " sovereign power " in the state
(see ACT OF PARLIAMENT). It forms a part of the lex scripla,
or written law, which by English legal authorities is used solely
for statutory law, a sense much narrower than it bore in Roman
law. To make a statute the concurrence of the Crown and the
three estates of the realm is necessary. Thus a so-called statute
of 5 Ric. II. c. 5, directed against the Lollards, was afterwards
repudiated by the Commons as passed without their assent.
The validity of a statute was indeed at times claimed for ordi-
nances such as that just mentioned, not framed in accordance
with constitutional rule, and was actually given to royal pro-
clamations by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 8 (1539). But this act was
repealed by i Edw. VI. c. 12, and since that time nothing but
a statute has possessed the force of a statute, unless indeed cer-,
tain rules or orders depending ultimately for their sanction upon
a statute may be said to have such force. Examples of what
may be called indirect legislation of this kind are orders in
council (see PRIVY COUNCIL), by-laws made under the powers
of the Public Health Acts, Municipal Corporation Acts and other
Acts, and rules of court such as those made under the powers
of the Judicature Acts and Acts of Sederunt of the Court of
Session.
The list of English statutes as at present existing begins with
the Statute of Merton, I235. 1 Many, of the earlier statutes are
known by the names of the places at which they were passed,
e.g. the Statutes of Merton, Marlbridge, Gloucester, Westminster,
or by their initial words, e.g. Quia Emptores, Circumspecte Agatis.
The earliest existing statute roll is 6 Edw. I. (the Statute of Glou-
cester). After 4 Hen. VII. the statute roll ceased to be made
up, and enrolments in chancery (first made in 1485) take its
place. Some of the acts prior to the Statute of Gloucester are
of questionable authority, but have gained recognition by a
kind of prescription.
All statutes were originally public, irrespective of their subject-
matter. The division into public and private dates from the
reign of Richard III. At present statutes are of four kinds,
public general acts, public local and personal acts, private acts
printed by the king's printers and private acts not so printed. The
division into public general and public local and personal rests
upon a resolution of both Houses of Parliament in 1798. In 1815
a resolution was passed in accordance with which private acts
are printed, with the exception of name, estate, naturalization
and divorce acts. The last two are now practically superseded
by the provisions of the Divorce Act 1857 (except as to Ireland
and India), and the Naturalization Act 1870. Since 1815 it
has been usual to refer to public general acts by Arabic numerals,
e.g. 3 Edw. VII. c. 21, public local and personal acts by small
Roman numerals, e.g. 3 Edw. VII. c. xxi. Each act is strictly
but a chapter of the legislation of the session, which is regarded
as composing a single act divided into chapters for convenience,
the chapters themselves being also called acts. The citation of
previous acts is provided for by 13 and 14 Viet. c. 21, 3. It is
now usual for each chapter or act to contain a short title by
which it may be cited, e.g. the Elementary Education Act 1870.
The Short Titles Act 1892 created short titles for numerous
single acts and groups of acts, and since then it has been usual
to cite acts and groups by their short titles where possible
1 Ruffhead's edition of the statutes begins with the Magna Carta
of 1225. But in the Revised Statutes that form of Magna Carta
which is now law appears as a statute of the year 1297. It is often
known as Confirmatto cartarum, and is a recital and confirmation
by Edward I. of the chief provisions of John's charter.
STATUTE
813
rather than by the year of the reign. 8 & 9 Viet. c. 113, s. 3,
makes evidence the king's printers' copies of private and local
and personal acts. A private act not printed by the king's
printers is proved by an examined copy of the parliament roll.
A public act binds all subjects of the realm, and need not be
pleaded (except where the law from motives of policy specially
provides for pleading certain acts, as in the defences of not
guilty by statute, the Statute of Frauds and the Statute of
Limitations). A private act must generally be pleaded, and
does not as a rule bind strangers to its provisions. Formerly
an act took effect from the first day of the session in which it
was passed. The hardship caused by this technical rule has
been obviated by 33 Geo. III. c. 13, by which an act takes effect
from the day on which it receives the royal assent, where no other
date is named. This has been held to mean the beginning of the
day, so as to govern all matters occurring on that day. An
act cannot in the strict theory of English law become obsolete
by disuse. Nothing short of repeal can limit its operation. The
law has, however, been interpreted in many cases with somewhat
less rigour. In the case of a prosecution for blasphemy in 1883
(R. v. Ramsay) Lord Coleridge said, " though the principles of
law remain unchanged, yet (and it is one of the advantages
of the common law) their application is to be changed with the
changing circumstances of the times." 1 This would be applic-
able as much to the interpretation of statutes as to other parts
of the common law. The title, preamble and marginal notes
are strictly no part of a statute, though they may at times aid
its interpretation.
Besides the fourfold division above mentioned, statutes are
often classed according to their subject-matter, as perpetual
and temporary, penal and beneficial, imperative and directory,
enabling and disabling. Temporary acts are those which expire
at a date fixed in the act itself. Thus the Army Act is passed
annually and continues for a year; the Ballot Act 1872 expired
at the end of 1880, and the Regulation of Railways Act 1873
at the end of five years. By means of these temporary acts
experimental legislation is rendered possible in many cases
where the success of a new departure in legislation is doubtful.
In every session an Expiring Laws Continuance Act is passed
for the purpose of continuing (generally for a year) a consider-
able number of these temporary acts. By 48 Geo. III. c. 106 a
continuing act is to take effect from the date of the expiration
of a temporary act, where a bill for continuing the temporary act
is in parliament, even though it be not actually passed before
the date of the expiration. Penal acts are those which impose
a new disability; beneficial, those which confer a new favour.
An imperative statute (often negative or prohibitory in its
terms) makes a certain act or omission absolutely necessary,
and subjects a contravention of its provisions to a penalty. A
directory statute (generally affirmative in its terms) recom-
mends a certain act or omission, but imposes no penalty on non-
observance of its provisions. To determine whether an act is
imperative or directory the act itself must be looked at, and
many nice questions have arisen on the application of the rule
of law to a particular case. Enabling statutes are those which
enlarge the common law, while disabling statutes restrict it.
This division is to some extent coincident with that into bene-
ficial and penal. Declaratory statutes, or those simply in
affirmance of the common law, were at one period not uncommon,
but they are now practically unknown. The Treason Act 1351
is an example of such a statute. Statutes are sometimes passed
in order to overrule specific decisions of the courts. Examples
are the Factors Act 1877, the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction
Act 1878, the Married Women's Property Act 1893, the Trade
Disputes Act 1906.
The construction or interpretation of statutes depends partly
on the common law, partly on statute. The main rules of the
common law, as gathered from the best authorities, are these:
1 This opinion carries out to a certain extent the view of Locke,
who in article 79 of his Carolina Code recommended the determina-
tion of acts of the legislature by effluxion of time after a hundred
years from their enactment.
(1) Statutes are to be construed, not according to their mere letter,
but according to the intent and object with which they were made.
(2) The relation of the statute to the common law is to beconsidered.
In the words of the resolution of the Court of Exchequer in Heydon's
case, 3 Coke's Rep. 7, the points for consideration are: " (a) What
was the common law before the making of the act ? (6) What was
the mischief and defect against which the common law did not
provide? (c) What remedy the parliament hath resolved and
appointed to cure the disease of the Commonwealth? (d) The true
reason of the remedy." (3) Beneficial or remedial statutes are to
be liberally, penal more strictly, construed. (4) Other statutes
in pari materia are to be taken into consideration. (5) A statute
which treats of persons of inferior rank cannot by general words
be extended to those of superior rank. (6) A statute does not bind
the Crown, unless it be named therein. (7) Where the provision
of a statute is general, everything necessary to make such provision
effectual is implied. (8) A later statute repeals an earlier, as far
as the two are repugnant, but if they may stand together repeal
will not be presumed. (9) There is a presumption against creation
of new or ousting of existing jurisdictions, against impairing obliga-
tions, against retrospective effect, against violation of international
law, against monopolies, and in general against what is inconvenient
or unreasonable. (10) If a statute inflicts a penalty, the penalty
implies a prohibition of the act or omission to which the penalty
is imposed. Whether the remedy given by statute is the only one
depends on the words of the particular act. In some cases an action
or an indictment will lie; in others the statutory remedy, generally
summary, takes the place of the common law remedy. In some
instances the courts have construed the imposition of a penalty
as operating not to invalidate a contract but to create a tax upon
non-compliance with the terms of the statute. The Interpretation
Act 1889 provides an authentic interpretation for numerous words
and phrases of frequent occurrence in statutes. In addition to
these general provisions most statutes contain an interpretation
clause or interpretation clauses dealing with special words or phrases.
A very detailed example is s. 742 of the Merchant Shipping Act
1894.
The earlier acts are generally simple in character and language,
and comparatively few in number. At present the number passed
every session is enormous; in the session of 1906 it was 58 general
and 212 local and personal acts, the former being under the average.
Without going as far as to concede with an eminent legal authority
that of such legislation three-fourths is unnecessary and the other
fourth mischievous, it may be admitted that the immense library
of the statutes would be but a trackless desert without trustworthy
guides. Revision of the statutes was evidently regarded by the
legislature as desirable as early as 1563 (see the preamble to sEliz.
c. 4). It was demanded by a petition of the Commons in 1610.
Both Coke and Bacon were employed for some time on a commission
for revision. In 1861 was passed the first of a long series of Statute
Law Revision Acts. The most important action, however, was
the nomination of a revision committee by Lord Chancellor Cairns
in 1868, the practical result of which has been the issue of an edition
of the Revised Statutes in eighteen volumes, bringing the revision
of statute law down to 1886. This edition is ol course subject to
the disadvantage that it becomes less accurate every year as new
legislation appears. A Chronological Table and Index of the Statutes
which are still law is published from time to time by the council of
law reporting.
The chief editions of the British statutes are the Statutes of the
Realm printed by the king's printers, Ruffhead's and the fine folio
edition issued from 1810 to 1824 in pursuance of an address from
the House of Commons to George III.
AUTHORITIES. The safest authority is of course the Revised
Statutes. Chitty's collection of Statutes of Practical Utility is a
useful compilation. Among the earlier works on statute law may
be mentioned the readings and commentaries on statutes by great
lawyers, such as the second volume of Coke's Institutes, Bacon's
Reading on the Statute of Uses, Barrington's Observations on the more
ancient Statutes from Magna Carta to the 21 Jac. I. c. 27 (sth ed., 1796),
and the Introduction to Blackstone's Commentaries. Among the
later works are the treatises of Dwarris (2nd ed., 1848) and Sir P. B.
Maxwell (3rd ed., 1905) and Hardcastle (3rd ed., 1901). On the
interpretation of statutes, see Lord Farnborough, The Machinery
of Parliamentary Legislation (1881); Sir C. P. Ilbert, Legislative
Methods and Forms (1901); Sir H. Thring, Practical Legislation, or
the Composition and Language of Acts of Parliament (1902).
Scotland.
The statutes of the Scottish parliament before the union differed
from the English statutes in two important respects: they were
passed by the estates of the kingdom sitting together and not in
separate houses, and from 1367 to 1690 they were discussed only
after preliminary consideration by the lords of the articles. 2 An act
2 The Scottish parliament from an early date discharged its func-
tions by the aid of two committees known as the legislative and
judicial committees. The legislative committee were termed lords
of the articles and existed until 1688. The judicial committee were
called lords auditors.
STATUTE MERCHANT STAUNTON, SIR G. T.
of the Scottish parliament may in certain cases cease to be binding
by desuetude. " To bring an act of parliament like those we are
dealing with " (i.e. the Sabbath Profanation Acts) " into what is
called in Scots law the condition of desuetude, it must be shown that
the offence prohibited is not only practised without being checked
but is no longer considered or dealt with in this country as an offence
against law (Lord Justice General Inglis in Bute's case, l Couper's
Rep., 495). Acts of the imperial parliament passed since the union
extend in general to Scotland, unless that country be excluded from
their operation by express terms or necessary implication. Scottish
acts are cited thus, 1678, c. 10. The best edition is that issued by
order of the Treasury, 1844-1875. An edition of the revised statutes
has been facilitated by the repeal of obsolete statutes by the Statute
Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1906.
Ireland.
Originally the lord deputy appears to have held parliaments at
his option, and their acts were the only statutory law which applied
to Ireland, except as far as judicial decisions had from motives of
policy extended to that country the obligation of English statutes.
In 1495 the act of the Irish parliament known as Poynings' Law or
the Statute of Drogheda enacted that all statutes lately made in
England be deemed good and effectual in Ireland. This was con-
strued to mean that all statutes made in England prior to the 1 8
Hen. VII. were valid in Ireland, but none of later date were to have
any operation unless Ireland were specially named therein or unless
adopted by the Irish parliament (as was done, for instance, by
Yelverton's Act, 21 & 22 Gep. III. c. 48 (I.). Another article of
Poynings' Law secured an initiative of legislation to the English
privy council, the Irish parliament having simply a power of accep-
tance or rejection of proposed legislation. The power of the parlia-
ment of Great Britain to make laws to bind the people of Ireland
was declared by 6 Geo. I. c. 5. This act and the article of Poynings'
Law were repealed in 1782, and the short-lived independence of the
parliament of Ireland was recognized by 23 Geo. III. c. 28. The
application of acts passed since the union is the same as in the case
of Scotland. Divorce acts are still passed for Ireland (see DIVORCE).
Irish acts are cited thus, 26 Geo. III. c. 15 (I.) or (Ir.). The best
edition is that issued in twenty volumes pursuant to an order of the
earl of Halifax, lord-lieutenant in 1762. A volume of revised
statutes was published in 1885. The earliest that is still law is
one of 1459.
British Colonies and Dependencies.
Acts of the imperial parliament do not extend to the Isle of Man,
the Channel Islands or the colonies, unless they are specially named
therein. By the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865 (" the charter
of colonial legislative independence ") any colonial law repugnant
to the provisions of any act of parliament extending to the
colony is void to the extent of such repugnancy, and no
colonial law is to be void by repugnancy to the law of England
unless it be repugnant to such an act of parliament. For colonies
without representative legislatures the Crown usually legislates,
subject to the consent of parliament in particular cases. Examples
of imperial legislation for the colonies in general are the Colonial
Stock Act 1877, and the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890.
For imperial acts dealing with particular colonies may be cited the
British North America Act 1867, and the Commonwealth of Australia
Constitution Act 1900. A colony is denned for the purposes of
imperial legislation by the Interpretation Act 1889, s. 18. In
many of the colonies, as in Canada, the constitutionality of an act
of the colonial legislature is, as in the United States, a matter for
the determination of the local, court or of the judicial committee
of the privy council on appeal.
United Stales.
By the constitutions of many states English statute law, as
it existed at the time of the separation from England, and as
far as it is applicable, has been adopted as part of the law of the
states. The United States and the state are not bound by an
act of Congress or a state law unless specially named. The
states legislate for themselves within the limits of their own
constitution and that of the United States. Here appears the
striking difference between the binding force of a statute of the
United Kingdom and an act passed by Congress or a state
legislature. In the United Kingdom parliament is supreme;
in the United States an act is only of authority if it is in accor-
dance with the constitution. The courts may declare an act
void if it contravene the constitution of the United States or of
a state, so that practically the Supreme Court of the United
States is the ultimate legislative authority. The restrictions
upon Federal legislation in the constitution of the United
States provide against the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus
except in case of rebellion or invasion, the passing of a bill of
attainder or ex post facto law, the imposition of capitation or
other direct tax, unless in proportion to the several states,
or of a tax or duty on exports, the preference of the ports
of one state over those of another, the drawing of money
from the treasury except by appropriations made by law,
and the grant of a title of nobility. Constitutional amend-
ments contain further limitations, e.g. the taking of private
property for public use without just compensation, and the
aBridging of the right of citizens on account of race, colour or
previous condition of servitude. State legislation is limited
by s. 10: " No state shall . . . make anything but gold and
silver coin a tender in payment of debts, pass any bill of attain-
der, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts,
or grant any title of nobility. " The section further forbids
imposition of duties on imports or exports or any duty of
tonnage without consent of Congress. State constitutions often
contain further restrictions; among the more usual are pro-
visions against laws with a retrospective operation, or impairing
the obligation of contracts, or dealing with more than one
subject to be expressed in the title. The time when a statute
is to take effect after its passing is often fixed by state constitu-
tions. The statutes of the United States were revised under
the powers of an act of Congress passed in 1874 (sess. i. c. 333),
and the volume of Revised Statutes was issued in 1875. There
was a second edition in 1878 and several supplements have
appeared since that date. Many of the states have also issued
revised editions of their statutes. The rules of construction are
in general agreement with those adopted in England. In some
states the referendum has been introduced in certain cases.
Continental European Countries.
In most European countries there is a code, the existence of which
makes the system of legislation hardly comparable to ours. The
assent of two chambers and of the monarch, or president, is generally
necessary. Greece is an exception; it is the only state in Europe
with one chamber.
International Law.
The term " statute " is used by international jurists and civilians
mostly on the continent of Europe to denote the whole body of the
municipal law of the state. In this sense statutes are either real,
personal or mixed. A real statute is that part of the law which
deals directly with property, whether movable or immovable. A
personal statute has for its object a person, and deals with questions
of status, such as marriage, legitimacy or infancy. A mixed statute
affects both property and person, or, according to some authorities,
it deals with acts and obligations. Personal statutes are of universal
validity; real statutes have no extra-territorial authority. The
determination of the class under which a particular law ought to
fall is one of great difficulty, and one in which there is often a conflict
of legal opinion. On the whole the division appears to have created
more difficulties than it has solved, and it is rejected by Savigny as
unsatisfactory.
See Story, Conflict of Laws, 12-16; Phillimore, International
Law, vol. iv. ch. xvi.; Pillet, Principes de droit international prive,
chs. xi. and xii. (J. W.)
STATUTE MERCHANT and STATUTE STAPLE, two old
forms of security, long obsolete in English practice, though refer-
ences to them still occur in some modern statutes. The former
security was first created by the Statute of Acton Burnell (1283)
and amplified by the Statute of Merchants (1285) whence
its name and the latter by an act of 1353, which provided that
in every staple (i.e. public mart) the seal of the staple should
be sufficient validity for a bond of record acknowledged and
witnessed before the mayor of the staple. They were originally
permitted only among traders, for the benefit of commerce,
but afterwards extended by an act of Henry VIII. (1532) to
all subjects, whether traders or not. The creditor under either
form of security was allowed to seize the goods and hold the lands
of a defaulting debtor until satisfaction of his debt. While
he held the lands he was termed tenant by statute merchant
or by statute staple. In addition to the loss of his goods and
lands the debtor was liable to be imprisoned. Statute merchant,
owing to the summary method of enforcing payment, was some-
times known as " pocket judgment." Both were repealed by
the Statute Law Revision Act 1863.
STAUNTON, SIR GEORGE THOMAS, BART. (1781-1859),
English traveller and Orientalist, was born near Salisbury on the-
26th of May 1781. He was the son of Sir George Leonard
STAUNTON, H. STAVANGER
815
Staunton (1737-1801), first baronet, diplomatist and Orientalist,
and in 1792 accompanied his father, who had been appointed
secretary to Lord Macartney's mission to China, to the Far
East. He acquired a good knowledge of Chinese, and in 1798
was appointed a writer in the East India Company's factory at
Canton, and subsequently its chief. In 1805 he translated a
work of Dr George Pearson into Chinese, thereby introducing
vaccination into China. In 1816 he proceeded as second com-
missioner on a special mission to Pekin with Lord Amherst
and Sir Henry Ellis. Between 1818 and 1852 he was M.P. for
several English constituencies, finally for Portsmouth. He was
a member of the East India Committee, and in 1823, in con-
junction with Henry Thomas Colebroke founded the Royal
Asiatic Society. He died on the loth of August 1859.
His publications include translations of Ta Tsing leu lee, being
the Fundamental Laws of China (1810), the first Chinese book trans-
lated into English, and of the Narrative of the Chinese Embassy to
the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars (1821); Miscellaneous Notices
Relating to China and our Commercial Intercourse with that Country
(1822); Notes of Proceedings and Occurrences during the British
Embassy to Peking (1824); Observations on our Chinese Commerce
(1850). For the Hakluyt Society he edited Gonzalez de Mendoza's
History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China.
STAUNTON, HOWARD (1810-1874), English Shakespearian
scholar and writer on chess, supposed to have been a natural
son of Frederic Howard, fifth earl of Carlisle, was born in
1810. He is said to have studied at Oxford, but if so, he never
matriculated. Settling in London he soon spent the small
fortune left him under his father's will and began to make his
living by journalism. He gave much of his attention to the
study of the English dramatists of the Elizabethan age. As a
Shakespearian commentator he showed the qualities of acute-
ness and caution which made him excel in chess. He possessed,
moreover, a thorough mastery of the literature of the period,
shown in his papers in the Athenaeum on " Unsuspected Cor-
ruptions of Shakespeare's text," begun in October 1872. These
formed part of the materials which he intended to utilize in a
proposed edition of Shakespeare which never became an accom-
plished fact. In 1864 he published a facsimile of the Shakespeare
folio of 1623, and a facsimile edition of Much Ado about Nothing,
photolithographed from the quarto of 1600. He died in Lon-
don on the 22nd of June 1874. Staunton's services to chess
literature were very great, and the game in England owes much
of its later popularity to him, while for thirty years he was
the best player in England, perhaps in the world. For his
important works on the subject see CHESS.
STAUNTON, an independent city and the county-seat of
Augusta county, Virginia, U.S.A., about 135 m. N.W. of Rich-
mond. Pop. (1890) 6975; (1900) 7289, including 1828 negroes
and 149 foreign-born; (1910) 10,604. Staunton is served by
the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Baltimore & Ohio railways.
It lies between the Alleghany Mountains and the Blue Ridge,
on a plateau about 1380 ft. above sea-level, in a fertile farming
country with good pasture on the hillsides. In Staunton are a
county court-house, the Western State hospital for the insane
(1828), the Virginia school for the deaf and the blind (1839),
the King's Daughters' hospital (1895), Dunsmore business
college, Staunton military academy, the Mary Baldwin' sem-
inary, formerly Augusta female seminary (founded in 1842)
and Stuart Hall (for girls), which was founded in 1843, was
incorporated in 1845, and was reincorporated in 1907 under its
present name in honour of Mrs J. E. B. Stuart, wife of the
confederate cavalry leader, who was its principal in 1879-1898.
One mile east of Staunton is a U.S. national military cemetery
with graves of 753 Union soldiers killed at Port Republic, Cross
Keys and Piedmont; and west of the city is a Confederate
cemetery with a memorial monument. The municipality owns
the waterworks, the electric-lighting plant and the opera
house An interesting feature of the city government is the
employment of a business manager (elected annually by the
city council), whose duties are in general similar to those of the
business manager of a large corporation e.g. he buys the city's
supplies and has general supervision over the city improvements.
The first settlement in this vicinity was on Lewis Creek, about
2 m. east of the city, in 1 73 1 . A county court-house was built here
in 1745, and the name Staunton, in honour of the wife of Sir
William Gooch (then lieutenant-governor), whose maiden name
was Staunton, was used in 1748-1749, but Staunton was not
incorporated as a town until 1761. It was chartered as a city
in 1870, and then became a municipality independent of the
county. The corporate limits of the city were extended in
1905 and, as its population thus became more than 10,000,
Staunton was made a city of the first class.
STAUROLITE, a mineral consisting of basic aluminium and
ferrous iron silicate with the formula HFeAl 5 Si 2 O, 3 . The
material is, however, usually very impure, the crystals enclosing
sometimes as much as 30 or 40% of quartz and other minerals
as well as carbonaceous matter. Crystals are orthorhombic
and have the form of six-sided prisms. Interpenetrating cruci-
form twinned crystals are very common and characteristic; they
were early known as pierres de croix or lapis crucifer, and the
name staurolite, given by J. C. Delametherie in 1792, has
the same meaning (Greek, oraupos, a cross, and Xt0os, a stone).
In fig. i the twin-plane is (032) and the two prisms intercross
FIG. i. FIG. 2.
Twinned Crystals of Staurolite.
at an angle of 91 22'; in fig. 2 the twin-plane is (232) and the
prisms intercross at nearly 60. The mineral is translucent
to opaque and dark reddish-brown in colour; it thus has a
certain resemblance to garnet, and on this account has been called
grenatite. Waterworn pebbles of material sufficiently trans-
parent for cutting as gem-stones are occasionally found in the
diamantiferous sands of Brazil. The hardness is 75 and the
specific gravity 3-75. Staurolite is a characteristic mineral of
crystalline schists, and it is also a product of contact-meta-
morphism. Large twinned crystals with rough surfaces are
found in mica-schist in Brittany and at several places in the
United States, e.g. in Fannin county, Georgia. Untwinned
crystals, translucent and of a rich brown colour (grenatite),
are abundant in the silvery white paragonite-schist of Monte
Campione, St Gothard. (L. J. S.)
STAVANGER, a seaport of Norway, capital of Stavanger ami
(county), on the west coast in 59 N. (that of the Orkney Islands
and northern Labrador). Pop. (1900), 30,541. It lies on the
south side of the Bukken Fjord, and has a picturesque harbour
well sheltered by islands. The town is one of the oldest in
Norway, founded in the 8th or gth century, but the present
town is modern, though narrow, winding streets and wooden
houses give it an antique appearance. It became the seat of
a bishopric in the i3th century. Though the bishop's see was
removed to Christiansand in 1685, the Romanesque cathedral
church of St Swithun, founded by the English bishop Reinald
in the end of the nth century, and rebuilt after being burned
down in 1272, remains, and, next to the cathedral of Trondhjem,
is the most interesting stone church in Norway. There is an
ornate painted pulpit of carved wood (1658). The old episcopal
palace of Kongsgaard is now a Latin school. There are a
theatre, an interesting museum of antiquities, natural history
and art; and a picturesque park (Bjergsted). The industries
of the town and its environs (Sandnaes, &c.) are prosperous,
including factories for preserved foods, woollens and linens,
lime, iodine from seaweed, and domestic commodities. The
8i6
STAVELEY STAVROPOL
fisheries are important for herring, mackerel, sprats, cod,
salmon, lobsters and anchovies. On Rennes Island in the
fjord, over against the town, there is a Cheviot sheep-breeding
farm under government auspices. The imports consist prin-
cipally of coal, salt, grain and flour, groceries, textiles, wood,
and mineral oils. The most important export is fish, other
items being seaweed, marble, preserved foods, butter and
margarine and infusorial earth.
Stavanger is the first port of call for northward-bound pas-
senger steamers from Hull and Newcastle, and has regular services
from all the Norwegian coast towns, from Hamburg, &c. A rail-
way runs south along the wild and desolate coast of Jaederen,
one of the few low and unprotected shores in Norway, the scene
of many wrecks. Stavanger commands a considerable tourist
traffic. It is the starting-point of a favourite tour, embracing
the fine valley of the Sand River, the great Lake Suldal and
the Bratlandsdal. The Lyse Fjord, a branch of the Bukken
Fjord, is a fine narrow inlet enclosed by precipitous mountains.
Stavanger is the birthplace of Kjelland the novelist (1849).
STAVELEY, a town in the north-western parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 12 m. S.E. of Sheffield, on the
Midland and the Great Central railways. Pop. (1901), 11,420.
It lies in the valley of the Rother, in a populous industrial
district, devoted chiefly to the working of coal and iron; while
there are manufactures of iron goods and brushes in the town.
The church of St John the Baptist is Early English, with much
Perpendicular and modern alteration; it contains a number
of interesting early monuments.
STAVELOT, an ancient town of Belgium, in the south-east
of the province of Liege. Pop. (1904), 5037. Here Charles
Martel gained a signal victory over Neustria in 719. A monas-
tery had been established there half a century earlier by St
Remacle, bishop of Tongres. The prince-abbot of Stavelot
exercised secular authority over many towns in the Ambleve and
Warche valleys, including Malmedy (now in Prussia), and had
a seat in the old German Diet. In 1815 the treaty of Vienna
broke up the Stavelot principality, giving half to Prussia and
half to the Netherlands. Only the tower of the old Benedic-
tine abbey remains, and the shrine of St Remacle is preserved
in the parish church.
STAVROPOL, a government of northern Caucasia, Russia,
having an area of 26,492 sq. m. and bounded by the govern-
ment of Astrakhan and the territory of the Don Cossacks
on the N., by Kuban on the W. and by Terek on the S. and E.
It occupies the eastern part of the broad steppes which stretch
away north from the foot of the main chain of the Caucasus.
The western part of the government is diversified by a broad
undulating swelling, 1500 to 2000 ft. above sea-level; in the
southern part of this swelling, and principally in Terek, there is
a group of sixteen mountains, the Beshtau, 2800 to 4600 ft. in
height, which are considered by H. Abich to be a porphyritic
upheaval at the point of intersection of the two predominant
orographical lines in the Caucasus (south-west to north-east
and south-east to north-west). Northward and eastward of
these heights are extensive steppes, 200 to 400 ft. above the sea,
having gentle slopes both to the north (to the depression of the
Manych) and to the east (towards the low, arid shores of the
Caspian littoral).
Stavropol is chiefly drained by the Kuma and its tributaries
(Karamyk and Buivola), its basin being the most fertile part of
the government, but the evaporation is so great that the Kuma never
reaches the Caspian except m spring. The Manych is not so much
a river as a series of lakes, occupying a depression which formerly
was a connecting channel between the Black Sea and the Caspian.
This channel has two slopes, the eastern sometimes discharging
its scanty water-supply into the Kuma, while on the western slope
the elongated lakes which fill up the depression drain into the Don,
reaching it however only during spring. Two Yegorlyks (Great
and Middle), the Kalaus, and the Chogra (temporary tributaries
of the Manych), drain the western part of Stavropol. On the whole,
irrigation is restricted, and in the eastern steppes water is supplied
only by cisterns. Besides the lakes of the Manych depression, there
are many smaller salt lakes along the Caspian. Timber is scarce,
even in the hilly tracts.
" The climate is marked by rapid changes of temperature. The
dry east winds are sometimes very violent in the spring and early
summer, blowing the seeds out of the fields, and even destroying
in a few days all existing vegetation. In July and August they
continue for several weeks in succession, and choke the air with dust.
The average temperatures at the town of Stavropol (altitude 2030 ft.)
are much lower than one might expect in that latitude; that for
the year is 47 Fahr., that for January 24, and that for August 68.
The rainfall at the same place is 28 -2 in., but other parts of the govern-
ment are much worse on in this respect, the yearly rainfall being only
ii to 21 J in.
There is a great lack of forests, which are found only near the
town of Stavropol and alongside of the main rivers. In the prairies
the only arboreal vegetation is tamarisks and the dwarf almond tree.
Altogether, except in the hilly parts of the government, the flora
and fauna differ to a great extent from the flora and fauna of other
parts of the Caucasus. Both resemble, on the one hand, those of
Central Asia in such features as the presence, among mammals and
birds, of the antelope Saiga tatarica, L., the steppe fox Vulpes
corsac, Pallas, and the lark Melanocorypha tatarica, Pallas, and
among plants of, firstly Tamarix Pallasii, Statice caspia and Stipa
lessingiana (all characteristic of the arid prairies beyond the Urals),
and secondly of species of Salsola, Salicornia, Sueda, Artemisia,
Kochia and Camphorosma, all characteristic of the salt steppes of
Asia; on the other hand, both flora and fauna have many features
in common with the prairies of south Russia.
As regards geology, the whole of the government is covered with
Tertiary and post-Tertiary deposits. Lower Miocene, Middle-
Mediterranean deposits, and Sarmatian clays, limestones and sand-
stones crop out over nearly one-half of the surface of the government,
namely, in its higher portion, while the remainder is buried under
loess and fluviatile and lacustrine deposits. A narrow zone, now
a low plain almost devoid of vegetation, is overlain with the so-called
Caspian deposits.
The population is rapidly increasing, particularly from natural
causes, and partly in consequence of immigration. In 1886 it was
702,635; in 1897, 879,758; and in 1906 was estimated at 1,023,700.
The average density of the population is only 44 per sq. m., but in
some districts it rises to 87. Russians form 90 % of the population,
the other races) being Kalmucks, Turkomans, Nogai Tatars,
Armenians, Georgians, Germans, Poles, &c. More than four-fifths
of the population (81 %) are Russian peasants' The nomad popula-
tion occupies, however, more than one-third of the territory. There
are four ordinary districts, the centres of administration in which
are Stavropol, Alexandrovsk, Medvyezhinsk and Praskoveya, the
chief town of the district of Novo-grigpryevsk ; besides these the
territory occupied by the nomads is divided into three districts,
Bolshe-Derbetovskiy, Turkoman and Achikulak.
Agriculture is the most important occupation of the settled popula-
tion, and so large is the harvest that no less than 16,000 labourers
come annually from European Russia to assist in gathering in the
crops. The peasants own some 48% of the total area, private
persons 7 %, the imperial government 2 % and the Crown less
than 2 %. Agriculture is most successful on the wide prairie lands,
where over 3,250,000 acres are annually under cereals. The principal
crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. Melons, water-
melons, flax and sunflowers are widely cultivated. Modern agri-
cultural implements are in general use. Vineyards stretch for close
upon ipo m. along the Kuma, and nearly 800,000 gallons of wine
of an inferior quality are obtained annually. The factories are
limited to flour-mills, oil-mills, distilleries, tanneries and candle
works, and a few domestic industries are carried on in the villages.
Considerable quantities of grain, flax, wool and hides are exported,
and the fairs are very animated. Large amounts of corn are exported
both to the mountainous districts of Caucasia and to Russia (Rostov-
on-the-Don). Livestock breeding is engaged in very largely, not
only by the Kalmucks, Turkomans and Nogai Tatars, but also by
the Russians.
The northern slopes of the Caucasus began to be colonized by
the Russians at a very early period, and as early as the I ith century
part of the territory now occupied by Stavropol was known to
Russian annalists as the Tmutarakan principality, which had Russian
princes. A new attempt to colonize North Caucasia was made
in the i6th century, under Ivan the Terrible, who married a Kabardian
princess. This was again unsuccessful, and it was not till 1711 that
Russia began regularly to colonize the territory by Cossack settle-
ments. Kizlyar was founded in 1736, Stavropol in 1776 or 1777.
Vast tracts of lands were given by Catherine II. to her courtiers,
who began to people them with serfs from Russia.
(P. A. K.;J. T. BE.)
STAVROPOL, a town of southern Russia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, situated on a plateau 2030 ft. above
the sea, on the northern slope of the Caucasus, 200 m. N.W. of
Vladikavkaz. It is connected by rail (247 m.) with Rostov-
on-the-Don. Although founded only in 1776, it has grown
rapidly, and had in 1885 a population of 35,561, and of 46,965
in 1900. Stavropol is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek
Church, and one of the best-built provincial towns of the
STAWELL, SIR W. F. STEAK
817
Russian Empire, having wide streets, and houses mostly of
stone, with large gardens surrounding the houses. There
are public libraries, a people's palace and several scientific
societies. Stavropol has flour-mills and various small fac-
tories. Large numbers of cattle are sent to Moscow and St
Petersburg, while cereals, tallow and sheepskins are exported
to Russia, and manufactured wafes imported. Armenian,
Georgian and Persian merchants carry on a lively trade in local
wares.
STAWELL, SIR WILLIAM FOSTER (1815-1889), British
colonial statesman, was the son of Jonas Stawell, of Old Court,
in the county of Cork, and of Anna, daughter of the Right Rev.
William Foster, bishop of Clogher. He was born on the 27th
of June 1815, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, studied
law at King's Inn, Dublin, and Lincoln's Inn, and was called
to the Irish bar in 1839. He practised in Ireland until 1842,
and then, making his home in Australia, was admitted to the
Melbourne bar in 1843. He engaged extensively in pastoral
pursuits, and had sheep stations at Natte Yallock, on the banks
of the river Avoca, and in the neighbourhood of Lake Wallace,
near the South Australian border. For many years he enjoyed
the leading practice at the local bar, and when the Port Phillip
district of New South Wales was separated from the parent
colony, and entered upon an independent existence as the
colony of Victoria, Mr Stawell accepted the position of attorney-
general and became a member of the executive and legislative
councils. A few weeks after his appointment gold was dis-
covered, and to Mr Stawell fell the arduous duties of creating
a system of government which could cope adequately with the
difficulties of the position. He had to establish a police force,
frame regulations for the government of the goldfields, appoint
magistrates and officials of every grade, and protect life and
property against the attacks of the hordes of adventurers,
many of desperate character, who landed in Victoria, first from
the neighbouring colonies, and later from Europe and America.
It was very much owing to the firm administration of Mr Stawell
that, at a time when the government was weak and a large section
of the newcomers impatient of control, lynch law was never
resorted to. He had very little assistance for some time from
any of his colleagues, and until the executive council was
strengthened by the admission of Captain (afterwards Sir Andrew)
Clarke and Mr H. C. E. Childers Mr Stawell was the brains as
well as the body of the administration. The success of his policy
was upon the whole remarkable. In the legislature he was
sometimes opposed, and at other times assisted, by Mr (after-
wards Sir John) O'Shanassy, who was the leader of the popular
party, and between them they managed to pass a number of
statutes which added greatly to the prosperity of the colony.
Mr Stawell was indefatigable in the discharge of his duties, and
extraordinary stories are told of the long journeys on horseback
to visit distant outposts which he would take after being all
day long in the law courts or in the council chamber. Mr
Stawell bore an active part in drafting the Constitution Act
which gave to Victoria representative institutions and a re-
sponsible ministry, instead of an executive appointed and
removable by the governor and a legislature in which one-third
of the members were chosen by the Crown. At the first general
election after the new constitution in 1856 Mr Stawell was
returned as one of the members for Melbourne, and became the
attorney-general of the first responsible ministry. In 1857, on
the resignation of the chief justice, Sir William A'Beckett, he
succeeded to the vacant post, and was created a knight-bachelor.
He administered the government of Victoria in 1873, 1875-1876,
and 1884. Sir William never left Australia from his arrival in
1843 till 1872, when he paid short visits to the neighbouring
colonies and New Zealand, and 1873, when he returned to
Europe on two years' leave of absence. He took a very deep
interest in the proceedings of the Church of England, and was a
member of the synod. On his retirement from the bench in
1886 he was created K.C.M.G. He died at Naples in 1889.
In 1856 he had married Mary Frances Elizabeth, only daughter
of W. P. Greene, R.N. (G. C. L.)
STAWELL, a municipality of Borung county, Victoria,
Australia, 179 m. by rail W.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901),
5296. The quartz reefs of the Pleasant Creek goldfields near
the town are worked at very deep levels and there are several
extensive cyanide plants on the reef. In'the adjacent Grampians,
which are connected by rail with Stawell, there are numerous
freestone quarries. Wheat is extensively grown in the vicinity
and also large numbers of vines, for which the soil is particularly
adapted. Stawell is the changing station on the line from
Melbourne to Adelaide, and has large engine-houses and
repairing shops.
STAY BARS, in architecture, saddle bars passing through
the mullions in one length across the whole window, and secured
to the jambs on each side (see SADDLE).
STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849- ), English journalist,
was born at Embleton, Northumberland, on the 5th of July
1849, the son of a Congregational minister. He went to school
at Wakefield, but was early apprenticed in a merchant's office at
Newcastle-on-Tyne; he soon gravitated however, into journal-
ism, and in 1871 became editor of the Darlington Northern Echo.
In 1880 he went to London to be assistant editor of the Pall
Mall Gazette under John Morley, and when the latter retired he
became editor (1883-1889). Up to 1885 he had distinguished
himself for his vigorous handling of public affairs, and his
brilliant modernity in the presentation of news. He introduced
the " interview," made a feature of the Pall Mall " extras " (see
also NEWSPAPERS: London), and his enterprise and originality
exercised a potent influence on contemporary journalism
and politics. His enthusiasm, however, carried him too far
when in 1885 he entered upon a crusade against vice by pub-
lishing a series of articles on the " Maiden Tribute of Modern
Babylon." Though his action undoubtedly furthered the passing
of the Criminal Law Amendment Act, it made his position on
the paper impossible; and his imprisonment at Hollo way for
three months on a charge arising out of his crusade made his
connexion with the whole subject a source of considerable
prejudice. On leaving the Pall Mall he founded the monthly
Review of Reviews (1890), and his abundant energy and facile
pen found scope in many other directions in journalism of an
advanced humanitarian type. He started cheap reprints
(Penny Poets and Prose Classics, &c.), conducted a spiritualistic
organ, called Borderland (1893-1897), in which he gave full play
to his interest in psychical research; and became an enthusiastic
supporter of the peace movement, and of many other movements,
popular and unpopular, in which he impressed the public gener-
ally as an extreme visionary, though his practical energy was
recognized by a considerable circle of admirers and pupils. At
the time of the Boer War of 1899 he threw himself into the Boer
cause and attacked the government with characteristic violence.
Yet amid all bis unpopularity, and all the suspicion and opposi-
tion engendered by his methods, his personality remained a
forceful one both in public and private life. He was an early
imperialist dreamer, whose influence on Cecil Rhodes in South
Africa remained of primary importance; and many politicians
and statesmen, who on most subjects were completely at variance
with his ideas, nevertheless owed something to them. Mr Rhodes
made him bis confidant, and was inspired in his will by his
suggestions; and Mr Stead was intended to be one of Mr Rhodes's
executors, though his name was struck out after the Boer War
(see his Last Will and Testament of C. J. Rhodes, 1902). The
number of his publications gradually became very large, as he
wrote with facility and sensational fervour on all sorts of
subjects, from The Truth about Russia (1888) to // Christ
came to Chicago (1893), and from Mrs Booth (1900) to The
Americanization of the World (1902). In private life his keen
sense of merit and kindly interest influenced many aspirants to
journalism and literature.
STEAK, a thick slice or piece of meat cut for frying, broiling
or stewing. The word is apparently derived from Icel. steik,
used in the same sense, which meant properly roasted meat, from
steikja, to roast, that is, placed on a stick or peg of wood before
the fire, stika, stick, cf. Swed. stek; Dan. steg, roast meat. A
8i8
STEAM STEAM ENGINE
steak may be cut from any meat or fish, but the best-known is
a " beef-steak," cut properly from the rump a " rump-steak,"
or part of the loin a "tenderloin." A " porter-house " steak
is a choice cut of steak from the loin, so named apparently
first in New York from a well-known " porter-house," an eating-
house where chops, steaks, &c., and porter or stout were served,
at which these steaks were a speciality. A steak grilled between
two other steaks, which are not served after the cooking is
finished, is also sometimes called a " porter-house" steak.
STEAM (O. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. stoom; the origin
is unknown), water-vapour. Dry steam is steam free from
mechanically mixed water particles; wet steam, on the other
hand, contains water particles in suspension. Saturated steam
is steam in contact with liquid water at a temperature which is
the boiling point of the water and condensing point of the steam ;
superheated steam is steam out of contact with water heated
above this temperature. For theoretical considerations see
VAPORIZATION, and for the most important apph'cation see
STEAM ENGINE; also WATER.
STEAM ENGINE, i. A steam engine 'is a machine for the
conversion of heat into mechanical work, in which the working
substance is water and water vapour. The working substance
may be regarded from two points of view. Thermodynamically
it is the vehicle by which heat is conveyed to and through the
engine 'from the hot source (the furnace and boiler). Part of
this heat suffers a transformation into work as it passes through,
and the remainder is rejected, still in the form of heat. Mechani-
cally the working substance is a medium capable of exerting
pressure, which effects this transformation in doing work by
means of the changes of volume which it undergoes in the
operation of the machine. Regarded as a thermodynamic
device, the function of the engine is to get as much work as
possible from a given quantity of heat or, to go a step further
back, from the combustion of a given quantity of fuel. Accord-
ingly, a question of primary importance is what is called the
efficiency of the engine, which is the ratio of the work done to
the heat supplied. Before, however, proceeding to discuss
the steam engine in this aspect, or treating of the mechanics
of its modern forms, it may be useful to give a brief historical
sketch of its early development as an industrial appliance.
In any such sketch the chief share of attention must necessarily
be given to the work of James Watt. But a process of evolution
had been going on before the time of Watt which prepared the
steam engine for the immense improvements it received at his
hands. His labours stand in natural sequence to those of
Thomas Newcomen, and Newcomen's to those of Denis Papin
and Thomas Savery. Savery's engine in its turn was the reduc-
tion to practical form of a contrivance which had long before
been known as a scientific toy. The most modern type of all,
the steam turbine of C. A. Parsons, is a new departure which
has but little to connect it directly with the past; but even the
steam turbine not only profits by the inventions of Watt, but
in its characteristic feature
finds crude prototypes in
apparatus which employed
the kinetic energy of jets of
steam.
2. One of these, indeed, is
mentioned amongst the ear-
Hero, 130 liest notices we
B.C. have of any heat
engine. In the Pneumatica
of Hero of Alexandria (c.
130 B.C.) there is described
the aeolipile, which is a
primitive steam reaction tur-
bine, consisting of a spherical
vessel pivoted on a central
axis and supplied with steam
FIG. I. Hero's Apparatus, 1303.0.
through one of the pivots. The steam escapes by bent pipes
facing tangentially in opposite directions, at opposite ends of
a diameter perpendicular to the axis. The globe revolves by
reaction from the escaping steam just as a Barker's mill is
driven by escaping water. Another apparatus described by
Hero (fig. i) 1 is interesting as the prototype of a class of engines
which long afterwards became practically important. A hollow
altar containing air is heated by a fire kindled on it; the air
in expanding drives some of the water contained in a spherical
vessel beneath the altar 'into a bucket, which descends and
opens the temple doors above by pulling round a pair of
vertical posts to which the doors are fixed. When the fire is
extinguished the air cools, the water leaves the bucket, and the
doors close. In another device a jet of water driven out by
expanding air is turned to account as a fountain.
3. From the time of Hero to the lyth century there is no
progress to record, though here and there we find evidence that
appliances like those described by Hero were used
for trivial purposes, such as organ-blowing and the '^ ort "'
turning of spits. The next distinct step was the
publication in 1601 of a treatise on pneumatics by Giovanni
Battista della Porta, in which he shows an apparatus similar
to Hero's fountain, but with steam instead of air as the dis-
placing fluid. Steam generated in a separate vessel passes into
a closed chamber containing water, from which a pipe (open
under the water) leads out. He also points out that the con-
densation of steam in the closed chamber may be used to pro-
duce a vacuum and suck up water from a lower level. In fact,
his suggestions anticipate very fully the engine which a century
later became in the hands of Savery the earliest commercially
successful steam engine. In 1615 Solomon de Caus gives a
plan of forcing up water by a steam fountain which differs from
Della Porta's only in having one vessel serve both as boiler and
as displacement-chamber, the hot water being itself raised.
4. Another line of invention was taken by Giovanni Branca
(1629), who designed an engine shaped like a water-wheel, to
be driven by the impact of a jet of steam on its vanes, and
in its turn to drive other mechanism for various useful purposes.
But Branca's suggestion was for the time unproductive, and we
find the course of invention reverting to the line followed by
Della Porta and De Caus.
5. The next contributor is one whose place is not easily
assigned. To Edward Somerset, second marquis of Worcester,
appears to be due the credit of proposing, if not marquis of
making, the first useful steam engine. Its object Worcester,
was to raise water, and it worked probably like t663 -
Delia Porta's model, but with a pair of displacement-chambers,
from each of which alternately water was forced by steam from
an independent boiler, or perhaps by applying heat to the
chamber itself, while the other vessel was allowed to refill.
Lord Worcester's description of the engine in art. 68 of his
Century of Inventions (1663) is obscure, and no drawings are
extant. It is, therefore, difficult to say whether there were
any distinctly novel features except the double action; in
particular, it is not clear whether the suction of a vacuum
was used to raise water as well as the direct pressure of
steam.
6. The steam engine first became commercially successful in
the hands of Thomas Savery, 2 who, in 1698, obtained a patent for
a water-raising engine, shown in fig. 2. Steam is
admitted to one of the oval vessels A, displacing
water, which it drives up through the check-valve
B. When the vessel A is emptied of water the supply of
steam is stopped, and the steam already there is condensed
by allowing a jet of cold water from a cistern above to stream
over the outer surface of the vessel. This produces a vacuum
and causes water to be sucked up through the pipe C and
the valve D. Meanwhile steam has been displacing water
1 From Greenwood's translation of Hero's Pneumatica.
2 Savery was born probably in 1650 and died in 1715. See Sir E.
Durning Lawrence's presidential address to the Royal Institution
of Cornwall (Journ. of the Roy. Inst. of Cornwall, No. li.), repub-
lished with a reprint of Savery's Miner's Friend of 1702, in which
he discusses the originality of Savery's invention and dismisses the
claims put forward for Lord Worcester.
STEAM ENGINE
819
from the other vessel, and is ready to be condensed there.
The valves B and D open only upwards. The supplementary
boiler and furnace E
are for feeding water to
the main boiler; E is
filled while cold and a
fire is lighted under it;
it then acts like the
vessel of De Gaus in
forcing a supply of feed-
water into the main
boiler F. The gauge
cocks G, G are an inter-
esting feature in detail.
Another form of Savery's
engine had only one dis-
placement-chamber and
worked intermittently.
In the use of artificial
means to condense the
steam, and in the appli-
cation of the vacuum so
formed to raise water
FIG. 2. Savery's Pump- c \ f b X suction from a level
ing Engine, 1698. lower than that of the
engine, Savery's engine
was probably an improvement on Worcester's; in any case it
found what Worcester's engine had failed to find considerable
employment in pumping mines and in raising water to supply
houses and towns, and even to drive water-wheels. A serious
difficulty which prevented its general use in mines was the fact that
the height through which it would lift water was limited by the
pressure the boiler and vessels could bear. Pressures as high
as 8 or 10 atmospheres were employed and that, too, without
a safety-valve but Savery found it no easy matter to deal with
high-pressure steam; he complains that it melted his common
solder, and forced him, as Desaguliers tells us, " to be at the pains
and charge to have all his joints soldered with spelter." Apart
from this drawback, the waste of fuel was enormous, from the
condensation of steam which took place on the surface of the
water and on the sides of the displacement-chamber at each
stroke; the consumption of coal was, in proportion to the work
done, some twenty times greater than in a good modern steam
engine. In a tract called The Miner's Friend Savery alludes
thus to the alternate heating and cooling of the water- vessel:
" On the outside of the vessel you may see how the water goes
out as well as if the vessel were transparent, for so far as the
steam continues within the vessel so far is the vessel dry without
and so very hot as scarce to endure the least touch of the hand.
But as far as the water is, the said vessel will be cold and wet
where any water has fallen on it; which cold and moisture
vanishes as fast as the steam in its descent takes the place of
the water." Before Savery's engine was entirely displaced
by its successor, Newcomen's, it was improved by J. T. Desagu-
liers, who applied to it the safety valve (invented by Papin),
and substituted condensation by a jet of cold water within the
vessel for the surface condensation used by Savery. To Savery
is ascribed the first use of the term " horse power " as a measure
of the performance of an engine.
7. So early as 1678 the use of a piston and cylinder (long
before known as applied to pumps) in a heat-engine had been
Cylinder suggested by Jean de Hautefeuille, who proposed
and to use the explosion of gun-powder either to raise a
Piston piston or to force up water, or to produce, by the sub-
Eagine. se q ue nt cooling of the gases, a partial vacuum into
which water might be sucked up. Two years later Christian
Huygens described an engine in which the explosion of gun-
powder in a cylinder expelled part of the gaseous contents, after
which the cooling of the remainder caused a piston to descend
under atmospheric pressure, and the piston in descending did
work by raising a weight.
8. In 1600 Denis Papin, who ten years before had invented
the safety-valve as an adjunct to his " digester," suggested that
the condensation of steam should be employed to make a vacuum
under a piston previously raised by the expansion
of the steam. Papin's was the earliest cylinder
and piston steam engine, and his plan of using steam
was that which afterwards took practical shape in the atmo-
spheric engine of Newcomen. But his scheme was made
unworkable by the fact that he proposed to use but one vessel
as both boiler and cylinder. A small quantity of water was
placed at the bottom of a cylinder and heat was applied. When
the piston had risen the fire was removed, the steam was allowed
to cool, and the piston did work in its down-stroke under the
pressure of the atmosphere. After hearing of Savery's engine
in 1705 Papin turned his attention to improving it, and devised
a modified form, shown in fig. 3, in which the displacement-
FlG. 3. Papin, 1705.
chamber A was a cylinder, with a floating diaphragm or piston
on the top of the water to keep the water and steam from direct
contact with one another. The water was delivered into a
closed air-yessel B, from which it issued in a continuous stream,
against the vanes of a water-wheel. After the steam had done
its work in the displacement-chamber it was allowed to escape
by the stop-cock C instead of being condensed. Papin's engine
was, in fact, a non-condensing single-acting steam pump, with
steam cylinder and pump cylinder in one. A curious feature
of it was the heater D, a hot mass of metal placed in the dia-
phragm for the purpose of keeping the steam dry. Among
the many inventions of Papin was a boiler with an internal
fire-box the earliest example of a construction that is now
almost universal. 1
9. While Papin was thus going back from his first notion
of a piston engine to Savery's cruder type, a new inventor
had appeared who made the piston engine a practical fi ewcomen < s
success by separating the boiler from the cylinder Atmospheric
and by using (as Savery had done) artificial means
to condense the steam. This was Thomas New-
comen, who in 1705, with his assistant, John
nos.
Cawley,
in
gave the steam engine
the form shown in fig.
4. Steam admitted from
the boiler to the cylin-
der allowed the piston
to be raised by a heavy
counterpoise on the other
side of the beam. Then
the steam valve was
shut and a jet of cold
water entered the cylin-
der and condensed the
steam. The piston was
consequently forced
down by the pressure of
the atmosphere and did
work on the pump. The
next entry of steam
expelled the condensed FIG. 4. Newcomen's Atmospheric
water from the cylinder Engine, 1705.
1 For an account of Papin's inventions see his Life and Corre-
spondence, by Dr E. Gerland (Berlin, 1881).
820
STEAM ENGINE
through an escape valve. The piston was kept tight by a
layer of water on its upper surface. Condensation was at first
effected by cooling the outside of the cylinder, but the accidental
leakage of the packing water past the piston showed the advan-
tage of condensing by a jet of injection water, and this plan
took the place of surface condensation. The engine used steam
whose pressure was little if at all greater than that of the atmo-
sphere; sometimes, indeed, it was worked with the manhole lid
off the boiler.
10. About 1711 Newcomen's engine began to be introduced
for pumping mines. It is doubtful whether the action was
originally automatic, or depended on the periodical
Valve-gear turning of taps by an attendant. The common story
is that in 1713 a boy named Humphrey Potter,
whose duty it was to open and shut the valves of an engine
he attended, made the engine self-acting by causing the beam
itself to open and close the valves by suitable cords
and catches. This device was simplified in 1718 by Henry
Beighton, who suspended from the beam a rod called the plug-
tree, which worked the valves by means of tappets. By
1725 the engine was in common use in collieries, and it held
its place without material change for about three-quarters of a
century in all. Near the close of its career the atmospheric
engine was much improved in its mechanical details by John
Smeaton, who built many large engines of this type about
the year 1770, just after the great step which was to make
Newcomen's engine obsolete had been taken by James Watt.
Compared with Savery's engine, Newcomen's had (as a
pumping engine) the great advantage that the intensity of
pressure in the pumps was not in any way limited by the pressure
of the steam. It shared with Savery's, in a scarcely less degree,
the defect already pointed out, that steam was wasted by the
alternate heating and cooling of the vessel into which it was
led. Though obviously capable of more extended uses, it was
in fact almost exclusively employed to raise water in some
instances for the purpose of turning water-wheels to drive other
machinery. Even contemporary writers complain of its vast
" consumption of fuel," which appears to have been scarcely
smaller than that of the engine of Savery.
n. In 1763 James Watt, an instrument maker in Glasgow,
while engaged by the university in repairing a model of New-
comen's engine, was struck with the waste of steam
to which the alternate chilling and heating of the
cylinder gave rise. He saw that the remedy, in his
own words, would lie in keeping the cylinder as hot as the steam
that entered it. With this view he added to the engine a new
organ an empty vessel separate from the cylinder, into which
the steam should be allowed to escape from the cylinder, to be
condensed there by the application of cold water either outside
or as a jet. To preserve the vacuum in his condenser he added
a pump called the air-pump, whose
function was to pump from it the
condensed steam and water of con-
densation, as well as the air which
would otherwise accumulate by leak-
age or by being brought in with the
steam or with the injection water.
Then, as the cylinder was no longer
used as a condenser, he was able to
keep it hot by clothing it with non-
conducting bodies, and in particular
by the use of a steam jacket, or layer
of hot steam between the cylinder
Further, and still with the same
Watt.
1763.
FIG. 5. Watt's Experi-
mental Apparatus.
and an external casing,
object, he covered in the top of the cylinder, taking the piston-
rod out through a steam-tight stuffing-box, and allowed steam
instead of air to press upon the piston's upper surface. The
idea of using a separate condenser had no sooner occurred to
Watt than he put it to the test by constructing the apparatus
shown in fig. 5. There A is the cylinder, B a surface condenser,
and C the air-pump. The cylinder was filled with steam above
the piston, and a vacuum was formed in the surface condenser B.
On opening the stop-cock D the steam rushed over from the
cylinder and was condensed, while the piston rose and lifted a
weight. After several trials Watt patented his improvements
in 1769; they are described in his specification in the following
words, which, apart from their immense historical interest,
deserve careful study as a statement of principles which to this
day guide the scientific development of the steam engine:
" My method of lessening the consumption of steam, and conse-
quently fuel, in fire-engines, consists of the following principles :
" First, That vessel in which the powers of steam are to be em-
ployed to work the engine, which is called the cylinder in common
fire-engines, and which I call the steam-vessel, must, during the whole
time the engine is at work, be kept as hot as the steam that enters
it; first by enclosing it in a case of wood, or any other materials
that transmit heat slowly; secondly, by surrounding it with steam
or other heated bodies; and, thirdly, by suffering neither water nor
any other substance colder than the steam to enter ortouch it during
that time.
" Secondly, In engines that are to be worked wholly or partially
by condensation of steam, the steam is to be condensed in vessels
distinct from the steam-vessels or cylinders, although occasionally
communicating with them; these vessels I call condensers; and,
whilst the engines are working, these condensers ought at least to
be kept as cold as the air in the neighbourhood of the engines, by
application of water or other cold bodies.
" Thirdly, Whatever air or other elastic vapour is not condensed
by the cold of the condenser, and may impede the working of
the engine, is to be drawn out of the steam-vessels or condensers
by means of pumps, wrought by the engines themselves, or other-
wise.
" Fourthly, I intend in many cases to employ the expansive force
of steam to press on the pistons, or whatever may be used instead
of them, in the same manner in which the pressure of the atmosphere
is now employed in common fire-engines. In cases where cold water
cannot be had in plenty, the engines may be wrought by this force
of steam only, by discharging the steam into the air after it has done
its office. . . .
" Sixthly, I intend in some cases to apply a degree of cold not
capable of reducing the steam to water, but of contracting it con-
siderably, so that the engines shall be worked by the alternate
expansion and contraction of the steam.
' Lastly, Instead of using water to render the pistons and other
parts of the engine air and steam tight, I employ oils, wax, resinous
bodies, fat of animals, quicksilver and other metals in their fluid
state."
The fifth claim was for a rotary engine, and need not be quoted
here.
The " common fire engine " alluded to was the steam engine,
or, as it was more generally called, the " atmospheric " engine
of Newcomen. Enormously important as Watt's first patent
was, it resulted for a time in the production of nothing more than
a greatly improved engine of the Newcomen type, much less
wasteful of fuel, able to make faster strokes, but still only suitable
for pumping, still single-acting, with steam admitted during
the whole stroke, the piston, as before, pulling the beam by a
chain working on a circular arc. The condenser was generally
worked by injection, but Watt has left a model of a surface
condenser made up of small tubes, in every essential respect
like the condensers now used in marine engines. 1
12. Fig. 6 is an example of the Watt pumping engine of this
period. It should be noticed that, although the top of the cylinder
is closed and steam has access to the upper side of the
piston, this is done only to keep the cylinder and piston
warm. The engine is still single-acting; the steam in
the upper side merely plays the part which w.as played
in Newcomen's engine by the atmosphere; and it is
the lower end of the cylinder alone that is ever put in communi-
cation with the condenser. There are three valves: the " steam "
valve a, the " equilibrium " valve b, and the " exhaust " valve
c. At the beginning of the down-stroke c is opened to produce a
vacuum below the piston and a is opened to admit steam above it.
At the end of the down-stroke a and c are shut and b is opened.
This puts the two sides in equilibrium and allows the piston to
be pulled up by the pump-rod P, which is heavy enough to serve
as a counterpoise. C is the condenser, and A the air-pump, which
discharges into the hot well H, whence the supply of the feed-pump
F is drawn.
13. In a second patent (1781) Watt describes the " sun-and-
planet" wheels and other methods of making the engine give
1 An interesting detailed narrative of the steps leading to his
invention was written by Watt as a note to the article " Steam
Engine " in Robison's System of Mechanical Philosophy (1822).
See Ewing, The Steam Engine and other Heat Engines, pp. 15-15*-
Watt's
Pumping
Engine,
1769.
STEAM ENGINE
821
continuous revolving motion to a shaft provided with a
flywheel. He had invented the crank and connecting-rod for
this purpose, but it had meanwhile been patented
^ v one Pickard, and Watt, rather than make terms
with Pickard, whom he regarded as a plagiarist of
his own ideas, made use of his sun-and-planet motion until the
patent on the crank expired. The reciprocating motion of earlier
forms had served only for pumping; by this invention Watt
opened up for the steam engine a thousand other channels of
FIG. 6. Watt's Single- Acting Engine, 1769.
usefulness. The' engine was still single-acting; the connecting-
rod was attached to the far end of the beam, and that carried
a counterpoise which served to raise the piston when steam
was admitted below it.
14. In 1782 Watt patented two further improvements of the
first importance, both of which he had invented some years
other before. One was the use of double action, that is
inventions to say, the application of steam and vacuum to
at Watt. eacn side O f the piston alternately. The other
(invented as early as 1769) was the use of steam expan-
sively, in other words the plan (now used in all engines that
aim at economy of fuel) of stopping the admission of steam
when the piston had
made only a part of its
stroke, and allowing the
rest of the stroke to
be performed by the
expansion of the steam
already in the cylinder.
To let the piston push as
well as pull the end of the
beam Watt devised his
so-called parallel motion,
an arrangement of links
connecting the piston-
rod head with the beam
in such a way as to
guide the rod to move
in a very nearly straight
line. He further added
the throttle valve, for
regulating the rate of
admission of steam, and
the centrifugal governor,
a double conical pendu-
FIG. 7. Watt s Double-Acting , . , ,
Engine, 1782. lum > whlch controlled
the speed by acting on
the throttle-valve. The stage of development reached at this
time is illustrated by the engine of fig. 7 (from Stuart's
History of the Steam Engine), which shows the parallel
motion pp, the governor g, the throttle-valve I, and a pair of
steam and exhaust valves at each end of the cylinder. Among
other inventions of Watt were the " indicator," by which
diagrams showing the relation of the steam pressure in the
cylinder to the movement of the piston are automatically
drawn; a steam tilt-hammer; and also a steam locomotive
for ordinary roads but this invention was not prosecuted.
In partnership with Matthew Boulton, Watt carried on in
Birmingham the manufacture and sale of his engines with the
utmost success, and held the field against all rivals in spite of
severe assaults on the validity of his patents. Notwithstanding
his accurate knowledge of the advantage to be gained by using
steam expansively, he continued to employ only low pressures
seldom more than 7 Ib per sq. in. over that of the atmo-
sphere. His boilers were fed, as Newcomen's had been, through
an open pipe which rose high enough to let the column of water
in it balance the pressure of the steam. He gave a definite
numerical significance to the term " horse-power" (q.v.) as a
mode of rating engines, defining it as the rate at which work is
done when 33,000 Ib are raised one foot in one minute.
15. In the fourth claim in Watt's first patent the second
sentence describes a non-condensing engine, which would have
required steam of a higher pressure. This, how- p{ oa .
ever, was a line of invention which Watt did not condensing
follow up, perhaps because so early as 1725 a Bngiae.
non-condensing engine had been described by Jacob Leupold
his Theatrum machinarum. Leupold's proposed engine
is shown in fig. 8, which
makes its action sufficiently
clear. Watt's aversion to
high - pressure steam was
strong, and its influence on
steam engine practice long
survived the expiry of his
patents. So much indeed
was this the case that the
terms " high-pressure " and
" non-condensing " were for
many years synonymous in
contradistinction to the
" low-pressure " or condens-
ing engines of Watt. This
nomenclature no longer holds;
in modern practice many
condensing engines use as
high pressures as non-con- FlG . 8 ._L eU pold's Non-Condensing
densing engines, and by doing Engine, 1725.
so are able to take advantage
of Watt's great invention of expansive working to a degree
which was impossible in his own practice.
1 6. The introduction of the non-condensing and, at that
time, relatively high-pressure engine was effected in England
by Richard Trevithick and in America by Oliver Hlga .
Evans about 1800. Both Evans and Trevithick pressure
applied their engines to propel carriages on roads, Steam.
and both used for boiler a cylindrical vessel with a cylindrical
flue inside the construction now known as the Cornish
boiler. In partnership with William Bull, Trevithick had
previously made direct acting pumping-engines, with an inverted
cylinder set over and in line with the pump-rod, thus dis-
pensing with the beam that had been a feature in all earlier
forms. But in these " Bull " engines, as they were called, a
condenser was used, or, rather, the steam was condensed
by a jet of cold water in the exhaust-pipe, and Boulton and
Watt successfully opposed them as infringing Watt's patents.
To Trevithick belongs the distinguished honour of being the
first to use a steam carriage on a railway; in 1804 he built a
locomotive in the modern sense, to run on what had formerly
been a horse-tramway, in Wales, and it is noteworthy that the
822
STEAM ENGINE
exhaust steam was discharged into the funnel to force the furnace
draught, a device which, twenty-five years later, in the hands
of George Stephenson, went far to make the locomotive what
it is to-day. In this connexion it may be added that as early
as 1769 a steam carriage for roads had been built in France by
Nicolas Joseph Cugnot, who used a pair of single-acting high-
pressure cylinders to turn a driving axle step by step by means
of pawls and ratchet-wheels. To the initiative of Evans may be
ascribed the early general use of high-pressure steam in the
United States, a feature which for many years distinguished
American from English practice.
17. Amongst the contemporaries of Watt one name deserves
special mention. In 1781 Jonathan Carter Hornblower con-
structed and patented what would now be called
a compound engine, with two cylinders of different
sizes. Steam was first admitted into the smaller
cylinder, and then passed over into the larger, doing work
against a piston in each. In Hornblower's engine the two
cylinders were placed side by side, and both pistons worked
on the same end of a beam overhead. This was an instance
of the use of steam expansively, and as such was earlier
than the patent, though not earlier than the invention, of
expansive working by Watt. Hornblower was crushed by the
Birmingham firm for infringing their patent in the use of a
separate condenser and air-pump. The compound engine was
revived in 1804 by Arthur Woolf, with whose name it is often
associated. Using steam of fairly high pressure, and cutting
off the supply before the end of the stroke in the small cylinder,
Woolf expanded the steam to several times its original volume.
Mechanically the double-cylinder compound engine has this
advantage over an engine in which the same amount of expan-
sion is performed in a single cylinder, that the sum of the forces
exerted by the two pistons in the compound engine varies less
throughout the action than the force exerted by the piston of the
single-cylinder engine. This advantage may have been clear to
Hornblower and Woolf and to other early users of compound
expansion. But another and probably a more important merit
of the system lies in a fact of which neither they nor for many
years their followers in the use of compound engines were aware
the fact that by dividing the whole range of expansion into
two parts the cylinders in which these are separately performed
are subject to a reduced range of fluctuation in their tempera-
ture. This, as will be seen later, limits to a great extent a source
of waste which is present in all steam engines, the waste which
results from the heating and cooling of the metal by its alternate
contact with hot and cooler steam. The system of compound
expansion is now used in nearly all large engines that pretend
to economy. Its introduction forms the most outstanding
improvement which steam engines of the piston and cylinder
type have undergone since the time of Watt; and we are able
to recognize it as a very important step in the direction set forth
in his " first principle " that the cylinder should be kept as hot
as the steam that enters it.
18. Woolf introduced the compound engine somewhat widely
about 1814 as a pumping engine in the mines of Cornwall.
But here it met a strong competitor in the high-
pressure single-cylinder engine of Trevithick, which
had the advantage of greater simplicity in construc-
tion. Woolf's engine fell into comparative disuse, and the
single-cylinder type took a form which, under the name of
the Cornish pumping engine, was for many years famous for
its great economy of fuel. In this engine the cylinder was set
under one end of a beam, from the other end of which hung a
heavy rod which operated a pump at the foot of the shaft.
Steam was admitted above the piston for a short portion of the
stroke, thereby raising the pump-rod, and was allowed to expand
for the remainder. Then an equilibrium valve, connecting the
space above and below the piston, as in fig. 6, was opened, and
the pump-rod descended, doing work in the pump and raising
the engine piston. The large mass which had to be started
and stopped at each stroke served by its inertia to counter-
balance the unequal pressure of the steam, for the ascending
rods stored up energy of motion in the early part of the stroke*
when the steam pressure was greatest, and gave out energy in
the later part, when expansion had greatly lowered the pressure.
The frequency of the stroke was controlled by a device called
a cataract, consisting of a small plunger pump, in which the
plunger, raised at each stroke by the engine, was allowed tO'
descend more or less slowly by the escape of fluid below it through
an adjustable orifice, and in its descent liberated catches which
held the steam and exhaust valves from opening. A similar
device controlled the equilibrium valve, and could be set to give
a pause at the end of the piston's down-stroke, so that the pump-
cylinder might have time to become completely filled. The-
Cornish engine is interesting as the earliest form which achieved
an efficiency comparable with that of good modern engines.
For many years monthly reports were published of the " duty "'
of these engines, the " duty " being the number of foot-pounds,
of work done per bushel or (in some cases) per cwt. of coal. The
average duty of engines in the Cornwall district rose from
about 18 millions of foot-pounds per cwt. of coal in 1813 to 68
millions in 1844, after which less effort seems to have been made
to maintain a high efficiency (Proc. Insl. C.E., 1863, vol. 23).
In individual cases much higher results were reported, as in the
Fowey Consols engine, which in 1835 was stated to have a duty
of 125 millions. This (to use a more modern mode of reckon-
ing) is equivalent to the consumption of only a little more than
1 1 Ib of coal per horse-power per hour a result surpassed by
very few engines in even the best recent practice. It is difficult
to credit figures which, even in exceptional instances, place the
Cornish engine of that period on a level with the most efficient
modern engines in which compound expansion and higher
pressure combine to make a much more perfect thermodynamic
machine; and apart from this there is room to question the
accuracy of the Cornish reports. They played, however, a useful
part in the process of steam engine development by directing
attention to the question of efficiency, and by demonstrating
the advantage to be gained by high pressure and expansive
working, at a time when the theory of the steam engine had
not yet taken shape.
19. The final revival of the compound engine did not occur
until about the middle of the ipth century, and then several
agencies combined to effect it. In 1845 M'Naught
introduced a plan of improving beam engines of the
original Watt type, by adding a high-pressure
cylinder whose piston acted on the beam between the centre
and the flywheel end. Steam of higher pressure than had
formerly been used, after doing work in the new cylinder,
passed into the old or low-pressure cylinder, where it was
further expanded. Many engines whose power was proving
insufficient for the extended machinery they had to drive were
" M'Naughted " in this way, and after conversion were found
not only to yield more power but to show a marked economy of
fuel. The compound form was selected by William Pole for
the pumping engines of Lambeth and other waterworks about
1850; in 1854 John Elder began to use it in marine engines;
in 1857 E. A. Cowper added a steam-jacketed intermediate
reservoir for steam between the high and low pressure cylinders,
which made it unnecessary for the low-pressure piston to be just
beginning when the other piston was just ending its stroke.
As facilities increased for the use of high-pressure steam,
compound expansion came into more general use, its advantage
becoming more conspicuous with every increase in boiler pressure
until now there are few large land engines and scarcely any
marine engines that do not employ it. In marine practice,
where economy of fuel is a much more important factor in
determining the design than it is on land, the principle of
compound expansion has been greatly extended by the intro-
duction of triple and even quadruple expansion engines, in which
the steam is made to expand successively in three or in four
cylinders. In locomotive engines, where other considerations,
are of more moment than the saving of coal, compound expansion
has found some application, but its use there is comparatively
rare.
STEAM ENGINE
823
20. The adaptation of the steam engine to railways, begun by
Trevithick, became a success in the hands of George Stephen-
Appttcation son, whose engine, the " Rocket," when tried along
to Loco- with others, in 1829, not only distanced its com-
moth-es. p e titors but settled once and for all the question
whether horse traction or steam traction was to be used
on railways. The principal features of the " Rocket " were
an improved steam-blast for urging the combustion of
coal and a boiler (suggested by Booth) in which a large
heating surface was given by the use of many small tubes
through which the hot gases passed. Further, the cylinders,
instead of being vertical as in earlier locomotives, were set
in at a slope, which was afterwards altered to a position more
nearly horizontal. To these features there was added later
the " link motion," a contrivance which enabled the engine to
be easily reversed and the amount of expansion to be readily
varied. In the hands of George Stephenson and his son
Robert the locomotive took a form which has been in
.all essentials maintained by the far heavier locomotives of
to-day.
21. The first practical steamboat was the tug " Charlotte
Dundas," built by William Symington, and tried in the Forth
Application and Clyde Canal in 1802. A Watt double-acting
toStefm- condensing engine, placed horizontally, acted directly
bunts. jjy a co nnecting-rod on the crank of a shaft at the
stern, which carried a revolving paddle-wheel. The trial
was successful, but steam towing was abandoned for fear
of injuring the banks of the canal. Ten years later Henry
Bell built the " Comet," with side paddle-wheels, which ran
as a passenger steamer on the Clyde; but an earlier inventor
to follow up Symington's success was the American, Robert
Fulton, who, after unsuccessful experiments on the Seine,
fitted a steamer on the Hudson in 1807 with engines made to
his designs by Boulton and Watt, and brought steam naviga-
tion for the first time to commercial success.
22. With improvements in the details of design and construc-
tion it gradually became practicable to use higher steam pressures
Rise la an< ^ higher piston speeds, and consequently to
steam obtain not only greater efficiency, but also a greater
Pressure amount of power from engines of given bulk. In
audio jg-2 g; r p j Bramwell, describing the typical
Piston .. J . ., , r t r
Speed. marine practice of that time, gave a list of engines,
all compound, in which the boiler pressure ranged
from 45 to 60 Ib, the mean piston speed was 350 ft. per
minute, and the consumption of coal 2 to 25 Ib per hour
per indicated horse-power. In 1881 F. C. Marshall gave
a similar list, in which the boiler pressure was 77 Ib, the speed
460 ft. per minute, and the consumption a trifle under 2 Ib.
These were compound engines with expansion in two stages.
The triple expansion engine, introduced by Dr A. C. Kirk
Triple and in 1874, did not come into general use until after
Quadruple 1881. It became the normal type of marine engine,
Expansion. w ; t jj p ressures ranging, as a rule, from 150 to
200 fb, piston speeds generally of 500 or 600 ft. per minute,
but sometimes as high as 900 or 1000, and coal consumption
of about 1 5 Ib per hour per indicated horse-power. In some
instances quadruple expansion has been preferred, with some-
what higher pressures, but it can scarcely be said to be
established that the advantage of adding a fourth stage clearly
compensates for the extra complication. Some particulars of
the dimensions reached in modern practice will be given
later. Several of the vessels engaged in the Transatlantic
passenger service, and also a few armoured cruisers, have
engines in which the twin sets together have an indicated
horse-power exceeding 30,0x20. But even these figures are
eclipsed in ships which are driven by turbine engines. The
cruisers of the " Invincible " class have turbine engines of
41,000 horse-power, and the turbines of the great Cunarders
" Lusitania " and " Mauretania " (1907) develop about 70,000
h.p. in propelling these ships at a speed of 25 knots. It may be
questioned whether such gigantic concentrations of power for
the propulsion of a ship would have been practicable had it not
been for the new possibilities which the introduction of the
steam turbine has opened up.
23. The invention of the steam turbine has in fact revolu-
tionized marine engine practice, so far as fast vessels are con-
cerned, and has supplied a formidable rival to the , ,
Intro-
reciprocating engine for use on land. The steam duct/on
turbine has been brought to a degree of efficiency ofthe
which places it, in respect of economy in steam f.'"^
and coal consumption, on a somewhat higher level
than the best engines of the older type in cases where a
large amount of power is to be generated. Itsgreatersimplicity,
compactness and freedom from vibration are merits which
have already gone far to secure for it a preference, notwith-
standing the short time that has passed since it became
known as a practicable engine. The largest demands for power
occur in fast passenger vessels, in war-ships and in stations
from which electric energy is distributed for traction or other
uses; in all these cases the steam turbine is now taking the
leading place. It is to the inventive genius of the Hon. C. A.
Parsons that we owe not only the main idea of the modern
steam turbine, but also the working out of many novel
mechanical details which have been essential to success, as well
as the adaptation of the turbine to marine propulsion.
24. In the steam turbine, as in the water turbine (for which
see HYDRAULICS), the force directly operative to do useful work
is derived from the kinetic energy of the operative fluid, either
by the impulse of a jet or jets sliding over movable blades, or by
the reaction of orifices or guides from which the jets issue. The
pressure, instead of being exerted on a piston, is employed in
the first instance to set the fluid itself in motion. There is
a conversion of pressure-energy into velocity-energy as a pre-
liminary step towards obtaining the effective work of the machine.
But in a steam turbine this implies velocities which are immensely
greater than those with which water turbines have to deal, in
consequence of the much smaller density of steam as the moving
fluid. Attempts to design a steam turbine were made by
numerous inventors, but fell short of practical success mainly
because of the difficulty of arranging for a sufficiently high
velocity in the working parts to utilize a reasonably large
fraction of the kinetic energy of the steam, the principle involved
being that for good efficiency the velocity of the blades should
approximate to half the velocity of the jets which strike them.
There is a further difficulty in getting the energy of the steam
into a suitable kinetic form, namely, to get the stream of issuing
particles to take a single direction, without undue dispersion,
when steam is allowed to expand through an orifice from a
chamber at high pressure into a space where the pressure is
greatly less.
In 1889 Dr Gustaf de Laval introduced a form of steam turbine
in which both of these difficulties were to a great extent over-
come, partly by the special form of the nozzle used to produce
the steam jet and partly by features of design which allowed
an exceptionally high speed to be reached in the wheel carrying
the vanes against which the steam impinged. This simple type
of turbine, which will be described in a later section of this
article, has met with considerable success, especially in compara-
tively small sizes, as an engine for driving electric generators.
Its efficiency is fairly good, but it is not well adapted for work
on a large scale, and it has not been applied to the propukion
of ships.
Parsons attacked the problem at an earlier date, in an entirely
different way in the invention of his " compound " turbine.
By dividing the whole expansion of the steam into a great
number of successive and separate steps he limited the velocity
acquired at each step to such an extent as to make it compara-
tively easy to extract the greater part of the kinetic energy,
as work done upon the moving blades, without making the
velocity of these blades inconveniently high. Moreover, in
Parsons's compound turbine the range of pressure through which
the steam expands in each separate step is too small to give
rise to any difficulty in the formation of the jets. The guide
blades, which form the jets, are distributed round the whole
824
STEAM ENGINE
circumference of the revolving wheel, and all the revolving blades
are consequently in action at once. The steam streams from
end to end through an annular space between a revolving drum
and the casing which surrounds it. Parallel rings of fixed guide
blades project inwards from the casing at suitable distances,
and between these are rings of moving blades which project out-
wards from the drum and revolve with it. At each step in the
expansion the steam streams through a ring of fixed guide blades,
and the streams so formed impinge on the next ring of moving
blades, and so on. The construction, which is of great simpli-
city, will be described later; it lends itself well to the generation
of power on a large scale, especially in cases where a fairly high
speed of rotation is wanted. The more powerful the turbine
the less important do various inevitable sources of loss become;
and hence, though the small turbines which were first built
were less economical than reciprocating engines, the advantage
is the other way where large powers are concerned.
25. Parsons introduced his compound steam turbine in 1884.
For some years it was made in small sizes only, and the steam
was discharged to the atmosphere without condensation. So
long, however, as this was done the steam turbine was sacrificing
one of its most important advantages, namely, its exceptional
capacity for utilizing the energy of low-pressure steam down
to the lowest vacuum obtainable in a condenser. In 1891 it
was first fitted with a condenser, and it then began to be
used in electric supply stations. Its efficiency at that date
was found, in tests made by the present writer, to be com-
parable with that of good reciprocating compound engines,
but the figures then obtained were much improved on later in
turbines of larger size and modified design. The first applica-
tion to marine propulsion was in the " Turbinia," in 1897.
The success of this little experimental vessel of too tons, which
with its horse-power of 2100 made a record in speed for a ship
of any size, was soon followed by the application of the turbine
to various war-ships and other steamers. In war-ships the use
of steam turbines has a special advantage in enabling the
machinery to be kept at a low level, beneath the protective
deck, in addition to the general advantages of reduced bulk,
reduced vibration, reduced liability to break-down, and reduced
consumption of coal and of oil which are common to vessels of
all classes. The successful trials of the cruiser " Amethyst "
in 1904 demonstrated these advantages so conclusively that all
new war-ships for the British navy, from battleships to torpedo-
boats are being fitted with steam turbines. It is also used in
many cross-channel packets, as well as in the largest ocean-going
passenger vessels. The turbine-driven steamers " Lusitania "
and " Mauretania " (1907) are the most powerful and the fastest
ocean-going vessels afloat. The rapid development of the
marine steam turbine makes it probable that it will displace the
reciprocating engine in all large and fast ships. For slow-going
cargo-boats it is at a disadvantage, unless gearing is resorted
to, on account of the difficulty of securing a sufficiently high
peripheral velocity in the turbine drums without making the
turbines unduly bulky, and the leakage losses (due to steam
passing through the clearance spaces over the tips of the blades)
unduly large. Experiments by Parsons (Trans. Inst. Nav.
Arch., 1910) on a ship in which a slow-running propeller is
driven through reducing-gear from a high-speed turbine, have
given highly promising results.
Enough has been said to show that the invention of the steam
turbine is the most important step in steam engineering since
the time of Watt. It is the first solution of the problem of
using steam efficiently in an engine without reciprocating parts.
The object in most steam engines is to deliver power to revolving
machinery, and much ingenuity has been expended in attempts
to devise engines which will produce rotation directly, instead
of by conversion of reciprocating motion. No rotary engine,
however, was permanently successful until the steam turbine
took a practical form.
26. In the early development of the steam engine inventors
had little in the way of theory to guide them. Watt had the
advantage, which he acknowledges, of a knowledge of Joseph
Black's doctrine of latent heat; but there was no philosophy
of the relation of work to heat until long after the inventions
of Watt were complete. The theory of the steam Theory of
engine as a heat engine dates from 1824, when steam
N. L. Sadi Carnot published his Reflexions sur Engine.
la puissance motrice du feu, and showed that heat does work
only by being let down from a higher to a lower tempera-
ture. But Carnot had no idea that any of the heat disappears
in the process, and it was not until the doctrine of the conserva-
tion of energy was established in 1843 by the experiments of
J. P. Joule that the theory of heat engines began a vigorous
growth. From 1849 onwards the science of thermodynamics
was developed with extraordinary rapidity by R. J. M. Clausius,
W. J. Macquorn Rankine and William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
and was applied, especially by Rankine, to practical problems
in the use of steam. The publication in 1859 of Rankine's
Manual of the Steam Engine formed an epoch in the history of
the subject by giving inventors a new basis, outside of mere em-
piricism, from which they could push on the development of the
steam engine. Unfortunately, however, it was assumed that the
cylinder and piston might be treated as behaving to the steam
like non-conducting bodies that the transfer of heat between
the steam and the metal was negligibly small. Rankine's cal-
culations of steam consumption, work and thermodynamic
efficiency involve this assumption, except in the case of steam-
jacketed cylinders, where he estimates that the steam in its
passage through the cylinder takes just enough heat from the
jacket to prevent a small amount of condensation which would
otherwise occur as the process of expansion goes on. If the
transfer of heat from steam to metal could be overlooked,
the steam which enters the cylinder would remain during
admission as dry as it was before it entered, and the volume of
steam consumed per stroke would correspond with the volume
of the cylinder up to the point of cut-off. It is here that the
actual behaviour of steam in the cylinder diverges most widely
from the behaviour which the theory assumes. When steam
enters the cylinder it finds the metal chilled by the previous
exhaust, and a portion of it is at once condensed. This has the
effect of increasing, often very largely, the volume of boiler
steam required per stroke. As expansion goes on the water that
was condensed during admission begins to be re-evaporated
from the sides of the cylinder, and this action is often prolonged
into the exhaust. It is now recognized that any theory which
fails to take account of these exchanges of heat between the
steam and its metal envelope fails also to yield even compara-
tively correct results in calculating the relative efficiency of
various steam pressures or various ranges of expansion. But the
exchanges of heat are so complex that there seems little prospect
of submitting them to any comprehensive theoretical treatment,
and information is rather to be sought from the scientific analysis
of experiments with actual machines.
27. Formation of Steam under Constant Pressure. In attempting
a brief sketch of steam engine theory it is necessary to begin by giving
some account of the properties of steam, so far as they are relevant.
The properties of steam are most conveniently stated by referring
in the first instance to what happens when steam is formed under
constant pressure. This is substantially the process which occurs
in the boiler of a steam engine when the engine is at work. To fix
the ideas we may suppose that the vessel in which steam is to be
formed is a long upright cylinder fitted with a piston which may be
loaded so that it exerts a constant pressure on the fluid below. Let
there be, to begin with, at the foot of the cylinder a quantity of
water (which for convenience of numerical statement we shall take
as i ft), at any temperature A>; and let the piston press on the surface
of the water with a force of p ft per square foot. Let heat now be
applied to the bottom of the cylinder. As it enters the water it
will produce the following effects in three stages :
1. The temperature of the water rises until a certain temperature
t is reached, at which steam begins to be formed. The value of
t depends on the particular pressure p which the piston exerts.
Until the temperature / is reached there is nothing but water below
the piston.
2. Steam is formed, more heat being taken in. The piston (which
is supposed to exert a constant pressure) rises. No further increase
ofttemperature occurs during this stage, which continues until all
the water is converted into steam. During this stage the steam
STEAM ENGINE
825
which is formed is said to be saturated. The volume which the piston
encloses at the end of this stage the volume, namely, of I Ib of
saturated steam at pressure p (and temperature /) will be denoted
by v in cubic feet.
3. If after all the water is converted into steam more heat be
allowed to enter, the volume will increase and the temperature will
rise. The steam is then said to be superheated.
The difference between saturated and superheated steam may be
expressed by saying that if water (at the temperature of the steam)
be mixed with steam some of the water will be evaporated if the
steam is superheated, but none if the steam is saturated. Any
vapour in contact with its liquid and in thermal equilibrium is
necessarily saturated. When saturated its properties differ con-
siderably, as a rule, from those ot a perfect gas, especially at high
pressures, but when superheated they approach those of a perfect
gas more and more closely the further the process of superheating
is carried, that is to say, the more the temperature is raised above t,
the temperature of saturation corresponding to the given pressure p.
28. Relation of Pressure and Temperature in Saturated Steam. The
temperature / at which steam is formed depends on the value of p.
Their relation was determined with great care by Regnault (Mem.
Inst. France, vol. xxi.). The pressure of saturated steam rises with
the temperature at a rate which increases rapidly in the upper regions
of the scale. This will be apparent from the first and second columns
of the following table. The first column gives the temperature on
the Centigrade scale; the second gives the corresponding pressure
in pounds per square inch.
29. Relation of Volume and Temperature. The same table shows
the volume t> in cubic feet occupied by I ft of saturated steam at
each temperature. This is based on the investigations of H. L.
Callendar who has shown (see THERMODYNAMICS and VAPORIZATION)
that an equation of the form
RT , ,
v = j-+b-c
is applicable to water vapour, whether saturated or superheated,
within the limits of experimental error throughout the range of
pressure that is important in engineering practice. In this equation
T is the absolute temperature, R and b are constants and c is a
term varying inversely as a certain power of the temperature. By
aid of this equation, in conjunction with the results of various
experiments on the latent heat and other properties of steam,
Callendar has shown that it is possible to frame expressions from which
numerical values of all the important properties of steam may be
derived throughout a range of saturation temperatures extending
from o C. to 200 C. or so. The values so obtained are thermo-
dynamically consistent with one another, and are in good agree-
ment with the most authoritative experimental results. They are
accordingly to be accepted in lieu of those given in earlier steam
tables which depended on measurements by Regnault, and are now
known to be in some particulars erroneous. R. Mollier has applied
Calendar's method with great completeness to the calculation of
steam tables, and the figures given here are adapted from his results. 1
In addition to the relation of temperature, pressure and volume,
the table shows other properties of steam which will be explained
as we proceed.
30. Supply of Heat in Formation of Steam under Constant Pressure.
We have next to consider the supply of heat in the imaginary
experiment of 27. During the first stage, until the temperature
rises from its initial value to to /, the temperature at which steam
begins to form under the given pressure, heat is required only to
warm the water. Since the specific heat of water is nearly constant,
the amount of heat taken in during the first stage is approximately
t to thermal units, or J (/ A>) foot-pounds, J being Joule's equiva-
lent, and this expression for it will generally serve with sufficient
accuracy in practical calculations. More exactly, however, the heat
taken in is somewhat greater than this at high temperatures, for
Regnault's experiments show that the specific heat of water increases
slightly as the temperature rises. In stating the amount of heat
required for this first stage, to must be taken as a known tempera-
ture; for convenience in numerical statement the temperature o C.
is usually chosen as an arbitrary starting-point from which the recep-
tion of heat is to be reckoned. We shall employ the symbol h to
designate the heat required to raise I ft of water from o C. to the
temperature t at which steam begins to form. During the first
stage, sensibly all the heat supplied goes to increase the stock of
internal energy which the fluid possesses, the amount of external
work which is done by the expansion of the fluid being negligible.
The heat taken in during the second stage is what is called the
latent heat of steam, and is denoted by L. Of it a part is spent in
doing external work, namely, p multiplied by the excess of the volume
of the steam v over the volume of the water w, and the remainder is
the difference of internal energy between I ft of steam at / and I ft of
water at /.
31. Total Heal of Steam. Adding together the heat taken in
during the first and second stages, we have a quantity designated
1 R. Mollier, Neue Tabellen und Diagramme fur Wasserdampf
(Berlin, 1906). See aUo Ewing's Steam Engine (3rd ed., 1910).
by H which may be called the heat of formation of I ft of saturated
steam :
H=h+L.
The heat of formation of I ft of steam, when formed under constant
pressure from water at any temperature to, is H h a , where ho
corresponds to 4>.
It has been pointed out by Mollier that for the purpose of calcula-
tions in technical thermodynamics it is convenient to add to the
heat of formation the quantity pwj], which represents the thermal
equivalent of the work spent in introducing the water under the
piston, against the constant pressure p, before the operation of
heating imagined in 27 begins, w being the volume of the water.
We thus obtain a quantity which in its numerical values differs only
very slightly from H, namely
We shall call this the total heat of saturated steam. Values of I
are stated in the table. Since the volume of I ft of water is only
Properties of Saturated Steam.
Tempera-
ture.
Centigrade.
Pressure
Ib per
sq. in.
Volume
cub. ft.
per Ib.
Total Heat.
Entropy.
Of Water.
Of Steam.
Of Water.
Of Steam.
O
0-089
3283
O
5947
O
2-178
5
O-I27
2354-
5-o
597-1
0-018
2-148
10
0-178
1708-
10 -0
5994
0-036
2-Ilg
15
0-246
1253-
15-0
601-8
0-054
2-091
20
0-336
931-
20 -o
604-1
0-07I
2-064
25
0-455
699-5
25-0
606-5
0-088
2-039
3>
0-610
530-7
30-0
608-8
O-IO4
2-015
35
0-809
406-8
350
6n-i
O-I2I
991
40
1-062
314-8
40 I
6I3-5
0-137
969
45
I-38I
245-8
45-i
615-8
0-153
'947
50
I- 7 8
193-7
50-1
618-0
0-169
927
55
2-27
153-9
55-i
620-3
0-184
907
60
2-88
123-3
60 i
622 6
0-199
888
65
3-61
99 5
65-2
624-8
O-2I4
870
70
4-5I
80-9
70-2
627-0
O-229
852
75
5-58
66-24
75-3
629-2
0-244
835
80
6-86
546o
80-3
631-3
0-258
819
85
8-38
45-29
85-3
633-5
O-272
803
90
10-16
3779
90-4
635-6
0-286
1-788
95
12-26
3171
95-5
637-6
0-300
1773
IOO
14-70
26-75
100-5
639-7
0-314
1759
105
I7-52
22-69
105 6
641-7
0-327
1745
no
20-79
19-34
110-7
643-6
0-340
i 732
115
24-55
1656
115-8
645-5
0-354
1-719
I2O
28-83
14-25
120-9
647-4
0-367
1-706
125
3372
12-30
126-0
649-2
0-379
1-694
130
39-26
10-67
131-1
651-0
0-392
1-682
135
45-51
9-29
136-2
652-8
0-405
i -671
I4O
52 56
8-12
141-3
654-5
0-417
i -660
145
60-42
7-13
1464
656-1
0-430
1-649
ISO
69-24
6-274
151-6
657-8
0-442
1-638
155
79-04
5-542
1567
659-3
0-454
1-628
1 6O
89-93
4-910
161-9
6608
0-466
1-618
165
101 -98
4-363
167-1
662-3
0-478
I -608
170
115-27
3-891
172-2
6637
0-489
1-599
175
1299
3-478
177-4
665-0
0-501
589
180
I45-9
3-116
182-6
666-3
0-512
580
185
163-4
2-800
187-9
667-6
0-524
57i
190
182-6
2-523
I93-I
668-8
0-535
563
195
203-4
2-279
198-3
670-0
0-546
'554
200
226-0
2-063
203-6
671-1
0-557
546
205
250-5
1-874
208-9
672-2
0-568
538
2IO
277-2
1-703
214-1
673-2
o-579
530
215
306-8
I-546
219-4
6/4 'I
0590
522
0016 cub. ft. the term pw/J is numerically insignificant except
at the highest pressures. Similarly, in reckoning the total heat
of water I*, we add pwj] to h, and this quantity is also given in the
table. The latent heat L is to be found from the table by sub-
tracting In, the total heat of water, from the total heat of steam.
We shall use the centigrade scale of temperature throughout this
article, and accordingly the total heats are expressed in terms of
a unit involving the centigrade degree, namely, the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit mass of water through
I_C. at 15 C. With this unit of heat the mechanical equivalent
J is 1400 foot-pounds when the unit of mass is the ft, and is 427
kilogram-metres when the unit of mass is the kilogramme.
32. Internal Energy. Of the heat of steam the part pvj] is spent
in doing external work. The remainder has gone to increase the
stock of internal energy which the substance possesses.
In dealing with the heat required to produce steam we adopted
the state of water at pC. as an arbitrary starting-point from which
to reckon the reception of heat. In the same way it is convenient
826
STEAM ENGINE
to use this arbitrary starting-point in reckoning what may be called
the internal energy of the substance, which is the excess of the heat
taken in over the external work done by the substance during its
reception of heat. Thus the internal energy E of I Ib of saturated
steam at pressure p is equal to the total heat I, less that part of the
total heat which is spent in doing external work, or
The notion of internal energy is useful in calculating the heat taken
in or rejected by steam during any stage of its expansion or com-
pression in an engine. When a working substance passes from
one condition to another its gain or loss of heat is determined by
the equation
Heat taken in = increase of internal energy -{-external work.
Any of the terms of this equation may be negative; the last term
is negative when work is done, not by but upon the substance.
33. Wet Steam. In calculations which relate to the action of
steam in engines we have often to deal, not with dry saturated steam,
but with wet steam, or steam which either carries in suspension, or
is otherwise mixed with, a greater or less proportion of water. In
any such mixture, assuming it to be in equilibrium, the steam and
water have the same temperature, and the steam is saturated. The
dryness of wet steam is measured by the proportion q of dry steam
in each pound of the mixed substance. When that is known it is
easy to determine the other physical constants : thus
Latent heat of I ft of wet steam = qL ;
Total heat of I Ib of wet steam = I,-|-gL;
Volume of i Ib of wet steam = gti+(i q)
= oti very nearly,
unless the steam is so wet as to consist mainly of water.
34. Superheated Steam. Steam is superheated when its tempera-
ture is raised, in any manner, above the temperature corresponding
to saturation at the actual pressure. When considerably super-
heated, steam approximates in behaviour to a perfect gas.
The specific heat during superheating is nearly constant at low
pressures, its value being approximately 0-48; at high pressures -it
is higher, especially when the amount of superheating is slight.
Calendar's equations enable it to be calculated for any assigned
conditions of temperature and pressure. They also allow a direct
determination to be made of the total heat of superheated steam
of given temperature and pressure, and from this, by comparison
with the total heat of saturated steam at the same pressure, the mean
specific heat over any stated range of superheating may be found.
Calling I, the total heat of steam in the saturated condition, when
the temperature is /, K the mean specific heat in superheating at
constant pressure to a higher temperature /' and I' the total heat
in the superheated state, we have
I' =1. +(/'-/).
The following are values of <t:
Temperature of
Temperature of Saturation t in C.
Superheat /' in C.
80
120
160
180
200
100
0-49
150
0-49
0-51
200
0-49
0-51
o-54
o-57
250
0-48
0-50
o-53
0-56
o-59
300
0-48
0-50
0-52
o-54
o-57
350
0-48
0-49
0-51
o-53
0-56
400
0-48
0-49
0-51
0-52
o-55
450
0-48
0-49
0-51
0-52
o-54
35. Isothermal Expansion of Steam. The expansion of volume
which occurs during the conversion of water into steam under
constant pressure is isothermal. From what has been already said
it is obvious that steam, or any other saturated vapour, can be
expanded or compressed isothermally only when wet, and that
evaporation (in the one case) or condensation (in the other) must
accompany the process. Isothermal lines for a working substance
which consists of a liquid and its vapour are straight lines of uniform
pressure.
36. Adiabatic Expansion of Steam. If steam initially dry be
allowed to expand adiabatically (namely, without taking in or giving
out any heat) it becomes wet. A part of the steam is condensed
by the process of adiabatic expansion, at first in the form of minute
particles suspended throughout the mass. The temperature and
pressure fall; and, as that part of the substance which remains
uncondensed is saturated, the relation of pressure to temperature
throughout the expansion is that which holds for saturated steam.
Before expansion let the initial dryness of the steam be q\ and its
absolute temperature T. Then, if it expand adiabatically until it?
temperature falls to T, its dryness after expansion may be shown
to be
LI and L are the latent heats (in thermal units) of I ft of steam
before and after expansion respectively. When the steam is dry to
begin with, 31 = i.
This formula is easily applied to the construction of the adiabatic
curve when the initial pressure and the pressure after expansion
are given, the corresponding values T and L being found from the
table.
37. Ideal Action of Heat Engine. According to the principles
of thermodynamics (g.f.), the action of a heat engine depends on
its receiving heat at a temperature higher than that at which it is
capable of rejecting heat to surrounding objects. The working
substance in the engine must necessarily pass from an upper tem-
perature, at which it takes in heat, to a lower temperature, at which
it rejects heat, the difference between the heat taken in and the heat
rejected being the thermal equivalent of the work done. It may
readily be shown that when the conditions are such as to make this
difference as great as possible-yin other words, to make the efficiency
reach its ideal limit the ratio of the heat taken in to the heat
rejected depends only on the temperature at which reception and
rejection of heat occur. Calling TI and n the absolute temperatures
at which heat is taken in and rejected respectively, and Qi and Q 2 the
quantities of heat taken in and rejected, the limit of efficiency is
reached when Qi/Qt = TI/TI. The efficiency then has the value
(Qi-QO/QiHn-T.O/T,
and W, the work done, is QI(TI T 2 )/n.
In the ideal engine imagined by Carnot the action is of this simple
character. The working substance is brought by adiabatic com-
pression from the lower to the upper extreme of temperature. It
then takes in heat, without changing in temperature. Next, it
expands adiabatically until its temperature falls to the lower extreme
and finally at that temperature it rejects enough heat to restore it
to its initial state, thereby completing a cycle of operations.
38. Carnot's Cycle with Steam for Working Substance. We are
now in a position to study the action of a heat engine err ploying
steam as the working substance. To simplify the first consideration
as far as possible, let it be supposed that we have a long cylinder
composed of non-conducting material except at the base, and fitted
with a non-conducting piston; also a source of heat A at some
temperature n; a receiver of heat, or, as we may now call it, a con-
denser C, at a lower temperature T 2 ; and a non-conducting cover B.
Then we can perform as follows the ideal reversible cycle of operations
first described by Carnot, which gives the highest possible efficiency
attainable in any heat engine. To fix the ideas, suppose that there
is lib of water in the cylinder to begin with, at the temperature TI :
1. Apply A, and allow the piston to rise. The water will take
in heat and be converted into steam, expanding isothermally at
constant pressure pi. This part
of the operation is shown
by the line ab in fig. 9.
2. Remove A and apply
B. Allow the expansion to
continue adiabatically (be),
with falling pressure, until
the temperature falls to n.
The pressure will then be p } ,
namely, the pressure given
in the table corresponding
to TI.
3. Remove B, apply C,
and compress. Steam is con-
densed by rejecting heat to
C. The action is isothermal, J| FIG. 9. Carnot's Cycle with
and the pressure remains i water and steam for workin g
p 2 . Let this be continued substance
until a certain point d is
reached, after which adiabatic compression will complete the cycle.
4. Remove C and apply B. Continue the compression, which
is now adiabatic. If the point d has been rightly chosen, this will
complete the cycle by restoring the working fluid to the state of
water at temperature TI.
The " indicator diagram " or diagram exhibiting the relation of
pressure to volume for such a cycle is given in fig. 9. Since the
process is reversible, and since heat is taken in only at n and rejected
only at TI, the ideal conditions for perfect efficiency are satisfied, and
accordingly the efficiency is (TI TS/TI. The heat taken in per ft of
the fluid is Li, and the work done is LI(TI TJ)/TI, a result which
may be used to check the calculation of the diagram.
39. Efficiency of a Perfect Steam Engine: Limits of Temperature.
If the action here described could be realized in practice, we shoi Id
have a thermodynamically perfect steam engine using saturated
steam. The fraction of the heat supplied to it which such an engine
would convert into work would depend simply on the temperati re,
and therefore on the pressure, at which the steam was produced and
condensed. The temperature of condensation is limited by the
consideration that there must be an abundant supply of some
substance to absorb the rejected heat; water is actually used for
this purpose, so that TI has for its lower limit the temperature of
the available water-supply.
To the higher temperature TI a practical limit is set by the
mechanical difficulties, with regard to strength and to lubrication,
which attend the use of high-pressure steam. In engines of ordinary
construction the pressure is rarely so much as 250 Ib per sq. in.
STEAM ENGINE
827
It must not be supposed that the efficiency (n T 2 )/ri is actually
attained, or is even attainable. Many causes conspire to prevent
steam engines from being thermodynamically perfect, and some of
the causes of imperfection cannot be removed.
40. Engine with Separate Organs. In the ideal engine represented
in fig. 10 the functions of boiler, cylinder and condenser are com-
bined in a single vessel; but, provided the working substance passes
through the same cycle of operations, it is indifferent whether these
are performed in several vessels or in one. To approach a little
more closely the conditions that hold in practice, we may think of
the engine as consisting of
a boiler A (fig. 10) kept at
TI, a non-conducting cylinder
and piston B, a surface con-
denser C kept at T Z , and a
feed-pump D which restores
the condensed water to the
boiler. When the several
organs of the engine are
separated in this way we
can still carry out the first
three stages of the cyclic
' process described in 38.
The first stage of that cycle
FIG. 10. Organs of a Steam Engine.
into the cylinder. Then the point known as the point of cut-off
is reached, at which admission ceases, and the steam already
in the cylinder is allowed to expand, exerting a diminishing pres-
sure on the piston. This is the second stage, or the stage of
expansion. The process of expansion may be carried on until
the pressure falls to that of the condenser, in which case the
expansion is said to be complete. At the end of the expansion release
takes place, that is to say, communication is opened with the con-
denser. Then the return stroke begins, and a period termed the
exhaust occurs, that is to say, steam passes out of the cylinder, into
the condenser, where it is condensed at the pressure in the condenser,
which is felt as a back pressure opposing the return of the piston.
So far, all has been essentially reversible and identical with the
corresponding parts of Carnot's cycle.
But we cannot complete the cycle as Carnot s cycle was completed.
The existence of a separate condenser makes the fourth stage, that
of adiabatic compression, impracticable, and the best we can do is
to continue the exhaust until condensation is complete, and then
return the condensed water to the boiler.
41. Rankine Cycle. It follows that the ideal cycle of Carnot is
not an appropriate standard with which to compare the action of
a real steam engine. Instead of it we have, in the engine with
separated organs, a cycle which is commonly called the Rankine
cycle, which differs from the Carnot cycle only in this, that the stage
of adiabatic compression, is wanting and its place is taken by a
direct return of the condensed water to the boiler, a process which
makes the water receive heat at various temperatures, ranging from
the temperature of the condenser up to that of the boiler. The chief
part of the heat which the working substance receives is still taken
in at the upper limit of temperature, during the process of changing
from water to steam. But a small part is taken in at lower tempera-
tures, namely, in the heating of the feed water in its transfer to the
boiler. Any heat so taken in has less availability for conversion
into work than if it were taken in at the top of the range, and conse-
quently the ideal efficiency of the cycle falls somewhat short of this
ideal reached in the cycle of Carnot.
But the principle still applies that with respect to each portion
of the heat that is taken in, the fraction convertible into work under
ideally favourable conditions is measured by (T T 2 )/r, where T is the
absolute temperature at which that portion of heat is received,
and T 2 is the temperature at which heat is rejected. Accordingly,
we may investigate as follows the ideal performance of an engine
following the Rankine cycle. Let SQ represent that portion of
the whole heat which is taken in at any temperature T. Then the
greatest amount of work obtainable from that portion of heat is
iQ(r T 2 )/T, and the whole amount of work ideally obtainable in
the complete process is found by calculating ZSQ(T T Z )/T where
the summation includes all the heat that is taken in. In a steam
engine using saturated steam the principal item in this sum is the
latent heat Li, which is taken in at constant temperature TI, during
the change of state from water to steam. But there is, in addition,
the heat taken in'by the feed-water before it reaches the temperature
at which steam is formed, and this may be represented as the sum
of a series of elements aSr taken in at varying temperatures r,
where a is the specific heat of water. Thus if W represents the thermal
equivalent of the work theoretically obtainable per Ib of steam, under
ideally favourable conditions,
The experiments of Regnault show that <r, within the limits of
temperature that obtain in boilers, is a nearly constant quantity,
and no serious error will be introduced in this integration by
treating it as a constant, with a value equal to the mean value, as
determined by Regnault, between the limits of TI and T 2 . On this
jasis
L,(T, r,).
W = g (r, - T.) - <rr 2 log. ^ +
It is usual to take a as practically equal to I, which makes
This expresses the greatest amount of work which each pound of steam
can yield when the temperature TI at which it reaches the engine
and the temperature r 2 at which it leaves the engine are assigned.
It consequently serves as a standard with which the actual per-
formance may usefully be compared. The actual yield per Ib
of steam is always considerably less, chiefly because the ideal
condition of adiabatic expansion from the higher to the lower
extreme of temperature is never satisfied.
A more simple expression for the work theoretically obtainable
per Ib of steam when expanded adiabatically under the conditions
of the Rankint cycle, is
where Ii is the total heat of the working substance in the initial
state, before the adiabatic expansion, and I 2 is its total heat after
that expansion. For it may readily be proved that, in an adiabatic
process,
and this integral is the area of the indicator diagram when the
substance is taken in at p\, expanded to p? and discharged at p^.
This expression applies whether the steam is initially superheated
or not. I 2 will in general be the total heat of a wet mixture, and to
calculate it we must know the condition as to wetness which results
from the expansion. This is most easily found, especially when
there has been initial superheat, by making use of the entropy-
temperature diagram to be presently described, or by other graphic
methods, for an account of which the reader should refer to the paper
by Mollier already cited, or to J. A. Ewing's The Steam Engine and
other Heat Engines (3rd ed.).
42. Entropy. The study of steam-engine problems is greatly
assisted by introducing the idea of entropy and making use of dia-
grams in which the two co-ordinates are entropy and temperature.
Entropy is a condition of the working substance defined by the
statement that when any quantity of heat 6Q is received by, or
generated in, or rejected by the substance, when its absolute tem-
perature is T, the substance gains or loses entropy by the amount
8Q/T. Thus 26Q/T measures the whole change of entropy in a
process which involves the taking in or rejection of heat at more
than one temperature. We shall denote entropy by 0, and consider
it as reckoned per unit of mass of the substance. Since by definition
of entropy 84> = 5Q/T, rS<t> = oQ, and hence if a curve be drawn
with T and <#> for ordinates to exhibit the action of a working substance,
the area under the curve, or jrd<t>, being equal to 25Q, measures
the heat which the substance has received or rejected during the
operation which the curve represents.
In a reversible cycle of operations Carnot's principle shows that
Z5Q/T = o, and it is obvious in such a case that the entropy returns
at the end of the cycle to its primitive value. The same result may
be extended to a cycle which includes any non-reversible step, by
taking account of the heat generated within the substance by such
a step, as if it were heat communicated from outside, in the reckoning
of entropy. Thus, for example, if at one stage in the cycle the sub-
stance passes through a throttle-valve, which lowers its pressure
without letting it do work, the action is equivalent in effect to an
adiabatic expansion, together with the communication to the sub-
stance, as heat, of the work which is lost in consequence of the
irreversible expansion through the throttle-valve taking the place
of adiabatic expansion against a piston. If this heat be included
in the reckoning 2SQ/r = o for the complete cycle.
The entropy-temperature diagram for any complete cyclic process
is a closed curve, and the area it encloses, being the excess of the
heat received over the heat rejected, measures the work done. The
entropy-temperature diagram shares this useful characteristic with
the pressure-volume diagram, and in addition it shows directly the
heat received and the heat rejected by the areas under the forward
and backward limbs of the curve. To draw the entropy-tempera-
ture diagram for the ideal steam engine (namely, the engine following
the Rankine cycle), we have to reckon first the entropy which water
acquires in being heated, and next the entropy Li/n which is acquired
when the conversion into steam has taken place. Reckoning from
any standard temperature r a , in the heating of the feed-water up
to any temperature T, the entropy acquired is
adr
and taking a as sensibly constant,
, = a (log.r logero)
During evaporation at r, a quantity of heat L! is taken in at
temperature n, and hence the entropy of the steam
<t>, = <t> a +Li/Ti = a (logeTi log.ro) +LI/TI-
828
STEAM ENGINE
\
Values of the entropy of water and steam are given in the table.
The entropy-temperature diagram for a Rankine cycle is illustrated
in fig. n, where ab, a
logarithmic curve, repre-
sents the process of heat-
ing the feed-water, and
be the passage from the
state of water into that
of steam. The diagram
/ is drawn to scale for a
case in which steam is
formed at a pressure of
180 tb per sq. in., and
condensed at a pressure
of I Ib per sq. in. After
the formation of the
steam, the next step in
the ideal process is
adiabatic expansion from
the higher to the lower
limit of temperature,
which is represented by
the vertical straight line
tlGf ll - cd, an adiabatic process
being also isentropic. Finally, the cycle is completed by da, which re-
presents the condensation of the steam after its temperature has been
reduced by adiabatic expansion to the lower limit of temperature.
The area abed represents the work done, and its value per Ib of
steam is identical with W as reckoned above. The area mabcp is
the whole heat taken in, and the area madp is the heat rejected.
Let a curve cf be drawn to show the values of the entropy of
steam for various temperatures of saturation: then if ad be pro-
duced to meet the curve in /, the ratio fd/fa represents the fraction
of the steam which was condensed during adiabatic expansion.
For the point / represents the state of I Ib of saturated steam, and
in the condensation of I Ib of saturated steam the heat given out
would be the area under fa, whereas the heat actually given out in
the condensation from d was the area under da. Thus the state
at d is that of a wet mixture in which da/fa represents the fraction
present as steam, and fd/fa the fraction present as water. It obviously
follows that by drawing horizontal lines at intermediate tempera-
tures the development of wetness in the expanding steam can be
readily traced. Again, if the steam is not dry when expansion begins,
its state may be represented by making the expansion line begin
at a point in the line be, such that the segments into which the line
is divided are proportional to the constituents of the wet mixture.
In this way the ideal process may be exhibited for steam with any
assumed degree of initial wetness. Further, the entropy-temperature
diagram admits of ready application to the case of incomplete
expansion. Suppose, for example, that after adiabatic expansion
from c to c' (fig. 12) the steam is d'Vectly cooled to the lower-limit
FIG. 12.
temperature by the application of cooling water instead of by con-
tinued expansion. This process is represented by the line c'ed,
7
which is a curve of constant volume. Its form is determined by
the consideration that at any point e the proportion of steam still
uncondensed, or le/lk, is such that the mixture fills the same volume
as was filled at c'.
43. Entropy-Temperature Diagrams extended to the Case of Super-
heated Steam. In the diagrams which have been sketched, it has
been assumed that the
steam is supplied to the
engine in a saturated state.
To extend the same treat-
ment to the case of super-
heated steam, we have to
take account of the supple-
mentary supply of heat
which the steam receives
after the point c is reached,
and before expansion be-
gins. When superheating
is resorted to, as is now
often the case in practice,
the superheat is given at
constant pressure. If K
represent as before the
mean specific heat of steam
at constant pressure, the
addition of entropy during
FIG. 13.
the process of superheating from n to r' is n(r'Ti). The value of
K may be treated as approximately constant, and the addition to
the entropy may then be written as x(log T' log n). This gives a
line such as er on the entropy diagram (fig. 13), and increases
the value of W by the amount
/V*fr(T-T,)
Jn T
which is represented on the diagram by the area dcrs. During
adiabatic expansion from r the steam remains superheated until
it reaches the state t, when it is just saturated, and further
expansion results in the condition of wetness indicated by s. The
extra work dcrs is done at the expense of the extra supply of heat
pcru, and an inspection of the diagram suffices to show that the
efficiency of the ideal cycle is only very slightly increased by even
a large amount of superheating. In practice, however, superheating
does much to promote efficiency, because it materially reduces the
amount by which the actual performance of an engine falls short
of the ideal performance by keeping the steam comparatively dry
in its passage through the engine, and thereby reducing exchanges
of heat between the steam and the metal.
44. Entropy of Wet Steam. The entropy of wet steam is readily
calculated by considering that the change of entropy in the conver-
sion from water to steam will be qL/r if the steam is wet, q being
the dryness. Accordingly the entropy of wet steam at any tempera-
ture T is <r(log e r logeT )+gL/-r. Further, since a for water is
practically equal to unity this expression may be written
<t> = logeT l
We may apply this expression to trace the development of wetness
in steam when it expands adiabatically. In adiabatic expansion
< = constant. Using the suffix I to distinguish the initial state,
we therefore have at any stage in the expansion
logeT logTo+gL/T=logeTi l
from which the dryness at that stage is found, namely,
The expression is not applicable to steam which is initially super-
heated. In either case the graphic method of tracing the change
of condition during adiabatic expansion is available.
45. Actual Performance. Trials of engines using saturated steam
show that in the most favourable cases from 60 to 65 % of the ideally
possible amount of work is realized as "indicated" work. One
of the causes of loss is that the expansion is incomplete. In practice
the steam is allowed to escape to the condenser, while its pressure
is still considerably higher than the pressure at which condensation
is to take place. When the pressure of steam in the cylinder has
been so far reduced by expansion that it can only overcome the
friction of the piston, there is no advantage in going on further;
the indicated work due to any additional expansion would add
nothing to the output of the engine, when allowance is made for
the work spent on friction within the mechanism itself. Considera-
tions of bulk often lead to an even earlier release of the expanding
steam; and another consideration which points the same way is that
when expansion is carried very far, the losses due to exchange of
heat between the cylinder and the steam, referred to below, tend
to increase. Again, since experience shows that the most efficient
engines are those in which the process of expansion is divided into
two, three or more stages by the use of compounded cylinders,
a certain amount of loss is to be ascribed to the drops in pressure
which are liable to occur through unresisted expansion in the transfer
of steam from one vessel to another. But the chief cause of loss
is to be found in the exchanges of heat which take place between
the steam and the metal. In each cylinder there is a process of
alternate condensation and re-evaporation condensation during
the period of admission, when the steam finds itself brought into
contact with metal which has been chilled by evaporation during
the preceding exhaust stroke, and then evaporation, when the
pressure has fallen sufficiently, during the later stage of expansion,
as well as during exhaust. The consequence is that the steam,
though supplied in a dry
state, may contain some 2O
or 15 % of moisture when
admission to the cylinder is
complete, and the entropy
diagram for the real process
of expansion takes a form
such as is indicated by the
line e'c" in fig. 14. The heat
supplied is still measured by p
the area under abc. The
condensation from c to c' occurs by contact with the walls of the
cylinder; and though part of the heat thus abstracted is restored
before release occurs at c", the general result is to make a large
reduction in the area of the diagram.
46. Exchanges of Heal between the Steam and the Metal. The
exchanges of heat between steam and metal in the engine cylinder
have been made the subject of an elaborate experimental examination
696
STEAM ENGINE
829
by Professors Callendar and Nicolson (Proc. Inst. C.E.
cxxxi. 147), who studied the cyclic variations of temperature
throughout the metal by means of thermo-electric junctions set
at various depths. They found that the range of temperature
through which the surface of the metal fluctuates is much less than
the range of temperature passed through by the steam; the
processes of condensation and re-evaporation are slow, and the time
is too short to bring the surface of the metal into anything like
equilibrium with the steam. The amount of condensation up to
the point of cut-off, as inferred from the heat which the metal takes
up, may be much less than the " missing quantity " or difference
between the steam supplied per stroke and the dry steam then present.
According to their experiments, this discrepancy is accounted for
by leakage of steam past the valve, direct from the steam chest to
the exhaust, and they suggest that this source of error may have
been present in many estimates of initial condensation based on
determinations of the missing quantity. This may explain cases
in which the initial condensation has apparently been excessive,
but large amounts of initial condensation certainly do occur, and
constitute the most potent factor in making the real performance
of the engine fall short of the ideal standard. 1
In the alternate condensation and re-evaporation of steam in the
cylinder more heat is given to the metal by each pound of steam that
is condensed than is taken from the metal by each pound of steam
that is re-evaporated, the temperature of condensation being higher
than that of re-evaporation. The quantity Hi H 2 , namely, the
difference in the heat of formation at the two temperatures, repre-
sents this excess of heat. Unless this is in some way abstracted
from the metal, the process cannot occur. Hence the action of the
cylinder walls in causing alternate condensation and re-evaporation
to occur may be limited by imposing conditions which prevent or
reduce the abstraction of heat. By the use of a steam jacket the
metal may be prevented from losing heat externally, and may even
be made to take up heat. Under these conditions the action
depends on the fact that more water is re-evaporated than is con-
densed. To some extent this is a necessary result of the work done
during expansion, which (in an adiabatic process) would make the
steam become wetter as expansion proceeds, and would therefore
leave more water to be evaporated than is initially condensed by
the action of the cylinder walls. But it is important to notice that
any water which is introduced into the cylinder along with the steam
will be an important factor in supplying the means by which this
thermal balance is maintained. With steam that is perfectly dry
before admission the action of the walls takes its limit from the
condensation which expansion brings about; with steam that is
wet before admission no such limit applies. Hence the importance
of having steam that is initially dry. To secure this, no method
is so certain as to give some initial superheat to the steam, and
hence arises the practical advantage which even a small amount of
superheating is found to bring about.
47. Influence of the Slide-Valve. To a considerable extent the
slide-valve itself promotes initial condensation, for it requires that
the hot steam shall enter the cylinder through a passage which,
immediately before, was chilled by being used for the escape of
exhaust steam. The use of entirely distinct admission and exhaust
ports and valves tends towards economy of steam, partly for this
reason and partly because it allows the clearance spaces to be
reduced. Accordingly, we find that many of the best recorded
results of tests relate to engines in which each cylinder has four
separate valves of the Corliss or of the drop type. By using hori-
zontal cylinders with admission valves on the top and exhaust
valves below, the further advantage of drainage through the exhaust
valves is secured. Water which is present at release has then the
chance of escaping without being re-evaporated, a circumstance
which contributes largely to reduce the exchange of heat between
the working substance and the metal. Thus a horizontal triple-
expansion engine with drop valves, by Messrs Sulzer, using saturated
steam at an absolute pressure of 160 ft per sq. in., and indicat-
ing not much more than 200 h.p., is reported, in a test by
Professor Stodola, to have used only 11-52 Ib of steam per indicated
horse-power-hour (see Engineer, July I, 1898; also' summary of
trials by B. Donkin, ibid., Oct. 13, 1899). The performance in this
test is equivalent to nearly 69 % of the ideal, an exceptionally high
figure. In one or two trials of larger engines even this performance
has been surpassed, 11-2 and 1.1-3 ft per horse-power-hour having
been recorded. In other particularly favourable records of trials
the consumption of steam with triple-expansion engines has been
found to lie between 12 and 13 Ib per horse-power-hour. Some of
the best results relate to slow-running pumping engines fitted with
steam jackets on the barrels and on the covers of the cylinders, and
may be taken as showing how influential, in a long-period engine,
the jacket may prove in reducing the evils of initial condensation.
In the mean of several apparently authoritative trials by different
observers on different engines the consumption of steam was 12-2 Ib
per horse-power-hour, at an absolute pressure of about 140 ft per
sq. in., which corresponds to 66% of the ideal performance.
1 See also " Report of Steam Engine Research Committee," Inst.
Mech. Eng. (1905).
It should be added that these figures are exceptional. A consump-
tion of 13 or 14 ft of steam per horse-power-hour is much more usual
even in large and well-designed triple-expansion engines; and with
two-cylinder compound engines, using steam with an absolute
pressure of 100 or 120 ft per sq. in., anything from 14 to 15 ft
may be reckoned a good performance.
48. Superheated Steam. The advantage of superheated steam,
which arises mainly from its influence in reducing the exchange of
heat between the steam and cylinder walls, was demonstrated by
the experiments of Hirn, and as early as 1860 it was not unusual to
supply superheaters with marine engines. But the practice of
superheating was soon abandoned, chiefly on account of difficulties
in regard to lubrication. By the introduction of heavy mineral oils
this objection has been removed, and a revival in the use of super-
heating has taken place, with striking effect on the thermodynamic
economy of engines. Experiments made in 1892 by the Alsatian
Society of Steam Users on a large number of engines showed that
superheating effected an average saving in coal to the extent of
about 20%, when the superheater was simply placed in the boiler
flue, so that it utilized what would otherwise be waste heat, and
about 12 % when the superheater was separately fired. In those
cases the steam was superheated only about 30 to 45 C. above the
temperature of saturation, but in more recent practice much greater
amounts of superheat have been successfully applied. Professor
Schroter has tested a factory engine of 1000 h.p., using steam super-
heated by some 50 C., and has shown that this amount of super-
heat is not sufficient to prevent some of the steam from becoming
condensed on the walls during admission to the cylinder (Zeitschrift
des Vereins deutscher Ingenieure, vol. xl., 1896). It follows that still
larger amounts of superheat will be thermodynamically advantageous.
That this is the case has been demonstrated by the remarkable results
which have been obtained with highly superheated steam by W.
Schmidt in stationary engines and locomotives. Using a somewhat
special design, Schmidt has shown that it is perfectly practicable to
employ steam superheated to a temperature of 400 C., and that an
efficiency not attainable from steam in any other way is thereby
reached. In several authentic trials of Schmidt engines the consump-
tion of steam has been considerably less than 10 ft per indicated
horse-power-hour a figure which, after allowance is made for the
heat taken up during the process of superheating, represents a better
performance than that of the best engines using saturated or slightly
superheated steam. It has been found that the consumption of
coal, in the boiler and superheater together, need not exceed ij ft
per indicated horse-power even with engines of small power. To
attain this remarkable result it is of course necessary that, after the
hot gases from the furnace have passed the superheater, a further
extraction of heat from them should take place. This is done by an
economizer or feed-water heater of peculiar form, consisting of a long
coil of small pipes which maintain a circulation of hot distilled water
through a closed system containing an external coil, which forms the
heater of a tank through which the feed-water passes on its way to
the boiler. Some of the Schmidt engines adopt the principle of
single action, to escape the necessity of having a piston-rod and gland
on the side which is exposed to contact with high-temperature steam ;
but it is found that this precaution is not essential, and that with
glands of suitable design a double-acting piston may be used without
inconvenience, and without risk of undue wear. In some instances
Schmidt transfers to the partially expanded steam in the interme-
diate receiver a portion of the heat which is conveyed to the engine
by the highly superheated steam; and when this is done, the steam
may properly receive a still higher degree of initial superheat.
Accordingly, though the initial temperature of the steam may be
400 C. or more, this is reduced to about 320 by transfer to steam in
the superheater before the high-pressure steam is admitted to the
cylinder. In tests by the present writer of a Schmidt plant indica-
ting , 180 h.p., in which this device was employed, the steam
was superheated to 397 C. and 10-4 ft were used per horse-power-
hour. In this trial the temperature of the. chimney g*ses was
reduced, by the use of Schmidt's feed-water heater, to 175 C., and
the consumption of coal was 1-31 ft per indicated horse-power-hpur.
In another trial, of a larger engine with steam superheated to 4 2 J C.,
the consumption of steam per horse-power-hour was only 9-0 ft.
49. The Indicator. The actual behaviour of steam in the cylinder
of a steam engine is studied by means of the indicator, which serves
not only to measure the work done but to examine the operation
of the valves and generally to give much useful information regarding
the action of the engine. The indicator, which was invented by
Watt, and improved by Richards, is a device for automatically
drawing a diagram showing the pressure at all points of the piston's
stroke. In its most usual form it consists of a small steam cylinder
fitted with a piston which slides easily within it and is pressed
down by a spiral spring of steel wire. The cylinder of the indicator
is connected by a pipe below this piston to one or other end of the
cylinder of the engine, so that the piston of the indicator rises and
falls in response to the fluctuations of pressure which occur in the
engine cylinder. The indicator piston actuates a pencil, which
rises and falls with it and traces the diagram on a sheet of paper
fixed to a drum that is caused to rotate back and forth through a
certain arc, in unison with the motion of the engine piston. In
8 3 o
STEAM ENGINE
M' Naught's indicator the pencil is directly attached to the indicator
piston, in Richards's the pencil is moved by means of a system of
links so that it copies the motion of the piston on a magnified scale.
This has the advantage that an equally large diagram is drawn with
much less movement of the piston, and errors which are caused
by the piston's inertia are consequently reduced. In high-speed
engines especially it is important to minimize the inertia of the
indicator piston and the parts connected with it. In Richards's
indicator the linkage employed to multiply the piston's motion is
an arrangement similar to the parallel motion introduced by Watt
.as a means of guiding the piston-rod in beam engines. In several
recent forms of indicator lighter linkages are adopted, and other
changes have been made with the object of fitting the instrument
better for high-speed work. One of these modified forms of
Richards's indicator (the Crosby) is shown in fig. 15. The pressure
FIG. 15. Crosby Indicator.'
of steam in the engine cylinder raises the piston P, compressing the
spring S and causing the pencil Q to rise in a nearly straight line
through a distance proportional, on a magnified scale, to the com-
pression of the spring and therefore to the pressure of the steam.
At the same time the drum D, which carries the paper, receives
motion through the cord C from the crpsshead of the engine. Inside
this drum there is a spiral spring which becomes wound up when
the cord is pulled, and serves to turn the drum in the reverse direc-
tion during the back stroke. The cap of the indicator cylinder has
holes in it which admit air freely to the top of the piston, and the
piston has room to descend, extending the spring S, when the pressure
of the steam is less than that of the atmosphere. The spring is easily
taken out and replaced by a more or less stiff one when higher or
lower pressures have to be dealt with.
50. Errors in Indicator Diagrams. To register correctly, an
indicator must satisfy two conditions: (l) the motion of the piston
must be proportional to the change of steam pressure in the engine
cylinder: and (2) the motion of the drum must be proportional to
that of the engine piston.
The first of these requires that the pipe which connects the
indicator with the cylinder should be short and of sufficient bore,
and that it should open in the cylinder at a place where the pressure
in it will not be affected by the kinetic action of the inrushing steam.
Frequently pipes are led from both ends of the cylinder to a central
position where the indicator is set, so that diagrams may be taken
from either end without shifting the instrument; better results are
obtained, especially when the cylinder is long, by using a pair of
indicators, each fixed with the shortest possible connecting pipe.
The general effect of an insufficiently free connexion between the
indicator and the engine cylinder is to make the diagram too small.
The first condition is also invalidated to some extent by the friction
of the indicator piston, of the joints in the linkage, and of the pencil
on the paper. The piston must slide very freely; nothing of the
nature ot packing is permissible, and any steam that leaks past it
must have a free exit through the cover. The pencil pressure must
not exceed the minimum which is necessary for clear marking.
Another source of disturbance is the inertia of the moving parts,
which tends to set them into oscillation whenever the indicator
piston suffers a comparatively sudden displacement. These oscilla-
tions, superposed upon the legitimate motions of the piston, give a
wavy outline to parts of the diagram, especially when the speed is
.great. When they appear on the diagram a continuous curve
should be drawn midway between the crests and hollows of the
undulations. To keep them within reasonable compass in high-
speed work a stiff spring must be used and an indicator with light
parts should be selected. Care must be taken that the spring is
graduated to suit the temperature (about 100 C.) to which it is
exposed when in use; its stiffness at this temperature is about 3 %
less than when cold.
51. Measurement of Horse-Power. To determine the indicated
horse-power, the mean effective pressure is found by dividing the
area of the diagram by the length of its base. This gives a mean
height, which, interpreted on the scale of pressures, is the mean
effective pressure in pounds per square inch. This has to be multi-
plied by the effective area of the piston in square inches and by the
length of the piston stroke in feet to find the work done per stroke
in foot-pounds on that side of the piston to which the diagram refers.
Let AI be the area of the piston on one side and A 2 on the other;
pi and pi the mean effective pressures on the two sides respectively;
L the length of the stroke in feet ; and n the number of complete
double strokes or revolutions per minute. Then the indicated
horse-power
I.H.P.=
33000
In finding the mean pressure the area of the diagram may be
conveniently measured by a planimeter. A less accurate plan,
frequently followed, is to divide the diagram by lines drawn at
the middle of strips of equal width and to take the mean pressure
as the average height of these lines.
$2. Tests of Efficiency. In testing the actual efficiency of an
engine the work done as determined by the indicator is compared
with the supply of heat, which is calculated from the amount of
steam passing through the engine. We may find the amount of
steam passing through either by measuring the feed-water or, when
a surface condenser is used, by collecting the condensed water from
the air-pump discharge and measuring that, adding the water
drained from jackets if any are used. In some trials both of these
.measurements have been made, and it has been found that in general
the amount of feed-water exceeds the amount of steam discharged
from air-pump and jackets by something like 3 or 4 %, a discre-
pancy due to leakages in the boiler and the engine'. The results
of tests are generally stated by giving the number of pounds of steam
used per horse-power-hour, or by giving the work done by each
pound of steam, a quantity which is directly comparable with the
amount of work ideally obtainable, if the engine followed the perfect
Rankine cycle already discussed. To make a complete engine trial
the engine is caused to work not only at full power, but at various
fractions of its greatest load. The results are very conveniently
represented (in a manner due to P. W. Willans) by drawing a curve,
the co-ordinates of which are the horse-power and the total consump-
tion of steam per hour. This " Willans Line," as it is called, is in
most cases straight or nearly straight. Another useful curve is
drawn by plotting the steam used per horse-power-hour in relation
to the horse-power.
53. Determination of the "Missing Quantity." When the amount
of steam passing through the engine is known, the indicator diagram
enables the degree of wetness of the steam to be estimated at
various stages in the expansion from cut-off to release, provided
there is no direct passage from steam-chest to exhaust, such as has
been referred to above in connexion with Messrs Callendar and
Nicolson's researches. For this purpose we must first calculate the
quantity of the working substance present in the cylinder. It is
made up of two parts, namely, the amount supplied per stroke, plus
the amount retained by being shut up in the clearance space. If
we assume, as may generally be done without serious error, that
at the beginning of compression the steam present in the cylinder
is dry, it is an easy matter to deduce from the diagram, knowing the
pressure and the volume, how much steam is shut up in the clearance.
Adding that to the supply per stroke, we get the whole quantity
that is present from cut-off to release. The volume which this would
occupy at each pressure, if saturated, is found from the steam table.
The volume actually occupied at each pressure is found from the
diagram, and by comparing the two it is easy to infer how much of
the substance exists as water and how much as steam. The ratio
of the two volumes measures with sufficient accuracy the dryness of
the steam. Any direct leakage from the steam side to the exhaust
side of the valve will invalidate this calculation, which proceeds on
the basis that all the steam passing through the engine passes through
the cylinder.
54. Compound Engines, In the original form of compound engine,
invented by Hornblower and revived by Woolf, steam passed
directly from the first to the second cylinder; the exhaust from the
first and admission to the second went on together throughout the
whole of the back stroke. This arrangement is possible only when
the high and low pressure pistons begin and end their strokes
together, as in engines of the " tandem type, whose high and low
pressure cylinders are in one line, with one piston-rod common to
both pistons. Engines in which the high and low pressure cylinders
are placed side by side, and act either on the same crank or on
cranks set at 1 80 apart, may also discharge steam directly from one
to the other cylinder; the same remark applies to beam engines,
whether of the class in which both pistons act on one end of the
beam, or of the class introduced by M'Naught, in which the high and
low pressure cylinders stand on opposite sides of the centre. By a
STEAM ENGINE
831
convenient usage which is now pretty general the name " Woolf
engine " is restricted to those compound engines which discharge
steam directly from the high to the low pressure cylinders without
the use of an intermediate receiver.
55. Receiver Engine. An intermediate receiver becomes necessary
when the phases of the pistons in a compound engine do not agree
With two cranks at right angles, for example, a portion of the
discharge from the high-pressure cylinder occurs at a time when the
low-pressure cylinder cannot properly receive steam. The receiver
is in some cases an entirely independent vessel connected to the
cylinders by pipes; very often, however, a sufficient amount of
receiver volume is afforded by the valve casings and the steam pipe
which connects the cylinders. The receiver, when it is a distinct
vessel, is frequently jacketed.
A receiver is frequently applied with advantage to beam and
tandem compound engines Communication need not then be
maintained between the high and low pressure cylinders during the
whole of the stroke , admission to the low-pressure cylinder is stopped
before the stroke is completed ; the steam already admitted is allowed
to expand independently ; and the remainder of the discharge from
the high-pressure cylinder is compressed into the intermediate
receiver. Each cylinder has then a definite point of cut-off, and by
varying these points the distribution of work between the two
cylinders may be adjusted at will. In general it is desirable to make
both cylinders of a compound engine contribute equal quantities of
work. If they act on separate cranks this has the effect of giving
the same value to the mean twisting moment of both cranks.
56. Compound Diagrams. Wherever a receiver is used, care
should be taken that there should not be a wasteful amount of
unresisted expansion into it; in other words, the pressure in the
receiver should be not greatly less than that in the high-pressure
cylinder at the moment of release. If the receiver pressure is less
there will be what is termed " drop " in the steam pressure between
the high-pressure cylinder and the receiver, which will show itself
in an indicator diagram by a sudden fall at the end of the high-
pressure expansion. This " drop " is, from the thermodynamic
Eoint of view, irreversible, and therefore wasteful. It can be avoided
y selecting a proper point of cut-off in the low-pressure cylinder.
When there is no " drop " the expansion that occurs in a compound
engine has precisely the same effect in doing work as the same amount
of expansion in a simple engine would have, provided the law of
expansion be the same in both and the waste of energy which occurs
by the friction of ports and passages in the transfer of steam from
one to the other cylinder be negligible. The work done in either
case depends merely on the relation of pressure to volume throughout
the process; and so long as that relation is unchang-d it is a matter
of indifference whether the expansion be performed in one vessel or
in more than one. In general a compound engine has a thermo-
dynamic advantage over a simple engine using the same pressure
and the same expansion, inasmuch as it reduces the exchange of
heat between the working substance and the cylinder walls and so
makes the process of expansion more nearly adiabatic. The com-
pound engine has also a mechanical advantage which will be pre-
sently described. The ultimate ratio of expansion in any compound
engine is the ratio of the volume of the low-pressure cylinder to the
volume of steam admitted to
the high-pressure cylinder.
Fig. 16 illustrates the com-
bined action of the two cylin-
ders in a hypothetical com-
pound engine of the Woolf
type, in which for simplicity
the effect of clearance is ne-
glected and also the loss
of pressure which the steam
FIG. 16. Compound Diagrams:
Woolf type.
undergoes in transfer from one to the other cylinder. ABCD
is the indicator diagram of the high-pressure cylinder. The exhaust
line CD shows a falling pressure in consequence of the increase of
volume which the steam is then undergoing through the advance
of the low-pressure piston. EFGH is the diagram of the low-pressure
cylinder drawn alongside of the other for convenience in the construc-
tion which follows. It has no point of cut-off; its admission line
is the continuous curve of expansion EF, which is the same as the
high-pressure exhaust line CD, but drawn to a different scale of
volumes. At any point K, the actual volume of the steam is
KL + MM. By drawing OP equal to KL + MN, so that OP
represents the whole volume, and repeating the same construction
at other points of the diagram, we
may set out the curve QPR, the upper
part of which is identical with BC,
and so complete a single diagram
which exhibits the equivalent expan-
sion in a single cylinder.
In a tandem compound engine of the
receiver type the diagrams resemble
those shown in fig. 17. During CD
_ ._ j _. (which corresponds to FG) expansion
FIG. 17. Compound Uia- is ^j lace into the la or low .
grams: Receiver type. pressure cy l inde r. D and G mark
the point of cut-off in the large cylinder, after which GH shows the
independent expansion of the steam now shut within the large
cylinder, and DE shows the compression of steam by continued
discharge from the small cylinder into the receiver. At the end of
the stroke the receiver pressure is OE, and if there is to be no " drop "
this must be the same as the pressure at C. Diagrams of a similar
kind may be sketched without difficulty for the case of a receiver
engine with any assigned phase relation between the pistons.
57. Adjustment of Work and " Drop." By making the cut-off
take place earlier in the large cylinder we increase the mean pressure
in the receiver; the work done in the small cylinder is consequently
diminished. The work done in the large cylinder is correspondingly
increased, for the total work (depending as it does on the initial
pressure and the total ratio of expansion) is unaffected by the change.
The same adjustment serves, in case there is " drop," to lessen it.
By selecting a suitable ratio of cylinder volumes to one another and
to the volume of the receiver, and also by choosing a proper point
for the low-pressure cut-off, it is possible to divide the work suitably
between the cylinders and at the same time prevent the amount of
drop from being greater than is practically convenient.
58. Uniformity of Effort in a Compound Engine. An important
mechanical advantage belongs to the compound engine in the fact
that it avoids the extreme thrust and pull which would have to be
borne by the piston-rod of a single-cylinder engine working at the
same power with the same initial pressure and the same ratio of
expansion. : If all the expansion took place in the low-pressure
cylinder, the piston at the beginning of the stroke would be exposed
to a thrust much greater than the sum of the thrusts on the two
pistons of a compound engine in which a fair proportion of the
expansion is performed in the small cylinder. The mean thrust
throughout the stroke in a tandem engine is of course not affected
by compounding; only the range of variation in the thrust is reduced.
The effort on the crank-pin is consequently made more uniform,
the strength of the parts may be reduced, and the friction at slides
and journals is lessened. The advantage in this respect is obviously
much greater when the cylinders are placed side by side, instead of
tandem, and work on cranks at right angles. As a set-off to its
advantage in giving a more uniform effort, the compound engine
has the drawback of requiring more working parts than a simple
engine with one cylinder. But in many instances as in marine
engines two or more cranks are almost indispensable, to give a
tolerably uniform effort and to get over the dead points; and the
comparison should then be made between a pair of simple cylinders
and a pair of compounded cylinders. Another point in favour of
the compound engine is that, although the whole ratio of expansion
is great, there need not be a very early cut-off in either cylinder;
hence the common slide-valve, which is unsuited to give an early
cut-off, may be used in place of a more complex arrangement. The
mechanical advantage of the compound engine has long been
recognized, and had much to do with its adoption in the early days
of high-pressure stea. Its subsequent development has been due
in part to this, and in part to the thermodynamic advantage which
has been discussed above.
59. Ratio of Cylinder Volumes. In a two-cylinder compound
engine, using steam at 80 to 100 Ib pressure, the large cylinder has
3 or 4 times the volume of the small cylinder. In triple engines
the pressure is rarely less than 150 ft; the low-pressure cylinder has
generally 6 or 7 times, and the intermediate cylinder 2\ to 2| times
the volume of the high-pressure cylinder. In naval practice the
ratios are about I : 2j- : 5 for a pressure of 160 Ib and I : 2-6 : 7 for a
pressure of 250 ft. In the mercantile marine the engines are nor-
mally working at full power, whereas in the navy most of the working
is at greatly reduced powers, the cruising speed requiring very much
less than the full output. Consequently, for the same boiler pressure,
the cylinder ratio is made less in war-ships to adapt the engines for
economical working under cruising conditions.
60. The Distribution of Steam. In early steam engines the distri-
bution of steam was effected by means of conical valves, worked by
tappets from a rod which hung from the beam. The slide-valve,
the invention of which in the form now known as the long D-slide
FIG. 18. Horizontal Section through Cylinder and Valve-chest:
showing Slide-valve.
is credited to Murdock, an assistant of Watt, came into general
use with the introduction of locomotives, and is now employed, in
one or other of many forms, in the great majority of engines.
The common slide-valve is illustrated in fig. 1 8, which also shows
8 3 2
STEAM ENGINE
the cylinder and the ports and passages leading to its ends. The
seat, or surface on which the valve slides, is a plane surface formed
on or fixed to the side of the cylinder, with three ports or openings
which extend across the greater part of the cylinder's width. The
central opening is the exhaust port through which the steam
escapes ; the others, or steam ports, which are narrower, lead to the
two ends of the cylinder respectively. The valve is a box-shaped
cover which slides over the seat, and the whole is enclosed in a
chamber called the valve-chest, to which steam from the boiler is
admitted. When the valve moves a sufficient distance to either
side of the central position, steam enters one end of the cylinder
from the valve-chest and escapes from the other end of the cylinder
through the cavity of the valve into the exhaust port. The valve
is generally moved by an eccentric on the engine shaft, which is
mechanically equivalent to a crank whose radius is equal to the
eccentricity, or distance from the centre of the shaft to the centre
of the eccentric sheave. The eccentric rod is generally so long that
the motion of the valve is sensibly the same as that which it would
receive were the rod infinitely long. Thus if
a circle (fig. 19) be drawn to represent the path
of the eccentric centre during a revolution of
the engine, and a perpendicular PM be drawn
from any point P on a diameter AB, the distance
CM is the displacement of the valve from its
middle position at the time when the eccentric
centre is at P. AB is the whole travel of the
valve.
61. Lap and Lead. If the valve when in its
FIG. 19.
middle position did not overlap the steam port^s (fig. 20), any
movement to the right or the left would admit steam, and
the admission would continue until the valve had returned to
its middle position, or, in other words, for half a revolution of
the engine. Such a valve would not serve for expansive
working, and as regards the relative position of the crank and
eccentric it would have to be set so that its middle position
coincided with the extreme position of the piston; in other words,
FIG. 20. Slide- Valve
without Lap.
FIG. 21. Slide- Valve
with Lap.
Cut-o
the eccentric radius would make a right angle with the crank.
Expansive working, however, becomes possible when we give the
valve what is called " lap," by making it project over the edges of
the steam ports, as in fig. 21, where o is the outside lap " and i is
the " inside lap." Admission of steam (to either side) then begins
only when the displacement of the valve from its middle position
exceeds the amount of the outside lap, and continues only until the
valve has returned to the same distance from its middle position.
Further, exhaust begins only when the valve has moved past the
middle by a distance equal to i, and continues until the valve has
again returned to a distance i from its middle position. Thus on
the diagram of the eccentric's travel
(fig. 22) we find, by setting off o and i
on the two sides of the centre, the posi-
tions a, 6, c and d of the eccentric radius
at which the four events of admission,
cut-off, release and compression occur
for one side of the piston. As to the
other side of the piston, it is only neces-
sary to set off o to the right and i to the
left of the centre, but for the sake of
clearness we may confine our attention
to one of the two sides. Of the whole
revolution, the part from o to 6 is the
arc of steam admission, from b to c is
the arc of expansion, from c to d the arc of exhaust, and from d to
o the arc of compression. The relation of these, however, to the
piston's motion is still undefined. If the eccentric were set in
advance of the crank by an angle equal to ACo, the opening of the
valve would be coincident with the beginning of the piston's stroke.
It is, however, desirable, in order to allow the steam free entry, that
the valve be already some way open when the piston stroke begins,
and thus the eccentric may be set to have a position Co' at the begin-
ning of the stroke. In that case the valve is open at the beginning
of the stroke to the extent mm', which is called the " lead." The
amount by which the angle between Co' (the eccentric) and CA (the
crank) exceeds a right angle is called the angular advance, this being
the angle by which the eccentric is set in advance of the position it
would occupy if the primitive arrangement without lap were adopted.
The quantities lap, lead and angular advance (8) are connected by
the equation
outside lap +lead = half travel X cos 0.
An effect of lead is to cause preadmission, that is to say, admis-
Ad/rnsstor,
FIG. 22.
sion before the end of the back stroke, which, together with the
compression of steam left in the cylinder when the exhaust port
closes, produces the mechanical effect of " cushioning," -to which
reference has already been made. To examine the distribution of
steam throughout the piston's stroke, we may now draw a circle to
represent the path of the crank pin (fig. 23, where the dotted lines
FIG. 23.
have been added to show the assumed configuration of piston, con-
necting-rod and crank) and transfer to it from the former diagram
the angular positions a, b, c and d at which the four events occur.
To facilitate this transfer the diagrams of eccentric path and of
crank-pin path may by a suitable choice of scales be drawn of the
same actual size. Then by projecting these points on a diameter
which represents the piston's path, by circular arcs drawn with a
radius equal to the length of the connecting-rod, we find p, the
position of the piston at which admis-
sion occurs during the back stroke,
also q and r, the position at cut-off
and release, during the stroke which
takes place in the direction of the
arrow, and s, the point at which
compression begins. It is obviously **** rp '""
unnecessary to draw the two circles
of figs. 22 and 23 separately; the
single diagram (fig. 24) contains the
solution of the steam distribution with FIG. 24.
a slide-valve whose laps, travel and
angular advance are known, the same circle serving, on two scales,
to show the motion of the crank and of the eccentric.
Zeuner's Diagram. The graphic construction most usually
employed in slide-valve investigations is the ingenious diagram
published by Dr G. Zeuner in the Civilingenieur in 1856.* On the
line AB (fig. 25), which represents the travel of
the valve, let a pair of circles (called valve-
circles) be drawn, each with diameter equal
to the half travel. A radius vector CP, drawn
in the direction of the eccentric at any instant,
is cut by one of the circles at Q, so that CQ re-
presents the corresponding displacement of the
valve from its middle position. That this is so
will be seen by drawing PM (as in fig. 19) and
joining QB, when it is obvious that CQ = CM,
which is the displacement of the valve. The line AB with the circle
on it may now be turned back through an angle of 90 +8 (0 being the
angular advance), so that the valve-circles take the position shown
FIG. 25.
FIG. 26. Zeuner's Slide- Valve Diagram.
to a larger scale in fig. 26. This makes the direction of CQ (the
eccentric) coincide on the paper with the simultaneous direction of
1 Zeuner, Treatise on Valve Gears, trans, by M. Muller (1868).
STEAM ENGINE
833
FIG. 27.
the crank, and hence to find the displacement of the valve at any
position of the crank we have only to draw CQ in fig. 26 parallel
to the crank, when CQ represents the
displacement of the valve to the scale
on which the diameter of each valve
circle represents the half-travel of the
valve. CQo is the valve displacement
at the beginning of the stroke shown
by the arrow. Draw circular arcs ab
and cd with C as centre and with radii
equal to the outside lap o and the
inside lap respectively. Co is the
position of the crank at which pre-
admission occurs. The lead is coQo.
The greatest steam opening is OiB.
The cut-off occurs when the crank has
the direction C6. Cc is the position
of the crank at release, and Cd marks the end of the exhaust.
63. In this diagram radii drawn from C mark the angular positions
of the crank, and their intercepts by the valve circles determine
the corresponding displacement of the valve. It remains to find the
corresponding displacement of the piston. For this Zeuner employs
a supplementary graphic construction, shown in fig. 27. Here ab
or a'b' represents the connecting rod, and be or b'c the crank. With
centre c and radius ac a circle ap is drawn, and with centre b and
radius ab another circle aq. Then for any position of the crank, as
cb', the intercept pq between the circles is easily seen to be equal to
aa', and is therefore the distance by which the piston has moved
from its extreme position at the beginning of the stroke. In practice
this diagram is combined with that of fig. 26, by drawing both about
the same centre and using different scales for valve and piston travel.
A radius vector drawn from the centre parallel to the crank in any
position then shows the valve's displacement from the valve's
middle position by the intercept CQ of fig. 26, and the piston's
displacement from the beginning of the piston's motion by the
intercept pq of fig. 27.
64. In the figures which have been sketched the events refer
to the front end of the cylinder, that is, the end nearest to the crank
(see fig. 23). To determine the events of steam distribution at the
back end, the lap circles shown by dotted lines in fig. 26 must
also be drawn, Ca' being the outside lap for the back end, and Cc'
the inside lap. These laps are not necessarily equal to those at the
other end of the valve. From the diagrams it will be seen that,
especially with a short connecting-rod, the cut-off and release occur
earlier and the compression later at the front than at the back end
if the laps are equal, and a more symmetrical steam distribution can
be produced by making the inside lap greater and the outside lap
less on the side which leads to the front end of the cylinder. On
the other hand, an unsymmetrical distribution may be desirable,
as in a vertical engine, where the weight of the piston assists the
steam during the down-stroke and resists it during the up-stroke,
and this may be secured by a suitable inequality in the laps.
65. By varying the ratio of the laps o and i to the travel of the
valve, we produce effects on the steam distribution which are
readily traced by means of the diagram. Reduction of travel
(which is equivalent to increase of both o and i) gives later pre-
admission, earlier cut-off, later release and earlier compression ; the
ratios of expansion and of compression are both increased. Increase
of angular advance accelerates all the events and causes a slight
increase in the ratio of expansion.
66. In designing a slide-valve the breadth of the steam ports
in the direction of the valve's motion is determined with reference
to the volume of the exhaust steam to be discharged in a given time,
the area of the ports being generally such that the mean velocity
of the steam during discharge is less than 100 ft. per second. The
travel is made great enough to keep the cylinder port fully open
during the greater part of the exhaust; for this purpose it is 2\ or
3 times the breadth of the steam port. To facilitate the exit of
steam the inside lap is always small, and is often wanting or even
negative. During admission the steam port is rarely quite un-
covered, especially if the outside lap is large and the travel moderate.
Large travel has the advantage of giving freer ingress and egress of
steam, with more sharply-defined cut-off, compression and release,
but this advantage is secured at the cost of more work spent in
moving the valve and more wear of the faces. To lessen the neces-
sary travel without reducing the area of steam ports, double-ported
valves are often used. An example is shown below in fig. 39.
67. Reversal of Motion with Slide-Valve. The eccentric must
stand in advance of the crank by the angle 90 + 6, as in fig. 28,
where CK is the crank, and CE the corresponding
position of the eccentric when the engine is running
in the direction of the arrow a. To set the engine
in gear to run in the opposite direction (b) it is
only necessary to shift the eccentric into the position
CE', when it will still be 90 +9 in advance of the
crank. In the older engines this reversal was effected
by temporarily disengaging the eccentric-rod from the valve-rod,
working the valve by hand until the crank turned back through
an angle equal to ECE', the eccentric meanwhile remaining
xxv. 27
FIG. 28.
at rest, and then re-engaging the gear. The eccentric sheave,
instead of being keyed to the shaft, was driven by a stop
fixed to the shaft, which abutted on one or other of two
shoulders projecting from the sheave. In some modern forms of
reversing gear means are provided for turning the eccentric round
on the shaft, but the arrangement known as the link-motion is now
the most usual gear in locomotive, marine, winding and other
engines which require to be often and easily reversed.
68. Link-Motion. In the link-motion two eccentrics are used,
and the ends of their rods are connected by a link. In Stephenson's
link-motion the earliest and still the most usual form the link
is a slotted bar or pair of bars curved to the same radius as the
eccentric rods (fig. 29), and capable of being shifted up or down by
a suspension rod. The valve-rod ends in a block which slides within
the link, and when the link is placed so that this block is nearly in
line with the forward eccentric rod (R. fig. 29) the valve moves in
FIG. 29. Stephenson's Link-Motion.
nearly the same way as if it were driven directly by a single eccentric.
This is the position of " full forward gear." In " full backward
gear," on the other hand, the link is pulled up until the block is in
nearly a line with the backward eccentric rod R'. The link-motion
thus gives a ready means of reversing the engine but it does more
than this. By setting the link in an intermediate position the valve
receives a motion nearly the same as that which would be given by
an eccentric of shorter radius and of greater angujar advance, and
the effect is to give a distribution of steam in which the cut-off is
earlier than in full gear, and the expansion and compression are
greater. In mid gear the steam distribution is such that scarcely
any work is done in the cylinder. The movement of the link is
effected by a hand-lever, or by a screw, or (in large engines) by
an auxiliary steam engine. A usual arrangement of hand-lever,
sketched in fig. 29, has given rise to the phrase " notching up,"
FIG. 30. Gooch's Link-Motion.
to describe the setting of the link to give a greater degree of expan-
sion.
In Gooch's link-motion (fig. 30) the link is not moved up in
FIG. 31. Allan's Link-Motion.
shifting from forward to backward gear, but a radius rod between
the valve-rod and the link (which is curved to suit this radius rod)
is raised or lowered a plan which has the advantage that the lead
is the same in all gears. In Allan's motion (fig. 31) the change of
gear is effected partly by shifting the link and partly by shifting
a radius rod, and the link is straight.
69. Graphic Solution of Link-Motion. The movement of a valve
driven by a link-motion may be very fully and exactly analysed by
drawing with the aid of a template the positions of the centre line
of the link corresponding to a number of successive positions of the
crank. Thus, in fig. 32, two circular arcs passing through e and e'
are drawn with E and E' as centres and the eccentric rods are radii.
These are loci of two known points of the link, and a third locus is
the circle a in which the point of suspension must lie. By placing
on the paper a template of the link, with these three points marked
STEAM ENGINE
on it, the position of the link is readily found, and by repeating the
process for other positions of the eccentrics a diagram of positions
(fig. 32) is drawn for the assigned state of the gear. A line AB
drawn across this diagram in the path of the valve's travel deter-
mines the displacements of the valve, and enables the oval diagram
to be drawn, which is shown to a larger scale in another part of fig.
32. The example refers to Stephenson's link-motion in nearly full
forward gear; with obvious modification the same method may be
used in the analysis of Gooch's or Allan's motion. The same
FIG. 32.
diagram determines the amount of slotting or sliding motion of the
block in the link. In a well-designed gear this sliding is reduced to
a minimum for that position of the gear in which the engine runs
most usually. In marine engines the suspension-rod is generally
connected to the link at the end of the link next the forward eccen-
tric, to reduce this sliding when the engine is in forward gear.
70. Radial Gears. Many forms of gear for reversing and for
varying expansion have been devised with the object of escaping the
use of two eccentrics, and in some both eccentrics are dispensed with.
Hackworth's gear, the parent of several others, to which the general
name of radial gears is
applied, has a single eccen-
tric E (fig. 33) opposite the
crank, with an eccentric-rod
EQ, whose mean position is
perpendicular to the travel of
the valve. The rod ends in
a block Q, which slides on a
fixed inclined guide-bar or
link, and the valve-rod re-
ceives its motion through a
connecting rod from an inter-
mediate point P of the eccen-
tric-rod, the locus of which
is an ellipse. To reverse the
gear the guide-bar is tilted
over to the position shown
by the dotted lines, and
intermediate inclinations give
various degrees of expansion
without altering the lead.
The steam distribution is
FlG. 33 Hackworth's Valve-Gear, quite satisfactory, but an
objection to the gear is the
wear of the sliding-block and guide. In Bremme's or Marshall's
form this objection is obviated with some loss of symmetry
in the valve's motion by constraining the motion of the point
Q, not by a sliding-guide, but a suspension-link, which makes
the path of Q a circular arc instead of a straight line;
to reverse the gear the centre of suspension R of this link
is thrown over to the position R' (fig. 34). In the example
sketched P is beyond Q, but P may be between Q and the crank
(as in fig. 33), in which case the eccentric is set at 1 80" from the
crank. This gear has been applied in a number of marine
engines. In Joy's gear, which is extensively used in locomotives,
no eccentric is required; and the rod corresponding to the
eccentric rod in Hackworth's gear receives its motion from a
point in the connecting rod by the linkage shown in fig. 35, and is
either suspended, as in Marshall's form, by a rod whose suspension
centre R is thrown over to reverse the motion, or constrained, as
in Hackworth's, by a slot-guide whose inclination is reversed. Fig.
36 shows Joy's gear as applied to a locomotive. A slot-guide E is
used, and it is curved to allow for the obliquity of the valve connect-
ing-rod AE. C is the crank-pin, B the piston path and D a fixed
centre.
A form of radial gear very largely used in locomotives, especially
on the continent of Europe, is the Walschaert or Heusinger-
Waldegg gear, in which the valve receives its motion in part
from the piston cross-head through a reducing lever, and in
part from a single eccentric set at right angles to the crank,
which actuates a rocking link. Reversing is effected by shifting
a sliding block along this rocking link from one side to the other
of the centre on which it rocks.
FIG. 34. Bremme's or Marshall's Valve-Gear.
71. Separate Expansion-Valves. When the distribution of steam
is effected by the slide-valve alone the arc of the crank's motion
during which compression occurs is equal to the arc during which
expansion occurs, and for this reason the slide-valve would give an
FIG. 35. Diagram of Joy's Valve-Gear.
excessive amount of compression if it were made to cut off the supply
of steam earlier than about half-stroke. Hence, where an early
cut-off is wanted it is necessary either to use an entirely different
means of regulating the distribution of steam, or to supplement the
FIG. 36. Joy's Gear as applied to a Locomotive.
slide-valve by another valve called an expansion-valve, usually
driven by a separate eccentric whose function is to effect the cut-
off, the other events being determined as usual by the slide-valve.
Such expansion-valves belong generally to one or other of two types.
In one the expansion-valve cuts off the supply of steam to the chest
in which the main valve works.
FIG. 37. Expansion- Valve on back of Main Slide-Valve.
In the other the expansion-valve slides on the back of the main
slide-valve, which is provided with through ports which the expan-
sion-valve opens and closes Fig. 37 shows
one form of this type. Here the resultant
relative motion of the expansion-valve and
main-valve has to be considered. If r a and
r (fig. 38) are the eccentrics working the
main and expansion valves respectively, then
CR drawn equal and parallel to ME is the
resultant eccentric which determines the
motion of the expansion-valve relatively
to the main-valve. Cut-off occurs at Q,
when the shaft has turned through an FIG. 38.
STEAM ENGINE
835
angle <t>, which brings the resultant eccentric into the direction CQ
and makes the relative displacement of the two valves equal to
the distance /.
Expansion-valves furnish a convenient means of varying the
expansion, which may be done by altering their lap, travel or angular
advance. Alteration of lap, or rather of the distance I in the figures,
is often effected by having the expansion-valve in two parts (as in
fig- 37) an d holding them on one rod by right- and left-handed screws
respectively ; by turning the valve-rod the parts are made to approach
or recede from each other. In large valves the adjustment is more
conveniently made by varying the travel of the valve, which is done
by connecting it to its eccentric through a link which serves as a
lever of variable length.
72. Relief Rings. To relieve the pressure of the valve on the seat,
large slide-valves are generally fitted with a steam-tight ring, which
excludes steam from the greater part of the back of
the valve. The ring fits steam-tight into a recess in
the cover of the steam-chest, and is pressed by springs
against the back of the valve, which is planed smooth
to slide under the ring. Fig. 39 shows a relief ring
of this kind fitted on the back of a large double-
ported slide-valve for a marine engine. Another
plan is to fit the ring into a recess on the back of the
valve, and let it slide on the inside of the steam-
chest cover. Steam is thus excluded from the space
within the ring, any steam that leaks in being allowed
to escape to the condenser (or to the intermediate
receiver when the arrangement is fitted to the high-
pressure cylinder of a compound engine). A flexible
diaphragm has also been used, instead of a recess,
to hold the ring.
73. Piston Slide-Valve. The pressure of valves on
cylinder faces is still more completely obviated by
making the back of the valve similar to its face, and
causing the back to slide in contact with the valve-
FIG. 39.
chest cover, which has recesses corresponding to the cylinder
ports. This arrangement is most perfectly carried out in the
piston slide-valves now very largely used in the high-pressure
. cylinders of marine engines. The piston
! slide-valve may be described as a slide-
valve in which the valve face is curved
to form a complete cylinder, round whose
whole circumference the ports extend.
The pistons are packed like ordinary
cylinder pistons by metallic rings, and
the ports are crossed here and there by
diagonal bars to keep the rings from
springing out as the valve moves over
them. Fig. 40 shows a form of piston
valve for the supply of high-pressure
steam to a large marine engine. P, P are
the cylinder ports.
74. Balance Piston. Fig. 39 illustrates
an arrangement common in all heavy
slide-valves whose travel is vertical the
balance piston, which is pressed up by
steam on its lower side and so equili-
brates the weight of the valve, valve-rod
and connected parts of the mechanism.
The valve sometimes takes the form
of a rocking cylinder. This last kind of
sliding motion is very usual in stationary
engines fitted with Corliss gear, in which
case four distinct rocking slides are com-
monly employed to effect the steam
distribution, one giving admission and
one giving exhaust at each end of the
cylinder.
75. Double-Beat Valve. In many
stationary engines, especially on the con-
tinent of Europe, lift or mushroom valves
are used, worked by tappets, cams or
FIG. 40. Piston eccentrics. Lift-valves are generally of
Slide-Valve. , the Cornish or double-beat type (fig. 41),
in which equilibrium is secured by the use of two conical faces
which open or close together. In Cornish pumping engines, which
retain the single action of Watt's early engine, three double-beat
valves are used, as steam-valve, equilibrium-valve and exhaust-
valve respectively. These are closed by tappets on a rod moving
with the beam, but are opened by means of a device called a
cataract, which acts as follows: The cataract is a small pump
with a weighted plunger, discharging fluid through a stop-cock
which can be adjusted by hand when it is desired to alter the speed
of the engine. The weighted plunger is raised by a rod from the
beam, but is free in its descent, so that it comes down at a rate
depending on the extent to which the stop-cock is opened. When
it comes down a certain way it opens the steam and exhaust valves,
by liberating catches which hold them closed; the "out-door"
stroke then pegins and admission continues until the steam-valve
is closed: this is done directly by the motion of the beam, which
also, at a later point in the stroke, closes the exhaust. Then the
equilibrium-valve is opened, and the " in-door " stroke takes place,
during which the plunger of the cata-
ract is raised. When it is completed,
the piston pauses until the cataract
causes the steam-valve to open and
the next " out-door " stroke begins.
By applying a cataract to the equil-
ibrium-valve also, a pause is intro-
duced at the end of the " out-door "
stroke. Pauses have the advantage
of giving the pump time to fill and
of allowing the pump-valves to settle I
in their seats without shock.
76. Methods of Regulating. To
make an engine run steadily an
almost continuous process of adjust-
ment must go on, by which the
FIG. 41. Double-Beat Lift
Valve.
amount of work done by the steam in the cylinder is adapted to
the amount of external work demanded of the engine. Even in
cases where the demand for work is sensibly uniform, fluctuations
in boiler-pressure still make regulation necessary. Generally the
process of government aims at regularity of speed; occasionally,
however, it is some other condition of running that is maintained
constant, as when an engine driving a dynamo-electric machine is
governed by an electric regulator to give a constant difference of
potential between the brushes.
The ordinary methods of regulating are either (a) to alter the
pressure at which steam is admitted by opening or closing more or
less a throttle-valve between the boiler and the engine, or (b) to
alter the volume of steam admitted to the cylinder by varying the
point of cut-off. The former plan was introduced by Watt and is
still common, especially in small engines. The second plan of
regulating is generally preferred, especially when the engine is sub-
ject to large variations of load. Within certain limits regulation
by either plan can be effected by hand, but for the finer adjustment
of speed some form of automatic governor is necessary. Speed
governors are commonly of the centrifugal type: a pair of masses
revolving about a spindle which is driven by the engine are kept
from flying out by a certain controlling
force. When an increase of speed occurs
this controlling force is no longer able to
keep the masses revolving in their former
path; they move out until trie con-
trolling force is sufficiently increased, and
in moving out they act on the regulator
of the engine, which may be a throttle-
valve or some form of automatic expan-
sion gear. In the conical pendulum
governor of Watt (fig. 42) the revolving
masses are balls attached to a vertical
spindle by links, and the controlling force
is furnished by the weight of the balls,
which, in receding from the spindle, are
obliged to rise. When the speed exceeds
or falls short of its normal value they move out or in, and so raise
or lower a collar c which is in connexion by a lever with the
throttle- valve.
77. Loaded Governor. In a modified form, known as the loaded
governor, a supplementary controlling force
is given by placing a weight on the sliding
collar (fig. 43). This is equivalent to in-
creasing the weight of the balls without
altering their mass. In other governors the
controlling force is wholly or partly produced
by springs. The use of springs to provide
controlling force allows the axis of rotation
to be horizontal, and governors of this class
are frequently attached directly to the hori-
zontal shaft in high-speed engines.
78. Equilibrium of Governor. In whatever
way the revolving masses are controlled, the
controlling force may be treated as a force F
acting on each ball in the direction of the
radius towards the axis of revolution. Then,
if M be the mass of the ball, n the number of revolutions per second
and r the radius of the ball's path, the governor will revolve in
equilibrium when F = 4ir 2 2 rM (in absolute units), or
FIG. 42. Watt's
Governor.
FIG. 43. Loaded
Governor.
: 2ir\Mr'
In order that the configuration of the governor should be stable, F
must increase more rapidly than r, as the balls move outwards.
It is obvious that no stable governor maintains a strictly constant
speed in the engine which it controls. If the boiler pressure or the
demand for work is changed, a certain amount of permanent displace-
ment of the balls is necessary to alter the steam-supply, and the balls
can retain their displaced position only by virtue of a permanent
change in the speed. The maximum range of speed depends _on
that amount of change of n which suffices to alter the configuration
8 3 6
STEAM ENGINE
of the governor from the position which gives no steam-supply to
the position which gives full steam-supply , and the governor is said
to be sensitive if this range is a small fraction of n.
To find the configuration which the governor will assume at any
particular speed, or the speed corresponding to a particular configura-
tion, it is only necessary to determine the whole
controlling force F per ball acting along the radius
towards the axis for various values of r. Let a
curve ab (fig. 44) be drawn showing the relation of
F to r. At any assigned value of r set up an
ordinate QC = 4 s 2 rM. Join OC. The point c,
in which OC cuts the curve, determines the value
of r at which the balls will revolve at the assigned
speed n. Or, if that is given, and the value of n
is to be found, the line Oc produced will determine
C, and then n 2 = QC/4irrM. The sensibility of the governor is
determined by taking points a and b corresponding to full steam
and no steam respectively, and drawing lines through them to
determine the corresponding values of QA and QB. When the
frictional resistance / is known, an additional pair of curves
drawn above and below ab, with ordinates F + / and F - / respect-
ively, serve to show the additional variations in speed which are
caused by friction. The governor is stable throughout its whole
range when the curve ab has a steeper gradient than any line drawn
from O to meet it.
79. Isochronism. If, when the balls are displaced, the controlling
force F changes proportionally to the radius r, the speed is constant.
In other words, the equilibrium of the governor is then neutral; it
can revolve in equilibrium at one, and only at one, speed. At this
speed it assumes, indifferently, any one of its possible configurations.
opportunity is passed if the cut-off has already occurred, and the
ccntrol only begins with the next stroke.
When the demand for power suddenly falls, the speed rises so
much as to force the governor into a position of over- control , such
that the supply of steam is no longer adequate to meet even the
reduced demand tor power. Then the speed slackens, and the same
kind of excessive regulation is repeated in the opposite direction.
A state of forced oscillation is consequently set up. The effect is
aggravated by the momentum which the governor balls acquire in
being displaced. Hunting is to be avoided by giving the governor
a fair degree of stability, by reducing as far as possible the static
frictional resistances, and by introducing a viscous resistance
to the displacement of the governor, which prevents the displace-
ment from occurring too suddenly, without affecting the ultimate
position of equilibrium. For this purpose many governors are
furnished \yith a dash-pot, which is a hydraulic or pneumatic
brake, consisting of a piston connected to the governor, working
loosely in a cylinder which is filled with oil or with air.
80. Regulation by the Governor of the Steam-Supply: Throttle-
Valve. The throttle-valve, as introduced by Watt, was originally
a disk turning on a transverse axis across the centre of the steam-
pipe. It is now usually a double-beat valve or a piston-valve.
When regulation is effected by varying the cut-off, and an expansion-
valve of the slide-valve type is used, the governor generally acts by
changing the travel of the valve. In other forms of automatic
expansion-gear the lap of the valve is altered ; in others the governor
acts by shifting the expansion-valve eccentric round on its shaft, and
so changing its angular advance.
81. Trip-Gear. In large stationary engines the most usual plan
of automatically regulating the expansion is to employ some form of
FIG. 45. Corliss Engine, with Spencer Inglis Trip-Gear.
The slightest variation of speed drives it to the extremity of its
range; hence its sensibility is indefinitely great. Such a governor is
called isochronous. Where springs furnish the controlling force,
an approach to isochronism can be secured by adjusting the
initial tension of the springs, and this forms a convenient means of
regulating the sensibility.
But in practice no governor can be absolutely isochronous. It is
indispensable to leave a small margin of stability for the sake of
preventing violent change jn the supply of steam, especially when
there is much frictional resistance to be overcome by the governor,
or where the influence of the governor takes much time to be felt
by the engine. An over-sensitive governor is liable to fall into a
state of oscillation called hunting. When an alteration of speed
begins to be felt, however readily the governor alters its form, the
engine's response is more or less delayed. If the governor acts by
closing a throttle-valve, the engine has still a capacious valve-chest
on which to draw for steam. If it acts by changing the cut-off, its
trip-gear, the earliest type of which was introduced in 1849 by G. H.
Corliss (1817-1888), of Providence, U.S.A. In the Corliss system the
valves which admit steam are distinct from the exhaust-valves. The
latter are opened and closed by a reciprocating piece which takes its
motion from an eccentric. The former are opened by a reciprocating
piece, but are closed by springing back when released by a trip- or
trigger-action. The trip occurs earlier or later in the piston's stroke
according to the position of the governor. The admission-valve
is opened by the reciprocating piece with equal rapidity whether the
cut-off is going to be early or late. It remains wide open during the
admission, and then, when the trip-action comes into play, it closes
suddenly. The indicator diagram of a Corliss engine consequently
has a nearly horizontal admission-line and a sharply defined cut-off.
Generally the valves of Corliss engines are cylindrical plates turning
in hollow cylindrical seats which extend across the width of the
cylinder. Often, however, the admission-valves in trip-gear engines
are of the disk or double-beat type, and spring into their seats when
STEAM ENGINE
837
the trip-gear acts. Messrs Sulzer have developed this type with
much success. Many forms of trip-gear have been invented by
Corliss himself and by others. One of these, the Spencer Inglis
trip-gear, by Messrs Hick, Hargreaves & Co., is shown in figs. 45 and
46. A wrist-plate A, which turns on a pin on the outside of the
cylinder, receives a motion of oscillation from an eccentric. It
opens the cylindrical rocking-valve B by pulling the link C, which
consists of two parts, connected to each other by a pair of spring
clips a, a. Between the clips there is a rocking-cam b, and as the
link is pulled down this cam places itself more and more athwart
the link, until at a certain point it forces the clips open. Then the
upper part of the link springs back and allows the valve B to close by
the action of a spring in the dash-pot D. When the wrist-plate
makes its return stroke the clips re-engage the upper portion of the
link C, and things are ready for the next stroke. The rocking-cam b
has its position controlled by the governor through the link E in
FIG. 46. Corliss Valve-Gear, Spencer Inglis form.
such a way that when the speed of the engine increases it stands
more athwart the link C, and therefore causes the clips to be released
at an earlier point in the stroke. A precisely similar arrangement
governs the admission of steam to the other end of the cylinder.
The exhaust-valves are situated at the bottom of the cylinder, and
receive an oscillating motion from a separate wrist-plate, behind A.
82. Use of Flywheel. Besides those variations of speed which
occur from stroke to stroke, which it is the business of the governor
to check, there are variations within each single stroke due to the
varying rate at which work is done on the crank-shaft during its
revolution. To limit these is the function of the flywheel, which
acts by forming a reservoir of energy to be drawn upon during those
parts of the revolution in which the work done on the shaft is less
than the work done by the shaft, and to take up the surplus in those
parts of the revolution in which the work done on the shaft is greater
than the work done by it. This alternate storing and restoring of
energy is accomplished by slight fluctuations of speed, whose range
depends on the ratio which the alternate excess and defect of energy
bears to the whole stock the flywheel holds in virtue of its motion.
The effect of the flywheel may be studied by drawing a diagram
of crank-effort, which shows the work done on the crank in the same
way that the indicator diagram shows the work done on the piston.
The same diagram serves another useful purpose in determining the
twisting and bending stress in the crank.
The diagram of crank-effort is drawn by representing, in rect-
angular co-ordinates, the relation between the moment which the con-
necting-rod exerts to turn the crank and the angle turned through by
the crank. The moment exerted to turn the crank is readily found
when the direction and magnitude of the thrust exerted by the
connecting-rod on the crank-pin is known for successive points in
the revolution.
83. Influence of the Inertia of the Reciprocating Masses. This
thrust depends not only on the resultant pressure of the steam on the
piston but also on the inertia of the reciprocating masses. The mass
of the piston, piston-rod, cross-head, and to some extent that of the
connecting-rod also, has to be started and stopped in each half
revolution, and in high-speed engines the forces concerned in this
action are so large as to affect most materially not only the distribu-
tion of crank-effort but also the stresses which the various parts
have to be proportioned to bear. The calculation of the stresses
due to inertia in high-speed engines consequently forms an essential
part of engine design. Taking M to represent the whole reciprocat-
ing mass, and a its acceleration at any instant in the direction of
the piston's motion, the force required to produce this acceleration
is Ma/g, and this quantity has to be deducted from the resultant
pressure of the steam in finding the effective thrust. The effect
is to reduce the effective thrust at the beginning of the stroke and
to increase it at the end. The greatest acceleration a occurs in the
extreme position of the piston, most distant from the crank-shaft
centre, and its value there is 4?r 2 n 2 r(l + r/f) where r is the radius
of the crank, / the length of the connecting-rod and n the number
of turns per second. When the piston is in the other extreme
position, nearest to the shaft, the value of a is 4ir 2 V(l - r/l). The
exact calculation of inertia effects for the connecting-rod is com-
plicated, but its influence on the thrust is approximately found by
treating the mass of the rod as divided into two parts, one of which
moves with the cross-head and is therefore an addition to the recipro-
cating system, while the other moves with the crank-pin and is
therefore an addition to the revolving system. The mass may bs
divided for this purpose into parts which are inversely proportional
to the distances of the centre of
gravity from the cross-head and IfM Jlfflv
crank-pin respectively. By com- | V
bining diagrams of the steam
thrust and of the forces due to
inertia a diagram is obtained
showing the true thrust through-
out the stroke. Fig. 47 gives an
example: there the line ab is
drawn to show the inertia forces
for an engine in which the con-
necting-rod has 3i times the
length of the crank. The straight
line cd shows what the inertia
FlO. 47.
force would be if the connecting-rod were treated as being so long
that the deviation from simple-harmonic motion might be neglected.
The inertia of the reciprocating parts imposes a limit on the light-
ness of engines of the piston and cylinder type. The proportion
of weight to power is reduced by increasing mean piston speeds,
but this process cannot be carried beyond a point at which the forces
due to inertia become so great as to produce unsafely high alternating
stresses in the piston-rods and other parts. In some torpedo-boat
destroyers, where the reduction of weight has been carried as far
as is practicable, the mean piston speed approaches 1200 ft. per
minute with nearly 400 revolutions per minute and an l8-in. stroke.
These engines develop 6000 h.p., and the weight of engines and
boiler together is only 50 ft per indicated h.p. Such a figure is,
however, to be regarded as exceptional; weights of 150 to 200 ft
per h.p. are more usual even in conditions like those of high-speed
cruisers where saving of weight is specially desirable.
84. Balancing. Another aspect in which the inertia of the
reciprocating parts is important is in regard to the balancing of the
engine as a whole. Any forces required to accelerate the piston
and its attached parts produce reaction on the frame and bed-plate
of the engine, which will set up vibrational disturbances in the
foundations and ground or the supporting structure. The object
of balancing is to group the masses in such a manner that their
inertia effects more or less neutralize one another. This is especially
important in marine engines, where massive foundations are absent
and where it may happen that the periodic impulses due to want
of balance find some portion of the hull free to respond synchronously
with vibrations so violent as to be inconvenient and even dangerous.
Even in land engines a want of balance causes enough vibration
to constitute a serious nuisance in the neighbourhood.
85. In considering the question of balance, the system of eccentric-
ally revolving masses and the system of reciprocating masses have
to be considered separately. A reciprocating mass such as a piston
cannot be balanced by the use of revolving masses, for the forces
which are due to the inertia of the piston necessarily act along the
line of its stroke, while those due to revolving masses are continually
changing their direction. The inertia of each connecting-rod may
be approximately treated by resolving its mass into two constituents,
one of which moves with the crank-pin, and is therefore an addition
to the revolving system, while the other moves with the cross-head,
and is therefore an addition to the reciprocating system. The mass
of the rod may be divided for this purpose into parts which are
inversely proportional to the distances of its centre of gravity from
the crank-pin and the cross-head respectively. LetMi, M 2 , Ma, &c.,
represent the various revolving masses r lf fj, r s , &c., their effective
radii of rotation, and a\, a^, a s , &c., their distances from any assumed
plane of reference taken perpendicular to the shaft. Then the con-
ditions necessary for balance amongst them are that the vector
sum of M r shall vanish, and also that the vector sum of M a r shall
vanish, this latter quantity being the resultant of the moments
of the centrifugal forces with respect to the plane of reference. In
a four-crank engine there is no serious difficulty in arranging the
revolving masses in such a manner that these conditions shall be
satisfied, so far as those masses are concerned. The problem, as
Professor W. E. Dalby has shown, lends itself readily to graphical
treatment (see his treatise on Balancing of Engines). With
respect to the reciprocating masses, a first approximation towards
balance is attained by satisfying the conditions which would secure
balance if the motions were simply harmonic. These conditions
are identical with those which have just been stated for the revolving
masses, when r is interpreted as the semi-amplitude of the harmonic
motion. When the conditions in question are satisfied, the only
remaining source of disturbance is that which comes from the fact
that the reciprocating masses are connected to the cranks by rods
of finite length; in other words, that the motions are not simply
harmonic. For this reason the force required to accelerate each
piston is greater when the piston is at the end of the stroke farthest
from the shaft than when it is at the other end, and consequently
the balance, which would be perfect if the connecting-rods were
8 3 8
STEAM ENGINE
indefinitely long, is disturbed by the presence of forces which vary
periodically with a frequency twice that of the rotation. When
three cranks, 120 apart, are employed, it will be found that the
effect of the shortness of the connecting-rods in causing forces to
act in the line of the stroke is reduced to a couple tending to tilt the
engine in a fore and aft direction, which may in its turn be balanced
by using a second set of three cranks on the same shaft, the second
set being so arranged that the couple to which it gives rise neutralizes
the couple due to the first set. A six-crank engine may be arranged
in this way to secure an extremely close approximation to per-
fect balance, and the same state of balance can be secured when the
number of cranks is reduced to five.
86. The most usual arrangement adopted in marine engines, when
questions of balance are taken into account, is to have four cranks,
and consequently four sets of reciprocating masses. In the " Yarrow-
Schlick-T weedy " system of balancing engines four cranks are
employed, and by adjusting the relative weights of the four pistons,
as well as their distances apart, and by selecting suitable angles for
the relative positions of the cranks (differing; somewhat from 90),
a close approximation to complete balance is obtained. In triple
expansion this arrangement is readily applied when two low-pressure
cylinders are used instead of one, the steam from the intermediate
cylinder being divided between them, and it is also of course appli-
cable to quadruple expansion engines.
87. In this connexion mention may be made of a type of engine
which has been used in various electric power stations, especially
in America, in which a revolving mass might be employed to balance
completely the inertia effects of two pistons. This is a compound
engine in which the cylinders stand at right angles to one another,
one being horizontal and the other vertical. If the piston masses
were made equal it is clear that the inertia effect of a revolving mass
could be resolved into two components which would balance both.
It does not appear, however, that advantage has been taken of this
property in the design of actual engines of this type. In the London
County Council power station at Greenwich, where the engines are
of this class, the unbalanced effects of inertia are so considerable
as to affect the instruments at the Observatory half a mile away.
One of the conspicuous merits of the steam turbine is that it avoids
the use of reciprocating parts and so escapes the inconveniences
and limitations to which the inertia of reciprocating parts gives
rise.
88. Types of Engine. In classifying engines with regard to
their general arrangement of parts and mode of working, account
has to be taken of a considerable number of independent charac-
teristics. We have first a general division into condensing and
non-condensing engines, with a subdivision of the condensing
class into those which act by surface condensation and those
which use injection. Next there is the division into compound
and non-compound, with a further classification of the former
as double-, triple- or quadruple-expansion engines. Again,
engines may be classed as single or double-acting, according as
the steam acts on one or alternately on both sides of the piston.
Again, a few engines such as steam hammers and certain kinds
of steam pumps are non-rotative, that is to say, the reciprocating
motion of the piston does work simply on a reciprocating piece;
but generally an engine does work on a continuously revolving
shaft, and is termed rotative. In most cases the crank-pin
of the revolving shaft is connected directly with the piston-rod
by a connecting-rod, and the engine is then said to be direct-
acting; in other cases, of which the ordinary beam engine is the
most important example, a lever is interposed between the
piston and the connecting-rod. The same distinction applies to
non-rotative pumping engines, in some of which the piston acts
directly on the pump-rod, while in others it acts through a beam.
The position of the cylinder is another element of classification,
giving horizontal, vertical and inclined cylinder engines. Many
vertical engines are further distinguished as belonging to the
inverted cylinder class; that is to say, the cylinder is above the con-
necting-rod and crank. In oscillating cylinder engines the
connecting-rod is dispensed with; the piston-rod works on the
crank-pin, and the cylinder oscillates on trunnions to allow
the piston-rod to follow the crank-pin round its circular path. In
trunk engines the piston rod is dispensed with; the connecting-
rod extends as far as the piston, to which it is jointed, and a
trunk or tubular extension of the piston, through the cylinder
cover, gives room for the rod to oscillate. In rotary engines
there is no piston in the ordinary sense; the steam does
work on a revolving piece, and the necessity is thus avoided
of afterwards converting reciprocating into rotary motion.
Steam turbines may, in one sense, be regarded as an extreme
development of the rotary type; but they are distinct from all
other steam engines in this that their action depends on the
kinetic energy of the steam.
89 . Beam Engines. In the single-acting atmospheric engine
of Newcomen the beam was a necessary feature; the use of water-
packing for the piston required that the piston should move
down in the working stroke, and a beam was needed to let the
counterpoise pull the piston up. Watt's improvements made
the beam no longer necessary; and in one of the forms he
designed it was discarded namely, in the form of pumping
engine known as the Bull engine, in which a vertical inverted
cylinder stands over and acts directly on the pump-rod. But the
beam type was generally retained by Watt, and for many years it
remained a favourite with builders of engines of the larger class.
The beam formed a convenient driver for pump-rods and valve-
rods; and the parallel motion (q.ii.) invented by Watt as a means
of guiding the piston-rod, which could easily be applied to a,
beam engine, was, in the early days of engine-building, an easier
thing to construct than the plane surfaces which are the natural
guides of the piston-rod in a direct-acting engine. In modern
practice the direct-acting type has to a very great extent dis-
placed the beam type. For mill-driving and the general purposes
of a rotative engine the beam type is now rarely chosen. In
pumping engines it is somewhat more common, but even there
the direct-acting forms are generally preferred.
90. Direct-Acting Engines. Of direct-acting engines the hori-
zontal type has in general the advantage of greater accessibility,
but the vertical economizes floor space. In small forms the
engine is generally self-contained, that is to say, a single frame
or bedplate carries all the parts including the main bearings
in which the crank-shaft with its flywheel turns. The frame
often takes what is called a girder shape, which brings a portion
of it into a favourable position for taking the thrust between
the cylinder and the crank-shaft bearings and allows two surfaces
to be formed on the frame to serve as guides for the cross-head.
When a condenser is used with a horizontal engine it is usually
placed behind the cylinder, and the air-pump, which is within
the condenser, has a horizontal plunger or piston on a " tail-
rod " or continuation of the main piston-rod through the back
cover of the cylinder. In large horizontal engines the condenser
generally stands in a well below, and its pump, which is vertical,
is driven by means of a bell-crank lever attached by a link to
the engine cross-head.
91. Coupled Engines. When uniformity of driving effort
or the absence of dead points is important, two independent
cylinders often work on the same shaft by cranks at right angles
to each other. Such engines, which are called " coupled," can
start readily from any position; the ordinary locomotive engine
is an example. Winding engines for mines and collieries,
in which ease of starting, stopping and reversing is essential,
are very generally made by coupling a pair of cylinders on
opposite sides of the winding drum with link motions as the
means of operating the valves.
92. Compound Engines, Coupled or Tandem. Large direct-
acting engines are usually compounded either by having a
high- and a low-pressure cylinder side by side, with cranks at
right angles, or by putting one cylinder behind the other with
the axes of both in the same line. The latter is called the
tandem arrangement. In a tandem engine, since the pistons
agree in phase, the steam may expand directly from the small
into the large cylinder. But the connecting-pipe and steam
chest form a receiver of considerable size, and to avoid loss by
" drop " the supply of steam to the large cylinder is cut off
long before the end of the stroke. For mill engines the com-
pound tandem and compound coupled types of engine are the
most usual. The high-pressure cylinder is very generally fitted
with Corliss or other trip-gear.
93. Jet and Surface Condensation. In land engines using
condensation the jet form of condenser is common, but surface
condensation is resorted to when the available water-supply is
unsuited for boiler feed. When there is no large supply of
condensing water a very fair vacuum can be obtained by using
STEAM ENGINE
839
an evaporative condenser, consisting of a stack of pipes into which
the exhaust steam is admitted and over which a small amount
of cooling water is allowed to drip. This water is evaporated
by the heat which is extracted in condensing the steam within.
Such a condenser is placed in the open, generally on a roof
where the air has free access. The amount of water it uses need
not exceed the amount of steam that is condensed, and is there-
fore a very small fraction of the amount required in a jet or
surface condenser.
94. High-Speed Direct-Acting Engines. Prior to the advent
of the steam turbine the demand for engines suitable for driving
electric generators without the intervention of a belt led to the
introduction of various forms of direct-acting engine adapted
to run at a high speed. Some of these were single acting, steam
being admitted to one side of the piston only, generally the back,
with the result that the rods could be kept in a state of thrust
throughout the revolution, and alternations of stress in them
and at the joints thereby avoided, together with the knocking
and wear of the bearing brasses which it is apt to cause. To
secure, however, that the connecting-rod should always push
and never pull against the crank-pin there had to be much
cushioning during the out stroke on account of the fact that
from about the middle of that stroke to the end the reciprocat-
ing mass was being retarded. In engines designed by P. W.
Willans, which were highly successful examples of this class,
the cushioning was provided by means of a supplementary
piston which compressed air during the out stroke; the energy
which the reciprocating masses had to part with in losing their
motion during the second half of the out stroke was stored in
this air and was restored in the succeeding down stroke.
Willans obtained compound or triple expansion by mounting
two or three cylinders in tandem in a vertical line, with the
air-compressing piston below them in the form of a trunk which
served also as a guide for the cross-head. The piston-rod was
hollow and within it there was a valve rod carrying piston
valves for the admission and release of the steam. The valve
rod was worked by an eccentric on the crank-pin which gave
it the proper relative motion with respect to the hollow piston
within which it works. The engine was entirely enclosed in
a casing the bottom of which formed an oil bath in which the
cranks splashed to ensure ample lubrication. These engines
for a time had much vogue and gave good results. Many of
them are in use in electric light stations and elsewhere, but the
tendency now is to use turbines for this class of work, and even
in cases where reciprocating engines are preferred they are now
more usually of the double-acting type, which has the advantage
of giving a greater output of power for the same weight.
95. Double-Acting High-Speed Engines. Of double-acting
high-speed engines an interesting form is that of Messrs Belliss
and Morcom, the chief distinctive feature of which is the use
of forced lubrication at the pin joints and shaft bearings. In
a double-acting engine, where the thrust acts alternately on
one and the other side of the crank-pins and cross-head pins,
high frequency of stroke tends to produce much knocking and
wear unless the brasses are very closely adjusted, and in that
case the pins are liable to get hot, and to " seize" by expanding
sufficiently to fill the small clearance. This difficulty, which
exists when lubrication is carried out in the ordinary way,
is overcome in the Belliss engine by feeding the bearings with
a continuous supply of oil, which is pumped in under a pressure
of about 15 Ib per sq. in. The presence of a film of oil
is thereby continuously secured, and knocking is prevented
although the brasses are not set very close. Notable examples
in which double 'action is combined with a relatively high
frequency of stroke are found in naval engineering practice,
especially in the engines of high-speed cruisers and torpedo-
boat destroyers. As a rule these engines employ triple expansion
with four cranks and four cylinders, the third stage of the expan-
sion being performed in two cylinders, which divide the steam
between them. But in this field also the steam turbine is
rapidly displacing the reciprocating type.
96. Pumping Engines. In engines for pumping or for
blowing air it is not essential to drive a revolving shaft, and
in many forms the reciprocating motion of the steam piston is
applied directly or through a beam to produce the reciprocating
motion of the pump-piston or plunger. On the other hand,
pumping engines are frequently made rotative for the sake of
adding a flywheel.
Fig. 48 shows a compound inverted vertical pumping engine
of the non-rotative class by Messrs Hathorn, Davey & Co.
Steam is distributed through lift valves, and the distribution
FIG. 48. Vertical Non-Rotative Pumping Engine,
of steam is controlled by means of a cataract, which makes the
pistons pause at the end of each stroke. The pistons are in
line with two pump-rods, and are coupled by an inverted beam
which gives guidance to the cross-heads by means of an approxi-
mate straight-line motion. Engines of this kind, like the old
Cornish pump, are able to work expansively against a uniform
resistance without a flywheel in consequence of the great
inertia of the reciprocating pieces which include long massive
pump-rods. Notwithstanding the low frequency of the strokes,
enough energy is stored in the moving rods to counterbalance
the inequalities of steam thrust, and the rate of acceleration of
the system adjusts itself to give, at the plunger end, the nearly
uniform effort which the pump requires. In other words, the
motion, instead of being almost simple harmonic as it is in
rotative engines, is such that the form of the inertia curve when
drawn as in fig. 47 is nearly the same as that of the steam curve,
with the result that the distance between the two, which re-
presents the net effort on the pump-plunger, is nearly con-
stant. The massive pump-rods act in such a way as to form a
reciprocating equivalent of a flywheel.
97. It is, however, only to deep well pumping that this
applies, and a very numerous class of direct-acting steam pumps
have too little mass in their reciprocating parts to allow such
an adjustment to take place. A familiar example is the small
donkey pump used for feeding boilers, in which the steam-
piston and pump-plunger are on one and the same rod. In
some of these pumps a rotative element is introduced, partly
to secure steadiness of working and partly for convenience in
working the valves. But many pumps of this class are entirely
non-rotative, and in such cases the steam is generally admitted
throughout the stroke without expansion. In some of them
the valve is worked by tappets from the piston-rod. In the
Blake steam pump a tappet worked by the piston as it reaches
each end of its stroke throws over an auxiliary steam-valve,
which admits steam to one or other side of an auxiliary piston
carrying the main slide-valve.
98. Worthinglon Engines. In the Worthington pumping
engine two steam cylinders are placed side by side, each work-
ing its own pump-piston. The piston-rod of each is connected
by a short link to a swinging bar, which actuates the slide-valve
of the other steam cylinder. In this way one piston begins
its stroke when the motion of the other is about to cease, and a
840
STEAM ENGINE
FIG. 49.
smooth and continuous action is secured. These engines have
been extensively applied, on a large scale, to raise water for the
supply of towns and to force oil through " pipe-lines" in the
United States. In the larger sizes they are made compound,
each high-pressure cylinder having a low-pressure cylinder
tandem with it on the same rod. To allow of expansive working
a device is added which compensates for the inequality of effort
resulting from an early cut-off. A
cross-head A (fig. 49) fixed to each
of the piston-rods is connected to
the piston-rods of a pair of oscillat-
ing cylinders B, B, which contain
water and communicate with a
reservoir full of air compressed to
a pressure of about 300 Ib per square
inch. When the stroke (which
takes place in the direction of the
arrow) begins the pistons are at first
forced in, and work is at first done
by the main piston-rod, through the compensating cylinders
B, B, on the compressed air in the reservoir. This continues
until the cross-head has advanced so that the cylinders stand
at right angles to the line of stroke. Then for the remainder
of the stroke the compensating cylinders assist in driving the
main piston, and the compressed air gives out the energy which
it stored in the earlier portion. The volume of the air reservoir
is so much greater than the volume of the cylinders, B, B, that
the air pressure remains nearly constant throughout the stroke.
Any leakage from the cylinder or reservoir is made good by a
small pump which the engine drives.
99. Pulsameter. Hall's "pulsometer" is a peculiar pump-
ing engine without cylinder or piston, which may be regarded
as the modern representative of the
engine of Savery. The sectional view,
fig. 50, shows its principal parts. There
are two chambers A, A', narrowing
towards the top, where the steam-pipe
B enters. A ball-valve C allows steam to
pass into one of the chambers and closes
the other. Steam entering (say) the
right-hand chamber forces water out of it
past the clack-valve V into a delivery
passage D, which is connected with an
air-vessel. When the water level in A
sinks so far that steam begins to blow
through the delivery passage, the water
and steam are disturbed and so brought
into intimate contact, the steam in A
FIG. 50. Pulsometer. is condensed, and a partial vacuum is
formed. This causes the ball-valve C to
rock over and close the top of A, while water rises from the
suction-pipe E to fill that chamber. At the same time
steam begins to enter the other chamber A', discharging
water from it, and the same series of actions is repeated in
either chamber alternately. While the water is being driven
out there is comparatively little condensation of steam, partly
because the shape of the vessel does not promote the formation
of eddies, and partly because there is a cushion of air between
the steam and the water. Near the top of each chamber is a
small air-valve opening inwards, which allows a little air to enter
each time a vacuum is formed. When any steam is condensed,
the air mixed with it remains on the cold surface and forms a
non-conducting layer. The pulsometer is, of course, far from
efficient as a thermodynamic engine, but its suitability for
situations where other steam-pumps cannot be used, and the
extreme simplicity of its working parts, make it valuable in
certain cases.
zoo. Rotary Engines. From the earliest days of the rota-
tive engine attempts have been made to avoid the intermittent
reciprocating motion which an ordinary piston engine first
produces and then converts into motion of rotation. Murdoch,
the contemporary of Watt, proposed an engine consisting of a
pair of spur-wheels gearing with one another in a chamber
through which steam passed by being carried round the outer
sides of the wheels in the spaces between successive teeth.
In Dudgeon's wheel engine the steam was admitted by ports
in side-plates into the clearance space behind teeth in gear
with one another, just after they had passed the line of centres.
From that point to the end of the arc of contact the clearance
space increased in volume; and it was therefore possible, by
stopping the admission of steam at an intermediate point, to
work expansively. The difficulty of maintaining steam-tight
connexion between the teeth and the side-plates on which the
faces of the wheels slide is obvious; and the same difficulty has
prevented the success of many other forms of rotary engine.
These have been devised in immense variety, in many cases, it
would seem, with the idea that a distinct mechanical advantage
was to be secured by avoiding the reciprocating motion of a
piston. In point of fact, however, very few forms entirely
escape having pieces with reciprocating motion. In all rotary
engines, with the exception of steam turbines where work is
done not by pressure but by the kinetic impulse of steam
there are steam chambers which alternately expand and con-
tract in voluttie, and this action usually takes place through a
more or less veiled reciprocation of working parts. So long as
engines work at a moderate speed there is little advantage in
avoiding reciprocation; the alternate starting and stopping of
piston and piston-rod does not affect materially the frictional
efficiency, throws no deleterious strain on the joints, and need
not disturb the equilibrium of the machine as a whole. The
case is different when very high speeds are concerned; it is then
desirable as far as possible to limit the amount of reciprocating
motion and to reduce the masses that partake in it.
101. Types of Marine Engines. The early steamers were
fitted with paddle-wheels, and the engines used to drive them
were for the most part modified beam engines. Bell's " Comet"
was driven by a species of inverted beam engine, and another
form of inverted beam, known as the side-lever engine, was for
long a favourite with marine engineers. In the side-lever
engine the cylinder was vertical, and the piston-rod projected,
through the top. From a crosshead on the rod a pair of links,
one on each side of the cylinder, led down to the ends of a pair
of horizontal beams or levers below, which oscillated about a
fixed gudgeon at or near the middle of their length. The two
levers were joined at their other ends by a cross-tail, from which
a connecting-rod was taken to the crank above. The side-
lever engine is now obsolete. In American practice, engines
of the beam type, with a braced-beam supported on A frames
above the deck, are still common in river-steamers and coasters.
An old form of direct-acting paddle-engine was the steeple
engine, in which the cylinder was set vertically below the crank.
Two piston-rods projected through the top of the cylinder, one
on each side of the shaft and of the crank. They were united
by a crosshead sliding in vertical guides, and from this a return-
connecting-rod led to the crank. Modern paddle-wheel engines
are usually of one of the following types, (i) In oscillating
cylinder engines the cylinders are set under the crank-shaft,
and the piston-rods are directly connected to the cranks. The
cylinders are supported on trunnions which give them the neces-
sary freedom of oscillation to follow the movement of the crank.
Steam is admitted through the trunnions to slide-valves on
the sides of the cylinders. In some instances the mean position
of the cylinders is inclined instead of vertical; and oscillating
engines have been arranged with one cylinder before and another
behind the shaft, both pistons working on one crank. The
oscillating cylinder type is best adapted for what would now
be considered comparatively low pressures of steam. (2)
Diagonal engines are direct-acting engines of the ordinary
connecting-rod type, with the cylinders fixed on an inclined
bed and the guides sloping up towards the shaft.
When the screw-propeller began to take the place of paddle-
wheels in ocean steamers, the increased speed which it required
was at first supplied by using spur-wheel gearing in conjunction
with one of the forms of engines then usual in paddle steamers
STEAM ENGINE
841
After a time types of engine better suited to the screw were
introduced, and were driven fast enough to be connected
directly to the screw-shaft. The smallness of the horizontal
space on either side of the shaft formed an obstacle to the use
of horizontal engines, but this difficulty was overcome in several
ways. In Penn's trunk engine, now obsolete, the engine was
shortened by attaching the connecting-rod directly to the
piston, and using a hollow piston-rod, called a trunk, large
enough to allow the connecting-rod to oscillate inside it. The
return-connecting-rod engine was another horizontal form at
one time used in the British navy. It was a steeple engine
placed horizontally, with two, and in some cases four, piston-
rods in each cylinder. The piston-rods passed clear of the
shaft and the crank, and were joined beyond it in a guided
crosshead, from which a connecting-rod returned.
102. Inverted Vertical Engines. Both in the navy and in
merchant ocean steamers one general type of engine is universal,
where the reciprocating engine has not yet been displaced by
the steam turbine. This is the inverted vertical direct-acting
engine, with two or more cylinders placed side by side directly
over the shaft. Two, three and four cranks are employed,
the arrangement with four cranks being specially suitable, as
has already been pointed out, when the balance of the engine
at high speeds has to be secured. As a rule naval engines are
triple compound, and those of merchant vessels either triple
or quadruple. In vessels of high speed and power the engines
are arranged in twin sets, on two shafts with twin screw
propellers.
The marine engine is always furnished with a surface con-
denser, consisting of a multitude of brass tubes about J in. in
diameter cooled by sea-water which is caused to circulate
through the condenser by means of a circulating pump. This
pump and also the air pump are often driven independently of
the main engine.
103. It is in marine practice that the largest examples of
engines are to be found. The triple expansion engines of the
" Campania " and " Lucania," which develop 30,000 h.p.,
consist of twin sets, on two shafts, each set having three cranks
and five cylinders, two of 37 in., one of 79 in. and two of 98 in.
diameter, with a stroke of 69 in. In the " Kaiser Wilhelm
der Grosse " engines of the same power are arranged in twin
sets, each set consisting of four cylinders, one of 52 in. diameter,
one of 89 and two of 96-4, the four giving triple expansion and
working on four cranks. The " Deutschland " develops 36,000
h.p. with twin sets, each of which comprises two 36-6-in.
cylinders, one 73-6-in., one io3'9-in. and two io6-3-in. with a
stroke of 72-8 in. In the " Kaiser Wilhelm II." each of the twin
shafts is driven by two 3-crank 4-cylinder quadruple expan-
sion engines, the diameters being 37-4, 49-2, 74-8 and 112-2 in.
and a stroke of 70-9 in. With a working pressure of 225 Ib
per square inch these engines develop in all 40,000 h.p. These
are examples of the most powerful reciprocating engines used
in the propulsion of ships, but the successful application of the
Parsons turbine to marine use has enabled even these powers
to be greatly surpassed.
104. Locomotive Engines. The ordinary locomotive consists
of a pair of direct-acting horizontal or nearly horizontal engines,
fixed in a rigid frame under the front end of the boiler, and
coupled to the same shaft by cranks at right angles, each with a
single slide-valve worked by a link-motion, or by a form of radial
gear. The engine is non-condensing, except in a very few
special cases, and the exhaust steam, delivered at the base of
the funnel through a blast-pipe, serves to produce a draught of
air through the furnace. In some instances a portion of the
exhaust steam, amounting to about one-fifth of the whole, is
diverted to heat the feed-water. In tank engines the feed-
water is carried in tanks on the engine itself; in other engines
it is carried behind in a tender.
On the shaft are a pair of driving-wheels, whose frictional
adhesion to the rails furnishes the necessary tractive force. In
some engines a single pair of driving-wheels are used; in many
more a greater tractive force is secured by having two equal
xxv. 27 a
driving-wheels on each side, connected by a coupling-rod be-
tween pins on the outside of the wheels. In some engines a still
greater proportion of the whole weight is utilized to give
tractive force by coupling three or more wheels on each side.
It is now general to have under the front of the engine two or
four smaller wheels which do not form part of the driving system.
These are carried in a bogie, that is, a small truck upon which the
front end of the boiler rests by a swivel-pin or plate which allows
the bogie to turn, so as to adapt itself to curves in the line, and
thus obviate the grinding of tyres and danger of derailment which
would be caused by using a long rigid wheel base. The bogie
appears to have been of English origin; 1 it was brought into
general use in America, and is now common in English as well
as in American practice. Instead of a four-wheeled bogie, a
single pair of leading wheels are also used, carried by a Bissel
pony truck, which has a swing-bolster pivoted by a radius bar
about a point some distance behind the axis of the wheels. This
has the advantage of combining lateral with radial movement
of the wheels, both being required if the wheel base is to be
properly accommodated to the curve. Another method of
getting lateral and radial freedom is the plan used by F. W.
Webb of carrying the leading axle in a box curved to the arc
of a circle, and free to slide laterally for a short distance, under
the control of springs, in curved guides. 2
In inside-cylinder engines the cylinders are placed side by
side within the frame of the engine, and their connecting-rods
work on cranks in the driving shaft. In outside-cylinder engines
the cylinders are spread apart far enough to lie outside the frame
of the engine, and to work on crank-pins on the outsides of the
driving wheels. This dispenses with the cranked axle, which
is the weakest part of a locomotive engine. Owing to the
frequent alternation of strain to which it is subject, a locomotive
crank axle is peculiarly liable to rupture, and has to be removed
after a certain amount of use.
The outside-cylinder type is adopted by several British makers;
in America it is almost universal.
There the cylinders are in castings which
are bolted together to form a saddle on
which the bottom of the smoke-box sits.
The slide-valves are on the tops of the
cylinders, and are worked through rock-
ing levers from an ordinary link-motion.
Fig. 51, which is a half section through
one cylinder of an American locomotive,
by the Baldwin Company of Philadelphia,
shows the position of the cylinders and
valves.
In inside-cylinder engines the slide-
valves are frequently placed back to
back in a single valve-chest between the
cylinders. The width of the engine
within the frame leaves little room for
them there, and they are reduced to the
flattest possible form, in some cases with
split ports, half above and half below a
FIG. 51. American
Outside-Cylinder Loco-
motive.
partition in a central horizontal plane. In some engines the valves
are below the cylinders: in many others the valves work on
horizontal planes above the cylinders; this position is specially
suitable when some' form of radial gear is used instead of the
link-motion. Radial valve-gears have the advantage, which
is of considerable moment in inside-cylinder engines, that a
part of the shaft's length which would otherwise be needed
for eccentrics is available to increase the width of main bearings
and crank-pins, and to strengthen the crank-cheeks.
The principle of compounding has often been applied to
locomotive engines, but without much advantage. On this
subject the reader should refer to the article RAILWAY:
Locomotive Power. A more important modern departure is
the use of highly superheated steam, which in many locomotives
has been attended with conspicuous success.
1 Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., liii. 3, p. 50.
2 Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1883).
STEAM ENGINE
105. Steam Turbines. Steam turbines are distinguished from |
all other types of steam engine by the fact that their action
involves a double transformation of energy. The heat energy
present in the steam is first employed to set the steam itself in
motion, giving it kinetic energy, and this in turn is employed
to do work on the turbine blades. A brief account of the main
principles involved will make the action of the various types of
steam turbine more intelligible.
106. Theory of the Steam-jet. Consider an element of steam, of
unit mass, acquiring kinetic energy in the expansion of the steam
through a nozzle or other channel, from a region of pressure pi to
a region of lower pressure fa. Its volume changes from Vi to f 2 in
the process. The work done upon it by steam from behind is piVi.
The work which it does on the steam in front is ptfJ 2 . The net
amount of work done upon it is therefore pi'Ji ptv?. Its velocity
changes from Vi to V s ; the kinetic energy which it gains is therefore
OW Vi 2 )/2g. The internal energy changes from EI to E 2 . Hence
by the conservation of energy
(V 2 2 W)/2g= J(Ei E 2 ) -\-piVi p&,
which may be written
(V 2 J -V 1 ! )/2g=J(I,-I 2 ),
where I is the total heat ( 31), which is equal to E+/W/J. It is
assumed here that the action is adiabatic in the sense that no heat
is received by the steam or given up by it to other bodies as the
process goes on.
It is usual to speak of the change of I as the " heat drop " which
the steam undergoes in acquiring velocity. When the heat drop
is known the gain in velocity is readily found, as above. In determin-
ing the best drop account must, of course, be taken of the wetness
of the steam, or of its superheat if it has any. Thus, for superheated
steam I = l,+ K (t'-t) where I, is the total heat of saturated steam
at the same pressure and K(I' t) represents the heat taken up in
the process of superheating to the actual temperature /' from the
temperature of saturation t. And for wet steam I = I^+gL where
I,, is the total heat of water, L the latent heat, and q is the dryness
fraction. .
During this process of expansion, which we assume to be adiabatic,
the steam becomes wet, and the value of q accordingly falls. As
has been shown in 36, the dryness may be found at any stage in
adiabatic expansion from the formula
2 = E
or it may be determined by measurement from the entropy-tempera-
ture diagram. A still more convenient diagram in which the heat
drop can be directly measured is one introduced by Mollier, in which
the co-ordinates are the entropy and the total heat (see Mollier,
loc. cit., or Ewing's Steam Engine).
The pressure-volume diagram gives a very useful alternative
means of finding the heat drop
or energy available for trans-
formation. Consider steam or
any other gas supplied at
pressure pi and expanding to
pressure pi, at which pressure
it is discharged. The work
which it does is measured by
the area ABC D of the pressure-
volume diagram (fig. 52),
namely,
Volume
FIG. 52.
If this work is wholly done upon this steam in giving it velocity,
the kinetic energy acquired is equal to it, that is
ceeds the volume of the steam, per pound, at any stage is found by
multiplying the volume of I ft of saturated steam, at the pressure
then reached, by the dryness fraction q. On comparing the velocity
acquired at any intermediate stage of expansion as calculated
from the heat drop down to that stage with the increase in volume,
it will be found that in the earliest stages the gain in velocity is
relatively great, but as expansion proceeds the increase in volume
outstrips the increase in velocity. Hence the proper form for a
nozzle to give adiabatic expansion is one in which the area of section
at first contracts and afterwards becomes enlarged. The area of
section to be provided for the discharge is found by dividing the
volume v at each stage of the velocity V acquired up to that stage,
and the ratio /V at first diminishes and afterwards increases as
the expansion proceeds. Take, for instance, as a numerical example,
a case in which dry saturated steam is admitted to a nozzle at an
absolute pressure of 213 Ib per sq. in., and expands adiabatically,
giving itself velocity, until the pressure falls to 1-7 per sq. in. It
will be found on working out numerical values that until the pressure
falls to about 123 ft per sq. in. the steam is gaining velocity so rapidly
that though its volume is expanding the stream-lines are convergent.
Below that pressure, however, the augmentation of volume is rela-
tively so great that a larger and larger area of section has to be
provided for the flow. Thus, when the pressure is 123 Ib per sq. in.
the dryness q is 0-96, the volume per pound is 3-51 cub. ft., the
heat drop is 25} thermal units, giving a velocity of 1510 ft. per second.
Consequently, the area of the stream is 0-00233 sq. ft. per pound of
flow, and this is the minimum value. When the pressure falls
to 1-7 ft per sq. in. the dryness q is 0-784, the volume per pound
is 157-8 cub. ft., the heaj: drop is 175-7 thermal units, giving a
velocity of 3980 ft. per second, and consequently the area of the
stream is 0-0396 sq. ft. per pound of flow.
108. De Laval's Divergent Nozzle. It is on this basis that De
Laval's divergent nozzle is designed. The " throat " or smallest
section is approached by a more or less rounded entrance, allowing
the stream-lines to converge, and from the throat outwards the nozzle
expands in any gradual manner, generally in fact as a simple cone
(fig- 53)- In the example just
given the final area of section
would be seventeen times that
of the throat to provide for
adiabatic expansion down to
a pressure of 1-7 ft per sq. in.
With any final area less than
this the pressure at exit would
be higher than 1-7 ft; it would
in fact adjust itself to give
FIG. 53.
a value of v/V corresponding to
the area, and the remainder of the pressure drop would be wasted.
For expansion to atmospheric pressure (14-7 per sq. in.) the area
at exit would be 3-14 times that of the throat.
The equation of velocity
V 2 n t rv-i
= 1 i D---
2g n-i\ *
may be applied to calculate generally the discharge per square foot of
stream section, and hence to find at what point in the fall of pressure
this discharge becomes a maximum in other words, to determine
the pressure at the throat. Since pv" = pivf
where G = p/pi.
,The discharge per square foot when the volume is v is
V = VD
*& v Vi
Q will be a maximum when dQ/dD is zero, which occurs when
We have already seen ( 41) that in adiabatic expansion this integral
measures the heat drop, being equal to h I* 2 .
If the mode of expansion is such as to make pif = constant, n
being any index, then
where D is the ratio in which the pressure falls, namely p?/Pi :
Now the adiabatic expansion of steam, starting from an initially
dry saturated state, is very approximately represented by the formula
t,i-u5 = constant. Hence the area of the pressure-volume diagram,
which under these conditions measures the work theoretically
obtainable, is equal to 8-41(1 -D- 1I9 )i?i> a quantity which will
be found on evaluation to agree closely with the value of Ii li.
107. Form of the Jet in Adiabatic Expansion. As expansion pro-
This result is general for any gas. With saturated steam, n being
1-135, Q is a maximum when = 0-577, that is to say, the pressure
at the throat is 577% of the initial pressure, a result which agrees
with the figures quoted above for a particular case.
The maximum value of Q, namely the discharge in pounds per
square foot at the throat, is
3'6 V (piM,
and the velocity there is 5-8sV (PiVi). In these expressions ft is the
initial pressure in pounds per square foot.
109. From these considerations it follows that, provided the tonal
pressure is less than 0-577 times the initial pressure, the total dis-
charge depends simply on the least area of section of the nozzle
and on the initial pressure, and is independent of the final pressure.
By continuing the expansion in a divergent nozzle, after the throat
is passed, the amount of discharge is not increased, but the steam
is caused to acquire a greater velocity of exit, namely the velocity
corresponding to the augmented pressure range.
no. When the pressure drop is small (pi greater than 0-577 pi)
the full velocity due to the drop is obtained without the use ot a
STEAM ENGINE
843
divergent nozzle. This is the case, for instance, in the Parsons
turbine, where the whole expansion is divided into many stages each
of which involves only a small drop in pressure.
in. Influence of Friction. We have dealt so far with the ideal
case of no friction, and have taken the whole work of expansion as
going to produce kinetic energy in the jet. But under real condi-
tions there is a progressive dissipation of energy through friction;
as expansion proceeds the steam loses part of its kinetic energy
which is restored to it as heat. Thus, at every stage in the process
the velocity acquired is less than it would be in f nctionless adiabatic ex-
pansion, but the steam is drier and its volume is greater in consequence
of the restored heat. Referring to the entropy-temperature diagram
(fig. 54) the process of expansion under
conditions involving friction is represented
not by the adiabatic line cd but by some
such line as eg lying between the adiabatic
line and the saturation line cf. The final
condition of dryness is ag/af instead of
ad/af. During this expansion the effect
of friction, as regards the entropy, is
equivalent to the communication to the
substance of a quantity of heat repre-
sented by the area pcgr. Hence that
-area represents the work converted by
friction into heat. The whole work done
FIG. 54. during expansion is the area abcg, which
is more than before by the area dcg. The difference, namely abcg
minus pcgr, represents what may be called the net heat drop when
friction is allowed for: it represents what is effectively available for
giving kinetic energy to the jet. This net area may also be
expressed as equal to abed minus pdgr. Compared with frictionless
adiabatic expansion the net loss resulting from friction is the area
pdgr. The volume is increased in the ratio of ag to ad, and this
has to be taken account of in determining the proper dimensions of
the divergent nozzle.
112. Turning now to the question of utilizing the kinetic
energy of steam in a steam turbine, it will be clear from the
figures that have been given that if the whole heat drop is allowed
to give kinetic energy to the steam in one operation, as in the
De Laval nozzle, a velocity of about 4000 ft. per second has to
be dealt with. To take advantage of a jet in the most efficient
manner in a turbine consisting of a single wheel the velocity
of the buckets against which the steam impinges should be nearly
one half the velocity of the stream. But a peripheral velocity
approaching 2000 ft. per second is impracticable. Apart from
the difficulties which it would involve as regards gearing down
to such a speed as would serve for the driving of other machines,
which are to employ the power, there are no materials of con-
struction fitted to withstand the forces caused by rotation at
such a speed.
Hence it is advantageous to divide the process into stages.
This may be done by using more than one wheel to absorb the
kinetic energy of the jet, as is done in the Curtis turbine, or by
dividing the heat drop into many steps, making each of these
so small that the steam never acquires an inconveniently great
velocity, as is done in the Parsons turbine. Turbines which
employ one or other of these two methods, or a combination
of both, achieve a greater economy of steam than is practicable
with a single wheel.
113. De Laval Turbine. Thanks, however, to the inventions
of De Laval, the single expansion single wheel type of turbine,
with buckets in the rim, has been brought to a degree of effici-
ency which, while considerably less than is reached in com-
pound turbines, is still remarkably good. This has been done
by the use of the divergent nozzle and with the help of mechani-
cal devices which enable the peripheral speed to be very high,
though even with the help of these devices the speed of the
buckets falls considerably short of that which would be suitable
to the velocity of the jet. In De Laval's turbine the steam
expands at one step from the full pressure of the supply to the
pressure of the exhaust by discharge in the form of a jet from a
divergent nozzle. It then acts on a ring of buckets or blades
in much the same way as the jet of water acts on the buckets of a
Pelton wheel or other form of pure impulse turbine. To utilize
a fair fraction of the kinetic energy of the jet the blades have to
run at an enormous velocity, and the speed of the shaft which
carries them is so great that gearing down is resorted to before
the motion is applied to useful purposes. The general arrange-
ment of the steam nozzle and turbine blades is illustrated
in fig. 55. The blades project from the circumference of
a disk-shaped wheel and
form a complete ring round
it, only a few of the blades
being shown in the sketch.
The increasing section .of
the nozzle is calculated
with reference to the final
pressure, according to the FIG. 55.
principles already explained. The jet impinges at one side
of the wheel and escapes at the other after having had its
direction of motion nearly reversed. The expansion in the nozzle
is carried to atmospheric pressure, or near it, if the turbine
is to be used without a condenser; but in many cases an ejector
condenser is employed, and when that is done the nozzle is
of a form which adapts it to expand the steam to a correspond-
ingly lower pressure. It is only in the smaller sizes of these
turbines that a single nozzle is used; in the larger steam turbines,
as in large Pelton wheels, several nozzles are applied at intervals
along the circumference of the disk. The peripheral velocity
of the blades ranges from about 500 ft. per second in the smallest
sizes (5 h.p.) up to nearly 1400 ft. per second in turbines of
300 h.p. In a 50 h.p. De Laval turbine the shaft which carries
the turbine disk makes 16,000 revolutions per minute; in the
5 h.p. size it makes as many as 30,000 revolutions per minute.
A turbine developing 300 h.p. uses a wheel 30 in. in diameter,
running at over 10,000 revolutions per minute, with a peri-
pheral speed of nearly 1400 ft. per second. These enormous
speeds are made possible by the ingenious device of using a
flexible shaft, which protects the bearings and foundations
from the vibration which any want of balance would otherwise
produce. The elasticity of the shaft is such that its period of
transverse vibration is much longer than the time taken to
complete a revolution. The high-speed shaft which carries
the turbine disk is geared, by means of double helical wheels
with teeth of specially fine pitch, to a second-motion shaft,
which runs at one-tenth of the speed of the first; and from this
the motion is taken, by direct coupling or otherwise, to the
machine which the turbine is to drive. The wheel carrying
the buckets is much thickened towards the axis to adapt it to
withstand the high stresses arising from its rotation. Turbines
of this class in sizes up to 300 or 400 h.p. are now in extensive
use for driving dynamos, fans and centrifugal pumps. Com-
pared with the Parsons turbine, De Laval's lends itself well
to work where small amounts of power are wanted, and there
it achieves a higher efficiency, but in large sizes the Parsons
turbine is much the more efficient of the two. Trials of a De
Laval turbine used with a condenser, and developing about
63 h.p., have shown an average steam consumption at the rate
of about 20 ft per brake-horse-power-
hour, and even better results are
reported in turbines of a larger size.
114. Action of the Jet in De Laval's
Turbine. In entering the turbine the jet
is inclined at an angle a to the plane of
the wheel. Calling its initial velocity Vi
and the velocity of the buckets u we
have, as in fig. 56, Va for the velocity of the
steam relatively to the wheel on admis-
sion. A line AB parallel to V 2 therefore i
determines the proper angle of the blade'
or bucket on the entrance side if the steam
is' to enter without shock. As the steam
passes through the blade channel the
magnitude of this relative velocity docs
not change, except that it is a little
reduced on account of friction. The
action is one of pure impulse; there is
no change of pressure during the passage,
and consequently no acceleration of the
steam through drop in pressure after
once it has left the nozzle. Hence Vs,
the relative velocity at exit may (neg- p g
lecting friction) be taken as equal to \t.
The direction of V 3 or BC is tangent to the exit side of the bucket.
8 4 4
STEAM ENGINE
Compounding Va with u we find V4, which is the absolute velocity
of the steam after exit, and this should be no greater than is required
to get the steam clear of the wheel. The most favourable condition
of running would be when the bucket velocity is such that Vi is
perpendicular to the plane of the wheel, for V t would then have its
least possible value. Assuming the angle of discharge ft' to be
equal to /3, we should in that event have w = JViCos a, which
approximates more and more closely to jVi the smaller o is made.
The ideal efficiency would be (Vi 2 VV)/Vi 2 or I sin 2 o in a
turbine in which the jet enters the buckets without shock and
travels over them without friction. In practice a is about 20.
Owing to the impossibility of making the bucket speed so high as
the above condition implies the steam enters the buckets of a De
Laval turbine with some shock and leaves them with a velocity
inclined to the plane of the wheel, with a backward component,
and the turbine loses something in efficiency through this exit
velocity being greater than the ideal minimum.
Taking a test of a De Laval turbine of 300 h.p. in which the steam
consumed was 15-6 Ib per horse-power-hour, Stodola estimates that
the losses in the nozzle amount to about 15 % of the available energy
or total heat drop, the losses in the buckets (due to friction and to
eddy currents set up by shock) to 21 % and the losses due to the
velocity retained by the steam at exit to nearly 5%. The losses
due to friction in the mechanism consume about 5 % more, leaving
a net return of about 54 % of the available energy.
115. Curtis Turbine. The Curtis turbine, like that of De
Laval, is a pure impulse turbine, but the velocity of the jet is
extracted not by one ring of buckets but by a series of rings, each
of which extracts a certain part. Between the first and second
rings of buckets there are fixed guide blades which serve to
turn the remaining motion of the stearri into a direction proper
for its action on the second ring, and so on. The jet, having
acquired its velocity in a nozzle in the first place, often acts on
three successive rings of moving buckets, with two sets of fixed
guide blades between, the three co-operating to extract its
kinetic energy. But the Curtis turbine is generally compound
in the further sense that the total drop from admission to con-
denser pressure is itself divided into two, three or more stages,
the steam acquiring velocity anew at each stage and then giving
up that velocity in passing through a series of impulse turbine
rings generally either two or three in number before undergoing
the next drop in pressure.
116. Action of the Steam in the Curtis Turbine. In this
division of the heat drop or pressure drop into stages Curtis
follows Parsons. The distinctive feature in Curtis is the multi-
impulse action which occurs at each pressure stage. This is
illustrated in the diagram (fig. 57), which shows the nozzle and
Steam Cheat
/<>/
Moulng Blades
Stationary Bladet
Moti/ng Blades
Stationary Blades
ing Blaaei
Blades
Moving
Blades
FIG. 57. Diagram of Steam Nozzles and Blades, Curtis Steam
Turbine.
blades of a two-stage Curtis turbine, with three rings of moving
blades or buckets in each stage, arranged, of course, round the
periphery of a wheel. The velocity acquired in the nozzles is
extracted as the steam pursues its sinuous course between moving
and fixed blades, and it leaves the third ring in each case with
only a small residual velocity, the direction of which is approxi-
mately parallel to the axis of the wheel. The changes of velo-
city are illustrated in fig. 58, which, for the sake of simpli-
fication, is drawn for the ideal case of no friction. There u is the
velocity of the buckets, Vi the initial velocity of the jet, and
Vj the initial relative velocity on entrance to the first moving
ring. Vs is the absolute velocity on entering the second moving
ring, and Vt the relative velocity. Vs is the absolute velocity on
entering the third moving ring and V 6 the relative velocity.
Finally, V? is the absolute velocity on leaving the third moving
I Moving
fitt
I Moving
Q Fix t
FIG. 58.
ring, and this in the example here drawn is parallel to the axis
of the turbine. The first moving blades have sides parallel to
OB, BP; the first fixed blades have sides parallel to CP, PD.
The second moving blades have sides parallel to PE, EQ; the
second fixed blades to FQ, QG, and the third moving blades to
QH, HR.
The steam then passes on to a second set of divergent nozzles
in which it undergoes a second drop in pressure, acquiring
velocity afresh, which it loses as before in passing through a set
of three rings of moving buckets. In some Curtis turbines
this is followed by a third and often a fourth similar process
before the condenser is reached. In a four-stage Curtis turbine
the speed of the buckets is usually about 400 ft. per second;
the steam issues from each set of nozzles with a velocity of about
2000 ft. per second, and each set of moving rings reduces this
by something like 400 ft. per second. The losses due to steam
friction are somewhat serious, although the blade speed in each
set is sufficient to let the steam enter without shock; on the
other hand, the Curtis turbine escapes to a great extent losses
due to leakage which are present in the Parsons type. The
velocity diagram shown in fig. 58 may readily be modified to
allow for effects of friction. Owing to the progressive reduction
of velocity in passing from ring to ring a larger and larger area
of blade opening is required, and this is provided for by making
the height of the blades increase in the successive rings of each
series.
117. Performance of Curtis Turbines. Curtis turbines have
been successfully applied in large sizes, especially in America,
to drive electric generators, with outputs of as much as 9000
kilowatts, and in a few instances they have been adapted to
marine propulsion. In large sizes, and using moderately super-
heated steam, the Curtis turbine has achieved a high degree of
efficiency. The advantage of superheating, in any type of
turbine, is to reduce the wetness which the steam develops as
it expands during work. The prejudicial effect of wetness is
chiefly that it increases friction, especially in the later stages
of the expansion. Tests of Curtis turbines show that they
maintain a very uniform efficiency throughout a wide range
of loads, and are capable of being much overloaded without
STEAM ENGINE
845
material increase in the ratio of steam consumption to output.
In tests of a 9000 kilowatt Curtis turbine using steam of about
200 Ib pressure and 80 C. superheat, with a vacuum of 295 in.
the consumption of steam is reported to have been only 13 Ib
per kilowatt-hour, and this figure remained almost constant
for loads ranging from 8000 to 12,000 kilowatts. In a 5000
kilowatt turbine under very similar conditions the consumption
is reported to have been 135 Ib per kilowatt-hour. In the
usual arrangement of the Curtis turbine the shaft is vertical
and the wheels lie in horizontal planes, the weight of the re-
volving parts being taken by a footstep bearing with forced
lubrication, and the electric generator is mounted on the top.
There are usually in the large sizes four stages of expansion, each
stage being separated from the one above it by a diaphragm
plate containing the nozzles in which the next step in velocity
is acquired. The expansion has been divided into as many as
seven stages in a Curtis turbine for marine use, the shaft being
then horizontal, and in all except the first stage in that example
the pressure drop is so comparatively small as not to require
divergent nozzles.
1 1 8. Parsons Turbines. In the turbines of De Laval and
Curtis the action on the moving blades or buckets is entirely
one of impulse. No drop of pressure occurs while the steam is
passing the moving blades, and its velocity relative to the blade
surface undergoes no change except such as is brought about by
friction. In the Parsons turbine, on the other hand, there is a
Fix d BI <t (((((((((( reaction effect. The steam
V\\\\\N\\\ acquires relative velocity
Mooing Biaoes )))))}))))) - and loses pressure as it
passes each ring of moving
blades: in this respect
the action in the moving
blades is like the action in
the fixed blades. Each
pair of fixed and moving
rings makes up what is called a " stage " and may be said to
constitute a separate turbine: the whole is a series of many
such stages. In each stage the drop in pressure and in heat
is divided equally between the fixed and moving element,
the exit and entrance angles and the form of the blades
generally being alike in both. The number of stages depends
on what peripheral speed it is convenient to use. Where
FIG. 59. Fixed and Moving Blades
of Parsons Turbine.
comparatively high blade speeds are practicable, as in tur-
bines for driving electric generators, the steam is allowed to
acquire a fairly high velocity at each ring of blades, and in
such cases so few as 45 stages may be suitable. In large marine
turbines, on the other hand, where the number of revolutions
per minute has to be kept low in the interests of propeller
efficiency, the blade speeds cannot be kept high without making
the diameters unduly great, and consequently more stages are
required: in such turbines the number of stages may be from
too to 200. The general relation of fixed to moving blades
and the characteristic form of both will be seen from fig. 59.
Fig. 60 shows a complete Parsons turbine of 1000 kilowatts
capacity in longitudinal section through the casing. The
fixed blades are caulked with separating distance-pieces into
grooves turned on the inner surface of the case and project in-
wards: the moving blades are similarly secured in grooves which
are turned on the surface of the rotating drum. Between drum
and case there is an annular space fitted in this way with
successive rings of fixed and moving blades. There is con-
siderable longitudinal clearance from ring to ring, but over the
tips of the blades the clearance is reduced to the smallest pos-
sible amount consistent with safety against contact (generally
from 15 to 30 thousandths of an inch in turbines of moderate
size). Steam enters at A, expands through all the rings of blades
in turn and escapes to the condenser at B. To provide for the
increase in its volume the size of the blade passages enlarges
progressively from the high to the low pressure end. In the ex-
ample shown this is done partly by lengthening the blades and
partly by increasing the circumference of the drum, which has
the further effect of increasing the blade velocity, so that the
expanded steam not only has a larger area of passage open to
it but is also allowed to move faster, and consequently each unit
of the area is more effective in giving it vent. Instead of attempt-
ing to make the change in passage area continuous from ring to
ring, as the ideal turbine would require, it is done in a limited
number of steps and the several rings in each step are kept of
the same size. Thus in the example shown in the figure the
first step consists of seven pairs of rings or stages, the next two
also of seven each, the next three of four each, the next of two
and so on. This is convenient for constructive reasons and gives a
sufficiently good approximation to the ideal conditions as regards
the relation of steam volume to blade-passage-area and velocity.
FIG. 60. Parsons Turbine.
STEAM ENGINE
119. Balance of Longitudinal Forces: Dummies. Since
the pressure of the steam falls progressively from left to right
there is a resultant longitudinal thrust on the drum forcing it
to the right, which is balanced by means of " dummy " rings
C' C" C'". These correspond in diameter with the several
portions of the bladed drum and are connected with them by
steam passages which secure that each dummy shall have the
same pressure forcing it to the left as tends on the corresponding
part of the drum to force it to the right. No steam-tight fit
is practicable at the dummies, but leakage of the steam past
them is minimized by the device of furnishing the circumference
of each dummy with a series of rings which revolve between a
corresponding series of fixed rings projecting inwards from the
case. The dummy rings do not touch but the clearance spaces
are made as fine as possible and the whole forms a labyrinth
which offers great resistance to the escape of steam. Sub-
stantially the same device is employed to guard against leakage
in the glands DD where the shaft leaves the turbine case. There
is a " thrust block " E at one end of the shaft which maintains
the exact longitudinal position of the revolving part and allows
the fine clearances between fixed and moving dummy rings to
be adjusted.
120. Lubrication. The main bearings LL are supplied with
oil under pressure kept in circulation by a rotary pump F which
draws the oil from the tank G. The pump shaft H, which also
carries a spring governor to control the speed of the turbine,
is driven by a worm on the main shaft. The same oil is cir-
culated over and over again and very little of it is consumed.
No oil mixes with the steam, and in this point the turbine has a
marked advantage over piston and cylinder engines, which is
especially important in marine use. In small fast-running
turbines each bearing consists of a bush on which three con-
centric sleeves are slipped, fitting loosely over one another with
a film of oil between. The whole acts as a cushion which damps
out any vibration due to want of balance or alignment. In
large turbines this device is dispensed with and a solid brass
bearing lined with white metal is employed.
121. Blades. The blades are generally of drawn brass, but
copper is used for the first few rows in turbines intended for
use with superheated steam. In the most usual method of
construction they are put one by one into the grooves, along
with distance pieces which hold them at the proper angle and
proper distance apart, and the distance pieces are caulked to fix
them. The length of the blades ranges from a fraction of an inch
upwards. In the longest blades of the largest marine steam
turbines it is as much as 22 in. When over an inch or so long
they are strengthened by a ring of stout wire let into a notch
near the tip and extending round the whole circumference.
Each blade is " laced " to this by a fine copper binding wire,
and the lacing is brazed. For long blades two and even three
such rings of supporting wire are introduced at various dis-
tances between root and tip. The tips are fined down nearly
to a knife-edge so that in the event of contact taking place at
the tips between the " rotor " or revolving part, and the " staler "
or case, they may grind without being stripped off. The
possible causes of such contact are wear of bearings and unequal
expansion in heating up. With a proper circulation of oil the
former should not take place, and the clearances are made large
enough to provide for the latter. Various plans have been
devised to facilitate the placing and fixing of the blades. In
one method they are slung on a wire which passes through holes
in the roots and in the distance pieces and are assembled before-
hand in a curved chuck so as to form a sector of the required
ring, and are brazed together along with the supporting wires
before the segment is put in place. In another method the
roots are fixed in a brass rod in which cuts have been machined
to receive them ; in another the rod in which the roots are secured
has holes of the right shape formed in it to receive the blades
by being cast found a series of steel cores of the same shape as
the blades: the cores are then removed and the blades fixed
in the holes.
122. Drums. In small turbines the drums carrying the re-
volving blades are solid forgings; in large turbines they are
also of forged steel but in the form of hollow cylinders turned
true inside as well as out. These are supported on the shafts
by means of wheel-shaped steel castings near the ends, over
which they are shrunk and to which they are fastened by screws
the heads of which are riveted over. The case is of cast iron with
a longitudinal joint which allows the upper half to be lifted off.
123. Governing. The governor regulates the turbine by
causing the steam to be admitted in a series of blasts, the dura-
tion of which is automatically adjusted to suit the demand for
power. When working at full power the admission is practically
continuous; at lower powers the steam valve is opened and closed
at rapidly recurring intervals. Each revolution of the governor
shaft causes a cam, attached to the governor, to open and close
a relay Valve which admits steam to a cylinder controlling
the position of the main steam valve, which accordingly opens
and closes in unison with the relay. The position of the governor
determines how long the relay will admit steam to the con-
trolling cylinder, and consequently how long the main valve
will be held open in each period. In turbines driving electric
generators the control of the relay-valve is sometimes made to
depend on variations of the electric pressure produced instead
of variations in the speed. In either case the arrangement secures
control in a manner remarkably free from frictional inter-
ference, and therefore secures a high degree of uniformity in
speed or in electric pressure, as the case may be.
To admit of overloading, that is, of working at powers con-
siderably in excess of the full power for which the turbine is
designed, provision is often made to allow steam to enter at
the full admission pressure beyond the first set of rows of
blades: this increases the quantity admitted, and, though the
action is somewhat less efficient, more power is developed. An
orifice will be seen in fig. 60 a little to the right of the main
steam admission orifice, the purpose of which is to allow steam
to enter direct to the second set of blades, missing the first
seven stages, so that the turbine may cope with overloads.
124. Absence of Wear. Owing to its low steam velocities
the Parsons turbine enjoys complete immunity from wear of
the blades by the action of the steam. A jet of steam, especially
when wet, impinging at very high velocity against a metal
surface, has considerable cutting effect, but this is absent at
velocities such as are found in these turbines, and it is found
that even after prolonged use the blades show no signs of wear
and the efficiency of the turbine is unimpaired.
125. Blade Velocity. Experience has shown that the most
economical results are obtained when the velocity of the steam
through the blades is about twice the velocity of the blades them-
selves, and the Parsons turbine is accordingly designed with, as far
as possible, a constant velocity ratio of about this value. As already
explained, it is convenient in practice to divide the expansion into
a comparatively small number of steps (about twelve steps is a usual
number), giving a constant area of steam passage to the first few
rows, a larger area to the next few, and so on. An effect of this is
that the velocity ratio varies slightly above and below the value
of two to one, but if the steps are not too great this variation is
not sufficient materially to affect the efficiency.
If the spindle or drum carrying the moving blades were of the
same diameter throughout, the blades at the exhaust end would
have to be exceedingly long in order to give passage to the rarefied
steam. By increasing the diameter towards the exhaust end the
peripheral velocity is increased, and hence the proper velocity for
the steam is also increased. The amount of heat drop per ring is
consequently greater towards the low-pressure end: in other words,
the number of rings for a given drop is reduced. Taking the turbine
as a whole, the number of rings will depend on the blade velocity
at each step, the relation being such that 2nVj ! = constant for a
given total drop from admission to exhaust, being the number of
rings whose blade velocity is Vj. It appears that a usual value of
this constant is about 1,500,000' for the whole range from an
admission pressure which may be nearly 200 Ib per sq. in. down to
condenser pressure.
1 Speakman, "The Determination of the Principal Dimensions
of the Steam Turbine with special reference to Marine Work," Proc.
Inst. Engineers & Shipbuilders in Scotland (October 1905). On this
subject see also Reed, " The Design of Marine Steam Turbines,"
Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. (February 1909).
STEAM ENGINE
847
The increased diameter at the low-pressure end not only allows
the steam velocity to be increased but by enlarging the annulus
enables a sufficient area of passage to be provided without unduly
lengthening the blades. In the very last stages of the expansion,
however, the volume becomes so great that it is not practicable to
provide sufficient area by lengthening the blades, and the blades
there are accordingly shaped so as to face in a more nearly axial
direction and are spaced more widely apart.
The area of the steam passage depends on the angle of the blade.
If the blades were indefinitely thin it would be equal to the area
of the annulus multiplied by the sine of the angle of discharge, and
in practice this is subject to a deduction for the thickness of the blade
on the discharge side, as well as to a correction for leakage over
the tips. Generally the angle of discharge is about 225; and the
effective area for the passage of steam is about one-third of the area
of the annulus.
Fig. 6 1 A shows a representative pair of fixed and moving
blades of a Parsons turbine, and fig. 61 B the corresponding
FIG. 61.
velocity diagram for the steam, neglecting effects of friction.
Vi is the exit velocity from the fixed blades, the delivery
edges of which are tangent to the direction of Vi. The blade
velocity is u which is JVi. Va is consequently the relative
velocity with which the steam enters the moving blades. Approxi-
mately, the back surface of these blades is parallel to V 2 , but the
blades are so thick near the entrance side that their front faces have
a considerably different slope and there is therefore some shock at
entrance. In passing through the moving blades the relative
velocity of the steam over the blades changes from \t to Vs. Allow-
ing for the velocity u of the blades themselves, this corresponds to
an absolute velocity V 4 , with which the steam enters the next set of
fixed blades. In these blades it is again accelerated to V t and so on.
126. Calculation of Velocity at each Stage. The acceleration of
the steam in each row of blades results from a definite heat drop.
Or, if we look at the matter from the point of view of the pressure-
volume diagram, the acceleration results from the work done on the
steam by itself during a drop Sp in its pressure. The amount of
this work per pound is vSp where t; is the actual volume per pound.
It is convenient in practice to write this in the form (pv)&p/p, for
the product pv changes only slowly as expansion proceeds. In
designing a turbine a table of the values of pv throughout the range
of pressures from admission to exhaust is prepared, and from these
numbers it is easy to calculate the work done at each stage in the
expansion, the pressure p and drop in pressure Sp being known.
In the ideal case with no losses we should have
or
where Vt is the velocity before the acceleration due to the drop Sp
and Vi is the velocity after.
But under actual conditions the gain of velocity is less than this,
owing to blade friction, shock and other sources of loss. The actual
velocity depends on the efficiency and on the shape and angles of
the blades. It appears that under the conditions which hold in
practice in Parsons turbines it is very nearly such that
A. Cylinder
B- Rotor
C. fin/once PijtOH
D. Searing
E. Adjusting Block
F. Steam Packed Glands
In this formula, which serves as a means of estimating approxi-
mately the velocity for purposes of design, it is to be understood
that in calculating the product pv the volume to be taken is that
which is actually reached during expansion. The actual volume
is affected both by friction and by leakage and is intermediate in
value between the volume in adiabatic expansion and the volume
corresponding to saturation. In the case of a turbine of 70 % efficiency
the actual wetness of the steam is, according to Mr Parsons's
experience, about 55 % of that due to adiabatic expansion in the
early stages and 60% in the latest stages. In preparing the table
of values of pv figures are accordingly to be taken intermediate
between those for saturated steam and for steam expanded adia-
batically, and from these is found as above the velocity for any given
drop in pressure, and also the volume per pound, for which at each
stage in the expansion provision has to be made in designing the
effective areas of passage.
The blade speeds used in Parsons turbines rarely exceed 350 ft.
per second and are generally a good deal less. In marine forms,
where the number of revolutions per minute is limited by considera-
tions of efficiency in the action of the screw propeller, the blade
speeds generally range from about 120 to 150 ft. per second, though
speeds as low as 80 ft. per second have been used.
127. Parsons Marine Turbines. Marine turbines are divided
into distinct high and low pressure parts through which the
steam passes in series, each in a separate casing and each driving
a separate propeller shaft. The most usual arrangement is to
have three propeller shafts; the middle is driven by the high
pressure portion of the turbine, and the steam which has done
duty in this is then equally divided between two precisely
similar low pressure turbines, each on one of two wing shafts.
The rotor drum of each turbine has a uniform diameter through-
out its length, but the casing is stepped to allow the lengths of
the blades to increase as the pressure falls.
The casing which contains each of the two low pressure
turbines contains also a turbine for running astern, so that either
or both of the two wing shafts may be reversed. Steam is
admitted to the reversing turbine direct from the boiler, the
centre shaft being then idle. Each astern-driven turbine
consists of a comparatively short series of rings of blades, set
for running in the reversed direction, developing enough power
for this purpose but making no pretensions to high efficiency.
The astern turbine, being connected to the condenser, runs
in vacua when the ahead turbine is in use and consequently
wastes little or no power.
Figs. 62 and 63 are sections of the high pressure and low pressure
portions of a typical Parsons marine steam turbine, as designed
for the three-shaft arrangement in which the low pressure portion
is duplicated. In each figure A is the fixed casing and B is the
revolving drum. Steam enters the high pressure turbine (fig. 62)
through J and passes out through H. There are i " expansions "
or steps, with 9 stages or double rows of blades in the first, 9 in the
0. Worm for Actuating Ooaenior
H. Cjlhautt to Low Pressure Turbine
1. Steam Mi!
K. Turbint Drain
L. Oillnlit
VI. Oil Drain
FIG. 62. Parsons Marine Turbine : High Pressure Part.
Upper half: sectional elevation. Lower half: external view.
8 4 8
STEAM ENGINE
second, 8 in the third and 8 in the fourth, or 34 stages in all. The
low pressure turbine (fig. 63) comprises 28 more stages stepped as
shown in the figure. The reversing turbine which is seen on the left-
hand side in fig. 63, at the place where the rotor is reduced in diameter,
has 26 stages in 4 steps. These turbines have a total normal
horse power of 12,500, and run at 450 revolutions per minute.
128. Longitudinal Forces in Marine Turbines.- In a marine steam
turbine the size of the dummy is reduced so that instead of balancing
the whole steam thrust it leaves a resultant force which nearly
balances the propeller thrust. Consequently only a small thrust
block has to be provided to take any difference there may be between
these forces. This thrust block is shown on the extreme right in
each figure, beyond the gland and bearing. The dummy (at D
in the figures) is made up of some 22 rings of brass fixed in the case
in close proximity to the faces of projecting rings on the rotor
(fig. 64) with a longitudinal clearance of 0-015 m - This form of
dummy is suitable for the end near the thrust block, where exact
longitudinal adjustment is possible, but the astern turbine in fig. 63
FIG. 64. FIG. 65.
requires a different form because some longitudinal play is neces-
sarily brought about there by differences in expansion of the rotor
and stator. Accordingly, the astern dummy is of the " radial "
form shown in fig. 65 where the fine clearance is round the circum-
ference of the brass rings set in the rotor and stator alternately. The
whole dummy includes about sixteen of these rings.
129. Shaft Arrangement of Marine Turbines. Fig. 66 shows the
usual three-shaft arrangement, with two low pressure turbines in
parallel on the wing
shafts, and one high
pressure turbine, with
which they are jointly
in series, on the middle
shaft. In very large
vessels four shafts are
used, and the turbines
form two independent
sets one on each side of
the ship. The outer
shaft on each side carries
a high pressure turbine,
and the inner shaft car-
ries the corresponding
low pressure turbine and FIG. 66.
also a turbine for revers-
ing. This arrangement is followed in the " Lusitania " and
" Mauretania " where the low pressure turbines have drums 188 in.
in diameter, are about 175 ft. in diameter over all and 50 ft. long, and
weigh 300 tons. Each turbine has 8 steps with about 1 6 stages
in each step in the high pressure turbine and 8 in the low. They
run at 180 revolutions per minute.
130. Cruising Turbines in War-Ships. In turbines for the pro-
pulsion of war-ships it is necessary to secure a fairly high economy
at speeds greatly short of those for which the turbines are designed
when working at full power, for the normal cruising speed of such
vessels is usually from half to two-thirds of the speed at full power.
To counterbalance the reduced blade velocity, when running under
these conditions, the number of rows of blades. has in some cases
FIG. 67.
been augmented by adding what are called cruising turbines, which
are connected in series with the main turbines when the ship is to
run at cruising speed. In the three-shaft arrangement the cruising
turbines are fitted on the wing propeller shafts, which carry also
the low pressure and astern turbines. They form a high and inter-
mediate pressure pair through which the steam may pass in series
STEAM ENGINE
849
before going on to the main turbines. This arrangement is shown
in fig. 67, where C.H.P. and C.I. P. are the two cruising turbines.
In cruising at low speeds the whole group of turbines is used in
series : when the speed is increased a larger amount of power is got
by admitting steam direct to the second cruiser turbine ; and finally
at the highest speed both cruiser turbines are cut out. The arrange-
ment shown in fig. 67 has been used in some torpedo-boat destroyers
and small cruisers. In some large cruisers and battleships a four-
shaft system is employed and a longitudinal bulkhead divides the
whole group into two independent sets. On each of the outer shafts
there is a high-pressure ahead and also a separate high-pressure
astern turbine. On each of the inner shafts there is a combined
low-pressure ahead and astern turbine and also a cruising turbine.
All four shafts can be reversed.
131. Application of Parsons Turbine. The Parsons was the
earliest steam turbine to be made commercially successful, and
it has found a wider range of application than any other. Its
chief employment is as an electric generator and as a marine
engine, but it has been put to a considerable number of other
uses. One of these is to drive fans and blowers for exhausting
air, or for delivering it under pressure. The turbine-driven
fans and blowers designed by Mr Parsons are themselves com-
pound turbines driven reversed in such a manner as to pro-
duce a cumulative difference in the pressure of the air that is
to be impelled.
An interesting field for the application of steam turbines
is to economize the use of steam in non-condensing engines of the
older type, by turning their exhaust to the supply of a turbine
provided with an efficient condenser. It is a characteristic
of the turbine that it is able to make effective use of low pressure
steam. No condensing piston and cylinder can compete with it
in this respect; for the turbine continues to extract heat energy
usefully when the pressure has fallen so low that frictional losses
and the inconveniences attaching to excessive volume make it
impracticable to continue expansion to any good purpose under
a piston.
132. Parsons Vacuum Augmenter. For the same reason it
is especially important in the turbine to secure a good vacuum:
any increase in condenser pressure during a turbine test at
once shows its influence in making a marked reduction of steam
economy. In the region of usual condenser pressures a differ-
ence of i in. changes the steam consumption by about 5%.
With this in mind Mr Parsons has invented a device called a
vacuum augmenter, shown in fig. 68. The condensed water
FIG. 68. Parsons Vacuum Augmenter.
passes to the air-pump through a pipe bent to form a water-
seal. The air from the condenser is extracted by means of a
small steam jet pump which delivers it into an " augmenter
condenser " in which the steam of this jet is condensed. The
vacuum in the augmenter condenser is directly produced by
the action of the air-pump. The effect of this device is to
maintain in the main condenser a higher vacuum than that
in the augmenter condenser, and consequently a higher vacuum
than the air-pump by itself is competent to produce. This is
done with a small expenditure of steam in the jet, but the effect
of the augmented vacuum on the efficiency of the turbine is so
beneficial that a considerable net gain results.
133. Rateau and Zolly Turbines. Professor Rateau has
designed a form of steam turbine which combines some of the
features of the Parsons turbine with those of the De Laval. He
divides the whole drop into some twelve or twenty-four stages
and at each stage employs an impulse wheel substantially of
the De Laval type, the steam passing from one stage to the
next through a diaphragm with nozzles. This form can scarcely
be called an independent type. It has been applied as an
exhaust steam turbine in conjunction with a regenerative thermal
accumulator which enables steam to be delivered steadily to
the turbine although supplied from an intermittent source. The
Zolly turbine, which has found considerable application on a
large scale, acts in a precisely similar manner to that of Rateau:
it differs only in mechanical details.
134. Combined Reciprocating and Turbine Engines. The
combination of a reciprocating engine with a turbine is sug-
gested by Parsons for the propulsion of cargo or other low-speed
steamers where the speed of the screw shafts cannot be made
high enough to admit of a sufficient blade velocity for the
efficient treatment in the turbine of high-pressure steam.
With a small speed of revolution blade velocity can be got
only by increasing the diameter of the spindle, and a point
is soon reached when this not only involves an unduly large
size and weight of turbine, but also makes the blades become
so short (by augmenting the circumference of the annulus)
that the leakage loss over the tips becomes excessive. This
consideration confines the practical application of turbines to
vessels whose speed is over say 1 5 knots. But by restricting the
turbine to the lower part of the pressure range and using a piston
and cylinder engine for the upper part a higher economy is
possible than could be reached by the use of either form of
engine alone, the turbine being specially well adapted to make
the most of the final stages of expansion, whereas the ordinary
reciprocating engine in such vessels makes little or no use of
pressure below about 7 Ib per sq. in.
135. Consumption of Steam in the Parsons Turbine. In large
sizes the Parsons turbine requires less steam per horse-power-hour
than any form of reciprocating engine using steam under similar
conditions. Trials made in April 1900, by the present writer, of
a 2000 h.p. turbine coupled to an electric generator showed a con-
sumption of i8J ft per kilowatt hour, with steam at 155 ft per sq. in.
superheated 84 F. Since I kilowatt is 1-34 h.p. this consumption
is equal to 13-6 ft per electrical horse-power-hour. The best piston
engines when driving dynamos convert about 84 % of their indicated
power into electric power. Hence the above result is as good, in
the relation of electric power to steam consumption, as would be
got from a piston engine using only 11-4 ft of steam per indicated
horse-power-hour. An important characteristic of the steam turbine
is that it retains a high efficiency under comparatively light loads.
The figures below illustrate this by giving the results of a series of
trials of the same machine under various loads.
Load in kilowatts .
1450
1250
IOOO
750
500
250
Steam used per kilo- )
watt-hour in pounds J
18-1
i'5
19-2
20-3
22-6
34'0
Still better results have been obtained in more recent examples,
in turbines of greater power. A Parsons turbine, rated as of 3500
but working up to over 5000 kilowatts tested in 1907 at the Carville
power station of the Newcastle-on-Tyne Electric Supply Company,
showed a consumption of only 13-19 ft of steam per kilowatt-hour,
.vith steam of 200 ft pressure by gauge and 67 C. superheat (tem-
perature 264-7 C.), the vacuum being 29-04 in. (barometer 30 in.).
It is interesting to compare this performance with the ideal amount
of work obtainable per pound of steam, or in other words with the
ideal " heat drop." At the temperature and pressure of supply
the total heat Ii is 709. After expansion to the pressure correspond-
ing to the stated vacuum (0-96 in.) the total heat of the wet mixture
would be 486, the dryness being then 0-792, if the expansion took
place under ideal adiabatic conditions. Hence the heat drop Ij Ij is
223 units, and this represents the work ideally obtainable under
the actual conditions as to temperature and pressure of supply and
exhaust. Since I kilowatt-hour is 1896 thermal units (ft degree
C.), each pound of steam was generating an amount of electrical
energy equivalent to 2 or 143-7 thermal units, and the electric
output consequently corresponds to 64^% of the ideal work. If
we allow for the loss in the electric generator by taking the electrical
output as 92 % of the mechanical power, this implies that 70 % of
the ideal work in the steam was mechanically utilized.
136. Torsion Meiers for Power. No measurement correspond-
ing to the " indicating " of a piston engine is possible with a
850
STEAMSHIP LINES
steam turbine. In the tests that have been quoted the useful
output was determined by electrical means. Direct measure-
ments of the useful mechanical power (the " brake " power)
may, however, be obtained by applying a torsion dynamometer
to the shaft. Devices are accordingly used in marine turbines
for determining the horse-power from observations of the
elastic twist in a portion of the propeller shaft as it revolves.
In Denny & Johnson's torsion meter two light gun-metal wheels
are fixed on the shaft as far apart as is practicable, generally
15 or 20 ft., and their relative angular displacement is found
by comparing the inductive effects produced on fixed coils by
magnets which are carried on the wheels. In Hopkinson &
Thring's torsion meter a short length of shaft a foot or so
suffices. A small mirror is carried by a collar fixed to the shaft,
and a second collar fixed a little way along is geared to the
mirror in such a way as to deflect the mirror to an extent pro-
portional to the twist: the deflexion is read by means of a lamp
and scale fixed alongside. As the shaft revolves the light re-
flected from the mirror is momentarily seen at each revolution
and its position along the scale is easily read. (J. A. E.)
STEAMSHIP LINES. The shipping company is the outcome
of the development of the steamship. In former days, when
the packet ship was the mode of conveyance, there were com-
binations, such as the well-known Dramatic and Black Ball
lines, but the ships which were run in them were not necessarily
owned by those who organized the services. The advent of the
steamship changed all that. It was in the year 1815 that the
first steamship began to ply between the British ports of
Liverpool and Glasgow. In 1826 the " United Kingdom," a
" leviathan steamship," as she was considered at the time of
her construction, was built for the London and Edinburgh trade,
steamship facilities in the coasting trade being naturally of
much greater relative importance in the days before railways.
In the year 1823 the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company was
inaugurated, though it was not incorporated till ten years later.
The year 1824 saw the incorporation of the General Steam
Navigation Company, which was intended not only to provide
services in British waters, but also to develop trade with the
continent. The St George Steam Navigation Company and
the British & Irish Steam Packet Company soon followed.
The former of these was crushed in the keen competition which
ensued, but it did a great work in the development of ocean
travelling. Isolated voyages by vessels fitted with steam engines
had been made by the " Savannah " from the United States
in 1819, and by the first " Royal William " from Canada in 1833,
and the desirability of seriously attacking the problem of ocean
navigation was apparent to the minds of shipping men in the
three great British ports of London, Liverpool and Bristol.
Three companies were almost simultaneously organized: the
British & American Steam Navigation Company, which made
the Thames its headquarters; the Atlantic Steamship Company
of Liverpool; and the Great Western Steamship Company of
Bristol. Each company set to work to build a wooden paddle
steamer in its own port. The first to be launched was the
" Great Western," which took the water in the Avon on the igth
of July 1837. On the I4th of October following the " Liverpool "
was launched by Messrs Humble, Milcrest & Co., in the port
from which she was named, and in May 1838 the Thames-
built " British Queen " was successfully floated. The " Great
Western " was the first to be made ready for sea.
But the rival ports were determined not to be deterred by
delays in getting delivery of their specially built ships. The
London company chartered the " Sirius," a yoo-ton steamship,
from the St George Steam Packet Company, and despatched
her from London on the 28th of March 1838. She was thus the
first to put to sea. She eventually left Cork on the 4th of April,
and reached New York on the 22nd, after a passage of 17 days.
The " Great Western " did not leave Bristol till the 8th of April,
but under the command of James Hosken, R.N. (1798-1885) she
reached New York only a few hours after the " Sirius." The
Liverpool people, fired by the action -of the other two ports,
chartered the " Royal William " from the City of Dublin Steam
Packet Company, and despatched her on the first steam voyage
from the Mersey to Sandy Hook on the sth of July in the same
year. The " Liverpool " made her maiden voyage in the follow-
ing October. But the " British Queen " did not make her initial
attempt till the ist of July 1839. Trouble overtook all three of
these early Atlantic lines, and they soon ceased to exist.
Perhaps the most serious factor against them was the success
of Mr Samuel Cunard in obtaining the government contract
for the conveyance of the mails from Liverpool to Halifax and
Boston, with a very large subsidy. The Cunard Line was
enabled, and indeed, by the terms of its contract, obliged, to
run a regular service with a fleet of four steamships identical
in size, power and accommodation. It thus offered conveyance
at well-ascertained times and by vessels of known speed. The
other companies, with their small fleets of isolated ships and
their irregular departures, could not continue the competition.
The Atlantic Steamship Company of Liverpool found that the
port could not then maintain two steamship lines, and the
steamship " Liverpool," with another somewhat similar vessel
which they had built, fell into the hands of the P. &O. Company.
The Great Western Steamship Company proceeded to build the
" Great Britain," an iron screw steamship, which in every way
was before her time, and were swamped by financial difficulties,
their " Great Western " being sold to the West India Royal Mail
Company, to whom she became a very useful servant. The
" Great Britain " (which was stranded in Dundrum Bay in
September 1846, owing to her captain, Hosken, being misled
by a faulty chart and mistaking the lights) eventually drifted
into the Australian trade. The London company put -a second
ship, the " President," on their station. She was lost with all
hands, no authentic information as to her end ever being
obtained. Her mysterious fate settled the fortunes of her
owners, and the " British Queen " was transferred to the Belgian
flag. Steam navigation across the Atlantic was now an accom-
plished fact. But all the three pioneers had been borne down by
the difficulties which attend the carrying out of new departures,
even when the general principles are sound.
Constant improvement has been the watchword of the ship-
owner and the ship-builder, and every decade has seen the ships
of its predecessor become obsolete. The mixed paddle and
screw leviathan, the " Great Eastern," built in the late 'fifties,
was so obviously before her time by some fifty years, and was
so under-poweved for her size, that she may be left out of our
reckoning. Thus, to speak roughly, the 'fifties saw the iron
screw replacing the wooden paddle steamer; the later 'sixties
brought the compound engine, which effected so great an economy
in fuel that the steamship, previously the conveyance of mails
and passengers, began to compete with the sailing vessel in
the carriage of cargo for long voyages; the 'seventies brought
better accommodation for the passenger, with the midship
saloon, improved state-rooms, and covered access to smoke-
rooms and ladies' cabins; the early 'eighties saw steel replacing
iron as the material for ship-building, and before the close of
that decade the introduction of the twin-screw rendered break-
downs at sea more remote than they had previously been, at
the same time giving increased safety in another direction, from
the fact that the duplication of machinery facilitated further
subdivision of hulls. Now the masts of the huge liners in vogue
were no longer useful for their primary purposes, and degenerated
first into derrick props and finally into mere signal poles, while
the introduction of boat decks gave more shelter to the pro-
menades of the passengers and removed the navigators from
the distractions of the social side. The provision of train-to-
boat facilities at Liverpool and Southampton in the 'nineties
did away with the inconveniences of the tender and the cab.
The introduction of the turbine engine at the beginning of
the 20th century gave further subdivision of machinery and
increase of economy, whereby greater speed became possible and
comfort was increased by the reduction of vibration. At the
same time the introduction of submarine bell signalling tends
to diminish the risk of stranding and collision, whilst wireless
telegraphy not only destroys the isolation of the sea but tends
STEAMSHIP LINES
851
to safety, as was seen by the way in which assistance was callec
out of the fog when the White Star liner " Republic " was
sinking as the result of a collision off Fire Island (1909).
In the following pages some of the ships which first embodiec
these improvements are mentioned, a brief history of the prin-
cipal lines is attempted, and reference is made to some of the
milestones on the road of improvement.
Allan Line. The story of the Allan Line is that of the enterprise
of one family. Captain Alexander Allan, at the time of the Penin-
sular War, conveyed stores and cattle to Lisbon for Wellington's
army. After 1815 he began to run his vessel between the Clyde
and Canada, and as years went on he employed several vessels in
the service. Till 1837 the ships ran from Greenock to Montreal,
but in that year, after the Clyde was deepened, the ships went to
Glasgow, as they have continued to do ever since. Captain Allan
and his five sons devoted all their energies to the development
of the Canadian trade, and for about forty years the line ran sailing
ships only, which were greatly in request for the emigrant traffic.
In 1852 the Canadian government requested tenders for a weekly
mail service between Great Britain and Canada. That of Sir Hugh
Allan of Montreal, one of Captain Allan's sons, was accepted, and
the Canadian mail line of steamships came into existence. It may be
noted that the Allan Line inaugurated steamers of the " spar-deck "
type, i.e. with a clear promenade deck above the main deck. This
measure of safety was taken as a lesson from the disastrous
foundering of the Australian steamship " London " in the Bay of
Biscay in the year 1866. The company may claim, too, that their
steamship " Buenos Ayrean," built for them in the year 1879 by
Messrs Denny of Dumbarton, was the first Atlantic steamship to
be constructed of steel. As time went on the company's services
were extended to various ports on the eastern shores of North
America and in the river Plate; and London, as well as the two
strongholds of Glasgow and Liverpool, was taken as a port of
departure. In the course of its career it has absorbed the fleet of
the old State Line of Glasgow and a great part of the fleet of the
Royal Exchange Shipping Company and of the Hill Line. Included
in the latter fleet were the first twin-screw steamers constructed for
a British North Atlantic line. The " Virginian " and the " Victorian,"
built for the Allan Line in 1905, were the first transatlantic liners
propelled by turbines. The principal ports served by the Allan Line
are (in the United Kingdom) Glasgow, Londonderry, Belfast,
Liverpool and London ; from these their vessels ply to many places
in North and South America, including Quebec, Montreal, St Johns
(Newfoundland), Halifax, St John (New Brunswick), Portland,
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Montevideo, Buenos
Aires and Rosario.
American Line. Though the American Line, as now constituted,
is of comparatively modern origin, it is the successor of several
much older organizations. Of these the oldest is the Inman Line,
last acquired by it. On the l6th of April 1850 an iron screw steam-
ship of 1609 tons gross register left Glasgow on her maiden trip to
New York. This was the beginning of the Inman Line. After
a few voyages this ship was sold to Messrs Richardson, Spence &
Co. of Liverpool, in which William Inman (1825-1881) was a
partner, and the sailings of the steamships were thenceforth for
some years between Liverpool and Philadelphia. But in 1857
New York took the place of 'Philadelphia as a regular terminus. In
1859 the regular call at Queenstown was commenced by this line,
which may be said to have been responsible for two other innova-
tions in transatlantic traffic. Before 1850 practically all the steam-
ships crossing the ocean, with the famous exception of the " Great
Britain," were paddle-boats. After the advent of the Inman liners
the screw began to be everywhere substituted for the paddle. In
the second place, the Inman steamers were the first which regularly
undertook the conveyance of third-class passengers, to the extinc-
tion of the old clipper vessels which had hitherto carried on the
traffic. In 1867 the Inman liner" City of Paris " (the first bearing the
name) held the westward record with 8 days 4 hours, and in 1869 the
" City of Brussels " came home in 7 days 22 hours 3 minutes. Till
1872 these records held good. The " City of Brussels " also had the
distinction of being the first Atlantic mail steamer to be fitted with
steam steering-gear. About 1875 Mr William Inman turned the
concern into a limited company, and in 1886 the business was
amalgamated with the International Company, and the vessels,
though still flying the red ensign, became the property of a group
of United States capitalists, who also acquired the old American
Line which had been started in 1873 with four Philadelphia-built
steamers. This company had been conducted under the auspices
of the Pennsylvania Railroad. It plied between Liverpool and
Philadelphia. A third constituent in the Inman and International
Steamship Company was the Red Star Line, as the Soci6t6 Anonyme
Belge-Americaine was familiarly called. Its service was from
Antwerp to New York. The whole was placed under the manage-
ment of Messrs Richardson, Spence & Co., who thus after thirty-
two years reassumed the direction of the old company. In 1887
the two ships " City of New York " and " City of Paris " were built
on the Clyde for the company. At the time of their construction
they were the largest vessels ever built, always excepting the
" Great Eastern." The " City of Paris " was the first vessel (1889)
to cross the Atlantic in less than six days. The year 1893 was an
important one in the history of the company, and indeed of the
United States. The two vessels above mentioned were admitted to
American registry by Congress, a stipulation being made that two
new ships of at least equal tonnage and speed to the pair should be
ordered by the company from American firms, and that they should
be capable ot being employed by the United States government as
auxiliary cruisers in case of war. The American flag was hoisted
over the " New York " in 1893 by President Harrison, and in the
same year the British headquarters of the company were transferred
from Liverpool to Southampton. In 1894 the first American-built
ocean Hner of the new fleet was launched, and was named the " St
Louis." In 1898 the American Line had the distinction of supply-
ing the navy of its country with cruisers for use in war. The " St
Paul," the only vessel of the four under contract in American
waters at the time, was put under the command of Captain Sigsbee,
whose own battleship, the " Maine," had been blown up in Havana
harbour on the i;>th of February. The other three ships were also
put into commission, the " Paris " being temporarily renamed the
" Yale " and the " New York " the " Harvard." In 1902 with
their twin-screw liner " Kensington " the American Line made
the first experiments towards fitting Atlantic passenger steamers
with appliances for the use of liquid fuel. The express fleet of
the line consists of the four vessels, " St Louis " and " St Paul,"
each of 11,600 tons and a length of 554 ft.; and the " New
York " and " Philadelphia," each of 10,800 tons and 560 ft. length.
Several still larger but less speedy steamships have been constructed
for the intermediate services of the company. In addition to the
weekly express service between Southampton and New York, the
American Line runs steamers between New York and Antwerp,
Philadelphia, Queenstown and Liverpool, and Philadelphia and
Antwerp.
Austrian Lloyd Steam Navigation Company. This company
was started in 1837 at Trieste, where its headquarters are still
situated. It commenced operations with seven small wooden
paddle-boats for the voyage to Constantinople and the Levant.
By 1910 they had increased to a fleet of sixty-two iron and steel
steamships, with a gross tonnage of about a quarter of a njillion
tons. The whole eastern coast of the Adriatic and the Levant is
visited by them with frequent services. There is a line to the west
as far as Brazil, and a monthly mail service between Trieste,
Brindisi and Bombay. There is also a monthly ordinary service
Detween Trieste, Bombay, China and Japan, and a monthly branch
in connexion with it between Colombo, Madras and Calcutta.
Bibby Line. The name of Bibby has long been known and
respected in the shipping world. The first undertaking of the family
was the institution of a service from Liverpool to Mediterranean
sorts about the middle of last century. When Mr (subsequently
5ir Edward) Harland took over the ship-building works at Belfast,
which he afterwards made famous, Mr Bibby was one of his earliest
customers. It was he who gave him practically carle blanche in the
way of proportion for the new ships built for his service, and it was
rom the experience acquired and the success achieved with them
that the " long ships," with which the White Star Line made its
name, were first brought into the region of the practical. In this
connexion it may be stated that Sir Edward Harland was born
at Scarborough in 1831, his father being a medical practitioner,
rle learnt the science of ship-building in the yards of Messrs R.
Stephenson & Co. of Newcastle, and became first a draughts-
man with Messrs J. & G. Thomson, and then manager in a New-
castle yard. In 1854 he went to Belfast, first as manager to Messrs
Robert Hickson & Co. Then in 1858 he took over their yard,
n 1859 he launched the " Venetian " for Mr Bibby, and in 1860
le took Mr G. W. Wolff into partnership. After a time Mr
3ibby retired from the active pursuit of his business, and the
ine passed into the hands of one of his confidential managers
Vlr Leyland (see Leyland Line). But the Bibby family, though
arge shareholders in the White Star Line, could not remain without
ome active interest in seafaring matters. Hence a new Bibby Line
was started. Its first vessel was the " Lancashire," a single-screw
teamer of 4244 tons gross register, built as have been all this fleet
)y Messrs Harland & Wolff. She came out in 1889. Her sister
was a similar vessel. Subsequent additions to the fleet were all
of the twin-screw type; thus the Bibby Line can boast that it was the
irst to maintain its service, which is now fortnightly, 'exclusively
vith twin-screw vessels. In the trade between Liverpool and
langoon they soon made a name.
The Booth Line is essentially a Liverpool company. It was
ounded in the year 1866 by Messrs Alfred Booth & Co., who in that
year instituted a service to north Brazil. Three years later from the
ame port was started the Red Cross Line of Messrs R. Singlehurst
& Co. to carry on a similar service. In 1901 the two lines were
amalgamated under the title of the Booth' Steamship Company
.imited. Since the year 1882 there has been a connexion by the
?ooth steamers between north Brazil and New York. Para, Manaos,
Maranham, Paranahyba and Ceara are the chief Brazilian ports
erved by the company, whilst the steamers make calls on the eastern
ide of the Atlantic at Cardiff and Havre as well as at Spanish and
Portuguese ports. The company carries the British mails to Para
STEAMSHIP LINES
and Manaos, whilst it also takes the United States mails between New
York and north Brazil. In addition to its transatlantic passenger
traffic the Booth Line is largely developing a tourist trade to Vigo,
Oporto and Lisbon in the Peninsula as well as to Madeira. The
Yquitos Steamship Company, which is under its management,
carries its trade a couple of thousand miles up the River Amazon ;
a further development will extend to River Plate ports.
British India Steam Navigation Company. This line maintains,
perhaps, a larger network of communications and serves a greater
number of ports difficult of access than any in the world. The
Persian Gulf, Burma, the Straits of Malacca, and the entire littoral
of the East Indies, to say nothing of the east coast of Africa, are
among the scenes of its enterprise. Though its ramifications
now extend to the ports of northern Australia, the company had
its origin in the Indian coasting trade. Its present designation
is of comparatively recent origin, but its first operations date from
1855. A project for a mail service between Calcutta and Burma
was then first set on foot by the East India Company. Early in the
following year a company was formed, under the title of the Calcutta
and Burma Steam Navigation Company. Two small steamers of
600 tons each were brought and despatched to India round the Cape
in 1857, for a service between Calcutta, Akyab, Rangoon and
Moulmein, under a contract with the government of India. At the
outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 the company rendered important
service by bringing up from Ceylon to Calcutta the first detachment
of European troops which came to the assistance of India from
outside. In 1862 an agreement was made between the company
and the government, by which the former agreed to convey troops
and stores and to perform other services. Under this arrangement
steamers were to be despatched regularly from Calcutta to Ran-
goon, Moulmein, Akyab and Singapore, and from Rangoon to the
Andaman Islands. A service was also set on foot to the Persian
Gulf, between Bombay and Karachi and Madras and Rangoon.
This gave a great impulse to the business of the company.
During the Abyssinian campaign of 1867 it proved of the greatest
assistance to the government. The opening of the Suez Canal
in 1869 produced an entire revolution in tne shipping trade of
India, and led to a great development of the company's fleet.
The s.s. " India " with cargo was waiting at Suez when the canal
was opened to traffic, and was the first steamer to arrive in London
through the canal with an Indian cargo. In 1872 the company
extended its operations to the east coast of Africa, and by an arrange-
ment with the British government began to run a service every four
weeks between Aden and Zanzibar. Upwards of one hundred ports
are visited by the company's steamers. In all there are twenty-one
lines with additional services. They may be classed roughly as those
running to ports in (i.) India, Burma and Straits Settlements; (ii.)
Straits Settlements and Philippines; (iii.) East Coast of Africa; (iv.)
Persian Gulf; (v.) Dutch East Indies and Queensland.
The Canadian Pacific Railway is now one of the big shipping
companies of the world, owning, as it does, just under 200,000 tons
of steam shipping. Its services divide themselves into several
sections. There are those in home waters, such as the Great Lakes,
where it employs a fleet of vessels of quite considerable tonnage.
Under this head, too, come the local services on the coasts and rivers
of the Pacific. Then there are the ocean lines on the Pacific
and the Atlantic. The first of these is run from Vancouver via
Yokohama and other Japanese ports to Hong-Kong. Sailings are
made at about three-weekly intervals. This service is maintained
by the three Empresses, the " Empress of India," the " Empress of
China " and the Empress of Japan," sister ships of about 6000 tons
and 10,000 i.h.p., specially built with a view to serve as auxiliary
cruisers to the British navy in time of war. The great develop-
ment of the Canadian Pacific, as far as regards ship-owning, took
place in 1903, when it took over from Messrs Elder, Dempster & Co.
their transatlantic services to Canada. The "deal" affected four
twin-screw passenger and cargo steamers, and some ten vessels of
a purely cargo type. These steamers ranged in size from the
" Monmouth," of just over 4000 tons gross register, to the " Lake
Manitoba " of not far short of 10,000 tons. Since their entry into
the Atlantic trade the company has added two important mail
steamers the " Empress of Britain " and " Empress of Ireland "
to that side of its fleet.
Castle Line (see also Union Line and Union-Castle Line}. The
Castle Line began its career in 1872 with the " Iceland " and the
" Gothland, "both vessels of about 1400 tons. At that time the charge
for carrying letters to the Cape was about is. per half oz., and the
contract time between England and the Cape thirty-seven days. The
mail contracts were then in the hands of the Union Line exclusively,
but in 1873 the House of Commons refused to ratify the extension
of the contract signed with them by the chancellor of the exchequer,
and their rights thus expired in 1876. Up to 1876 the Cape parlia-
ment made an allowance to the Castle Line for the conveyance
of letters, _and when the postal contract was renewed in that year
it was divided between the Union and the Castle lines, an arrange-
ment which was adhered to down to the time when the two lines
united their fortunes. The scope of the company's energies has now
been extended to all parts of South Africa. The line did great
national service in carrying troops and stores to South Africa during
the 1899-1902 and previous campaigns. By a resolution passed!
at a meeting of shareholders held on the 131)1 of February 1900 this
company was amalgamated with the Union Line. The fleet had
grown from two ships in 1876 to twenty ships in 1900, and from a
total tonnage of 2800 to one of about 110,000 gross register.
City of Dublin Steam Packet Company. Among the steamship
services in the narrow seas round Great Britain a special interest
attaches to this company, which vies with the General Steam
Navigation Company in the claim for seniority. The General
Steam was undoubtedly the first to receive incorporation in the year
1824, but the undertakings from which the City of Dublin Company
sprang were at work in the years immediately prior to these dates.
As far as appears, the firm of Bourne & Co. who fulfilled in Ireland
functions for which the Messagenes Imperiales in France were first
formed were large shareholders in two undertakings which made
history in regard to the development of steam navigation. One of
these companies was the Dublin & London Steam Packet Company,
from which Messrs Wilcox & Anderson, the first managers of the
P. & O., chartered the " Royal Tar," the first steamer they despatched
to the Peninsula, and the other was the City of Dublin Company,
which originally occupied itself in the maintenance of a service of
steamships between Dublin and Liverpool. It was this company's
" Royal William " which had the distinction of opening the Liverpool
service to New York. By absorption, too, this company represents
the old St George Company, whose " Sirius " was the first steamer
to sail from London towards New York. In the year 1838 the
admiralty, which in those days had the management of many of
the mail services and continued for a time to keep the Irish day
mails in its own hands, gave the City of Dublin Company the con-
tract for the night Irish mails, which were thus despatched via
Liverpool. The name of Laird is to this day closely associated
with the fortunes of the company, and even at that time a
Mr Laird, grandfather of the present partners in the ship-building
firm, was a director of the City of Dublin Company. In the year
1848 the government with four steamers endeavoured to run the day
and night mails itself via Holyhead. But this arrangement did not
work well, and two of its mail steamers were bought by the City
of Dublin Company, while the two others were acquired by the
Chester & Holyhead railway. It is needless to follow the vicissi-
tudes of the mail service, wavering as it did from the admiralty
to the Chester & Holyhead railway, and then to the City of
Dublin Company. Suffice it to say that in 1859 an arrangement
was entered into whereby the City of Dublin Company undertook
the conveyance of both day and night mails via Holyhead, and built
four ships, called after the four Irish provinces, for the service. The
performances of these four paddle-ships, three of which were built by
Messrs Laird, were remarkable indeed. The " Connaught " was the
first vessel to do her 18 knots. The " Ulster " made the best passage
of them all doing the journey from Holyhead and Kingston in
3 hours 18 minutes. But the" Leinster" was only two minutes behind
her, and the" Munster" only six minutes worse than the "Leinster."
Taking the performances of the whole four vessels over the first
fourteen years of their existence, and considering the mean of
20,440 passages made as well in winter as in summer, the average
time of passage was only 3 hours 56-1 minutes. The contract was
renewed from time to time, that coming into operation on the 1st
of October 1883 being for an accelerated service. To enable this to
be adequately performed, the last paddle-ship of the fleet, the " Ire-
land, " was built by Messrs Laird, who also overhauled and improved
the machinery of the older vessels, giving them new boilers adapted
for the use of forced draught. In 1895 it was felt that the mode
of carrying these important mails again needed revision, and in that
year the House of Commons approved of a new contract, ufider which
four new twin-screw vessels were to be built for the service. The
work of design and construction was again undertaken by Messrs
Laird, and in 1897 the new fleet assumed the duties, and indeed the
names, of the vessels which had done such remarkable service during
a period of about thirty-eight years. The contract time was now
decreased by half an hour, and this meant naturally a very great
increase in the speed of the vessels employed. The present ships,
capable of a speed of about 24 knots, maintain however with
regularity and ease the 20 to 21 knots which are required. Besides
the night and day services with the mails the company also
maintains its old line between Liverpool and Dublin.
Compagnie Generate Transatlantique.-^A French undertaking
known as the Compagnie Generate Maritime was founded in 1855.
It owed its inception to the brothers Emile and Isaac Pereire.
Services were first organized from Rouen to Algeria, between Havre
and Hamburg, and between Marseilles and Antwerp, with calls
at Spanish and Portuguese ports. In 1861 the company was allowed
to change its title to the more comprehensive one under which it is
now known, and it then undertook its first contracts for the carriage
of the French mails to the United States, the Antilles and Mexico.
Some of the earlier vessels employed in the New York service were
very fine specimens of the naval architecture of their day. Among
them may be instanced the great iron paddle-steamer " Napo-
leon III.," built in the year 1864 by Messrs Scott & Co. of Greenock,
who at that time constructed most of the more important vessels
for this service. This vessel with her imperially titled sisters suffered
a change of name in the early 'seventies, when several of them were
lengthened and altered to screws. In the year 1881, again, there was
STEAMSHIP LINES
853
a great movement towards the acceleration and improvement of
the New York service, and a new fleet was begun with the single-
screw steamship " La Normandie," launched at Barrow-in-Furness in
1883. Four larger vessels of much the same class followed, three of
them being constructed in the owners' own yard at Penhoet. In 1890
the first twin-screw steamer of the line appeared in " La Touraine,"
and proving a success, the British-built " L'Aquitaine " was pur-
chased. A new postal contract was arranged in 1898, and under
its terms it became necessary for the company to build still larger
and faster vessels. Eventually four such ships were to be pro-
vided. These vessels are of 22 knots speed on trial, and are
among the fastest on the Atlantic. The company maintains a
weekly service to New York, as well as the lines to the Antilles
and Mexico in the Atlantic. There are also communications with
British and Algerian ports.
Cunard Line. This company derives its name from Samuel
Cunard of Halifax, Nova Scotia, an owner of sailing vessels
trading from Boston and Newfoundland to Bermuda. He first
conceived the idea of a regular despatch of royal mail steamships
across the Atlantic, to take the place of the government brigs,
which often took six or seven weeks in the transport of mails.
This idea he realized with the help of Mr George Burns of Glasgow and
Mr David Maclver of Liverpool. On the 4th of July 1840 the first
Cunarder, the " Britannia," started on her voyage across the Atlantic
with sixty-three passengers, landing them at Boston in a fortnight.
The experiment of using the screw for the Atlantic service was
made with several cargo steamers in the early 'fifties, and the
first Cunard screw steamer for the mail line made her d^but in
1862. This was the " China," the gross tonnage of which was
2539, her i.h.p. 2250, and her average speed 13-9 knots. In
1870 the Cunard Company first fitted compound engines to their
steamship " Batavia," and in 1881 the " Servia," the first steel
vessel in the service, was the pioneer of the larger type which
constitutes the present express fleet. Since 1840 the Cunard
Company has been under contract with the British government
for a mail service. At the present time the contract is for a weekly
mail to the United States, via Liverpool and New York. The
British post office, however, only pays its contractors for the
weight of mails actually carried, and reserves the right to send
specially addressed letters by foreign ships. The company's services
also include a passenger line to Boston, and frequent despatches
to Mediterranean and Levant ports as well as a weekly steamer to
Havre, and a passenger service from the Mediterranean to New
York. In October 1902, as a result of the formation of the Morgan
Shipping Trust, the British government made a new arrangement
with the Cunard Line, involving the loan at 2}% of the capital for
building two new fast steamers, besides a yearly subsidy of 150,000
for twenty years. The company showed its confidence in the
turbine system then in its infancy by adopting this principle
for these two vessels, the largest and fastest at that time contem-
plated. The advance in size and power of Atlantic steamships is
evidenced by the following comparison :
Speed.
Tonnage.
H.P.
1884
1893
1907
" Umbria " and
" Etruria "
"Campania" and
" Lucania "
"Lusitania" and
" Mauritania "
19
22
25
8,127
12,952
30.830
14-500
30,000
68,000
Elder, Dempster & Co. The remarkable progress of this com-
pany, and of the undertakings connected with it, was largely due
to the activity of the late Sir Alfred Jones. The oldest business
under its management is the African Steamship Company, which
was incorporated by royal charter in the year 1852 for the purpose
of trading with West African ports. It received a subvention of
30,000 per annum for a monthly mail to the Gold Coast, and began
its work with an unambitious little fleet of four 7OO-ton vessels. These
were at first, however, equal to all the traffic which the trade could
offer them. As time went on the number and size of the vessels
employed was increased. In 1869 such progress had been made
that it appeared worth while to start an opposition line under
the name of the British and African Steam Navigation Company.
This was at first a Glasgow venture, much in the same way as the
old concern had made its headquarters in London. But Liverpool
has long been the centre of the West African trade, and both com-
panies practically transferred their business thither. In the year
1883 the British & African Company, which was the first of the
two to fall under the management of Messrs Elder, Dempster &
Company, became a limited company, and not long afterwards
the two rivals arrived at a working arrangement whereby their
sailings at that time about three times a fortnight were worked
into one another. The Canary Islands, where the West African
steamers called on their voyages, were then becoming known as
a resort for tourists and invalids, and the issue of tickets available
by either line was commenced for their convenience. The develop-
ment of the cultivation of the banana for the English market was
also begun to be encouraged by the two steamship companies.
But it was in the month of August 1891 that the great movement
by the Elder-Dempster Company was made public. It was then
announced that the firm had assumed the management of the
African Company. The two concerns were, and are, continued as
distinct organizations, but they naturally work very closely together.
The African Company soon began to break fresh ground, building
not only superior vessels for the improving West African service,
but also constructing large cargo vessels for the general Atlantic
trade. These were soon engaged in the trade between the Mersey
and the St Lawrence on the one hand, and between Liverpool
and the southern ports of the United States on the other. Mean-
while the development of the possibilities of West Africa and of
the Canary Islands was not neglected. Various undertakings,
not usually considered part of a shipowner's work, were inau-
gurated. These included a bank, founded in 1894, for the accorrmo-
dation of West African traders, oil-mills in Liverpool, where the palm
kernels so largely consigned from the coast might be dealt with,
and a hotel at Grand Canary for the convenience of the tourist;
while, to ensure the disposal of the bananas which their companies
brought to England, a fruit brokerage business was opened in Covent
Garden. Having already, as has been seen, a footing in the Canadian
trade, they began the restoration of the Atlantic trade to Bristol,
by giving it a service of steamships to the St Lawrence, employing
for the purpose vessels of as great size as their docks could accom-
modate. At the beginning of 1899 they further strengthened their
connexion with the nearest British colony by the purchase, from
the liquidator of the insolvent Canada Snipping Company, of the
name, house-flag and remains of the old Beaver Line. A new fleet
for this service was at once put in hand, a fair representative of
the ships being the twin-screw " Lake Erie," a vessel of 7550 tons
gross register, built in 1900 by Messrs Barclay, Curie & Co.
of Glasgow, which did good work with many other Elder-
Dempster steamers in the transport service during the Boer War.
The Canadian steamers were however in 1903 transferred to the
Canadian Pacific railway. At the beginning of the 2Oth century
the firm began trading with the West Indies. By arrangement with
the colonial office, for an annual subsidy of 40,000, the " Direct "
service of fortnightly steamships was started with the sailing from
Avonmouth of the then newly built " Port Morant " in February
1901. The steamships of the new line have good passenger accom-
modation and hotels were acquired in Jamaica to provide accommo-
dation for those who wished to visit the West Indies under the new
management. This provision for tourists was a novel feature.
The increase, at once absolute and comparative, in the tonnage of
the Elder- Dempster fleet has been very remarkable. On the death
of Sir Alfred Jones a limited company was established under the
direction of Lord Pirrie, of the great ship-building firm of Harland
& Wolff, and of Sir Owen Philipps, chairman of the Royal Mail
Steam Packet Company, to carry on the Elder-Dempster Company
and take over the various interests concerned. The vessels of the
West African lines ply as well from Hamburg and other North
Sea continental ports as from Liverpool, while closely connected
with the firm, though sailing its vessels under the Belgian flag,
is the Compagnie Beige Maritime du Congo, which runs a service
from Antwerp to West African ports.
Ellerman Line: " Lloyd's Register of Shipping " in its issue
for 1901-1902 contains no reference to the Ellerman Line. For
unlike most other shipping companies it sprang into being in a
moment. It was started when Mr (afterwards Sir) John Ellerman,
chairman of the Leyjand Line, severed his connexion with that
company and went his own way, taking with him some nineteen
vessels of the fleet, and the Peninsula and Mediterranean connexions
of the old company. Forthwith he added to the tale of his ships
by taking over the management of the seven steamers of the Papay-
anni Line which has also long maintained a service to Mediter-
ranean ports. Nine steamers previously managed by Messrs
Westcott & Laurence also came into the fold. But this was not all;
the direction of two old-established lines to Indian ports was also
acquired. These were the fleet of the City Line, which at that
time comprised some fifteen vessels, many of them fitted for the
passenger trade. This line had been founded by Messrs George
Smith & Sons of Glasgow in the first half of the igth century
and had grown up out of a fleet of sailing vessels. The other was
the Hall Line of Liverpool, previously managed by Messrs Robert
Alexander & Co. It consisted of some eleven steamships of about
4000 tons gross apiece. The various sailings of these different
companies have all been maintained and extended, and in 1910,
in conjunction with the Harrison and Clan lines, a new development
up the East Coast of Africa towards Zanzibar and Mombasa was
organized.
The Leyland Line may be said to date from the year 1851, when
the first Mr Bibby founded his steamship line with the srrall vessels
" Arno " and " Tiber " for service to the Mediterranean (see Bibby
Line above). The company extended its business to the North
Atlantic and in the early 'seventies changed its name, Mr F. R.
Leyland, one of its managers, assuming the control. On his death
in 1892 the concern became a limited company. In 1900 it pur-
chased the fleet and connexions of the West India & Pacific Steam-
ship Company a business which had been founded nearly forty
years previously in Liverpool and which served, beside manv West
8 54
STEAMSHIP LINES
India Islands, the cotton ports of Galveston and New Orleans,
having also a connexion to Colon for places on the western coast
of America. This company at the date of its absorption had a fleet
of twenty-two steamships totalling over 111,000 tons gross register.
This amalgamation was the first step towards the great American
combine. Mr Ellerman, however, who was chairman of the old
Ley land Company, separated himself from it at this juncture, and
founded his own line. The Leyland Company had a number of
transatlantic services.
General Steam Navigation Company. This is the oldest existing
line. Its first prospectus was issued in 1824, and in 1831 it re-
ceived its charter of incorporation. It commenced with the passenger
trade from London to Margate, and its operations gradually extended
to the British coastwise ports and the home trade ports on the Conti-
nent. In time the company introduced a regular steam service
between Edinburgh and other east coast ports and London, Ham-
burg, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Havre in the north of Europe. It
gradually obtained a strong hold upon the passenger and fine goods
trade to the Continent, holding the mail contracts between London
and Hamburg, and London and Rotterdam. In the early 'seventies
the pressure of foreign competition made itself severely felt, and in
1876 the increase of the American cattle trade told on the profits
of the company ; but the difficulty was met by obtaining parliamen-
tary leave for an increase of capital, and the company had displayed
new enterprise, especially in regard to its passenger facilities. It
may claim to have been the pioneer in the promotion of steamship
traffic between British home ports and the nearer ones of the
Continent. The steamship " Giraffe," built in 1836, brought over
the first cargo of live cattle from Rotterdam to Blackwall in 1846.
The company runs steamers from London to Edinburgh, Hull and
Yarmouth, and from London to Antwerp, Amsterdam, Bordeaux,
Havre, Hamburg, Oporto, Ostend, Rotterdam, Charente and the
Mediterranean ports. Vessels are also run to some of the ports
above-named from Hull and Southampton. There is also a pas-
senger service between Harwich and Hamburg, and excursion
services in summer to the watering-places at the mouth of the
Thames and on the Kentish coast.
Hamburg- American Line. The extraordinary progress of Ham-
burg as a seaport during the last thirty years of the igth century
may be held due in no small measure to the enterprise of this line,
which now carries passengers not only to the two American con-
tinents, but also to the east of Asia and Africa. It was founded in
May 1847. At that time, owing to the political disturbances
throughout Germany, there was an enormous exodus of emigrants
to the new world ; of this the founders took advantage, and they
started a regular service of sailing ships between Hamburg and New
York. The first ship they owned was the " Deutschland," of 700 tons,
built on the Elbe. It is interesting to note that the present
" Deutschland " is of 16,502 tons gross register, and is of twenty-three
times the capacity of her predecessor. The first sailing took place in
October 1848. In 1851 the company's fleet consisted of six vessels,
with an aggregate of 4000 tons. In 1856 the first screw steamer
in the company's service left Hamburg; this was the " Borussia,"
a vessel constructed, as were her sisters for many years, on the
Clyde. From this time, when the company abandoned sailing
ships and took to steam, its prosperity may be said to have
dated. It is strange to note that the two first steamships owned
by it were chartered by the British and French governments to
convey troops to the Crimea. By 1867 the company had ceased
to own any sailing ships. The enormous increase of the traffic
is indicated by the fact that whilst in 1856 the sailings to New York
took place every fortnight, in 1881 there were two a week, and later
on three. The company had also by this time considerably extended
its operations from the original passage between Hamburg and
New York. After the war between France and Germany it started
a line to the West Indies, and later to Baltimore, Boston, Montreal
and other ports in North America. In 1875 it absorbed the old
Eagle Company of Hamburg, which had previously been its rival,
and then began to run steamers to Central and South America,
and later to China, Japan and the Straits Settlements. To-day
the Hamburg-American Line may claim to be the largest steamship
company in the world. For its services to New York run by twin-
screw steamers it has the " Deutschland," built at Stettin by the
Vulcan Company. Her engines develop about 33,000 horse-power,
and she was the first Atlantic liner to exceed a speed of 23 knots
at sea. Other large steamers built for its Hamburg-Southampton-
New York service are the " Kaiserin Augusta Victoria " and the
" Amerika," which, though larger, has not the " Deutschland's"
speed. A service from Hamburg to New York direct for third-
class passengers only is also maintained. The Hamburg Company
has extended its influence and enlarged its fleet by purchases
from and absorptions of other fleets. Thus it has acquired vessels
from the Carr Line and the Hansa Line of Hamburg, the Rickmers
Line of Bremen, as well as from the Hamburg South America and
the Hamburg-Calcutta companies. In conjunction with the Lloyd
Line it took over the fleet of the Rinsing Line. In 1901, with a
view to the feeding of its main lines, it acquired the Atlas Line
of Liverpool a company which had developed the trade between
New York and the West Indies. Starting from Hamburg, its
vessels run to New York, Portland, Baltimore, Boston, Philadelphia,
Galveston and New Orleans, and to Canadian ports. In Central
and Southern America, there are lines to Mexico, Venezuela,
Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. Amongst the West Indian
Islands Cuba receives special attention from this line. There
is a service to Eastern Asia, China and Japan. From Stettin
its steamers run to New York, and from New York to the
Mediterranean, Brazil and Eastern Asia. From Genoa they run
to La Plata direct.
Japan Mail Steamship Company, Limited (Nippon Yusen Kaisha).
From an early period their insular frontiers made the Japanese a
seafaring folk, but imperial policy for a long period shut them away
from all intercourse with the rest of the world. It was not until
about the year 1860 that the life of the West really touched Japan.
In. 1868 steamship communication was opened between Tokyo and
Osaka; in 1871 the Yubin Kisen Kaisha Steamship Company came
into existence under the control of the Imperial Bureau of Com-
munication; and in the same year a private company, called the
Mitsubishi Kaisha, was founded. This may be said to have been
the beginning of all modern maritime enterprises in Japan. In
1876 the government company gave up the contest, and its
fleet passed into the hands of the private company. In 1873 the
capacities of this company had been tested in the military expedition
to Formosa, when its organization had been found excellent, but
its fleet insufficient. The treasury now invited the company to
buy up the Yokohama-Shanghai service of the Pacific Mail Steam-
ship Company. In 1876 the company had a fleet of forty-two vessels,
including sailing ships. In 1882 the government set on foot another
rival line, the Kyodo Unyu Kaisha, but it did not answer, and in
1885 the two 'were amalgamated into the present " Nippon Yusen
Kaisha," or " Japan Mail Steamship Company." In the nine years
which passed between this union and the outbreak of the war
with China in 1894, the services between Japan and neighbouring
countries were extended, and the development of the cotton trade
induced the government to inaugurate a service between Japan and
Bombay. During the war the vessels of the line were used for
the transport of troops, and many additional ships had to be
acquired. The result of the war gave an enormous impulse to trade
and navigation. The company determined to run vessels to America,
Europe and Australia. The capital was greatly increased, and
orders were given for the construction of twelve twin-screw steamers
of over 6000 tons each for the European line, and three of 3800
tons each for the Australian line. In 1899 the Japanese Diet
resolved to grant subsidies to the company's European and
American lines. All its lines therefore now, with few exceptions,
run under the mail contract of the Japanese government. There
is a regular fortnightly service of twin-screw vessels between
Yokohama, London and Antwerp; a monthly service between
Yokohama and Melbourne; also between Yokohama and Victoria
(British Columbia). There are lines to Bombay, Shanghai, Vladi-
vostok, Newchang, Tientsin, and many local lines, touching at all
the ports of the islands of Japan.
Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. Soon after British-owned
steamships began to run to America a company was formed by
leading business men interested in the West Indies, to carry the
mails from England to that part of the world. The charter of
this company, to be known as the Royal Mail Steam Packet
Company, was granted in 1839. The government believed that
the institution of a line carrying the mails regularly to British
possessions in the West Indies was likely to prove of benefit to
the empire, and granted it a large subsidy. The first contract
with the government was entered into in March 1841. No less than
fourteen large paddle-steamers capable of carrying the largest guns
then used by the Royal Navy were at once ordered, and the service
was opened with the " Thames " on the 3rd of January 1 842, followed
by other vessels in fortnightly succession. These steamers started
from Falmouth and returned to Southampton, which was the
company's headquarters, though it had no dock accommodation in
those days. In 1846 the company began to carry the mails for places
on the western coast of South America, the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company receiving them at Panama. In January 1851, the com-
pany by contract with the government inaugurated a monthly
service to Brazil and the river Plate, and new steamers were built
which greatly increased the rapidity of transit. This company
was therefore the first to institute direct mail communication by
steamer between Europe and the countries of South America, as
it had also been with the West Indies. The company's vessels were
employed continuously during the Crimean War in the transport of
troops. It is interesting to note that it was from one of the com-
pany's ships, the " Trent," that Slidell and Mason, the commissioners
of the Confederate states, were taken on their way to Europe by a
United States man-of-war. In 1872 the service to Brazil and the
River Plate was doubled. At the beginning of the 2Oth century
the company seemed to be on the downward grade. But a change
came over its fortunes. \ new chairman, Sir Owen Philipps,
took over the reins and new enterprises were started in several
directions. The interest of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company
in the Orient-Pacific Line to Australia was purchased in January
1906, and steamers despatched once a month from London to
Australia through the Suez Canal. This enterprise, however, was
discontinued when the new mail contract came into force in May
STEAMSHIP LINES
855
1909. New twin-screw steamships of much greater tonnage than
any they had hithertofore owned were constructed for the mail
service to South America, and an extension was made into the
tourist and cargo trade to Morocco, Madeira and the Canary Islands
by the purchase of the old-established Forwood Line. Part of the
fleet of the Shire Line to the Far East was also acquired. But
the great development took place at the beginning of 1910, when the
directors made the startling announcement that they had purchased
the whole of the share capital of the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company a business established in Liverpool only a year after the
grant of their own royal charter. This absorption brought some
forty ships many of them modern twin-screw steamships of a high
class into the fleet, which was then placed amongst the big
lines of the world. Another move was made when Sir Owen
Philipps joined Lord Pirrie in organizing a company to take over
the numerous enterprises of Sir Alfred Jones. The West India
Line steamers leave Southampton for the West Indies every fort-
night, and after calling at Cherbourg proceed direct to Barbadoes,
thence to Jamaica and Colon, whence they proceed to Savanilla
and other local ports. From Barbadoes, Trinidad, La Guaira, branch
lines run to Demerara and the islands. The Brazil and River Plate
Line comprises a fortnightly service cf mail steamers to Pernambuco,
Bahia, Rio, Montevideo and Buenos Aires. The Shire Line steamers
sail to the Far East every fortnight, as do those of the Islands
service, whilst the Pacific Line despatches twin-screw passenger
steamers and large cargo vessels alternate weeks from Liverpool
to South American ports, besides maintaining local services up the
West Coast. There are also cargo services to the West Indies and
Mexico, and to the River Plate and intermediate ports.
Messageries Maritimes de France. Originally known as the
Messageries Imperiales, this company sprang from a land-transit
undertaking. It received its first contract for the conveyance
of oversea mails from the French government in 1851. It then
extended its services to Italian, Greek, Egyptian and Syrian
ports. In the following year it included Salonica in its itinerary.
The occurrence of the Crimean War gave an increase to its fleet
and a stimulus to its operations. For it was not only given the
task of maintaining mail communication with the French forces
in the Black Sea, but was largely entrusted by the government
with the duty of transporting troops and stores to the seat of war.
At that time it was a considerable purchaser of British tonnage.
In 1857 it had the French mail contract to Algiers, as well as to the
Danube and Black Sea ports, whilst in the same year a new mail
contract for a service between Bordeaux and Brazil and the river
Plate was granted to it. By this time it had, either afloat or under
construction, a fleet of no less than fifty-four steamships of 80,875
tons. In 1861 further employment was found for its vessels in
the conveyance of the mail to India and China. By the year 1875
its fleet embraced 175,000 tons of shipping, and also employed a
large number of chartered sailing vessels. It was at that time the
largest steam shipping company in the world. It had already ceased
to employ British shipbuilders and now constructed its own tonnage
in its own yards. The extension of its services to Japan followed,
and eventually it put forth branches which served Madagascar,
Mauritius and Zanzibar, as well as Australian ports and the French
colony of New Caledonia. Some of the steamers employed in the
mail services to the Far East and South are of a very fine character.
In 1909 its fleet traversed 1,019,046 marine leagues and carried
197,320 passengers and over a million tons of cargo.
Morgan Combination. Under the head of the American Line it
has been shown how a group of American capitalists acquired the
Red Star, Inman and American lines, thus forming a body of
shipping which embraced in the year 1901 about 167,000 tons of
shipping tonnage, partly under the British and partly under the
Belgian and American flags. Another company which drew its
capital chiefly from the United States, though its vessels fly the
red ensign, is the Atlantic Transport Company, registered under
the British Limited Liability Acts in 1889. Its main service is
between London and New York, and it is carried on by large and
modern twin-screw steamships, several of which have been con-
structed by Messrs Harland & Wolff of Belfast. These vessels
range up to about 14,000 tons gross register, and though they carry
large quantities of cargo and of cattle on the eastward voyage, also
accommodate a number of passengers in their saloons. Through
the connexion of this undertaking with Messrs Harland & Wolff
as builders of their vessels, those American capitalists who were
interested in the extension of United States interests on the North
Atlantic and who purchased the share capital of the Leyland Line
were brought into connexion with Lord Pirrie, the managing director
of this ship-building firm, and through him approach was made
to the managers of the White Star Line in the year 1901. An offer
for the purchase of this famous British line was put forward by
the American syndicate, headed by Mr J. Pierpont Morgan. The
managers of the White Star Company had not merely, to consider
what many experts believed to be a liberal offer. There was another
factor in the situation present to their mind. The New York
syndicate, besides having the control of the vessels of the American
lines on the Atlantic, had, it was said, secured the management
of the trunk lines of railway between the great producing districts
of the Western states of America and the eastern seaboard. They
were thus in a position to give to shippers from the United States
the convenience of transit by a through bill of lading to embrace
both the railway journey and the ocean voyage, and there was ground
for the belief that if competition were allowed to ensue the British
steamship companies which from the nature of things could receive
no corresponding support from the railways of the United Kingdom
might suffer very severely. The White Star Line accordingly threw
in its lot with the American and Atlantic Transport Companies, and
with the White Star Line went the Dominion Company a line
whose fine passenger vessels were constructed by Messrs Harland &
Wolff, and whose management is largely influenced by the partners
in that firm. The Dominion Line has services from Liverpool to
Boston, Portland (Maine), and St Lawrence ports. The Norddeut-
scher Lloyd and the Hamburg-American companies were approached
by Mr Morgan with a view to their entering into the scheme; but
though a working agreement was arranged, the German lines
decided to preserve their separate existence. The Morgan com-
bination was eventually incorporated at the end of September
1902 in New Jersey as " The International Mercantile Marine
Company," with a capital of $120,000,000; and an agreement was
come to with the British government, by which the British character
of the British ships in it would be preserved. The combine controls
about a million tons of steamships.
Navigazione Generate Italiana.- The union of the Florio and
Rubattmo lines in the year 1882 was the origin of this company.
The Rubattino Line finally made Genoa its headquarters, while the
Florio Line centred its business at Palermo, and had itself been
largely strengthened by the absorption of the Trinacria Company
of its own port. The coasting trade of Italy and Sicily, with services
to various ports of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, occupies
the great part of the company's fleet. But it also runs monthly
lines from Genoa through the Suez Canal to Red Sea ports, and so
to India and Hong-Kong. Towards the western ocean it has a
service maintained in conjunction with that of another Italian
company, La Veloce, to Brazil and the River Plate, whereby weekly
departures are made from Genoa. In February 1901 a new line
was opened by the sailing of the Italian Generale Company's steam-
ship " Liguria " a new Italian-built vessel of upwards of 5000 tons
register for New York. The object of this line, which is maintained
by steamers of the Generale Company, aided by a similar number
from the fleet of La Veloce, sailing once a week from Genoa via
Naples, is to attempt to retain in Italian hands some of the large
traffic which is carried on from these ports in the steamers of the
Norddeutscher Lloyd, the Hamburg-American Line, the Cunard
and White Star lines.
New Zealand Shipping Company. This company was established
in 1872 for the purpose of maintaining a passenger and cargo service
between London and New Zealand. This was before the days when
steam vessels could be used with commercial success in the long
sea trade. At first it depended on chartered vessels, but gradually
it acquired a fleet of fast clipper iron sailing-ships which reduced
the voyage to 90 days. These vessels took out a large number
of government emigrants between 1874 and 1882. .In 1881 one
of these ships inaugurated the frozen meat trade from New Zealand,
thus opening up a business which has since grown to colossal
proportions. The trade increased so rapidly that it was found
impossible to conduct it by means of sailing ships, and in January
1883 the company despatched from London the chartered steamship
" British King," of 3559 tons. This vessel accomplished the voyage
in 50 days, but -it was found necessary to diminish the passage
to 45 days out and 42 home. Five steamers were therefore built
to fulfil the requirements of the trade. The first of these, the
" Tongariro," of 4163 tons, left England in October 1883. The com-
pany about this time received the contract of the New Zealand
government for a monthly rrail service, with a guaranteed time of
45 days. The managers gradually eliminated all the sailing vessels
from the fleet, and more recently replaced the original single : screw
mail steamers with large modern twin-screws. In addition to
passenger vessels the company owns several cargo boats, some of
which are among the largest afloat. In the " Otaki " triple-screw
vessel, added to the fleet in 1907, the company initiated a com-
bination of reciprocating engines for using the high-pressure steam
and turbines to make use of it subsequently. The company's ships
sail from London, calling at Plymouth, Teneriffe, Cape Town,
Hobart, on the way out, and sometimes at Montevideo or Rio and
Teneriffe on the return voyage. Communication with the different
ports of New Zealand, as well as to Australian ports, is carried out
by the vessels of the Union Steamship Company of New Zealand.
Norddeutscher Lloyd. To the enterprise of certain citizens in
the city of Bremen this large business owes its existence. The
originator was Herr H. H. Meier, who brought into line the
various shipping interests of Bremen, and induced them to amal-
gamate into one company. The associations thus brought together
were the Weser Haute Steamship Company, the Unter Weser
and Ober Weser Steam Tug Companies and the Ober Weser Uni-
versal Shipping Insurance Association. The statutes of the new
company were approved by the senate of Bremen on the 1 8th of
February 1857. The original capital was 4,000,000 thalers, but
soon after the formation of the new company great depression
set in, owing to the commercial crisis in North America. More
856
STEAMSHIP LINES
than 2500 shareholders in the Lloyd forfeited their shares, but
the directors were not dismayed, and had the loyal support of their
fellow citizens. Four big ocean steamers were constructed for
the American line and three for the English, and large docks for
repairs were established at Bremerhaven. The first voyage was
made in June 1858, when the " Bremen " started for New York, carry-
ing many steerage passengers, but only one in the saloon. The
second ship, the " Hudson," was shortly afterwards burned while
lying in harbour. At the end of the first year both lines showed
a loss. At the end of the second year matters improved, the
English cattle trade especially showing great progress. But the
company still commanded little confidence, for the Darmstadt
Bank parted with 1 ,000,000 thalers' worth of shares at a loss of
75 % These the directors themselves took over. But the American
Civil War now came, to deal another severe blow at the Lloyd,
just when its prospects were growing brighter ,and till 1864 no dividend
greater than 2 J % was paid to the shareholders. After the termina-
tion of the war the trade with the United States grew enormously,
and the English traffic also revived in a most unexpected way.
One result was the foundation of rival lines, which, however, were
unable to maintain effective competition, and succumbed. In
1868 a new line was opened. Bremen's staple of commerce is
tobacco, and the directors determined to bring their port into direct
communication with the tobacco-producing areas in the States;
so in that year they inaugurated their line to Baltimore. In the
following year a line was started to New Orleans, another great
centre of the tobacco and cotton trade. It was necessary to con-
struct three special liners for that service, as the ordinary ships
could not pass the bar of the Mississippi. In 1869 a line to Central
America and the West Indies was set on foot, and new steamers
were ordered to run on it. With the outbreak of the war of 1870
the company naturally had anxious times, as the French fleet
blockaded the German coasts ; but its vessels often ran the blockade
with success. Soon after the war the West Indian service, proving
unprofitable, was given up. In 1875 a new line of steamers to
Brazil and Argentina was started. This was separated into two
distinct services in 1878. In 1880 the approach of the great
struggle for supremacy on the Atlantic made itself felt, and the
company began to prepare for the contest, and ordered the con-
struction of the " Elbe,' the first of its express line of steamers. She
commenced running in 1881, and was quickly followed by others.
Between 1881 and 1888 an entirely new fleet was placed on the
New York line_. In 1886 the Australian and East Asian Lines
were founded in accordance with a contract with the imperial
government. This included a monthly service to China, with a
branch service to Japan, and a monthly service to Australia, with
a branch line to the Samoan and Tonga Islands. From that time
onwards the story of the Norddeutscher Lloyd has been one of
increased prosperity. The company's fleet includes four large and
fast steamships of about 23 to 235 knots speed for its weekly express
service to New York, whilst it has also large vessels one, the "George
Washington," being of 27,000 tons for its intermediate service to the
same port, built by the Vulcan Company at Stettin. The company
runs many lines from its headquarters at Bremen; among them are
those to New York a line of express steamers and a line of ordinary
mail steamers, all calling at Southampton or Cherbourg; to Balti-
more direct ; to Galveston direct there are no first-class passengers
by this line ; to Brazil ; to the River Plate, calling at principal ports
on the way. There are also lines of imperial mail steamers between
Bremen and Hamburg and eastern Asia, and Bremen and Australia,
and a freight line to east Asia, which runs in connexion with the
Hamburg-American Line. In pursuance of the German policy
of securing the feeders to maintain traffic, the Norddeutscher
Lloyd purchased the ships and business of the Kinsing Line and of
the Scottish Oriental Company, when it began seriously to develop
its Eastern trade. Feeling in common with all large steamship
companies the difficulty of providing efficient personnel for its
constantly expanding fleet, and believing in the necessity for sea-
men of experience in masted ships, the Lloyd has provided itself
with a sea-going training-ship. Such success attended this ex-
periment that a second vessel has been added and the idea has since
commended itself to certain British steamship companies.
Ocean Steamship Company. The Ocean Steamship Company is
the successor of older steamship enterprises, mainly under the same
management and ownership. These began in 1852 with the coast-
ing trade, and extended in following years to French ports, and in
1855 to the West Indies. The last-named line attained some
moderate importance, comprising seven vessels; it was sold in
1863, and eventually became the West India & Pacific Steamship
Company, which in its turn was absorbed by the Leyland Line in
1900. The managers thereupon, seeking other trades, decided
on attempting that to China, and the company under its present
title was registered as unlimited in 1875. Up to this date low-
pressure jet-condensing engines were alone used, burning perhaps
5 to sJ ft of coal per indicated horse-power per hour. This rate
of consumption would have been fatal to the scheme, since vessels
could not have carried any cargo in addition to the coal necessary
for so long a voyage as that via the Cape, the Suez Canal not being
opened till 1870. A small vessel, the " Cleator," of which the exact
speed and consumption with the old type of engine was well known,
was therefore experimentally fitted with new machinery of the
compound high-pressure (70 ft), surface-condensing type. The
result of the experiment was that her consumption was reduced
to about 3 or 3j ft per i.h.p. per hour, and this warranted the con-
struction of the " Agamemnon, ' " Ajax "and " Achilles," all 309 ft.
long, 38 ft. 6 in. broad, 28 ft. 6 in. deep, fully rigged as barques,
with screws outside their rudders. These rigs were subsequently
altered to that of barquentines, but the relative positions of the
screws and rudders were retained till they were disposed of in
1899. In these vessels the consumption was further reduced to
about 2^ ft, which allowed margin for a reasonable cargo. The
" Agamemnon " sailed from Liverpool in 1866; the itinerary being
Mauritius, Penang, Singapore, Hong-Kong and Shanghai, and,
with similar calls, back to London. The cargoes in those days
were mainly manufactured goods outwards and tea homewards.
The average speed was perhaps <)\ knots, and the consumption
about 2i tons of Welsh coal per day. These and succeeding
steamers were at that date the only vessels carrying high-pressure
steam on long voyages, and they traded regularly round the Cape,
being the only line that did so. When the Suez Canal was opened
in 1870 they changed the route. The trade from the United King-
dom to China has since steadily grown, and increasingly large cargoes
are also procurable homewards from the Far East, in spite of the
successful competition of Indian and Ceylon teas. In 1891 a service
was begun from Amsterdam and Liverpool to Java, and this is
maintained about once a fortnight, finding employment for about
ten of the smaller ships. The vessels in this trade, which is princi-
pally between Holland and her eastern possessions, fly the Dutch
flag. A limited number of passengers were formerly carried be-
tween England and the East, but these ships now take cargo only
to and from Europe, though Mahommedan pilgrims are conveyed
in considerable numbers to and from Jeddah, the port for Mecca.
The ships generally commence loading at Glasgow, and occasionally
at other West Coast ports. They usually carry the greater
part of the cargo from Liverpool, the most important element
being fine goods (manufactured cottons, &c.) from Lancashire
and Yorkshire. Abroad the regular service has been extended
to the principal Japan ports Nagasaki; Kobe and Yokohama,
and, as opportunity arises, additional ports of call in China and
Korea have been added to its itinerary. The following local
services have their headquarters at Singapore: (i) Singapore to
West Australian ports, including Fremantle. These steamers
carry passengers, and bring large quantities of wool and pearl shell
from Australia to Singapore for transshipment to the main line
steamers bound for London. (2) Singapore to Deli (Sumatra).
Three small steamers bring tobacco from Deli for transshipment
to Europe. (3) Singapore and Penang to China. The great emigra-
tion of Chinese coolies to the British colony of the Straits Settle-
ments keep several steamers regularly employed. The company
is colloquially known in the shipping world as the " Blue Funnel '
Line, and is also often referred to by the name of Mr Alfred Holt, who
has been closely identified with it throughout its history. In 1902
the Ocean Company absorbed its younger rival, the China Mutual
Steam Navigation Company, with a fleet of thirteen vessels of
106,870 tons, and shortly afterwards re-registered itself under
the Limited Liability Acts. The company's most recent develop-
ment is in its connexion with Australia. For its direct service
thither several ip,ooo-ton ships fitted with refrigerating apparatus
and accommodation for some 300 passengers each are provided.
Orient Line. The Orient Line of steamers between London
and Australia took up the work of the Orient Line of clipper packets,
which in the days of sailing-ships used to ply between London and
Adelaide. In April 1877 it was announced that " the Orient
Line would sail the under-mentioned steamships of the Pacific
Steam Navigation Company to Australia." That connexion
between the two organizations was continued and strengthened
till in 1901 the name of Orient Line was changed to that of Orient-
Pacific. In June of 1877 the " Lusitania " was despatched from
London to Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney, via the Cape of Good
Hope. Other sailings followed at about two-monthly intervals. In
the following year the Orient-Pacific Line came into existence. It
was formed by the joint efforts of Messrs Anderson, Anderson & Co.
and F. Green & Co_., who are the managers of the line. When the
service was begun it was intended to be run monthly, but the in-
crease of traffic soon demonstrated that fortnightly sailings would
be successful. This extension was determined on in 1880, the year
following that in which the " Orient," the first ship specially built
for the company's trade, commenced work. Since 1888 the Orient
Company has carried the mails to Australia by contract with the
English post office, once a fortnight. These despatches, alternat-
ing with those of the P. & O., give Australia a weekly mail.
Several twin-screw steamers have been built for this service by
both the Orient and the Pacific Companies. The latter company
subsequently retired from the partnership, the Royal Mail Company
taking its place and purchasing the vessels which it employed.
In igro, however, a new mail contract came into operation, and this
was undertaken by the Orient Company alone. The Royal Mail
withdrawing its ships, the Orient Company replaced them with
a new fleet of I2,opo-ton steamers, of which the first five are twin-
screws and the sixth is to have three propellers driven by a
STEAMSHIP LINES
857
combination of reciprocating and turbine engines. It was the Orient
liner " Ophir " which took the place of a royal yacht for the imperial
tour of the Prince and Princess of Wales in 1901. The steamers of
the Orient Line call regularly at Plymouth, Gibraltar, Marseilles,
Naples, Port Said, Suez, Colombo, Fremantle, Adelaide, Melbourne
and Sydney.
Pacific Steam Navigation Company. This was the pioneer of
the steam-trade along the western coast of South America; sub-
sequently its operations were extended to Europe, and finally, in
conjunction with the Orient Steam Navigation Company, it estab-
lished the Orient Line to Australia, from which it withdrew in
1906. It obtained a charter early in 1840, and soon sent out from
England two steam vessels, the " Chili " and " Peru." These were
paddle-boats of 710 tons and 198 ft. in length. They ran along the
coast from Valparaiso to Panama. The early struggles of this
company are noteworthy as showing how difficulties, apparently
insuperable, may be overcome, and even turned to essential ad-
vantage. The great obstacle to the success of these steamers was
the difficulty of obtaining supplies of fuel, and in the first five years
of its existence no less than 72,000 was lost, the whole capital of
the company being but 94,000. But the difficulties were over-
come, and all that remained in the mind of the managers was a
strong feeling of the importance of economy in coal consumption.
Accordingly, in conjunction with the Fairfield firm of Randolph,
Elder & Co., they turned their attention in this direction,
and were sending out vessels fitted with compound engines some
ten or a dozen years before the Atlantic companies adopted them.
In 1867, under pressure from the Chilean government, the company
sought and obtained powers to extend its operations, and in the
same year the " Pacific," of 1630 tons, was constructed. She left
yalparaiso for Liverpool in May 1868, the first of the new mail
line. In 1870 the voyage was extended, Callao, 11,000 miles from
Liverpool, being made the terminal port, and the sailings were
increased from one to three a month. In 1873 a weekly service
between Liverpool and Callao was instituted, and by 1 874 there was
a fleet of fifty-four steamers, with an aggregate of 120,000 tons, in
commission. Owing, however, to a great decrease in the South
American trade the service was reduced to a fortnightly one. The
opening of the Transandine railway was expected to have a great
effect on the fortunes of shipping companies in South American
waters and consolidation of interests seemed desirable. In 1910
the whole of the company's ordinary capital was purchased
by the Royal Mail Company, and the line was thus absorbed.
In January 1893 the company inaugurated a monthly cargo
service to the Brazils, River Plate and the West Coast. This
service has been extended to Glasgow. Many ports are served.
The principal are La Pallice, La Rochelle, Corunna, Carril, Vigo,
Lisbon, St Vincent, Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Monte-
video, Buenos Aires, Punta Arenas, and the ports of the western
coast of South America, Valparaiso and Callao.
Peninsular & Oriental. The story of the P. & O. Company
may be divided into two eras the first reaching from its foundation
to the opening of the Suez Canal ; the second from that date to the
present day. During almost the whole of its career the company
has acted as the agent of the British government in the conveyance
of its mails, first to Mediterranean ports, and afterwards to Egypt,
India and the Far East. From time to time the government has
made efforts to procure some other means for transmitting its
mails, but on every occasion it has found it advisable to return to
the P. & O. In 1835 Messrs Willcox & Anderson, a firm of
London merchants, began to run steamers to the principal ports
of the Peninsula. Their vessels observed greater regularity than
the sailing-ships then employed to carry the mails, and the first
mail contract was entered into on the 22nd of August 1837. This
was awarded to them after another company, which was unable to
fulfil its obligations, had been engaged for the work. Messrs
Willcox & Anderson had shortly before, in concert with Captain
Bourne, R.N., founded the Peninsular Company. This contract
arranged for a monthly service between Falmouth and Vigo,
Oporto, Lisbon and Gibraltar. About two years later another
step was taken. Hitherto the mails to Egypt and India had been
conveyed by the Peninsular Company to Gibraltar, by an admiralty
packet from Gibraltar to Malta, by another admiralty vessel from
Malta to Alexandria, and from Egypt to Bombay by one of
the East India Company's steamers. It was resolved to substitute
for this unsatisfactory mode of conveyance a direct system of carriage
by one line of steamers from London to Alexandria. The Peninsular
Company again secured the contract, which was put up to public
competition, and built two steamers of 1600 tons for the purpose
this being a large tonnage for those days. The annual subsidy
was fixed at 34,000, by which the government saved 10,000 of
the amount formerly expended on their own inefficient means of
transport. The company then, by a charter of incorporation,
dated December 1840, assumed the name by which it has ever
since been known The Peninsular & Oriental Company. The
charter was granted only on the onerous condition that steam
communication with India should be established within two years.
The first steamer, the " Hindostan," was despatched to India via the
Cape of Good Hope on the 26th of September 1842. She was one
of a small fleet destined to ply between Calcutta, Madras, Ceylon,
Aden and Suez. It was an adventurous undertaking, for the East
India Company promised no definite subsidy, only a small premium
on a certain number of voyages.
The obvious advantages of a direct conveyance of mails between
Suez and Bombay by a regular sufficient service were becoming
evident, and the P. & O. Company offered to effect this at a great
saving on the existing system; but, for some reason or other,
the East India Company showed the greatest reluctance to allow
the control of this route to pass out ot their hands, in which, in fact,
it remained until 1854. Fortunately for the P. & O. Company
the government decided to establish regular monthly steam com-
munication between England and Ceylon, Madras and Calcutta,
and also from Ceylon, eastward to Singapore and Hong-Kong.
Only the P. & O. could at that time have comtemplated under-
taking such a service. In 1844 the contract was signed, and by it
the company was to receive a subvention of 160,000. The Indian
portion of the service opened on the 1st of January 1845, and during
that year the extension to China was effected, and nine new steamers
were put on the stocks. The organization of the overland route
was due to the P. & O. Company, which brought it into regular
working in order to convey its passengers from Alexandria to Suez.
It was a picturesque but uncomfortable passage by canal-boat
and steamer to Cairo, then by a two-wheeled omnibus for ninety
miles across the desert to Suez. Even the coal for the boats at
Suez had to be transported in this fashion, which was cheaper
than sending it by sailing vesse) round the Cape. The construction
of a railway across the isthmus in 1859 greatly simplified the transit.
It may be noted that the company had to establish coaling stations
between Suez and the Far East, and also dep&ts of provisions,
a business of no less magnitude than that of the steam service
itself. In 1852 the first mail service to Australia was undertaken
by the company, and the same contract included an arrangement
for a fortnightly service to India and China, though a service
running once every two months via Singapore and Sydney was
thought sufficient for the requirements of Australia. The year 1854
saw the abolition of the East India Company's service to Bombay,
the P. & O. taking its place. This arrangement saved the country
80,000 per annum. The Crimean War made large demands on
the company's resources for the conveyance of troops, and the
Australian service was for a time interrupted. By 1859 the com-
pany was in possession of all the lines of steam communication
between England and the East. In 1864 the service to Australia
was increased to one sailing a month, and in 1868 the Bombay
mail left weekly. About the same time the fourth India and China
contract was entered into, and at the end of 1869 the opening of
the Suez Canal led to a serious crisis in the company's affairs;
and also, after these difficulties had been surmounted, to a complete
revolution in its methods. The opening of the canal led to a pro-
longed controversy with the post-office, which, with true official
perversity, would not allow the company to use the canal for the
conveyance of its mails. A serious falling-off of the company's
revenue was the result, as the competition of the canal steamers
was killing its trade. At length in 1874 a new arrangement was
made by which the mails were to be carried through the canal,
the subsidy granted to the company being at the same time reduced.
Under these conditions, however, it was now able to construct
vessels capable of competing successfully with its rivals. A pro-
longed dispute between Victoria and New South Wales for a long
time prevented the Australian service from being as efficient as it
might have been. Sydney insisted on the Pacific route being adopted.
In consequence of this controversy the Australian headquarters
of the company were for some time fixed at Melbourne, and it was
not till 1888 that a general contract was entered into with the post-
master-general, acting at last for all the Australian colonies as
well as for the Imperial government. This stipulated for an
accelerated service the India, China and Australian mails being
all worked from Aden in connexion with the steamer which con-
veyed them from Brindisi. There was for long a service between
Venice, Brindisi and Egypt, and a mail contract with the Italian
government; but this came to an end in March 1900.
The company's first ship, the " William Fawcett," built in 1829,
had a gross tonnage of 206 and 60 h.p. Down to 1851 the vessels
of the fleet were all constructed with paddles; after that date
the screw took their place, though for the Marseilles to Malta
express service certain famous fast paddle-steamers were sub-
sequently constructed. A later interesting development was the
abandonment of Brindisi as a port of call for the ocean mail steamers,
which reverted to Marseilles, whence they run across to Port Said
direct. The mails leaving London every Friday night are des-
patched from Brindisi in specially designed twin-screw vessels,
which land them at Port Said little more than 96 hours after their
despatch from London. On this service the " Osiris " and " Isis "
are employed, and they have the distinction of being the only ves-
sels in the mercantile marine which cross the seas with mails and
passengers only. The company is under contract with the British
government for the conveyance of mails to India, China and Australia.
Its services are as follows India: Brindisi to Bombay, weekly.
China; Brindisi to Shanghai, fortnightly. Australia- Brindisi to
8 5 8
STEAMSHIP LINES
Sydney, fortnightly. Apart from the mail services, the company
runs independent lines to Malta, Colombo and Calcutta; also be-
tween Bombay, Colombo, Singapore, Hong-Kong and Shanghai;
and between Hong-Kong, Nagasaki, Hiogo and Yokohama. There
is likewise a direct fortnightly service of through steamers to China
and Japan at special rates. The mails are despatched weekly
to Bombay, going one week by direct mail steamer and the next
by the fortnightly Australian liner as far as Aden. A fast twin-
screw vessel the " Salsette " built after the idea of the " Isis " but
of thrice her tonnage takes the Bombay mails from Aden on the
weeks when there is no steamer. For the Indian and Australian
mail services a new type of steamer known as the " M " class has
been provided. There are already no less than ten such vessels,
all twin-screws of similar design, commencing with the "Moldavia,"
built 1903, of 9500 tons and 14,000 i.h.p. and running up to 12,500
tons and 15,000 i.h.p. in the " Maloja " and " Medina." In 1910 a
new service was acquired, the Blue Anchor fleet of Mr Wilhelm Lund
being purchased. This gave the company an entry into the South
African trade, the Blue Anchor steamers calling at Cape Town and
Durban on their way to Australia, and new and larger vessels are
being provided for this branch also of the company's activities.
Shaw, Savill & Albion Company. The amalgamation of the
business of Messrs Shaw, Savill & Co. of London and of the
Albion Shipping Company of Glasgow brought this company into
its present form at the close of the year 1882. At that time the
amalgamating firms owned a large fleet of sailing-ships, and traded
chiefly between England and New Zealand. Soon after the
amalgamation the company began to acquire steamships, which
gradually supplanted their sailing vessels. The Shaw, Savill &
Albion Company were among the first in the frozen meat trade,
and their vessels are fitted to carry large numbers of carcases.
With this company the White Star Line of Liverpool became asso-
ciated in the year 1884, and five of their ships now run in the fleet
of the Shaw, Savill & Albion Company. In June 1910 an offer
was made by Sir John Ellerman to take over the fleet, which
at that time consisted of six twin-screw and five single-screw
steamships with a total of 51,300 tons gross register, a twelfth
vessel being under construction. The route to New Zealand is
by the Cape of Good Hope on the outward voyage, returning by
Cape Horn, thus going completely round the globe every voyage.
After leaving London the steamers call at Plymouth, Teneriffe,
Cape Town, Hobart and Wellington ; returning from New Zealand,
the ports touched are Rio (sometimes Montevideo), Teneriffe,
Plymouth, London. The " Arawa," which came out in 1884, made
the outward voyage in 38 days, and the run home in 35 days
4 hours steaming time; she thus made the circuit of the world in
73 days 4 hours net time.
Union Steamship Company (see Castle Line). This company
first came into existence in 1853 under the name of the Union
Steam Collier Company, with a capital of 60,000. At its commence-
ment it possessed a fleet of five small steamers with an aggregate of
only 2337 tons. But by the time these vessels were built the Crimean
War was being actively carried on, and it was thought advisable
to employ them for other purposes than those for which they
were originally intended. They ran for a time between'Southamp-
ton, Constantinople and Smyrna; but the transport service proved
more remunerative, and they were used for the conveyance of
troops. At the close of the war the company was registered under
the Limited Liability Act by its present name. It was then deter-
mined to run the vessels between Southampton and Brazil with
cargo, but this did not prove profitable, and in 1857 a notable
change took place in the status of the company, for in that year
it took its place among the great ocean mail companies of England.
In that year a contract was completed with the government for a
monthly mail service for five years to the Cape of Good Hope at
an annual subsidy of 30,000. The " Dane " was the first steamer
to leave Southampton with the mails on the I5th of September. In
1858 the subsidy was increased in order that the company's ships
might call at St Helena and Ascension for mails on the homeward
voyage. When the first contract expired the company secured
another for five years. A service between the Cape and Natal,
under a temporary arrangement, was inaugurated in 1862, and a
seven years' mail service contract with the Natal government
was concluded in 1865. In 1873 the House of Commons refused
to ratify a contract which the government had entered into with
the company for an extended mail service ; the company, however,
carried out its intention to extend its service to Zanzibar. But in
October 1876 a new mail contract with the Cape of Good Hope
government was entered into for a fortnightly service between
Plymouth and Table Bay, the length of voyage not to exceed
twenty-six days. During the Zulu War this company rendered
considerable services to Great Britain. In 1878 three ships were
employed, and after Isandula they conveyed reinforcements, the
" Pretoria " being the only mail steamer to carry an entire regiment,
the gist Highlanders. It was on this company's s.s. " Danube " that
the prince imperial sailed, whilst the old s.s. " German " took out
the Empress Eug6nie when she went to visit the scene of his death.
The direct service with the Cape, Natal and Zanzibar was in 1881
discontinued, and in February of that year operations were extended
to the Continent, a service from Hamburg was commenced, running
every twenty-eight days, which for a time proved highly successful.
A branch service to Antwerp, begun in 1882, was discontinued for
a time, but subsequently resumed. At the time of the Panjdeh
scare in 1885, when hostilities were threatening with Russia, two
of this company's steamships, the " Moor " and the " Mexican " were
selected to act as armed cruisers for the defence of South Africa.
The former was the only merchant vessel on which the pennant
was actually hoisted. In 1889 the company's continental traffic
increased so that it not only resumed the despatch of through
steamers from Hamburg, but made calls at Rotterdam. This
service afterwards became fortnightly, calls being made at Rotter-
dam, Antwerp and Hamburg. New contracts with the colonial
governments were made in 1888, and in the same year Southampton
took the place of Plymouth as the outward mail port, while in
1889 the homeward mails were landed at Southampton in place of
Plymouth. In 1889, by the construction of the " Scot," the company
acquired a much larger vessel than any they had hitherto employed ;
in 1895 Messrs Harland & Wolff successfully accomplished the
task of lengthening this ship by cutting her in two amidships and
adding 54 ft. to her length and 1000 tons to her tonnage. She
subsequently was altered to adapt her for public yachting purposes
and transferred, to the German flag under the name of " Oceana."
In 1893 the company entered upon its new policy of building a
large number of practically sister ships for its intermediate trade.
All were built by Messrs Harland & Wolff, and fitted with twin-
screws. The series included ten vessels, commencing with the" Gaul "
of 4745 tons, and ending with the " Galician " of 6757 tons launched
in 1900. Meanwhile from the same yard the mail steamers " Norman,"
" Briton " and " Saxon " were added to the fleet. The last-named,
which came out in 1899, is a vessel of 12,385 tons, with a length of
570 ft. By a resolution passed at a meeting of shareholders held on
the I3th of February 1900, this company was amalgamated with the
Castle Line (see below). At its absorption its fleet consisted of
twenty-three vessels, of which nine were over 6000 tons.
Union-Castle Line. This company was formed by the amalga-
mation of the Union and Castle lines. Previously, though practi-
cally all the vessels made their final departure from Scuthampton,
the Union Line only made its headquarters at that port, the
Castle liners coming round from London. After amalgamation,
the mail steamers to which cargo is not of so much importance
did not come to the Thames at all, the increase in their size
and the neglect of the improvement of the river and of the docks
by the authorities making it undesirable that they should do so.
The cargo (intermediate) liners, on the other hand, all load in
London, and many of them, before their final departure from the
Thames, visit Hamburg, Antwerp and Rotterdam, for the purpose
of picking up cargo. On these North Sea trips passengers are
carried, and facilities are given for their accommodation on board
during the calls at the various ports. The new company carries
out the contracts of its two constituents and thus despatches every
Saturday a mail steamer from Southampton via Madeira to the
Cape and Natal. An hour or so before the sailing of the mail
boat an intermediate steamer departs from the same port. Her
places of call are Teneriffe or Las Palmas for certain, and possibly
also Ascension and St Helena. These vessels serve the east coast
ports of Algoa Bay and East London as well as Natal. Some of
them also go to Delagoa Bay, to Beira on the mainland, and to
the island of Mauritius. In 1910 a further extension was made,
a monthly service being instituted to East Africa through the
Canal. Besides the two weekly vessels, however, there are
despatches of extra mid-weekly intermediate steamers, and
these extra sailings have recently tended to become more fre-
quent. The company's attention has for some time been directed
to the trade between the United States and South Africa, and
within two years after amalgamation eight new steamships were
constructed with a view to the development of the trade between
Cape ports and New York. Nor did the union of the two com-
panies stop the improvement of the general fleet. The io,ooo-ton
twin-screw mail steamers " Kinfauns Castle " and '' Kildonan
Castle " were delivered to the Castle Company from the Fairfield
yard prior to the amalgamation. Messrs Harland & Wolff
had the " Saxon," 2000 tons larger than these ships, well in hand
at the time. But the " Walmer Castle," a larger and still later
addition to the fleet, embodied as far as possible the practice which
from experience commended itself to both the old companies. Subse-
quent additions to the mail fleet have been the sisters " Arrradale
Castle "and "Kenil worth Castle, "followed in 1910 by the "Edinburgh
Castle "and the" Balmoral Castle "of 13, 300 tons each. Provision is
now made for the carriage of the mails exclusively in twin-screw
vessels. Meanwhile the intermediate fleet has received several
vessels of large dimensions and of comfortable accommodation,
though of speed inferior of course to the mail steamers. The
company proved its capacity in the South African War, when it
carried vast bodies of military and civilian passengers by its regular
steamers at a time when many of its vessels were chartered by the
government as troopers and storeships. In spite of the strain put on
the resources of the company by the heavy work entailed by the South
African War, both on the vessels employed in their regular service
and on those especially taken up for government transport duty, it
was found possible already to discard two of their older vessels.
STEAMSHIP LINES
859
While Star Line. Though perhaps chiefly known in the New
York trade, the White Star flag was first hoisted in the middle of
last century over a fleet of clippers which sailed to Australia.
In 1867 Mr Thomas Henry Ismay took it over, and two years later
the great revolution in the constitution of the company took place.
It was in 1869 that Mr Ismay formed the Oceanic Steam Navigation
Company to run a line of steamers between Liverpool and New
York. Immediately on its formation the company entered into
arrangements with Messrs Harland & Wolff of Belfast for the
construction of a fleet of high-class passenger ships, and it is worthy
of notice that the terms upon which Messrs Harland & Wolff
built the White Star ships were peculiar. No definite price was
agreed upon, but the actual cost plus a percentage for builders'
profit was charged. The first " Oceanic," pioneer steamship of the
line, was launched on the 27th of August 1870, and sailed for New
York on the 2nd of March 1871. Her advent opened a new era
in Atlantic travel. She introduced the midship saloon, which ex-
tended the whole width of the ship, thus giving increased light
and improved ventilation, and reducing to a minimum the sensation
of the vessel's motion. The arrangement thus introduced is now
almost universally adopted in the construction of ocean liners.
The" Oceanic " was also narrower in proportion to her length than the
vessels previously designed for the transatlantic mail service.
In 1877 the " Britannic " reduced the passage to 7 days 10 hours and
Fleets of Various Important Steamship Companies in 1891, IQOI and
iglo.
IOOI.
1891.
Company.
No. of
Vessels.
Gross
Tonnage.
Flag.
Numerical
Order.
Gross
Tonnage.
No. of
Vessels.
Numerical
Order.
No. of
Vessels.
Gross
Tonnage.
Numerical
Order.
No. of
Vessels.
Gross
Tonnage.
International Mercantile Marine
Co.
White Star Line ....
31
372,045
British
IO
25
212,403
17
16
84,902
Leyland Line 2
42
253,803
British
7
55
242,781
23
23
60,511
American Line and Red 3 Star
Line .......
16
164,213
Mixed
15
25
167,105
Atlantic Transport Co. .
H
107,650
British
26
17
123,593
32
6
18,111
Dominion and British & North
Atlantic Co
13
86,655
British
27
13
105,430
29
8
28,696
Vessels owned jointly with
Shaw, Savill & Albion .
7
51,053
British
National S.S. Co
2
16,005
British
3
18,464
12
53,522
Training Ship
I
1,814
British
126
1,053,238
I
1,053,238
126
Hamburg-American Line
German
2
979,217
1 68
i
202
541,085
9
42
126,795
Norddeutscher Lloyd
German
3
752,037
1-6
2
III
454,936
4
70
198,723
P. & O. Company ....
British
4
458,037
64
5
58
313,343
3
49
199,911
British India S.N. Co. ...
British
5
423,063
104
4
1 2O
378,770
i
IOO
234,654
Royal Mail S.P. Co
a C
IQJ. 66"*
British
) ,
, (
28
88,205
19
2"?
Pacific Steam Navigation Co. .
40
* VT"' O
183,234
British
I 6
377,897
8 5 |
22
42
138,754
15
J
36
97^793
Alfred Holt & Co. Ocean S.S.
Co
39
234,808
British
~\
(
16
41
165,143
ii
44
109,000
China Mutual Steam Naviga-
I 7
340,559
57 j
tion Co.
18
105-751
British
'
Furness, Withy & Co.
British
8
340,537
116
12
40,994
20-
44,528
Elder, Dempster & Co. 4 .
British
9
331,533
1 08
3
120
382,560
25
48
55,256
Union-Castle Co. 6 ....
British
IO
295,360
4i
8
4'
222,613
Messageries Maritimes .
French
ii
293,669
65
6
62
246,277
2
63
202,801
Nippon Yusen Kaisha
Japanese
12
289,787
73
9
6 9
218,361
28
52
42,058
Ellerman Lines
British
'3
283,234
78
Lamport & Holt
British
H
281,412
44
20
47
149,712
12
54
106,648
Nav. Gen. Italiana 6 ....
Italian
15
274-952
1 06
ii
1 02
205,104
6
1 06
164,052
Hansa Line
German
16
247,691
53
18
57
157,037
26
26
50,413
Compagnie Ge'ne'rale Trans-
atlantique
French
17
245,353
62
'3
59
183,343
5
66
1 74,600
Harrison Line of Liverpool .
British
18
217,085
43
21
31
146,625
22
27
61,643
Austrian Lloyd
Austrian
19
216,414
66
14
68
169,436
IO
76
124,435
Cunard Line
British
20
209,231
19
25
26
126,332
16
22
85,104
Clan Line ... ...
.
British
21
202,463
49
17
46
164,487
18
29
76,300
Canadian Pacific Railway .
British
22
198,310
65
12
38,089
7
24,373
Hamburg South American Line
German
23
197,703
49
32
125,597
26
56,938
Wilson Line ...
British
24
190,278
87
12
8 9
189,818
7
73
132,889
Kosmos Line
German
25
177,704
36
29
110,251
IS
32,963
Allan Line
British
26
160,570
28
19
36
152,367
13
31
106,346
Ropner's
British
2 7
10
29
36
100,426
21
34
62,717
Maclay & Macintyre
British
28
144^00
\j
45
24
51
126,917
30
19
26,928
Chargeurs R6unis ....
French
29
144,441
25
34
26
81,149
2O
30
70,173
Booth Line
British
30
I28,2OO
37
27
64,456
IO
Holland-American Line .
Dutch
31
124,136
15
9
55,413
ii
37^891
Prince Line
British
32
123,909
33
79,001
32
59,221
Bucknall Line
British
33
122,388
29
33
23
83,207
33
Anchor Line
British
34
110,588
19
23
41
132,540
8
44
127,065
Westoll Line
British
35
90,174
35
38
88,306
27
48,298
Volunteer Fleet
Russian
36
84,500
18
35
16
80,424
3 8
23,845
Johnston Line of Liverpool .
British
37
8l,000
20
28
24
100,460
24
22
58,621
Compania Transatlantica . . .
Spanish
38
79,767
22
30
23
88,453
H
36
101,214
'This table is based on that contained in a paper on " Shipping Subsidies," by B. W. Ginsburg, published in the Journal of the Royal
Statistical Society (September 1901).
1 The Leyland Line was formerly the Leyland Line and West India & Pacific Steam Navigation Company.
' In 1891 the old American Line had 3 steamers of 10,166 tons; the Inman Line 6 steamers of 41,276 tons; the International Line
4 steamers of 12,112 tons; and the Red Star Line 9 steamers of 39,609 tons.
4 Messrs Elder, Dempster & Co. now control the fleets of the African, British & African, and Imperial Direct Steamship companies.
6 Formerly the Union Line and the Castle Line. In 1891 the Union Line had 23 steamers of 55,576 tons, and the Castle Line 19
steamers of 57,934 tons. * Formerly known as the Florio-Rubattino Line.
86o
STEARIC ACID STEATOPYGIA
50 minutes, excelling by three hours the best previous Atlantic
passage. After the year 1888 the company ceased to build single-
screw steamers, all later vessels having been constructed on the twin-
screw system, of which the superiority had been clearly demon-
strated. About this time also the owners of the line became
responsible for an important advance in steamship construction
which was afterwards imitated by merchant ships of all the great
maritime powers. The " Teutonic " and " Majestic," introduced in
1889 and 1890, were the first merchant ships constructed with a view
to their use as possible auxiliaries to the Royal Navy. The former
was present, armed with eight quick-firing guns, at the naval in-
spection by the German emperor in 1889. With the launch of the
second " Oceanic " in January 1899 the company's record was still
further enhanced. The White Star Line was from 1877 regularly
employed under contract with the British government to carry the
American mails from Liverpool and Queenstown to New York.
Besides this weekly mail and passenger service, a fleet of twin-
screw cargo vessels maintained a subsidiary service between Liver-
pool and New York. These vessels were especially designed for
the conveyance of cattle and horses. After 1883 several steamships
of the line were employed in the Shaw, Savill & Albion service
between London and New Zealand. Three of the company's
ships ran in the line of the Occidental & Oriental Company
between San Francisco and Yokohama and Hong-Kong. The
company inaugurated a service to Australia from Liverpool in 1899.
Five ships ran in it (calling at Cape Town) to Albany, Adelaide,
Melbourne and Sydney. The ports visited by their vessels in
New Zealand will be found detailed under Shaw, Savill & Albion
Company. In 1902 the absorption of the White Star fleet and
management in the Morgan shipping combine was arranged.
Since that time several alterations have taken place. The mail
steamers of the line left Liverpool for Southampton in June 1907
and now call at Cherbourg on their way to and from New York.
Two services are still maintained between Liverpool and New York
one the old cargo service, and the other a weekly despatch of large
passenger and cargo vessels. In addition to these there are two other
Atlantic services from Liverpool one to Boston and the other
maintained in conjunction with the Dominion Line to Canadian
ports. There is also a line of White Star steamers between New
York and the Mediterranean. Several important vessels from
other limbs of the combine have been brought under the White
Star flag, whilst the company has also practically absorbed the old
Aberdeen Line.
Wilson Line. Thomas Wilson, Sons & Co. is at the present
time the largest private ship-owning company in the world. This
line traces its origin as far back as 1835. It was founded by
Mr Thomas Wilson in conjunction with Messrs Hudson and Becking-
ton, and on the retirement of the two last-named gentlemen it
acquired its present title. Early in the 'forties the firm was running
three steamships to Gothenburg, and was engaged largely in the
iron trade, importing large quantities of Swedish and Russian
iron, and running a regular line of sailing boats to Swedish ports.
It also despatched a regular service to Dunkirk. Steamships
gradually superseded the sailing vessels, and new steamers year
by year were placed on the Scandinavian service. About this
time the firm secured the mail contract between England and
Sweden, which it still holds. After the Crimean War it started
the St Petersburg, Stettin and Riga trade. During the Franco-
German War the trade to Stettin had to be suspended; and as a
set-off the service to Trieste was inaugurated, which has developed
into an independent Adriatic and Sicilian service. The Norwegian
trade was then improved by the despatch of steamships to Bergen,
Stavanger and Trondhjem, and subsequently a service of large
steamers began pjnning to Constantinople and the Black Sea.
After the opening of the Suez Canal the trade to India, which has
since assumed such considerable proportions, was inaugurated.
In 1875 the firm launched out into a more hardy enterprise, by
commencing to run steamers to America. Its vessels in 1902 ran
to New York regularly from Hull and the Tyne ports. The original
Calcutta trade was discontinued when the New York line was
started, but in 1883 a service was established between Hull and
Bombay. In 1891 the firm became a private limited company
and in 1894 took over the coasting trade between Hull and New-
castle. The company employs a number of large and swift ships
in the Norwegian passenger traffic, which in the summer season
now reaches very considerable proportions. It has frequent ser-
vices of passenger and cargo vessels to the ports of northern Europe,
carrying passengers in the season as far north 'as the North Cape.
Of course the winter season necessitates considerable variation of
summer services to Baltic ports. In 1903 the fleet of the old-
established Hull firm of Messrs Bailey & Leetham was absorbed,
and in 1908 that of the North-Eastern Railway Company.
There are also steamers leaving Grimsby, Manchester and Liverpool
regularly for Scandinavian and Baltic ports; weekly services to
Ghent, Liverpool and Newcastle; and services to Mediterranean
and Black Sea ports. Besides the New York line there are ocean
services to Boston, to New Orleans and the river Plate. There
is also a weekly service to and from London and Boston in con-
junction with the Furness-Leyland Line.
Conclusion. The scope of this article will not allow of any de-
tailed reference to many of the important foreign lines which in
a complete history should be mentioned. The Hansa Company
of Bremen; the Chargeurs Reunis of Havre; the Holland-American
Line, which has of recent years added to the fleet several fine twin-
screw liners, built at the Belfast yard ; the Compania Transatlantica
of Barcelona, which performed so great a feat in the transport of
troops from Barcelona to Cuba in the latter days of Spain's dominion
over that island; the Pacific Mail Company of the United States;
and many others might be noticed. A whole article might be de-
voted to the work of the lines on the North American inland waters,
while there are several other English companies which might well
claim attention, both from the magnitude of their operations and
the extent to which they have developed types of ships suitable
for the peculiarities of the trades in which their vessels are engaged.
The Clan Line, for example, has largely adopted the turret-
decked ship, which is the design of Messrs W. Doxford & Co. of
Sunderland. This type of ship is intended to carry large cargoes
on a small registered tonnage and a light draught, without paying
for it by a sacrifice of weatherly qualities. The same object is
aimed at by the design of the trunk steamers built by Messrs Ropner
of Stockton. The Isherwood system of construction and the
cantilever type of cargo steamer are other devices for attaining
the same object. Then there are the tank steamers constructed
for the carriage of oil in bulk. Many of these ships are adapted
not only for the carriage of oil. but also for its consumption in their
furnaces in place of coal. We have already referred to some of the
vessels fitted with refrigerating apparatus for the carriage of dead
meat, and to the cargo steamers of the Atlantic companies, which
are supplied with conveniences for carrying valuable racehorses
and cattle. The experience of many years has enabled the owners
of some of these lines to exhibit a wonderfully low record of loss,
the percentage of deaths at sea to numbers carried being small
beyond the dreams of, say, the 'seventies. A tenth of I % over a
somewhat extended period is not an unprecedented average.
The fable shows something of the recent growths of companies,
and at the same time records some of the amalgamations which
have been so frequent. It should be explained that the table does
not pretend to be exhaustive. The fleets embraced in it are not
necessarily all those whose tonnage reaches above the lower limit
shown. There are now a number of lines whose total exceeds
100,000 tons which are not shown in the list. Amongst them may
be cited the Hamburg-Pacific Line, the German line to Australia, the
Union Company of New Zealand which contains many small vessels,
the Forende Company of Copenhagen and the Anglo-American Oil
Company. The table shows how whilst the principal lines are
largely increasing their fleets, one or two companies are falling back
in their gross amount of tonnage. The figures, moreover, are sub-
ject to certain reservations. The count was not necessarily taken
by the various companies at the same period of each year. Some
of the figures given may include numbers and tonnages of tugs
and tenders, while others may exclude them. Again, some of the
companies may have returned in their fleets the vessels which they
had under construction, whilst others may not have counted them.
But none of these considerations can much affect the general
significance of the figures shown. The growth in the average
size of individual ships is as marked as that of the aggregate tonnage
of the companies.
AUTHORITIES. The following books throw much light on the
history of the leading steamship lines: History of Merchant Shipping,
by W. S. Lindsay (London, Sampson Low & Co.) ; La Navig. comm.
au XIX. sibcle (Paris, 1901); A. J. Maginnis, The Atlantic Ferry
(3rd ed., London, Whittaker & Co.) ; E. R. Jones, The Shipping
World Year-Book ; Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping
(published annually). Also see a comprehensive article on this
subject in the Quarterly Review for January 1900. Perhaps the
fullest information is, as a rule, to be obtained from the handbooks
issued by the companies themselves. (B. W. G.)
STEARIC ACID, w-Octodecylic acid CH 3 (CH 2 ) 16 C02H, an
organic acid found as its glyceride stearin, mixed with palmitin
and olein, in most tallows (hence its name, from Gr. ariap,
tallow). The so-called " stearin " of candles is a mixture of
stearic and palmitic acids (see CANDLE).
STEATOPYGIA (Gr. oreap, fat, Trvyri rump), an unusual
accumulation of fat in and around the buttocks. The deposit
of fat is not confined to the gluteal regions, but extends to the
outside and front of the thighs, forming a thick layer reaching
sometimes to the knee. This curious development constitutes
a racial characteristic of the Bushmen (<?..). It is specially a
feature of the women, but it occurs in a less degree in the males.
It is also common among the Hottentots, and has been noted
among the pygmies of Central Africa. In women it is regarded
among them as a beauty: it begins in infancy and is fully
developed on the first pregnancy. It is often accompanied by
STEDMAN STEEL CONSTRUCTION
861
the peculiar formation known as " the Hottentot-apron," hyper-
trophy of the nymphae (Tablier). No satisfactory explanation
of these malformations has been offered. Steatopygia would
seem to have been a characteristic of a race which once extended
from the Gulf of Aden to the Cape of Good Hope, of which stock
Bushmen and pygmies are remnants. The discovery in the
caves of the south of France of figures in ivory presenting a
remarkable development of the thighs, and even the peculiar
prolongation of the nymphae, has been used to support the
theory that a steatopygous race once existed in Europe. What
seems certain is that Steatopygia in both sexes was fairly wide-
spread among the early races of man. While the Bushmen and
Hottentots afford the most noticeable examples of its develop-
ment, it is by no means rare in other parts of Africa, and occurs
even more frequently among Bastaards of the male sex than
among Hottentot women.
STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENCE (1833-1908), American
poet and critic, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 8th
of October 1833. He studied two years at Yale; became a
journalist in New York, especially on the staffs of the Tribune
and World, which latter paper he served as field correspondent
t during the first years of the Civil War; and was a banker in
Wall Street from 1869 to 1900. His first book, Poems, Lyrical
and Idyllic, appeared in 1860, followed by successive volumes of
similar character, and by collected editions of his verse in 1873,
1884 and 1897. His longer poems are Alice of Monmouth: an
Idyl of the Great War (1864); The Blameless Prince (1869), an
allegory of good deeds, supposed to have been remotely suggested
by the life of Prince Albert; and an elaborate commemorative
ode on Hawthorne, read before the Harvard Phi Beta Kappa
Society in 1877. An idyllic atmosphere is the prevalent character-
istic of his longer pieces, while the lyric tone is never absent
from his songs, ballads and poems of reflection or fancy. As an
editor he put forth a volume of Cameos from Landor (with T. B.
Aldrich, 1874); a large Library of (selections from) American
Literature (with Ellen M. Hutchinson, n vols., 1888-1890); a
Victorian Anthology (1895); and an American Anthology, 1787-
1899 (1900); the two last-named volumes being ancillary to a
detailed and comprehensive critical study in prose of the whole
body of English poetry from 1837, and of American poetry of the
1 9th century. This study appeared in separate chapters in
Scribner's Monthly now the Century Magazine, and was reissued,
with enlargements, in the volumes entitled Victorian Poets (1875;
continued to the Jubilee year in the edition of 1887) and Poets
of America (1885), the two works forming the most symmetrical
body of literary criticism yet published in the United States.
Their value is increased by the treatise on The Nature and
Elements of Poetry (Boston, 1892) a work of great critical
insight as well as technical knowledge. He died in New
York on the i8th of January 1908.
. See Laura Stedman and G. M. Gould, The Life and Letters of
Edmund Clarence Stedman (2 vols., N. Y., 1910).
STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847- ), English writer, was
born on the 2nd of April 1847, the daughter of George Webster.
In 1867 she married an Indian civilian, and for the next twenty-
two years lived in India, chiefly in the Punjab, with which most
of her books are connected; her interest in the education of
women, as an inspectress of schools, gave her a special insight
into native life and character. Some of her best work is con-
tained in two collections of short stories: From the Five Rivers
(1893) and Tales from the Punjab (1894); while her most
ambitious effort was her novel, On the face of the Waters (1896),
describing incidents of the Indian Mutiny. She also wrote a
popular history of India. Later works are In the Permanent Way
(1897), Voices in the Night (1900), The Hosts of the Lord (1900),
In the Guardianship of God (1903), A Sovereign Remedy (1906).
STEEL CONSTRUCTION. The use of steel construction in
the erection of large buildings is the natural consequence of
the conditions imposed upon owners of property lying within
sections of large cities, and the result of the introduction of new
materials and devices. Apart from the aesthetic considerations
to which has been due the construction of spires, towers,
domes, high roofs, &c., the form and height of buildings have
always been largely controlled by a practical consideration of
their value for personal use or rental. The cost of buildings
of the same class and finish is in direct proportion to their cubic
contents, and each cubic foot constructed is commercially
unprofitable which does not do its part in paying interest on
the capital invested. Until the latter half of the igth century,
these considerations practically limited the height of buildings
on city streets to five or six storeys. The manufacture of the
wrought-iron " I " beam in 1855 made cheaper fire-proof con-
struction possible, and, with the introduction of passenger lifts
(see ELEVATORS; LIFTS or HOISTS) about ten years later, led
to the erection of buildings to be used as hotels, flats, offices,
factories, and for other commercial purposes, containing
many more storeys than had formerly been found profitable.
The practical limit of height was reached when the sectional
area of the masonry of the piers of the exterior walls in the lower
storey had to be made so great, in order to support safely the
weight of the dead load of the walls and floors and the accidental
load imposed upon the latter in use, as to affect seriously the
value of the lower storeys on account of the loss of light and
floor space. This limit was found to be about ten storeys.
Various devices were successively made to reduce the size of the
exterior piers. In 1881 the walls of a very large courtyard were
constructed by building a braced cage of iron and filling the
panels with masonry, a system of construction which had been
used in the early part of the century for a tall shot-tower erected
in the city of New York. Subsequently several buildings were
erected in which the entire weight of the floors and roofs was
carried by a system of metal columns placed against the inner
surface of the exterior walls. The walls thus supported no
load but their own weight, and were tied to the inner cage formed
by the wall columns, interior columns, girders, and floors by
anchors arranged to provide for the shrinkage of masonry in
drying out which always occurs to a greater or less extent. By
the use of this form of construction buildings were carried to
the height of eighteen or nineteen storeys.
Iron or steel as a substitute for wood for constructive purposes
was long thought to be fire-proof or fire-resisting because it is
incombustible, and for this reason it has not only replaced wood
in many features of building construction but is also used as a
substitute for masonry. In time, however, it was realized
that iron by itself is not fire-proof, but requires to be protected
by means of fire-resisting coverings; but as soon as satisfactory
forms of these were invented their development progressed hand
in hand with that of iron and steel forms and combinations.
Buildings in steel are either of " skeleton " or " cage " con-
struction. These terms may be defined as follows: In " skeleton "
construction the columns and girders are built without proper
or adequate inter-connexion and would not be able to carry the
required weights without the support afforded by the walls;
or, as in more recent construction, the walls are self-supporting
and the other portions of the building are carried on by the
skeleton steelwork. " Cage " construction consists of a com-
plete and well-connected framework of iron or steel capable
of carrying not only the floors but the walls, roof, and every
other part of the building, and efficiently constructed with
wind bracing to secure its independent safety under all condi-
tions of loading and exposure, all loads being transmitted to the
ground through columns at predetermined points. In America
under this system the walls can be built independently from any
level (see fig. 4), but in England the requirements of the building-
acts as to the thickness of walls prevents the general use of this
form of construction.
Skeleton construction is defined by the Chicago building
ordinance as follows:
" The term ' skeleton construction ' shall apply to all buildings
wherein all external and internal loads and strains are transmitted
from the top of the building to the foundations by a skeleton or
framework of metal. In such metal framework the beams and
girders shall be riveted to each other at their respective junction
points. If pillars made of rolled iron or steel are used, their different
parts shall be riveted to each other and the beams and girders
862
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
resting upon them shall have riveted or bolted connexions to unite
them with the pillar. If cast-iron pillars are used, each successive
pillar shall be bolted to the one below it by at least four bolts not
less than three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and the beams and
girders shall be bolted to the pillars. At each line of floor- or roof-
beams, lateral connexion between the ends of the beams and
girders shall be made by passing wrought-iron or steel straps across
or through the cast-iron column, in such a manner as to rigidly
connect the beams and girders with each other on the direction of
their length. These straps shall be made of wrought-iron or steel,
and shall be riveted or bolted to the flanges or to the webs of the
beams or girders.
" If buildings are made fire-proof entirely, and have skeleton
construction so designed that their enclosing walls do not carry
the weight of the floors or roof, then their walls shall be not less
than twelve inches in thickness; and provided, also, that such
walls shall be thoroughly anchored to the iron skeleton, and pro-
vided, also, that, whether the weight of such walls rests upon beams
or pillars, such beams or pillars must be made strong enough in
each storey to carry the weight of wall resting upon them without
reliance upon the walls below them. All partitions must be of
incombustible material."
With the introduction of cheap structural steel, steel cage
construction came rapidly into use. The dimensions of the
exterior piers ceased to control the height of the
SteeiCage building, which was limited alone by the possibility
Construe- r . ,. ., *
tion. * securing adequate foundations, and by a considera-
tion of the amount of floor space which could be
devoted without too great loss to a system of passenger lifts
of sufficient capacity to afford speedy access to all parts of the
building. The advantages that led to the very rapid intro-
duction of this system were not only the power of greatly reducing
the size of the piers, but the enormous facility afforded for quick
construction, the small amount of materials relatively used
and the proportionately small load upon the foundations, and
the fact that as the walls are supported at each storey directly
from the cage, the masonry can be begun at any storey indepen-
dently of the masonry below it. It is a disadvantage of the system
that defects of proportion, material, or workmanship, which
would be of less moment in an old-fashioned construction, may
become an element of danger in building with the steel cage,
while the possibility of securing a permanent protection of all
parts of the cage from corrosion is a most serious consideration.
The safety of the structure depends upon the preservation of the
absolute integrity of the cage. It must not only be strong
enough to sustain all possible vertical loads, but it must be
sufficiently rigid to resist without deformation or weakening
all lateral disturbing forces, the principal of which are the pres-
sure of wind, the possible sway of moving crowds or moving
machinery, and the vibration of the earth from the passage of
loaded vans and trolleys, and slight earthquakes which at times
visit almost all localities. In buildings wide in proportion to
their height it is the ordinary practice to make the floors suf-
ficiently rigid to transfer the lateral strains to the walls, and to
brace the wall framings to resist them. In buildings of small
width in proportion to their height this method of securing
rigidity is generally found to be inadequate, and the frame is
also braced at right angles to the outer walls to take up the
strains directly. In each case all strains are carefully computed.
The bracing is accomplished by the introduction at the angles
of the columns and girders or beams of gusset plates or knee
braces, or by diagonal straps or rods properly attached by rivet
or pin connexions. All portions of the frame are united by hot
rivets of mild steel or wrought iron, care being taken that the
sum of the sectional areas of rivets affords in each case a
sufficient amount of metal for the safe transfer of the stresses.
The greatest care should be taken to see that all rivet holes
are accurately punched, and if necessary that they are rhymed
so that each rivet will have its full value.
For the proper and successful erection of the frame much
depends upon an accurate alinement of the column bases.
These should be properly tested as to position and level. The
bases are either grouted with cement, or bolted to the founda-
tions, but where cast column bases, rest on masonry piers or
footings any considerable grouting is not advisable. The only
grouting that should be permitted in tall buildings would be in
levelling up the tops of the concrete footings to receive the
masonry courses, or in a very thin layer between the column
pedestal and the masonry bed. The cap stones should always
be brought to the most accurate bed possible, with grouting
used as a thin cement and not as a backer. Accurate redressing
of the cap stones after setting is-much to be preferred.
All riveting and punching of the steel members is done at the
shop, where also they receive the usual coat of oil or paint. This
leaves the assembling and field riveting to be done on the ground,
together with the adjustment of the lateral or wind-bracing, the
placing of tie rods and the field painting.
After erection the steelwork should receive one or two coats
of paint; two coats are to be recommended, in which case
they should be of different colours. Red lead
is best for the priming coat and oxide paint for the ^ rotectloa
finishing coat. In German specifications it is Jon-osioa.
required that the steelwork should first receive a
coat of boiled linseed oil, in order that the red lead coating
should be more coherent with the steel.
Steelwork that has to come in contact with brickwork or
concrete should not be painted, but should receive a wash of
cement as the brickwork or concrete-work proceeds. The
steelwork which is exposed to the weather should be painted"
about every three years, but when it is under cover an interval
of five years may elapse.
To secure painting of permanent value a clean scaleless and
rustless surface is first necessary. Steel plates and shapes,
when delivered from the rolls which form them to the cooling
beds, are largely covered with scales, which, adhering only
partially to the surface, offer the intervening cracks or joints as
vulnerable points for rust. After being rolled, structural steel
is stored or handled out of doors for a varying period both at the
mill and then again at the shop before the building is started.
This period of open-air exposure allows the process of rust to
start under the scales. If the rust so covered up has not begun
to pit the iron the chances are that it will do no harm; but, if it
is already well developed and of some thickness, it will have
enough oxidizing agents in its pores to develop more oxide, and
to swell up and crack the paint. The first requirement, therefore,
for efficient painting is the careful removal of all mill-scale, rust,
grease, or foreign substance, before even the priming coat is
applied. It is agreed that the first step in the preservation
of metal-work against deterioration or corrosion is the obtaining
of absolute cleanness of metal before the application of paint
or oil.
The following are the requirements of the New York building
law in regard to the protection of iron or steelwork against
corrosion, &c.:
" All structural metal-work shall be cleaned of all scale, dirt and
rust, and be thoroughly coated with one coat of paint. Cast-iron
columns shall not be painted until after inspection by the Depart-
ment of Buildings. Where surfaces in riveted work come in con-
tact they shall be painted before assembling. After erection all
work shall be painted with at least one additional coat. All iron
or steel used under water shall be enclosed with concrete."
The Chicago ordinance makes no mention of paint or coating
to prevent rust in metal framework. The London Building
Acts do not set out any special requirements, but suggestions
have been made at the Royal Institution of British Architects
for the regulation of skeleton buildings and they are drawn up
upon a more scientific basis than the bulk of the existing acts.
In transferring the loads from the column bases to the bottom
of the footings the greatest care must be taken in ah 1 systems
of construction that the stresses throughout at no
. . . . , . Columns.
point exceed the safe limits of stress for the various
materials used. Steel is generally used for columns in preference
to cast iron, because it affords greater facility for securing
satisfactory connexions, because its defects of quality or work-
manship are more surely detected by careful test and inspection,
and because, on account of its superior elasticity and ductility,
its fibre is less liable to fracture from slight deformations. It
is used in preference to wrought iron on account of its lesser cost.
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
863
Columns are generally built of riveted work of zedbars, channels,
angles, plates, or lattice, of such form as will make the simplest
and most easily constructed framing in the particular position
in which the column is placed. The columns are sometimes run
through two or more storeys and arranged to break joints at
the differetit floors. In buildings to be used as offices, hotels,
apartments, &c., it is usual in establishing the loads for the
purpose of computation to assume that the columns carrying
the roof and the upper storey will be called upon to sustain
the full dead load due to material and the maximum computed
variable load, but it is customary to reduce the variable loads
at the rate of about 5 % storey by storey towards the base, until
a minimum of about 20% of the entire variable load is reached,
for it is evidently impossible that the building can be loaded by a
densely-packed moving crowd in all of its storeys simultaneously.
In the case of factories and buildings used for storage purposes
the maximum variable load which can be imposed for any
serious length of time on each floor must be used without reduc-
tion in computing the loads of the lower column, and proper
allowances must be made for vibrating loads. In the case of
very tall exposed buildings of small depth, the vertical load
on the columns due to wind pressure in the opposite side of the
building must be computed and allowed for, and in case the lower
columns are without lateral support their bending moment must
be sufficient to resist the lateral pressure due to wind and
eccentricity of loading. In computing the column sections a
proper allowance must be made for any eccentricity of loading.
It is usual to limit the height of sections of columns without
lateral support to 30 diameters, and to limit the maximum fibre
stress to 12,000 Ib per sq. in. The sectional areas are com-
puted by the use of the ordinary formulae for columns and struts.
The standard sections in use are numerous and varied, and
from time to time a steel user has occasion to design a new
steel shape because no existing section is suitable. The experi-
ments given by Professor Burr indicate that a closed column
is stronger than an open one, but practice does not always sup-
port theory, and many other questions besides mere form arise
in connexion with the choice of a section; special considerations
in the use of columns in buildings sometimes call for a form very
different from the circular section, and such include the transfer
of loads to the centre of the section, the maximum efficiency under
loading, and the requirements for pipe space around or included
in the column form. Lattice bars, fillers, brackets, &c., add
just so much more weight without increasing the section, and
must be allowed for; the method of riveting the sections together
must also be taken into account.
For girders of small spans " I " beams or channels are generally
used, but for greater spans girders are built of riveted work
in the form of boxes with top and bottom plates,
Girders. . , J . . *
side plates, and angles with proper stiffening bars
on the side plates, or " I's," or lattice, or other forms of truss
work. In girders and beams the maximum fibre stress is
usually limited to 16,000 Ib. In very short girders the shear
must be computed, and in long girders the deflexion, particularly
the flexure from the variable load, since a flexure of more than
sio of the length is liable to crack the plastering of the ceilings
carried by the girders. The same necessity for computing
shear and flexure applies to the floor beams. The floors between
the girders are constructed of " I" beams, spaced generally
about 5 ft. between centres; their ends are usually framed to
fit the form of the girders, and rest either upon their lower
flanges, or upon seats formed of angles riveted to their webs,
being secured to them by a pair of angles at each end of the
beam riveted to its web and to the web of the girder. Some-
times the beams rest upon the girders, and are riveted through
the flanges to it; in this case the abutting ends of beams are
spliced by scarf plates placed on each side of the webs and
secured by rivets. A similar construction is followed for flat
roofs, the grades being generally formed in the girder and beam
construction, and a flat ceiling secured by hanging from them,
with steel straps, a light tier of ceiling beams. The floor beams
are tied laterally by rods in continuous lines placed at or above
their neutral axis. It is usual in both girders and beams to
provide not only for the safe support of the greatest possible
distributed load, but for the greatest weight, such as that of a
safe or other heavy piece of furniture which may be moved
over the floor at its weakest points, the centres of the girders
and beams. It must always be borne in mind that the formulae
for the ultimate strength of the " I " beams only hold good
when the upper chord or flange is supported laterally.
Considerable improvement has been made in the design of
rolled steel shapes; for example the rolling of a i6-in. joist was
formerly deemed a remarkable achievement, though now there
are several works producing 24-in. joists with flanges 7 and
7^ in. wide. The Broad Flange Differdange Beams are claimed
by the manufacturers to be stronger and to minimize weight
for use as girders; they are made in twenty-one different sizes
with flanges from 8f to 1 2 in. wide.
The introduction of steel construction has simplified many
details of architectural treatment, such as projections for
cornices, bay windows and galleries. These may be supported by
bracket-angles attached to the columns with a system of anchors
to tie them back; the material must be carried in such a manner
as to make it independent of the general structure, and must
be constructed as light as possible. If the supporting member
is a floor beam or girder the girder should be rigidly connected
to the floor system to prevent any twisting due to the weight of
the projection.
The arrangement of the building and floor framings is in a
great measure governed by the architectural effect sought and
by the arrangement and proper planning of the Flo
interior according to the intended uses; the positions
of columns, girders and floor beams are usually the result of
particular requirements, and unless complicated and expensive
framing is to be expected the distance between columns must
be kept within the limits of simple girder construction. The
position of the columns having been determined, the girders
must next be located; these serve to support the floor beams
which transfer the loads direct to the columns, and also to brace
the columns during erection. The spacing, or distance from
centre to centre of the floor beams, will depend upon the type
of fire-proof flooring employed; it also depends to a considerable
extent upon the amount and character of the floor load and the
length of span. If the loads to be carried are largely stationary,
and if the span is small, the floor joists can be readily propor-
tioned by means of tables given in the handbooks issued by
many steel companies. The distance between joists should be
limited to 5 Or 6 ft.; horizontal bracing by means of diagonal
rods is- sometimes used, but should be avoided. The following
are the usual assumptions made in good practice for super-
imposed loads:
Floors of dwellings and offices ... 70 Ib per sq. ft.
,, ,, churches, theatres and ball-rooms 125
,, warehouses 20010250 ,, ,, ,,
,, for heavy machinery . . . 25010400 ,,
The relation between the velocity of wind and the pressure
exerted upon surfaces must be considered in steel construction,
and designers differ in regard to the forces to be
resisted and the material to be used. Every building bracing.
offers its own peculiar coftdition; the height, width,
shape and situation of the structure, and character of the
enclosing walls, will determine the amount of wind pressure to
be provided against, and the internal appearance and the plan-
ning of the various floors will largely influence the manner in
which the bracing is to be treated. There are many and varied
forms of bracing, each designer adopting methods peculiar to his
own ideas. One form consists of adjustable diagonals, rods or
bars, properly fastened to the columns in the building; these
diagonals may run through one floor and be attached to the
columns at the floor above. Another form is known as portal
bracing; this is usually braced between adjacent columns in
halls or passage-ways and extends from the foundations up
from floor to floor to such a height that the stability of the
86 4
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
building itself is sufficient to resist the assumed wind pressure.
In general, if the building is square or nearly so wind-bracing
should be placed close to the corners. In case neither of the
above methods can be applied, brackets should be used at each
floor level or a continuous deep beam or girder carried all around
the building. Some architects depend solely upon partitions,
and a building with a well-constructed iron frame should be
safe if provided with brick partitions or if the exterior of the
iron framework is covered with well-built masonry of sufficient
thickness.
Truss rods, portals, or lattice or plate girders constitute
the more definite types of wind-bracing ordinarily employed;
the bracing must reach to some solid connexion at the ground.
The greatest wind pressure to which a building is subjected
is that from a horizontal wind. The maximum pressure is
not uniform from the ground level to the roof but is greatest
at the centre; it is diminished near the ground level by the
frictional resistance of the ground, and at the eaves by the eddies
formed by the air escaping over the roof. The change in
direction of the air when striking a flat surface such as the side
of a building will form a cushion to diminish the effects of
impulses and shocks from local gusts.
The building laws of the city of New York require the
following provisions as regards wind forces:
" All structures exposed to wind shall be designed to resist a
horizontal wind pressure of thirty pounds for every square foot
of surface thus exposed, from the ground to the top of the same,
including roof, in any direction. In no case shall the overturning
moment due to wind pressure exceed seventy-five per centum of
the moment of stability of the structure. In all structures exposed
to wind, if the resisting moments of the ordinary materials of
construction, such as masonry, partitions, floors and connexions,
are not sufficient to resist the moment of distortion due to wind
pressure, taken in any direction on any part of the structure, ad-
ditional bracing shall be introduced sufficient to make up the differ-
ence in the moments. In calculations for wind pressures, the
working stresses set forth in the code may be increased by fifty
per centum. In buildings under one hundred feet in height, pro-
vided the height does not exceed four times the average width of
the base, the wind pressure may be disregarded."
The steel used throughout the entire structure should be
subjected to the most thorough chemical and mechanical tests
M t Hal anc * ms P ect i n > fi rst at th 6 mill and subsequently at
Used. S ' the fabricating shops and the building, to ensure that
it shall not contain more than 0-08% of phosphorus
or 0-06% of sulphur, that it shall have an ultimate strength
of between 60,000 and 70,000 Ib per sq. in., with an elastic
limit of not less than 35,000 Ib per sq. in., and an elongation
before fracture of not less than 25% in 8 in. of length, and
that a piece of the material may be bent cold 180 over a mandril
equal to the thickness of the piece tested without fracture of
the fibres on the outside of the bend. At least two pieces are
taken from each melt or blow at the mill, and are stamped or
marked, and all the various sections rolled from the melt or
blow are required to bear a similar stamp or mark for identifica-
tion. All finished material is carefully examined to see that it
possesses a smooth surface, and that it is free from cracks,
seams and other defects, and that it is true to section throughout.
Rivets are either of wrought iron or of extra soft steel, with
an ultimate tensile strength of 55,000 Ib per sq. in. The
material must be sufficiently tough to bend cold 180 flat on
itself without sign of fracture. The greatest care is taken that
no steel is left in a brittle condition by heating and cooling
without proper annealing. All abutting joints in riveted work
are faced to exact lengths and absolutely at right angles to
the axis of the piece, and are spliced by scarf plates of proper
dimensions adequately secured by rivets. The work should
be so accurate that no packing pieces are necessary. If the
conditions are such that a packing or filling piece must be used,
the end of one piece is cut to a new and true surface, and the
filling piece is planed to fill the space accurately. Where cast
iron is used it must be of tough grey iron free from defects. In
testing it pieces 14 in. long and i in. square are cast from each
heat and supported on blunt knife edges spaced 12 in. apart;
under a load in the centre of the piece of 2500 Ib the deflexion
must not exceed $ in.
The filling between the girders and floor beams consists
of segmental arches of brick, segmental or flat arches of porous
(sawdust) terra-cotta, or hard-burned hollow terra- Fioor-tming
cotta voussoirs, or various patented forms of con- "<'
crete floors containing ties or supports of steel or Partlu aa -
iron. In all cases it is customary to fill on top of the arches with
a strong Portland cement concrete to a uniform level, generally
the top of the deepest beam; the floor filling is constructed and
carried to this level immediately upon the completion of each
tier of beams, for the purpose not only of stiffening the frame
laterally, and of adding to its stability by the imposition of a
static load, but also to afford constantly safe and strong working
platforms at regular and convenient intervals for use throughout
the entire period of the construction. In cases in which the
lateral rigidity of the floors is depended upon to transfer the
horizontal strains to the exterior walls which are framed to
resist them, no form of floor construction should be used which
is not laterally strong and rigid. With very rapid building,
no method of construction of floors furrings, or partitions should
be adopted which will not dry out with great speed. In flat
forms of masonry floor construction the level of its bottom
is placed somewhat below the bottom of the " I " beams and
girders, so that when it is plastered a continuous surface of at
least an inch of mortar will form a fire-proof protection for the
lower flanges of the beams and girders. Where the width of the
flange is considerable it is first covered with metal lath secured
to the under side of the floor masonry. Girders projecting
below the floor are usually encased in from i to 2 in. of fire-
proof material, 2 or 4 in. of which is also put on all columns.
Such fire-proof coverings, and also interior partitions, are com-
posed of hollow, hard-burned terra-cotta blocks, of porous
(sawdust) terra cotta, or various plastic compositions applied
to metallic lath, many of which are patented both as to material
and method of application. The most simple test for the
value of a system of fire-proof coverings, and of partitions and
furrings, is to erect a large sample of the work and to subject
it alternately to the continued action of an intensely hot flame
which is allowed to impinge upon it, and to a stream of cold
water directed upon it from the ordinary service nozzle of a
steam fire engine. It is important in all fire-proofing of columns
and girders, and in all floor construction, furring and partitions,
that there shall be no continuous voids, either vertical or
horizontal, which may possibly serve as flues for the spread
of heat or flame in case of fire. All furrings and partitions
must be started on the solid masonry of the floors to prevent the
possible passage of fire from the room in which it may occur.
The failure to make this provision has been the cause of very
serious losses in buildings which were supposed to be fire-proof.
Steel construction possesses great advantages in time required
for erection. When once the site is cleared and the founda-
tions prepared and set, work can be pushed on the Time and
walls at different storeys at one and the same time, Cost of
and often main cornices and filling-in work are Brectloa -
fixed before special details and ornamentation. In the
Commercial Cable Building, New York, seven complete tiers
aggregating 7000 tons were erected in nine weeks. In the
Unity Building, Chicago, of seventeen storeys, the metal frame-
work from basement columns to finished roof was accomplished
in nine weeks. In the Fisher Building, Chicago, the entire
steel skeleton above the first floor, nineteen storeys and attic,
was erected in twenty-six days.
Owing to the low price of steel it is possible to make a steel
column of equivalent strength cheaper than one in cast iron.
The question of cost is purely a commercial one, but the cost
of the raw material will practically never determine the relative
cost between various forms, as the expense of manufacture
and the detail and duplication of members will all influence
the ultimate cost to a much greater extent than the simple
cost of the plain materials. The steelwork for a building of any
considerable size is almost invariably rolled to order.
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
PLATE I.
Mewes & Davis, Architects.
FIG. i. THE MORNING POST BUILDING, LONDON.
Waring White Building Co. Ltd., Contractors.
FIG. 2. THE FLATIROX BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY.
D. H. Burnham & Co., Architects.
XXV. 864.
Geo. A. Fuller & Co., Contractors.
PLATE II.
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
..- rVi-
&->cz
STEELE, A. STEELE, SIR R.
865
Buildings
Steel construction and the rapid development of engineering
practice has affected not only the erection of tall buildings,
but has also produced improvement in the erection
^ factory ari d workshop premises. Modern work-
shops consist of wider buildings of greater height
with plenty of roof-light, efficient ventilation, and artificial
heating, and as the heavy loads can be carried by the reinforcing
material, heavy walls become unnecessary. Gradually, therefore,
the modern steel-framed factory has been evolved, capable of
supporting all the loads, the outer walls being required only
for protection against weather. Light steel roof trusses have
replaced the timber trusses, and with the columns form a rigid
framework to resist the structural and wind loads as well as those
from the cranes and shafting.
In Germany skeleton steel-framed factory buildings may be
erected with half brick (12 cm.), with a restriction that when
such buildings are abutting or are in the immediate neighbour-
hood, i.e. within 20 ft. of a neighbouring building, the outside
walls on the sides affected shall be full brick (25 cm.).
The permissible height to which a building may be erected
on the continent of Europe depends largely on the breadth of the
road on which such buildings are situated. As a rule it is not
permissible to erect a building wider than the road, measured
from building line to building line.
In American practice the use of steel in buildings of ten or more
storeys, or in manufacturing plant where the floor loads are
heavy and frequently " live " in the sense of causing vibration,
has led to more careful specifications as to the quality of mate-
rials and character of workmanship, and it is the custom of
the leading architects to have the structural frame inspected
and tested during manufacture at the foundries, rolling-mills
and shops by a firm of engineers making a speciality of such
inspections.
The illustrations (see Plates I. and II.) will give a good idea
of the general construction as now carried out in England and
America.
AUTHORITIES. See Birkmore, The Planning and Construction of
High Office Buildings; Farnworth, Constructional Steel Work;
J. K. Frietag, Architectural Engineering; Kitchin, Steel Mitt Build-
ings; Carnegie Steel Company s Pocket Companion; Pencoyd Iron
Works Handbook. 0- BT.)
STEELE, ANNE (1717-1778), English hymn writer, was born at
Broughton, Hampshire, in 1717. The drowning of her betrothed
a few hours before the time fixed for her marriage deeply
affected an otherwise quiet life, and her hymns rather emphasize
the less optimistic phases of Christian experience. In 1760
she published Poems on Subjects Chiefly Devotional under the
name " Theodosia," and her complete works (144 hymns, 34
metrical psalms and 50 moral poems) appeared in one volume in
London (1863). She was a Baptist, and her hymns are much
used by members of that communion, though some of them,
e.g. " Father of mercies, in Thy word," have found their way
into the collections of other Churches. She has been called
the Frances Ridley Havergal of the i8th century.
STEELE, SIR RICHARD (1672-1729), English man of letters
in the reign of Queen Anne, is inseparably associated in the
history of literature with his personal friend Addison. He
cannot be said to have lost in reputation by the partnership,
because he was inferior to Addison in purely literary gift, and
it is Addison's literary genius that has floated their joint work
above merely journalistic celebrity; but the advantage was not
all on Steele's side, inasmuch as his more brilliant coadjutor has
usurped not a little of the merit rightly due to him. Steele's
often-quoted generous acknowledgment of Addison's services in
the Taller has proved true in a somewhat different sense from that
intended by the writer: " I fared like a distressed prince who
calls in a powerful neighbour to his aid; I was undone by my
auxiliary; when I had once called him in I could not subsist
without dependence on him." The truth is that in this happy
alliance the one was the complement of the other; and the
balance of mutual advantage was much more nearly even than
Steele claimed or posterity has generally allowed.
xxv. 28
The famous literary pair were born in the same year. Steele,
the senior by less than two months, was baptized on the i2th
of March 1672 in Dublin. His father, also Richard Steele,
was an attorney. He died before his son had reached his sixth
year, but the boy found a protector in his maternal uncle,
Henry Gascoigne, secretary and confidential agent to two
successive dukes of Ormond. Through his influence he was
nominated to the Charterhouse in 1684, and there first met with
Addison. Five years afterwards he proceeded to Christ Church,
Oxford, and was a postmaster at Merton when Addison was a
demy at Magdalen. Their schoolboy friendship was continued
at the university, and probably helped to give a more serious
turn to Steele's mind than his natural temperament would have
taken under different companionship. Addison's father also
took an interest in the warm-hearted young Irishman; but their
combined influence did not steady him sufficiently to keep his
impulses within the lines of a regular career; without waiting
for a degree he -volunteered into the army, and served for some
time as a cadet " under the command of the unfortunate duke
of Ormond " (i.e. the first duke's grandson, who was attainted
in 1713). This escapade was made without his uncle's consent,
and cost him, according to his own account, " the succession
to a very good estate in the county of Wexford in Ireland."
Still, he did not lack advancement in the profession he had
chosen. A poem on the funeral of Queen Mary (1695), dedicated
to Lord Cutts, colonel of the Coldstream Guards, brought him
under the notice of that nobleman, who took the gentleman
trooper into his household as a secretary, made him an officer in
his own regiment, and ultimately procured for him a captaincy
in Lord Lucas's regiment of foot. His name was noted for
promotion by King William, but the king's death took place
before anything had been done for Captain Steele. A duel
which he fought with Captain Kelly in Hyde Park in 1700, and in
which he wounded his antagonist dangerously, inspired him with
the dislike of the practice that he showed to the end of his life.
Steele probably owed the king's favour to a timely reference
to his majesty in The Christian Hero, his first prose treatise,
published in April 1701. The "reformation of manners"
was a cherished purpose with King William and his consort,
which they tried to effect by proclamation and act of parliament;
and a sensible well-written treatise, deploring the irregularity
of the military character, and seeking to prove by examples
the king himself among the number " that no principles but
those of religion are sufficient to make a great man," was sure
of attention. Steele complained that the reception of The
Christian Hero by his comrades was not so respectful; they
persisted in trying him by his own standard, and would not pass
" the least levity in his words and actions " without protest.
His uneasiness under the ridicule of his irreverent comrades
had a curious result: it moved him to write a comedy. "It
was now incumbent upon him," he says " to enliven his char-
acter, for which reason he writ the-comedy called The Funeral."
Although, however, it was Steele's express purpose to free his
character from the reproach of solemn dullness, and prove that
he could write as smartly as another, he showed greater respect
for decency than had for some time been the fashion on the
stage. The purpose, afterwards more fully effected in his
famous periodicals, of reconciling wit, good humour and good
breeding with virtuous conduct was already deliberately in
Steele's mind when he wrote his first comedy. It was produced
and published in 1701, and received on the stage with favour.
In his next comedy, The Lying Lover; or, the Ladies' Friendship,
based on Corneille's Menteur, produced two years afterwards,
in December 1703, Steele's moral purpose was directly avowed,
and the play, according to his own statement, was " damned
for its piety." The Tender Husband, an imitation of Moliere's
Sicilien, produced eighteen months later (in April 1705), though
not less pure in tone, was more successful; in this play he gave
unmistakable evidence of his happy genius for conceiving and
embodying humorous types of character, putting on the stage
the parents or grandparents of Squire Western, Tony Lumpkin
and Lydia Languish. It was seventeen years before Steele
866
STEELE, T.
again tried his fortune on the stage with The Conscious Lovers,
the best and most successful of his comedies, produced in
December 1722.
Meanwhile the gallant captain had turned aside to another
kind of literary work, in which, with the assistance of his friend
Addison, he obtained a more enduring reputation. There never
was a time when literary talent was so much sought after and
rewarded by statesmen. Addison had already been waited
on in " his humble lodgings in the Haymarket," and advanced
to office, when his friend the successful dramatist was appointed
to the office of gazetteer. This was in April or May 1707. It
was Steele's first connexion with journalism. The periodical
was at that time taking the place of the pamphlet as an instru-
ment for working on public opinion. The Gazette gave little
opening for the play of Steele's lively pen, his main duty, as
he says, having been to " keep the paper very innocent and very
insipid "; but the position made him familiar with the new field
of enterprise in which his inventive mind soon discerned materials
for a project of his own. The Taller made its first appearance
on the 1 2th of April 1709. It was partly a newspaper, a
journal of politics and society, published three times a week.
Steele's position as gazetteer furnished him with special advan-
tages for political news, and as a popular frequenter of coffee-
houses he was at no loss for social gossip. But Steele not only
retailed and commented on social news, a function in which he
had been anticipated by Defoe and others; he also gradually
introduced into the Taller as a special feature essays on general
questions of manners and morality. It is not strictly true that
Steele was the inventor of the English " essay " there were
essayists before the i8th century, notably Cowley and Temple;
but he was the first to use the essay for periodical purposes, and
he and Addison together developed a distinct species, to, which
they gave a permanent character, and in which they had
many imitators. As a humbler motive for this fortunate
venture Steele had the pinch of impecuniosity, due rather to
excess of expenditure than to smallness of income. He had
300 a year from his gazetteership (paying a tax of 45), 100 as
gentleman waiter to Prince George, 850 from the Barbadoes
estates of his first wife, a widow named Margaret Stretch, and
some fortune by his second wife Mrs Mary Scurlock, the
" dear Prue " of his charming letters. But Steele lived in con-
siderable state after his second marriage, and before he started
the Taller was reduced to the necessity of borrowing. The
assumed name of the editor was Isaac Bickerstaff, but Addison
discovered the real author in the sixth number, and began to
contribute in the eighteenth. It is only fair to Steele to state
that the success of the Taller was established before Addison
joined him, and that Addison contributed to only forty-two
of the two hundred and seventy-one numbers that had appeared
when the paper was stopped, obscurely, in January 1711. Some
papers satirizing Harley appeared in the Taller, and Steele lost
or resigned the post of gazetteer. It is possible that this political
recklessness may have had something to do with the sudden
end of the venture.
Only two months elapsed between the stoppage of the Taller
and the appearance of the Spectator, which was the organ of
the two friends from the ist of March 1711 till the 6th of
December 1712. Addison was the chief contributor to the
new venture, and the history of it belongs more to his life.
Nevertheless, it is to be remarked as characteristic of the
two writers that in this as in the Taller Addison generally
follows Steele's lead in the choice of subjects. The first
suggestion of Sir Roger de Coverley was Steele's although
it was Addison that filled in the outline of a good-natured
country gentleman with the numerous little whimsicalities
that convert Sir Roger into an amiable and exquisitely
ridiculous provincial oddity. Steele had neither the fineness
of touch nor the humorous malice that gives life and distinction
to Addison's picture; the Sir Roger of his original hasty sketch
has good sense as well as good nature, and the treatment is
comparatively commonplace from a literary point of view, though
unfortunately not commonplace in its charity. Steele's suggestive
vivacity gave many another hint for the elaborating skill of his
friend.
The Spectator was followed by the Guardian, the first number
of which appeared on the i2th of March 1713. It had a much
shorter career, extending to only a hundred and seventy-six
numbers, of which Steele wrote eighty-two. This was the last
of his numerous periodicals in which he had the material assist-
ance of Addison. But he continued for several years to project
journals, under various titles, some of them political, some
social in their objects, most of them very short-lived. Steele
was a warm partisan of the principles of the Revolution, as
earnest in his political as in his other convictions. The English-
man was started in October 1733, immediately after the stoppage
of the Guardian, to assail the policy of the Tory ministry. The
Lover, started in February 1714, was more general in its aims;
but it gave place in a month or two to the Reader, a direct
counterblast to the Tory Examiner. The Englishman was
resuscitated for another volume in 1715; and he subsequently
projected in rapid succession three unsuccessful ventures
Town Talk, the Tea Table and Chit Chat. Three years later
he started his most famous political paper the Plebeian, rendered
memorable by the fact that it embroiled him with his old ally
Addison. The subject of controversy between the two lifelong
friends was Sunderland's Peerage Bill. Steele's last venture
in journalism was the Theatre, 1720, the immediate occasion of
which was the revocation of his patent for Drury Lane. Besides
these journals he wrote also several pamphlets on passing ques-
tions on the disgrace of Marlborough in 1711, on the fortifica-
tions of Dunkirk in 1713, on the " crisis " in 1714, An Apology
for Himself and his Writings (important biographically) in the
same year, and on the South Sea -mania in 1 7.20.
The fortunes of Steele as a zealous Whig varied with the
fortunes of his party. Over the Dunkirk question he waxed
so hot that he threw up a pension and a commissionership of
stamps, and went into parliament as member for Stockbridge
to attack the ministry with voice and vote as well as with pen.
But he had not sat many weeks when he was expelled from the
house for the language of his pamphlet on the Crisis, which was
stigmatized as seditious. The Apology already mentioned was
his vindication of himself on this occasion. With the accession
of the House of Hanover his fortunes changed. Honours and
substantial rewards were showered upon him. He was made a
justice of the peace, deputy-lieutenant! of Middlesex, surveyor
of the royal stables, governor of the royal company of comedians
the last a lucrative post and was also knighted (1715). After
the suppression of the Jacobite rebellion he was appointed one
of the commissioners of forfeited estates, and spent some two
years in Scotland in that capacity. In 1718 he obtained a
patent for a plan for bringing salmon alive from Ireland.
Differing from his friends in power on the question of the Peerage
Bill he was deprived of some of his offices, but when Walpole
became chancellor of the exchequer in .1721 he was reinstated.
With all his emoluments however the imprudent, impulsive,
ostentatious and generous Steele could never get clear of
financial difficulties, and he was obliged to retire from London
in 1724 and live in the country. He spent his last years on his
wife's estate of Llangunnor in Wales, and, his health broken
down by a paralytic seizure, died at Carmarthen on the ist of
September 1729.
A selection from Steele's essays, with a prefatory memoir, has
been edited by Mr Austin Dobson (1885 ; revised 1896). Mr Dobson
contributed a fuller biography to Mr Andrew Lang's series of
English Worthies, in 1886. In 1889 another and more exhaustive
life was published by Mr G. A. Aitken, who has also edited Steele's
plays (1898) and the Tatter (1898). (W. M.; A. D.)
STEELE, THOMAS (1788-1848), Irish politician and writer,
a member of a Somerset family which settled in Ireland during
the 1 7th century, was born on the 3rd of November 1788.
He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and at Magdalene
College, Cambridge, and succeeded to a large estate in Co.
Clare. As a volunteer he fought against the Bourbons in Spain
in 1823, and, returning to Ireland, he became an enthusiastic
worker for Roman Catholic emancipation, helping greatly to
STEELE, W. STEENKIRK
867
return Daniel O'Connell to parliament for Co. Clare at the
famous election of 1828. It is interesting to note that Steele
himself was a Protestant. Having ruined his fortune by con-
tributing liberally to the causes in which he was interested,
he died in London on the isth of June 1848. He wrote
Notes of the War in Spain (1824) and some essays on Irish
questions.
STEELE, WILLIAM (d. 1680), lord chancellor of Ireland, was
a son of Richard Steele of Sandbach, Cheshire, and was educated
at Caius College, Cambridge. In 1648 he was chosen recorder
of London, and he was one of the four counsel appointed to
conduct the case against Charles I. in January 1649, but illness
prevented him from discharging this duty. However, a few days
later he took part in the prosecution of the duke of Hamilton
and other Royalists. Steele was M.P. for the City of London in
1654, was chief baron of the exchequer in 1655, and was made
lord chancellor of Ireland in 1656. After the fall of Richard
Cromwell he was one of the five commissioners appointed in
1659 to govern Ireland. At the end of this year he returned to
England, but he refused to sit on the committee of safety to
which he had been named. At the Restoration he obtained
the full benefits of the Act of Indemnity, but he thought it
advisable to reside for a time in Hojland. However, he had
returned to England before his death towards the end of 1680.
See O. J. Burke, History of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland (Dublin,
1879).
STEELE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province
on the navigable Ruhr, 4 m. by rail E. of Essen, at the junction
of the lines Duisburg-Dortmund and Vohwinkel-Hagen. Pop.
(1905), 12,988. It contains a Gothic parish church (Roman
Catholic), a high school and a Roman Catholic hospital. It has
coal-mines, iron and steel works, and makes fireproof bricks.
A Diet of the empire was held here in the year 938 by the emperor
Otto I.
STEELTON, a borough of Dauphin county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Susquehanna river, 3 m. S.E. of Harrisburg.
Pop. (1890), 9250; (1900), 12,086, of whom 2300 were foreign-
born and 1508 were negroes; (1910 census), 14,246. Steelton
is served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways, and is connected with Harrisburg by electric line.
The city has a public library. Steelton is in an agricultural
district, but its industrial importance is due primarily to the
vast steel works of the Pennsylvania Steel Company. Other
manufactures are flour and grist mill products, bricks, planing-
mill products, &c. In 1905 the total value of the borough's
factory products was $15,745,628; the capital invested in manu-
facturing increased from $6,266,068 in 1900 to $18,642,853 in
1905, or 197-5%. There is a large limestone quarry within
the borough limits. The municipality owns its waterworks
and filtration plant. The place was laid out in 1866 under the
name of Baldwin, but when it was incorporated as a borough,
in 1880, the present name was adopted.
STEELYARD, MERCHANTS OF THE, Hanse merchants who
settled in London in 1250 at the steelyard on the river-side, near
Cosin Lane, now Ironbridge Wharf. Henry III. in 1259, at
the request of his brother Richard of Cornwall, king of the
Romans, conferred on them important privileges, which were
confirmed by Edward I. It was chiefly through their enterprise
that the early trade of London was developed, and they continued
to flourish till, on the complaint of the Merchant Adventurers
in the reign of Edward VI., they were deprived of their privileges.
Though Hamburg and Liibeck sent ambassadors to intercede
for them, they were not reinstated in their monopolies, but
they succeeded in maintaining a footing in London till expelled
by Elizabeth in 1597. Their beautiful guildhall in Thames
Street, adorned with allegorical pictures by Holbein, and de-
scribed by Stow, was made a naval storehouse. The land and
buildings still remained the property of the Hanseatic League,
and were subsequently let to merchants for business purposes.
Destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666 they were rebuilt as ware-
houses, and were filially sold to the South-Eastern Railway
Company in 1852 by the Hanseatic towns, Liibeck, Bremen and
Hamburg. The site is now occupied by Cannon Street railway
station.
See Lappenburg, Urkundliche Geschichte des hansischen Stahlhofes
zu London (Hamburg, 1851); Stow, Survey of London (1598);
Pauli, Pictures of Old London (1851); Ehrenberg, Hamburg und
England im Zeitalter der Konigin Elizabeth (Jena, 1896).
STEEN, JAN HAVICKSZ (1626-1679), Dutch subject-painter,
was born at Leiden in 1626, the son of a brewer of the
place. He studied at Utrecht under Nicolas Knupfer, a
German historical painter. Dr Bode suggests that, before
entering Knupfer's studio, Jan Steen took drawing lessons
from Jacob de Wet in Haarlem. He bases his theory on the
internal evidence of such early pictures as the " Market at
Leiden " (Staedel Institute, Frankfort), the " Kermesse " (A.
von Goldschmidt-Rothschild, Berlin), " Calling for the Bride "
(Six Collection, Amsterdam), and " St John's Sermon " (Dessau
Castle). About the year 1644 Steen went to Haarlem, where
he worked under Adrian van Ostade and under Jan van Goyen,
whose daughter he married in 1649. In the previous year he
had joined the painters' gild of the city. In 1667 he is said to
have been a brewer at Delft; in 1669 a small debt of ten florins
owing to an apothecary led to the seizure and sale of his pictures;
and in 1672 he received municipal authority to open a tavern.
In 1673 he took a second wife, Maria van Egmont, the widow of
a bookseller in Leiden. The accounts of his life, however, are
very confusing and conflicting. Some biographers have asserted
that he was a drunkard and of dissolute life, but the number of
his works Van Westrheene, in his Jan Stem, etude sur I'art en
Holland, has catalogued nearly five hundred and Hofstede de
Groot about double that number seems sufficient in itself
to disprove the charge. His later pictures bear marks of
haste and are less carefully finished than those of his earlier
period. He died at Leiden in 1679.
The works of Jan Steen are distinguished by correctness of
drawing, admirable freedom and spirit of touch, and clearness
and transparency of colouring. But their true greatness is due
to their intellectual qualities. In the wide range of his subjects,
and their dramatic character, he surpasses all the Dutch figure-
painters, with the single exception of Rembrandt. His pro-
ductions range from the stately interiors of grave and wealthy
citizens to tavern scenes of jollity and debauch. He painted
chemists in their laboratories, doctors at the bedside of their
patients, card-parties, marriage feasts, and the festivals of St
Nicholas and Twelfth Night even religious subjects, though
in these he was least successful. His rendering of children is
especially delightful. Dealing often with the coarser side of
things, his work is full of humour; he depicts the comedy of
human life in a spirit of very genial toleration, but now and
again there appear keenly telling touches of satire which recall
a pictorial moralist such as Hogarth. Portraits from his brush
are comparatively rare. The best known is the portrait of
himself at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.
The National Gallery contains three pictures by Jan Steen, of
which the " Music Master " is the most important, and other
excellent examples of his art in England are preserved in the Royal!
the Bute, and the Northbrook collections, at Apsley House and
Bridgewater House, and in the galleries of the Hague, Amsterdam,
and the Hermitage, St Petersburg. A remarkably fine example
of his work, which appeared at the Royal Academy Winter Exhi-
bition in 1907, is the " Grace Before Meat."
STEENKIRK (STEENKERKE), a village in the Belgian province
of Hainaut, on the river Senne, famous for the battle of Steen-
kirk (Steinkirk, Estinkerke) fought on July 23rd/August 3rd
1692 between the Allies (see GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE)
under William III. of England and the French commanded by
the duke of Luxemburg. Previous to the battle the French
army lay facing north-west, with its right on the Senne at
Steenkirk and its left towards Enghien, while the army of
William III. was encamped about Hal. In accordance with
the strategical methods of the time, the French, not wishing
to fight after having achieved the immediate object, the capture
of Namur, took up a strong position, supposing the enemy
would not dare to attack it, while the Allies, who would otherwise
868
STEEPLE STEEVENS, G.
in all probability have done as the French marshal desired,
were by the fortune of war afforded the opportunity of surprising
a part of the enemy's forces. For in the lyth century, when the
objects of a war were as far as possible secured without the loss
of valuable lives, and general decisive battles were in every way
considered undesirable, a brilliant victory over a part, not. the
whole, of the enemy's forces was the tactical idea of the best
generals, and accordingly William, having completely misled
the enemy by forcing a detected spy to give Luxemburg false
news, set his army in motion before dawn on July 23rd/ August
3rd to surprise the French right about Steenkirk. The advanced
guard of infantry and pioneers, under the duke of Wiirttemberg,
deployed close to the French camps ere Luxemburg became aware
of the impending blow; at this moment the main body of the
army farther back was forming up after the passage of some
woods. When the fight opened, Luxemburg was completely
surprised, and he could do no more than hurry the nearest foot
and dragoons into action as each regiment came on the scene.
But the march of the Allies' main body had been mismanaged;
while Wurttemberg methodically cannonaded the enemy, wait-
ing for support and for the order to advance, and the French
worked with feverish energy to form a strong and well-covered
line of battle at the threatened point, the Allies' main body,
which had marched in the usual order, one wing of cavalry
leading, the infantry following, and the other wing of cavalry
at the tail of the column, was being hastily sorted out into
infantry and cavalry, for the ground was only suitable for the
former. A few battalions only had come up to support the
advanced guard when the real attack opened (12.30). The
advanced guard had already been under arms for nine hours,
and the march had been over bad ground, but its attack swept
the first French line before it. The English and Danes stub-
bornly advanced, the second and third lines of the French in-
fantry giving ground before them, but Luxemburg was rapidly
massing his whole force to crush them, and meanwhile the con-
fusion in the allied main body had reached its height. Count
Solms, who commanded it, ordered the cavalry forward, but
the mounted men, scarcely able to move over the bad roads
and heavy ground, only blocked the way for the infantry.
Some of the English foot, with curses upon Solms and the
Dutch generals, broke out to the front, and Solms, angry and
excited, thereupon refused to listen to all appeals for aid from
the front. No attempt was made to engage and hold the centre
and left of the French army, which hurried, regiment after
regiment, to take part in the fighting at Steenkirk. William's
counter-order that the infantry was to go forward, the cavalry
to halt, only made matters worse, and by now the advanced
guard had at last been brought to a standstill. At the crisis
Luxemburg had not hesitated to throw the whole of the French
and Swiss guards, led by the princes of the royal house, into the
fight, and as, during and after this supreme effort, more and more
French troops appeared from the side of Enghien, the Allies
were driven back, contesting every step by weight of numbers.
Those troops of the main body, foot and dragoons, which suc-
ceeded in reaching the front, served only to cover and to steady
the retreat of Wiirttemberg's force, and, the coup having mani-
festly failed, William ordered the retreat. The Allies retired as
they had come, their rear-guard showing too stubborn a front
for the French to attack. The latter were indeed in no state
to pursue. Over eight thousand men out of only about fifteen
thousand engaged on the side of the Allies were killed and
wounded, and the losses of the French out of a much larger force
were at least equal. Contemporary soldiers affirmed that Steen-
kirk was the hardest battle ever fought by infantry, and
the battle served not only to illustrate the splendid discipline
of the old professional armies, but also to give point to the
reluctance of the generals of those days to fight battles in which,
once the fighting spirit was unchained, the armies shot each
other to pieces before either would give way.
STEEPLE (akin to "steep"), a general architectural name
(Fr. docker, Ital. campanile, Ger. Glockenturm) for the whole
arrangement of tower, belfry, spire, &c.
STEEPLECHASE, a variety of horse-racing not run on the
flat, but either across country or on a made course with artificial
fences, water-jumps, &c. (see HORSE-RACING). The origin of
the sport and the name is due to matches run by owners
of hunters, the goal being some prominent landmark, such
as a neighbouring church steeple. There is an early record of
such a match in 1752 in Ireland, when the course was 45 m.,
" from the Church of Buttevaut to the spire of St Leger Church."
The name is sometimes used of cross-country running or of
a race on a made course over hurdles and other obstacles. It
is also given to an English variation of the old French game of
Goose (q.ii.). It is played with two dice on a board, on which is
depicted a race-course with hurdles, water-jumps and other
obstacles. The course is marked in 60 compartments by means
of radii, and the game is won by the player whose horse makes
the circuit in the fewest throws. Each player is provided with
a marker, usually in the form of a jockey on horseback, which
is moved forward after each throw to the space to which the
number thrown entitles it.
STEER, PAUL WILSON (1860- ), English painter, was
born at Birkenhead. He was trained first at the Gloucester
school of art and afterwards in Paris at the Academic Julian,
and in the Ecole des Beaux Arts under Cabanel. After 1886,
before which date he had shown three pictures at the Royal
Academy, practically the whole of his work was seen in the
exhibitions of the New English Art Club, of which he is a pro-
minent member. His figure subjects and landscapes show great
originality and technical skill (see PAINTING: Recent British).
His portrait of himself is included in the collection in the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence.
STEEVENS, GEORGE (1736-1800), English Shakespearian
commentator, was born at Poplar on the loth of May 1736, the
son of an East India captain, afterwards a director of the
company. He was educated at Eton and at King's College,
Cambridge, where he resided from 1753 to 1756. Leaving
the university without a degree, he settled in chambers in the
Temple, removing later to a house on Hampstead Heath, where
he collected a valuable library, rich in Elizabethan literature.
He also accumulated a large collection of Hogarth prints, and
his notes on the subject were incorporated in John Nichols's
Genuine Works of Hogarth. He walked from Hampstead to
London every morning before seven o'clock, discussed Shake-
spearian questions with his friend, Isaac Reed, and, after making
his daily round of the booksellers' shops, returned to Hampstead.
He began his labours as a Shakespearian editor with reprints
of the quarto editions of Shakespeare's plays, entitled Twenty
of the Plays of Shakespeare . . . (1766). Dr Johnson was im-
pressed by the value of this work, and suggested that Steevens
should prepare a complete edition of Shakespeare. The result,
known as Johnson's and Steevens's edition, was The Works of
Shakespeare with the Corrections and Illustrations of Various
Commentators (10 vols., 1773), Johnson's contributions to which
were very slight. This early attempt at a variorum edition was
revised and reprinted in 1778, and further edited in 1785 by
Isaac Reed; but in 1793 Steevens, who had asserted that he
was now a " dowager-editor," was persuaded by his jealousy
of Edmund Malone to resume his labours. The definitive
result of his researches was embodied in an edition of fifteen
volumes. He made changes in the text sometimes apparently
with the sole object of showing how much abler he was as an
emendator than Malone, but his wide knowledge of Elizabethan
literature stood him in good stead, and subsequent editors have
gone to his pages for parallel passages from contemporary
authors. His deficiencies from the point of view of purely
literary criticism are apparent from the fact that he excluded
Shakespeare's sonnets and poems because, he wrote, " the strong-
est act of parliament that could be framed would fail to compel
readers into their service." In the twenty years between 1773
and 1793 he was less harmlessly engaged in criticizing his fellows
and playing malicious practical jokes on them. Dr Johnson,
who was one of his stanchest friends, said he had come to live
the life of an outlaw, but he was generous and to a small circle
STEEVENS, G. W. STEFFANI
869
of friends civil and kind. He was one of the foremost in expos-
ing the Chatterton-Rowley and the Ireland forgeries. He wrote
an entirely fictitious account of the Java upas tree, derived from
an imaginary Dutch traveller, which imposed on Erasmus
Darwin, and he hoaxed the Society of Antiquaries with the
tombstone of Hardicanute, supposed to have been dug up in
Kennington, but really engraved with an Anglo-Saxon inscrip-
tion of his own invention. He died at Hampstead on the 22nd
of January 1800. A monument to his memory by Flaxman,
with an inscription commemorating his Shakespearian labours,
was erected in Poplar Chapel. The sale catalogue of his valuable
library is in the British Museum.
Steevens's Shakespeare was re-issued by Isaac Reed in 1803,
in 21 volumes, with additional notes left by Steevens. This, which
is known as the " first variorum " edition, was reprinted in 1813.
Steevens's notes are also incorporated in the edition of 1821, begun
by Edmund Malone and completed by James Boswell the younger.
STEEVENS, GEORGE WARRINGTON (1869-1900), English
journalist, was born at Sydenham, near London, on the icth of
December 1869, and was educated at the City of London School
and Balliol College, Oxford, of which he was a scholar. He
first began to write in undergraduate periodicals. In 1893 he
was elected a fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, and in the
same year spent some time at Cambridge, editing a weekly
periodical, the Cambridge Observer, and becoming a contributor
to the National Observer, then edited by Mr W. E. Henley.
He then married and went to London, and joined the staff of
the Pall Mall Gazette, contributing also to the New Review
and Blackwood's Magazine. Some of his articles were reprinted
in Monologues of the Dead. In 1896 he joined the staff of the
London Daily Mail, then just started, and went on various special
missions for that paper, which resulted in more than one series
of articles, afterwards turned into books. In this way he
published The Land of the Dollar (1897), With the Conquering
Turk (1897), Egypt in 1898, and. With Kitchener to Khartoum
(1899). In September 1899 he went to South Africa and joined
Sir George White's force in Natal as war-correspondent, being
subsequently besieged in Ladysmith. He died during the siege,
of enteric fever, on the isth of January 1900. The articles
he had sent home from South Africa were published post-
humously in a volume called From Capetown to Ladysmith.
Steevens had a remarkable gift of seizing the salient facts and
principal characteristics in anything he wished to describe, and
putting them in a vivid and readable way. His early death
removed an interesting personality in English journalism.
STEFANIE, BASSO NAEBOR, or CHUWAHA, a lake of East
Africa, lying in 37 E., between 42s' and 5 N., and measuring
some 40 m. by 15. It is the southernmost and lowest (1880 ft.)
of a series of lakes which lie in what appears to be a north-easterly
continuation of the great East African rift valley, although this
loses its clearly marked character in about 3 N. There is, how-
ever, a well defined watershed extending from the hills east of
Stefanie to the Harrar range. The character of the lake, which
has no outlet, varies greatly according to the amount of water
brought down by its principal feeder, the Dulei, which enters
at its north end, being there a fairly rapid stream 50 yds. wide
and 3! ft. deep. At low water the western part of the lake is
dry. The Dulei, which rises north of 6 N., is joined in about
36 55' E., 5 8' N. by the Galana Sagan or Galana Amara. The
Sagan in times of flood receives the overflow of the next lake in
the series, Chambo or Ganjule, which lies, at a height of 3460 ft.,
70 m. north-north-east of Stefanie. Chambo in turn receives
the waters of a larger lake Abai, Abaya, Pagade or Regina
Margherita through the river Walo, across a plain only 2 m.
wide. Abai lies 4200 ft. above the sea, is 45 m. long and 18 m.
across at its greatest width. It is cut by 38 E. There are a
number of islands on the lake. All the lakes of the series are
shut in by high mountains, those surrounding Lake Abai, to-
gether with the islands with which its surface is broken, being
clothed with luxuriant vegetation. The chief feeder of Abai,
the Bilate, rises in about 8 N. North-east of Abai are several
smaller lakes unconnected with the more southerly system.
Lake Stefanie was discovered by Count Samuel Teleki in
1881, and has since, with others of the series, been explored by
Donaldson Smith, V. Bottego, M. S. Welby, Oscar Neumann
and others. J. J. Harrison in 1899 found the lake quite dried
up, and two years later Count Wickenburg found water only in
the northern part. An agreement of 1907 with Great Britain
recognized the lake as within the Abyssinian Empire.
See Geographical Journal (Sept. 1896, Sept. and Dec. 1900, Sept.
1901, Oct. 1902). L. von Hohnel, Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and
Stefanie (London, 1894); L. Vannutelli and C. Citerni, L'Omo
(Milan, 1899) ; British War Office map, Africa, sheet 79.
STEFFANI, AGOSTINO (1653-1728), Italian ecclesiastic,
diplomatist and musical composer, was born at Castelfranco
on the 25th of July 1653. At a very early age he was admitted
as a chorister at St Mark's, Venice. In 1667 the beauty of his
voice attracted the attention of Count Tattenbach, by whom he
was taken to Munich, where his education was completed at the
expense of Ferdinand Maria, elector of Bavaria, who appointed
him " Churfiirstlicher Kammer- und Hofmusikus " and granted
him a liberal .salary. After receiving instruction from Johann
Kaspar Kerl, in whose charge he lived, he was sent in 1673 to
study in Rome, where Ercole Bernabei was his master, and among
other works he composed six motets, the original manuscripts
of which are now in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge.
On his return to Munich in 1674 he published his first work,
Psalmodia vespertina, a part of which was reprinted in Martini's
Saggio di conlrappunlo in 1674. In 1675 he was appointed
court organist. The date when he was ordained priest, with
the title of Abbate of Lepsing, is not precisely known. His
ecclesiastical status did not prevent him from turning his atten-
tion to the stage, for which, at different periods of his life, he
composed work which undoubtedly exercised a potent influence
upon the dramatic music of the period. Of his first opera, Marco
Aurelio, written for the carnival and produced at Munich in
1 68 1 , the only copy known to exist is a manuscript score preserved
in the royal library at Buckingham Palace. It was followed
by Solone in 1685, by Audacia e rispetto, prerogative d'amore
and Servio Tullio in 1686, by Alarico in 1687, and by Niobe in
1688; but of these works no trace can now be discovered. Not-
withstanding the favour shown to him by the elector Maximilian
Emanuel, he accepted in 1688 the appointment of Kapellmeister
at the court of Hanover, where he speedily improved an acquaint-
ance dating from 1681 with Ernest Augustus, duke of Bruns-
wick-Luneburg (afterwards elector of Hanover), winning also
a pleasant footing with the duchess Sophia Charlotte (afterwards
electress of Brandenburg), the philosopher Leibnitz, the Abbate
Ortensio Mauro, and many men of letters and intelligence, and
where, in 1710, he showed great kindness to Handel, who was
then just entering upon his glorious career. He inaugurated
a long series of triumphs in Hanover by composing, for the
opening of the new opera house in 1689, an opera called Enrico
il Leone, which was produced with extraordinary splendour
and achieved an immense reputation. For the same theatre he
composed La Lolta d'Ercole con Achilleo in 1689, La Superbia
d'Alessandro in 1690, Orlando generoso in 1691, Le Rivali con-
cordi in 1692, La Liberia contenta in 1693, / Trionfi del fata
and / Baccanali in 1695, and Briseide in 1696. The libretto
of Briseide is by Palmieri. Those of most if not all the others
are by the Abbate Mauro. The scores are preserved at Buck-
ingham Palace, where, in company with five volumes of songs
and three of duets, they form part of the collection brought to
England by the elector of Hanover in 1714. But it was not
only as a musician that Steffani distinguished himself in his new
home. The elevation of Ernest Augustus to the electorate in
1692 led to difficulties, for the arrangement of which it was
necessary that an ambassador should visit the various German
courts, armed with a considerable amount of diplomatic power.
The accomplished abbate was sent on this delicate mission in
1696, with the title of envoy extraordinary, and he fulfilled his
difficult task so well that Pope Innocent XI., in recognition of
certain privileges he had secured for the Hanoverian Catholics,
consecrated him bishop of Spiga in the Spanish West Indies.
870
STEFFENS STEIN, C. VON
In 1698 he was sent as ambassador to Brussels, and after the
death of Ernest Augustus in the same year he entered the service
of the elector palatine, John William, at Diisseldorf, where he
held the offices of privy councillor and protonotary of the holy
see. Invested with these high honours, Steffani could scarcely
continue to produce dramatic compositions in public without
grievous breach of etiquette. But his genius was too importun-
ate to submit to repression; and in 1709 he ingeniously avoided
the difficulty by producing two new operas Enea at Hanover
and Tassilone at Diisseldorf in the name of his secretary and
amanuensis Gregorio Piva, whose signature is attached to the
scores preserved at Buckingham Palace. Another score that
of Arminiom the same collection, dated Diisseldorf, 1707,
and evidently the work of Steffani, bears no composer's name.
Steffani did not accompany the elector George to England;
but in 1724 the Academy of Antient Musick in London elected
him its honorary president for life; and in return for the com-
pliment he sent the association a magnificent Stabat Mater, for
six voices and orchestra, and three fine madrigals. The manu-
scripts of these are still in existence, and the British Museum
possesses a very fine Confitebor, for three voices and orchestra,
of about the same period. All these compositions are very much
in advance of the age in which they were written; and in his
operas Steffani shows an appreciation of the demands of the
stage very remarkable indeed at a period at which the musical
drama was gradually approaching the character of a merely formal
concert, with scenery and dresses.. But for the manuscripts at
Buckingham Palace these operas would be utterly unknown;
but Steffani will never cease to be remembered by his beautiful
chamber-duets, which, like those of his contemporary Carlo
Maria Clari (1669-1745), are chiefly written in the form of
cantatas for two voices, accompanied by a figured bass. The
British Museum (Add. MSS. 5055 seq.) possesses more than a
hundred of these charming compositions, some of which were
published at Munich in 1679. Steffani visited Italy for the last
time in 1727, in which year Handel, who always gratefully
remembered the kindness he had received from him at Hanover,
once more met him at the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni in Rome.
This was the last time the two composers were destined to meet.
Steffani returned soon afterwards to Hanover, and died on the
1 2th of February 1728 while engaged in the transaction of some
diplomatic business at Frankfort.
Steffani stands somewhat apart from contemporary Italian
composers (e.g. Alessandro Scarlatti) in his mastery of instru-
mental forms. His opera overtures, &c., show a remarkable
combination of Italian suavity with a logical conciseness of
construction which is due to French influence. In vocal music
he is certainly inferior to Scarlatti, and none of his famous duets,
despite their charm, can compare for seriousness of intention
with the Sicilian's master's chamber-cantatas. His instru-
mental music, however, is historically important as a factor
in the artistic development of Handel.
STEFFENS, HENRIK (1773-1845), German philosopher,
scientist and poet, of Norwegian extraction, was born on the
2nd of May 1773 at Stavanger, and died in Berlin on the I3th
of February 1845. At the age of fourteen he went with his
parents to Copenhagen, where he studied theology and natural
science. In 1796 he lectured at Kiel, and a year later went to
Jena to study the natural philosophy of Schelling. He went
to Freiberg in 1800, and there came under the influence of
Werner. After two years he returned to Copenhagen, but his
lectures excited so much disapproval that he took a professor-
ship at Halle in 1804. During the War of Liberation he served
as a volunteer in the cause of freedom, and was present at the
capture of Paris. From 1811 he was professor of physics at
Breslau until 1832, when he accepted an invitation to Berlin.
Steffens was one of the so-called Philosophers of Nature, a friend
and adherent of Schelling and Schleiermacher. More than either
of these two thinkers he was acquainted with the discoveries
of modern science, and was thus enabled to correct or modify
the highly imaginative speculations of Schelling. He held that,
throughout the scheme of nature and intellectual life, the main
principle is Individualization. As organisms rise higher in the
scale of development, the sharper and more distinct become their
outlines, the more definite their individualities. This principle
he endeavoured to deduce from his knowledge of geology,
in contrast to Lorenz Oken, who developed the same theory
on biological grounds. The influence of his views was con-
siderable. Not only did Schelling and Schleiermacher modify
their theories in deference to his scientific deductions, but
the intellectual life of his contemporaries was considerably
affected. His lectures in Copenhagen in 1802 were attended
by many leading Danish thinkers, such as Oehlenschlager and
Grundtvig. Schleiermacher was so much struck by their
excellence that he endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to obtain for
Steffens a chair in the new Berlin University in 1804, in order
that his own ethical teachings should be supported in the
scientific department.
His chief scientific and philosophical works are: Beitrage zur
innern Naturgeschichte der Erde (1801); Grundztige der philos.
Nalurwissenschaft (1806); Anthropologie (1824). He wrote also
Ueber die Idee der Universitdten (1835), and Ueber geheime Verbin-
dungen auf Universitaten (1835); works on religious subjects,
Karikaturen des Heiligsten (1819-1821); Wie ich wieder Lutheraner
witrde und was mir das Luthertum ist (1831) ; Von der falschen Theo-
logie und dent wahren Glauben (new ed., 1831); poetical works,
Die Familien Walseth und Leith (1827); Die vier Norweger (1828);
Malcolm (1831), collected in 1837 under the title of NoveUen. During
the last five years of his life he wrote an autobiography, Was ich
erlebte, and after his death was published Nachgelassene Schriften
(1846). See Tietzen, Zur Erinnerung an Steffens ; Petersen, Henrik
Steffens (Ger. trans., 1884); Dilthey, Leben Schleiermacher s.
STEIBELT, DANIEL (c. 1764-1823), German pianist and
composer, was born at the earliest in 1764 or 1765 in Berlin.
He was indebted to the crown prince Frederick William for
his musical education. Very little is known of his artistic life
before 1790, when he settled in Paris and attained great popu-
larity as a virtuoso by means of a pianoforte sonata called La
Coquette, which he composed for Queen Marie Antoinette; his
dramatic opera entitled Romeo et Juliette, produced at the
Theatre Feydeau in 1793, was equally successful. In 1796
Steibelt removed to London, where his pianoforte-playing
attracted great attention. In 1798 he produced his concerto
(No. 3, in E flat) containing the famous " Storm Rondo " a
work that ensured his popularity. In the following year
Steibelt started on a professional tour in Germany; and, after
playing with some success in Hamburg, Dresden, Prague and
Berlin, he arrived in May 1800 at Vienna, where he challenged
Beethoven to a trial of skill. His discomfiture was complete
and he retired to Paris. During the next eight years he lived
alternately in that city and in London. In 1808 he was invited
by the emperor Alexander to St Petersburg, succeeding Boiel-
dieu as director of the royal opera in 1811. Here he resided
?'n the enjoyment of a lucrative appointment until his death
on the 2oth of September 1823.
Besides his dramatic music, Steibelt left behind him an enor-
mous number of compositions for the pianoforte. His playing,
though brilliant, was wanting in the higher qualities which
characterized that of his contemporaries, John Cramer and
Muzio Clementi; but he was gifted with talents of a high order,
and the reputation he enjoyed was fully deserved.
STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON (1742-1827), the friend of Goethe,
was born at Weimar on the 25th of December 1742, the eldest
daughter of the Hofmarschall (master of the ceremonies) von
Schardt. She became in her sixteenth year lady-in-waiting to the
duchess Anna Amalia, the accomplished mother of Duke Karl
August of Saxe- Weimar. In 1764 she married Freiherr Fried-
rich von Stein, master of the horse to the duke, and seven chil-
dren were the issue of the union. Goethe, who arrived in Weimar
in 1775, was soon captivated by the charm of this lady, his senior
by seven years, and the Seelenbund (union of souls) they formed
exercised a furthering and ennobling influence upon Goethe's
life and work. For more than ten years Charlotte von Stein
was his constant companion, and by her bright and genial nature
and friendship she stimulated his efforts and assuaged his cares.
On Goethe's return from Italy in 1788 the previous intimate
STEIN, BARON
871
relations between them were relaxed, and the poet's connexion
with Christiane Vulpius still further estranged them. Char-
lotte's jealousy and indignation at first knew no bounds, and
it was only by slow degrees that friendship was restored.
Charlotte von Stein was also intimate with Schiller and his
wife, and numerous interesting letters from her are to be found
in Charlotte von Schiller und ihre Freunde (vol. ii., 1862). She
became a widow in 1793, but continued to live at Weimar until
her death there on the 6th of January 1827.
Goethe's letters to Frau von Stein form one of the most interest-
ing volumes of the poet's correspondence. Her own letters addressed
to him were returned to her at her request and destroyed shortly
before her death. A prose tragedy, Dido, written by her in 1792
(published 1867), is of little poetical value.
Goethe's Briefe an Frau von Stein aus den Jahren 1776-1820
were edited by A. Scholl (3 vols., 1848-1851 ; 2nd ed. by W. Fielitz,
1883-1885; 3rd ed., by J. Wahle, 1900). See H. Duntzer, Charlotte
von Stein (2 vols., 1874) ; id., Charlotte von Stein und Corona Schroter
(1876); G. H. Calvert, Charlotte von Stein (Boston and New York,
1877); and A. Saner, Frauenbilder aus der Blutezeit der deutschen
Literatur (1885); W. Bode, Charlotte von Stein (1910).
STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON VOM UND
ZUM (1757-1831), German statesman, was born at the family
estate near Nassau, on the z6th of October 1757. He was the
ninth child of Karl Philipp, Freiherr vom Stein; the maiden name
of his mother was von Simmern. His father was a man of stern
and irritable temperament, which his far more famous son
inherited, with the addition of intellectual gifts which the father
entirely lacked. The family belonged to the order of imperial
knights of the Holy Roman Empire, who occupied a middle
position between sovereign princes and subjscts of the empire.
They owned their own domains and owed allegiance only to the
emperor, but had no votes for the diet. In his old age he ex-
pressed his gratitude to his parents for " the influence of their
religious and truly German and knightly example." He added,
" My view of the world and of human affairs I gathered as a
boy and youth, in the solitude of a country life, from ancient
and modern history, and in particular I was attracted by the
incidents of the eventful history of England." The influence of
English ideas, which was so potent a factor in the lives of Vol-
taire, Rousseau, Talleyrand and many others in the i8th century,
was therefore potently operative in the early career of Stein.
He does not seem to have gone to any school; but in 1773 he
went with a private tutor to the university of Gottingen in
Hanover, where he studied jurisprudence, but also found time to
pursue his studies in English history and politics, whereby, as
he wrote, " my predilection for that nation was confirmed."
In 1777 he left Gottingen and proceeded to Wetzlar, the legal
centre of the Holy Roman Empire, in order to see the working
of its institutions and thereby prepare himself for the career
of the law. Next, after a stay at each of the chief South German
capitals, he settled at Regensburg (Ratisbon) in order to observe
the methods of the Imperial diet. In 1779 he went to Vienna,
gave himself up to the gay life of that capital, and then pro-
ceeded to Berlin early in 1780.
There his admiration for Frederick the Great, together with
his distaste for the pettiness of the legal procedure at Wetzlar,
impelled him to take service under the Prussian monarch. He
was fortunate in gaining an appointment in the department
of mines and manufactures, for at the head of this office was an
able and intelligent administrator, Heinitz, who helped him to
master the principles of economics and civil government. In
June 1785 he was sent for a time as Prussian ambassador to the
courts of Mainz, Zweibriicken and Darmstadt, but he soon felt
a distaste for diplomacy, and in 1786-1787 he was able to indulge
his taste for travel by a tour in England, where he pursued his
researches into commercial and mining affairs. In November
1787 he became Kammerdirektor, i.e. director of the board of
war and domains for the king's possessions west of the river
Weser; and in 1796 he was appointed supreme president of all
the Westphalian chambers dealing with the commerce and mines
of those Prussian lands. Among the benefits which he conferred
on these districts, one of the chief was the canalization of the
river Ruhr, which thenceforth became an important outlet for
the coal of that region. He also improved the navigation of the
Weser, and kept up well the main roads committed to his
care. On the 8th of June 1793 he married the countess
Wilhelmine, daughter of Field Marshal Count Johann Ludwig
von Wallmoden-Gimborn, a natural son of King George II.
of Great Britain.
Stein's early training, together with the sternly practical
bent of his own nature, made him completely impervious to the
enthusiasm which the French Revolution had aroused in many
minds in Germany. He disliked its methods as an interruption
to the orderly development of peoples. Nevertheless he care-
fully noted the new sources of national strength which its
reforms called forth in France.
Meanwhile Prussia, after being at war with France during the
years 1792-95, came to terms with it at Basel in April 1795, and
remained at peace until 1806, though Austria and South Ger-
many continued the struggle with France for most of that interval.
Prussia, however, lost rather than gained strength at this time;
for Frederick William III., who succeeded the weak and sensual
Frederick William II. in November 1797, was lacking in fore-
sight, judgment and strength of character. He too often allowed
public affairs to be warped by the advice of secret and irrespon-
sible counsellors, and persisted in the policy of subservience to
France inaugurated by the treaty of Basel. It was under these
untoward circumstances that Stein in 1804 took office at Berlin
as minister of state for trade. He soon felt constrained to
protest against the effects of the Gallophil policy of the chief
minister, Haugwitz, and the evil influences which clogged the
administration. Little, however, came of Stein's protests,
though they were urged with his usual incisiveness and energy.
Prussian policy continued to progress on the path which led to
the disaster at Jena (Oct. 14, 1806).
The king then offered to Stein the portfolio for foreign affairs,
which the minister declined to accept on the ground of his
incompetence to manage that department unless there was a
complete change in the system of government. The real motive
for his refusal was that he desired to see Hardenberg take that
office and effect, with his own help, the necessary administrative
changes. The king refused to accept Hardenberg, and, greatly
irritated by Stein's unusually outspoken letters, dismissed him
altogether, adding that he was " a refractory, insolent, obstinate
and disobedient official." Stein now spent in retirement the
months during which Napoleon completed the ruin of Prussia;
but he saw Hardenberg called to office in April 1807 and important
reforms effected in the cabinet system. During the negotiations
at Tilsit, Napoleon refused to act with Hardenberg, who there-
upon retired. Strange to say, the French emperor at that time
suggested Stein as a possible successor. No other strong man
was at hand who could save the ship of state; and on the 4th of
October 1807 Frederick William, utterly depressed by the terrible
terms of the treaty of Tilsit, called Stein to office and entrusted
him with very wide powers.
Stein was now for a time virtually dictator of the reduced
and nearly bankrupt Prussian state. The circumstances of the
time and his own convictions, gained from study and experience,
led him to press on drastic reforms in a way which could not
otherwise have been followed. First came the Edict of Emanci-
pation, issued at Memel on the 9th of October 1807, which
abolished the institution of serfdom throughout Prussia from the
8th of October 1810. All distinctions affecting the tenure of
land (noble land, peasants' land, &c.) were also swept away,
and the principle of free trade in land was established forthwith.
The same famous edict also abrogated all class distinctions
respecting occupations and callings of any and every kind, thus
striking another blow at the caste system which had been so
rigorous in Prussia. Stein's next step was to strengthen the
cabinet by wise changes, too complicated to be enumerated
here. He also furthered the progress of the military reforms
which are connected more especially with the name of Scharn-
horst (<?..); they refashioned the Prussian army on modern
lines, with a reserve system. Stein's efforts were directed
more towards civil affairs; and in this sphere he was able to
8 7 2
STEIN, BARON
issue a measure of municipal reform (Nov. 19, 1808) which
granted local self-government on enlightened yet practical lines
to all Prussian towns, and even to all villages possessing more
than 800 inhabitants.
Shortly afterwards the reformer had to flee from Prussia.
In August 1808 the French agents, who swarmed throughout
the land, had seized one of his letters, in which he spoke of his
hope that Germany would soon be ready for a national rising
like that of Spain. On the loth of September Napoleon gave
orders that Stein's property in the new kingdom of Westphalia
should be confiscated, and he likewise put pressure on Frederick
William to dismiss him. The king evaded compliance; but the
French emperor, on entering Madrid in triumph, declared
(December 16) le nomme Stein to be an enemy ofjj France
and the Confederation of the Rhine; and ordered the confisca-
tion of all his property in the Confederation. Stein saw that
his life was in danger and fled from Berlin (Jan. 5, 1809).
Thanks to the help of his former colleague, Count Friedrich
Wilhelm von Reden, who gave him an asylum in his castle in
the Riesengebirge, he succeeded in crossing the frontier into
Bohemia.
For three years he lived in the Austrian Empire, generally at
Briinn; but in May 1812 he received an invitation from the
emperor Alexander I. to visit St Petersburg, seeing that Austria
was certain to range herself on the side of France in the forth-
coming Franco-Russian War. At the crisis of that struggle
Stein may have been one of the influences which kept the tsar
determined never to treat with Napoleon. When the miserable
remains of the Grand Army reeled back into Prussia at the
close of the year, Stein urged the Russian emperor to go on and
free Europe from the French domination.
Events now brought Stein rapidly to the front. On the
3oth of December 1812 the Prussian general Yorck signed at
Tauroggen a convention with the Russian general Diebich for
neutralization of the Prussian corps at and near Tilsit, and for
the free passage of the Russians through that part of the king's
dominions. The Russian emperor thereupon requested Stein
to act as provisional administrator of the provinces of East and
West Prussia. In that capacity he convened an assembly of
representatives of the local estates, which on the sth of February
1813 ordered the establishment of a militia (Landwehr), a militia
reserve and a final levy (Landsturm). The energy which Stein
infused into all around him contributed not a little to this impor-
tant decision, which pushed on the king's government to more
decided action than at that time seemed possible. Stein now
went to Breslau, whither the king of Prussia had proceeded;
but the annoyance which Frederick William felt at his irregular
action lessened his influence. The treaty of Kalisch between
Russia and Prussia cannot be claimed as due to his actions,
which were reprehended in court circles as those of a fanatic.
At that time the great patriot fell ill of a fever and complained
of total neglect by the king and court. He recovered, however,
in time to take part in the drafting of a Russo-Prussian con-
vention (March 19, 1813) respecting the administration of the
districts which should be delivered from French occupation.
During the varying phases of the campaign of 1813 Stein con-
tinued to urge the need of war A entrance against Napoleon.
The Allies, after the entry of England and Austria into the coali-
tion, conferred on Stein the important duties of superintending
the administration of the liberated territories. After the great
battle of Leipzig (Oct. 16-19, 1813) Stein entered that city the
day after its occupation by the Allies and thus expressed
his feelings on the fall of Napoleon's domination: " There
it lies, then, the monstrous fabric cemented by the blood and
tears of so many millions and reared by an insane and accursed
tyranny. From one end of Germany to the other we may venture
to say aloud that Napoleon is a villain and the enemy of the
human race."
He now desired to see Germany reconstituted as a nation,
in a union which should be at once strong for purposes of defence
and founded on constitutional principles. His statesmanlike
projects were foiled, partly by the short-sightedness of German
rulers and statesmen, but also by the craft whereby the Austrian
statesman Metternich (<?..) gained the alliance of the rulers
of south and central Germany for his empire, on the under-
standing that they were to retain their old governing power
unimpaired. Thus it was in vain that Stein, during the congress
of Vienna, pressed for an effective union of the German people.
Austria and the secondary German states resisted all proposals
in this direction; and Stein blamed the Prussian chancellor
Hardenberg for betraying an indefiniteness of purpose which
probably resulted from the same unfortunate defect in Frederick
William of Prussia. Stein shared in the desire of all Prussian
statesmen at that time to have Saxony wholly absorbed in
their kingdom. In that, as in other matters, he was doomed to
disappointment. On the 24th of May 1815 he sent to his patron,
the emperor Alexander, a detailed criticism of the federal arrange-
ments proposed for Germany, showing that they fulfilled not one
of the requirements for real union and constitutional govern-
ment which had been so loudly demanded by the German people
during the struggle of 1813.
The remainder of Stein's career must be briefly dismissed.
He passed into retirement after the congress of Vienna, and saw
with pain and disgust the postponement of the representative
system of government which Frederick William had promised
to Prussia in May 1815. He refused to act as Prussian repre-
sentative at the Frankfort diet, which he regarded as a mere
travesty of the central federal institution which he had hoped
to see. By indirect means he did what he could to check the
violence of political reaction, but he was conscious of his weakness,
and that fact embittered the later days of a man who was
intensely proud and self-assertive. His chief interest was in the
study of history, and in 1818-1820 he worked hard to establish
the society for the encouragement of historical research and the
publication of the Monumenta Germaniae historica, of which
his future biographer, Pertz, became the director. Stein died
on the 29th of June 1831. He left three daughters.
In some respects there has been a tendency to magnify the
achievements of Stein. As usually happens with men of great
force of character, the work of less noteworthy individuals is
ascribed to the one commanding personality. This was so even
during the fourteen months of phenomenal activity, October
1807 to December 1808. More painstaking research has shown
that the credit for originating many of the far-reaching reforms
then promulgated must be shared with Heinrich Theodor
von Schon and many others. 1 It is now recognized that the
king himself at that time rendered unsuspectedly large services
to the cause of reform. A popular legend named him as the
founder of the Tugendbund, an institution which he always
distrusted. But when this is granted, it still remains true that
Stein's enlightenment, insight into the needs of the time, and
almost superhuman energy, imparted to the reform movement a
momentum which ensured its triumph at the most critical period
which Prussia or any great European state passed through in the
1 9th century. All his contemporaries were impressed, or even
awed by the determination and intellectual power of this remark-
able man. His conversation had the effect of calling out all
the powers of his interlocutors. " A conversation with him
(wrote Varnhagen von Ense) was a continual contest, a continual
danger." This mental pugnacity sometimes degenerated into
rudeness; and on several occasions his impetuosity led him to
take false steps. Still, when we take into consideration the
magnitude of his achievements; when we recollect that in 1808 he
intended his municipal reform to serve as the foundation for
free institutions for the Prussian provinces, and thereafter for
the whole kingdom; when we realize the grandeur of his schemes
in 1813-1815 for the union of the German people in a federal
1 Thus Schon's memorandum on the abolition of serfdom was the
basis of the law of emancipation; and Stein's Politisches Testament
was also based on a draft by Schon. Schon was born in 1773,
entered the Prussian civil service in 1793, and subsequently held
various high ministerial appointments. He was made castellan
(Burggraf) of Marienburg; on his retirement in 1842, and died in 1856.
The share claimed by him in Stein's reforms has been the subject
of some controversy.
STEINER STEINMETZ
873
system which would combine strength with political liberty
we shall find it difficult to overrate the importance of his contri-
bution to the solution of the most complex political problem of
modern times.
The chief authority on Stein is the biography by G. H. Pertz
(6 vols., 1849-1855), but few English readers will find the need of
going beyond the admirable Life of Stein, by Sir John Seeley
(3 vols., Cambridge, 1878), which contains a full bibliography.
These works are corrected at a few points by Max Lehmann's
Leben Steins (Leipzig, 19021903). For side-lights on his career
and character, see H. F. K., Baron vbm Stein, Lebenserinnerungen
(Hagen, 1901); C. T. Perthes, Politische Zustdnde und Personen in
Deutschland zur Zeit der franzosischen Herrschaft (2 vols., Gotha,
1862); Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fiirsten von Hardenberg,
ed. by L. yon Ranke (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); Varnhagen von Ense,
Denkwurdigkeiten (6 vols., Mannheim, 1837-1842; English ed.,
London, 1847); A. Stern, Abhandlungen und Aktenstiicke aus der
preussischen Reformzeit 1807-1815 (Leipzig, 1885); M. Philippson,
Geschichte des preussischen Staatswesens 1786-1813 (2 vols., Leipzig,
1880); M. Lehmann, Knesebeck und Schon (Leipzig, 1875); J. P.
Hassel, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, 18071815 (Leipzig,
1881); the Vicomte Jean d'Ussel, Etudes sur I'annee 1813; la defec-
tion de la Prusse (Paris, 1907). (J. HL. R.)
STEINER, JAKOB (1796-1863), Swiss mathematician, was
born on the i8th of March 1796 at the village of Utzendorf
(canton Bern). At eighteen he became a pupil of Heinrich
Pestalozzi, and afterwards studied at Heidelberg. Thence he
went to Berlin, earning a livelihood there, as in Heidelberg, by
giving private lessons. Here he became acquainted with A. L.
Crelle, who, encouraged by his ability and by that of N. H.
Abel, then also staying at Berlin, founded his famous Journal
(1826). After Steiner's publication (1832) of his Systematische
Entwickelungen he received, through Jacobi's exertions, who was
then professor at Konigsberg, an honorary degree of that
university; and through the influence of G. J. Jacobi and of the
brothers Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt a new chair
of geometry was founded for him at Berlin (1834). This he
occupied till his death, which took place in Bern on the ist of
April 1863.
Steiner's mathematical work was confined to geometry.
This he treated synthetically, to the total exclusion of analysis,
which he hated, and he is said to have considered it a disgrace
to synthetical geometry if equal or higher results were obtained
by analytical methods. In his own field he surpassed all his
contemporaries. His investigations are distinguished by their
great generality, by the fertility of his resources, and by such a
rigour in his proofs that he has been considered the greatest
geometrical genius since the time of Apollonius.
In his Systematische Entwickelung der Abhdngigkeit geometrischer
Gestalten von einander he laid the foundation of modern synthetic
geometry. He introduces what are now called the geometrical
forms (the row, flat pencil, &c.), and establishes between their
elements a one-one correspondence, or, as he calls it, makes them
projective. He next gives by aid of these protective rows and pencils
a new generation of conies and ruled quadric surfaces, " which
leads quicker and more directly than former methods into the inner
nature of conies and reveals to us the organic connexion of their
innumerable properties and mysteries." In this work also, of
which unfortunately only one volume appeared instead of the
projected five, we see for the first time the principle of duality
introduced from the very beginning as an immediate outflow of
the most fundamental properties of the plane, the line and the point.
In a second little volume, Die geometrischen Constructionen
ausgefiihrt mittelst der geraden Linie und eines festen Kreises (1833),
republished in 1895 by Ottingen, he shows, what had been already
suggested by J. V. Poncelet, how all problems of the second order
can be solved by aid of the straight-edge alone without the use of
compasses, as soon as one circle is given on the drawing-paper.
He also wrote Vorlesungen uber synthetische Geometric, published
posthumously at Leipzig by C. F. Geiser and H. Schroeter in 1867;
a third edition by R. Sturm was published in 18871898.
The rest of Steiner's writings are found in numerous papers mostly
published in Crelle's Journal, the first volume of which contains
his first four papers. The most important are those relating
to algebraical curves and surfaces, especially the short paper
Allgemeine Eigenschaften algebraischer Curven. This contains only
results, and there is no indication of the method by which they
were obtained, so that, according to L. O. Hesse, " they are, like
P. Fermat's theorems, riddles to the present and future generations."
Eminent analysts succeeded in proving some of the theorems, but
it was reserved to L. Cremona to prove them all, and that by a
XXV. 28 a
uniform synthetic method, in his book on algebraical curves.
Other important investigations relate to maxima and minima.
Starting from simple elementary propositions, Steiner advances
to the solution of problems which analytically require the calculus
of variation, but which at the time altogether surpassed the
powers of that calculus. Connected with this is the paper Vom
Krummungsschwerpuncte ebener Curven, which contains numerous
properties of pedals and roulettes, especially of their areas.
Steiner's papers were collected and published in two volumes
(Gesammelte Werke, 1881-1882) by the Berlin Academy.
See C. F. Geiser's pamphlet Zur Erinnerung an J. Steiner
(Zurich, 1874).
STEINMETZ, KARL FRIEDRICH VON (1796-1877), Prussian
general field-marshal, was born at Eisenach on the 27th of
December 1796 and educated at the cadet school of Stolp in
Pomerania from 1807 to 1811, in the midst of the misery and
poverty caused by the French occupation. At the outbreak of
the War of Liberation he and his elder brother made their way
through the French posts to Breslau, where, in spite of their
poverty, they were at once appointed to the army, the elder as
ensign on probation, the younger to the substantive rank of
second lieutenant. After a vain attempt to obtain a transfer
to the Bliicher Hussars, for which regiment he had conceived an
intense boyish admiration when it was quartered at Stolp, he
was ordered to report himself to York, who treated him and the
other officers sent from Breslau with coldness, until young
Steinmetz asked " when he was to return to the king who had
sent him ? " The brothers took part in the hardest fighting
of the campaign of 1813, the elder being killed at Leipzig and
the younger being more than once wounded. The short halt
on the Rhine he utilized in improving his military and general
education. In the battles in France he won the second class
of the Iron Cross. After the peace he entered Paris but once,
fearing to infringe upon the ten ducats that he saved monthly
from his pay to send to his mother. For the same reason he held
aloof from the pleasures of his more fortunate comrades. His
avoidance of youthful excesses enabled him to overcome his
earlier bad health and to acquire a physical vigour which he
kept to the end of his long career as a soldier. His character
as well as his physique was strengthened by his Spartan way of
life, but his temper was naturally embittered by the circumstances
which imposed this self-restraint. His poverty and want of
influence were the more obvious as he was, shortly after the
wars, assigned to the 2nd Foot Guards, stationed in Berlin. He
rigorously devoted himself to study and to the routine duties
of his profession. From 1820 to 1824 he studied with distinction
at the General War Academy, and was at the end of the course
appointed to the topographical section of the general staff.
General von Muffling reported of him that he was arrogant and
that he resented " encouragement" which he probably regarded
as patronage but that his ability would enable him to out-
distance his comrades. Steinmetz was too poor to mount
himself on the small allowance granted to general staff officers,
and had to remain with his regiment in consequence. But
shortly after this his marriage to his cousin Julie, the daughter
of Lieutenant-General K. F. F. von Steinmetz (1768-1837), not
only tempered his fierce and resentful state of mind, but in a
measure improved his material prospects, for his father-in-law
was generous to the young couple, and his appointment as
captain at the Guard Landwehr depdt at Potsdam, near where
the general lived, brought them into daily contact. His brigade
commander too, General von Roder, was an excellent soldier, and
Steinmetz often spoke in later days of the thorough training he
received at his hands. After this from about 1830 his regimental
work and his promotion went on without incident for several years
in various garrisons, until in 1839 he became major and battalion
commander. In this position he had many official differences
with his immediate superiors, for he urged a strenuous war train-
ing for the troops, in season and out of season, too vigorously
for his more conservative comrades, but off parade his relations
with all, thanks chiefly to the social gifts of his wife, were of
the most pleasant character. In 1848 he was in command of a
guard battalion during the disturbances in Berlin, but was not
engaged, and soon found more active employment in the Danish
8 7 4
STEINSCHNEIDER STELLENBOSCH
War. At Schleswig he so distinguished himself that Wrangel, the
commander-in-chief, told him that he had " decided the battle."
He distinguished himself again at Diippel, and Prince William
himself decorated him with the order pour le merite on parade.
For his campaign journals and letters see supplement to Militdr
WochenUatt for 1878. On returning he was entrusted with the
difficult command of the troops at Brandenburg during the sitting
of a democratic popular convention at that place, and after this
with the control of some troops that were known to be affected
by the prevalent spirit of revolution. At the time of the Olmiitz-
Bronnzell incident of 1850 he was employed as military governor
of Cassel, and in 1851, becoming colonel commandant of the
cadet school of Berlin, he at once set about the reformation of
the prevailing system of instruction, the defects of which he had
openly condemned as early as 1820. Though more than fifty
years of age, he now learned Latin and English in order to be
a more competent instructor. In 1854, after forty-one years
of active service, he was promoted major-general. At Magde-
burg, as at Berlin, his reforming zeal made him many enemies,
and in October of this year he sustained a loss which almost
unhinged his mind in the death of his youngest and only sur-
viving child, a girl of twenty-six. From Magdeburg he was
removed to the command of a guard brigade at Berlin (1857),
and thence almost immediately to a divisional command in the
I. Corps. Early in 1858 he was promoted lieutenant-general,
and for the five years that he held this command he devoted
himself particularly to acquiring knowledge of the cavalry arm.
About 1863, learning that von Bonin, his senior by date, but his
junior in age and length of service, was about to be appointed to
command the I. Corps, he meditated retirement, but the authori-
ties at the same time as they appointed Bonin made Steinmetz
commander of the II. Corps, and shortly afterwards, when the
crown prince of Prussia took over this post, commander of the
V. Corps at Posen. Shortly after this his wife died. He was
promoted general of infantry in 1864, and led the V. Corps to
the war against Austria in 1866. This was the chance of his
lifetime. His skilful and resolute leadership was displayed in
his three battles, won on three successive days, of Nachod,
Skalitz and Schweinschadel (see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR), and
opened the way through the mountains in spite of the defeat
of Steinmetz's rival Bonin at Trautenau. In 1867, in his loneli-
ness, the " Lion of Nachod," as he was popularly called, con-
tracted a second marriage with Elise von Krosigk (who after
his death married Count Briihl). He was now, for the first time
in his life, a fairly wealthy man, having been awarded a money
grant for his brilliant services in 1866. About this time he
was elected a member of the North German Confederation
parliament.
At the outbreak of the war of 1870 Steinmetz was appointed
to command one of the three armies assembled on the Rhine,
the others being led by Prince Frederick Charles and the crown
prince. It was not long before serious differences arose between
Steinmetz and Prince Frederick Charles. The former, em-
bittered by a lifelong struggle against the influences of wealth
and position, and perhaps somewhat grise by his successes in
1866, considered an order to clear the roads for the prince's army
as an attempt to crowd a humbler comrade out of the fighting
line, and various incidents added day by day to his growing
resentment until at last on the field of Gravelotte (see METZ
and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR for an account of these quarrels) he
lost his temper and wasted his troops. After this there was no
alternative but to relieve him of the command of the I. Army
and to send him home as governor-general of the V. and VI.
Army Corps districts. In April 1871 he was retired at his own
request, but his great services were not forgotten when victory
had softened animosites, and he was promoted general field-
marshal, given a pension of 2000 thalers and made a member
of the upper chamber. In the spirit of loyalty which had guided
his whole career as a soldier he made no attempt to justify his
conduct in 1870 either against the criticisms of the general staff
history or against unofficial attacks. His life in retirement
was quiet and happy, and he retained his bodily health to the
last. He died at Bad Landeck on the 2nd of August 1877.
The 37th Fusiliers of the German army bear his name as part
of their regimental title.
See supplement of Militar WochenUatt (1877 and 1878).
STEINSCHNEIDER, MORITZ (1816-1907), Jewish biblio-
grapher, was born in Moravia in 1816. He was the most accom-
plished bibliographer in the realm of Hebrew literature. His
greatest work was his Catalogue of the Hebrew Collection of the
Bodleian Library, Oxford ,(1852-1860). I n this masterly work
he settled many questions as to the locality, date and author-
ship of early printed books, and provided a vast mass of bio-
graphical materials. His Jewish Literature (published in German
in Ersch and Gruber in 1850, in English in 1857, and in Hebrew
in 1899) is a complete survey of its subject. Steinschneider
prepared many other catalogues (Leiden, Munich, Hamburg
and Berlin). He wrote much on Arabic literature, and was the
author of bibliographies on a great variety of subjects. Among
them may be named bibliographies of Jewish mathematicians
and travellers. His most extensive work after his Bodleian
Catalogue was his treatise on Hebrew translations in the middle
ages (Die hebriiischen Ubersetzungen des Mittelalters, 2 vols.,
1893). Much of his work appeared in his periodical Hebraische
Bibliographie (1859-1882). He died in Berlin in 1907. (I. A.)
STEINTHAL, HEYMANN (1823-1899), German philosopher
and philologist, was born at Grobzig in Anhalt on the i6th of
May 1823. He read philosophy and philology at the univer-
sity of Berlin, where he graduated in 1850. From 1852 to 1855
he studied Chinese (language and literature) in Paris, and in
1863 became extraordinary professor of philology at Berlin.
In his philosophic theories he sympathized with Moritz Lazarus,
in conjunction with whom he founded in 1859 the Zeitschrift
fur Volkerpsychologie uiid Spradrwisscnschaft. Like Lazarus and
the Herbartian school in general, he attached supreme value to
psychology, and especially to the psychology of society, the
study of which, combined with comparative philology, alone
could give trustworthy results. In philology he was an
admirer and disciple of Wilhelm von Humboldt, on whose
methods he wrote several books.
His principal works are Der Ursprung der Sprache im Zusammen-
hang mil den letzten Fragen alles Wissens (1851; 4th ed., 1888);
Klassification der Sprachen (1850); Charakteristik der hauptsach-
lichen Typen des Sprachbaues (1860); Die Entwickelung der Schrift
(1852); Grammatik, Logik, Psychologie, ihre Prinzipien, &c. (1885);
Geschichte der Sprachwissenschajt bei den Griechen und Romern
(1863; 2nd ed., 1889-1891); Die Mande-Negersprachen, psycho-
logisch und phonetisch betrachtet (1867); Abriss der Spraehwissen-
schaft (2nd ed., 1881); Allgemeine Ethik (1880); Zu Bibel und
Religionsphilosophie (1890 and 1895). His books on von Humboldt
appeared in 1848, 1864 and 1867, and in 1884 he published an
edition of his works.
STELE, the Greek name (0-717X7?) for a pillar or vertical slab
of stone or marble, sometimes decorated with bas-reliefs and
bearing inscriptions, and generally terminated with a cresting
(fTrlQ-qua) enriched with the anthemion plant. In later times
the stele was crowned with a small pediment. The Way of the
Tombs at Athens was lined with stelae, some of them in memory
of prominent citizens.
STELLENBOSCH, a town of the Cape province, South Africa,
31 m..by rail E. of Cape Town. Pop. (1904), 7573, of whom
2497 were whites. It lies 360 ft. above the sea in a pleasant
upland valley on the Atlantic slope of the coast range, and is,
next to the capital, the oldest settlement in the province, having
been founded by order of Commandant Simon van der Stell in
1681 and named after him and his wife, whose maiden name was
Bosch. The streets are lined with magnificent oaks, while
many of the houses with heavy, thatched gables date from the
1 7th century. Stellenbosch is the headquarters of the Cape
branch of the Dutch Reformed Church, and is also an important
educational centre. The chief buildings, besides the churches,
are the Dutch theological seminary, Victoria College, Bloemhof
girls' school, agricultural college and school of mines, laboratory
and school of science and the S.A. conservatorium of music.
The surrounding district is largely devoted to viticulture and
STEM
875
fruit-growing. The vineyards have been replanted with Ameri-
can stocks. The Stellenbosch valley is closed in by ranges of
hills beyond which, eastward, lies Frenchhoek valley, with a
village of the same name. This district was the headquarters
of the Huguenot refugees who settled in South Africa at the close
of the 1 7th century.
In the early days of the Boer War (1899-1902) Stellenbosch was
one of the British military bases, and was used as a " remount "
camp; and in consequence of officers who had not distinguished
themselves at the front being sent back to it, the expression " to
be Stellenbosched " came into use; so much so, that in similar
cases officers were spoken of as " Stellenbosched " even if they
were sent to some other place. The remount dep6t is maintained;
horses and mules thrive here.
STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stam, Ger. Stamm, &c.,
probably related to " staff "), in popular language the stalk of a
plant, the trunk of a tree (for the technical use of the term in
botany see below). There are many transferred uses of the
word, such as for the slender structure which joins the foot or
base of a vase or goblet to the bowl, a stock or branch of a
family, or, in philology, a derivative from a root, the unchanged
part in a series of inflected forms. The stem of a ship is the
prow, properly a curved piece of timber or metal to which
the two sides are attached at its foremost, end. This was a
Scandinavian use early adopted in English; the word meant
simply post, and custom alone restricted it to the bows rather
than to the stern; in Danish the distinction is made between
from stam and bak stam and also in German, Vorder-steven
Hinter-steven.
In botany a stem may be denned as an axis bearing leaves.
The stem with its leaves is known as the shoot. Structurally
it differs from a root in having no development of cells forming
a cap over the growing-point. Under the term caulome (stem-
structure) are included all those parts of a plant morphologically
equivalent in bearing leaves. The stem generally ascends,
seeking air and light, and has therefore been termed the ascend-
ing axis. Stems have usually considerable firmness and solidity,
but sometimes they are weak, and either lie prostrate on the
ground, thus becoming procumbent, or climb on plants and rocks
by means of rootlets, like the ivy, being then called scandent,
or twist round other plants in a spiral manner like woodbine,
when they are twining. Twining plants turn either from right
to left, as the French bean, convolvulus,
dodder and gourd; or from left to right, as
honeysuckle, twining polygonum, hop and
black bryony (Tamus). In other-eases
climbing plants are supported by tendrils,
as in vine, bryony, passion-flower, or by the
tendril-like leaf-stalks, as in clematis and
Tropaeolum. In warm climates twining
plants (lianas) often form thick woody
stems, while in temperate regions they are
generally herbaceous. Some stems are
developed more in diameter than in height,
and present a peculiar shortened and
thickened aspect, as Tesludinaria or tor-
toise-plant, cyclamen, Mclocactus, Echino-
cactus and other Cactaceae; while in many orchids (fig. i) the stem
assumes an oval or rounded form, and is called a pseudobulb.
Names are given to plants according to the nature and dura-
tion of their stems. Herbs, or herbaceous plants, have stems which
die down annually. In some of them the whole plant perishes
after flowering; in others, the lower part of the stem forming
the crown of the root remains, bearing buds from which the stem
arises next season. In biennial herbs the whole plant perishes
after two years, while in perennial herbs the crown is capable
of producing stems for many years, or new annual products are
repeatedly added many times, if not indefinitely, to the old
stems. The short permanent stem of herbaceous plants is
covered partially or completely by the soil, so as to protect the
buds. Plants producing permanent woody stems are called
trees and shrubs. The latter produce branches from or near the
ground; while the former have conspicuous trunks. Shrubby
Fi o. i. O rch id
with pseudobulbs, p.
plants of small stature are called under-shrubs or bushes. The
limits between these different kinds of stem are not always
well defined; and there are some plants occupying an inter-
mediate position between shrubs and trees, to which the name
of arborescent shrubs is occasionally given.
The stem is not always conspicuous. Plants with a distinct
stem are caulescent; those in which it is inconspicuous are
acaulescent, as the primrose, cowslip and dandelion. A similar
term is given in ordinary language to plants whose stems are
buried in the soil, such as cyclamen or sowbread. Some plants
are truly stemless, and consist only of expansions of cellular
tissue representing stem and leaf, called a thallus, and hence
are denominated Thallogens, or Thallophytes.
The first rudiment of the young shoot of the embryo appears from
the seed after the radicle (young root) has protruded. It is termed
the plumule (fig. 2), and differs
from the radicle in the absence
of a root-cap and in its tendency
to ascend. The apical growing
portion constitutes the terminal
bud of the plant, and by its
development the stem increases
in height ; projections appear at
regular intervals, which are the
rudimentary leaves, and in addi- F j G 2 . The Embryo of the Pea
tion there is a provision for i a j<j O p en
the production of lateral buds, c< c< The two fleshy coty i c .
which deve op into lateral shoots dons? or seed-lobes, which remain
more cr less resembling the underground when the plant
parent stem, and by these
the branching of the plant is
determined (fig. 3). These buds
are found in the
viously -formed leaves;
other words, in the angle (j ons f
formed between the stem and
leaf. They are hence called axillary. They are produced like the
leaves from the outer portion of the stem (exogenous), and at first
consist entirely of cellular tissue, but in the progress of growth vascu-
lar bundles are formed in
them continuous with those
of the stem, and ultimately
branchesare produced.which
in every respect resemble
the axis whence the buds
first sprang. In the Lyco-
pods branching takes place
by forking of the growing-
point, the main axis being
thus replaced by two equiva-
lent axes (fig. 4) ; in most
cases the new axes develop
unequally, the weaker be-
coming pushed aside and
appearing later as a lateral
branch ofthe stronger. The
place of origin of the leaf is
called a node; the intervals
between nodes are called in-
ternodes. The stem, although
it has a tendency to rise up-
wards when first developed,
sprouts.
r, The young root or radicle.
.~- t, The axis bearing the young
the axil of pre- ?noot or p i umu i e , g> which lies
in a depression of the cotyle-
(From Strasburger's Lehrbudi der Bolanik, by
permission of Gustav Fischer.)
in many instances becomes FlG , _A pe x of a shoot of a phanero-
prostrate, and either lies gamic plant. (Xio.)
along the ground partially _ Extreme apex, so-called vegetative
covered by the soil, or runs cone.
completely underneath its t Leaf rudiment.
surface, giving off roots from ' R ut jj mcnt o f an axillary bud.
one side and buds from the
other. Some stems are therefore subterranean, and are distinguished
from roots by the provision made for regular leaf-buds.
Growth in length of the stem is due to elongation of the internodes;
the zone of most rapid growth is at some distance below the apex ;
below this the rate of growth gradually diminishes until the portion
is reached where growth in length no longer takes place. In some
cases, as in the stems of grasses, growth in length persists for a
longer time in a small region at the base of the internodes; this
is known as intercalary growth. In the dwarf or short shoots, such
as those of the larch, the internodes do not elongate and the
leaves remain close together. Lateral buds give rise to branches,
from which others, called branchlets or twigs, arise. The terminal
bud, after producing leaves, sometimes dies at the end of one
season, and the whole plant, as in annuals, perishes; or part of the
axis is persistent, and remains for two or more years, each of the
leaves before its decay producing a bud in its axil. This bud
8y6
STEM
continues the growth in spring. In ordinary trees, in which there is
provision made for the formation of numerous lateral buds, any
injury done to a few branches is easily
repaired ; but in palms, which only form
terminal buds, and have no provision
for a lateral formation of them, an
injury inflicted on the terminal bud
is more likely to have a prejudicial
effect on the future plant. In the
trees of temperate and cold climates
the buds which are developed
during one season lie dormant during
the winter, ready to burst out under
the genial warmth of spring. They
are generally protected by ex-
ternal modified leaves in the form of
scales, which frequently exhibit a
,./ firmer and coarser texture than the
leaves themselves. They serve a
(From Strasburger's Lekrbuch der temporary purpose, and usually fall
fSt') by permlssl011 of Gustav off sooner or later, after the leaves
are expanded. The bud is often pro-
. buds hibernacu i a , or the
r if inter quarters of the young branch.
c, . * he
of the rudimentary shoots,
j, i f A- r
b. Leaf rud ments; c, j some , as .
Cortex; /, Vascular strands. ^ deg g ned to live & the
winter are so completely surrounded
by the base of the petiole as not to be visible until the leaf has fallen
off. These are said to be intrapetiolar.
In the bud of a common tree, as the sycamore (fig. 5), there is seen
the cicatrix or scar left by the leaf of the previous year c, then the
FIG. 5. Leaf-bud of Sycamore FIG. 6. Transverse section of
(Acer Pseudo-platanus) covered the same leaf-bud,
with scales.
scales e, e, arranged in alternate pairs and overlying each other in
what is called an imbricated manner. On making a transverse
section of the bud (fig. 6), the overlying scales e, e, e, e, are distinctly
seen surrounding the leaves /, which are plaited or folded round the
axis or growing-point. In plants of warm climates the buds are
often formed by the ordinary leaves without any protecting append-
ages; such buds are called naked. A bud may be removed in a
young state from one plant and grafted upon another by the
process of budding, so as to continue to form its different parts;
and it may even be made to grow in the soil, in some instances,
immediately after removal. In some trees of warm climates,
as papawtree, palms and tree-ferns, growth by terminal buds
is well seen. In these plants the elongation of the stem is generally
regular and uniform, so that the age of the plant may be estimated
by its height; as there is no great increase in the leaf area owing
to absence of branching, there is no need for a great increase in
the diameter of the stem.
Although provision is made for the regular formation of buds,
there are often great irregularities in consequence of many being
abortive or remaining in a dormant state. Such buds are called
latent, and are capable of being developed in cases where the terminal
bud, or any of the branches, have been injured or destroyed. In
some instances, as in firs, the latent buds follow a regular system
of alternation; and in plants with opposite leaves it frequently
happens that the bud in the axil of one of the leaves only is developed,
and the different buds so produced are situated alternately on
opposite sides of the stem. Occasionally, after a partial develop-
ment as branches, buds are arrested and form knots or nodules.
The so-called embryo buds or woody nodules in the bark of the
beech, elm, olive and other trees are of this nature. They are
partially developed buds, in which the woody matter is pressed
upon by the surrounding tissue, and thus acquires a very hard and
firm texture. When a section is made, they present woody circles
arranged around a central pith, and traversed by medullary rays.
The nodules sometimes form knots on the surface of the stem, at
other times they appear as large excrescences, and in some cases
twigs and leaves are produced by them.
When the terminal bud is injured or arrested in its growth the
elongation of the main axis stops, and the lateral branches often
acquire increased activity. By continually cutting off the terminal
buds a woody plant is made to assume a bushy appearance, and
thus pollard trees are produced. Pruning has the effect of checking
the growth of terminal shoots, and of causing lateral ones to push
forth. The peculiar bird-nest appearance often presented by the
branches of the common birch depends on an arrestment in the
terminal buds, a shortening of the internodes, and a consequent
clustering or fasciculation of the twigs. In some plants there is
a natural arrestment of the main axis after a certain time, giving rise
to peculiar shortened stems. Thus the crown of the root is a stem
of this nature, forming buds and roots. Such is also the case in
the stem of cyclamen, Testudinaria, and in the tuber of the potato.
The production of lateral in place of terminal buds sometimes
gives the stem a remarkable zigzag aspect.
The mode in which branches come off from the stems gives rise
to various forms of trees, as pyramidal, spreading or weeping the
angles being more or less acute or obtuse. In the Italian poplar
and cypress the branches are erect, forming acute angles with the
upper part of the stem; in the oak and cedar they are spreading
or patent, forming nearly a right angle; in the weeping ash and elm
they come off at an obtuse angle; while in the weeping willow and
birch they are pendulous from their flexibility. The comparative
length of the upper and under branches also gives rise to differences
in the contour of trees, as seen in the conical form of spruce, and the
umbrella-like form of the Italian or Stone pine (Pinus Pinea). The
branching of some trees is peculiar. In the Amazon district many
Myristicaceae and Monimiaceae have whorled branches coming off
in fives. This is also seen in the Chili pine.
Branches are sometimes long and slender, and run along the ground,
producing buds with roots and leaves at their extremity. This
is seen in the runner (flagellum) of the strawberry. In the house-
leek (Sempervivum) there is a similar prostrate branch of a shorter
and thicker nature, known as an offset, producing a bud at its
extremity capable of independent existence. In many instances
the branch decays, and the young plant assumes a separate existence.
Gardeners propagate plants by the process of layering, which consists
in bending a twig, fixing the central part of it into the ground, and,
after the production of roots, cutting off its connexion with the
parent. A stolon differs from these in being a branch which curves
towards the ground, and, on reaching a moist spot, takes root and
forms an upright stem, and ultimately a separate plant. This is
a sort of natural layering, and the plant producing such branches
is called stoloniferous. In the rose and mint a subterranean branch
arises from the stem, which runs horizontally to a certain extent,
and ultimately sends up an aerial stem, which becomes an inde-
pendent plant. Such branches are denominated suckers, and the
gardener divides the connexion between the sucker and the
parent stem, in order to propagate these plants. In the case
of asparagus and other plants which have a perennial stem
below ground, subterranean buds are annually produced which
appear above ground as shoots or branches covered with scales
at first, and ultimately with true leaves. These branches are
herbaceous and perish annually, while
the true stem remains below ground
ready to send up fresh shoots next
season. In bananas and plantains
the apparent aerial stem is a shoot
sent up by an underground stem, and
perishes after ripening fruit. Branches
are sometimes arrested in their develop-
ment, and, in place of forming leaves,
become transformed into spines or
thorns, as in the hawthorn. Plants
which have spines in a wild state, as
the apple and pear, often lose them
when cultivated, in consequence of their
being changed into branches; in some
cases, as in the sloe (Prunus spinosa)
(fig. 7), a branch bears leaves at its
lower portion, and terminates in a FIG. 7. Branch of the
spine. In some climbing plants some Sloe (Prunus spinosa)
of the shoots are transformed into producing spines or
tendrils, which help the plant to climb thorns, which are abortive
by twining about a support, as in branches, as shown by
passion-flower and vine ; or, as in their bearing leaves.
Ampelopsis Veitchii, by forming ad-
hesive disks at the tips of their branchlets which enable them to
cling to flat supports. In some cases branches become flat and
leaf-like, taking the place in the plant economy of the leaves,
which are reduced to small scales or spines, as in butcher's broom;
branches showing this modification are termed cladodes or
phylloclades (fig. 8). In Cactaceae (e.g. Opuntia, prickly pear,
fig. 9) and fleshy euphorbias, where the leaves are reduced
to spines, the fleshy stems become green and perform the
functions of leaves; they also serve as water reservoirs for the
plants, which are natives of very dry countries.
STEM
877
Buds sometimes become extra-axillary in consequence of the non-
appearance or abortion of one or more leaves, or on account of the
FIG. 8. Twig of Butcher's Broom (Ruscus aculeatusY
slightly enlarged, showing cladodes, c.
adhesion of the young branch to the parent stem. In place of one bud
there are occasionally several accessory ones produced in the axil,
giving origin to numerous branches.
By the union ol several such buds
branches are produced having a
thickened or flattened appearance,
as is seen in the fir, ash and other
trees. In some cases, however,
these fasciated branches are owing
to the abnormal development of a
single bud.
The typical form of stems is
rounded. They are sometimes
compressed or flattened laterally
(fig. 9), while at other times they are
angular. Various terms are applied
to the forms of stems, as cylindrical
or terete, quadrangular or square,
jointed or articulated, &c. The
following are some of the more
important modifications of stems:
The crown of the root is a shortened
stem, often partially underground,
which remains in some plants after
the leaves, branches and flower-
stalks have withered. In this case
the internodes are very short, and
the nodes are crowded together, so
<From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Boia- that the plant appears to be stem-
nik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) ) ess J t ; s seen i n perennial plants,
FIG. 9. Opuntia monacan- the i eaves O f which die down to
ihia, showing flower and fr uit - the ground annually. A rhizome
The leaves are reduced to or roo t- s tock (fig. 10) is a horizontal
thorns. ( nat. size.) stem usually sending out numerous
roots and leaf-buds from its upper surface. It occurs in ferns, iris,
Hedychium, Acorus or sweet flag, ginger, waterlily, many species of
FIG. 10. Rhizome of Polygonatum multiflorum (Solomon's Seal)
forming buds and adventitious roots.
a, bud which will form the aerial shoot next season; b, c, d, e, scars
of successive aerial shoots ; w, root.
Carex, rushes, anemone, &c. 'The leaves are reduced to scales and
by their presence, and the absence of a root-cap, a rhizome can be
distinguished from a root. A rhizome such as occurs in Solomon's
seal (fig. 10) is not a single stem, i.e. the product of a single bud,
>ut is composed of portions of successive axes, the aerial parts of
which have died off, leaving their scars (fig. 10, b, c, d, e). Rhizomes
are well seen in British ferns. A rhizome sometimes assumes an
erect form, as in Scabiosa succisa, in which the so-called praemorse
root is in reality a rhizome, with the lower end decaying. 1 he erect
rhizome of Cicuta virosa (water-hemlock) shows hollow internodes,
separated by partitions. In the coral-root orchid Corallorhiza, which
;rows in soil rich in humus, no roots are developed, the coral-like
Branching rhizome acting as theabsorbing organ (fig. 13). A pseudobulb
(fig. l) is an enlarged bulbous-like aerial stem, common in epiphytic
orchids; it is covered with a thick epidermis and acts as a water-store
or the plant, which from its growth on branches of trees and in similar
positions is often unable to get sufficient water for its immediate
leeds. A sobole is a creeping underground stem, sending roots from
one part and leaf-buds from another, as in couch-grass. Carex
arenaria, and Scirpus lacuslris. It is often called a creeping root,
3ut is really a rhizome with narrow elongated internodes. A tuber
s a thickened stem or branch produced by the approximation of
;he nodes and the swelling of the
internodes, as in the potato. The
eyes of the potato are leaf-buds.
Tubers are sometimes aerial,
occupying the place of branches.
The ordinary herbaceous stem of
the potato, when cut into slips
and planted, sends off branches
'rom its base, which assume
the form of tubers. Tubers fre-
quently store up a quantity of
starch, as in Maranta arundina-
cea, whence arrowroot is derived.
Another form of thickened un-
derground stem is the corm, as
seen in the autumn crocus (Col-
hicum, fig. Il), gladiolus, &c.
Structurally it is composed of a
solid more or less rounded axis
covered by a layer of thin mem-
branous scales (fig. 12, h, h). A
corm is only of one year's dura-
tion, giving off buds annually in
(After Sachs.)
FIG. 12. Corms of Colchlcum
autumnale in autumn when the
plant is in flower.
k. Oldest corm.
h, h, Brown scales covering it.
TV, Its roots.
st, Its withered flowering
stem.
k', Younger corm produced
from k.
w', Roots from k', which
grows at expense of k.
s,s',s", Sheathing leaves.
,1"
b, b',
k",
Foliage leaves.
Flowers.
Young corm produced
from k' in autumn,
which in succeeding
autumn will produce
flowers.
FIG. n. Corm of Meadow
Saffron or Autumn Crocus
(Colchicum autumnale).
a, Old corm shrivelling.
b, Young corm produced later-
ally from the old one.
the form of young corms. In autumn the young corm gives origin to
leaves, the lower of which (s, s', s") form sheaths round the corm and
flower stalk, the upper (I', I") remaining very small ; and in the axil of
the uppermost leaves the flowering-stem develops and bears the
flowers (6, b'). Meanwhile in the axil of one of the middle leaves on
the corm, a bud the rudiment of a new corm appears (k"). The
flowering-stem dies down, and the young corm k' from which it
arose enlarges greatly during the winter at the expense of its
parent corm (k) , which thus becomes shrivelled. In spring the leaves
produced on it (I', I"), which were merely rudiments in autumn,
appear above ground as conspicuous large leaves. At the end
of spring these leaves die down, the bases of the lower ones
878
STENBOCK STENDAL
alone remaining, and constituting thin brown scales around
the corm (as at h). Meanwhile, the young bud-corm (k") in
the axil of the middle leaf grows rapidly at the expense of
its parent corm (*') but it does not attain a great size.
In autumn it produces new leaves, which remain small, but
from the axil of the two upper the
flowering stem rises up and bears
flowers; whilst in the axil of one of its
middle leaves a new bud-corm appears,
which will the following autumn pro-
duce young leaves, flowering stem, and
a new bud-corm, and thus the cycle goes
on. The buds or new corms formed
from the old corms may be produced
either laterally, as in Colchicum autum-
nale, or terminally, as in crocus and
gladiolus. The bulb is another form of
underground stem or bud. The axis in
this case is much shortened, and the
internodes are hardly developed. The
bases of the leaves rising from the stem
are quite close together, and become
succulent and enclose the axis. In the
lily the thick and narrow scales are
arranged separately in rows, and the
bulb is called scaly; while in the leek,
onion, squill and tulip the scales are
broad, and enclose each other in a con-
. centric manner, the outer ones being thin
p IG j, _ Rhizome of anc ' membranous, and the bulb is tuni-
Corall'orhizainnata. (Nat. cated - In the axils of these fleshy scales
Gustav Fischer.)
size.)
a, Floral shoot.
b, Rudiments of
new lateral shoots arise, forming new
bulbs. The lateral buds or cloves some-
u..^,,^ . .^~ times remain attached to the axis, and
rhizome branches, produce flowering stems, so that appar-
ently the same bulb continues to flower
for many years, as in the hyacinth and tulip; at other times
the young bulbs are detached, and form separate plants. In the
axil of the leaves of Lilium bulbiferum, Dentaria bulbifera, and
some other plants, small conical or rounded bodies are produced,
called bulbils or bulblets (fig. 14, b). They
resemble bulbs in their aspect, and consist
of a small number of thickened scales
enclosing a growing-point. These scales
are frequently united closely together, so as
to form a solid mass. Bulbils are therefore
transformed leaf-buds, which are easily
detached, and are capable of producing
young plants when placed in favourable
circumstances. The scales in bulbs vary in
number. In Gagea there is only one scale;
in the tulip and Fritillaria imperials they
FIG. 14. Stem of vary from two to five; while in lilies and
Bulbiferous Lily (Lih- hyacinths there are a great number of
urn bulbiferum), show- g^ies i n tne tulip a bud is formed in
ing bulbils b, produced t }, e ax y o f an outer scale, and this gives
in the axils of the r jge j o a new flowering axis, and a new
leaves. bulb, at the side of which the former
bulb is attached in a withered state.
Adventitious shoots are those which arise elsewhere than in the
normal predetermined place, as from old stems, or roots. Such
shoots are frequent on
the roots of elm, poplar,
plum and other fruit-
trees. Occasionally ad-
ventitious buds are
produced on the edges
of leaves, as in Bryo-
phyllum calycinum (fig.
15), Malaxis paludosa,
and various species of
Asplenium, and on the
surface of leaves, as
in Ornithosalum thyrso-
FlG. 15. Leaf of Bryophyllum calyci- ideum These are
num producing buds along the margin, b j e of form ; ng in _
at the extremities of the primary veins. dependent plants. Simi-
lar buds are also made to appear on the leaves of Begonia,
Gesnera, Gloxinia and Achimenes, by wounding various parts of
them, and placing them in moist soil ; this is the method often
pursued by gardeners in their propagation. The ipecacuanha
plant has been propagated by means of leaves inserted in the
soil. In this case the lower end of the leaf becomes thickened
like a corm, and from it roots are produced, and ultimately a bud
and young plant.
STENBOCK, MAGNUS GUSTAFSSON, COUNT (1664-1717),
Swedish soldier, was educated at Upsala and at Paris, chose
the military profession, and spent some years in the service of
the United Provinces. Returning to Sweden he entered the
army, and in 1688 became major. He served with the Swedes
in the Low Countries and on the Rhine, distinguishing him-
self for skill and courage at Fleurus. During the War of the
Grand Alliance he was employed not only in the field but also
as a confidential agent in diplomatic missions. Soon after-
wards as colonel of the Dalecarlian regiment he led it in the
astonishing victory of Narva. He distinguished himself still
more at Diinamunde, Klissow and Cracow. In 1703 he fought
the successful battle of Pultusk, and three years later, having
reached the rank of general of infantry, was made governor-
general of the province of Scania, which he delivered from the
Danish invaders by the decisive victory of Helsingborg. He was.
a great favourite with Charles XII. in the earlier campaigns,
but later the two drifted somewhat apart. It is recorded that
the king, before whom General Lagercrona accused Stenbock
of drunkenness, replied that " Stenbock drunk was more capable
of giving orders than Lagercrona sober." His activities were
not confined to war and diplomacy; the university of Lund
was under his care for some years, and he had no mean skill as a
painter and a poet. He became councillor in 1710, and Charles
gave him his field marshal's baton in 1712. In the same year
he invaded Mecklenburg (with but 9000 men) in order to cover
Stralsund. He won the brilliant action of Gadebusch, but
numbers prevailed against him in the end. Cut off in Tonning
he was forced to surrender after a gallant resistance, and passed
into captivity. Five years of harsh treatment in Copenhagen
brought his life to a close in 1717.
See Loenbom, Magni Stenbocks lefverne (1757-1765); Lilljestrale,
Magnus Stenbock (Helsingborg, 1890).
STENCIL, a thin plate or sheet of metal, leather, paper or
other material cut or pierced with a pattern or design; this is
laid upon a surface and colour or ink is brushed or rubbed over
it, thus leaving the ground colour of the surface imprinted with
the design or pattern cut out. In ceramics the stencil is pro-
duced by coating the biscuit with a preparation which prevents
the transfer-paper or enamelling from adhering to the surface
at those parts where the original colour of the biscuit is to be
preserved. According to Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1910) the word stands
for an earlier stinsel, and is to be derived from Old French
estinceller, to sparkle, to powder with stars, an old term in
heraldry, from Latin scintilla, a spark. The same French word
has given the English " tinsel," strips, disks or pieces of thin
glittering metallic substances used for the decoration of fabrics,
hence any gaudy, showy and pretentious material or substance.
STENDAL, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian
Saxony, picturesquely situated on the Uchte, 70 m. W. of
Berlin on the main line of railway to Hanover and at the junction
of lines to Bremen, Magdeburg and Wittenberge. Pop. (1905),
23,281. Among the relics of its former importance are the
cathedral, built in 1420-1424 (though originally founded in 1188),
restored in 1893 and now housing the archaeological collection
of the Altmark, the Gothic church of St Mary, founded in 1447,
a " Roland column " of 1535, and two fortified gateways, dating
from the i3th century. The last form the chief remains of the
ancient fortifications, the site of which is now mostly occupied
by promenades. A monument to the archaeologist Johann
Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768) commemorates his birth in
the town. Stendal is the seat of a large railway workshop,
and carries on various branches of textile industry, besides the
manufacture of tobacco, machinery, stoves, gold-leaf, &c. The
earliest printing-press in the Altmark was erected here, and
published an edition of the Sachsenspiegel in 1488 as its first
book.
Stendal was founded in 1151 by Albert the Bear, on the site
of a Wendish settlement, and soon afterwards acquired a muni-
cipal charter. Becoming capital of the Altmark and a frequent
imperial residence, it rose to a considerable degree of prosperity,
in part recently restored to it by its railway connexions. When
the mark was divided in 1258, Stendal became the seat of the
elder or Stendal branch of the house of Ascania, which, however,
became extinct in 1320. The original Wends were gradually
STENO STEPHAN
879
fused with the later Saxons, although the Platea Slavonica,
mentioned in 1475, was still distinguished as the Wenden Strasse
in 1567. The population still exhibits a marked Slavonic
element.
See Gotze, Urkundliche Geschichte der Stadt Stendal (Stendal,
1873).
STENO, NICOLAUS (1631-1686), Danish naturalist, was
born at Copenhagen in 1631, and studied medicine and anatomy
in that city and in Paris. After a period of travel he settled in
Italy (1666) at first as professor of anatomy at Padua, and then
in Florence as house-physician to the grand-duke Ferdinand
II. of Tuscany. He returned to his native city in 1672 to
become professor of anatomy, but, having become a Roman
Catholic, he found it expedient to return to Florence, and was
ultimately made apostolic vicar of Lower Saxony. He died at
Schwerin in Mecklenburg, on the 25th of November 1686. His
fame rests on De solido intra solidum natwaliter contento,
published at Florence in 1669. In this notable work Steno
described various gems, minerals and petrifactions (fossils)
enclosed within solid rocks. He compared the fossil with
the living organisms, and distinguished marine and fluviatile
formations. He argued also in favour of the original
horizontality of sedimentary deposits.
See Di Nicola Stenone e dei suoi sludii geologici in Italia, by G.
Capellini (1870); K. A. von Zittel's History of Geology and Palaeon-
tology (Eng. ed., 1901) ; and VV. J. Sollas, in Science Progress for Jan.
1898.
STENOGRAPHY (from Gr. artvos, close, narrow, and
ypatfrtiv, to write), the system or art of writing by signs re-
presenting single sounds or groups of sounds, single words or
groups of words, sometimes also styled " brachygraphy "
(Gr. (Spaxw, short); it is a general term including all the various
systems of shorthand writing (see SHORTHAND).
STENTOR, one of the Greeks before Troy (Iliad, v. 783),
whose voice was as loud as that of fifty men. It is said that
he came by his death as the result of challenging Hermes, the
crier of the gods, to a contest. Possibly, like Hermes himself,
Stentor is a personification of the wind. The name is used in
modern times of any one possessing a particularly loud voice
(stentorian).
STENTOR, a genus of heterotrichous ciliate Infusoria (q.v.),
so named by R. Oken. It possesses a large moniliform meganu-
cleus, accompanied by numerous micronuclei, and has a trumpet
shape, when at rest,' anchored by pseudopodial outgrowths
from the narrow end. It is relatively large, and is much
utilized to demonstrate myonemes, and had been also the object
of interesting studies on regeneration, any piece, containing with
a fragment of the meganucleus at least one micronucleus,
regenerating the whole animal (see REGENERATION). S. poly-
morphus often inhabits a gelatinous sheath and may be green
with zoochlorella; it attains a length of tV m - S. caeruleus
and igneus are coloured blue and scarlet respectively by pigment
granules in the ectosarc: E. R. Lankester made a study of the
pigment of the former (blue stentorin).
STEPHAN, HEINRICH VON (1831-1897), German statesman,
was born at Stolp, in Pomerania, on the 7th of January 1831.
From his earliest years he showed that talent for languages
to which he owed so much of his success in life, and before
he went to school had acquired a considerable knowledge
of Italian, Spanish and English. He was educated at the
grammar school of his native town, and at the age of sixteen
entered the service of the Prussian post office. His promotion
was rapid; he was transferred to East Prussia, and thence to
Cologne. Here he added to his salary by writing dramatic
criticism, and here he obtained his first acquaintance with the
system, or rather lack of system, which with its complication
of charges made all international postal correspondence so
expensive and uncertain a system which he was in later years
to revolutionize. After passing the examinations which ad-
mitted him to the higher branches of the service he was trans-
ferred to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in 1856 to Berlin. Many
different stories are told of the manner in which his exceptional
knowledge of European languages was brought to the know-
ledge of the postmaster-general, who at once saw that capacity
and attainments of the kind could best be used at headquarters.
During the next few years he was entrusted with very important
duties; he was chosen as Prussian representative when a postal
treaty was arranged with Spain and Portugal. In 1864 he was
given the task of reorganizing the postal service in the conquered
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and in 1866 it fell to his lot
to extend the Prussian system to the newly annexed provinces;
he had to take over and replace the system by which for three
hundred years the family of Thurn and Taxis had conducted
the postal service of central Germany. He also found time to
write works on the history of postal matters, viz. a History of
the Prussian Post Office (1859), and articles on the means of
communication in ancient and medieval times, which appeared
in Raumer's Historisches Taschenbuch (1868). He was one of
the invited guests at the opening of the Suez Canal, and in
1872 published a work on modern Egypt.
In 1870, at the early age of thirty-nine, Stephan was made
postmaster-general of the North German confederation, and in
the next year of the newly founded empire; in 1878, at the
general reorganization of the imperial administration (see
article GERMANY) the post office was made a separate depart-
ment, and his title was altered to that of secretary of state. His
great powers of organization were at once shown in the arrange-
ment of the admirable Fdd Post, which during the war with
France maintained communication with the army in the field.
In eight months 89,000,000 letters, 2,500,000 post-cards,
and 10,000,000 in money passed through the department, and
it was his boast that letters were delivered to and collected from
the soldiers with almost unfailing regularity, sometimes even
on the field of battle. In this way he began what was the great
work of his life, that of making the post office in the truest
sense of the word popular, and henceforth he was unremittingly
occupied in devising and adopting new contrivances for the
convenience and use of the people. The introduction of post-
cards was his first innovation. In this he had been anticipated
by Austria, but the idea was his own, and had been adopted
by the Austrians in consequence of a suggestion made by him
at a postal conference in 1865. The development of the parcel
post and of the system of money orders was his next work, and
in this he was so successful that in 1883 the German post office
dealt with 79,000,000 parcels, while in all the other countries of
the world together only 52,000,000 went through the post. While
in this and other ways he extended the use of the post office at
home, he gained a wider celebrity in being the chief promoter of
the International Postal Union. He presided at the first
conference, which met at Bern in 1874.
The alacrity of Stephan's intelligence and his enthusiasm for
the institution over which he presided were shown by the readiness
with which he applied or took over all new inventions which
might be of public service, such as telegraphs, telephones and
pneumatic tubes. His pride in the post office showed itself in
the immediate interest which he took in the design and plan of
the new offices which were erected in all parts of Germany;
it was always his ambition that the post office in each town
should be the most conspicuous and the handsomest of public
buildings, even at the sacrifice of economy. He warmly sup-
ported Bismarck in his policy of extending and promoting
national industry and foreign trade, and arranged the subsidies
by which a direct postal service was established between
Germany and China and Australia. His national feeling also
showed itself in the support which he gave to the movement for
purifying the German language of foreign words but he did
not always succeed in avoiding the exaggeration verging on the
ridiculous into which this movement so easily degenerates.
While he stood aloof from ordinary party politics, he was a
frequent speaker in the Reichstag on the affairs of his own
department, and was a member of the Bundesrat. Though
never on terms of intimate friendship with Bismarck, his mastery
in his own department won for him the appreciation of the
chancellor, and he was allowed more independence than most
88o
STEPHANITE STEPHEN (MARTYR)
of the officials. By the power of working out broad and genera!
principles in detail and idealizing the routine work of adminis-
tration he may fairly be placed among the great administrators
by whom (far more than by statesmen and politicians) the Prus-
sian state has been built up, and he was singularly fortunate in
that his life fell at a time when by perfecting the administration
of the newly founded imperial post he took no small part in
strengthening the national idea and binding together the German
nation. In 1897 blood-poisoning, arising from a wound in the
foot, made amputation of the leg necessary, and he died from the
effects of the operation,, on the 8th of April 1897.
See E. Knickeberg, H. v. Stephan (Berlin, 1897). (J. W. HE.)
STEPHANITE, a mineral consisting of silver sulphantimonite,
Ag 5 SbS 4 ; containing 68-5 % of silver, and sometimes of im-
portance as an ore of this metal. Under the name Schwarzerz
it was mentioned by G. Agricola in 1546, and it has been
variously known as " black silver ore " (Ger. Schwarzgiil-
tigerz), brittle silver-ore (Sprodglanzerz), &c. The name
stephanite was proposed by W. Haidinger in 1845 in honour of
the archduke Stephan of Austria; French authors use F. S.
Beudant's name psaturose (from the Greek if/advpos, fragile).
It frequently occurs as well-formed crystals, which are ortho-
rhombic and occasionally show indications of hemimorphism :
they have the form of six-sided prisms or flat tables terminated
by large basal planes and often modified at the edges by numerous
pyramid-planes. Twinning on the prism-planes is of frequent
occurrence, giving rise to pseudo-hexagonal groups like those of
aragonite. The colour is iron-black, and the lustre metallic
and brilliant; on exposure to light, however, the crystals soon
become dull. The mineral has a hardness of T\ and is very
brittle; the specific gravity is 6-3. Stephanite occurs with
other ores of silver in metalliferous veins. Localities which
have yielded good crystallized specimens are Freiberg and
Gersdorf near Rosswein in Saxony, Chanarcillo in Chile, and
exceptionally Cornwall. In the Comstock lode in Nevada
massive stephanite and argentite are important ores of silver.
(L.J.S.)
STEPHANUS BYZANTINUS (STEPHEN or BYZANTIUM), the
author of a geographical dictionary entitled ''EBvina, of which,
apart from some fragments, we possess only the meagre epitome
of one Hermolaus. This work was first edited under the title
Hepl iroXewv (Aldus, Venice, 1502); the best modern editions
are by W. Dindorf and others (4 vols., Leipzig, 1825), A. Wester-
mann (Leipzig, 1839), and A. Meineke (vol. i., Berlin, 1849).
Hermolaus dedicates his epitome to Justinian; whether the first
or second emperor of that name is meant is disputed, but it
seems probable that Stephanus flourished in the earlier part of
the 6th century, under Justinian I. The chief fragments re-
maining of the original work (which certainly contained lengthy
quotations from classical authors and many interesting topo-
graphical and historical details) are preserved by Constantine
Porphyrogennetos, De administrando imperio, ch. 23 (the
article 'IjSr/piat 8vo) and De thematibus, ii. 10 (an account of
Sicily) ; the latter includes a passage from the comic poet Alexis
on the Seven Largest Islands. Another respectable fragment,
from the article Avpr) to the end of A, exists in a MS. of the
Seguerian library.
See the editions of Westermann, Dindorf and Meineke, above
noticed; the article "Stephanus Byzant.," in Smith's Dictionary
of Ancient Biography, vol. iii. ; E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient
Geography, i. 102, 135, 169; ii. 669-671 (London, 1883); Riese,
De Stephani Byzant. auctoribus (Kiel, 1873) ; J. Geffcken, De Stephana
Byzantio (Gottingen, 1886) ; Spuridon Kontogones, AiopflwrucA ets
rd 'E0Kocd (Erlangen, 1890); Paul Sakolowski, Fragmenta d. S.
von B. ; E. Stemphnger, Studien zu d. 'Eevuci.
STEPHEN, the " proto-martyr " (as he is called in certain
MSS. of Acts xxii. 20), in some senses the greatest figure in
primitive Christianity prior to Paul's conversion, was one of
" the Seven" (xxi. 8, nowhere called " deacons" ) set over the
" daily ministration " towards the needy members of the
Jerusalem community. But, like Philip and perhaps others of
his colleagues (vi. 3), he had higher gifts than his office would
suggest. We read that he was " full of faith and of the holy
Spirit"; and as his spiritual power seems to have shown itself in
mighty deeds as well as words (vi. 5, 8), he became a marked
man in Jerusalem. Himself a Jew of Greek culture, he naturally
tried to win over his fellow Hellenists (vi. 9).
It is here that Stephen's advance upon the Apostolic teaching
becomes apparent. His special " wisdom " lay in greater
insight into the merely relative nature and value of the externals
of Israel's religion, and particularly those connected with the
Temple. His fellow Hellenists were as a body eager to dis-
prove the feeling of the native " Hebrews" that they were
only half Jews; accordingly teaching which minimized the value
of the sacred " customs which Moses had delivered" (vi. 14)
by making salvation turn immediately upon faith in Jesus as
Messiah would cause deep resentment in such circles, in spite
of their more liberal attitude to things non- Jewish. They may
have met Stephen's appeal for faith in Jesus as Messiah by
saying that full fellowship with God was theirs by observance
of the Mosaic customs, centring in the Temple, which in Jerusalem
overshadowed men's thoughts touching the Divine presence.
To this he would reply by warning them in Jesus' own words,
supported by those of the prophets, that the heart is the true
seat of the Shekinah; and that if they refused God manifest
in His Messiah, the final embodiment of Divine righteousness,
no holy " customs" no, not the Temple itself could save
them from the displeasure of the living God. Nay, God might
have to make good Messiah 'swords as to His person being more
essential to fellowship with God than the Temple itself (cf.
Matt. xii. 6), which might even be destroyed, as it had been in
the past, without loss to true religion. In all this he was but
reasserting the prophetic rather than the scribal view of the
Mosaic Law and its institutions, viz. that the inner spirit, that
which could be written on the heart, was the only thing really
essential. But they could not rise to this conception and treated
his words as " blasphemous against Moses and against God," and
roused " the people and the elders and the scribes " against him.
He was seized and brought before the Sanhedrin on the charge
of speaking "against the Temple and the Law" (vi. 11-14).
His defence against this twofold charge took the form of a
survey of Israel's religious past, with a view to show: (i) that
the God of Glory" had covenant relations with their fore-
fathers before they had either Holy Place (Land or Temple)
or Law (vii. 1-17); (2) that the first form of visible meeting
place between God and His people was far other than that for
which absolute sanctity was now claimed. Nay, the form of
" the tabernacle of testimony in the wilderness" (no Holy
Land) had more divine sanction 1 than any later Temple (44-47) ;
(3) that, after all, the presence of "the Most High" was in no
way bound up with any structure of human hands, as Isaiah
witnessed (48-50). The moral of all this was plain: Israel's
forms of fellowship with the Most High had all along been
relative and subject to change. Particularly was this so with
the external forms of cultus then represented by the Temple.
Hence there was no " blasphemy" in suggesting that in the
Messianic age yet another change might come about, and that
observance of Temple services could prove little as to acceptance
with God. But there is another and more actual line of pleading.
This is found in the elaborate section dealing with the person
and work of Moses, the great lawgiver (17-38) a section
Full of extra-biblical touches followed by one on Israel's
lardness of heart towards him and the " living oracles" he
mediated, together with its result, the Exile (30-43). Pure and
original Mosaism, embodied in Moses and his ministry to Israel,
s represented as something which in its full spiritual intention
lad been frustrated by Israel's stiffneckedness (39, 42 seq.). The
igure of Moses is made to stand forth in ideal outlines, the
hinly-veiled Christian application shining through. " This is
that Moses who said unto the children of Israel, 'A prophet
1 The solemn language in v. 44 suggests that to Stephen, as to
he writer to the Hebrews (and perhaps Hellenists generally), the
Biblical Sanctuary, as corresponding to the heavenly archetype,
was more sacred than the Temple of Herod, which owed what
sanctity it had to the older features it still preserved.
STEPHEN (OF ENGLAND)
881
shall God raise up unto you . . . like unto me.' This is he that
was in the Church in the wilderness with the angel which spake
to him in the Mount Sinai, and with our fathers; who received
living oracles to give unto us: to whom our fathers would not be
obedient, but thrust him from them, and turned back in their
hearts. . ." (38 seq.). Here we have the very situation as between
Stephen and his hearers; and it is made unmistakable by the
speaker's closing words (51-53). They will have nothing to
say to the greater Mediator of the Divine oracles in Messianic
clearness and power. But if so, the reason is not their fidelity
to the Mosaic Law, but their infidelity to its spiritual substance.
Had they kept the Law dutifully they would have believed on
Him in whom true Mosaism was fulfilled and transcended.
In all this there are points both of contact arid divergence
between Stephen and Paul. Alike they are champions of the
"spirit" against the "letter"; and alike they tax unbelieving
Judaism with failure to keep the Law in its real sense. But
here difference begins. Quite apart from the externalism of
Temple worship, to which Paul never alludes, they start from
different conceptions of the Law. Stephen, the Hellenist,
views it idealistically and with the spiritual freedom of the
prophets and of Jesus Himself. But Paul took it more strictly
(see PAUL). Thus in spite of general kinship of spirit, Stephen
is not really Paul's forerunner. He has no sense of antithesis
between law and grace; and he makes no reference to the
Gentiles. It is rather the author of the Epistle to Hebrews
(q.v.) who recalls Stephen. Both deal largely with the Temple
and its worship; both expose the externalism of the legal rites
of Judaism, as tending to spiritual unreality; and both view
the Gospel as the sublimation of the Law on ideal lines. Only,
the later thinker contrasts even pure Mosaism with the Gospel
of Christ, as old with new, as the Covenant of shadow with that
of reality.
As to the authenticity of Stephen's speech, it is generally
admitted to be accurate in substance, if not in the words that
he uttered. We may suppose it lived in the memory of some
associate in such discussions, who would often repeat its tenor
in his work as one of the preachers scattered (viii. 4, xi. 19)
by the persecution which Stephen's preaching brought on the
Jerusalem community, particularly on its Hellenistic section
as most identified with the revolutionary aspect which faith
in Jesus the Nazarene now for a time assumed in public esti-
mation (contrast ii. 47). It would finally be committed to
writing, largely because it was so representative of the Hel-
lenistic view of the Delations of Judaism and Christianity. As
such it was given prominence in the book of Acts a work which
shows the greatness of the contributions to the Apostolic age
not only of Paul, but also of the Hellenists, those mediators
between Jews and Gentiles. Possibly also Paul had spoken in
Luke's hearing of Stephen's martyrdom and his own close
relations to it (vii. 58, 60, cf. vi. 9).
Stephen's actual martyrdom is described as tumultuary in
character, though the legal forms of stoning for blasphemy were
observed (58). This is quite consistent with a trial before the
Sanhedrin; nor is it inconceivable that an act exceeding the
rights of that body under the Romans should have taken
place at the impulse of religious fanaticism. Our knowledge of
Jewish history is not full enough to warrant denial of the
historicity of this feature of the narrative simply on the score
of its illegality. Neither is there good reason to assume that
the hearing before the Sanhedrin is a touch added by the author
of Acts to the source on which he has drawn in the main.
LITERATURE. All requisite materials will be found in articles
in the Ency. Bib. vol. iv., and Hauck's Realencykl. f. protestant.
Theol. u. Kirche, vol. xix. The former in particular examines
the Midrashic elements (adding to or diverging from the O. T.
data) in Stephen's speech.the linguistic features of Acts vi. I, viii. 3,
and various theories as to the source or sources used therein. It
also refers to the worthless legends touching Stephen's death and
the finding of his relics, collected in Tillemont, Memoires (Eng. ed.,
1735). PP- 353-359- (J- V. B.)
STEPHEN (i097?-ii54), king of England, was the third
Son of Stephen Henry, count of Blois and Chartres, and, through
his mother Adela, a grandson of William the Conqueror. Born
some time before 1101, he was still a boy when he was taken
into favour by his uncle, Henry I. of England. From Henry
he received the honour of knighthood and the county of Mor-
tain. In 1118 he severed his connexion with Blois and Chartres,
renouncing his hereditary claims in favour of his elder brother
Theobald. But he acquired the county of Boulogne by marry-
ing Matilda (c. 1103-1152), the heiress of Count Eustace III.
and a niece of Henry's first wife. The old king arranged this
match after the untimely loss of his son, William Atheling, in
the tragedy of the White Ship; until 1125 Stephen was regarded
as the probable heir to the English throne. But the return of
the widowed empress Matilda (q.v.) to her father's court changed
the situation. Henry compelled Stephen and the rest of his
barons to acknowledge the empress as their future ruler (1126).
Seven years later these oaths were renewed; and in addition the
ultimate claims of Matilda's infant son, Henry of Anjou, were
recognized (1133). But the death of Henry I. found the empress
absent from England. Stephen seized the opportunity. He
hurried across the Channel and began to canvass for supporters,
arguing that his oaths to Matilda were taken under coercion,
and that she, as the daughter of a professed nun, was illegitimate.
He was raised to the throne by the Londoners, the official
baronage and the clergy; his most influential supporters were
the old justiciar, Robert, bishop of Salisbury, and his own
brother Henry, bishop of Winchester. Innocent II. was in-
duced by Bishop Henry to ratify the election, and Stephen
thus cleared himself from the stain of perjury. Two charters
of liberties, issued in rapid succession, confirmed the King's
alliance with the Church and earned the good will of the nation.
But his supporters traded upon his notorious facility and the
unstable nature of his power. Extortionate concessions were
demanded by the great barons, and particularly by Earl Robert
of Gloucester, the half-brother of the empress. The clergy
insisted that neither their goods nor their persons should be
subject to secular jurisdiction. Stephen endeavoured to free
himself from the control of such interested supporters by
creating a mercenary army and a royalist party. This led at
once to a rupture between himself and Earl Robert (1138), which
was the signal for sporadic rebellions. Soon afterwards the
king attacked the bishops of Salisbury, Ely and Lincoln a
powerful family clique who stood at the head of the official
baronage and, not content with seizing their castles, sub-
jected them to personal outrage and detention. The result
was that the clergy, headed by his brother, the bishop of Win-
chester, declared against him (1139). In the midst of these
difficulties he had left the western marches at the mercy of the
Welsh, and the defence of the northern shires against David
of Scotland had devolved upon the barons of Yorkshire.
Stephen was thoroughly discredited when the empress at
length appeared in England (Sept. 30, 1139). Through a mis-
placed sense of chivalry he declined to take an opportunity of
seizing her person. She was therefore able to join her half-
brother at Gloucester, to obtain recognition in the western and
south-western shires, and to contest the royal title for eight
years. Stephen's initial errors were aggravated by bad general-
ship. He showed remarkable energy in hurrying from one
centre of rebellion to another; but he never ventured to attack
the headquarters of the empress. In 1141 he was surprised
and captured while besieging Lincoln Castle. The empress in
consequence reigned for six months as "Lady (Domino) of the
English " ; save for her faults of temper the cause of Stephen
would never have been retrieved. But, later in the year, his
supporters were able to procure his release in exchange for the
earl of Gloucester. After an obstinate siege he expelled Matilda
from Oxford (Dec. 1142) and compelled her to fall back upon
the west. The next five years witnessed anarchy such as
England had never before experienced. England north of the
Ribble and the Tyne had passed into the hands of David of
Scotland and his son, Prince Henry; Ranulf earl of Chester was
constructing an independent principality; on the west the
raids of the Angevin party, in the east and midlands the
882
STEPHEN (POPES) STEPHEN I.
excesses of such rebels as Geoffrey de Mandeville, earl of Essex,
turned considerable districts into wildernesses. Meanwhile
Geoffrey of Anjou, the husband of the empress, completed the
conquest of Normandy (1144). In 1147 the situation improved
for Stephen; Robert of Gloucester, the ablest of the Angevin
partisans, died, and the empress left England in despair. But
her son soon appeared in England to renew the struggle (1149)
and conciliate new supporters. Soon after his return to Nor-
mandy Henry was invested by his father with the duchy (1150).
He succeeded to Anjou in 1151; next year he acquired the
duchy of Aquitaine by marriage. Stephen struggled hard to
secure the succession for Eustace, his elder son. But he had
quarrelled with Rome respecting a vacancy in the see of York;
the pope forbade the English bishops to consecrate Eustace
(1151); and there was a general unwillingness to prolgng the civil
war. Worn out by incessant conflicts, the king bowed to the
inevitable when Henry next appeared in England (1153).
Negotiations were opened; and Stephen's last hesitations dis-
appeared when Eustace was carried off by a sudden illness.
Late in 1153 the king acknowledged Henry" as his heir, only
stipulating that the earldom of Surrey and his private estates
should be guaranteed to his surviving son, William. The king and
the duke agreed to co-operate for the repression of anarchy; but
Stephen died before this work was more than begun (Oct. 1154).
On his great seal Stephen is- represented as tall and robust,
bearded, and of an open countenance. He was frank and
generous; his occasional acts of duplicity were planned reluctantly
and never carried to their logical conclusion. High spirited
and proud of his dignity, he lived to repent, without being
able to undo, the ruinous concessions by which he had con-
ciliated supporters. In warfare he showed courage, but little
generalship; as a statesman he failed in his dealings with the
Church, which he alternately humoured and thwarted. He was
a generous patron of religious foundations; and some pleasing
anecdotes suggest that his personal character deserves more
commendation than his record as a king.
See the Gesta Stephani, Richard of Hexham, ^Elred of Rievaux'
Relatio de Standardo, and the chronicle of Robert de Torigni, all
in R. Hewlett's Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, &c. (4 vols.,
London, 18841889); Ordenc Vitalis s Historic, ecclesiaslica, ed.
Le Prevost (5 vols., Paris, 1838-1855); William of Malmesbury's
Historia novella, ed. W. Stubbs (London, 1889); John of Worcester's
Continuation of Florence, ed. J. H. Weaver (Oxford, 1908); the
Peterborough Chronicle, ed. C. Plummer (18921899). Of modern
works see Miss K. Norgate's England under the Angevin Kings, vol. i.
(London, 1887); O. Rossler's Kaiserin Mathilde (Berlin, 1897);
J. H. Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville (London, 1892); H. W. C.
Davis's " The Anarchy of Stephen's Reign " in Eng. Hist. Review
for 1903. (H. W. C. D.)
STEPHEN, the name of nine popes.
STEPHEN I., bishop of Rome from about 254 to 257, followed
Lucius I. He withdrew from church fellowship with Cyprian
and certain Asiatic bishops on account of their views as to the
necessity of rebaptizing heretics (Euseb. H. E. vii. 5; Cypr.
Epp. 75). He is also mentioned as having insisted on the
restoration of the bishops of Merida and Astorga, who had
been deposed for unfaithfulness during persecution but after-
wards had repented. He is commemorated on August 2. His
successor was Sixtus II.
STEPHEN II., pope from March 752 to April 757, was in
deacon's orders when chosen to the vacant see within twelve
days after the death of Zacharias. 1 The main difficulty of his
pontificate was in connexion with the aggressive attitude of
Aistulf, king of the Lombards. After unsuccessful embassies
to Aistulf himself and appeals to the emperor Constantine, he,
though in feeble health, set out to seek the aid of Pippin, by
whom he was received in the neighbourhood of Vitry le Brule in
the beginning of 754. He spent the winter at St Denis. The
result of his negotiations was the Prankish invasion of Aistulf's
territory and the famous " donation " of Pippin. The death
of Stephen took place not long after that of Aistulf. He was
succeeded by Paul I.
1 A priest named Stephen, elected before him, died three days
after, without having received the episcopal consecration.
STEPHEN III., pope from the 7th of August 768 to the 3rd
of February 772, was a native of Sicily, and, having come to
Rome during the pontificate of Gregory III., gradually rose to
high office in the service of successive popes. On the deposition
of Constantine II. Stephen was chosen to succeed him. Frag-
mentary records are preserved of the council (April 769) at
which the degradation of Constantine was completed, certain
new arrangements for papal elections made, and the practice
of image-worship confirmed. Stephen inclined to the Lombard
rather than to the Prankish alliance. He was succeeded by
Adrian I.
STEPHEN IV., pope from June 816 to January 817, suc-
ceeded Leo III. He did not continue Leo's policy, which was
more favourable to the clergy than to the lay aristocracy.
Immediately after his consecration he ordered the Roman
people to swear fidelity to Louis the Pious, to whom he found
it prudent to betake himself personally in the following August.
After the coronation of Louis at Reims in October he returned
to Rome, where he died in the beginning of the following year.
His successor was Paschal I.
STEPHEN V., pope from 885 to 891, succeeded Adrian III.,
and was in turn succeeded by Formosus. In his dealings with
Constantinople in the matter of Photius, as also in his relations
with the young Slavonic Church, he pursued the policy of
Nicholas I. His Italian policy wavered between his desire for
the protection of the German king Arnulf against Guy of Spoleto,
king of Italy, and fear of offending Guy. Guy was crowned
emperor in 891.
STEPHEN VI., pope from May 896 to July-August 897,
succeeded Boniface VI., and was in turn followed by Romanus.
His conduct towards the remains of Formosus, his last pre-
decessor but one (see FORMOSUS) excited a tumult, which ended
in his imprisonment and death by strangling.
STEPHEN VII. (January 929 to February 931) and STEPHEN
VIII. (July 939 to October 949) were virtually nonentities, who
held the pontificate while the real direction of the pontifical
state was in the hands of Marozia and, afterwards, of her son
Alberic, senator of the Romans.
STEPHEN IX., pope from August 1057 to March 1058, suc-
ceeded Victor II. (Gebhard of Eichstadt). His baptismal name
was Frederick, and he was a younger brother of Godfrey, duke
of Upper Lorraine, marquis of Tuscany (by his marriage with
Beatrice, widow of Boniface, marquis of Tuscany). Frederick,
who had been raised to the cardinalate by Leo IX., acted for
some time as papal legate at Constantinople, and was with
Leo in his unlucky expedition against the Normans. He shared
his brother's fortunes, and at one time had to take refuge from
Henry III. in Monte Cassino. Five days after the death of
Victor II. (who had made him cardinal-priest and abbot of
Monte Cassino) he was chosen to succeed him. He showed
great zeal in enforcing the Hildebrandine policy as to clerical
celibacy, and was planning the expulsion of the Normans from
Italy and the elevation of his brother to the imperial throne
when he was seized by a severe illness. He died at Florence
on the 29th of March 1058. ir
STEPHEN I. [ST STEPHEN] (977-1038), king of Hungary,
was the son of Geza, duke of Hungary, and of Sarolta, one of
the few Magyar Christian ladies, who obtained the best teachers
for her infant son. These preceptors included the German
priest Bruno, the Czech priest Radla, and an Italian knight,
Theodate of San Severino, who taught him arms and letters
(a holograph epistle by Stephen existed in the Vatican Library
as late as 1513). In 996 Stephen married Gisela, the daughter
of Duke Henry II. of Bavaria, and in the following year his
father died and the young prince was suddenly confronted by a
formidable pagan reaction under Kupa in the districts between
the Drave and Lake Balaton. Stephen hastened against the
rebels, bearing before him the banner of St Martin of Tours,
whom he now chose to be his patron saint, and routed the rebels
at Veszprem (998), a victory from which the foundation of the
Hungarian monarchy must be dated, for Stephen assumed the
royal title immediately afterwards. In 1001 his envoy Asztrik
STEPHEN V. STEPHEN, SIR J. F.
883
obtained Pope Silvester II. 's confirmation of this act of sove-
reignty. Silvester at the same time sent Stephen a consecrated
crown, and approved of the erection of an independent Hun-
garian church, divided into the two provinces of Esztergom
and Bacs. But the power of pagan Hungary could not be broken
in a day. The focus of the movement was the Maros region,
where the rebel Ajtony built the fortress of Marosvar. The
struggle proceeded for more than twenty-five, years, the diffi-
culties of Stephen being materially increased by the assistance
rendered to the rebels by the Greek emperors, his neighbours
since their reconquest of Bulgaria. As early as 1015 Stephen
had appointed the Italian priest Gellert bishop of Maros, but
he was unable to establish the missionary in his see till 1030.
The necessity of christianizing his heathen kingdom by force
of arms engrossed all the energies of Stephen and compelled
him to adopt a pacific policy towards the emperors of the East
and West. When the emperor Conrad, with the deliberate
intention of subjugating Hungary, invaded it in 1030, Stephen
not only drove him out, but captured Vienna (now mentioned
for the first time) and compelled the emperor to cede a large
portion of the Ostmark (1031). Of the five sons borne to him
by Gisela, only Emerich reached manhood, and this well-
educated prince was killed by a wild boar in 1031. Stephen
thereupon appointed as his successor his wife's nephew Peter
Orseolo, who settled in Hungary, where his intrigues and foreign
ways made him extremely unpopular. Stephen died at his
palace at Esztergom in 1038 and was canonized in 1083. For
an account of his epoch-making reforms see HUNGARY: History.
See Gyula Pauler, History of the Hungarian Nation, vol. i.
(Hung.; Pest, 1893); Lajos Bahcs, History of the Roman Catholic
Church in Hungary, vol. i. (Hung.; Pest, 1885); Antal For, Life of
St Stephen (Hung.; Pest, 1871); Janos Karacsonyi, Documents
issued by Stephen I. (Hung. ; Pest, 1892), idem, Life of St Gellert(H\ing. ;
Pest, 1887); E. Horn, St Elienne, roi apostolique de Hongrie
de Ketrszynski, Vita sancti Stephani
(Paris, 1899); W. J. Winkler
(Cracow, 1897).
(R. N. B.)
STEPHEN V. (1230-1272), king of Hungary, was the eldest
son of Bela IV., whom he succeeded in 1270. As crown prince
he had exhibited considerable ability, but also a disquieting
restlessness and violence. In 1262 he compelled his father,
whom he had assisted in the Bohemian War, to surrender twenty-
nine counties to him, so that Hungary was virtually divided
into two kingdoms. Not content with this he subsequently
seized the southern banate of Macso, which led to a fresh war
between father and son in which the latter triumphed. In
1268 he undertook an expedition against the Bulgarians, con-
quering the land as far as Tirnova and styling himself hence-
forth king of Bulgaria. Stephen was a keen and circumspect
politician, and for his future security contracted, during his
father's lifetime, a double 1 matrimonial alliance with the Nea-
politan princes of the House of Anjou, the chief partisans of the
pope. He certainly needed exterior support; for on his accession
to the Hungarian throne, as he himself declared, every one was
his enemy. This hostility was due to the almost universal
opinion of western Europe that Stephen was a semi-pagan.
His father had married him while still a youth (c. 1255) to
Elizabeth, daughter of the Kumanian chieftain Koteny, with a
view to binding the Rumanians (who could put in the field
16,000 men; see HUNGARY: History) more closely to the dynasty
in the then by no means improbable contingency of a second
Tatar invasion. The lady was duly baptized and remained a
Christian; but the adversaries of Stephen, especially Ottakar II.
of Bohemia, affected to believe that Stephen was too great a
friend of the Rumanians to be a true Catholic. Ottakar
endeavoured, with the aid of the Magyar malcontents, to
conquer the western provinces of Hungary, but after some suc-
cesses was utterly routed by Stephen in 1271 near Mosony,
and by the peace of Pressburg, the same year, relinquished all
his conquests. Stephen died suddenly on the 6th of August
1 Charles, the son of Charles of Anjou, was to marry Stephen's
daughter Maria, while Stephen's infant son Ladislaus was to marry
Charles's daughter Elizabeth. Another of his daughters, Anna,
married the Greek emperor Andronicus Palaeologus.
1272, just as he was raising an army to recover his kidnapped
infant son Ladislaus from the hands of his rebellious vassals.
See Ignacz Acsady, History of the Hungarian Realm, vol. i.
(Hung.; Budapest, 1903). (R. N. B.)
STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859), English historian, was
the son of James Stephen, master in chancery, author of The
Slavery of the West India Colonies and other works, and was
born in London on the 3rd of January 1789. He was educated
at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1812, after
which he studied for the bar and was called at Lincoln's Inn.
He obtained an extensive practice as a chancery barrister,
being ultimately counsel to the colonial department and counsel
to the board of trade. In 1834 he became assistant under-
secretary for the colonies, and shortly afterwards permanent
under-secretary. On his retirement in 1847 he was made a
knight commander of the Bath. In 1849 he was appointed
regius professor of modern history in the university of Cam-
bridge, having already distinguished himself by his brilliant
studies in ecclesiastical biography contributed to the Edinburgh
Review, which were published that year under the title Essays
in Ecclesiastical Biography and Other Subjects; a 4th edition,
with a short memoir, appeared in 1860. He was also the
author of Lectures on the flistory of France ( 2 vols., 1851; 3rd
ed., 1857), and Desultory and Systematic Reading, a lecture
(1853). He died at Coblentz on the i5th of September 1859.
STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART. (1820-1894),
English lawyer, judge and publicist, was born in London on the
3rd of March 1829, the third child and second son of Sir James
Stephen (q.v.). Fitzjames Stephen was for three years (1842-
1845) a t Eton, and for two years at King's College, London.
In October 1847 he entered at Trinity College, Cambridge.
Notwithstanding exceptional vigour in mind and body, he did
not attain any of the usual scholastic or athletic distinctions.
The only studies then seriously prosecuted in the university
course were mathematics and classics. Neither of these at-
tracted him in their academical forms, nor did he care for com-
petitive sport. But his Cambridge time was fruitful in other
ways. He was already acquainted with Sir Henry Maine (q.v.),
six years his senior, and then newly appointed to the chair of
civil law. This acquaintance now ripened into a perfect friend-
ship, which ended only with Maine's death in 1888. No twa
men's intellectual tempers ever presented a stronger contrast.
As Stephen himself said, it took them a long time to know
when they really agreed. Maine was subtle, swift and far-
reaching; Stephen was massive, downright, indefatigable
and sincere even to unnecessary frankness. Their qualities
were an almost exact complement of one another, but neither
of them would take opinions on trust, or acquiesce in common-
place methods of avoiding difficulties; and it might have been
said of either of them without exaggeration that, if all his
technical and professional requirements could be taken away, a
born man of letters would be left. By Maine's introduction,
Stephen became a member of the Cambridge society known as
the Apostles, in form not very different from many other essay
societies, in substance a body with an unformulated but most
individual tradition of open-mindedness and absolute mutual
tolerance in all matters of opinion. Perhaps the golden age of
the society was a few years before Stephen's election, but it
still contained a remarkable group of men who afterwards
became eminent in such different ways as, for instance, James
Clerk Maxwell and Sir William Harcourt. Stephen formed
friendships with some of its members, which were as permanent,
though in few cases so little subject to external interruption,
as his intimacy with Maine. Probably the Apostles did much
to correct the formalism inevitably incident to the evangelical
traditions of the first Sir James Stephen's household.
After leaving Cambridge, Fitzjames Stephen, having practi-
cally to choose between the Church and the bar, decided for the
bar. He was called in 1854, after the usual haphazard prepara-
tion which was then (and still practically is) considered in
England alone, and even in England for one kind of learning
884
STEPHEN, SIR J. F.
alone, a sufficient introduction to the duties of a learned pro-
fession. His own estimate of his strictly professional success,
written down in later years, was that in spite of such training
as he could get, rather than because of it, he became a moderately
successful advocate and a rather distinguished judge. As to
the former branch of the statement, it is correct but ambiguous
to those who do not know the facts. Stephen's work was always
distinguished in quality, though his amount of business was never
great in quantity. After his return from India and before
he became a judge he had what is called a good practice, but
still not a large one. In his earlier years at the bar he was
attracted by the stop-gap of journalism. It was no common
journalism, however, that enlisted Stephen as a contributor to
the Saturday Review when it was founded in 1855. He was in
company with Maine, Sir William Harcourt, G. S. Venables
(a writer of first-rate quality who never set his name to any-
thing), C. S. C. Bowen, E.A. Freeman, Goldwin Smith and others
whose names have since become well known. Strangely enough,
the first and the last books published by Stephen were selections
from his papers in the Saturday Review (Essays by a Barrister,
1862, anonymous; Horae sabbaticae, 1892). These volumes
embodied the results of his studies among publicists and
theologians, chiefly English, from the I7th century onwards.
They never professed to be more than the occasional products
of an amateur's leisure, but they were of greater value
when they were first published than is easily recognized at
this day by a generation familiar with the resources of later
criticism.
For exactly three years (1858-1861) Stephen served as secretary
to a royal commission on popular education, which was more
fortunate than most commissions in having prompt effect given
to its conclusions. In 1859 he was appointed recorder of
Newark. In 1863 he published his General View of the Criminal
Law of England (not altogether superseded by the second edition
of 1890, which was practically a new book). This was really
the first attempt that had been made since Blackstone to explain
the principles of English law and justice in a literary form,
and it had a thoroughly deserved success. All this time Stephen
kept up a great deal of miscellaneous writing, and the foundation
of the Pall Mall Gazette in 1865 gave him a new opening. He
was one of the principal contributors for some years, and an
occasional one till he became a judge. So far he was a literary
lawyer, also possibly with chances (diminished by his vehement
dislike for party politics) of regular professional advancement,
possibly not free from the temptation to turn wholly to literature.
The decisive point of his career was in the summer of 1869,
when he accepted the post of legal member of council in India.
Fitzjames Stephen's friend Maine was his immediate predecessor
in this office. Guided by Maine's comprehensive genius, the
government of India had entered on a period of systematic
legislation which was to last about twenty years. The materials
for considerable parts of this plan had been left by Maine in a
more or less forward condition. Stephen had the task of work-
ing them into their definite shape and conducting the bills
through the Legislative Council. This he did with wonderful
energy, with efficiency and workmanship adequate to the purpose,
if sometimes rough according to English notions, and so as to
leave his own individual mark in many places. The Native
Marriages Act of 1872 was the result of deep consideration on
both Maine's and Stephen's part. The Contract Act had been
framed in England by a learned commission (apparently not
having much special Indian information, or not much regarding
that which it had), and the draft was materially altered in
Stephen's hands before, also in 1872, it became law. The
Evidence Act of the same year was entirely Stephen's own.
It not only consolidated the rules of judicial proof, but en-
deavoured to connect them by legislative authority with a
logical theory of probability set forth in the act itself. This
part of the act has been criticized both as to the principle (which,
indeed, seems open to much doubt) and as to the success of the
draftsman in applying it. At any rate it is characteristic of
Stephen's anxiety never to shirk a difficulty. To some extent
the Contract Act may be charged with similar over-ambition;
but its more practical defects are evidently due to the acceptance
by the original framers of unsatisfactory statements which,
coming to India with a show of authority, naturally escaped
minute criticism amid the varied business of the legislative
department. If the success of the later Anglo-Indian Codes
has not been quite so complete as that of the Penal Code, they
have, on the whole, done excellent service, and they are at least
as good as any European codification prior to the very recent
achievements of scientific lawyers in Italy and Germany.
Besides the special work of legislation, Stephen had to attend
to the current administrative business of his department,
often heavy enough to occupy the whole of an ordinary able
man's attention, and he took his full share in the general delib-
erations of the viceroy's council. His last official act was the
publication of a minute on the administration of justice which
pointed the way to reforms not yet fully realized, and is still
most valuable for every one who wishes to understand the
judicial system of British India. Stephen, mainly for family
reasons, came home in the spring of 1872. During the voyage
he made a pastime of meditating and writing a series of articles
which took the form of his book entitled Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity (1873-1874) a protest against J. S. Mill's neo-
utilitarianism which was really in the nature of an appeal from
the new to the old utilitarians, if any such were left, or per-
haps rather to Hobbes. It was, however, too individual to be
systematic, and made no serious attempt at reconstruction.
Indian experience had supplied Stephen with the motive for
his next line of activity, which future historians of the common
law may well regard as his most eminent title to remembrance.
The government of India had been driven by the conditions
of the Indian judicial system to recast a considerable part of
the English law which had been informally imported. Criminal
law procedure, and a good deal of commercial law, had been
or were being put in a shape intelligible to civilian magistrates,
and fairly within the comprehension of any intelligent man
who would give a moderate amount of pains to mastering the
text of the new codes. The rational substance of the law had
been preserved, while the disorder and the excessive technicalities
were removed. Why should not the same procedure be as
practicable and profitable in England? It was Bentham's
ideal of codification, to be put in practice with the knowledge
of actual business and legal habits, and the lack of which had
made Bentham's plans unworkable. For the next half-dozen
years Fitzjames Stephen was an ardent missionary in this
cause. The mission failed for the time as to the specific under-
takings in which Stephen made his experiments, but it had
a large indirect success which has not yet been adequately
recognized. Stephen published, by way of private exposition,
digests in code form of the law of evidence and the criminal law.
There were transient hopes of an evidence act being brought
before parliament, and in 1878 the digest of criminal law became
a ministerial bill. This was referred to a very strong judicial
commission, with the addition of Stephen himself: the revised
bill was introduced in 1879 and 1880. It dealt with procedure
as well as substantive law, and provided for a court of criminal
appeal (after several years of judicial experience Stephen
changed his mind as to the wisdom of this). However, no
substantial progress was made. In 1883 the part relating to
procedure was brought in separately, and went to the grand
committee on law, who found there was not time to deal with it
satisfactorily in the course of the session. Criminal appeal has
since (1907) been dealt with; otherwise nothing has been done
with either part of the draft code since. The historical materials
which Stephen had long been collecting took permanent shape
the same year (1883) in the History of the Criminal Law of
England, which, though not free from inequalities and traces
of haste, must long remain the standard work on the subject.
A projected digest of the law of contract (which would have been
much fuller than the Indian Code) fell through for want of time.
Thus, none of Stephen's own plans of English codification
took effect. Nevertheless they bore fruit indirectly. Younger
STEPHEN, SIR L.
885
men dealt with other chapters of the law in the systematic form
of the Anglo-Indian codes; and a digest of the law of partner-
ship by Sir Frederick Pollock, and one of the law of negotiable
instruments by Sir M. D. Chalmers, who some time afterwards
filled the post of legal member of council in India, became the
foundation of the Bills of Exchange Act of 1882 and the Partner-
ship Act of 1890. Lord Herschell passed a Sale of Goods Act on
similar lines, also drafted by Chalmers, in 1893; and a Marine
Insurance Act, prepared in like manner in 1894, finally became
law in 1906. Nothing really stands in the way of a practically
complete code of maritime and commercial law for the United
Kingdom but the difficulty of finding time in the House of
Commons for non-contentious legislation; and whenever this
is achieved, the result will in substance be largely due to Sir
James Stephen's efforts. Meanwhile, in addition to his other
occupations, Stephen was an active member of the Metaphysical
Society (see KNOWLES), and he carried on an intimate corre-
spondence with Lord Lytton, then viceroy of India, during the
critical period of the second Afghan War. In connexion with the
Metaphysical Society, and otherwise, Fitzjames Stephen took
an active interest in many topics of current controversy. This
led him to produce a great number of occasional articles, of
which a list may be found at the end of Sir Leslie Stephen's Life.
The matters dealt with covered a wide field, from modern history
and politics, with a predilection for India, to philosophy, but the
prevailing mood was theologico-political. All these writings
were forcible expositions of serious and thoroughly definite views,
and therefore effective at the time and valuable even to those
who least agreed with them. As to the philosophical part of
them, the grounds of discussion were shifting then, and have
continued to shift rapidly. Much of Stephen's vigorous polemic
has already incurred the natural fate of becoming as obsolete as
the arguments against which it was directed. Pure metaphysical
speculation, as an intellectual exercise, had little attraction for
him; and, though he was fully capable of impartial historical
criticism, he seldom applied it outside the history of law.
In 1877 Stephen was made a Knight Commander of the Star
of India, and in 1878 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L.
at Oxford. Early in 1879 he was appointed judge of the queen's
bench division. He held that office a little more than eleven
years. The combination of mature intellectual patience and
critical subtlety which marked the great masters of the common
law was not his, and it cannot be said that he made any con-
siderable addition to the substance of legal ideas. His mind
was framed for legislation rather than for systematic interpreta-
tion and development. Therefore he can hardly be called a
great judge; but he was a thoroughly just and efficient one;
and if none of his judgments became landmarks of the law, very
few of them were wrong. Especially in criminal jurisdiction,
he was invariably anxious that moral as well as legal justice
should be done. He found time, in 1885, to produce a book on
the trial of Nuncomar, for the purpose of rehabilitating Sir
Elijah Impey's memory against the attack made on him in
Macaulay's essay on Warren Hastings, which for most English
readers is the first and last source of information on the whole
matter. Mr G. W. Forrest's later research in the archives of
the government of India had tended to confirm the judicial
protest, at any rate as regards Macaulay's grosser charges.
The one thing of which Stephen was least capable among
other things possible to a good man and a good citizen was
sparing himself. He had one or two warnings which a less
energetic man would have taken more seriously. In the spring
of 1891 his health broke down, the chief symptom being sudden
lapses of memory of which he was himself quite unconscious.
In obedience to medical advice he resigned his judgeship in
April, and was created a baronet. He lived in retirement till
his death on the nth of March 1894, having filled a not very long
life with a surprising amount of work, of which a large proportion
was of permanent value. Perhaps the most individual part
of Stephen's character was his absolute sincerity. He would
not allow himself even innocent dissimulation; and this gave
to those who knew him but slightly an impression of hardness
which was entirely contrary to his real nature. Sir James
Stephen married Mary Richenda Cunningham in 1855. On
bis death his eldest son, Herbert, succeeded to the baronetcy.
A second son of brilliant literary promise, James Kenneth
Stephen (1859-1892), died in his father's lifetime: his principal
literary achievements consisted in two small volumes of verse
Lapsus calami and Quo Musa tendis, the former of which
went through five editions in a very short time. The third son,
Mr H. L. Stephen, was appointed in 1901 judge of the High
Court of Calcutta.
See Sir Leslie Stephen, Life of Sir James Fitzjames Stephen
(London, 1895), with bibliographical appendix, a model Biography;
same author's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. ; Letters with biographical
Notes, by his daughter, Caroline Emelia Stephen (1907). See also
Sir C. P. Ilbert, " Sir James Stephen as a Legislator," Law Quart.
Rev. x. 222. (F. Po.)
STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904), English biographer
and literary critic, grandson of James Stephen (1758-1832),
master in chancery, a friend of Wilberforce, and author of a
book called Slavery Delineated, and son of Sir James Stephen
(1789-1859), colonial under-secretary for many years, and
author of Essays on Ecclesiastical Biography, was born at Ken-
sington Gore on the 28th of November 1832. At his father's
house he saw a good deal of the Abolitionists and other members
of the Clapham sect, and the Macaulays, James Spedding,
Sir Henry Taylor and Nassau Senior were intimate friends of his
family. After education at Eton, King's College, London,
and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. (2oth
wrangler) 1854, M.A. 1857, Stephen remained for several years
a fellow and tutor of his college. He has recounted the experi-
ences of a resident fellow at that period in a delightful chapter
in his Life of Fawcett as well as in some less formal Sketches from
Cambridge: By a Don (1865). These sketches were reprinted
from the Pall Mall Gazette, to the proprietor of which, George
Smith, he had been introduced by his brother (Sir) James
Fitzjames Stephen. It was at Smith's house at Hampstead
that Stephen met his first wife, Harriet Marion (d. 1875),
daughter of W. M. Thackeray; after her death he married
Julia Prinsep, widow of Herbert Duckworth. While still a
fellow he had taken holy orders, which he relinquished in March
1875 upon the passing of the Clerical Disabilities Act. In the
meantime (after a visit to America, where he formed lasting
friendships with Lowell and Eliot Norton) he settled in London,
and wrote largely, not only for the Pall Mall Gazette and the
Saturday Review, but also for Fraser, Macmillan, the Fortnightly
and other periodicals. He was already known as an ardent moun-
taineer, as a contributor to Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (1862),
and as one of the earliest presidents of the Alpine Club, when in
1871, as a vindication in some sort of the mountaineering mania,
and as a commemoration of his own first ascents of the Schreck-
horn and Rothhorn, he published his fascinating Playground of
Europe (republished with additions, 1894). In the same year
he was appointed editor of the Cornhill Magazine, the reputation
of which he maintained by enlisting R. L. Stevenson, Thomas
Hardy, W. E. Norris, Henry James and James Payn among
his contributors. During the eleven years of his editorship,
in addition to three sharp and penetrating volumes of critical
studies, reprinted mainly from the Cornhill under the title of
Hours in a Library (1874,1876 and 1879), and some Essays on
Freethinking and Plain Speaking (1873 and 1897, with intro-
ductory essays by J. Bryce and H. Paul) , which included the very
striking " A Bad Five Minutes in the Alps " (reprinted from
Fraser and the Fortnightly in 1873), he made two valuable
contributions to philosophical history and theory, The History
of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1876 and 1881) and
The Science of Ethics (1882) ; the second of these was extensively
adopted as a textbook on the subject. The first was generally
recognized as an important addition to philosophical literature,
and led immediately to Stephen's election at the Athenaeum
Club in 1877. In 1879 he set on foot a Sunday Walking Club,
which contained well-known names, among them Sir F. Pollock,
F. W. Maitland, Croom Robertson and Cotter Morison.
886
STEPHEN BAR $UDHAILE
In the autumn of 1882 he abandoned the direction of the
Cornhill to James Payn, having accepted the more responsible
duty of the editor of the Dictionary of National Biography,
for the first planning and conception of which he was largely
responsible. The first volume of the Dictionary was published
in January 1885, and twenty quarterly volumes followed under
Stephen's sole editorship. Five volumes were then published
under the joint editorship of Leslie Stephen and of Mr Sidney
Lee, whom he had appointed as his assistant in March 1883.
Early in 1891, after eight and a half years' service, Stephen,
whose health had been impaired by the labour inseparable
from the direction of such an undertaking, resigned the responsi-
bility to his coadjutor. Not a trained historian, he often found
it difficult to curb his impatience with Carlyle's old enemy Dryas-
dust. Fortunately for the success of the work, re-established
health enabled him to remain a contributor to the Dictionary.
Among his lives are those of Addison, Bolingbroke, Burns,
Charlotte Bronte, Byron, Carlyle, Marlborough, Coleridge,
Defoe, Dickens, Dryden, Fielding, George Eliot, Gibbon, Gold-
smith, Hobbes, Hume, Johnson, Landor, Locke, Macaulay, the
two Mills, Milton, Pope, Scott, Swift, Adam Smith, Thackeray,
Warburton, Wordsworth and Young. Many of these are salted
with irony, and most of them are characterized by felicitous
phrases, by frequent flashes of insight (especially of the sardonic
order), and by the good fortune which attends a consummate
artist in his special craft. His particular style of treatment
is more appropriate, perhaps, to the self-complacent worthies
of the i8th century than to quietists such as Law and Words-
worth; but where space demands that a character should be
inscribed upon a cherry-stone, Stephen seldom if ever failed to
rise to the occasion. For the " English Men of Letters " he
wrote lives of Swift, Pope and Johnson the last well described
as " the peerless model of short biographies " and subsequently
George Eliot and Hobbes (1904). During his tenure of the
editorship of the Dictionary he was appointed first Clark lecturer
at Cambridge (1883), and lectured upon his favourite period
Berkeley, Mandeville, Warburton and Hume; a few years later,
upon one of several visits to his intimate friends and old corre-
spondents, Norton and Lowell, he received (1890) a doctor's
degree from Harvard University. After Lowell's death in 1891
Stephen was mainly instrumental in having a memorial window
placed in Westminster Abbey.
In 1885 he brought out his standard Life of Fawcett, in 1893
his Agnostic's Apology and other Essays, and in 1895 the Life of
his brother, Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, which, less essayistic
in manner than the Life of Fawcett, contains his most finished
biographical work. In the same year, in succession to Lord
Tennyson, Stephen was elected president of the London Library,
and shortly afterwards appointed a trustee of the National
Portrait Gallery. Some of his experiences as an editor were
embodied in Studies of a Biographer, issued in 1898, while in
1900 appeared an important work which he had long had in
preparation in continuation of his English Thought in the
Eighteenth Century, entitled The English Utilitarians, being full-
length studies of Bentham and the two Mills. As a thinker
Leslie Stephen showed himself consistently a follower of
Hume, Bentham, the Mills and G. H. Lewes, but he accepted
the older utilitarianism only as modified by the application of
Darwinian principles, upon lines to some extent indicated by
Herbert Spencer (see ETHICS). The negative character of his
teaching, his anti-sacerdotal bias, his continual attitude of
irony, and even the very subtlety of his thought, have co-
operated to retard the recognition of his value as rivalled only
by Bagehot among critics of the incisive school. For blowing
the froth off the flagon of extravagant or inflated eulogy he
certainly met no equal in his generation. Voluminous as his
work is, it is never dull. While making self-depreciation a fine
art, and perpetually laughing in his sleeve at the literary bias
and the literary foible, he fulfilled with exceptional conscience the
literary duty of never writing below his best. Brought up in a
rigid and precise school which scorned all pretence and dis-
couraged enthusiasm as the sign of an ill-regulated mind, he
produced no magnum opus, but he enriched English literature
with a fine gallery of literary portraks, not all of them perhaps.
wholly accurate, but restrained, concise and always significant.
Besides being a member of the Metaphysical Society, he was for
some years president of the Ethical Society (many of his addresses
to which were published as Social Rights and Duties in 1896).
In addition to his separate works, he superintended a large
number of editions, among them Clifford's Essays (1879),
Fielding (1882), Richardson (1883), Payn's Backwater of Life
(1899), and J. R. Green's Letters (1901). In 1896 he wrote a
memoir of his friend James Dykes Campbell for the second edition
of Campbell's Coleridge, and in 1897 he contributed a preface
to the English translation of The Early Life of Wordsworth, by
M. Legbuis.
His name was included in the Coronation honours list of
June 1902, when he was made K.C.B. In December of this
year he had to undergo an operation, after which his health
began to wane rapidly. In 1903 his Ford lectures, one last
luminous talk about the i8th century, were delivered by his
nephew, Hi L. Fisher. He told a nurse that his enjoyment
of books had begun and would end with Boswell's Johnson.
Like Johnson, under a brusque exterior and a coltish temper,
he concealed a sympathetic and humorous soul. In spite of
" natural sorrows " the loss of two much loved wives, he
pronounced his life to have been a happy one. He died at his
house, 22 Hyde Park Gate, on the 22nd of February 1904, and
his remains were buried at Golders Green. A Leslie Stephen
memorial lectureship was founded at Cambridge in 1905. Under
an austere form and visage Stephen was in reality the soul of
susceptibility and of an almost freakish fun. This is shown
very clearly in the fantastic marginal drawings with which he
delighted to illustrate his life for the amusement of young
people.
See Life and Letters, by F.W.Maitland (1906) ; and Dictionary of Nat-
ional Biography, postscript to Statistical Account in the 1908-1909
reissue. (T. SE.)
STEPHEN BAR SUDHAILE, a Syrian mystical writer,
who flourished about the end of the sth century A.D. The
earlier part of his career was passed at Edessa, of which he may
have been a native. 1 He afterwards removed to Jerusalem,
where he lived as a monk, and endeavoured to make converts
to his peculiar doctrines, both by teaching among the community
there and by letters to his former friends at Edessa. He was
the author of commentaries on the Bible and other theological
works. Two of his eminent contemporaries, the Monophysites
Jacob of Serugh (451-521) and Philoxenus of Mabbogh (d. 523),
wrote letters in condemnation of his teaching. His two main
theses which they attacked were (i) the limited duration of the
future punishment of sinners, (2) the pantheistic doctrine that
" all nature is consubstantial with the Divine essence " that
the whole universe has emanated from God, and will in the end
return to and be absorbed in him.
The fame of Stephen as a writer rests on his identification with
the author of a treatise which survives in a single Syriac MS. (Brit.
Mus. Add. MSS. 7189, written mainly in the I3th century), "The book
of Hierotheus on the hidden mysteries of the house of God." The
work claims to have been composed in the 1st century A.D. by a
certain Hierotheus who was the disciple of St Paul and the teacher
of Dionysius the Areopagite. But, like the works which pass under
the name of Dionysius, it is undoubtedly pseudonymous, and most
Syriac writers who mention it attribute it to Stephen. An interesting
discussion and summary of the book have been given by A. L.
Frothingham (Stephen bar Sudhaili, Leiden, 1886), but the text
is still (19:0) unpublished. From Frothingham's analysis we
learn that the work consists of five books; after briefly describing
the origin of the world by emanation from the Supreme Good it is
mainly occupied with the description of the stages by which the
mind returns to union with God, who finally becomes " all in all."
" To describe the contents in a few words: at the beginning we find
the statement regarding absolute existence, and the emanation from
primordial essence of the spiritual and material universes: then
comes, what occupies almost the entire work, the experience of
1 He is described as " Stephen the Edessene " in the 8th-century
MS. which contains the letter of Philoxenus to Abraham and
Orestes.
STEPHEN BATHORY STEPHENS, A. H.
887
the mind in search of perfection during this life. Finally comes
the description of the various phases of existence as the mind rises
into complete union with, and ultimate absorption into, the primitive
essence. The keynote to the experience of the mind is its absolute
identification with Christ; but the son finally resigns the kingdom
unto the Father, and all distinct existence comes to an end, being
lost in the chaos of the Good " (Frothingham, p. 92). One of the
most curious features of the work is the misguided skill with which
the language of the Bible is pressed into the service of pantheistic
speculation. In this and other respects the book harmonizes well
with the picture of Stephen's teaching afforded by the letter of
Philoxenus to the Edessene priests Abraham and Orestes (Frothing-
ham, pp. 28-48). The Book of Hierotheus is probably an original
Syriac work, and not translated from Greek. Its relation to the
Pseudo-Dionysian literature is a difficult question; probably
Frothingham (p. 83) goes too far in suggesting that it was prior
to all the pseudo-Dionysian writings (cf. Ryssel in Zeitschrift fur
Kirchengeschichte) .
The unique MS. in which the book of Hierotheus survives furnishes
along with its text the commentary made upon it by Theodosius,
patriarch of Antioch (887-896), who appears to have sympathized
with its teaching. A rearrangement and abridgment of the work
was made by the great Monophysite author Barhebraeus (1226-
1286), who expunged or garbled much of its unorthodox teaching.
It is interesting to note that the identical copy which he used is
the MS. which now survives in the British Museum. (N. M.)
STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586), king of
Poland and prince of Transylvania, the most famous member
of the Somlyo branch of the ancient Bathory family, now
extinct, but originally almost coeval with the Hungarian
monarchy. Istvan Bathory spent his early years at the court
of the emperor Ferdinand, subsequently attached himself to
Janos Zapolya, and won equal renown as a valiant lord-marcher,
and as a skilful diplomatist at the imperial court. Zapolya
rewarded him with the voivodeship of Transylvania, and as the
loyal defender of the rights of his patron's son, John Sigismund,
he incurred the animosity of the emperor Maximilian, who
kept him in prison for two years. On the 25th of May 1571,
on the death of John Sigismund, Bathory was elected prince
of Transylvania by the Hungarian estates, in spite of the opposi-
tion of the court of Vienna and contrary to the wishes of the
late prince, who had appointed Caspar Bekesy his successor.
Bekesy insisting on his claims, a civil war ensued in which
Bathory ultimately drove his rival out of Transylvania (1572).
On the flight of Henry of Valois from Poland in 1574, the Polish
nobility, chiefly at the instigation of the great chancellor, Jan
Zamoyski, elected Bathory king of Poland (1575) in opposition
to the emperor Maximilian, the candidate of the senate. On
hearing of his altogether unexpected elevation, Bathory sum-
moned the Transylvanian estates together at Medgyes and
persuaded them to elect his brother Christopher prince in his
stead; then hastening to Cracow, he accepted the onerous
conditions laid upon him by the Polish Diet, espoused the
princess Anne, the elderly sister of the last Jagiello, Sigismund
II., and on the ist of May was crowned with unprecedented
magnificence. At first his position was extremely difficult;
but the sudden death of the emperor Maximilian at the very
moment when that potentate, in league with the Muscovite,
was about to invade Poland, completely changed the face of
things, and though Stephen's distrust of the Habsburgs re-
mained invincible, he consented at last to enter into a defensive
alliance with the empire which was carried through by the
papal nuncio on his return to Rome in 1578. The leading events
of Stephen Bathory's glorious reign can here only be briefly
indicated. All armed opposition collapsed with the surrender
of Danzig. " The Pearl of Poland," encouraged by her immense
wealth, and almost impregnable fortifications, as well as by the
secret support of Denmark and the emperor, had shut her gates
against the new monarch, and was only reduced (Dec. 16,
1577) after a six months' siege, beginning with a pitched battle
beneath her walls in which she lost 5000 of her mercenaries.
Danzig was compelled to pay a fine of 200,000 guldens, but her
civil and religious liberties were wisely confirmed. Stephen
was now able to devote himself to foreign affairs. The difficul-
ties with the sultan were temporarily adjusted by a truce signed
on the sth of November 1577; and the Diet of Warsaw was
persuaded to grant Stephen subsidies for the inevitable war
against Muscovy. Two campaigns of wearing marches, and
still more exhausting sieges ensued, in which Bathory, although
repeatedly hampered by the parsimony of the Diet, was uniformly
successful, his skilful diplomacy at the same time allaying the
suspicions of the Porte and the emperor. In 1581 Stephen
penetrated to the very heart of Muscovy, and, on the 22nd of
August, sat down before the ancient city of Pskov, whose vast
size and imposing fortifications filled the little Polish army with
dismay. But the king, despite the murmurs of his own officers,
and the protestations of the papal nuncio, Possevino, whom the
curia, deluded by the mirage of a union of the churches, had
sent expressly from Rome to mediate between the tsar and the
king of Poland, closely besieged the city throughout a winter
of arctic severity, till, on the i3th of December 1581, Ivan the
Terrible, alarmed ' for the safety of the third city in his
empire, concluded peace at Zapoli (Jan. 15, 1582), thereby
ceding Polotsk and the whole of Livonia. The chief domestic
event of Stephen's reign was the establishment in Poland of the
Jesuits, who alone had the intelligence to understand and
promote his designs of uniting Poland, Muscovy and Tran-
sylvania into one great state with the object of ultimately
expelling the Turks from Europe. The project was dissipated by
his sudden death, of apoplexy, on the I2th of December 1586.
See I. Polkowski, The Martial Exploits of Stephen Bathory (Pol.;
Cracow, 1887); Paul Pierling, Un Arbitrage pontifical au xvi me
siecle (Brussels, 1890) ; Lajos Szadeczky, Stephen Bathory's election
to the Crown of Poland (Hung. ; Budapest, 1887). (R. N. B.)
STEPHENS, ALEXANDER HAMILTON (1812-1883), Ameri-
can statesman, vice-president of the Confederate States during
the Civil War, was born in Wilkes (now Taliaferro) county,
Georgia, on the nth of February 1812. He was a weak and
sickly child of poor parents, and from his sixth to his fifteenth
year, when he was left an orphan, he worked on a farm. After
his father's death he went to live with an uncle in Warren
county. The superintendent of the local Sunday school sent
him to an academy at Washington, Wilkes county, for one year
and in the following year (1828) he was sent by the Georgia
Educational Society to Franklin College (university of Georgia),
where he graduated in 1832. Deciding not to enter the ministry,
he paid back the money advanced by the society. He was a
schoolmaster for about two years, and then, after studying law
for less than four months, was admitted to the bar in 1834.
Although delicate in health, his success at the bar was immediate
and remarkable. In 1836 he was elected to the Georgia House
of Representatives after a campaign in which he was vigorously
opposed because he had attacked the doctrine of nullification,
and because he had opposed all extra-legal steps against the
abolitionists. He was annually re-elected until 1841; in 1842
he was elected to the state Senate, and in the following year,
on the Whig ticket, to the National House of Representatives.
In this last body he urged the annexation of Texas, chiefly as a
means of achieving more power for the South in Congress.
He was denounced as a traitor to his party because of his support
of annexation, but he later became the leader of the Whig
opposition to the war with Mexico. He vigorously supported
the Compromise Measures in 1850, and continued to act with
the Whigs of the North until they, in 1852, nominated General
Winfield Scott for the presidency without Scott's endorsement
of the Compromise. Stephens and other Whigs of the South
then chose Daniel Webster, but a little later they joined the
Democrats. In 1854 Stephens helped to secure the passage
of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Before the Georgia legislature
in November 1860, and again in that state's secession con-
vention in January 1861, he strongly opposed secession, but
when Georgia seceded he " followed his state," assisted in form-
ing the new government, and was elected vice-president of the
Confederate States. He greatly weakened the position of the
Confederacy by a speech delivered at Savannah (March 21,
1861) in which he declared that slavery was its corner-stone.
Throughout the war, too, he was so intensely concerned about
states' rights and civil liberty that he opposed the exercise of
888
STEPHENS, J. L. STEPHENSON, G.
extra-constitutional war powers by President Jefferson Davis
lest the freedom for which the South was fighting should be
destroyed. His policy was to preserve constitutional govern-
ment in the South and strengthen the anti-war party in the
North by convincing it that the Lincoln administration had
abandoned such government; to the same end he urged, in
1864, the unconditional discharge of Federal prisoners in the
South. Stephens headed the Confederate commission to the
peace conference at Hampton Roads in February 1865. In
the following May, after the fall of the Confederacy, he was
arrested at his home and taken to Fort Warren, in Boston
harbour, where he was confined until the i2th of October.
He accepted the result of the war as a practical settlement of
the question of secession, exercised a beneficent influence on
the negroes of his section, and promoted reconciliation between
the North and the South. In 1866 he was elected to the United
States Senate, but was not permitted to take his seat. He
was a representative in Congress, however, from 1873 to 1882,
and was governor of Georgia in 1882-1883, dying in office, at
Atlanta, on the 4th of March 1883. He was remarkable for
both his moral and physical courage, and in politics was notable
for his independence of party. From 1871 to 1873 he edited
the Atlanta Daily Sun, and he published A Constitutional View
of the Late War between the States (2 vols., 1868-1870), perhaps
the best statement of the southern position with reference to
state sovereignty and secession; The Reviewers Reviewed (1872),
a supplement to the preceding work; and A Compendium of the
History of the United States (1875; new ed., 1883).
See Louis Pendleton, Alexander H. Stephens (Philadelphia, 1908) ;
R. M. Johnston and W. H. Browne, Life of Alexander H. Stephens
(Philadelphia, 1878 ; new ed., 1883) ; and Henry Cleveland, Alexander
H. Stephens in Public and Private, with Letters and Speeches (Phila-
delphia, 1866).
STEPHENS, JOHN LLOYD (1805-1852), American traveller,
was born on the 28th of November 1805, at Shrewsbury, New
Jersey. Having been admitted to the bar, he practised for
about eight years in New York City. In 1834, the state of his
health rendering it advisable that he should travel, he visited
Europe, and for two years made a tour through many countries
of that Continent, extending his travels to Egypt and Syria.
On his return to New York he published in 1837 (under the name
of " George " Stephens) Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia
Petraea, and the Holy Land. This work was followed next year
by the publication of Incidents of Travel in Greece, Turkey,
Russia and Poland. In 1839 Stephens arranged with Frederick
Catherwood of London, who had accompanied him on some of
his travels, and illustrated the above-mentioned publications,
to make an exploration in Central America, with a view to
discovering and examining the antiquities said to exist there.
Stephens, meantime, was appointed to a mission to Central
America. The joint travels of Stephens and Catherwood occupied
some eight months in 1839 and 1840. As the result of these
researches Stephens published in 1841 Incidents of Travels in
Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan. In the autumn of 1841
the two travellers made a second exploration of Yucatan, and
a work followed in 1843 Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. This
work describes the most extensive travels executed till that date
by a stranger in the peninsula, and, as the author claims,
" contains account of visits to forty-four ruined cities or places
in which remains or vestiges of ancient populations were found."
It enjoyed a wide popularity, and Stephens was urged to prose-
cute his researches of American antiquities in Peru, but was
disinclined to so distant an expedition. He became a director of
the'newly-formed American Ocean Steam Navigation Company,
which established the first American line of transatlantic
steamships. He visited Panama to reconnoitre the ground with
a view to the construction of a railway across the isthmus, and,
first as vice-president and then as president of the Panama
Railway Company, spent the greater part of two years in
superintending the project. His health was, however, under-
mined by exposure to the climate of Central America, and he
died at New York on the zoth of October 1852.
STEPHENSON, GEORGE (1781-1848), English engineer, was
the second son of Robert Stephenson, fireman of a colliery
engine at Wylam, near Newcastle, where he was born on the
9th of June 1781. In boyhood he was employed as a cowherd,
and afterwards he drove the ginhorse at a colliery. In his
fourteenth year he became assistant fireman to his father at a
shilling a day, and in his seventeenth year he was appointed
plugman, his duty being to attend to the pumping engine. As
yet he was unable to read, but, stimulated by the desire to obtain
fuller information regarding the inventions of Boulton and Watt,
he began in his eighteenth year to attend a night school and
made remarkably rapid progress. In 1801 he obtained a situa-
tion as a brakesman, in 1802 he became an engineman at Willing-
ton Quay, where he took up watch and clock cleaning, and in
1804 he moved to Killingworth, where in 1812 he was appointed
engine-wright at the High Pit at a salary of 100 a year. It was
at Killingworth that he devised his miner's safety lamp, first
put to practical tests in the autumn of 1815, at the same time
that Sir Humphry Davy was producing his lamp. There was
considerable controversy as to which of the two men was entitled
to the honour of having first made an invention which was
probably worked out independently, though simultaneously, by
both, and when the admirers of Davy in 1817 presented him with
a service of plate, those of Stephenson countered with an address
and 1000 early in 1818. In 1813 his interest in the experiments
with steam traction that were being carried on at Wylam led
him to propose an experiment of the same kind to the pro-
prietors of the Killingworth colliery, and he was authorized
to incur the outlay for constructing a " travelling engine " for
the tramroads between the colliery and the shipping port 9 m.
distant. The engine, which he named " My Lord," ran
a successful trial on the 25th of July 1814. In 1822 he succeeded
in impressing the advantages of steam traction on the projectors
of the Stockton & Darlington railway, who had contemplated
using horses for their wagons, and was appointed engineer of
the railway, with liberty to carry out his own plans, the result
being the opening, on the 27th of September 1825, of the first
railway over which passengers and goods were carried by a
locomotive. His connexion with the Stockton & Darlington
railway led to his employment in the construction of the Liverpool
& Manchester railway, which, notwithstanding prognostica-
tions of failure by the most eminent engineers of the day, he
carried successfully through Chat Moss. When the line was
nearing completion he persuaded the directors, who were rather
in favour of haulage by fixed engines, to give the locomotive a
trial. In consequence they offered a prize of 500 for a suitable
machine, and in the competition held at Rainhill in October
1829 his engine " The Rocket " met with approval. On the
iSth of September in the following year the railway was formally
opened, the eight engines employed having been made at the
works started by Stephenson with his cousin Thomas Richardson
(1771-1853) and Edward Pease (1767-1858) at Newcastle in
1823. Subsequently Stephenson was engineer of, among others,
the Grand Junction, the London & Birmingham (with his
son Robert), Manchester to Leeds, Derby to Leeds, Derby to
Birmingham, and Normanton to York; but he strongly dis-
approved of the railway mania which ensued in 1844. He
was also consulted in regard to the construction of railways
in Belgium and Spain. The last year or two of his life was
spent in retirement at Tapton House, Chesterfield, in the pur-
suit of farming and horticulture, and there he died on the
1 2th of August 1848. Stephenson was thrice married, his
only son Robert being the child of Fanny Henderson, his
first wife, who died in 1806. A nephew, George Robert
Stephenson, who was born at Newcastle in 1819 and died near
Cheltenham in 1905, was placed by him on the engineering
staff of the Manchester & Leeds line in 1837, and subse-
quently constructed many railways in England, New Zealand
and Denmark. He was president of the Institution of Civil
Engineers in 1876-1877.
See Story of the Life of George Stephenson, by Samuel Smiles (1857,
new ed., 1873) ; and Smiles's Lives of British Engineers, vol. in.
STEPHENSON, R. STEPNIAK
STEPHENSON, ROBERT (1803-1859), English engineer, only
son of George Stephenson (?..), was born at Wellington Quay
on the i6th of October 1803. His father, remembering his own
early difficulties, bestowed special care on his son's education,
and sent him in his twelfth year to Mr Bruce's school in Percy
Street, Newcastle, where he remained about four years. In
1819 he was apprenticed to Nicholas Wood, a coal- viewer at
Killingworth, after which he was sent in 1822 to attend the
science classes at the university of Edinburgh. On his return
he assisted his father in surveying the Stockton & Darlington
and Liverpool & Manchester lines, but in 1824 he accepted
an engagement in South America to take charge of the engineer-
ing operations of the Colombian Mining Association of London.
On account of the difficulties of the situation he resigned it in
1827, and returned to England via New York in company with
Richard Trevithick, whom he had met in a penniless condition
at Cartagena. He then undertook the management of his
father's factory in Newcastle, and greatly aided him in the im-
provement of the locomotives. His practice was not confined
to his own country, but extended also to Sweden, Denmark,
Belgium, Switzerland, Piedmont and Egypt. In this connexion
his most remarkable achievements were his railway bridges,
especially those of the tubular girder type. Among his more
notable examples are the Royal Border bridge at Berwick-on-
Tweed, the High Level bridge at Newcastle-on-Tyne, the
Britannia tubular bridge over the Menai Straits, the Conway
tubular bridge, and the Victoria tubular bridge over the
St Lawrence at Montreal. In 1847 he entered the House
of Commons as member for Whitby, retaining the seat till the
end of his life. In 1855 he was elected president of the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, of which he became a member in 1830.
He died in London on the I2th of October 1859, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey.
See The Story of the Life of George Stephenson, including a Memoir
of his Son Robert Stephenson, by Samuel Smiles (1857 ; new ed., 1873) ;
Jeaffreson, Life of Robert Stephenson (2 vols., 1864) ; and Smiles's
Lives of British Engineers, vol. iii.
STEPNEY, GEORGE (1663-1707), English poet and diploma-
tist, son of George Stepney, groom of the chamber to Charles II.,
was born at Westminster in 1663. He was admitted on the
foundation of Westminster School in 1676, and in 1682 became
a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, becoming a fellow of
his college in 1687. Through his friend Charles Montagu, after-
wards earl of Halifax, he entered the diplomatic service, and in
1692 was sent as envoy to Brandenburg. He represented
William III. at various other German courts, and in 1702 was
sent to Vienna, where he had already acted as envoy in 1693.
In 1705 Prince Eugene desired his withdrawal on the ground
of his alleged partiality to the Hungarian insurgents, but the
demand was taken back at the request of Marlborough, who had
great confidence in Stepney. He was, nevertheless, removed
in 1706 to the Hague. In the next year he returned to England
in the hope of recovering from a severe illness, but died in Chelsea,
London, on the isth of September 1707, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey. Stepney had a very full and accurate
knowledge of German affairs, and was an excellent letter-writer.
Among his correspondents was Baron Leibnitz, with whom he
was on the friendliest terms. Much of his official and other
correspondence is preserved in the letters and papers of Sir
John Ellis (Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 28875-28947), purchased
from the earl of Macclesfield in 1872, and others are available
in the record office. He contributed a version of the eighth
satire of Juvenal to the translation (1693) of the satires " by
Mr Dryden and several other eminent hands." Dr Johnson,
who included him in his Lives of the Poets, called him a " very
licentious translator," and remarked that he did not " recom-
pense his neglect of the author by beauties of his own."
His poems appear in Chalmers's English Poets, vol. viii., and other
collections of the kind. Some of his correspondence is printed by
J. M. Kemble in State Papers and Correspondence . . . from the
Revolution to the Accession of the House of Hanover (1857). A list
of the Macclesfield letters is to be found in the Report of the
Hist. MSS. Commission, No. i., app. pp. 34-40. For an account
of Stepney's family and circumstances, see R. Harrison, Some
Notices of the Stepney Family (1870), pp. 22-28.
STEPNEY, an eastern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N. by Bethnal Green, E. by Poplar, S. by
the river Thames, and W. by the City of London and Shoreditch.
Pop. (1901), 298,600. It forms part of the "East End" of
London; the parish, indeed, formerly covered practically the
whole area so termed. Here are squalid streets and mean houses
typical of the poorest class of inhabitants. The thoroughfares
of Mile End Road and Whitechapel Road and that of Commercial
Road East traverse the borough from the east and converge
near the City boundary, where stood the ancient Aldgate.
In the north Stepney includes the districts of Spitalfields,
Whitechapel and Mile End; and in the south Wapping, Shadwell,
Ratcliff and Limehouse. The southern districts are occupied
by sailors and labourers in the St Katherine and London Docks
and the wharves and factories lining the river-bank. The parish
church of St Dunstan, Stepney, is a perpendicular building, much
restored, containing many monuments and curious inscriptions.
The church of St Anne, Limehouse (1730) is by Nicholas Hawks-
moor. The district of Spitalfields has an old association with
the silk-weaving industry; a trade in singing birds is also char-
acteristic of this district; and in Ratcliff the well-known natural-
ist's firm of Jamrach is situated. In the extreme west the borough
includes within its bounds the historic Tower of London, the
Royal Mint and the fine Tower Bridge over the Thames. There
is no bridge below this, but the construction of the Rotherhithe
Tunnel was authorized in 1900. The Thames Tunnel is used
by the East London railway. Among institutions the principal
is the People's Palace, Mile End Road, opened by Queen Victoria
in 1887 as a place of intellectual and physical recreation and
education. The Drapers' Company contributed largely to
the cost of erection. Toynbee Hall, Commercial Street, was
founded in 1884 under the trusteeship of the Universities
Settlements Association and named after Arnold Toynbee
(d. 1883), a. philanthropist who devoted himself to work in this
part of London. Other institutions are the London Hospital,
Whitechapel, the East London children's hospital, the head-
quarters of Dr Barnardo's Homes, Stepney Causeway, and Her
Majesty's Hospital for waifs connected therewith; the Stepney
training college of the Society for Promoting Christian Know-
ledge, and the Spitalfields trade and technical school. There
is a fish market in Shadwell, and a vegetable market in Spital-
fields. Stepney is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of London.
The municipal borough comprises the Stepney, Whitechapel,
Mile End, Limehouse and St George divisions of the Tower
Hamlets parliamentary borough, each division returning one
member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen,
and 60 councillors. Area, 1765-6 acres.
The name appears in Domesday and later as Stevenhethe.
The suffix is thus the common form hythe, a haven; but for the
prefix no certain derivation is offered. At Mile End, so called
from its distance from the City (Aldgate), the rebels from Essex
under the leadership of Wat Tyler assembled (1381), and here
Richard II. first met them in parley. Pepys records the village
as a favourite place of resort.
STEPNIAK, SERGIUS (1852-1895), Russian revolutionist,
whose real name was Sergius Michaelovjtch Kravchinski,
was born in South Russia, of parents who belonged to a noble
family. He received a liberal education, and, when he left
school, became an officer in the artillery; but his sympathy with
the peasants, among whom he had lived during his boyhood
in the country, developed in him at first democratic and, later,
revolutionary opinions. Together with a few other men of
birth and education, he began secretly to sow the sentiments
of democracy among the peasants. His teaching did not long
remain a secret, and in 1874 he was arrested. He succeeded
in making his escape possibly he was permitted to escape on
account of his youth and immediately began a more vigorous
campaign against autocracy. His sympathetic nature was
influenced by indignation against the brutal methods adopted
890
STEPPE STEREO-ISOMERISM
towards prisoners, especially political prisoners, and by the
stern measures which the government of the tsar felt compelled
to adopt in order to repress the revolutionary movement.
His indignation carried him into accord for a time with those
who advocated the terrorist policy. In consequence he exposed
himself to danger by remaining in Russia, and in 1880 he was
obliged to leave the country. He settled for a short time in
Switzerland, then a favourite resort of revolutionary leaders,
and after a few years came to London. He was already known
in England by his book, Underground Russia, which had been
published in London in 1882. He followed it up with a number
of other works on the condition of the Russian peasantry, on
Nihilism, and on the conditions of life in Russia. His mind
gradually turned from belief in the efficacy of violent measures
to the acceptance of constitutional methods; and in his last
book, King Stork and King Log, he spoke with approval of the
efforts of politicians on the Liberal side to effect, by argument
and peaceful agitation, a change in the attitude of the Russian
government towards various reforms. Stepniak constantly
wrote and lectured, both in Great Britain and the United States,
in support of his views, and his energy, added to the interest
of his personality, won him many friends. He was chiefly
identified with the Socialists in England and the Social Demo-
cratic parties on the Continent; but he was regarded by men
of all opinions as an agitator whose motives had always been
pure and disinterested. Stepniak was killed by a railway
engine at a level crossing at Bedford Park, Chiswick, where he
resided, on the 23rd of December 1895. He was cremated at
Woking on the 28th of December. (H. H. F.)
STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste), the name given to
the level treeless plains in certain parts of the Russian Empire,
and thence sometimes, though not commonly, extended, in
physical geography, to signify similar plains elsewhere. The
name is mo'st commonly applied specifically to the plains in
the south and south-east of European Russia and in the south-
west of Asiatic Russia, and in this connexion the term sometimes
connotes semi-desert conditions. Otherwise the Russian steppes
may be considered as kindred to and connected with the Heiden
(heaths) of northern Germany.
STEPPES, GENERAL-GOVERNORSHIP OF, a portion of
Russian Central Asia which includes both what was formerly
known as the Kirghiz Steppe, and the region around Omsk,
which was formerly part of Western Siberia. It consists of
four provinces: Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Turgai and Uralsk,
having a total area of 711,000 sq. m. and a total population
of 2,472,931 in 1897. Details are given under the names of
the provinces respectively. Omsk is the capital.
STEREOBATE (Gr. orepeos, solid, and (3a<ns, a base), the term
in architecture given to the substructure of rough masonry of
a Greek temple.
STEREOCHEMISTRY (Gr. arfpeos, solid, and chemistry),
a branch of chemistry which considers the spatial arrangement
of the atoms composing a molecule (see STEREO-ISOMERISM).
STEREO-ISOMERISM, or STEREOMERISM, a term introduced
by Victor Meyer (by way of his denomination stereo-chemistry
for " chemistry in space ") to denote those cases of isomerism,
i.e. the difference of properties accompanying identity of mole-
cular formulae, where we are forced to admit the same atomic
linking and can onjy ascribe the existing difference to the different
relative position of atoms in the molecule.
Historical. Considerations concerning the relative position
of atoms have been traced back as far as Swedenborg (1721);
in more recent times the first proposal in this direction seems
due to E. Paterno (1869), followed by Auguste Rosenstiehl
and by Alexis Gaudin (1873). The step made by J. A. Le Bel
and J. H. van't Hoff (1874) brought considerations of this kind
in the reach of experimental test, and so led to " stereo-
chemistry." The work of Louis Pasteur on molecular asymmetry
in tartaric acid (1860) touched stereo-chemistry so nearly that,
had structural chemistry been sufficiently developed then,
stereo-chemistry might have originated fourteen years earlier;
it happened, however, that Wislicenus's investigation of lactic
acids (1869) immediately stimulated Van't Hoff's views. The
fundamental conceptions of Le Bel and Van't Hoff differ in that
the former are based on Pasteur's notions of molecular asymmetry,
the latter on structural chemistry, especially as developed by
August Kekule for quadrivalent carbon. Both seem to lead
to the same conclusions as to stereo-isomerism, but the latter
has the advantage of allowing a more detailed insight, whereas
the former, which is free from hypothetical conceptions, is of
absolute reliability.
As our knowledge of stereo-isomerism originated in the
chemistry of carbon compounds and found the largest develop-
ment there, this part will be treated first.
Stereo-isomerism in Carbon Compounds.
I. The Asymmetric Carbon Atom. Though stereo-chemistry is
based on the notion of atoms, there is not the least danger that it
may break down when newer notions about those atoms are intro-
duced. Even admitting that they are of a compound nature, i.e.
built up from smaller electrical particles or anything else and able
to split up under given conditions, their average lapse of existence
is long enough to consider them as reliable building-stones of the
molecule, though these building-stones may give way now and then,
as our best ordinary ones by the action of an earthquake. Another
thing which stereo-chemistry abstracts beforehand is the movement
of atoms, which is generally accepted to exist, but becoming less
as the temperature sinks and disappearing at absolute zero. And
so the following symbols, representing atoms in a fixed position,
may correspond to these last circumstances, whereas at ordinary
temperatures atoms may vibrate, for instance, with these fixed
positions as centres.
The first development from structural to stereo-chemistry was
to consider the relative position of atoms in methane, CH. Structural
chemistry had proved that the four atoms of hydrogen were linked
/H
y i_i
to carbon and not to each other, thus C<Cj and not, for example,
/H
H H-C<f , but how the four were grouped remained to decide.
The decision is derived as follows :
If the four hydrogen atoms are supposed to be in a plane on one
side of the carbon atom as above, two methylchlorides CH 3 C1 should
be possible, viz. :
/Cl /H
and
H
Such isomeric compounds have never been found, but they appear
as soon as the four atoms (or groups of atoms) to which carbon is
combined are different, for example in CHFClBr, fiuorchlorbrom-
methane. Then and only then two isomeric compounds have been
regularly observed, and the sole notion about relative position of
atoms in methane which explains this fact is that the four groups
combined with carbon are placed at the summits of a tetrahedron
whose centre is formed by carbon. The two possibilities are then
represented by:
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
These groupings have the character of enantiomorphism, i.e. they
are non-identical mirror images. If any of the two differences in
the summits is given up, for example, F substituted by Cl with the
formation of CHQ 2 Br, the enantiomorphism disappears.
The isomerism corresponding to this difference in relative position
is the simplest case of stereo-isomerism. The carbon atom in
the special condition described, linked to four different atoms or
groups, is denominated " asymmetric carbon," and will be denoted
in the following formulae as C. Stereo-isomerism exists in tartarjc
acid, HO 2 C-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CO 2 H (studied by Pasteur), in the
lactic acid, CH 3 -CH-OH-CO 2 H (studied by Wislicenus), while the
simplest case at present known is the chlorobromofluoracetic acid,
C-Cl-Br-F-CO 2 H, obtained by Schwartz. This stereo-isomerism,
due to the presence of asymmetric carbon, is of a characteristic
kind, which is in perfect accordance with the theory of its origin,
being the most complete identity combined with the difference that
exists between the left and right hand. All the properties which
STEREO-ISOMERISM
891
cannot differ in this last sense are identical, viz. : melting and boiling
point, specific gravity, &c. But the crystalline form, which may show
enantiomorphism, indeed shows this difference in the isomers in
question; and especially the behaviour (in the amorphous state)
towards polarized light differs in the sense that the plane of polariza-
tion is turned to the left by the one isomer, and exactly as much to
the right by the other, so that they may be termed " optical anti-
podes." All these differences disappear with the asymmetric
carbon, and the succinic acid, HO 2 C'CH 2 'CH 2 'CO 2 H, from tartaric
acid is optically inactive and shows no stereo-isomerism.
2. Compounds with more than one Asymmetric Carbon Atom.
Stereo-isomerism and the space relation of atoms in compounds with
higher asymmetry can best be developed by aid of graphic representa-
tions, founded on the notion of space relations in ethane, H 3 C-CH 3 .
A consequence of the tetrahedral grouping in methane is the con-
figuration given in fig. 3, where the
six hydrogen atoms are substituted by
six atoms or groups Ri,...Re. The
second (above) carbon atom is sup-
posed to be at the top of the lower
tetrahedron, and vice versa. Each
other position, obtained by turning
R!R 2 R 3 around the -C C- axis, is
also possible, but since no isomerism
due to this difference of relative posi-
ticn, which might already show itself
in ethane, has been observed, we may
admit that one of the positions ob-
tained by the above rotation is the
stable one, and fig. 3 may represent
it. For simplicity's sake this figure
may be projected on a plane by mov-
ing R 3 and Re respectively upward and
downward, with RiR 2 and R<Ri
FIG. 3.
axes, which leads to the first of the four configurations representing
the stereo-isomers possible in the above case. They differ in the
two possible spatial arrangements of RiRzRj and R4R&Re :
R 3
R, C R 2
R 4 C R 6
R.
Rz C Ri
R< C R 6
Ri C R 2
R 6 C R 4
R,
K.2 IM
R 5 C R 4
Re
As one asymmetric carbon introduces two stereo-isomers and two
introduce four, n asymmetric carbon atoms will lead to 2" isomers.
They are grouped in pairs presenting enantiomorphic figures in space,
as do the first and the last of the above symbols, which correspond
to the character of optical antipodes, whereas the first and second
correspond to greater differences in melting points, &c. A well-
studied example is offered by the dibromides of cinnamic acid,
CeHs-CHBr-CHBr-CO^H. They have been obtained by Liebermann
in two antipodes melting at 92, and two other antipodes, differing
in optical rotation from the first, and melting at 195 .
A simplification is introduced when the structural formula shows
symmetry, as is the case in RiR 2 R 3 C-CR 3 R 2 Ri. The four above-
mentioned symbols then are reduced to three:
R 3 R 3 R:
Rt C Rs Ri C R 2 R 2 C Ri
Rj C Ri Ri C R 2 Ri C R,
R 3 R 3 RI
of which the first and last show the enantiomorphism corresponding
to the character of optical antipodes, while the second shows sym-
metry and corresponds to an inactive type. A well-studied example
is offered here by tartaric acid: the two antipodes, often denoted
as d and /, have been found, viz. in the ordinary dextrogyre form
and the laevogyre form, prepared by Pasteur from racemic acid,
while the third corresponds to mesotartaric acid; such internally
compensated compounds are generally termed " meso."
3. Cyclic Compounds. Three or
more carbon atoms may link to-
gether so as to produce ring systems
such as
R.CRj
FIG. 4.
- ORo Ke-
lt is in these cases that the principle
of the asymmetric carbon, which in
the above case leads to 2 3 = 8
stereo-isomers, is easily applied by
means of graphical representations
in a plane, derived from the space
relation shown in fig. 4. The six
groups, RI . . . R 6 , are either under
or above the plane in which the carbon ring is supposed to be
situated, and this may be indicated by the following symbol:
where the carbon atoms are supposed half-way between RI and R 2 ,
R, and R 4 , R 5 arid R 6 .
One of the most simple examples is offered by the trimethylene-
dicarboxylic acids CH 2
HO 2 C-HC CH-CO 2 H
for which three formulae can be deduced :
C0 2 H
C0 2 H
CO 2 H
J
CO,!*
the first, where the carboxyl groups -CO 2 H lie on the same side of
the carbon ring, called, as Von Baeyer proposed, the cis-form, the
others trans-forms. The trans-forms show enantiomorphism and
correspond to optical antipodes, whereas the first symbol may be
considered as corresponding to mesotartar'c acid, symmetrical in
configuration and inactive; this third stereo-isomer has also been
met with.
Special attention has been given to those ring systems of the
general form: Ri x /R 3 R4\ /R 2
\/ >C<;
This trans-form corresponds to a cis-form, where both R 2 and RI
are on the same side of the plane containing the ring. These latter
are enantiomorphic in the ordinary sense of the word, but the
particular feature is that the trans-form, though offering no plane
of symmetry, is yet identical with its mirror image, and thus not
enantiomorphic and not corresponding to optical antipodes but to
the meso-form.
There correspondences have been realized by Emil Fischer in
derivatives of alanine; H 3 C-CH(NH 2 )-CO 2 H, which exists in two
antipodes d and /. Two of these molecules can be combined to
alanyl-alanine:H 3 C-CH-NH(COC-H-NH 2 -CH 3 )-CO 2 H, which, as con-
taining two asymmetric carbons, may be had in four stereo-
isomers dd, II, dl and Id. In their anhydrides
Hv /CO NHv /CU 3
H 3 C/ \NH CO/ NH
we meet the above type, and find that dd and // formed the predicted
antipodes, while the anhydride of dl and Id is one and the same
substance, without any optical activity. Such cases are often
termed " pseudo-asymmetric."
4. Isolation of Optical Antipodes. The optical antipodes are
often found as natural products, as is the case with the ordinary
or d-tartaric acid ; generally only one of the two forms appears, the
second form (and, more generally both forms) being obtained syn-
thetically. This is a problem of particular difficulty, since the artificial
production of a compound with asymmetric carbon, from another
which has no asymmetric carbon, always produces the two antipodes
in equal quantity, and these antipodes, by their identity in most
properties, e.g. melting and boiling point, solubility, and also on
account of their analogous chemical behaviour, cannot be separated
by customary methods, the application of which is rendered still
more difficult by the formation of a so-called racemic compound.
The method called " spontaneous separation " was first observed
by Pasteur with racemic acid, which in its double sodium and am-
monium salt crystallized from its aqueous solution in two enantio-
morphic forms, which could be separated on examination. One
of the two proved to be the ordinary sodium-ammonium-tartrate,
the other its laevogyre antipodc; thus /-tartaric acid was discovered,
and racemic acid proved to be a combination of d- and /-tartaric
acid. The further examination of this particular transformation
showed that it had a definite temperature limit. Only below 27 is
Pasteur's observation corroborated, while above 27 a racemate
appears; these changes are due to a chemical action taking place at
the given temperature between the solid salts :
2C4O 6 H 4 NaNH 4 -4H 2 ^ (C4O6H 4 NaNH4) 2 -2H 2 O+6H 2 C,
one molecule of the d- and one of the /-tartrate forming above 27,
the racemate with loss of water, while under 27 the opposite change
occurs. This temperature limit, generally called transition-point,
was discovered by Van't Hoff and Van Deventer. It is the limit
where the possibility of spontaneous separation begins, and is
relatively rare, so that this way of separation is an exceptional one,
most antipodes forming a racemic compound stable at all tempera-
tures that come into question.
The use of optically active compounds in separating antipodes
8 9 2
STEREO-ISOMERISM
is of the greatest value. The general principle is that the compounds
which the d- and /-form give with a different active compound, for
instance d producing dd and Id, are by no means antipodes and so
exhibit the ordinary differences, e.g. in solubility, which allow
separation. It was in this way that Pasteur split up racemic acid
by cinchonine. This method has since been applied to the most
various acids; bases may be split in an analogous wa> ; artificial
conine was separated by Ladenburg by means of d-tartaric acid, and
one of these antipodes proved to be identical with natural conine.
Aldehydes and ketones on the other hand may be split up by their
combinations with an active hydrazine, &c., and so this method is
by far the most fruitful.
The formation of a racemic compound built up from ad and la
has also been observed in the so-called partial racemate. An example
is the racemate of strychnine. It is in this case also that the transi-
tion-point forms the limit of possible separation, determined by
Ladenburg and G. Doctor to be 30. Such partial racemic com-
bination however occurs only in exceptional cases, else it would have
invalidated this method, as it did spontaneous separation.
A different way of using active compounds in producing antipodes
consists in the so-called asymmetric synthesis. The method consists
in the introduction of an active complex before that of the asym-
metric carbon; both stereo-isomers need not then form in the same
quantity. W. Marckwald and A. McKenzie, who chiefly worked
out this method, found, for example, that the salt of methylethyl-
malonic acid, C(CH 3 ) (C 2 H S ) (CO 2 H) 2 , with the active brucine forms
on heating the corresponding salt of d- and /-methylethylacetic
acid C(CH 3 ) (C ? H 6 )H(CO 2 H), with the /-antipode in slight excess.
5. Configuration of Stereo-isomers. The conception of asymmetric
carbon not only opens the possibility of determining when and how
many stereo-isomers are to be expected, but also allows a deeper
insight into the relative position of atoms in each of them. The
chief indication here lies in the configuration of the meso-type,
already given for mesotartaric acid; the corresponding alcohol, the
natural sugar erythrite, which produces this acid by oxidation,
consequently corresponds to CH 2 OH
H C OH
H C OH
CH 2 OH.
Intheglutaricacids,HO 2 C-(CH-OH) 3 -C0 2 H, the structural symmetry
again leads to meso-forms
OH OH OH OHHOH
HO 2 C C C C COjH and HO 2 C C C C CO 2 H.
Ill III
H H H H OH H
They are respectively obtained by the oxidation of ribose and natural
xylose, stereo-isomers of the formula COH(CHOH) 3 CH 2 OH ; the
latter produces active tartaric acid and so decides that the second
formula is that of the corresponding trioxyglutaric acid, the first
remaining for that obtained from ribose.
In such and analogous ways the configuration of meso-types may
be fixed with absolute certainty. The decision is more difficult in
the case of antipodes. For tartaric acid it is certain that the d- and
/-forms correspond to
CO 2 H
HCOH
HOCH
and
:O 2 H
CO 2 H
HOCH
HCOH
CO 2 H,
but which of the two represents the ordinary </-acid is unknown.
Emil Fischer proposed to decide provisionally in an arbitrary way
and admit for the d- the first formula. Then we may conclude that
the natural malic acid, which may be obtained by the reduction
of /-tartaric acid, is CO 2 H
CH 2
HCOH
C0 2 H,
while the natural xylose, which produces /-tartaric acid by the
substitution of CO 2 H for CHO-CHOH, corresponds to
CHO
HCOH
HOCH
HCOH
H 2 OH.
The results obtained in these and analogous ways have proved
to be of value in the study of enzymes, e.g. such complex organic
substances as zymase in yeast, which is able to produce in small
quantity an unproportioned large amount of chemical change, in
this case the transformation of the sugar glucose, CeH^Oe, into alcohol
and carbonic acid
These enzymes have an extremely specific action, producing, for
instance, the change in ordinary natural glucose, but not at all in
its artificial antipode, and so they are often valuable means of isolat-
ing an antipode from the inactive mixtures or racemic compounds;
this method has indeed been used for the isolation of the glucose-
antipode from the artificial racemic form. The fundamental fact
here is due once more to Pasteur, but Emil Fischer added that sugars
are acted upon by zymase in an analogous way if their configuration
shows a certain amount of identity. For example yeast acts on
d-Glucose
HCO
HCOH
HOCH
HCOH
HCOH
HiCOH
d-Mannose
HCO
HOCH
HOCH
HCOH
HCOH
H 2 COH
d-Fructose
H 2 COH
CO
HOCH
HCOH
HCOH
H 2 COH,
and we observe that the three formulae agree indeed in the lower
four-carbon chain. This particular behaviour led Fischer to the
expression that the enzyme-action on given substances needs a
corresponding feature as " lock and key." There are indications
that in the synthesis by enzymes, of which examples have been
realized in fats, sugars, glucosides and albuminoids, an analogous
behaviour prevails.
6. Mutual Transformation of Antipodes. Thus far we have
supposed the molecule to be stable with atoms in fixed places, as
may be the case at absolute zero ; in reality, at ordinary temperatures,
atoms probably are endowed with movement, and this may be
supposed to take place along the fixed places just mentioned as
centres, which movement can go so far as to lead to total trans-
formation, the one stereo-isomer changing over into the other.
These cases may be considered now.
As a general rule the liquid, gaseous or dissolved antipode is in
itself unstable, tending to be transformed into inactive complexes.
Temperature may accelerate this, and, as a rule, sufficient heat will
produce the loss of optical activity, half of the original compound
having changed over into its optical antipode. This transformation
has been often used for preparing the latter, as was first done by Le
Bel with the optically active amylalcohol, HC(CH 8 )(C 2 H S )(CH 2 OH),
rendering it inactive by sufficient heating, and separating from the
obtained complex the stereo-isomer. Walden found that in some
cases analogous transformations take place at ordinary temperature,
as for instance with d-phenylbromacetic acid, which within three
years totally lost its considerable rotative power ; this transformation
has been termed " autoracemization." It explains that till now
the most simple compounds with asymmetric carbon have not yet
been obtained in antipodes ; active CHClBrF might be obtained by
treating chlorobromofluoracetic acid with potash, but autoracemiza-
tion, which especially shows itself when halogens are linked to the
asymmetric carbon, might, without special precautions, lead to
an inactive mixture of antipodes.
When two asymmetric carbons are present, four stereo-isomers
are possible, which may be represented by :
(i) A+B, (2) -(A+B), (3) A-B, (4) -(A-B),
(i) and (2), as well as (3) and (4), being antipodes. The stable form
will be in this case also the inactive mixture, corresponding in the
solid state either to (i). (2) or (3), (4). In the last case, suppose
the primitive compound is (i), the first step towards stability may
be the production of (3), so that practically
one stereo-isomer changes over into another
of a different type. Such has, for instance,
been proved by Bcchmann for /-menthol,
H C C 3 H,
H 2 C CH 2
H 2 C CO
HCCHt,
which on heating produces a form rotating
in opposite sense, though not the antipode.
Probably H and CH 8 in the lower asymmetric
carbon have changed places. A further
treatment at high temperature might prob-
ably produce the inactive mixture of this
menthol and its antipode.
STEREO-ISOMERISM
893
7. Doubly- Linked Carbon Atoms. When carbon atoms are doubly
linked, as in derivatives of ethylene, H 2 C:CH 2 , the two tetrahedra
representing the four groups around each carbon may be supposed
to have two summits combined, as was supposed with one in simple
linking. Fig. 5 represents this supposition, from which follows that
the six atoms in question are situated in a plane and may be
represented by a plane figure :
R,-C-R 2
R 3 -C-R 4 .
The chief consequence is that as soon as the two atoms or
groups attached to each carbon are different, two stereo-isomers
may be looked for:
Ri'C'Rj Ri*C*R 2
Ri*O'R 2 R 2 - C'Ri.
Such has been found to be the case, fumaric and maleic acids,
H-C-CO 2 H H-C-CO 2 H
HO 2 C-C-H H-C-COaH,
forming the oldest and one of the most simple examples ; the simplest
is a-chlorpropylene (H 3 C)HC:CC1H.
The nature of this stereo-isomerism is quite different from that
in antipodes. There is no enantiomorphism in the supposed con-
figurations, and so no rotatory power, &c., in the corresponding
compounds, which, on the other hand, show differences far deeper
than antipodes do, having different melting points, solubility, heat
of formation, chemical properties, &c., behaving in these as ordinary
isomers. These isomers, having some relation to those in cyclic
compounds, may be also denoted as m-(maleic) and <rans-(fumaric)
forms, a close analogy existing indeed in those ring systems of which
the simplest type is :
this has been realized in the I, 3-tetramethylene dicarboxylic acids,
which exist in a trans- and cis-form :
COjH
When two double carbon linkings are present, as in H 2 C:C:CH 2 ,
the four hydrogen atoms form the summits of a tetrahedron accord-
ing to the development in fig. 4 ; and consequently the introduction of
different groups may bring enantiomorphism and optical antipodes.
This has been realized in the compound l-methyl-cyc/o-hexylidene-4-
acetic acid (formula I.), first prepared by W. H. Perkin and W. J.
Pope in 1908, and resolved into its components by fractional crystal-
lization of its brucine salt by Perkin, Pope and Wallach. The
substance resolved by W. Marckwald and R. Meth in 1906, which
was regarded as this acid, was really the isomeric l-methyl-A3-
cyc/o-hexene-4-acetic acid (formula II.), which contains asymmetric
carbon atoms (see Journ. Ghent. Soc., 1909, 95, p. 1791 ; cf. ibid.,
1910, 97, p. 486).
HC\ /CH^CH^ /H H 3 C\ /CH 2 -CH.
>C< >C:C< >C< >C-CHrC0 2 H
H/ MZHj-CHi/ \CO 2 H, H/ NlHrCHa/
I. II.
8. Numerical Value of Optical Rotation. To express the value
of optical rotation either specific or molecular rotation may be chosen,
the first being the deviation caused by a layer of I decimetre in length
when the substance in question is supposed to be present with specific
gravity I, the latter is this value multiplied by one-hundredth of
the molecular weight. Specific rotation is indicated by [o]' D , where
the suffix indicates the wave-length of the light in question, D being
that of the sodium line, and t the temperature; [M]jj is the corre-
sponding value of molecular rotation. Both values vary with the
solvent used, and probably are most adapted to solve problems
touching relations of rotatory power and configuration, when they
apply to extreme dilution in the same liquid.
One of the most general rules, relating to rotatory power, is that
for electrolytes, i.e. salts in aqueous solution, viz. the limiting rota-
tion in dilute solution only depends on the active radicle. Oudemans
found that for such active bases as quinine in its salts with hydro-
chloric, nitric, chloric, acetic, formic, sulphuric, oxalic, phosphoric,
perchloric acids the specific rotation (calculated for the base) only
varies from -272 to 288; H. H. Landolt found the same thing for
active acids, the mono lithium, sodium, potassium and ammonium
tartrates varying only between 27-5 and 28-5 (calculated for the
acid). A corresponding rule may be expected where both base
and acid have rotatory power; the molecular rotation will be the
sum of those for base and acid in salts with inactive radicles. Each
of these rules finds sufficient explanation in Arrhenius's view of
electrolytic dissociation, which admits that diluted electrolytes
are split up in their ions, and so the salts of quinine (Q) owe their
rotatory power to the ion QH, those of acid tartrates to the ion
CjHjOe, and quinine-tartrate to both.
With non-electrolytes relations are less evident. One general obser-
vation is that non-saturation, especially cyclic structure, augments
rotatory power. The saturated compounds, hydrocarbons, alcohols,
ethers, amines and acids rarely show specific rotations higher than
10, and some of them, as mannite, CH 2 OH(CHOH) 4 CH 2 OH,
for instance, show such small values that only a more thorough
investigation, due to the theoretical probability of rotatory powers in
asymmetric natural products, has detected the optical activity.
Unsaturated compounds generally show larger rotative powers;
amyl alcohol with 5 produces an aldehyde with 15; succinic
(diamyl) ether with 9 produces fumaric ether with 15, &c. Cyclic
configuration especially leads to the highest values known: the
lactic acid with 3 leads to a lactone with 86,
H 3 C-CH-COO
OOC-HC-CH 3 ;
mannpsaccharic acid, HO 2 C(CHOH) 4 CO 2 H, to a dilactone (with
two rings, formed by the loss of two molecules of water) with 202,
whereas the original acid only shows a small rotation.
A second conception, which connects rotation with configuration
in non-electrolytes, is due to Alexander Crum Brown and P. A.
Guye. It starts from the simple assumption that, as rotatory power
is due to the difference of the four groups around the asymmetric
carbon, so its amount may correspond to the amount in this. So,
generally speaking, take some property, denoted by Ki, ... K 4
respectively, a function :
(Ki-KJ (K.-K,) (Ki-KO (K 2 -K,) (K 2 -K 4 ) (K S -K 4 )
would express what is wanted. It becomes zero when two groups
are equal ; it changes its sign, retaining its value, when Kj is inter-
changed with K 2 , &c. The chief difficulty in application is to
point out that property which is here dominating. It has been
supposed to be weight, and then the above expression divided by
(Ki+Kj+Ks-f-I^) 6 might be proportional 'to specific rotation.
This explains, for instance, that in the homologous series of elvceric
H0\ xCH 2 OH
ethers >C\ > augmenting the heaviest group, -CO 2 R, first
H/ \CO 2 R
augments the specific rotation, which then passes through a minimum
(the theoretical limit being zero) :
Ether of methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, hexyl, octyl,
[a] D =-4-8, -9-2, -12-9, -i3-2,-il-3,-io-2 .
But the serious objection is met that groups of equal weight and
different structure often allow considerable rotatory power as in
methyl acetylamygdalate, with 146, though in the formula
C6H 6 HC(OC 2 H3O) (CO 2 CH 3 ) the third and fourth groups are of equal
weight. It is in this way especially that other properties might
be tested, such as volume or density, and perhaps qualities related
to light, such as refractive power and the dielectric constant. At-
tempts to connect the rotatory power of a compound with more
asymmetric carbons to the action of each of these separately, i.e. by
the so-called optical superposition have not been very successful.
In the four stereo-isomenc acids CO 2 H(CHOH) 3 CH 2 OH of the
following configurations
CO 2 H
HCOH
HOCH
HOCH
H 2 COH
/-arabonic
acid,
C0 2 H
HCOH
HCOH
HCOH
H 2 COH
d-ribonic
acid,
We might suppose the upper asymmetric carbon to produce a
rotation + A or A, the other B and =*= C. The rotations then
were A-B C, A + B+C, -A-B + C and - A + B - C or
zero in total. This supposition is in so far related to that of Crum
Brown and Guye that it admits that the smallest conceivable
change, i.e. stereo-isomeric change, in one group does not influence
the rotation caused by the asymmetric carbon attached to it. It
has not been tested in this case, but substances as propyl- and
isopropyl-glycerate only differ in specific rotation from 12-9 to
C0 2 H
COjH
HOCH
HOCH
HCOH
HOCH
HCOH
HOCH
H 2 COH
HjCOH
d-lyxonic
d-xylonic
acid,
acid.
8 94
STEREO-ISOMERISM
1 1 -8, and might prove identical in the same solvent ; the sharpest
test might be afforded by propylisopropylacetic acid.
9. Steric Hindrance. The difference in the relative positions of
atoms not only explains the different behaviour of optical antipodes,
as has been indicated, but also gives some indication where no optical
activity is concerned.
In the stereo-isomerism of ethylene compounds, taking maleic
and fumaric acid as examples, space relations chiefly indicate that
in one of the two the carboxyl groups CO 2 H are nearer. Such
seems indeed to characterize maleic acid. It easily gives an an-
HC-CO
hydride of the cyclic formula
and, inversely, when cyclic
HC-CO
compounds such as benzene are broken down by oxidizing agents,
it is maleic and not fumaric acid that appears. On the other hand
the presence of the two negative carboxyls makes maleic acid the
stronger acid but less stable, with a pronounced tendency to change
over into fumaric acid; this goes hand in hand, according to a
general rule, with smaller heat of formation, lower melting point
and increased solubility.
In the cyclic compounds analogous phenomena occur. The for-
mation of lactones, i.e. cyclic anhydrides derived from oxy-acids by
interaction of hydroxyl and carboxyl, presents one of them. In the
oxy-acids of the fatty series a particular feature is that from the
isomers, denoted as a, ft and [_y,_&c._ HO 2 C-CHOH(CH 2 ) ? CH
the 7-compounds most easily form a lactone, though in the o-series
carboxyl and hydroxyl run nearer.
The tetrahedral arrangement, how-
ever, as shown in fig. 6, explains that
A, one of the groups attached to the
carbon atom Ci, is fairly near Cs, one
of the groups attached to the carbon
atom 4 (the angle A being 35) ; A
would correspond to the hydroxyl
forming part of carboxyl around Cr,
Ct, to the hydroxyl linked with the
carbon atom in the 7-position.
A third consideration on analogous
ground is that of " steric hindrance."
It was introduced by Victor Meyer's
P , discovery that derivatives of benzoic
acid, having two substituents (X and
Y) in the immediate neighbourhood of carboxyl :
C0 3 H
are unable to form ethers in the ordinary way, by treating with
methyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid, whereas the isomers having
only one of the substituents Y in 4 (X in 6) readily do ; it was suggested
that the presence of X and Y near COaH prevented the access to the
latter. This argument has not been completely established, but a
large amount of quantitative corroboration has been brought to-
gether by N. A. Menschutkin, who has found that in alcohols the
more the hydroxyl group is surrounded by substituents (for instance
CH 3 ) the slower esterification (with acetic anhydride in acetone at
100) takes place, the ratio of rates being
Methyl alcohol H 3 C-OH 100
Ethyl alcohol H 3 C-CH 2 -OH . . 48
Dimethyl carbinol (H 3 C) 2 CH-OH . , , 14
Trimethyl carbinol (H 3 C) 3 C-OH . 0-8
Stereo-isomerism in Other Elements.
Phenomena analogous to those observed in carbon compounds
might also exist in derivatives of other quadrivalent elements; and
only the relative stability of carbon-compounds makes every form of
isomer, which often is unstable, more easily obtainable in organic
chemistry. Nevertheless it has been possible to obtain stereo-
isomers with different elements, but, as expected from the above,
especially in derivatives containing carbon. Some of them have
the character of optical antipodes and are more easily considered
from a theoretical point of view; others have not.
I. Optically Active Stereo-isomers. Most closely related to the
phenomena with carbon are those with sulphur, selenium, tin and
silicon, when these elements behave as quadrivalent. S. Smiles
(Journ. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, pp. 1072, 1174; 1905, 87, p. 450)
split up such derivatives of methylethyl-thetine as
C 2 H 6X /CH 2 -CO-C 6 H 6
obtained by condensing methylethyl sulphide with u-bromaceto-
phenone, by means of the salt with d-bromocamphosulphonic
Acid, into optical antipodes.
W. J. Pope and A. Neville (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1902, 18, p. 198)
succeeded in the same way with a selenium compound
O6ii6\ /OH
>Se<
H 3 CX N3r
W. J. Pope and S. J. Peachey (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1900, 16, pp. 42,
116) with a compound of tin (tin methylethylpropyl iodide)
C 2 Hs\ /CsHy
>Sn<
H 3 C/ M ;
Kipping (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1904, 20, p. 15; 1907, 23, p. 9) with
one of silicon (benzylethylpropyl silicol)
C 2 H{v xCaH?
CeHj-CH./ ' X)H.
These facts may be explained in the same way as with carbon, by
admitting tetrahedral grouping. A special feature, however,
wanting with carbon, is that compounds with one atom only of the
element in question have been obtained as antipodes. A second
observation of some interest is that the compounds in question are
electrolytes and that, as in solutions, where they are split up into
ions, activity must be due to the last, the ionic complex, for in-
stance, RiR 2 R 3 5, must cause optical rotation.
Optical antipodes have also been obtained with quinquevalent
nitrogen in compounds of the type: RiR 2 R 3 R4NR6. Le Bel
observed these in methylethylpropyl-isobutylammonium chloride;
since then Pope and Peachey and Wedekind studied the same
question more thoroughly, and as a general result it is now stated
that ammonium compounds with four different radicals behave as
asymmetric carbon compounds. The explanation may be that the
four radicals arrange themselves in the two possible tetrahedral
configurations, and that the fifth element or group, e.g. chlorine or
hydroxyl, more loosely linked, finds its fittest place, as shown in figs.
7 and 8.
R,
R 3 CI
FIG. 7. FIG. 8.
2. Stereo-isomers Without Optical Activity. The chief cases here
belong to the derivatives of nitrogen with double linking and the
metallic compounds which have been chiefly studied by Werner.
The nitrogen compounds showing stereo-isomerism belong to two
classes, according to the structural formulae, containing C:N or
N :N ; in their general behaviour they seem related to the ethylene
derivatives.
The first group was detected by Victor Meyer and Goldschmidt in
C 6 H 6 -C:NOH
benzildioxime :
C 6 H5-C:NOH.
Later investigations, especially by Hantzsch, showed that a grouping
Ri'C*R 2 Ri'C-'Rg
X.N Jlx
gives rise to stcreo-isomerism, the supposed difference being that
X is either more close to RI or to R 2 . This peculiarity is observed
in the aldoximes and ketoximes, derived from aldehydes and ketones
on treatment with hydroxylamine, and the two simplest examples
are ethyl-aldoxime H 3 C-CH:NOH, and phenyl-benzyl-ketoxime,
(C 6 H 5 ) (C 6 H 4 CH 2 ) C : NOH. As the behaviourof these stereo-isomers
much resembles that of ethylene-compounds, they are often indi-
cated as cis- and trans-forms.
The second stereo-isomerism in nitrogen-compounds was detected
by Schraube in potassium benzenediazotate, and may perhaps be
reproduced by the following symbols :
C 6 H 5 -N and C 6 H 6 N
KON NOK.
The last group of stereo-isomers, in which insight is most difficult
yet, is that of Werner's complex metallic compounds, observed with
cobalt, platinum and chromium. No enantiomorphous character
throws light here, and there is no relation to ethylene derivatives.
With cobalt the fact is that in the hexammonic cobalt salts, e.g.
Co(NH 3 ) 6 Cl 3 , when NH 3 C1 is substituted by NO 2 isomerism appears
as soon as the number of substituents is two; Jorgensen's fiavo-salts
Co(NH s )(NO 2 ) 2 Cl, and Gibbs's isomeric croceo-salts offer examples.
Werner puts forward that a grouping of (NHj) at the summits of a
regular octahedron around Co may explain this.
STEREOSCOPE
895
Platinum compounds such as (H 3 N) 2 PtCl 2 have been obtained in
two forms, Werner admitting here the following plane configura-
tions :
Cl\ /Cl
Pt<
\NH 3
and
Cl
\
/NH 3
PtC
X C1
Chromium shows a behaviour analogous to that of cobalt, and
analogous space-formulae may be used here. But, in a general way,
at present it is extremely difficult to decide upon their value.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The standard authority is C. A. Bischoff and
P. Walden, Handbuch der Stereochemie (1894), with the two supple-
mentary volumes (by Bischoff) entitled Materialien der Stereochemie
(1904), containing abstracts of papers up to 1902. A. W. Stewart,
Stereochemistry (1908), is a comprehensive survey. The views of
A. Hantzsch and A. Werner are developed in Hantzsch, Grundriss
der Stereochemie (1904), and Werner, Lehrbuch der Stereochemie (1904).
Other works are: H. Landolt, Optisch". Drehungsvermogen (2nd ed.,
1898); Eng. trans. Optical Activity and Chemical Composition (1900);
J. H. van^t Hoff, with a preface by J. Wislicenus, Die Lagerung der
Atome im Raume (jrd ed., 1908), Eng. trans, (with an appendix by
Werner dealing with stereo-isomerism among other elements) by
A. Eiloart, entitled The Arrangement of Atoms in Space (1898);
J. B. Cohen, Organic Chemistry (1907), pp. 56-171. Pamphlets, &c.,
dealing with special subjects, are W. van Ryn, Die Stereochemie des
Stickstoffs (1897); E. Wedekind and Frohlich, Zur Stereochemie des
fiinfwertigen Stickstoffs (1907); Jones, "The Stereochemistry of
Nitrogen," Brit. Assoc. Rep. (1903); M. E. Schpltz, " Die optisch-
aktiven Verbindungen des Schwefels, Selens, Zinns, Siliziums.and
Stickstoffs," Ahrens' Sammlung (1898, 1907); A. Ladenburg, " Uber
Racemie," Ahrens' Sammlung (1903) ; Meyerhoffer, Gleichgewichte der
Stereomeren (1907) ; lectures delivered by Walden and Werner in the
German Chemical Society (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 345; 1907, 40, p. 15).
For the stereo-isomerism exhibited by ammino compounds see
COBALT and PLATINUM; also Werner, Ann., 1910, 375, p. i. Recent
progress is reported in The Annual Reports of the Chemical Society
(annual since 1904). (J- H. VAN'T H.)
STEREOSCOPE (Gr. orepeos, solid, (TKOTTCIV, to see) - 1 The funda-
mental property of stereoscopic vision, or simultaneous vision
with both eyes, is the direct perception of the relative distances
of near objects. Of course, ideas of the different distances of
objects also occur in vision with a single eye, but
these are the result of other experiences and
considerations. These representations are also
not always unequivocal (see fig. i). For
instance they may arise from the former know-
ledge of the shape and size of a distant object,
from the partial covering of one object by
FIG. i. another; and they very often occur where
stereoscopic observation fails; this latter is involuntary, i.e. the
observer is unconscious of it. We will now investigate the
conditions necessary for the perception of depth.
If the head is held still only one portion of space can be
observed stereoscopically. The single eye, when moved, sur-
veys, including indirect vision, a field which measures 180
in a horizontal direction, and 135 in a vertical direction. The
two fields overlap and a smaller conical space is formed, with
the nose as vertex (B V S in fig. 2), in which both eyes can
see simultaneously; and outside this space stereoscopic vision is
impossible. The shape and size of this space are very differ-
ent in men and animals. According to Armin Tschermak the
horizontal extent of the space surveyed with both eyes is only
34 in a rabbit as compared with 90 in man, 1 5 in a fowl and
about 5 in a carp (measured in water). There is a further
difference between the eyes of men and animals. The optic
axis of the eye is the line joining the centres of the curves,
but the direction in which the eye can see most clearly does
not always coincide with this, being determined by the spot
on the retina which is most susceptible to light, the so-called
yellow spot (Fovea, F in fig. 2). In man this spot is still near
the axis, although not always exactly on it. It is not perfectly
known how it is situated in animals, but in many the axes o:
the eyes diverge (especially strongly in geese), and the portions
of the retina utilized in stereoscopic vision lie far distant from the
axis, as in many animals the eyes are only slightly movable.
Every time that the eyes are directed on one spot (P in
1 The subject of stereoscopy has been extensively developed by
the author of this article, who, curiously enough, having lost the
sight of one eye through an accident, could no more enjoy the beautier
of stereoscopic sight. ED.
fig. 2) this point is seen simply, together with a number of
other points which together form the so-called " horopter."
According to Joh. Miiller, Helmholtz, Hering, Volkmann and
others, these are those points of the object-space (e.g. Q and R
n fig. 2), whose images fall on identical or corresponding spots
on the retina, by which are meant those points on the retina
whose nerve filaments are united and which are equidistant in the
same direction from the centre of the yellow spot (see EYE;
VISION). The horopter varies according to the position of the
fixed spot in the object-space; for example, it is the ground
FIG. 2.
itself for a man standing erect and looking straight ahead. All
object-points situated outside the horopter fall on points of the
retina which are not identical, but the two images are only
seen as real double images in exceptional cases. As a rule the
effect is that these points are also seen simply, but at other dis-
tances than that of the fixed point P. The differences of the
images arise in the moving of the image-points in the direction
of the connecting line of the two eyes. For this reason the eyes
cannot recognize the space between parallel shining telegraph
wires if the connecting line of the two eyes be parallel to the
wires, whilst the perception of the depth occurs involuntarily
if the connecting line of the eyes is more or less perpendicular
to the wires. These differences of images which have been men-
tioned are therefore necessary and are sufficient for the perception
of depth. The explanation that the perception of depth was
due to a difference between the two retinal images was first
given by Ch. Wheatstone in 1833; but it was contradicted by
E. Briicke (1841), Sir David Brewster (1843) ar >d others, who
stated that when observing an object the angle of convergence
of the axes of the eyes continually changed, and through this
and also by the exertion of the muscles and the accommodation
of the eye there was a simultaneous touching of the object,
which gave rise to the perception of its depth. This latter
theory, however, was contradicted by H. W. Dove, who showed
that a stereoscopic viewing was also possible with momentary
illumination of the object; and still less does it agree with the
8 9 6
STEREOSCOPE
fact, to which Wheatstone first called attention, that facsimiles
also have a stereoscopic influence, in spite of the fact that the
images retain their position on the retina unchanged. Numerous
experiments show the same result, and it follows that even a
change of the angle of convergence is not always observed as a
change of depth.
There are two kinds of stereoscopic vision, direct and in-
direct, according to whether the point seen indirectly, e.g.
H in fig. 3, is compared with the fixed point P, or with another
point seen indirectly, e.g. ] in fig. 3. In both kinds of stereo-
scopic vision the exactness of the observation of the depth is
greater as the point J approaches H, and the point H approaches
P. As a matter of fact a man's eyes are naturally never
perfectly still. They move in their sockets, and the point P,
where the axes intersect, is continually changing. Direct
stereoscopic vision arises from indirect stereoscopic vision and
vice versa, and the accuracy of the discernment of the depth
increases and decreases. As in this the eye does not revolve
round its lens but round the centre of the sphere situated 10 mm.
FIG. 3.
behind it, the entrance-pupil of the eye moves slightly to and
fro and up and down, and many experiments have been made
to produce a perception of depth for a single eye from the
relative movements of the images consequent on this motion.
As these movements of the images only occur in indirect
vision, it can be understood they are not seen by most people.
This, however, cannot be regarded as an actual perception of
depth, because these viewings necessitate a consideration for each
individual interpretation, which is quite foreign to stereoscopic
vision.
Indirect stereoscopic vision is of great importance. It makes
it possible to recognize any sudden danger or obstacle outside
the direction in which one is looking. Even with the stereo-
telemeter (see below) the position of the range through which, for
example, a bird flies, could not always be accurately given, if
one were solely dependent upon direct stereoscopic vision.
If the attention and eyes are directed upon a certain object,
as, for instance, in manual labour and in measuring the image-
space with the so-called " travelling mark " on the stereo-
comparator, then direct stereoscopic vision only is concerned.
Stereoscopic vision is in many ways similar to the monocular
observation of a preparation under the microscope, and yet
there is a great difference. In an unchanged focused micro-
scope it cannot be distinguished which of the indistinct
objects are above and which are below the plane focused for.
In stereoscopic vision, however, this can be seen directly.
How does this happen? Why does the point H in fig. 3
appear behind and the point V in front of the point P when
both eyes are fixed on the point P?
As is shown in fig. 3 the image-points on both sides lie further
apart for H or nearer together for V than the image-points for P,
and for all the points on the horopter (Q, R, S, T &c.), whether the
points H and V are situated inside or outside the horopter. In
other words, if the point H be formed in the object-space by the
moving of the related points Q (or R) towards H, then a movement
of the image-point takes place in the right eye (or the left), in both
eyes in the direction of the nose, so long as the point H is outside
the horopter. On the contrary an external movement of the image-
point, i.e. towards the temples, takes place when the points S and T
are substituted by the point V situated inside the horopter. This
differentiation of the retinal images of the points H and V respectively
inside and outside the horopter must suffice, and the question as
to how the idea of space is conveyed to the brain is a physiological
and psychological subject.
If the images of the line PH in both eyes (or of the line PV) are
very different in length, the double images of the point H (or V)
are seen without great attention. But the stereoscopic effects
are in these cases always the same as before. There is, however,
an exception in which the observer sees only two images and in
which stereoscopic observation is completely excluded. This
exception is important because it occurs in the space in the
immediate proximity of P. If for example the second point
(H' in fig. 3) is situated behind or in front of the point P, so that it
falls between the two optic axes^or on one of them, then only double
images can be seen, either of P or of H', according to whether the
optic axis cuts at P or H', or double images of both points if the
optic axes intersect at any other point of the line PH', but the
representation of the difference of depth of the two points P and H'
is never obtained.
This fact can be easily realized if a stick, e.g. a lead pencil, be
held before the eyes of an observer with good stereoscopic sight
so that its lengthwise axis falls exactly on a point between the eyes
or in the middle of one of the two eyes. The double images can be
seen still more clearly if two small balls on thin threads are suspended
behind one another so that their connecting line retains the position
mentioned above. In this experiment it can be seen directly how
inconvenient these double images are to the observer. He involun-
tarily tries to evade them by moving the head. The reason for this
is that, when P (or H') is fixed, the images of H' (or P) are always
separated from one another by the centre of the yellow spot. The
distances of the two images from the yellow spot have consequently
opposite signs, whilst for all other objects (e.g. H) which lie outside
the two axes the distances have the same signs. The difference
of the sign is, however, not alone decisive, for if the connecting line
PH' is moved a little higher or lower out of the plane FPF the signs
remain different, but the stereoscopic effect is immediately regained.
Therefore in all cases in which the connecting line PH' is seen with
one eye as a point and with the other as a line, or with both eyes
as a line, but from two diametrically opposite sides, there is no
stereoscopic effect, but double images are seen ; and that for stereo-
scopic observation it is essential to see the connecting line PH'
with both eyes simultaneously from one and the same side, from above
or below, from the left or the right. This condition is provided
for in the stereotelemeter by the arrangement of a zigzag measuring
scale, so that the connecting-line of the marks slightly ascends.
Care must be taken when using this instrument (as also when
using any stereoscopic measuring instrument) that the index hangs
close to or above the object to be measured, so that the latter is
only touched and in no way covered by the mark.
The power of perception of depth in man is most accurate.
This has been ascertained by the approximately equal keenness
of vision of all normal-sighted people and by the interpupillary
distance. The angle which serves as a measure for the keen-
ness of vision is that under which appear two neighbouring
points of the object-space which are still seen by the single eye
as a double point; according to the older experiments of Helm-
holtz, this angle is about i'. When measured on the retina
the keenness of vision is determined by the diameter of the nerve
filaments situated in straight rows close to one another in the
fovea (fig. 4). The diameter of these filaments amounts to
roughly 0-005 mm., or in angular measure i'. More recent
experiments for keenness of vision and power of perception of
depth have given considerably higher values (Wiilfmg, Pulfrich,
Heine and others); thus Pulfrich in 1899, when first introducing
STEREOSCOPE
897
stereoscopic instruments for measuring distance, proved that
as a rule persons with normal eyes have a power of perception
of depth of 10" and still less in unrestricted vision . This is
explained as follows (Hering, Heine) :
It is unimportant for perception where the filament mentioned
above is illuminated. In order to see two objects lying close to
one another it is not essential that the two image-points should be
separated from one another by the distance of the two nerve fila-
ments of the eyes. This happens whenever the line separating two
objects passes through the two points (see fig. 4). It is natural
that the perception of depth has no fixed limits, for the position
of the images shown in fig. 4 changes with the movement of the
eyeball, and the closer the two points are to one another, the more
FIG. 4. '
rarely it occurs. If the angle of convergence of the optic axes = A,
the (average) distance between the eyes 6=65 mm., 5 = j'
relatively = 1 17000 (the perception of depth easily attained by
normal sight) and E=the normal distance of the point P from B
in fig. 2, then from E = B/A, the change of depth dE gives:
dE = B . S/A 2 = E . 8/A = E" . S/B.
If the angle A has the value 5 then all perception of depth ceases.
At this distance objects are only still distinguishable from those lying
behind them, which together form a surface but cannot always be seen
as a surface because our representations of the depths of distant
objects are not conclusively controlled by stereoscopic sight. This dis-
tance is called the radius of the stereoscopic field, and is calculated by
the formula R = B/8, whence R=45O metres. From the above
formulae it can be directly seen that the variation dE increases
with E 2 , and the proportional variation dE/E increases with E.
The numerical values can be easily calculated when either A or
E is given thus:
dE/E = a/A or dE/E = E/R.
The limits of stereoscopic vision defined above can be extended
and under the name of " stereoscope " every binocular in-
strument is included which serves this end. Those instruments
should first be mentioned which have restored the more or
less lost power of stereoscopic vision. It is necessary for those
with normal sight to wear spectacles when the eyes cease to
accommodate themselves to objects near at hand. Spectacles
which only cover he lower half of the eye and leave the upper
\
A! A!
FIG. 5.
half free to look out into space are the best. FOF those who
have been operated on for cataract, and for excessively short-
sighted persons, the " telescope-spectacles " devised by M. v.
Rohr (of Zeiss, Jena) are a great assistance. There are two
xxv. 29
methods of extending the limits of stereoscopic vision and of
increasing the accuracy of the perception of depth, (i) by
augmenting the keenness of sight by the aid of a telescope or
microscope, and (2) by increasing the interpupillary distance
by several reflections after the plan shown by Helmholtz in his
mirror stereoscope (1857) (see fig 5). When binocular tele-
scopes and microscopes are used, erect images are formed when
the two instruments are contiguous. If this is not the case,
the order of depth is reversed and the same false or pseudo-
images are formed as when the pictures in a stereoscopic view
are interchanged or a correctly combined stereoscopic picture
is observed in a so-called pseudo-stereoscope. If, however,
in this case the axes of both instruments intersect in front of
the eyes, then reversed pictures are obtained, but the correct
order of depth is recovered.
Telescope magnification (m times) and base magnification (n
times) bring the radius R of the stereoscopic field to m or n times
respectively the value above given, and if both are simultaneously
active to mn times. The errors for a certain distance E are accord-
ingly reduced to l/mn. Of course these expedients do not increase
the capability of the observer, but the values of the convergence
angle A and 8 in the object-space are different. It is therefore
quite natural that the three-dimensional images, which appear in
the binocular vision-space of the observer, vary with reference to
their dimensions and the distance of the separate parts from each
other. In this respect the action of the base magnification is funda-
mentally different from that of the telescope magnification. Both
bring the objects m or n times respectively nearer to the observer,
but in the first case the areal dimensions are diminished in the same
proportion as the distances are lessened, whilst in the other case the
real dimensions remain unchanged. In the first case the three-
dimensional image is a model proportionately diminished in all its
dimensions and brought nearer to the observer: in the other case
the objects appear pushed together to the front like the wings of a
theatre. The remark made in Helmholtz's Physiological Optics
that when m = n the three-dimensional image would look like the
object seen without any instrument at a distance of i/ is conse-
quently not correct. What is remarkable is that this observation,
to which as a so-called " Helmholtz rule " great importance was for
a long while attached, and to a certain extent still is, does not
correctly express the views of Helmholtz, which he states very
clearly in his earlier essay on the tele-stereoscope, and which agree
with the explanation here given.
Spectacles and binocular telescopes were the first binocular
instruments (see BINOCULAR INSTRUMENTS). The latter with
chromatic lenses had already been constructed in the I7th and
i8th centuries. The Dutch double-telescope (opera. glasses),
which were almost exclusively used up to the 'nineties of the
i pth century, were introduced in the 'thirties by Fr. Voigt-
lander. The binocular microscope appeared in the early 'fifties.
The introduction of the Porro prism (four reflections with
reversion of the picture and lateral transposition of the rays) by
Abbe in 1893 was of great importance
for the binocular telescope and micro-
scope. It led to the construction of the
prism field-glasses and other telescopes
which, in comparison with the Galileo
binocular telescopes till then in use, not
only had a considerably increased per-
ception of depth but also a substantially
larger field of vision. Similarly by
inserting the Porro inverting system
between the eyepiece and the objective,
the binocular microscope constructed
by H. S. Greenough and S. Czapski
was produced. Recently binocular
glasses (after Fritsch and Zeiss) have
come into use for slight magnifications,
in which, following the example given
by Wenham (1853), the interpupillary
distance and the angle of convergence
are diminished by four reflections (the
course of the rays reversed as in fig. 5).
All of the instruments mentioned above
FT-
v l pi ^1
Vi PI h,
""R
FIG. 6.
are used exclusively for the observation of three-dimensional objects
with two eyes. Wheatstone (1838) first showed that the same spatial
impression could be produced by two views of the object taken
8 9 8
STEREOSCOPE
from two different points and he called the instrument a stereo
scope. Let us imagine in fig. 6 a plane Fi' Fi between the twc
eyes Ai and A2 and the points P, H and V in the object-space
and on this plane the perspective projections of P, H and V
' produced towards AI and A ? as, for example, by photographing on
the plates Fi and F 2 with objectives Oi and O 2 at Ai and A 2 then th>
object can be taken away and we obtain from the projections th<
same spatial effect as when observing the object itself. The change
of accommodation of the eye which, however, has no influence on
the power of perception of depth, is excluded, and a furthe
difference (according to I. I. Oppel, 1854) is that in unrestrictec
vision the image-points not situated on the yellow spot undergo
slight displacement in consequence of the difference of the position
of the pupil and of the centre of rotation of the eye, which is
taken as the centre of projection. This can in no way be imitatec
in the pictures. In order to obtain a stereoscopic effort from such
pictures apparatus is not always necessary. When the pictures L
and R in fig. 6 are at a distance equal to that of distinct vision, the
stereoscopic effect can be obtained by observing them when the optic
axes of the eyes are parallel, and if the pictures are interchanged,
when the axes intersect. The second of these methods, which were
discovered by Whcatstone, was later widely used for the stereoscopic
observation of large wall pictures.
The 1852 model of the Wheatstone stereoscope is shown
diagrammatically in fig. 7. This differs from the original
model in that the pictures L and R
can be placed at different inclina-
tions to the mirrors Si and 52 and at
different distances from them in
order to observe the pictures under
exactly the same inclination of the
image and the same angle of con-
vergence as when the picture was
taken. Photographs with a large
base line and converging axes were
then often taken (in Germany first
by L. Moser). This mirror stereo-
scope had no practical result worth
mentioning on account of its awk-
ward shape and of the difficulty in obtaining equal illumination
of both pictures. It was also inconvenient that the pictures had
to be placed separately and reversed in the apparatus. These
difficulties are for the greater part avoided in the L. Pigeon
R (Nancy, 1905) new mirror-stereoscope for
large pictures, which can be purchased
in book form. Fig. 8 shows diagram-
matically the arrangement by which one
picture is seen direct and the other in a
mirror (H. W. Dove, Sir David Brewster
and W. Rollmann). The disadvantage
attached to this, that the picture observed
in the mirror must be reversed, can
according to Pulfrich 1 be obviated by
rotating the correct picture through 180'
T' T T"
/**""-. /
^^^
F
, 1
1
fi, H
H'""
7^><^.,
r
E *
h ' ^*^ f,
f
f.
plane
of the
h
h,
picture
^v^j
FIG. 7.
A, A,
FIG. 8.
in its own plane and placing it in the position of the picture
L and by using a so-called roof-prism in the place of the
mirror.
Incorrect stereoscopic effects easily arise when using pictures.
If for instance the distance of a picture from the centre of projection
is different at the time of observation from what it was when the
photograph was taken (see fig. 9), objects appear to be either too
much in relief or too flat even in monocular vision, just as when
looking first through the objective of a telescope and then through
the eyepiece. An excellent example is provided by the stereoscopic
observation of the moon, first performed by Warren de la Rue
(1858) to show that the three-dimensional image is modified by
altering the angle of convergence and by placing the pictures
obliquely. If the pictures obtained with converging axes are placed
further apart on the same plane, the stereoscopic image of the moon
has the shape of an egg; this, however, immediately disappears
and changes into an approximate sphere, if the picture be broken
in the middle and both sides bent back. If the pictures are observed,
as by Warren de la Rue, in a Wheatstone stereoscope under exactly
the same conditions as when the photographs were taken, the im-
pression of a sphere is obtained.
M. von Rohr (Die binocularen Instrumente, 1907) drew atten-
tion to che optics of the older stereoscopists and in particular
to the works of Wheatstone, and it is to be regretted that so
1 This fact is published here for the first time.
little notice was taken of these older works during the recent
development of most binocular instruments. It would, however,
be erroneous to demand that the above-mentioned conditions
for the observation of three-dimensional images should always
be considered. This is impossible, for example, in the stereo-
comparator in which the three-dimensional image is only seen
in portions, and never all at once. Neither does it concern
stereoscopic measuring instruments, and it is a curious coin-
cidence that the stereo-planigraph (see fig. 15) constructed after
Wheatstone's stereoscope, and correct as to the so-called ortho-
morphy of the three-dimensional image, was of no use as a
measuring instrument.
A lens-stereoscope invented in 1849 by Sir David Brewster
and constructed by J. Duboscq is very largely used. The
causes of its success were its convenient form and the fact that a
series of adjusted stereoscopic pictures (landscapes, machines,
FIG. 9.
&c.) could be observed in rapid succession. The Brewster
stereoscope, by making an easy observation of stereoscopic
pictures possible when the distance between identical points
on both pictures was considerably greater than that between
the observer's eyes, supported to a certain extent the in-
clination of photographers not to detract from the pictures. If the
lenses shown in fig. 10, on
the focal plane of which JT/_ llj
the stereoscopic image is *
formed, are large enough,
and the distance between
the image-points hi and h 2
is not greater than the
distance between the cen-
tres of the two lenses
(avoiding the divergence
of the axes of the eyes),
;hen the distance between
the eyes is secondary and
.he observer sees the
distant points with the
axes of the eyes parallel.
These apparent advan-
FIG. 10.
ages, however, are counteracted by the defect that the picture
seen through the lenses is eccentric, and consequently an
ncorrect impression of the picture is obtained, and an alteration
n the three-dimensional image occurs.
Wheatstone showed later in his controversy with Brewster that
his disadvantage in the lens-stereoscope could be avoided by
v t fi h g
i...
v, P.IU
f
' ' R
L
f
f
t
i
U
r
\
\
* P, h.
v t p, h,
h, p, vi
hj pa Vf
J
J
n ' '
>
T
H
>
J
h,p,v,
h,
ft
*
FIG. n.
djusting the lenses and distant points to the distance between
he observer's eyes. This same condition was fulfilled in the
double-verant " constructed by v. Rohr and A. Kohler (1905),
STEREOSCOPE
in which the lenses, in accordance with A. Gullstrand's rule, arc
so arranged that the centre of rotation of the eye always coincides
with the nodal point of the lenses. If every one had the same inter-
pupillary distance there would be nothing more perfect than this
stereoscope.
_ If in fig. 6 the two pictures L and R are interchanged in both
pictures (a or b in fig. n), then the image-points for H are closer
together than those for V; thus in stereoscopic vision H appears
in front of P, and V behind it. No change is made to the reliel
by turning the picture upside down (c and d in fig. 11). In fig. lid,
the pictures are in the same positions as when the photographs
are taken (Fi, Fj in fig. 6). Obviously transparent pictures can be
easily reversed ; in other cases it must be effected by mirrors (Wheat-
stone, Dove and others) or by an erecting reflection prism. The
original unbroken plate (fig. I id) can be seen in the pseudo-stereoscope
shown in fig. 12, and the correct relief is obtained if
it is rotated about the connecting line of the two
pictures before placing in the stereoscope. If a
symmetrical body be observed in the pseudo-stereo-
scope, for example a pyramid, the relief is still
reversed. But if a prism be dispensed with the
object appears flat, and a plane drawing appears
in relief.
These pseudo-stereoscopic phenomena are of the
greatest importance for the study of the principles
of stereoscopy, for they demonstrate that the per-
ception of depth can be aided by a direct presenta-
tion and hindered by a reverse presentation. If
a plate of the dolomites, for example, with a large
base line, arranged as in I ia and I ib is taken, and the apparatus and
the eyes are directed upwards, then the pseudomorphic image in
space looks like the roof of a stalactite cave. On the other hand,
when arranged as I ic and I id the image appears correctly represented,
but it is a little more difficult to see the horizon in the foreground of
the pseudomorphic image. Reference can only be made here to
the physiologically interesting phenomena of colour-tones, which
are a result of the chromatism of the eye and occur in monocular
and binocular vision (Dove and, more recently, A. Bruckner).
A comparatively simple solution to the problem of putting pic-
tures seen in a stereoscope in motion is provided in the muto-
scope for a single observer. The other problem to make one
stereoscopic picture visible to several people simultaneously
can be met in various ways, most simply (according to Roll-
mann [1853] and D'Almeida [1858]) by portraying the two
stereoscopic pictures in different colours one over the other,
and giving each observer spectacles of different coloured glass for
each eye, with which it is only possible to see one picture with
each eye. Another method suggested by I. Anderton (1891),
in which polarization and a Nicol prism must be used to
separate the pictures, has met with little success, and F. E.
Ives's novel proposal (1903) to separate the pictures when being
taken and also observed by a ruled grating placed immediately
in front of the photographic plate is not practicable. A method
devised by D'Almeida, which depended upon the alternate
visibility of the two pictures, demands a mechanism for each
observer, exactly synchronous with the intermittent illumina-
tion. This principle was successfully adopted by J. Mackenzie
Davidson and H. Boas (1900) for a direct stereoscopic observa-
tion of Rontgen radiographs. Immediately after the discovery
of the Rontgen rays in 1895, E. Mach made stereoscopic
investigations of these radiographs.
The development of stereoscopy has in no way been uni-
form; on the contrary, a long period, during which practi-
cally no interest was taken in stereoscopy or stereoscopic
phenomena, was preceded during the middle part of the igth
century by a period of universal interest. The reason for
this was not so much the realization of the defects of the stereo-
scopes in themselves, and the trivial manner in which they were
put on the market, as, for example, a closing stereoscope con-
taining confectionery, as the fact that the public did not know
how to make use of the pictures seen in the stereoscope. This
state of affairs was altered when Zeiss, of Jena, as a result of
the investigations of E. Abbe and C. Pulfrich, succeeded in
constructing apparatus which made it possible to measure
the three-dimensional images.
The stereotelemeter, constructed after H. de Grousilliers'
idea, appeared in 1899. This is a double telescope with the
distance between the objectives increased, and a number of
rows of marks placed in the plane of the image which appear as
899
' M in <x> i
real objects floating at fixed distances above the landscape, from
which the distances of the objects in the view can be easily read.
In 1905 Pulfrich devised a method of stereoscopic measurement
which is specially interesting from a physiological point of view,
but which can only be employed for isolated objects, such as
beacons, signals, &c. This method has the peculiarity that no
marks are necessary for the measurement. The binocular tele-
scope is so arranged that it always produces two three-dimen-
sional images of the object which is to be measured close to one
another, which as a rule are seen
as though they were at different
distances and of different sizes.
The measurement is made by
causing the difference of relief of c-
the two images to disappear either
by bringing the instrument nearer
to the object or by readjusting
the apparatus. The equal size of
the two three-dimensional images
can be regarded as a criterion of
their equal distances; and it is of
further advantage to the method
that the images to be compared
are equal as to definition andfj
colour.
A consequence of these instru-
ments, which are chiefly important
for military surveying, was the
Pulfrich stereocomparator devised
in 1901. The stereoscopic measuring
machine invented by H. G. Fourcade
of Capetown (1902) is similar to this in many points. These instru-
ments inaugurated the successful measurement of the distances
of distant objects and the uses of stereoscopy were consequently
increased. Measurement is not made of the objects themselves, but
on photographic plates which are taken with special instruments
field- and stand-phototheodolites at the extremities of a base-
line which is always selected according to the distance of the object
(Y,=E.-f)
o, > ,. P/ o,
ll
\
Jtereo - Com par a fo!
fuifA the marfo Jtli *nd ffli
A, A,
FIG. 14.
and the exactitude of measurement needed. For measuring the
pictures a binocular microscope, adjusted to the dimensions and the
listance between the two plates, is used, and a fixed mark is placed
in each image plane which combine in binocular view to a virtual
mark in the three-dimensional image. If the plates are correctly
goo
STERLING
adjusted, by moving the plates perpendicular to one another and by
altering the distance of the plates from one another, this so-called
" travelling mark " can be placed on any point of the landscape,
and then used for the measurement of solidity of the objects, or
the production of plans and models, just as formerly, for
example, the measuring staff was used for geodetic observations,
with the difference that in the stereocomparator the mark is regu-
lated by the observer only and is not hindered in its movements
by any undulations, &c., of the land.
Fig. 13 shows how the lateral movement of the mark m 2 is trans-
formed in a movement towards and away from the observer in
the three-dimensional image M. Fig. 14 shows the theory of
measuring a stereophotograph. The axes are horizontal when
the photograph is taken, and the plates are in one plane. It
shows the method of calculating the position of the point P in
the object-space from the co-ordinates Xi and yi of image-point
on the left plate and the so-called parallel axis a = xi x 2 ;
the last is constant for all points in the vertical plane GG
through P at right angles to Mid. The two microscopes in
fig. 14 really produce erect pictures, and the two^ plates ^are so
placed in the stereocomparator as to be seen from Pi' and Pj'.
The use of the stereocomparator is unlimited for the measure-
ment of relief. It is extended similarly to all objects and
phenomena, large and small, distant and near, in motion or
stationary, to those which retain their shape for a long
period or which are constantly changing, or to those which
are only visible for a short time. For a large number of experi-
ments of this sort mountain photography (Von Hiibl, &c.),
coastal measurements, photographing a battle from a ship,
geodesy, study of the waves (Kohlschutter, Laas), the trajectory
of a shot (Neuffer, Krupp, Neesen), the use in building railways
or on voyages of discovery, &c. the stereocomparator has
given proofs of its uses and new fields are being constantly
opened up for it. A further
advance has been made in the
sterepphotogrammetric method by
providing the stereocomparator
with a drawing apparatus (F. V.
Thomson, E. v. Orel and Carl
Zeiss), with which contours can
be automatically drawn from
the stereophotogrammetric photo-
graphs. E. Deville's (1903) stereo-
planigraph (fig. 15), designed for
the same purpose, is only used as
The mirrors are transparent for
the observation of a source of light, &c., which is moved in the
object-space.
The stereometer may be regarded as a modification of the stereo-
comparator, and is constructed for the measurement of men and
animals, and also for sculpture, and for the observation of complete
stereoscopic photographs. The motion of the mark is effected by
a lateral movement of one of the two objectives forming the picture.
Pulfrich has recently provided the Greenough binocular microscope
with a point or a circular mark situated exactly in the centre of the
field of view for the purpose of the direct gauging of small prepara-
tions which cannot be directly brought into contact with a mark.
This contact with the preparation is effected by displacing either
the preparation or the microscope, and the separate distances are
read with a vernier.
The earlier suggestions for making the stereoscope a measuring
instrument were not realized though decisive improvements
were made. Brewster was unconsciously near the solution of
the problem when he prepared ghosts or vistas by placing one
transparent picture over another. More important than these
trivial pictures are the superposed pictures (of conic sections,
machines, anatomical preparations, &c.) contrived by E. Mach
(1866) in which sections of the same solid object are successively
photographed on one plate so that in a stereoscope one can see,
as it were, through the opaque surface of the solid into the interior.
To A. Rollet (1861) is due the merit of constructing the first
stereoscopic measuring. scale. It was a sort of ladder, whose
rungs gave the distances of objects. Shortly after Mach sug-
gested using the mirror image of a wire model observed in a
transparent mirror for the measurement of the dimensions of a
body placed behind the glass plate.
The works of I. Harmer (1881) and F. Stolze (1884 and 1892)
are of importance for the history of the development of stereo-
scopic measurement. Harmer used a scale of depth consisting
of a series of squares arranged one behind the other in order to
measure in the stereoscope a picture of the clouds taken with a
large base-line (about 15 metres). Stolze placed gratings in
front of the two semi-pictures of a mirror stereoscope, one of
FIG. 15.
a demonstration apparatus.
which could be moved by a micrometer, and he thus discovered
the device called the " travelling mark." Apparently inde-
pendent of all earlier experimenters T. Marie and H. Ribaut had
the idea of the " travelling mark " in 1899 and 1900 and used it
for measuring the Rontgen radiographs.
Of the applications of stereoscopy we may notice the utilization
of spatial effects and troubles in stereoscopic vision (agitation
and lustrous appearances) in the discovery of differences and
alterations in pictures. The method was first used by Brewster
to recognize irregularities in carpet patterns, and later by
Dove and others for distinguishing the original from a copy,
for testing coins, cheques, &c. Moreover, with the develop-
ment of celestial photography, the stereoscope came to be
applied to the discovery of planets, comets, variable stars,
errors in plates, the proper motions and parallaxes of the fixed
stars (Harmer, Kummel, Wolf and Lenard, Forster and others).
The stereocomparator has also been employed in astrometry,
and a planetoid discovered by its aid was named Stereoscopia
in recognition of this application. Since 1904 binocular
observation of stellar plates to determine differences in the
images of the objects reproduced has been gradually discarded
for the method devised by Pulfrich, which consists in the
monocular observation of the two plates in the stereocomparator
with the assistance of. the so-called " blink " microscope (fig. 16).
In this microscope the two pictures are seen simultaneously,
or individually by alternately opening the screens BI and 82.
In the second case all differences of the two images
are immediately distinguished by a sudden oscillation of
the image-point or by a sudden appearance and disappear-
ance of single points like flash lights at sea or the modern
illuminated sky lights in towns, and there is now no merit in
discovering new planets, comets and variable stars by this
method.
The blink microscope is far more useful than the stereomicro-
scope for such purposes, for there is not one special direction in
which differences can be best distinguished. It is better there-
fore for the stereo method to be restricted to the work for which
it is specially suitable, and for which it will never be replaced,
and for such experiments as we have just discussed to be solely
performed with the aid of the blink microscope. (C. P.*)
STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904), Anglo-American vocalist,
was born at Sterlingville, New York state. She studied with
Mme Marchesi, with Mme Viardot Garcia and with Manuel
Garcia, and after singing for two years in America came
in 1873 to England, where she made her first appearance at
Covent Garden under Sir Julius Benedict and rapidly became
a popular favourite among the contraltos of the day. She
gained her greatest successes as a ballad-singer, especially in
such songs as " Caller Herrin'," " The Three Fishers " and " The
Lost Chord." She was a woman of deep religious feeling and
many enthusiasms, and her name was constantly associated
with philanthropic enterprise. She died on the loth of January
1904. In 1875 she had married Mr John Mackinlay, and her
life was written by her son, Mr Sterling Mackinlay, in 1906.
STERLING, J. STERNE, LAURENCE
STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844), British author, was born at
Kames Castle in Bute on the 2oth of July 1806. He belonged
to a family of Scottish origin which had settled in Ireland during
the Cromwellian period. His father, Edward Sterling (1773-
1847), had been called to the Irish bar, but, having fought as
a militia captain at Vinegar Hill, afterwards volunteered with
his company into the line. On the breaking up of his regiment
he went to Scotland and took to farming at Kames Castle. In
1804 he married Hester Coningham. In 18 10 the family removed
to Llanblethian, Glamorganshire, and during his residence there
Edward Sterling, under the signature of " Vetus," contributed
a number of letters to The Times, which were reprinted in 1812,
and a second series in 1814. In the latter year he removed to
Paris, but on the escape of Napoleon from Elba in 1815 took
up his residence in London, obtaining a position on the staff
of The Times newspaper; and during the late years of Thomas
Barnes's administration he was practically editor. His fiery,
emphatic and oracular mode of writing conferred those char-
acteristics on The Times which were recognized in the sobriquet
of the " Thunderer." John Sterling was his second son, the
elder being Colonel Sir Anthony Coningham Sterling (1805-1871),
who besides serving in the Crimea and as military secretary to
Lord Clyde during the Indian Mutiny, was the author of The
Highland Brigade in the Crimea and other books. After studying
for one year at the university of Glasgow, John Sterling in 1824
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he had for tutor
Julius Charles Hare. At Cambridge he took a distinguished
part in the debates of the union, and became a member of the
" Apostles' " Club, forming friendships with Frederick Denison
Maurice and Richard Trench. He removed to Trinity Hall
with the intention of graduating in law, but left the university
without taking a degree. During the next four years he resided
chiefly in London, employing himself actively in literature and
making a number of literary friends. With Maurice he purchased
the Athenaeum in 1828 from J. Silk Buckingham, but the
enterprise was not a pecuniary success. He also formed an
intimacy with the Spanish revolutionist General Torrijos, in
whose unfortunate expedition he took an active interest. But
he did not accompany it, as he was kept in England by his
marriage to Susannah, daughter of Lieut.-General Barton.
Shortly after his marriage in 1830 symptoms of pulmonary
disease induced him to take up his residence in the island of
St Vincent, where he had inherited some property, and he
remained there fifteen months before returning to England.
After spending some time on the Continent in June 1834 he was
ordained and became curate at Hurstmonceaux, where his old
tutor Julius Hare was vicar. Acting on the advice of his physician
he resigned his clerical duties in the following February, but,
according to Carlyle, the primary cause was a divergence from
the opinions of the Church. There remained to him the " re-
source of the pen," but, having to " live all the rest of his days
as in continual flight for his very existence," his literary achieve-
ments were necessarily fragmentary. He published in 1833
Arthur Coningsby, a novel, which attracted little attention,
and his Poems (1839), the Election, a Poem (1841), and Strafford,
a tragedy (1843), were not more successful. He had, however,
established a connexion in 1837 with Blackuiood's Magazine,
to which he contributed a variety of papers and several tales
of extraordinary promise not fulfilled in his more considerable
undertakings. Among these papers were " The Onyx Ring "
and " The Palace of Morgana." He died at Ventnor on the
i8th of September 1844, his wife having died in the preceding
year.
His son, Major-General John B. Sterling (b. 1840), after
entering the navy, went into the army, and had a distinguished
career (wounded at Tel-el-Kebir in 1882), both as a soldier and
as a writer on military subjects.
John Sterling's papers were entrusted to the joint care of Thomas
Carlyle and Archdeacon Hare. Essays and Tales, by John Sterling,
collected and edited, with a memoir of his life, by Julius Charles
Hare, appeared in 1848 in two volumes. So dissatisfied was Carlyle
with the memoir that he resolved to give his own " testimony "
901
about his friend, and his vivid Life (1851) has perpetuated the
memory of Sterling more than any of the latter's own writings.
STERLING, a city of Whitesidc county, Illinois, U.S.A., on
the north bank of Rock river, 109 m. by rail W. of Chicago.
Pop. (1900), 6309, of whom 815 were foreign-born and 23 were
negroes; (1910), 7467. Sterling is served by the Chicago & North-
western and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways, and
by inter-urban electric railway to Dixon, 12 m. N.N.W. Across
the river is Rock Falls (pop. in 1900, 2176), practically a suburb
of Sterling, with foundries and machine-shops and manufactories
of agricultural implements, barbed wire and bolts and rivets.
Three bridges cross the river. The river is tapped here by the
feeder of the Illinois & Michigan Canal, so that there is direct
water communication with Chicago and St Louis. Two great
dams on the river (one built by the Federal government) provide
good water power. The public library (1878) had 1 2,000 volumes
in 1910. In the city are large ironworks, and numerous other
manufactures. Sterling was formed in 1839 by the consolidation
of two towns, Harrisburg and Chatham, founded here in 1836
and 1837 respectively; it was chartered as a city in 1857.
STERLING, a term used to denote money of standard weight
or quality, especially applied to the English gold sovereign, and
hence with the general meaning of recognized worth or authority,
genuine, of approved excellence. The word has been generally
derived from the name of " Easterlings " given to the North
German merchants who came to England in the reign of Edward I.
and formed a hansa or gild in London, modelled on the earlier
one of the merchants of Cologne. Their coins were of uniform
weight and excellence (cf. Matthew Paris, ann. 1247, moncta
esterlingomm, propter sui materiem desiderabilem, &c.), and thus
it is supposed gave the name of the moneyers to a coinage of
recognized fineness. This theory is based on the statement
of Walter de Pinchbeck, a monk of the time of Edward I.,
" sed moneta Angliae fertur dicta fuisse a nominibus opificum, ut
Floreni a nominibus Florentiorum, ita Sterlingi a nominibus
Esterlingomm nomina sua contraxerunt, qui hujusmodi monetam
in Anglia primitus componebant " (quoted in Wedgwood,
Diet, of Eng. Etym.). The word, however, occurs much earlier.
The Roman de Ron (1180) has " Pour ses estellins recevoir,"
and " in Anglia unus Sterlingus per solvetur " occurs in an
ordinance of Philip of France and Henry II. of England of 1184,
both quoted in Du Cange (Gloss, s.ii. Esterlingus). The " ster-
ling " was a coin, the silver penny, 240 of which went to the
" pound sterling " of silver of 5760 grains, 925 fine, and described
in a statute of Edward I., quoted in Du Cange, as " Denarius
Angliae qui vocatur Sterlingus." The word was borrowed by
all European languages and applied to the English coin and to
coins in general of a standard quality; thus we find not only
O. Fr. estorlin or estellin but M. H. G. sterlinc or staerlinc, Ital.
sterlino, &c. It would seem therefore that the term was applied
to a coin of recognized quality before the North German mer-
chants were established in London and that its origin should
be found in a native English word. Two suggestions have been
made; one that it represents an O. Eng. steorling, i.e. little star,
from a device on an early coin, such as is found on some of
William II., or O. Eng. staerling, starling, from the birds, which
however may be doves, on the coins of Edward the Confessor.
(See Du Cange, Gloss, s.v. Esterlingus; and Skeat, Etym. Diet.
1910, s.v. Sterling.)
STERNBERG, a town of Austria, in Moravia, 73 m. N.E. of
Briinn by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,193, almost exclusively German.
It is the chief seat of the Moravian cotton industry, and it also
carries on the manufacture of linen, stockings, liqueurs, sugar
and bricks. Fruit, especially cherries, and tobacco are grown
in the neighbourhood. Sternberg is said to have grown up
under the shelter of a castle founded by Yaroslav of Sternberg
on the site of his victory over the Mongols in 1241.
STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768), English humorist, was
the son of Roger Sterne, an English officer, and great-grandson
of an archbishop of York. Nearly all our information about
the first forty-six years of his life before he became famous as
the author of Tristram Shandy is derived from a short memoir
902
STERNE, LAURENCE
jotted down by himself for the use of his daughter. It gives
nothing but the barest facts, excepting three anecdotes about
his infancy, his school days and his marriage. He was born
at Clonmel, Ireland, on the 24th of November 1713, a few days
after the arrival of his father's regiment from Dunkirk. The
regiment was then disbanded, but very soon after re-established,
and for ten years the boy and his mother moved from place to
place after the regiment, from England to Ireland, and from
one part of Ireland to another. The familiarity thus acquired
with military life and character stood Sterne in good stead when
he drew the portraits of Uncle Toby and Corporal Trim. After
ten years of wandering, he was fixed for eight or nine years at
a school at Halifax in Yorkshire. His father died when he was
in his eighteenth year, and he was indebted for his university
education to one of the members of his father's family. His
great-grandfather the archbishop had been master of Jesus
College, Cambridge, and to Jesus College he was sent. He was
admitted to a sizarship in July 1733, took his B.A. degree in
1736 and proceeded M.A. in 1740. One of his uncles was pre-
centor and canon of York. Young Sterne took orders, and
through this uncle's influence obtained in 1738 the living of
Sutton-in-the-Forest, some 8 m. north of York. Two years
after his marriage in 1741 to a lady named Elizabeth Lumley
he was presented to the neighbouring living of Stillington, and
did duty at both places. He was also a prebendary of York
Cathedral.
Sutton was Sterne's residence for twenty uneventful years.
He kept up an intimacy which had begun at Cambridge with
John Hall-Stevenson (1718-1785), a witty and accomplished
epicurean, owner of Skelton Hall (" Crazy Castle ") in the
Cleveland district of Yorkshire. Skelton Hall is nearly 40 m.
from Sutton, but Sterne, in spite of his double duties, seems to
have been a frequent visitor there, and to have found in his not
too strait-laced friend a highly congenial companion. Sterne
is said to have never formally become a member of the circle
of gay squires and clerics at Skelton known as the " Demoni-
acks"; but no doubt he shared their festivities. Stevenson's
various occasional sallies in verse and prose his Fables for
Grown Gentlemen (1761-1770), his Crazy Tales (1762), and his
numerous skits at the political opponents of Wilkes, among
whose "macaronies" he numbered himself were collected after
his death, and it is impossible to read them without being struck
with their close family resemblance in spirit and turn of thought
to Sterne's work, inferior as they are in literary genius. Without
Stevenson, Sterne would probably have been a more deco'rous
parish priest, but he would probably never have written Tristram
Shandy or left any other memorial of his singular genius. In
1747 Sterne published a sermon preached in York under the title
of The Case of Elijah. This was followed in 1750 by The Abuses
of Conscience, afterwards inserted in vol. ii. of Tristram Shandy.
In 1759 he wrote a skit on a quarrel between Dean Fountayne
and Dr Topham, a York lawyer, over the bestowal of an office
in the gift of the archbishop. This sketch, in which Topham
figures as Trim the sexton, and the author as Lorry Slim, gives
an earnest of Sterne's powers as a humorist. It was not published
until after his death, when it appeared in 1769 under the title
of A Political Romance, and afterwards the History of a Warm
Watch-Coat. The first two volumes of Tristram Shandy were
issued at York in 1759 and advertised in London on the ist
of January 1760, and at once made a sensation. York was
scandalized at its clergyman's indecency, and indignant at his
caricature as "Slop" of a local physician (Dr John Burton);
London was charmed with his audacity, wit and graphic uncon-
ventional power. He went to London early in the year to enjoy
his triumph, and found himself at once a personage in society
was called upon and invited out by lion-hunters, was taken to
Windsor by Lord Rockingham, and had the honour of supping
with the duke of York.
For the last eight years of his life after this sudden leap out
of obscurity we have a faithful record of Sterne's feelings and
movements in letters to various persons, published in 1775 by
his sole child and daughter, Lydia Sterne de Medalle, and in the
Letters from Yorick to Eliza (1766-1767), also published in 1775.
At the end of the sermon in Tristram he had intimated that, if
this sample of Yorick's pulpit eloquence was liked, " there are
now in the possession of the Shandy family as many as will
make a handsome volume, at the world's service, and much
good may they do it." Accordingly, when a second edition
of the first instalment of Tristram was called for in three months,
two volumes of Sermons by Yorick were announced. Although
they had little or none of the eccentricity of the history, they
proved almost as popular. Sterne's clerical character was far
from being universally injured by his indecorous freaks as a
humorist: Lord Fauconberg presented the author of Tristram
Shandy with the perpetual curacy of Coxwold. To this new
residence he went in high spirits with his success, " fully deter-
mined to write as hard as could be," seeing no reason why he
should not give the public two volumes of Shandyism every year
and why this should not go on for forty years. By the beginning
of August 1760 he had another volume written, and was so
" delighted with Uncle Toby's imaginary character that he was
become an enthusiast." The author's delight in this wonderful
creation was not misleading; it has been fully shared by every
generation of readers since. For two years in succession
Sterne kept his bargain with himself to provide two volumes
a year. Vols. iii. and iv. appeared in 1761; vols. v. and vi.
in January 1762. But his sanguine hopes of continuing at
this rate were frustrated by ill-health. He was ordered to
the south of France; it was two years and a half before he
returned; and he came back with very little accession of
strength. His reception by literary circles in France was very
flattering. He was overjoyed with it. " 'Tis comme a Londres,"
he wrote to Garrick from Paris; " I have just now a fortnight's
dinners and suppers upon my hands." Through all his pleasant
experiences of French society, and through the fits of dangerous
illness by which they were diversified, he continued to build
up his history of the Shandy family, but the work did not progress
as rapidly as it had done. Not till January 1765 was he ready
with the fourth instalment of two volumes; and one of them,
vol. vii., leaving the Shandy family for a time, gave a lively
sketch of the writer's own travels to the south of France in
search of health. This was a digression of a new kind, if any-
thing can be called a digression in a work the plan of which is
to fly off at a tangent whenever and wherever the writer's whim
tempts him. In the first volume, anticipating an obvious com-
plaint, he had protested against digressions that left the main
work to stand still, and had boasted not without justice in
a Shandean sense that he had reconciled digressive motion with
progressive. But in vol. vii. the work is allowed to stand still
while the writer is being transported from Shandy Hall to
Languedoc. The only progress we make is in the illustration
of the buoyant and joyous temper of Tristram himself, who,
after all, is a member of the Shandy family, and was due a volume
for the elucidation of his character. Vol. viii. begins the long-
promised story of Uncle Toby's amours with the Widow Wadman.
After seeing to the publication of this instalment of Tristram
and of another set of sermons more pronouncedly Shandean
in their eccentricity he quitted England again in the summer
of 1765, and tavelled in Italy as far as Naples. The ninth
and last and shortest volume of Tristram, concluding the episode
of Toby Shandy's amours, appeared in 1767. This despatched,
Sterne turned to a new project, which had probably been sug-
gested by the ease and freedom with which he had moved through
the travelling volume in Tristram. The Sentimental Journey
through France and Italy was intended to be a long work: the
plan admitted of any length that the author chose, but, after
seeing the first two volumes through the press in the early months
of 1768, Sterne's strength failed him, and he died in his lodgings
at 41 Old Bond Street on the i8th of March, three weeks after
the publication. The loneliness of his end has often been com-
mented on; it was probably due to its unexpectedness. He
had pulled through so many sharp attacks of his " vile influenza "
and other lung disorders that he began to be seriously alarmed
only three days before his death.
STERNE, R. STETTIN
93
Sterne's character defies analysis in brief space. It is too
subtle and individual to be conveyed in general terms. For
comments upon him from points of view more or less diverse
the reader may be referred to Thackeray's Humourists, Professor
Masson's British Novelists (1859), and H. D. Traill's sketch in
the " English Men of Letters " Series. The fullest biography
is Mr Percy Fitzgerald's (1864). But the reader who cares to
have an opinion about Sterne should hesitate till he has read
and re-read in various moods considerable portions of Sterne's
own writing. This writing is so singularly frank and uncon-
ventional that its drift is not at once apparent to the literary
student. The indefensible indecency and overstrained senti-
mentality are on the surface; but after a time every repellent
defect is forgotten in the enjoyment of the exquisite literary art.
In the delineation of character by graphically significant speech
and action, introduced at unexpected turns, left with happy
audacity to point their own meaning, and pointing it with a
force that the dullest cannot but understand, he takes rank
with the very greatest masters. In Toby Shandy he has drawn
a character universally lovable and admirable; but Walter
Shandy is almost greater as an artistic triumph, considering
the difficulty of the achievement. Dr Ferriar, in his Illustrations
of Sterne (published in 1798), pointed out several unacknowledged
plagiarisms from Rabelais, Burton and others; but it is only
fair to the critic to say that he was fully aware that they were
only plagiarisms of material, and do not detract in the slightest
from Sterne's reputation as one of the greatest of literary artists.
A revised edition of Mr Percy Fitzgerald's Life of Sterne, containing
much new information, appeared in 1896. There is also a valuable
study of Sterne by M. Paul Stapfer (1870, 2nd ed., 1882) ; and many
fresh particulars as to Sterne's relations with his wife and daughter,
and also with the lady known as " Eliza " (Mrs Elizabeth
Draper), are collected in Mr Sidney Lee's article in the Diet.
Nat. Biog. Sterne's original journal to Mrs Draper (" The
Bramine's Journal "), after she had gone back to India, and extend-
ing from the I3th of April to the 4th of August 1767, is now in the
department of MSS., British Museum (addit. MS. 34.527)- A con-
venient edition of Sterne's works, edited by Professor George
Saintsbury, was issued in six volumes in 1894. See also Wilbur L.
Cross, The Life and Times of Laurence Sterne (New York, 1909) ; and
Walter Sichel, Sterne: a Study (1910). (W. M. ; A. D.)
STERNE, RICHARD (c. 1596-1683), English divine, arch-
bishop of York, was born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, and
was educated at the free-school in that town and at Trinity
College, Cambridge. He was elected fellow of Corpus Christi
College in 1620; in 1633 he became chaplain to Archbishop
Laud and in 1634 master of Jesus College, Cambridge, and rector
of Yelverton, Somerset. For his zeal in helping the royalist
cause with college plate he suffered imprisonment at the order
of parliament and lost his appointments. He attended Laud
at his execution, and during the Commonwealth kept a school
at Stevenage, Hertfordshire. At the Restoration he was rein-
stated as master of Jesus College and soon after was made bishop
of Carlisle. With George Griffith, bishop of St Asaph, and Brian
Walton, bishop of Chester, he was appointed by Convocation
to revise the Prayer Book. In 1664 he was raised to the arch-
bishopric of York. He had impoverished Carlisle, and in his
new see, according to Burnet (who calls him " a sour ill-tempered
man "), " minded chiefly the enriching of his family." For his
regard to the duke of York's interests he was suspected of leaning
towards Roman Catholicism. He died on the 2oth of June 1683.
He helped Brian Walton with the Polyglot Bible and wrote a
book on logic, Summa logicae (London, 1685).
He has also been credited with The Whole Duty of Man, which
must, however, be assigned to the royalist divine Richard Allestree
(1619-1681), provost of Eton College, whose original was consider-
ably altered by his literary executor, John Fell (1625-1686), bishop
of Oxford.
STESICHORUS (c. 640-555 B.C.), Greek lyric poet, a native
of Himera in Sicily, or of Mataurus a Locrian colony in the south
of Italy. According to Suidas, his name was originally Tisias,
but was changed to Stesichorus (" organizer of choruses ").
His future eminence as a poet was foretold when a nightingale
perched upon his lips and sang (Pliny, Nat. Hist., x. 43). We
are told that he warned his fellow-citizens against Phalaris,
whom they had chosen as their general, by relating to them the
well-known fable of the horse, which, in its eagerness to punish
the stag for intruding upon its pastures, became the slave of
man (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). But his warnings had no
effect; he himself was obliged to flee to Catana, where he died
and was buried before the gate called after him the Stesichorean.
The story that he was struck blind for slandering Helen in a poem
and afterwards recovered his sight when, in consequence of a
dream, he had composed a palinode or recantation (in which he
declared that only Helen's phantom had been carried off to
Troy), is told by Plato (Phaedrus 243 A.), Pausanias (iii. 19, 13),
and others. We possess about thirty fragments of his poems,
none of them longer than six lines. They are written in the
Doric dialect, with epic licences; the metre is dactylico- trochaic.
Brief as they are, they show us what Longinus meant by calling
Stesichorus " most like Homer "; they are full of epic grandeur,
and have a stately sublimity that reminds us of Pindar. Stesi-
chorus indeed made a new departure by using lyric poetry to
celebrate gods and heroes rather than human feelings and pas-
sions; this is what Quintilian (Instil, x. i, 62) means by saying
that he " sustained the burden of epic poetry with the lyre."
Several of his poems sung of the adventures of Heracles; one
dealt with the siege of Thebes, another with the sack of Troy. 1
The last is interesting as being the first poem containing that
form of the story of Aeneas's flight to which Virgil afterwards
gave currency in his Aeneid. The popular legends of Sicily
also inspired his muse; he was the first to introduce the shepherd
Daphnis who came to a miserable end after he had proved faith-
less to the nymph who loved him. Stesichorus completed the
form of the choral ode by adding the epode to the strophe and
antistrophe; and " you do not even know Stesichorus's three "
passed into a proverbial expression for unpardonable ignorance
(unless the words simply mean, " you do not even know three
lines, or poems, of Stesichorus"). He was famed in antiquity
for the richness and splendour of his imagination and his style,
although Quintilian censures his redundancy and Hermogenes
remarks on the excessive sweetness that results from his abundant
use of epithets.
Fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci, iii.; see also
S. Bernage, De Stesichoro lyrico (1880) ; O. Crusius, " Stesichorus
und die epodische Composition in der griechischen Lyrik," in
Commentatwnes Philologicae, dedicated to O. Ribbeck (1888).
STETHOSCOPE (Gr. orTJflos, chest, and aKmeiv, to look,
examine), a medical instrument used in auscultation (q.v.).
The single stethoscope is a straight wooden or metal tube with
a flattened bell, the surface of which is usually covered with
ivory or bone at the end which is placed against the body of
the patient, and a small cup at the other' to fit the ear of the
observer. In the " binaural " stethoscope, which has the
advantage of flexibility, the tube is divided above the bell into
two flexible tubes which lead to both ears.
STETTIN, a seaport of Germany, capital of the Prussian
province of Pomerania, on the Oder, 17 m. above its entrance
into the Stettiner Haff, 30 m. from the Baltic, 84 m. N.E. of
Berlin by rail, and at the junction of lines to Stargard-Danzig
and Kustrin-Breslau. Pop. (1885), 99,475', (1890), 116,228;
(1900) including the incorporated suburbs 210,680; (1905)
224,078. The main part of the town occupies a hilly site on the
left bank of the river, and is connected by four bridges, including
a massive railway swing-bridge, with the suburbs of Lastadie
(" lading place " from lastadium, " burden,") and Silberwiese, on
an island formed by the Parnitz and the Dunzig, which here
diverge from the Oder to the Dammsche-See. Until 1874
Stettin was closely girdled by very extensive and strong forti-
fications, which prevented the expansion of the town, but
the steady growth of its commerce and manufactures encouraged
the foundation of numerous industrial suburbs beyond the
1 The tabula Iliaca, a stucco bas-relief found in the ruins of an
ancient temple on the site of the ancient Bovillae and so called
because it represents the chief events of the Trojan War, is a sort of
commentary upon this (see O. Jahn and A. Michaelis, Griechische
Bilderchroniken, 1873; and M. F. Paulcke, De tabula iliaca quaesti-
ones Stesichoreae, 1897, an exhaustive treatise).
94
STEUART STEUBEN
line of defence and these now combine with Stettin to form one
industrial and commercial centre. Since the removal of the
fortifications their site has been built upon. Apart from its
commerce Stettin is comparatively an uninteresting city,
although its appearance, owing to its numerous promenades
and open spaces, is very pleasant. Among its nine Evangelical
churches that of St Peter, founded in 1124 and restored in 1816-
1817, has the distinction of being the oldest Christian church in
Pomerania. Both this and the church of St James, dating from
the i4th century, are remarkable for their size. Three of the
Evangelical churches are fine new buildings, and there are also
churches belonging to the Roman Catholics and other religious
bodies. The old palace, now used as public offices, is a large but
unattractive edifice, scarcely justifying the boast of an old
writer that it did not yield in magnificence even to the palaces
of Italy. Among the modern buildings are the theatre, the
barracks, the bourse, a large hospital, the new town-hall, super-
seding a building of the I3th century, and the new govern-
ment buildings. Statues of Frederick the Great, of Frederick
William III. and of the emperor William I. adorn two of the fine
squares, the Konigsplatz and the Kaiser Wilhelmsplatz. Other
squares are the Paradeplatz, and the Rathausplatz with a
beautiful fountain. Two gateways, the Konigstor and the
Berlinei Tor, remains of the old fortifications, are still standing.
As a prosperous commerical town Stettin has numerous
scientific, educational and benevolent institutions.
Stettin, regarded as the port of Berlin, is one of the principal
ship-building centres of Germany and a place of much com-
mercial and industrial activity. The foremost place in its chief
industry, ship-building, is taken by the Vulcan yard, situated
in the suburb of Bredow, which builds warships for the German
navy. The business was begun in 1851 and now employs about
8000 hands, the works extending over 70 acres and the covered
workshops over 650,000 sq. ft. In 1897 a floating dock was
fitted up capable of holding vessels of 12,000 tons. Locomotives,
boilers and machinery of all kinds are made in other great
establishments. Other industries are the manufacture of
clothing, cement, bricks, motor-cars, soap, paper, beer, sugar,
spirits and cycles. Most of the mills and factories are situated
in the suburbs, Grabow, Bredow and others. The sea-borne
commerce of Stettin is of scarcely less importance than her
industry and a larger number of vessels enter and clear here
than at any other German port, except Hamburg and Bremer-
haven. Swinemunde serves as its outer port. Its principal
exports are grain, wood, chemicals, spirits, sugar, herrings and
coal, and its imports are iron goods, chemicals, grain, petroleum
and coal. A great impulse to its trade was given in 1898 by the
opening of a free harbour adjoining the suburb of Lastadie on
the east bank of the Oder; this embraces a total area of 150
acres and quays with a length of 14,270 ft. It has two basins,
with the necessary accompaniment of cranes, storehouses, &c.,
and the deepening of the Oder from Stettin to the Haff to 24 ft.
was practically completed by 1903. With the view of still
further increasing the commercial importance of Stettin, it is
proposed to construct a ship canal giving the town direct
communication with Berlin. A feature in the mercantile life
of Stettin is the large number of insurance companies which
have their headquarters in the town.
The forest and river scenery of the neighbourhood of Stettin
is picturesque, but the low level and swampy nature of the soil
render the climate bleak and unhealthy.
Stettin is said to have existed as a Wendish settlement in
the gth century, but its first authentic appearance in history was
in the i2th century, when it was known as Stedyn. From the
beginning of the I2th century to 1637 it was the residence .of
the dukes of Pomerania, one of whom, Duke Barnim I., gave
it municipal rights in 1243. Already a leading centre of trade
it entered the Hanseatic League in 1360. The Pomeranian
dynasty became extinct in 1637, when the country was suffering
from the ravages of the Thirty Years' War, and by the settle-
ment of 1648 Stettin, the fortifications of which had been
improved by Gustavus Adolphus, was ceded to Sweden. In
1678 it was taken from Sweden by Frederick William, elector
of Brandenburg, but it was restored in 1679, only, however,
to be ceded to Prussia in 1720 by the peace of Stockholm. It
was fortified more strongly by Frederick the Great, but in 1806
it yielded to France without any resistance and was held by the
French until 1813. Stettin was the birthplace of the empress
Catherine II. of Russia.
See Berghaus, Geschichte der Stadt Stettin (Wurzen, 1875-1876);
W. H. Meyer, Stettin in alter und neuer Zeit (Stettin, 1887); T.
Schmidt, Zur Geschichte des Handels und der Schiffahrt Stettins 1786-
1846 (Stettin, 1875); and C. F. Meyer, Stettin zur Schwedenzeit
(Stettin, 1886).
STEUART, SIR JAMES DENHAM, BART. (1712-1780),
English economist, was the only son of Sir James Steuart,
solicitor-general for Scotland under Queen Anne and George I.,
and was born at Edinburgh on the 2ist of October 1712. After
passing through the university of Edinburgh he was admitted
to the Scottish bar at the age of twenty-four. He then spent
some years on the Continent, and while in Rome entered into
relations with the Pretender. He was in Edinburgh in 1745,
and so compromised himself that, after the battle of Culloden,
he found it necessary to return to the Continent where he
remained until 1763. It was not indeed until 1771 he was fully
pardoned for any complicity he may have had in the rebellion.
He died at his family seat, Coltness, in Lanarkshire, on the 26th
of November 1780. In 1767 was published Steuart 's Inquiry
into the Principles of Political Economy. It was the most com-
plete and systematic survey of the science from the point of
view of moderate mercantilism which had appeared in England.
But the time for the mercantile doctrines was past. Nine years
later the Wealth of Nations was given to the world. Adam
Smith never quotes or mentions Steuart's book; being acquainted
with Steuart, whose conversation he said was better than his
book, he probably wished to keep clear of controversy with him.
German economists have examined Steuart's treatise more
carefully than English writers; and they have recognized its
high merits, especially in relation to the theory of value and
the subject of population. They have also pointed out that,
in the spirit of the best modern research, he has dwelt on the
special characters which distinguish the economies proper to
different nations and different grades in social progress.
The Works, Political, Metaphysical and Chronological, of the late
Sir James Steuart of Coltness, Bart., now first collected, with Anecdotes
of the Author, by his Son, General Sir James Denham Steuart, were
published in 6 vols. 8vo in 1805. Besides the Inquiry they include
A Dissertation vpon the Doctrine and Principles of Money applied to
the German Coin (1758), Apologie du sentiment de M. le Chevalier
Newton sur I'ancienne chronologie des Grecs (4to, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1757), The Principles of Money applied to the Present State
of Bengal, published at the request of the East India Company
(4to, 1772), A Dissertation on the Policy of Grain (1783), Plan for
Introducing Uniformity in Weights and Measures within the Limits
of the British Empire (1790), Observations on Beattie's Essay on
Truth, A Dissertation concerning the Motive of Obedience to the Law of
God, and other treatises.
STEUBEN, FREDERICK WILLIAM AUGUSTUS HENRY
FERDINAND, BARON VON (1730-1794), German soldier, was
born at Magdeburg, Prussia, on the I5th of November 1730,
the son of William Augustine Steuben (1699-1783), also a soldier.
At fourteen he served as a volunteer in a campaign of the Austrian
Succession War. He became a lieutenant in 1753, fought in
the Seven Years' War, was made adjutant -general of the free
corps in 1754 but re-entered the regular army in 1761, and became
an aide to Frederick the Great in 1762. Leaving the army after
the war, he was made canon of the cathedral of Havelberg, and
subsequently was grand-marshal to the prince of Hohenzollern-
Hechirigen. In 1777 his friend, the count St Germain, then
the French minister of war, persuaded him to go to the assistance
of the American colonists, who needed discipline and instruction
in military tactics. Steuben arrived at Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, on the ist of December 1777, and offered his services
to Congress as a volunteer. In March 1778 he began drilling
the inexperienced soldiers at Valley Forge; and by May, when
he was made inspector-general, with the rank of major-general,
he had established a thorough system of discipline and economy.
STEUBENVILLE STEVENS, A.
95
Results of his work were shown in the next campaign, particu-
larly at Monmouth, where he rallied the disordered, retreating
troops of General Charles Lee. His Regulations for the Order
and Discipline of the Troops of the United States (1779) was of
great value to the army. He was a member of the court-martial
which tried Major John Andre in 1780, and after General Horatio
Gates's defeat at Camden was placed in command of the district
of Virginia, with special instructions " to collect, organize,
discipline and expedite the recruits for the Southern army."
In April 1781 he was superseded in command of Virginia by
La Fayette and later took part in the siege of Yorktown. Retiring
frorn^ the service after the war, he passed the last years of his
life at Steubenville, New York, where he died on the 28th of
November 1794. New York, Virginia, Pennsylvania and New
Jersey gave him grants of land for his services, and Congress
passed a vote of thanks and gave him a gold-hilted sword in
1784 and later granted him a pension of $2400.
See Frederick Kapp, The Life of Frederick William von Sleuben
(New York, 1859) ; and George W. Greene, The German Element in
the War of American Independence (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1876).
STEUBENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson
county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Ohio river, about
40 m. W. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1880), 12,093; (jSgo), 13,394;
(1900), 14,349, of whom 1815 were foreign-born and 736 were
negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 22,391. It is served by the
Wheeling & Lake Erie (Wabash system), the Pittsburg, Cin-
cinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system), and the
Pennsylvania railways, and by inter-urban electric railways.
A suspension bridge crosses the Ohio river here. Steubenville
is on a high plain (the second terrace of the river), surrounded
by hills 300-500 ft. high, in a good farming country, rich in
bituminous coal, natural gas, building-stone, petroleum and
clay. The City has a Carnegie library, Gill hospital, a Y.M.C.A.
building and Stanton and Altamont parks. The value of its
factory products increased from $4,547,049 in 1900 to $12,369,677
in 1905, or 172 % the greatest increase during this period for
any city, with a population of 8000 or over in 1900, in the state;
during the same period the capital invested in manufacturing
industries increased from $2,302,563 to $12,627,048 or 448-4 %.
Among manufactures are iron and steel, tin and terne plate,
glass, paper and wood pulp, and pottery. Near the city limits
are building-stone quarries and coal-mines. The municipality
owns and operates the waterworks. Steubenville was platted
as a town in 1797, immediately after the erection of Jefferson
county, and was built on the site of Fort Steuben, erected in
1786-1787, and named in honour of Baron Frederick William
von Steuben; it received a city charter in 1851, and its city limits
were much enlarged in 1871.
See W. H. Hunter, " The Pathfinders of Jefferson County," and
" The Centennial of Jefferson County," in Ohio Archaeological and
Historical Review, vol. vi. Nos. 2, 3 (Columbus, 1898).
STEUCO [in Latin STEUCHUS or EUGUBINUS], AGOSTINO
(1496-1549), Italian scholar and divine, was born at Gubbio
in Umbria. In 1513 he entered the congregation of the canons
of St Saviour, and for some years earned his living by teaching
Oriental languages, theology and antiquities. In 1525 he
became librarian of the convent of Sant' Antonio at Venice,
returning later to Gubbio as prior of his congregation. In 1538
he was made bishop of Chisamo in Crete, but returned after a
year or two to Rome, where in 1542 he succeeded Alessandro
as prefect of the Vatican Library. He wrote many works on
sacred antiquities and Bible exegesis.
See Hoefer, Nouvelle biographic generale (Paris, 1857-1870).
STEVEDORE, a person who is engaged in the stowage of cargo
on board a ship, one who loads and unloads vessels in port. The
word is an adaptation of the Spanish estiiiador, literally a packer,
estivar, to press or pack closely, Latin slipare, to press. The
Spanish word was particularly applied to the packers of wool,
when Spain was a great wool-exporting country, and thus came
into general mercantile use.
STEVENAGE, an urban district in the Hitchin parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, 285 m. N. of London by the
xxv. 29 a
Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901), 3957. The church of
St Nicholas, with a graceful tower and spire, is mainly Early
English, but has Norman and later portions. There is a grammar
school, founded in 1558. By the North Road, south of the
town, is a row of six large barrows, considered to be of Danish
construction.
STEVENS, ALFRED (1818-1875), British sculptor, was born
at Blandford in Dorset on the 28th of January 1818. He was
the son of a house painter, and in the early part of his career
he painted pictures in his leisure hours. In 1833, through the
kindness of the rector of his parish, he was enabled to go to
Italy, where he spent nine years in study at Naples, Rome,
Florence, Milan and Venice. He had never been at an English
school. In 1841 Thorwaldsen employed him for a year in Rome.
After this he left Italy for England, and in 1845 he obtained a
tutorial position in the School of Design, London. This post
he occupied until 1847. In 1850 he became chief artist to a
Sheffield firm of workers in bronze and metal. In 1852 he
returned to London. To this period belongs his design for the
vases on the railings in front of the British Museum, and also
the lions on the dwarf posts which were subsequently transferred
to the inside of the museum. In 1856 occurred the competition
for the Wellington monument, originally intended to be set up
under one of the great arches of St Paul's Cathedral, though it
was only consigned to that position in 1892. Stevens agreed
to carry out the monument for 20,000 a quite inadequate
sum, as it afterwards turned out. The greater part of his life
as a sculptor Stevens devoted to this grand monument, constantly
harassed and finally worn out by the interference of government,
want of money and other difficulties. Stevens did not live to
see the monument set up perhaps fortunately for him, as it
was for many years placed in a small side chapel, where the
effect of the whole was utterly destroyed and its magnificent
bronze groups hidden from view. Stevens was aware of the
position finally decided on for the work, and he suppressed the
equestrian group intended for the summit and left the model
for the latter feature in a rough state. On the removal of the
monument from the chapel to the intercolumnar space on
the north side of the nave for which it was originally designed,
the model of horse and man was placed in the hands of an able
young sculptor, trained mainly in another school, to be worked
upon and cast in bronze. The incongruity of the idea did not
strike those responsible for the proceeding. Its completion
was still not carried into effect in 1910, after years of work and
polemics, and it was feared that it would have a disastrous result
on the masterpiece as a whole. Indeed the president of the
Royal Institute of British Architects declared that the structure
would not bear the weight of the addition. The monument
itself consists of a sarcophagus supporting a recumbent bronze
effigy of the duke, over which is an arched marble canopy of late
Renaissance style on delicately enriched shafts. At each end
of the upper part of the canopy is a large bronze group, one
representing Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-
hood, and the other Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot. The
two virtues are represented by very stately female figures modelled
with wonderful beauty and vigour; the vices are two nude male
figures treated in a very massive way. The vigorous strength
of these groups recalls the style of Michelangelo, but Stevens's
work throughout is original and has a very distinct character
of its own. Owing to the many years he spent on this one work
Stevens did not produce much other sculpture. In Dorchester
House, Park Lane, there is some of his work, especially a very
noble mantelpiece supported by nude female caryatids in a
crouching attitude, modelled with great largeness of style. He
also designed mosaics to fill the spandrels under the dome of
St Paul's. Stevens died in London on the ist of May 1875.
See SCULPTURE: British; Sir William Armstrong, Alfred Stevens
(London, 1881) ; H. Stannus, Alfred Stevens (London, 1891).
STEVENS, ALFRED (1828-1906), Belgian painter, was born
in Brussels on the nth of May 1828. His father, an old officer in
the service of William I., king of the Netherlands, was passion-
ately fond of pictures, and readily allowed his son to draw in the
906
STEVENS, H. STEVENS, T.
studio of Francois Navez, director of the Brussels Academy.
In 1844 Stevens went to Paris and worked under the instruction
of Camille Roqueplan, a friend of his father's; he also attended
the classes at the ficole des Beaux Arts, where Ingres was then
professor. In 1849 he painted at Brussels his first picture,
" A Soldier in Trouble," and in^ the same year went back to
Paris, where he definitely settled, and exhibited in the Salons.
He then painted " Ash-Wednesday Morning," " Burghers and
Country People finding at Daybreak the Body of a Murdered
Gentleman," " An Artist in Despair," and " The Love of
Gold." In 1855 he exhibited at the Antwerp Salon a little
picture called " At Home," which showed the painter's bent
towards depicting ladies of fashion. At the Great Exhibition
in Paris, 1855, his contributions were remarkable, but in 1857
he returned to graceful female subjects, and his path thenceforth
was clear before him. At the Great Exhibition of 1867 he was
seen in a brilliant variety of works in the manner he had made
his own, sending eighteen exquisite paintings; among them
were the " Lady in Pink " (in the Brussels Gallery), " Consola-
tion," " Every Good Fortune," " Miss Fauvette," " Ophelia,"
and " India in Paris." At the Paris International Exhibitions
of 1878 and 1889, and at the Historical Exhibition of Belgian
Art, Brussels, 1880, he exhibited " The Four Seasons " (in the
Palace at Brussels), " The Parisian Sphinx," " The Japanese
Mask," "The Japanese Robe," and " The . Lady-bird " (Brus-
sels Gallery). He died on the 24th of August 1906. " Alfred
Stevens is one of the race of great painters," wrote Camille
Lemonnier, " and like them he takes immense pains with the
execution of his work." The example of his finished technique
was salutary, not merely to his brethren in Belgium, but to
many foreign painters who received encouragement from the
study of his method. The brother of Alfred Stevens, Joseph
Stevens, was a great painter of dogs and dog life.
See J. du Jardin, L'Art flamand; Camille Lemonnier, Histoire des
beaux arts en Belgique.
STEVENS, HENRY (1819-1886), American bibliographer,
was born in Barnet, Vermont, on the 24th of August 1819.
He studied at Middlebury College, Vermont, in 1838-1839,
graduated at Yale in 1843 and studied at the Cambridge
(Massachusetts) Law School in 1843-1844. In 1845 he went
to London, where he was employed during most of the
remainder of his life as a collector of Americana for the British
Museum and for various public and private American libraries.
He was engaged by Sir Anthony Panizzi, librarian of the
British Museum, to collect historical books, documents, journals,
&c., concerning North and South America; and he was purchas-
ing agent for the Smithsonian Institution and for the library
of Congress, as well as for James Lenox, of New York, for
whom he secured much of the valuable Americana in the Lenox
library in that city, and for the John Carter Brown library,
at Providence, Rhode Island. He became a member of the
Society of Antiquaries in 1852, and in 1877 was a member of
the committee which organized the Caxton Exhibition, for which
he catalogued the collection of Bibles. He died at South
Hampstead, England, on the 28th of February 1886.
His principal compilations and publications were: an Analytical
Index to the Colonial Documents of New Jersey in the Stale Paper
Office in England (1858), constituting vol. v. of the New Jersey
Historical Society's Collections; Collection of Historical Papers
relating to Rhode Island . . . 1640-1775 (6 vols.), for the John
Carter Brown library; historical indexes of the colonial documents
relating to Maryland (10 vols.), now in the library of the Maryland
Historical Society; and a collection of papers relating to Virginia
for the period 1585-1775, incomplete, deposited in the Virginia
state library in 1858; a valuable Catalogue of American Maps in
the Library of the British Museum (1856); catalogues of American,
of Mexican and other Spanish-American and of Canadian and other
British North American books in the library of the British Museum ;
Historical and Geographical Notes on the Earliest Discoveries in
America, 1453-1530, with Comments on the Earliest Maps and Charts,
&c. (1869); Sebastian Cabot - John Cabot = o (1870); The Bibles
in the Caxton Exhibition, 1877 (1878) ; and Recollections of Mr James
Lenox, of New York, and the Formation of his Library (1886).
His brother, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN STEVENS (1833-1902),
also a bibliographer, was born at Barnet, Vermont, on the
i9th of February 1833, was educated at the university of
Vermont, and in 1860 became associated with his brother in
London. For about thirty years he was engaged in preparing
a chronological list and alphabetical index of American state
papers in English, French, Dutch and Spanish archives, covering
the period from 1763 to 1784, and he prepared more than
2000 facsimiles of important American historical manuscripts
found in European archives and relating to the period between
1773 and 1783. He also acted as purchasing agent for various
American libraries, and for about thirty years before his death
was United States despatch agent at London and had charge
of the mail intended for the vessels of theiUnited States jiavy
serving in Atlantic or European stations. He died at Surbiton,
Surrey, England, on the 5th of March 1902.
His principal publications include Campaign in Virginia, 1781-:
an Exact Reprint of Six Rare Pamphlets on the Clinton- Cornwallis
Controversy, with . . . Manuscript Notes by Sir Henry Clinton;
with a Supplement containing Extracts from the Journals of the House
of Lords (1888); Facsimiles of Manuscripts in European Archives
Relating to America, 1773-1783, with Descriptions, References and
Translations (25 vols., 1889-1898); General Sir William Howe's
Orderly Book at Charlestown, Boston and Halifax (1890); and
Columbus: His Own Book of Privileges, 1502 (1893).
STEVENS, THADDEUS (1792-1868), American political
leader, was born in Danville, Vermont, on the 4th of April 1792.
He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1814, removed to York,
Pennsylvania, was admitted to the bar (in Maryland), and for
fifteen years practised at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. He was
a leader of the Anti-Masons in Pennsylvania, and was prominent
in the national Anti-Masonic Convention at Baltimore in 1831.
He served in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, first
as an Anti-Mason and later as a Whig, in 1833-1835, 1838-1839
and 1841-1842. On the nth of April 1835 he made an eloquent
speech in defence of free public education. A partner's venture in
the iron business having involved him in a debt of $217,000, he
retired from public life in 1842 and practised law in Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, with such success as within six years to reduce
this debt to $30,000. He frequently appeared in behalf of
fugitive slaves before the Pennsylvania courts, and previously,
in the state constitutional convention of 1837, he had refused
to sign the constitution limiting the suffrage to white freemen.
In 1840 he did much in Pennsylvania to bring about the election
of W. H. Harrison, and in the campaign of 1844 Stevens again
rendered marked services to the Whig ticket. He was a Whig
representative in Congress in 1849-1853, and was leader of the
radical Whigs and Free-Soilers, strongly opposing the Compromise
Measures of 1850, and being especially bitter in his denuncia-
tions of the Fugitive Slave Law. In 1855 he took a prominent
part in organizing the Republican party in Pennsylvania, and
in 1856 was a delegate to the Republican National Convention,
in which he opposed the nomination of John C. Fremont. He
returned to the National House of Representatives in 1859 and
bitterly criticized the vacillation of Buchanan's administration.
He became chairman of the ways and means committee on
the 4th of July 1861, and until his death was, as James G.
Elaine said, " the natural leader who assumed his place by
common consent." During the Civil War he was instrumental
in having necessary revenue measures passed in behalf of the
administration. He was not, however, in perfect harmony
with Lincoln, who was far more conservative as well as broader
minded and more magnanimous than he; besides this Stevens
felt it an injustice that Lincoln in choosing a member of his
cabinet from Pennsylvania had preferred Cameron to himself.
During the war Stevens urged emancipation of the slave, and
earnestly advocated the raising of negro regiments. He not
only opposed the president's " ten percent, plan" in Louisiana
and Arkansas (i.e. the plan which provided that these states
might be reorganized by as many as 10% of the number of
voters in 1860 who should ask for pardon and take the oath of*
allegiance to the United States), but he also refused to accept
the Wade-Davis Bill as being far too moderate in character.
On the motion of Stevens (Dec. 4, 1865), the two houses
appointed a joint committee on reconstruction, and Stevens
STEVENSON, A. E. STEVENSON, R. L.
907
was made chairman of the House committee. In his speech
of the 1 8th of December 1865 he asserted that rebellion had
ipso facto blotted out of being all states in the South, that that
section was then a " conquered province," and that its govern-
ment was in the hands of Congress, which could do with it as it
wished. He introduced from the joint committee what became,
with changed clause as to the basis of representation, the Four-
teenth Amendment, and also the Reconstruction Act of the
6th of February 1867. He also advocated the Freedmen's
Bureau bills and the Tenure of Office Act, and went beyond
Congress in favouring the confiscation of the property of the
Confederate States and " of the real estate of 70,000 rebels who
own above 200 acres each, together with the lands of their
several states," for the benefit of the freedmen and loyal whites
and to reimburse, it was said, the sufferers from Lee's invasion
of Pennsylvania, during which Stevens's own ironworks at
Chambersburg had been destroyed. He led Congress in the
struggle with the president, and after the president's removal
of Secretary of War Stanton he reported the impeachment
resolution to the house and was chairman of the committee
appointed to draft the articles of impeachment. He was one
of the managers appointed to conduct the case for the House
of Representatives before the Senate, but owing to ill-health
he took little part in the trial itself. He died at Washington,
D.C., on the nth of August 1868, and was buried at Lancaster,
Pennsylvania. 1
Stevens was an extreme partisan in politics; and his opponents
and critics have always charged him with being vindictive and
revengeful toward the South. Instead of obtaining political
and social equality for the negro, his policy intensified racial
antagonism, forced practically all of the white people of the
South into the Democratic party, and increased the difficulties
in the way of a solution of the race problem; the policy, however,
was the result of the passions and political exigencies of the
time, and Stevens cannot be held responsible except as the leader
of the dominant faction in Congress. He was an able, terse,
forcible speaker, master of bitter sarcasm, irony, stinging ridicule,
and, less often used, good-humoured wit.
See S. W. McCall's Thaddeus Stevens (Boston and New York, 1899),
in the American Statesmen Series, a sympathetic, but judicious
biography; also J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the
Compromise of 1850, especially vol. v. (New York, 1904).
STEVENSON, ADLAI EWING (1835- ), American political
leader, was born in Christian county, Kentucky, on the 23rd
of October 1835. He removed with his family to Bloomington,
Illinois, in 1852; was educated at the Illinois Wesleyan Univer-
sity at Bloomington and at Centre College, Danville, Kentucky;
and was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1857. He was master
in chancery for Woodford county, Illinois, in 1860-1864, and
district-attorney for the twenty-third judicial district of that
state from 1865 to 1869, when he removed to Bloomington.
He was a Democratic representative in Congress from Illinois
in 1875-1877 and again in 1879-1881; was first assistant post-
master-general in 1885-1889, and was severely criticized for his
wholesale removal of Republican postmasters. He was a
delegate to the national Democratic conventions in 1884 and
1892, and in the latter year was elected vice-president of the
United States on the ticket with Cleveland, serving from 1893
to 1897. In 1897 he was a member of the commission (Senator
Edward O. Wolcott and General Charles J. Paine being the other
members) appointed by President McKinley to confer with the
governments of Great Britain, France and Germany with a
view to the establishment of international bimetallism. He
1 In accordance with his own wish he was buried in a small grave-
yard rather than in one of the regular city cemeteries, and on his
tombstone is the following epitaph written by himself: " I repose
in this quiet and secluded spot, not from any natural preference for
solitude, but, finding other cemeteries limited as to race by charter
rules, I have chosen this, that I might illustrate in my death the
principles I advocated through a long life-^ Equality of man before
his Creator." He bequeathed a part of his estate to found a home
for white and negro orphans the present Thaddeus Stevens
industrial school at Lancaster.
was again Democratic nominee for vice-president in 1900, but
was defeated. He published Something of Men I have Known;
With Some Papers of a General Nature, Political, Historical and
Retrospective (1909).
STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850), Scottish engineer, was
the only son of Alan Stevenson, partner in a West Indian house
in Glasgow, and was born in that city on the 8th of June 1772.
He was educated at Anderson's College, Glasgow, and Edinburgh
University. In his youth he assisted his stepfather, Thomas
Smith, in his lighthouse schemes, and at the age of nineteen was
sent to superintend the erection of a lighthouse on the island of
Little Cumbrae. Subsequently he succeeded Smith, whose
daughter he married in 1799, as engineer to the Commissioners
of Northern Lighthouses, and during his period of office, from
1797 to 1843, he designed and executed a large number of
lighthouses, the most important being that on the Bell Rock,
begun in 1807. For its illumination he introduced an improved
apparatus, and he was also the author of various valuable
inventions in connexion with lighting, including the intermittent
and flashing lights, and the mast lantern for lightships. As a
civil engineer he improved the approaches to Edinburgh,
including that by the Calton Hill, constructed harbours, docks
and breakwaters, improved river and canal navigation, and
constructed several important bridges. In consequence of
observations made by him George Stephenson advocated the
use of malleable- 'instead of cast-iron rails for railways, and he
was the inventor of the movable jib and balance cranes. Chiefly
through his interposition an admiralty survey was established,
from which the admiralty sailing directions for the coasts of Great
Britain and Ireland have been prepared. Stevenson published
an Account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse in 1824, and, besides
contributing important articles on engineering subjects to
Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopaedia and the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, was the author of various papers read before learned
societies. He died at Edinburgh on the i2th of July 1850.
Of his family, three sons, Alan, David and Thomas, attained
distinction as lighthouse engineers. The eldest, ALAN (1807-
1865), eventually became a partner with his father, whom he
succeeded as engineer to the Commissioners of Northern Light-
houses in 1843. The most noteworthy lighthouse designed by
him is Skerryvore on the west coast of Scotland, an isolated tower
of which the first stone was laid in 1840 and which first showed
its light in 1843. He published an Account of the Skerryvore
Light/iouse in 1848, and a Rudimentary Treatise on the History,
Construction and Illumination of Lighthouses in 1850, and he
wrote the article on lighthouses in the 8th edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica. The third son, DAVID (1815-1886), was at
first engaged on land and marine surveys and in railway work.
In 1837 he made a tour in North America, which gave rise to
his Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America (1838), and
on his return became a partner in his father's business. In
1853 he and his youngest brother Thomas were appointed joint
engineers to the Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses in
succession to their brother Alan, and he designed many light-
houses not only in Scotland but also in New Zealand, India and
Japan. His books include Marine Surveying (1842), Canal and
River Engineering (1858), Reclamation and Protection of Agricul-
tural Land (1874), and Life of Robert Stevenson (1878), and he
was also a contributor to the 8th and gth editions of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica. The youngest son, THOMAS (1818-1887),
joined his father's business in 1846, and as joint engineer to the
Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses from 1853 to 1885
introduced various improvements in lighthouse illumination,
which were described in the article on lighthouses he wrote for
the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He was also
deeply interested in meteorology, and in 1864 designed the
Stevenson screen widely used for the sheltering of thermometers.
He was the father of Robert Louis Stevenson.
STEVENSON, ROBERT LEWIS BALFOUR (1850-1894),
British essayist, novelist and poet, was the only child of Thomas
Stevenson, civil engineer, and his wife, Margaret Isabella Balfour.
He was born at 8 Howard Place, Edinburgh, on the I3th of
908
STEVENSON, R. L.
November 1850. He suffered from infancy from great fragility
of health, and nearly died in 1858 of gastric fever, which left
much constitutional weakness behind it. From the age of six
he showed a disposition to write. He went to school, mainly
in Edinburgh, from 1858 to 1867, but his ill-health prevented
his learning much, and his teachers, as his mother afterwards
said, " liked talking to him better than teaching him." He
often accompanied his father on his official visits to the light-
houses of the Scottish coast and on longer journeys, thus
early accustoming himself to travel. As his health improved
it was hoped that he would be able to adopt the family profession
of civil engineering, and in 1868 he went to Anstruther and then
to Wick as a pupil engineer. In 1871 he had so far advanced as
to receive the silver medal of the Edinburgh Society of Arts
for a paper suggesting improvements in lighthouse apparatus.
But long before this he had started as an author. His earliest
publication, the anonymous pamphlet of The Pentland Rising,
had appeared in 1866, and The Charity Bazaar, a trifle in which
his future manner is happily displayed, in 1868. From about the
age of eighteen he dropped his baptismal names of Lewis Balfour
and called himself Robert Louis, but was mostly known to his
relatives and intimate friends as " Louis." Although he greatly
enjoyed the outdoor business of the engineer's life it strained
his physical endurance too much, and in 1871 was reluctantly
exchanged for study at the Edinburgh bar, to which he was
called in 1875. In 1873 he first met Mr Sidney Colvin, who
was to prove the closest of his friends and at last the loyal and
admirable editor of his works and his correspondence; and to
this time are attributed several of the most valuable friendships
of Stevenson's life.
He was now labouring, with extreme assiduity, to ground
himself in the forms and habits of literary style. In 1875
appeared, anonymously, his Appeal to the Clergy of the Church
of Scotland, and in that year he made the first of many visits
to the forest of Fontainebleau. Meanwhile at Mentone in the
winter of 1873-1874 he had grown in mind under the shadow of
extreme physical weakness, and in the following spring began to
contribute essays of high originality to one or two periodicals,
of which the Cornhill, then edited by Sir Leslie Stephen, was
at first the most important. Stevenson made no attempt to
practice at the bar, and the next years were spent in wanderings
in France, Germany and Scotland. Records of these journeys,
and of the innocent adventures which they encouraged, were
given to the world as An Inland Voyage in 1878, and as Travels
with a Donkey in the Cevennes in 1879. During these four years
Stevenson's health, which was always bettered by life out of
doors, gave him little trouble. It was now recognized that he
was to be an author, and he contributed many essays, tales
and fantasies to various journals and magazines. At Fontaine-
bleau in 1876 Stevenson had met Mrs Osbourne, the lady who
afterwards became his wife; she returned to her home in Cali-
fornia in 1878, and in August of the following year, alarmed
at news of her health, Stevenson hurriedly crossed the Atlantic.
He travelled, from lack of means, as a steerage passenger and
then as an emigrant, and in December, after hardships which
seriously affected his health, he arrived in San Francisco. In
May 1880 he married, and moved to the desolate mining-camp
which he has described in The Silverado Squatters. As Mr Colvin
has well said, these months in the west of America were spent
" under a heavy combined strain of personal anxiety and literary
effort." Some of his most poignant and most enchanting letters
were written during this romantic period of his life. In the
autumn of 1880 he returned to Scotland, with his wife and step-
son, who were received at once into the Edinburgh household of
his parents. But the condition of his health continued to be very
alarming, and they went almost immediately to Davos, where
he remained until the spring of 1881. In this year was published
Virginibus puerisque, the earliest collection of Stevenson's
essays. He spent the summer months in Scotland, writing
articles, poems, and above all his first romance, The Sea-Cook,
afterwards known as Treasure Island; but he was driven back
to Davos in October. In 1882 appeared Familiar Studies of
Men and Books and New Arabian Nights. His two winters at
Davos had done him some good, but his summers in Scotland
invariably undid the benefit. He therefore determined to
reside wholly in the south of Europe, and in the autumn of
1882 he settled near Marseilles. This did not suit him, but
from March 1883 to July 1884 he was at home at a charming
house called La Solitude, above Hyeres; this was in many ways
to be the happiest station in the painful and hurrying pilgrimage
of Stevenson's life. The Silverado Squatters was published in
1883, and also the more important Treasure Island, which made
Stevenson for the first time a popular writer. He planned a
vast amount of work, but his schemes were all frustrated in
January 1884 by the most serious illness from which he had yet
suffered. He was just pulled through, but the attack was
followed by long prostration and incapacity for work, and by
continued relapses. In July he was brought back to England,
and from this time until August 1887 Stevenson's home was at
Bournemouth. In 1885 he published, after long indecision, his
volume of poems, A Child's Garden of Verses, an inferior story,
The Body Snatcher, and that admirable romance, Prince Otto,
in which the peculiar quality of Stevenson's style was displayed
at its highest. He also collaborated with W. E. Henley in some
plays, Beau Austin, Admiral Guinea and Robert Macaire. Early
in 1886 he struck the public taste with precision in his wild
symbolic tale of The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.
In the summer of the same year he published Kidnapped, which
had been written at Bournemouth.
This, however, was a period of great physical prostration,
so that 1886 and 1887 were perforce among the least productive
years of Stevenson's life. In the early months of 1887 Stevenson
was particularly ill, and he was further prostrated by being
summoned in May to the deathbed of his father, who had just
returned to Edinburgh from the south. He printed privately as
a pamphlet, in June 1887, a brief and touching sketch of his
father. In July he published his volume of lyrical poems called
Underwoods. The ties which bound him to England were now
severed, and his health was broken to such a discouraging degree
that he determined to remove to anotner hemisphere. Accord-
ingly, having disposed of Skerryvore, his house at Bournemouth,
he sailed from London, with his wife, mother and stepson,
for New York on the i7th of August 1887. He never set foot
in Europe again. His memoir of his friend Professor Fleeming
Jenkin was published soon after his departure. After resting
at Newport, he went for the winter to be under the care of a
physician at Saranac Lake in the Adirondacks for the winter.
Here he was very quiet, and steadily active with his pen, writing
both the greater part of the Master of Ballantrae and many of his
finest later essays. He had undertaken, for a regular payment
greatly in excess of anything which he had hitherto received,
to contribute a monthly essay to Scribner's Magazine, and these
essays, twelve in number, were published continuously through-
out the year 1888. Early in that year was begun The Wrong
Box, a farcical romance in which Mr Lloyd Osbourne participated;
Stevenson also began a romance about the Indian Mutiny, which
he abandoned. His attitude about this time to life and experi-
ence is reflected in Pulvis et umbra, one of the noblest of all his
essays. In April 1888 he was at the coast of New Jersey for
some weeks, and in June started for San Francisco, where he
had ordered a schooner, the " Casco," to be ready to receive him.
On the 28th of the month, he started, as Mr Colvin has said,
" on what was only intended 'to be a pleasure excursion . . .
but turned into a voluntary exile prolonged until the hour of
his death ": he never again left the waters of the Pacific. The
" Casco " proceeded first to the Marquesas, and south and east
to Tahiti, passing before Christmas northwards to Honolulu,
where Stevenson spent six months and finished The Master of
Ballantrae and The Wrong Box. It was during this time that
he paid his famous visit to the leper settlement at Molokai. In
1889, " on a certain bright June day," the Stevensons sailed
for the Gilbert Islands, and after six months' cruising found
themselves at Samoa, where he landed for the first time about
Christmas Day 1889. On this occasion, however, though
STEVENSON, R. L.
909
strongly drawn to the beautiful island, he stayed not longer than
six weeks, and proceeded to Sydney, where, early in 1890, he
published, in a blaze of righteous anger, his Father Damien:
an Open Letter to the Rev. Dr Hyde of Honolulu, in vindication of
the memory of Father Damien and his work among the lepers
of the Pacific. At Sydney he was very ill again: it was now
obvious that his only chance of health lay within the tropics.
For nearly the whole of the year 1890 the Stevensons were
cruising through unfamiliar archipelagos (on board a little
trading steamer, the " Janet Nicholl." Meanwhile his volume
of Ballads was published in London.
The last four years of his unquiet life were spent at Samoa,
in circumstances of such health and vigour as he had never
previously enjoyed, and in surroundings singularly picturesque.
It was in November 1890 that he made his abode at Vailima,
where he took a small barrack of a wooden box 500 ft. above
the sea, and began to build himself a large house close by. The
natives gave him the name of Tusitala. His character developed
unanticipated strength on the practical side; he became a
vigorous employer of labour, an active planter, above all a
powerful and benignant island chieftain. He gathered by
degrees around him " a kind of feudal clan of servants and
retainers," and he plunged, with more generous ardour than
coolness of judgment, into the troubled politics of the country.
He took up the cause of the deposed king Mataafa with extreme
.ardour, and he wrote a book, A Footnote to History: Eight Years
of Trouble in Samoa (1892), in the endeavour to win over British
sympathy to his native friends. In the autumn of this year
he received a visit at Vailima from the countess of Jersey, in
company with whom and some others he wrote the burlesque
extravagance in prose and verse, called An Object of Pity,
privately printed in 1893 at Sydney. Whenever the cultivation
of his estate and the vigorous championship of his Samoan
retainers gave him the . leisure, Stevenson was during these
years almost wholly occupied in writing romances of Scottish
life. The Wrecker, an adventurous tale of American life, which
mainly belonged to an earlier time, was written in collaboration
with Mr Lloyd Osbourne and finally published in 1892; and
towards the close of that very eventful and busy year he began
The Justice Clerk, afterwards Weir of Hermiston, A portion
of the old record of emigrant experiences in 1879, long suppressed
for private reasons, also appeared in book form in 1892. In
1893 Stevenson published the important Scottish romance of
Catriona, written as a sequel to Kidnapped, and the three tales
illustrative of Pacific Ocean character, Island Nights' Entertain-
ments. But in 1893 the uniform good fortune which had attended
the Stevensons since their settlement in Samoa began to be
disturbed. The whole family at Vailima became ill, and the final
subjugation of his protege Mataafa, and the destruction of his
party in Samoan politics, deeply distressed and discouraged
Stevenson. In a series of letters to The Times he exposed the
policy of the chief justice, Mr Cedercrantz, and the president, of
the council, Baron Senfft. He so influenced public opinion
that both were removed from office. In the autumn of that
year he went for a change of scene to the Sandwich Islands,
but was taken ill there, and was only too glad to return to Samoa.
In 1894 he was greatly cheered by the plan, suggested by friends
in England and carried out by them with the greatest energy,
of the noble collection of his works in twenty-eight volumes,
since known as the Edinburgh editions. In September 1894
was published The Ebb Tide, the latest of his books which he saw
through the press. Of Stevenson's daily avocations, and of the
temper of his mind through these years of romantic exile, a clear
idea may be obtained by the posthumous Vailima Letters, edited
by Mr Sidney Colvin in 1895. Through 1894 he was engaged
in composing two romances, neither of which he lived to complete.
He was dictating Weir of Hermiston, apparently in his usual
health, on the day he died. This was the 3rd of December
1894 ; he was gaily talking on the verandah of his house at Vailima
when he had a stroke of apoplexy, from which he never recovered
consciousness, and passed away painlessly in the course of the
evening. His body was carried next day by sixty sturdy
Samoans, who acknowledged ^tevenson as their chief, to the
summit of the precipitous peak of Vaea, where he had wished
to be buried, and where they left him to rest for ever with the
Pacific Ocean at his feet.
The charm of the personal character of Stevenson and the
romantic vicissitudes of his life are so predominant in the minds
of all who knew him, or lived within earshot of his legend, that
they made the ultimate position which he will take in the history
of English literature somewhat difficult to decide. That he
was the most attractive figure of a man of letters in his generation
is admitted; and the acknowledged fascination of his character
was deepened, and was extended over an extremely wide circle
of readers, by the publication in 1899 of his Letters, which have
subdued even those who were rebellious to the entertainment
of his books. It is therefore from the point of view of its
" charm " that the genius of Stevenson must be approached,
and in this respect there was between himself and his books,
his manners and his style, his practice and his theory, a very
unusual harmony. Very few authors of so high a class have
been so consistent, or have made their conduct so close a reflec-
tion of their philosophy. This unity of the man in his work
makes it difficult, for one who knew him, to be sure that one
rightly gauges the purely literary significance of the latter. There
are some living who still hear in every page of Stevenson the
voice of the man himself, and see in every turn of his language
his flashing smile. So far, however, as it is possible to dis-
engage one's self from this captivation, it may be said that
the mingling of distinct and original vision with a singularly
conscientious handling of the English language, in the sincere
and wholesome self -consciousness of the strenuous artist, seems
to be the central feature of Stevenson as a writer by profession.
He was always assiduously graceful, always desiring to present
his idea, his image, his rhapsody, in as persuasive a light as
possible, and, particularly, with as much harmony as possible.
He had mastered his manner and, as one may say, learned his
trade, in the exercise of criticism and the reflective parts of
literature, before he surrendered himself to that powerful
creative impulse which had long been tempting him, so that when,
in mature life, he essayed the portraiture of invented character
he came to it unhampered by any imperfection of language.
This distinguished mastery of style, and love of it for its own
sake within the bounds of good sense and literary decorum,
gave him a pre-eminence among the story-tellers of his time.
No doubt it is still by his romances that Stevenson keeps the
wider circle of his readers. But many hold that his letters
and essays are finer contributions to pure literature, and that
on these exquisite mixtures of wisdom, pathos, melody and
humour his fame is likely to be ultimately based. In verse he
had a touch far less sure than in prose. Here we find less evi-
dence of sedulous workmanship, yet not infrequently a piercing
sweetness, a depth of emotion, a sincere and spontaneous
lovableness, which are irresistibly touching and inspiring.
The personal appearance of Stevenson has often been
described: he was tall, extremely thin, dark-haired, restless,
compelling attention with the lustre of his wonderful brown eyes.
In the existing portraits of him those who never saw him are
apt to discover a strangeness which seems to them sinister or
even affected. This is a consequence of the false stability of
portraiture, since in life the unceasing movement of light in
the eyes, the mobility of the mouth, and the sympathy and
sweetness which radiated from all the features, precluded the
faintest notion of want of sincerity. Whatever may be the
ultimate order of reputation among his various books, or what-
ever posterity may ultimately see fit to ordain as regards the
popularity of any of them, it is difficult to believe that the time
will ever come in which Stevenson will not be remembered as
the most beloved of the writers of that age which he did so much
to cheer and stimulate by his example.
His cousin R. A. M. Stevenson (1847-1900) was an accom-
plished art-critic, who in 1889 became professor of fine arts at
University College, Liverpool; he published several works on
art (Rubens, 1898; Velasquez, 1895; Raeburn, 1900).
STEVENS POINT STEVIN US
R. L. Stevenson's other works include: Memories and Portraits
(1887); The Merry M en and other Tales and Fa bles (1887); The Black
Arrow (1888); Edinburgh: Picturesque Notes (1889); Across the
Plains, with other Memories and Essays (1892), and the posthumous
works, Songs of Travel and other Verses (1896), St Ives (1899), com-
pleted by Sir A. T. Quiller Couch; A Stevenson Medley (1899); In
the South Seas: experiences . . . on the " Casco " (1888) and the
Equator (1889) (1900). See the Letters of Stevenson to his Family
(1899), with the critical and biographical preface by Mr Sidney
Colvin; Vailima Letters, to Sidney Colvin (1895), and the Life of
Robert Louis Stevenson by Graham Balfour (1901). See also Professor
Walter Raleigh, R. L. Stevenson (1895), and Memories of Vailima
(1903). by Isobel Strong and Lloyd Osbourne. A complete
edition of Stevenson's works was issued at Edinburgh in 1894-1898.
A Bibliography of the works of R. L. Stevenson by Colonel W. F.
Prideaux appeared in 1903. (E. G.)
STEVENS POINT, a city and the county-seat of Portage
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both banks of the Wisconsin
river, about no m. N. of Madison. Pop. (1890), 7896; (1900),
9524, of whom 2205 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census),
8692. Stevens Point is served by the Green Bay & Western
and the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways. It is
attractively situated, has a fine public school system, including
a high school, a manual training school, a domestic science
department, and kindergarten and day schools for the deaf.
It is the seat of one of the state normal schools (1894), of St
Joseph's Academy (Polish), and of the Stevens Point Commercial
College, and has a Carnegie library (1904), the Portage county
court-house, a city hospital, and a tuberculosis sanatorium.
The city is situated in the borders of the pine timber region,
and the lumber industry predominates. There are railway
repair shops here, and various manufactures. The city has
a considerable wholesale jobbing trade, and is an important
point of shipment for the products of the agricultural country
in the vicinity. Stevens Point was first settled by George Stevens
in 1839, was incorporated as a village in 1847, and was first
chartered as a city in 1858.
STEVENSTON, a manufacturing town of Ayrshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901), 6554. It is situated about i m. from Saltcoats
on the coast of the Firth of Clyde, 29 m. S.W. of Glasgow by
the Glasgow & South-Western railway. There are coal-
mines, several ironworks one is among the largest in Scotland
and, on the sandhills along the shore, the works of Nobel's
Explosives Company, which cover an area of a mile, the separate-
hut principle being adopted to minimize the risks attendant
upon so dangerous an occupation.
STEVINUS, SIMON (1548-1620), Dutch mathematician, was
born in 1548 at Bruges (where the Place Simon Stevin contains
his statue by Eugen Simonis) and died in 1620 at the Hague
or in Leiden. Of the circumstances of his life very little is
recorded; the exact day of his birth and the day and place
of his death are alike uncertain. It is known that he left a widow
with two children; and one or two hints scattered throughout
his works inform us that he began life as a merchant's clerk
in Antwerp, that he travelled in Poland, Denmark and other
parts of northern Europe, and that he was intimate with Prince
Maurice of Orange, who asked his advice on many occasions,
and made him a public officer at first director of the so-called
" waterstaet," and afterwards quartermaster-general. The
question whether Stevinus, like most of the rest of the prince's
followers, belonged to the Protestant creed hardly admits of a
categorical answer. A Roman Catholic would perhaps not have
been so ready as Stevinus to deny the value of all authority.
A Roman Catholic could not well have boasted, as Stevinus in
a political pamphlet did, that he had always been in harmony
with the executive power. But against these considerations
it might be urged that a Protestant had no occasion to boast of a
harmony most natural to him, while his further remark to the
effect that a state church is indispensable, and that those who
cannot belong to it on conscientious grounds ought to leave
the country rather than show any opposition to its rites, seems
rather to indicate the crypto-Catholic. The same conclusion
is supported by the fact that Stevinus, a year before his death,
bequeathed a pious legacy to the church of Westkerke in Flanders
out of the revenues of which masses were to be said.
His claims to fame are varied. His contemporaries were
most struck by his invention of a carriage with sails, a little
model of which was preserved at Scheveningen till 1802. The
carriage itself had been lost long before; but we know that about
the year 1600 Stevinus, with Prince Maurice of Orange and
twenty-six others, made use of it on the seashore between
Scheveningen and Petten, that it was propelled solely by the
force of the wind, and that it acquired a speed which exceeded
that of horses. Another idea of Stevinus, for which even Hugo
Grotius gave him great credit, was his notion of a bygone age
of wisdom. The goal to be aimed at is the bringing about of a
second age of wisdom, in which mankind shall have recovered all
its early knowledge. The fellow-countrymen of Stevinus were
proud that he wrote in their own dialect, which he thought
fitted for a universal language, as no other abounded like Dutch
in monosyllabic radical words.
Stevinus was the first to show how to model regular and
semiregular polyhedra by delineating their frames in a plane.
Stevinus also distinguished stable from unstable equilibrium.
He proved the law of the equilibrium on an inclined plane.
He demonstrated before Pierre Varignon the resolution of forces,
which, simple consequence of the law of their composition
though it is, had not been previously remarked. He discovered
the hydrostatic paradox that the downward pressure of a liquid
is independent of the shape of the vessel, and depends only on
its height and base. He also gave the measure of the pressure
on any given portion of the side of a vessel. He had the idea
of explaining the tides by the attraction of the moon. Stevinus
seems to be the first who made it an axiom that strongholds
are only to be defended by artillery, the defence before his time
having relied mostly on small firearms. He was the inventor
of defence by a system of sluices, which proved of the highest
importance for the Netherlands. His plea for the teaching
of the science of fortification in universities, and the existence
of such lectures in Leiden, have led to the impression that he
himself filled this chair; but the belief is erroneous, as Stevinus,
though living at Leiden, never had direct relations with its
university.
Book-keeping by double entry may have been known to
Stevinus as clerk at Antwerp either practically or through the
medium of the works of Italian authors like Lucas Paccioli
and Girolamo Cardan. He, however, was the first to recommend
the use of impersonal accounts in the national household. He
practised it for Prince Maurice, and recommended it to Sully,
the French statesman.
His greatest success, however, was a small pamphlet, first
published in Dutch in 1586, and not exceeding seven pages
in the French translation. This translation is entitled La Disme
enseignant facilement expedier par N ombres Enliers sans rompuz
tons Comptes se rencontrans aux Affaires des Hommes. Decimal
fractions had been employed for the extraction of square roots
some five centuries before his time, but nobody before Stevinus
established their daily use; and so well aware was he of the
importance of his innovation that he declared the universal
introduction of decimal coinage, measures and weights to be
only a question of time. His notation is rather unwieldy. The
point separating the integers from the decimal fractions seems
to be the invention of Bartholomaeus Pitiscus, in whose trigono-
metrical tables (1612) it occurs and it was accepted by John
Napier in his logarithmic papers (1614 and 1619). Stevinus
printed little circles round the exponents of the different powers
of one-tenth. For instance, 237iV 8 (j- was printed 237 @ 5
7 @ 8 (3); and the fact that Stevinus meant those encircled
numerals to denote mere exponents is evident from his employ-
ing the very same sign for powers of algebraic quantities, e.g.
9 -i4@ + 6-5 to denote px 4 - 14^ + 6*- 5. He does
not even avoid fractional exponents (" Racine cubique de @
serait f en circle "), and is ignorant only of negative exponents.
Stevinus wrote on other scientific subjects optics, geography,
astronomy, &c. and a number of his writings were translated into-
Latin by W. Snellius. There are two complete editions in French
of his works, both printed at Leiden, one in 1608, the other in 1634
STEWART (FAMILY)
911
by Albert Girard. See Steichen, Vie et travaux de Simon Stevin
(Brussels, 1846); M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathematik. (M. CA.)
STEWART, STUART or STEUART, the surname of a family
which inherited the Scottish and ultimately the English crown.
Their descent is traced to a Breton immigrant, Alan the son of
Flaald, which Flaald was a brother of Alan, steward (or sene-
schal) of Dol in Brittany. This elder Alan, whose name occurs
in Breton documents before 1080, went on crusade in 1097,
and was apparently succeeded by his brother Flaald, whose
son, the younger Alan, enjoyed the favour of Henry I., who
bestowed on him Mileham and its barony in Norfolk, where he
founded Sporle Priory. By the daughter of Ernulf de Hesdin
(in Picardy), a Domesday baron, he ,was father of at least three
sons: Jordan, who succeeded to the family office of steward of
Dol; William, who inherited Mileham and other estates in Eng-
land, and who founded the great baronial house of Fitz Alan
(afterwards earls of Arundel); and Walter, who was made by
David I. steward (dapifer) or seneschal of Scotland. The
Scottish king conferred on Walter various lands in Renfrewshire,
including Paisley, where he founded the abbeyin 1163. Walter,
his grandson, third steward, was appointed by Alexander II.
justiciary of Scotland, and, dying in 1246, left four sons and three
daughters. The third son, Walter, obtained by marriage the
earldom of Menteith, which ultimately came by marriage to
Robert, duke of Albany, son of Robert II. Alexander, fourth
steward, the eldest son of Walter, third steward, inherited by
his marriage with Jean, granddaughter of Somerled, the islands
of Bute and Arran, and on the 2nd of October 1263 led the Scots
against Haakon IV., king of Norway, at Largs. He had two
sons, James and John. The latter, who commanded the men
of Bute at the battle of Falkirk in 1298, had seven sons: (i)
Sir Alexander, whose grandson George became in 1389 earl of
Angus, the title afterwards passing in the female line to the
Douglases, and in 1761 to the duke of Hamilton; (2) Sir Alan of
Dreghorn, ancestor of the earls and dukes of Lennox, from whom
Lord Darnley, husband of Queen Mary, and also Lady Arabella
Stuart, were descended; (3) Sir Walter, who obtained the barony
of Garlics, Wigtownshire, from his uncle John Randolph, earl
of Moray, and was the ancestor of the earls of Galloway, younger
branches of the family being the Stewarts of Tonderghie, Wig-
townshire, and also those of Physgill and Glenturk in the same
county; (4) Sir James, who fell at Dupplin in 1332, ancestor of
the lords of Lorn, on whose descendants were conferred at differ-
ent periods the earldoms of Athole, Buchan and Traquair, and
who were also the progenitors of the Stewarts of Appin, Argyll-
shire, and of Grandtully, Perthshire; (5) Sir John, killed at
Halidon Hill in 1333; (6) Sir Hugh, who fought under Edward
Bruce in Ireland; and (7) Sir Robert of Daldowie, ancestor of
the Stewarts of Allan ton and of Coltness. James Stewart,
the elder son of Alexander, fourth steward, succeeded his father
in 1283, and, after distinguishing himself in the wars of Wallace
.and of Bruce, died in 1309. His son Walter, sixth steward, who
had joint command with Sir James Douglas of the left wing
at the battle of Bannockburn, married Marjory, daughter of
Robert the Bruce, and during the latter's absence in Ireland
was entrusted with the government of the kingdom. He died
in 1326, leaving an only son, who as Robert II. ascended the
throne of Scotland in 1371. Sir Alexander Stewart, earl of
Buchan, fourth son of Robert II., who earned by his ferocity
the title of the " Wolf of Badenoch," inherited by his wife the
earldom of Ross, but died without legitimate issue, although
from his illegitimate offspring were descended the Stewarts of
Belladrum, of Athole, of Garth, of Urrard and of St Fort. On
the death of the " Wolf of Badenoch" the earldom of Buchan
passed to his brother Robert, duke of Albany, also earl of Fife
and earl of Menteith, but these earldoms were forfeited on
the execution of his son Murdoch in 1425, the earldom of Buchan
again, however, coming to the house of Stewart in the person
of James, second son of Sir James Stewart, the black knight
of Lorn, by Joan or Joanna, widow of King James I. From
Murdoch, duke of Albany, were descended the Stewarts of Ard-
voirlich and other families of the name in Perthshire, and also
the Stuarts of Inchbreck and Laithers, Aberdeenshire. From a
natural son of Robert II. were descended the Steuarts of Dalguise,
Perthshire, and from a natural son of Robert III. the Shaw
Stewarts of Blackball and Greenock. The direct male line of
the royal family terminated with the death of James V. in 1542,
whose daughter Mary was the first to adopt the spelling " Stuart."
Mary was succeeded in her lifetime in 1567 by her only son
James VI., who through his father .Lord Darnley was also head
of the second branch, there being no surviving male issue of
the family from progenitors later than Robert II. In James V.,
son of James IV. by Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., the
claims of Margaret's descendants became merged in the Scottish
line, and on the death of Queen Elizabeth of England, the
last surviving descendant of Henry VIII., James VI. of Scotland,
lineally the nearest heir, was proclaimed king of England, in
accordance with the arrangements made by Lord Burghley
and Elizabeth's other advisers. The accession of James, was,
however, contrary to the will of Henry VIII., which favoured
the heirs of his younger sister Mary, wife of Charles Brandon,
duke of Suffolk, whose succession would probably have marvel-
lously altered the complexion of both Scottish and English
history. As it was, the only result of that will was a ^
initiated by Elizabeth and consummated by James. In the
Scottish line the nearest heir after James VI., both to the Scottish
and English crowns, was Arabella Stuart, only child of [Charles,
earl 'of Lennox, younger brother of Lord Drnley Lady
Margaret Douglas, the mother of Darnley and his brother,
having been the daughter of Archibald, sixth earl of Angus, by
Margaret of England, queen dowager of James IV. James VI.
(I. of England) was thus nearest heir by a double descent,
Arabella Stuart being next heir by a single descent. On account
of the descent from Henry VII., the jealousy of Elizabeth had
already caused her to imprison Arabella's mother Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir William Cavendish, on learning that she had
presumed to marry Lennox. The daughter's marriage she was
determined by every possible means to prevent. She objected
when King James proposed to marry her to Lord Esme Stuart,
whom he had created duke of Lennox, but when the appalling
news reached her that Arabella had actually found a lover in
Edward Seymour, grandson of Catherine Grey, heiress of the
Suffolks, she was so deeply alarmed and indignant that she
immediately ordered her imprisonment. This happened imme-
diately before Elizabeth's death, after which she obtained her
release. Soon after the accession of James a conspiracy, of
which she was altogether ignorant, was entered into to advance
her to the throne, but this caused no alteration in her treatment
by James, who allowed her a maintenance of 800 a year. In
February 1610 it was discovered that she was engaged to
Seymour, and, although she then promised never to marry him
without the king's consent, the marriage took place secretly in
July following. In consequence of this her husband was sent to
the Tower and she was placed in private confinement. Though
separated, both succeeded in escaping simultaneously on the
3rd of June 1611; but, less fortunate than her husband, who got
safe to the Continent, she was captured in the straits of Dover
and shut up in the Tower of London. Her hopeless captivity
deprived her of her reason before her sorrows were ended by
death, on the 27th of September 1615.
By the usurpation of Cromwell the Stuarts were excluded
from the throne from the defeat of Charles I. at Naseby in 1645
until the restoration of his son Charles II. in 1660. Carlyle
refers to the opinion of genealogists that Cromwell " was indubit-
ably either the ninth or the tenth or some other fractional
part of half a cousin of Charles Stuart," but this has been com-
pletely exploded by Walter Rye in the Genealogist- (" The
Steward Genealogy and Cromwell's Royal Descent," new series,
vol. ii. pp. 34-42). On the death of Charles II. without issue
in 1685, his brother James, duke of York, ascended the throne
as James II. but he so alienated the sympathies of the nation
by his unconstitutional efforts to further the Roman Catholic
religion that an invitation was sent to the prince of Orange to
come " to the rescue of the laws and religion of England."
STEWART, A. T. STEWART, B.
Next to the son of James II., still an infant under his father's
control, Mary, princess of Orange, elder daughter of James II.,
had the strongest claim to the crown; but the claims of the prince
of Orange also, even apart from his marriage, were not very
remote, since he was the son of Mary, eldest daughter of
Charles I. The marriage had strengthened the claims of both, and
they were proclaimed joint sovereigns of England on the I2th
of February 1689, Scotland following the example of England
on the nth of April. They left no issue, and the Act of Settle-
ment passed in 1701, excluding Roman Catholics from the
throne, secured the succession to Anne, second daughter of
James II., and on her death without issue to the Protestant house
of Hanover, descended from the princess Elizabeth, daughter
of James I., wife of Frederick V., count palatine of the Rhine.
On the death of Anne in 1714, George, elector of Hanover,
eldest son of Sophia (youngest child of the princess Elizabeth),
and Ernest, elector of Brunswick-Liineburg, or Hanover,
consequently became sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland,
and, notwithstanding somewhat formidable attempts in behalf
of the elder Stuart line in 1715 and 1745, the Hanoverian suc-
cession has remained uninterrupted and has ultimately won
universal assent. The female issue of James II. ended with the
death of his daughter, Queen Anne. James, called James III.
by the Jacobites and the Old Pretender by the Hanoverians,
had two sons Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, who
died without legitimate issue in 1780, and Henry Stuart,
titular duke of York, commonly called Cardinal York, on whose
death in 1807 the male line of James II. came to an end. Henry
was also the last descendant in the lineal male line of any of
the crowned heads of the race, so far as either England or Scot-
land was concerned. In the female line, however, there are
among the descendants of James I. representatives of the royal
Stuarts who are senior to the house of Hanover, for Philip,
duke of Orleans (brother of Louis XIV.), married, as his first
wife, Henrietta daughter of Charles I., and, as his second,
Charlotte, granddaughter and heiress of the princess Elizabeth
(daughter of James I.). By the former, through their daughter,
the queen of Sardinia, he was ancestor, among others, of the
princess Maria Theresa of Bavaria, who in 1910 was " heir of
line " of the house of Stuart, her eldest son, Prince Rupert, being
heir to the throne of Bavaria; and from his second marriage
descends the house of Orleans. In addition to those descended
from these two marriages there are also the descendants of
Edward, a brother of the electress Sophia. The male repre-
sentation of the family, being extinct in the royal lines, is
claimed by the earls of Galloway and also by the Stewarts of
Castlemilk, but the claims of both are more than doubtful.
See Sir George Mackenzie, Defence of the Royal Line of Scotland
(1685), and Antiquity of the Royal Line of Scotland (1686) ; Crawfurd,
Genealogical History of the Royal and Illustrious Family of the Stuarts
(1710); Duncan Stewart, Genealogical Account of the Surname of
Stewart (1739); Andrew Stuart, Genealogical History of the Stuarts
(1798); Stodart, House of Stuart (privately printed, 1855); An
Abstract of the Evidence to Prove that Sir William Stewart of Jedworth,
the Paternal Ancestor of the Present Earl of Galloway, was the Second
Son of Sir Alexander Stewart of Darnky (1801) ; Riddell, Stewartiana
(1843); W. Townend, Descendants of the_ Stuarts (1858); R. W.
Eyton, History of Shropshire (1858), vol. vii. ; Bailey, The Succession
to the English Crown (1879); Skelton, The Royal House of Stuart
(1890) ; I. H. Round, Studies in Peerage and Family History (1901) ;
and S. Cowan, The Royal House of Stuart (1908). The best chart
pedigree of the house is that which was prepared for the Stuart
Exhibition by W. A. Lindsay.
STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-1876), American
merchant, was born, of Scotch descent, at Lisburn, near Bel-
fast, Ireland, on the I2th of October 1803. He studied for the
ministry for about two years at Trinity College, Dublin, emi-
grated to New York in 1823, and in 1825 opened a small dry
goods store. In 1848 he built at the corner of Chambers Street
and Broadway a store which became the wholesale department
upon the completion in 1862 of the large store on Broadway
between Ninth and Tenth Streets. The business grew to enor-
mous proportions for those days, with foreign branches in
Manchester, Belfast, Glasgow, Berlin, Paris and Lyons. Stewart
was chairman of the commission sent by the United States to-
the Paris Exposition of 1867. In 1869 he was appointed
secretary of the treasury by President U. S. Grant, but the Senate
refused to confirm the appointment because of an old law
excluding from the office any one interested in the importation
of merchandise. Grant asked Congress to repeal the law, and
Stewart offered to transfer his business to trustees and to give
its proceeds while he held office to charitable institutions, but
the nomination was never confirmed. Stewart sent to Ireland
a shipload of provisions during the famine of 1846; he manufac-
tured and sold to the government, at less than the prevailing
rates, great quantities of cotton cloth for the use of the army
during the Civil War; he took an active part in the prosecution
of the " Tweed Ring " in New York; he sent a shipload of
flour to the French sufferers from the Franco-German War, and
he gave $50,000 to the sufferers from the Chicago fire of 1871.
In 1869 he bought some 7000 acres on the Hempstead Plain,
Long Island, New York, and established Garden City for working
men. The cathedral of the Incarnation (Protestant Episcopal)
dedicated in 1885, was erected in Garden City by Stewart's
widow as a memorial to him. He died in New York on the loth
of April 1876,' leaving the bulk of his great fortune to his widow,
Mrs Cornelia (Clinch) Stewart (i8o2-i886) 2 . His large art
collection was sold by auction in New York in 1887.
See William O. Stoddard, " Alexander Turney Stewart," in Men
of Business (New York, 1893); " A Merchant Prince," in Chambers' s
Journal (1876), vol. liii. ; Edward Crapsey, " A Monument of Trade,"
in The Galaxy (1882), vol. ix.; " Stewart's," in The Nation (1882),
vol. xxxiv. ; " The Story of a Millionaire's Grave," in Chambers' s
Journal (1888), vol. Ixv. ; and George W. Walling, Recollections of
a New York Chief of Police (New York, 1887).
STEWART, BALFOUR (1828-1887), Scottish physicist, was
born in Edinburgh on the ist of November 1828, and was
educated at the university of that city. The son of a tea
merchant, he was for some time engaged in business in Leith
and in Australia, but, returning to his studies of physics at Edin-
burgh, he became assistant to J. D. Forbes in 1856. Forbes
was especially interested in questions of heat, meteorology, and
terrestrial magnetism, and It was to these that Stewart also
mainly devoted himself. Radiant heat first claimed his atten-
tion, and by 1858 he had completed his first investigations into
the subject. These yielded a remarkable extension of Pierre
Prevost's " Law of Exchanges," and enabled him to establish
the fact that radiation is not a surface phenomenon, but takes
place throughout the interior of the radiating body, and that the
radiative and absorptive powers of a substance must be equal,
not only for the radiation as a whole, but also for every con-
stituent of it. In recognition of this work he received in 1868
the Rumford medal of the Royal Society, into which he had
been elected six years before. Of other papers in which he
dealt with this and kindred branches of physics may be men-
tioned " Observations with a Rigid Spectroscope," " Heating of a
Disc by Rapid Motion in Vacuo," " Thermal Equilibrium in an
Enclosure Containing Matter in Visible Motion," and " Internal
Radiation in Uniaxal Crystals." In 1859 he was appointed
director of Kew Observatory, and there naturally became
interested in problems of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism.
In 1870, the year in which he was very seriously injured in a
railway accident, he was elected professor of physics at Owens
1 On the 6th of November 1 878 his body was stolen from St Mark's
churchyard in New York, but recovered in 1881 upon the payment
of $20,000, and buried in the crypt of the cathedral in Garden
City.
2 Upon her death she left a small part of her estate to her other
relatives and her servants, about $4,631,000 to Charles J. Clinch, a
kinsman, and about $9,262,000 to Judge Henry Hilton (1824-1899),
a business associate of Stewart, who had received a legacy of
$1,000,000 from Stewart, and who managed Mrs Stewart's business
affairs after her husband's death. Clinch and Hilton were executors,
and it was understood that Hilton should complete the cathedral at
Garden City and endow schools there. A nephew of Mrs Stewart in
1887 sued to break the will on the ground that Hilton had unduly
influenced her; the case was compromised out of court in 1890 and
Mrs Stewart's relatives received more of her estate than they would
have got under the terms of the testament.
STEWART, C. STEWART, DUGALD
College, Manchester, and retained that chair until his death, which
happened near Drogheda, in Ireland, on the igth of December
1887. He was the author of several successful textbooks
of science, and also of the article on " Terrestrial Magnetism "
in the ninth edition of this Encyclopaedia. In conjunction
with Professor P. G. Tait he wrote The Unseen Universe, at
first published anonymously, which was intended to combat the
common notion of the incompatibility of science and religion.
STEWART, CHARLES (1778-1869), American naval officer,
was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 28th of July
1778, of poor Irish parents. At the age of thirteen he shipped
as cabin boy on a merchant vessel, and soon commanded a
ship in the India trade. He entered the United States navy in
March 1798 as lieutenant on the frigate " United States," and
in 1800, when in command of the " Experiment," took the
French privateers " Deux Amis " and " Diane." In 1802-4 he
served against Tripoli, first as executive officer of the " Constel-
lation " and then as commander of the " Siren." In 1806 he
became a captain. From 1808 to 1812 he was in the merchant
service, but on the outbreak of hostilities against Great Britain
returned to the navy, and with Commander William Bainbridge
is said to have persuaded President Madison to send the navy
to sea instead of using it only for harbour defence. Placed in
the command of the " Constellation," he was closely blockaded
at Norfolk, Virginia. In 1813 he was placed in command of the
" Constitution," and in February 1815 captured the " Cyane "
and the " Levant," though the " Levant " was retaken. Later he
commanded the Mediterranean squadron, the Pacific squadron,
the home squadron and the Philadelphia navy yard. He was
retired in 1855, and became rear-admiral on the retired list in
1862. He died in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 6th of
November 1869. His daughter, Delia Tudor, married, in 1834,
John Henry Parnell, and became the mother of the Irish
leader, Charles Stewart Parnell.
STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824-1900), British
field marshal, son of Robert Stewart of Forres, Elginshire, was
born at Mount Pleasant, near Forres, on the ist of March 1824.
Educated at schools at Findhorn, Dufftown and Elgin, and at
Aberdeen University, he entered the Bengal army in 1840, and
served in 1854 and 1855 in the frontier expeditions against the
Mohmands, and Afridis Aka and Bari Khel (medal and clasp).
In the Indian Mutiny in 1857 Stewart, after a famous ride from
Agra to Delhi with despatches, served on the staff at the siege
and capture of Delhi and of Lucknow, and afterwards through
the campaign in Rohilkhand (medal and two clasps, and brevet-
major and lieutenant-colonel).' For nine years he was assistant
and deputy-adjutant-general of the Bengal army, commanded
the Bengal brigade in the Abyssinian expedition in 1867 (medal
and C.B.), and became a major-general in 1868. He reorganized
the penal settlement of the Andaman Islands, where he was
commandant when Lord Mayo was assassinated, and, after
holding the Lahore command, was promoted lieutenant-general
in 1877, and commanded the Kandahar field force in the Afghan
War in 1878 (K.C.B. and thanks of parliament). In 1880 he
made a difficult march from Kandahar to Kabul, fighting on the
way the battles of Ahmed Khel and Urzu, and held supreme
military and civil command in northern Afghanistan. On
hearing of the Maiwand disaster, he despatched Sir Frederick
Roberts with a division on his celebrated march from Kabul to
Kandahar, and himself led the rest of the army back to India
by the Khyber Pass (medal with clasp, G.C.B., C.I. E., baronetcy,
and thanks of parliament). Promoted general in 1881, he
was for five years commander-in-chief in India, and afterwards
member of -the council of the secretary of state for India until
his death. He was made G. C.S.I, in 1885, promoted to be field
marshal in 1894, and appointed governor of Chelsea Hospital
in 1895. He died at Algiers on the 26th of March 1900.
See G. R. Elsmie, Sir Donald Stewart (1903).
STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828), Scottish philosopher, was
born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of November 1753. His father,
Matthew Stewart (1715-1785), was professor of mathematics in
the university of Edinburgh (1747-1772). Dugald Stewart was
educated in Edinburgh at the high school and the university,
where he read mathematics and moral philosophy under Adam
Ferguson. In 1771, in the hope of gaining a Snell exhibition
and proceeding to Oxford to study for the English Church, he
went to Glasgow, where he attended the classes of Thomas Reid.
While he owed to Reid all his theory of morality, he repaid the
debt by giving to Reid's views the advantage of his admirable
style and academic eloquence. In Glasgow Stewart boarded in
the same house with Archibald Alison, author of the Essay on
Taste, and a lasting friendship sprang up between them. After a
single session in Glasgow, Dugald Stewart, at the age of nineteen,
was summoned by his father, whose health was beginning to
fail, to conduct the mathematical classes in the university of
Edinburgh. After acting three years as his father's substitute
he was elected professor of mathematics in conjunction with
him in 1775. Three years later Adam Ferguson was appointed
secretary to the commissioners sent out to the American colonies,
and at his urgent request Stewart lectured as his substitute. Thus
during the session 1778-1779, in addition to his mathematical
work, he delivered an original course of lectures on morals.
In 1783 he married Helen Bannatyne, who died in 1787, leaving
an only son, Colonel Matthew Stewart. In 1785 he succeeded
Ferguson in the chair of moral philosophy, which he filled for a
quarter of a century and made a centre of intellectual and moral
influence. Young men were attracted by his reputation from
England, and even from the Continent and America. Among
his pupils were Sir Walter Scott, Jeffrey, Cockburn, Francis
Homer, Sydney Smith, Lord Brougham, Dr Thomas Brown,
James Mill, Sir James Mackintosh and Sir Archibald Alison.
The course on 'moral philosophy embraced, besides ethics proper,
lectures on political philosophy or the theory of government, and
from 1800 onwards a separate course of lectures was delivered
on political economy, then almost unknown as a science to the
general public. Stewart's enlightened political teaching was
sufficient, in the times of reaction succeeding the French Revolu-
tion, to draw upon him the undeserved suspicion of disaffection
to the constitution. The summers of 1788 and 1789 he spent in
France, where he met Suard, Degerando, Raynal, and learned
to sympathize with the revolutionary movement.
In 1790 Stewart married a second time. Miss Cranstoun,
who became his wife, was a lady of birth and accomplishments,
and he was in the habit of submitting to her criticism whatever
he wrote. A son and a daughter were the issue of this marriage.
The death of the former in 1809 was a severe blow to his father,
and was the immediate cause of his retirement from the active
duties of his chair. Before that, however, Stewart had not been
idle as an author. As a student in Glasgow he wrote an essay on
Dreaming. In 1792 he published the first volume of the Elements
of the Philosophy of the Human Mind; the second volume
appeared in 1814, and the third not till 1827. In 1793 he
printed a textbook, Outlines of Moral Philosophy, which went
through many editions; and in the same year he read before
the Royal Society of Edinburgh his account of the Life and
Writings of Adam Smith. Similar memoirs of Robertson the
historian and of Reid were afterwards read before the same body
and appear in his published works. In 1805 Stewart published
pamphlets defending Mr (afterwards Sir John) Leslie against
the charges of unorthodoxy made by the presbytery of Edin-
burgh. In 1806 he received in lieu of a pension the nominal
office of the writership of the Edinburgh Gazette, with a salary of
300. When the shock of his son's death incapacitated him
from lecturing during the session of 1809-1810, his place was
taken, at his own request, by Dr Thomas Brown, who in 1810
was appointed conjoint professor. On the death of Brown in
1820 Stewart retired altogether from the professorship, which
was conferred upon John Wilson, better known as " Christopher
North." From 1809 onwards Stewart lived mainly at Kinneil
House, Linlithgowshire, which was placed at his disposal
by the duke of Hamilton. In 1810 appeared the Philosophical
Essays, in 1814 the second volume of the Elements, in 1815
the first part and in 1821 the second part of the " Disserta-
tion " written for the Encyclopaedia Britannica " Supplement,"
STEWART, SIR H. STEWART, SIR W.
entitled " A General View of the Progress of Metaphysical,
Ethical, and Political Philosophy since the Revival of Letters."
In 1822 he was struck with paralysis, but recovered a fair
degree of health, sufficient to enable him to resume his studies.
In 1827 he published the third volume of the Elements, and
in 1828, a few weeks before his death, The Philosophy of the
Active and Moral Powers. He died in Edinburgh on the
nth of June 1828. A monument to his memory was erected
on Calton Hill.
Stewart's philosophical views are mainly the reproduction
of his master Reid (for his ethical views see ETHICS). He
upheld Reid's psychological method and expounded the
" common-sense " doctrine, which was attacked by the two
Mills. Unconsciously, however, he fell away from the pure
Scottish tradition and made concessions both to moderate
empiricism and to the French ideologists (Laromiguiere, Cabanis
and Destutt de Tracy). It is important to notice the energy
of his declaration against the argument of ontology, and also
against Condillac's sensationalism. Kant, he confessed, he
could not understand. Perhaps his most valuable and
original work is his theory of taste in the Philosophical Essays.
But his reputation rests rather on his inspiring eloquence and
the beauty of his style than on original work.
Stewart's works were edited in II vols. (1854-1858) by Sir William
Hamilton and completed with a memoir by John Veitch. Matthew
Stewart (his eldest son) wrote a life in Annual Biography and Obituary
(1829), republished privately in 1838. For his philosophy see
McCosh, Scottish Philosophy (1875), pp. 162-173; A. Bain, Mental
Science, pp. 208, 313 and app. 29, 65, 88, 89; Moral Science, pp. 639
seq.; Sir L. Stephen, English Thought in the XVIIIth Century.
STEWART, SIR HERBERT (1843-1885), British soldier,
eldest son of the Rev. Edward Stewart, was born on the 3oth of
June 1843 at Sparsholt, Hampshire. He was educated at
Winchester and entered the army in 1863. After serving in
India with his regiment (37th Foot) he returned to England
in 1873, having exchanged into the 3rd Dragoon Guards. In
1877 he entered the staff college and also the Inner Temple. In
1878 he was sent out to South Africa, served in the Zulu War
and against Sikukuni. As chief staff officer under Sir G.
Pomeroy Colley he was present at Majuba (Feb. 27, 1881),
where he was made prisoner by a Boer patrol and detained
until the end of March. In August 1882 he was placed on the
staff of the cavalry division in Egypt. After Tel-el-Kebir
(Sept. 13, 1882) he headed a brilliant advance upon Cairo, and
took possession of the town and citadel. He was three times
mentioned in despatches, and made a brevet-colonel, C.B., and
aide-de-camp to the queen. In January 1884 he was sent to
Suakin in command of the cavalry under Sir Gerald Graham, and
took part as brigadier in the actions from El Teb to the advance
on Tamaneb. His services were recognized by the honour of
K.C.B., and he was assistant adjutant and Q.M.G. in the south-
eastern district in England from April to September 1884. He
then joined the expedition for the relief of Khartum, and in
December, when news from Gordon decided Lord Wolseley to
send a column across the desert of Metemma, Stewart was
entrusted with the command. On the i6th of January 1885,
he found the enemy in force near the wells of Abu Klea, and
brilliantly repulsed their fierce charge on the following morning.
Leaving the wounded under guard, the column moved forward
on the i8th through bushy country towards Metemma, 23 m. off.
Meanwhile the enemy continued their attacks, and on the morn-
ing of the i gth Stewart was wounded and obliged to hand over
the command to Sir Charles Wilson. He lingered for nearly a
month, living long enough to hear of his promotion to the rank
of major-general " for distinguished service in the field." He
died on the way back from Khartum to Korti on the i6th of
February, and was buried near the wells of Jakdul. In the
telegram reporting his death Lord Wolseley summed up his
character and career in the words: " No braver soldier or more
brilliant leader of men ever wore the Queen's uniform."
STEWART, J. (PJAMES), of Baldynneis (fl. 1590), Scottish
verse writer, is known as the translator of Ariosto's Orlando
Furioso. The work is an abridgment in twelve cantos and has
the historical interest of having preceded Sir John Harington's
translation (1591). The volume containing this version and
other poems (of indifferent quality) is preserved in the Advo-
cates' Library, Edinburgh. It bears the title Ane Abbregement
of Roland Fwiovs, translait ovt of Aroist: togither vith sym
Rapsodies of the Avthor's yovlhfvll braine, and last ane Schersing
ovt of Irew Felicitie; composit in Scotis meiter be J. Stewart of
Baldynneis. This MS. appears to be the original which was
once in the possession of James VI. Extracts are printed in
Irving's History of Scotish Poetry (1861). t
STEWART, JOHN (1740-1822), British traveller, was born
in London of humble parentage. After an unruly career at
school he entered the service of the East India Company at
Madras in 1763, but he threw up his position about two years
later and became interpreter to Hyder Ali, afterwards serving
as a general in his army; subsequently he served the nabob of
Arcot, whose chief minister he became. Having enriched
himself in this capacity, he began a series of travels through
India, Persia, Ethiopia and Abyssinia, which earned him the
nickname of " Walking Stewart." About 1783 he returned to
Europe, where he cut a curious figure by wearing Armenian dress.
He crossed over to America in 1791 and had various adventures,
but soon came back to Europe, and made the acquaintance
of Wordsworth in Paris and later of De Quincey in Bath. Be-
coming short of money, he again went to America, where he
supported himself by lecturing. Having returned to Europe,
Stewart's fortunes began to mend. In 1813 a claim he had made
against the nabob of Arcot was settled by the East India Com-
pany for 10,000, and he took rooms in London and settled
down to enjoy life, airing his opinions on literature and art.
He died on the aoth of February 1822. De Quincey (see
Collected Writings, 1890, vol. iii.) gives various particulars
of him.
STEWART, JULIUS L. (1855- ), American artist, was
born at Philadelphia on the 6th of September 1855. His
father, William Hood Stewart, was a distinguished collector of
the fine arts, an early patron of Fortuny and the Barbizon
artists, and lived in Paris during the latter part of his life.
The son was a pupil of J. L. Gerome, at the Ecole des Beaux
Arts, and of Raymondo de Madrazo. Among his principal
paintings are " The Hunt Ball," Essex Club, Newark, New
Jersey; " Full Speed," in James Gordon Bennett's collection;
" Five o'clock Tea," and " Court in Cairo."
STEWART, WILLIAM (c. I48o-c. 1550), Scottish poet and
translator, descendant of one of the illegitimate sons of Alexander
Stewart, earl of Buchan, the " Wolf of Badenoch," was a member
of the university of St Andrews. He was in orders, and a
hanger-on at the court of James V. The last entry of the pay-
ment of a pension of 40 appears in the accounts of 1541. He
was known as a poet in his own day: Lyndsay and Rolland
refer to him. Portions of his minor verse are preserved in the
Bannatyne and Maitland Folio MSS. His chief work is a
metrical translation of Hector Boece's History, in obedience to
the command of James V., who entrusted Bellenden with its
translation into Scots prose.
Stewart's version remained in MS. till 1858, when it was edited by
W. Turnbull for the " Rolls Series " (3 vols.). The MS. is now in
the library of the university of Cambridge.
STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540-^. 1605), Scottish
politician, began life as a soldier in the Netherlands, where
he became a colonel and entered into communications with
Lord Burghley on the progress of affairs. In the year 1582 he
was in Scotland, where James VI. made him captain of his
guard. Having visited the English court in the king's interest
in 1583, Stewart helped to free James from William Ruthven,
earl of Gowrie, and to restore James Stewart, earl of Arran,
to power; he was made a privy councillor and for a time
assisted Arran to govern Scotland. In 1584 he captured
Gowrie at Dundee. In 1585 he and Arran lost their power, and
Stewart went to Denmark and France on secret errands for the
king. He commanded the ships which conveyed James and his
bride Anne from Denmark in 1590, and the same year was sent
STEWARTON STICHOMETRY
9*5
on an embassy to the German princes. Twice he went on missions
to the Netherlands, and in 1594 he was knighted and was given
lands at Houston. He died before 1606. His only son, Frederick
(c. 1590-1625), who was created a peer as Lord Pittenweem in
1609, died childless in December 1623.
Sir William Stewart of Houston is often confused with Sir William
Stewart of Monkton (d. 1588), a brother of James Stewart, earl of
Arran, who was killed in a fight in Edinburgh in July 1588, and also
with Sir William Stewart of Caverstoun.
STEWARTON, a municipal and police burgh, in the Cunning-
ham district of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2858. It is
situated on Annick Water, 19 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the
Glasgow & South-Western railway. The town lies in a fine
agricultural district, famed for its dairy produce. Two cattle
and two horse fairs are held yearly; at the October cattle fair
there is the largest show of Ayrshire dairy stock in Scotland.
About 2 m. north by west is Dunlop (pop. 473), which gave its
name to a cheese that at one time commanded a large market.
STEYN, MARTINUS THEUNIS (1857- ), last president
of the Orange Free State, was born at Winburg in that state
on the 2nd of October 1857. He was a student in Holland and
later in England at the Inner Temple, and was called to the
English bar in November 1882. After his return to South Africa
he practised as a barrister at Bloemfontcin, and in 1889 was
appointed state attorney of the Free State. A few months
afterwards he became second puisne judge, and in 1893 first
puisne judge of the high court. His decisions won him a
reputation for ability and sound judgment. In 1895, upon the
resignation of President F. W. Reitz, Steyn was the candidate
of the pan-Dutch party for the vacant post. The election
resulted (February 1896) in a decisive victory for Steyn. As
president he linked the fortunes of his state with those of the
Transvaal, a policy which led to the extinction of the republic.
After the occupation of Bloemfontein by Lord Roberts Steyn
wandered about South Africa, carrying on a semblance of
government, and on occasion taking charge of military operations.
More than once he narrowly escaped capture. Regarded as one
of the most irreconcilable of the Boer leaders, he took part,
however, in the preliminary peace negotiations at Klerksdorp
in April 1902, but was prevented by illness from signing the
instrument of surrender at Pretoria on the 3ist of May. At
that date he was suffering from locomotor ataxy, brought on
by his constant exertions; and in the July following he sailed for
Europe, where he remained until the autumn of 1904. He then
took the oath of allegiance to the British crown, and returning
to South Africa partially restored to health resumed an active
participation in politics. In 1908-1909 he was vice-president
of the Closer Union Convention, where he was distinguished for
his statesmanlike and conciliatory attitude, while maintaining
the rights of the Dutch community.
STEYNING, a small market town in the mid parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, io| m. W.N.W. of Brighton by
the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901),
1705. The church of St Andrew retains a very fine series
of Norman pier-arches in the nave. Some picturesque old
houses remain in the town. Brewing and the manufacture of
parchment are carried on.
The Anglo-Saxon church of Steyning (Stoeningas, Stoeningum,
Staninges, Stenyges, Stenyng) mentioned in Domesday is attri-
buted to St Cuthman, who is said to have settled here before the
9th century, and whose shrine became a resort for pilgrims.
The later prosperity of the town was due to its harbour. Alfred
bequeathed Steyning to his nephew, but it evidently reverted
to the Crown, as it was granted by Edward the Confessor to the
abbot and convent of Fecamp, with whom it remained until the
1 5th century. By 1086 Steyning was a thriving port. It had
a market, a mint and two churches, and the borough contained
123 burgages. The decay of the town began in the I4th century
owing to the recession of the sea, and it received another blow in
the suppression of its priory by Henry IV. It was afterwards
granted to the abbey of Sion, which held it until the dissolution.
From the reign of Edward IV. to that of Richard III. there is
evidence that the town was governed by a bailiff elected annually
in the borough-court. Steyning returned two representatives
to parliament from 1298 until it was disfranchised in 1832. In
the I4th century the abbot of Fecamp held weekly markets in
the borough on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and fairs at the
Nativity of the Virgin and the Feast of St Michael, by prescriptive
right. The present market day is Wednesday, for stock, and a
cattle fair is held on the nth of October.
STEYR, or STEIER, a town in Upper Austria, 28 m. S.E. of
Linzbyrail. Pop. (1900), 17,592. It is situated at the confluence
of the Steyr with the Enns, and on an eminence rises the castle
of the princes of Lamberg, dating from the loth century. The
parish church is in Gothic style and was built in 1443-1522.
Steyr is the chief centre of the steel and iron industry of Upper
Austria. The rifle factory, founded in 1830 by Josef Werndl,
is the largest in Austria, and since 1882 it has added the manu-
facture of bicycles and electrical plant. It is the birthplace of
the poet Alois Blumauer (1755-1798). Steyr was founded at the
end of the loth century and was the capital of a countship, first
belonging to Styria, but annexed to Austria in 1192.
STIBNITE, a mineral consisting of antimony sulphide, Sb 2 S3,
occurring as bladed or acicular orthorhombic crystals; an
important ore of antimony. It was mentioned by Dioscorides
and Pliny under the names stimmi, stibi and platyophthalmon
(Tr\a.Tv6(j)6a\nov) ; the last name refers to the use which the
ancients made of the powdered mineral for darkening the eye-
brows to increase the apparent size of the eyes. Antimonite
is a name in common use for this species. The crystals are
prismatic in habit, deeply furrowed longitudinally, and usually
terminated by acute pyramidal planes. There is a perfect
cleavage (oio) parallel to the length of the crystals, and the
basal plane (ooi) is a plane of gliding; the latter gives rise to very
characteristic transverse striations or nicks on the cleavage
surfaces of crystals which have been bent. The colour is lead-
grey, and the lustre metallic and brilliant: crystals become dull
on prolonged exposure to light. Cleavage flakes of extreme
thinness transmit a small amount of red light, but are more
transparent for heat rays. The mineral is quite soft (H. = 2),
and has a specific gravity of 4-6. Stibnite occurs with quartz in
beds and veins in gneisses and schists, or with blende, galena, &c.,
in metalliferous veins. Magnificent groups of brilliant crystals,
up to 20 in. in length, are abundant in the extensive anti-
mony mine of Ichinokawa, province of lyo, Japan. Large, but
dull, crystals have also been found at Lubilhac in Haute-Loire,
France. Prismatic and acicular crystals often penetrating
tabular crystals of barytes, are common at Felsobanya near
Magy-Banya and Kremnitz in Hungary. (L. J. S.)
STICHOMETRY, a term applied properly to the measurement
(lj.krpov) of ancient texts by ortxi (lit. " rows ") or verses of a
fixed standard length. It was the custom of the Greeks and
Romans to estimate the length of their literary works by measured
lines. In poetical works the number of metrical verses was
computed; in prose works a standard line had to be taken, for
no two scribes would naturally write lines of the same length.
On the authority of Galen (de Placit. Hipp, et Plat. viii. i) we
learn that the unit of measurement among the Greeks was the
average Homeric line, consisting of about 36 letters, or 16
syllables. The lines so measured were called <n\.\oi or eir?j. The
practice of thus computing the length of a work can be traced
back to the 4th century B.C. in the boast of Theopompus that
he had written more ibnj than any other writer. The number
of such artx<- or eirt) contained in a papyrus roll was recorded
at the end of the work; and at the end of a large work extending
to several rolls the grand total was given. The object of such
stichometrical calculations was a commercial one, viz. to assess
the pay of the scribe and the market value of the MS. Calli-
machus, when he drew up his catalogue of the Alexandrian
libraries in the 3rd century B.C., registered the total of the cmxoi
in each work. Although he is generally lauded for thus carefully
recording the numbers and setting an example to all who should
follow him, it has been suggested that this very act was the cause
of their general disappearance from MSS.; for that, when his
916
STICKE STICKLEBACK
irlvaKes were published, scribes evidently thought it was
needless to repeat what could be found there; and thus it. is
that so few MSS. have descended to us which are marked in this
way. A more natural reason for the scarcity of such details is
that scribes and booksellers suppressed them in order to impose
upon their customers.
The application of the system to Latin MSS. was fully recog-
nized. The unit of measurement was the average Virgilian line.
This is recorded in an interesting memorandum written in.
the 4th century, found in a MS. in the Phillipps Library at
Cheltenham, containing a computation of the arixoi in the
books of the Bible and the works of Cyprian. The writer states
that in the city of Rome it had become the practice not to record
the number of verses in the MSS., and that elsewhere also, for
greed of gain, the numbers were suppressed. Therefore he has
made a calculation of the contents of the text under his hand
and has appended to the several books tha number of Virgilian
hexameters which would represent its length. The rate of pay
of the scribes in Diocletian's reign was fixed by his edict de
pretiis rerum venalium at 25 denarii for loovrixoi in writing of
the first quality, and at 20 denarii for the second quality; what
the difference was between the two qualities does not appear.
The system of measurement described above has been called
" total stichometry," in distinction from " partial stichometry,"
which was the calculation and marking off in the margins of the
arlxoL from point to point, just as we mark off the lines in a poem
at convenient intervals and number the verses of the chapters of
the Bible. This method was for convenience of literary reference.
Instances of such " partial stichometry " are not very numerous
among existing MSS., but they are sufficient to show that the system
was in vogue. In the Bankes Homer in the British Museum the
verses are numbered in the margin by hundreds, and the same
practice was followed in other Homeric papyri. In the Ambrosian
Pentateuch of the 5th century at Milan the book of Deuteronomy
is likewise numbered at every hundredth orixos. Euthalius, a deacon
of Alexandria of the 5th century, marked the arlxoi of the Pauline
epistles by fifties. In the Codex Urbinus of Isocrates, and in the
Clarke Plato of A.D. 888, at Oxford, there are indications of partial
stichometry.
There was also in use in biblical texts and in rhetorical works a
stichometrical system different from that described above, in which
the <rrl\oi, as we have seen, were lines of measurement or space-
lines. This other system, which is more correctly entitled colometry
(see MANUSCRIPT), consisted in the division or breaking up of the
text into short sentences or lines according to the sense, with a view
to a better understanding of the meaning and a better delivery in
public reading. The Psalms, Proverbs and other poetical books
were anciently thus written, and hence received the title of f)lfi\oi
ortxvP"*! or irrixipol; and it was on the same plan that St Jerome
wrote, first the books of the prophets, and subsequently all the Bible
of his version, per cola et commata " quod in Demosthene et Tullio
solet fieri." In the Greek Testament also Euthalius, in the 5th
century, introduced the method of writing <rrix')86, as he termed
it, into the Pauline and Catholic epistles and the Acts. The sur-
viving MSS. which contain the text written in short sentences show
by the diversity of the latter that the rhythmical sentences or lines
of sense were differently calculated by different writers; but the
original arrangement of St Jerome is thought to be represented in
the Codex Amiatinus at Florence, and that of Euthalius in the Codex
Clarompntanus at Paris. With regard to St Jerome's reference to
the division per cola et commata of the rhetorical works of Demos-
thenes and Cicero, it should be noticed that there are still in exis-
tence MSS. of works of the latter in which the text is thus written,
one of them being a volume of the Tusculans and the De senectute
in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. The same arrangement of
the text of the orations of Demosthenes is also mentioned by the
rhetoricians of the 5th and subsequent centuries.
AUTHORITIES. C. Graux in Revue de philologie (1878), ii. 97; T.
Mommsen in Hermes, xxi. 142; W. Sanday in Studia biblica (1891),
iii. 217; J. Rendel Harris, Stichometry (1893). (E- M. T.)
STICK&, a game played in an enclosed court, taking its name
from " sphairistike," the parent of lawn-tennis. The implements
are an ordinary lawn-tennis racket and lawn-tennis balls not
covered with flannel. The walls of the court may be made of
wood, cement or brick to the height of 9 or 10 ft., with netting
above unless the court is roofed to prevent the balls from going
out: the floor may be of wood, cement or asphalt, perfect accuracy
not being essential. The dimensions of the court are 78 ft. by
27 ft.; it is bisected longitudinally by a painted line, laterally
by a net 3 ft. 6 in. high, above which is stretched a tape 8 ft.
from the ground. In each of the corners a Q-ft. square (the
" service " court) is painted, and 18 ft. from each back wall
lines ("service" lines) are drawn across the breadth of the court.
The rules are similar to those of lawn-tennis, except that a ball
can only be " out of court " if it is struck over the walls.
STICK-INSECT, the name given to certain orthopterous
insects of the family Phasmidae, of extremely variable form and
size, and deriving their name from a resemblance to the branches
and twigs of the trees in which they live and feed. The resem-
blance is produced by the great length and slenderness of the
body and legs. Protection is afforded to some species, like
Heteropteryx grayi from Borneo, by sharp thornlike spines.
The anterior wings, when present, are always small; but the
posterior wings are sometimes of large size and very beautifully
coloured. The colouring, however, is only visible when the wings
are expanded and in use. Many species are wingless at all ages.
As in the leaf-insects, to which the stick-insects are closely
allied, the egg-cases are very similar to seeds. Stick-insects are
intolerant of cold, and attain their largest size and greatest pro-
fusion of species in the tropics, one West African species, Palnphus
centaurus, reaching a length of 9 in. Species of small size are
found in southern Europe, one belonging to the genus Bacillus
advancing as far north as the middle of France.
STICKLEBACK, the name applied to a group of small fishes
(Gastrosteus) which inhabit the fresh and brackish waters as
well as the coasts of the temperate zone of the northern hemi-
sphere. As far as the European kinds are concerned, all may
be met with in the brackish water of certain littoral districts.
The majority have a compressed well-proportioned body, which
in the marine species is of a more elongate form, leading to the
allied group of flute-mouths (Fistulariidae) , which are, ir. fact,
gigantic marine sticklebacks. Their mouth is of moderate width,
oblique, and armed with small but firmly set teeth. The head
is almost entirely protected by hard bone; even the cheeks are
cuirassed by the dilated infraorbital bones. There are no
scales developed on any part of the body, but a series of hard
and large scutes protects a greater or lesser portion of the sides.
The first dorsal fin and the ventrals are transformed into pointed
formidable spines, and joined to firm bony plates of the endo-
skeleton. With regard to the degree in which this armature is
developed, not only do the species differ from each other, but
almost every species shows an extraordinary amount of varia-
tion. About ten kinds may be taken to be specifically distinct.
So far.as is known at present, all sticklebacks construct a nest
for the reception of the spawn, which is jealously guarded
by the male until the young are hatched, which event takes
place in from ten to eighteen days after oviposition. He
also protects them for the first few days of their existence.
Sticklebacks are short-lived animals; they are said to reach an
age of only three or four years; yet their short life, at least that
of the males, is full of excitement. During the first year of their
existence, before the breeding season begins, they live in small
companies in still pools or gently flowing brooks. But with the
return of the warmer season each male selects a territory, which
he fiercely defends against all comers, especially against intruders
of his own species and sex, and to which he invites all females,
until the nest is filled with ova. At this period he also assumes a
bridal dress, painted with blue and red tints. The eggs are of
comparatively large size, one female depositing from 50 to 100.
Gastrosteus aculeatus, var. noveboracensis, Three-Spined Stickleback.
Of the species known not one has so wide a geographical range,
and has so well been studied, as the common British three-
spined stickleback (Gastrosteus aculeatus). It is found every-
I where in northern and central Europe, northern Asia, and North
STIER STIGMATIZATION
917
America. The development of its scutes and spines varies
exceedingly, and specimens may be found without any lateral
scutes and with short spines, others with only a few scutes and
moderately sized spines, and again others which possess a com-
plete row of scutes from the head to the caudal fin, and in which
the fin-spines are twice as long and strong as in other varieties.
On the whole, the smooth varieties are more numerous in southern
than in northern localities. This species swarms in some years in
prodigious numbers; in Pennant's time amazing shoals appeared
in the fens of Lincolnshire every seven or eight years. No
instance of a similar increase of this fish has been observed in our
time, and this possibly may be due to the diminished number of
suitable breeding-places in consequence of the introduction of
artificial drainage. This species usually constructs its nest on
the bottom, excavating a hollow in which a bed of grass, rootlets
or fibres is prepared; walls are then raised, and the whole is
roofed over with the like material. The nest is an inch and
more in diameter, with a small aperture for an entrance.
The ten-spined stickleback (Gastrosteus pungitius) is so called
from the number of spines usually composing its first dorsal fin,
which, however, may be sometimes reduced to eight or nine or
increased to eleven. It is smaller than the three-spined species,
rarely exceeding 2 in. in length. Its geographical range nearly
coincides with that of the other species, but it is more locally
distributed, and its range in northern Asia is not known. Its
nest is generally placed among weeds above the bottom of the
water. Breeding males are readily recognized at a distance by
the intensely black colour of the lower parts of their body.
Both these species are extremely voracious. A small stickle-
back kept in an aquarium devoured, in five hours' time, 74
newly-hatched dace, which were about a quarter of an inch
long. Two days after it swallowed 62 and would probably
have eaten as many every day could they have been procured.
The sea-stickleback (Gastrosteus spinachia or Spinachia iiul-
garis) attains to a length of 7 in., and is armed with fifteen
short spines on the back. It is extremely common round the
British coasts, but never congregates in large shoals. At suitable
localities of the coast which are sheltered from the waves and
overgrown with seaweed, especially in rock-pools, one or two
males establish themselves with their harems, and may be
observed without difficulty, being quite as fearless as their fresh-
water cousins. Harbours and shallows covered with Zostcra
are likewise favourite haunts of this species, although the water
may be brackish. The nest is always firmly attached to sea-
weed, and sometimes suspended from an over-hanging frond.
The materials are bound together by a tough white thread which
is formed by a secretion of the kidneys of the male. This species
inhabits only the northern coasts of Europe.
STIER, RUDOLF EWALD (1800-1862), German Protestant
divine and mystic, was born at Fraustadt in Posen on the I7th
of March 1800. He studied at Halle and Berlin, first law and
afterwards theology; and he continued his theological studies
later at the pastoral seminary of Wittenberg. In 1824 he was
made professor in the Missionary Institute at Basel. Afterwards
he held pastorates at Frankleben near Merseburg (1829) and at
Wichlinghausen in the Wupperthal (1838). In 1850 he was
appointed superintendent at Schkeuditz, and in 1859 at Eisleben.
He published a new edition of Luther's Catechism and a trans-
lation of the Bible based on that of Luther; but he is noted chiefly
for his thoughtful, devotional and mystical commentary on the
words of the Lord (Reden des Herrn, 3 vols., 1843 ; 3rd ed., 7 vols.,
1870-1874; Eng. trans., 8 vols., 1855-1858; 3 vols., 1869). He
died at Eisleben on the i6th of December 1862.
His other works, besides commentaries on the Psalms, Second
Isaiah, Proverbs, Ephesians, Hebrews, Epistles of James and Jude,
include: Die Reden der A pastel (2 vols., 1824-1830; Eng. trans., 1869)
and Die Reden der Engel in der heiligen Schrift (1862). Cf. J. P.
Lacroix, The Life of R. Slier (New York, 1874).
STIFTER, ADALBERT (1805-1868), Austrian author, was
born at Oberplan in Bohemia on the 23rd of October 1805, the
son of a linen weaver. Having studied at the university of
Vienna, he became tutor to Richard, eldest son of Prince Metter-
nich, and obtained in 1849 the appointment as school inspector
with the title of Schulrat in Linz, where he lived until his death
on the 28th of January 1868. As early as 1840 Stifter had made
his name known by his Feldblumen, a collection of charming
little sketches, but his fame chiefly rests upon his Stvdien (1844-
1851) in which he gathered together his early writings. These
sketches of scenery and rural life are among the best and purest
examples of German prose. Among other of his works may be
cited Bunte Steine (1853), Nachsommer (1857), Witiko (1864-
1867), and Brief e, which appeared posthumously in 1869.
Slitter's Sdmtliche Werke were published in 17 vols. in 1870.
There are also editions of selected works in 4 vols. (1887) and in
6 vols. (1899). A critical edition by A. Sauer is in preparation.
Stifter's letters were published by J. Aprent in 3 vols. (1869). See
E. Kuh, Zwei Dichler Osterreichs (1872); K. Proll, A. Stifter, der
Dichter des Bohmerwaldes (Vortrag, 1891); J. K. Markus, A. Stifter
(2nd ed., 1879); A. R. Hein, A. Stifter (1904); T. Klaiber, A. Stifter
( I 95) ! W. Kosch, A. Stifter und die Romantik (1905).
STIGAND (d. 1072), archbishop of Canterbury, is first men-
tioned in 1020. He was then chaplain to Canute and afterwards
to his son, Harold Harefoot, and after the death of the former
king appears to have acted as the chief adviser of his widow,
Emma. In 1043 he was consecrated bishop of Elmham and in
1047 was translated to Winchester; he supported Earl Godwine
in his quarrel with Edward the Confessor, and in 1052 arranged
the peace between the earl and the king. In this year the arch-
bishop of Canterbury, Robert of Jumieges, having been outlawed
and driven from England, Stigand was appointed to the arch-
bishopric; but, regarding Robert as the rightful archbishop,
Pope Leo IX. and his two successors refused to recognize him.
In 1058, however, Benedict X. gave him the pall, but this pope
was deposed in the following year. Stigand is said by Norman
writers to have crowned Harold in January 1066; but it is now
probable that this ceremony was performed by Aldred, arch-
bishop of York. Stigand submitted to William, and assisted at
his coronation. But the Conqueror was anxious to get rid of
him, although he took him in his train to Normandy in 1067.
In 1070 he was deposed by the papal legates and was imprisoned
at Winchester, where he died, probably on the 22nd of February
1072. Stigand was an avaricious man and a great pluralist,
holding the bishopric of Winchester after he became archbishop
of Canterbury, in addition to several abbeys.
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest (18701876), vols. ii.,
iii. and iv. ; and J. R. Green, The Conquest of England (1899), vol. ii.
STIGMATIZATION, the infliction of stigmata, i.e. marks
tattooed or branded on the person, the term being used with
specific reference to the supposed supernatural infliction of
wounds like those of Christ.
An ancient and widespread method of showing tribal con-
nexion, or relation to tribal deities, was by marks set upon the
person; thus Herodotus, in describing a temple of Hercules in
Egypt (ii. 113), says that it is not lawful to capture runaway
slaves who take refuge therein if they receive certain marks
on their bodies, devoting them to the deity. The practice is
alluded to by Paul (Gal. vi. 17) in the words, " from henceforth
let no man trouble me, for I bear branded on my body the
stigmata of Jesus "; and some writers have understood the
passage as referring to stigmatization in the modern sense
(Molanus, De historia ss. imaginum el picturarum, ed. Paquot,
iii. 43, p. 365). Branding, as indicative of servitude, was
forbidden by Constantine.
In the period of persecution Christian martyrs were sometimes
branded with the name of Christ on their foreheads (Pontius,
" De vit. S. Cypriani," Biblioth. veterum patrum, vol. iii. p. 472,
vii.). Wounds of this sort were sometimes self-inflicted as a
disfigurement by nuns for their protection, as in the case of St
Ebba, abbess of Coldingham (see Baronius, Annales, xv. 215,
ann. 870, also Tert. De vel. irirg.). Some Christians likewise
marked themselves on the hands or arms with a cross or the
name of Christ (Procopius, In Esaiam, ed. Curterius, p. 496),
and other voluntary mutilations for Christ's sake are mentioned
(Matt. xix. 12; Fortunatus, Life of St Rhadegund, ed. Migne,
col. 508; Palladius, Lausiac History, cxii.; Jerome's Letter to
St Eustochium, &c.).
STIGMATIZATION
In St Francis of Assisi we have the first example of the alleged
miraculous infliction of stigmata. (For an earlier instance
pronounced by the Church to be an imposture see Fleury,
Hist. Ecd. Ixxviii. 56, ann. 1222.) While meditating on the
sufferings of our Lord, in his cell on Mount Alverno in 1224, we
are told by his biographers, Thomas of Celano and Bonaventura,
that the Lord appeared to Francis as a seraph and produced
upon his body the five wounds of Christ; of these we are told
that the side wound bled occasionally, though Bonaventura
calls it a scar, and the wounds in the feet had the appearance
and colour of nails thrust through. After his death St Clare
endeavoured, but in vain, to extract one of these. Pope
Alexander IV. and other witnesses declared that they had seen
these marks both before and after his death (Raynaldus, ad
ann. 1253, p. 27). The divinely attested sanctity of their
founder gave to the newly established order of Franciscans a
powerful impulse, so that they soon equalled and threatened
to overshadow in influence the previously founded order of
St Dominic.
The reputation of the latter order was, however, similarly
raised in the next century by the occurrence of the same wonder
in the case of a sister of the third rule of St Dominic, Catherine
Benincasa better known as St Catherine of Siena. From her
biographer's account we gather that she was subject to hystero-
epileptic attacks, in one of which, when she was twenty-three
years old, she received the first stigma (see v. 230). In spite
of her great reputation, and the number of attesting witnesses,
this occurrence was not universally believed in. Pope Sixtus IV.
published a bull in 1475 ordering, on pain of anathema, the
erasure of stigmata from pictures of St Catherine, and pro-
hibiting all expressions of belief in the occurrence. Pope
Innocent VIII. similarly legislated " ne de caetero S. Catherina
cum stigmatibus depingatur; neve de ejus stigmatibus fiat
verbum, aut sermo, vel praedicatio ad tollendam omnem
scandali occasionem " (see references in Raynaud, De Stigma-
tisme, cap. xi. 1665). In the years which followed cases of
stigmatization occurred thick and fast now a Franciscan, now
a Dominican, very rarely a religieuse of another order, showing
the marks. Altogether about ninety instances are on record,
of which eighteen were males and seventy-two females. (There
are about thirty other cases sometimes included in the catalogue,
of which there are no particulars recorded.) Most of them
occurred among residents in religious houses, after the austerities
of Lent, usually on Good Friday, when the mind was intently
fixed on our Lord's Passion; and the possibility of the reception
of the marks was constantly before the eyes and thoughts of the
members of the two orders to which St Francis and St Catherine
belonged. The order of infliction in the majority of cases was
that of the crucifixion, the first token being a bloody sweat,
followed by the coronation with thorns; afterwards the hand
and foot wounds appear, that of the side being the last. The
grade of the infliction varied in individual cases, and they may
be grouped in the following series:
i. As regards full stigmatization, with the visible production of
the five wounds, and generally with the mark of the crown as well,,
the oldest case, after St Francis, is that of Ida of Louvain (1300),
in whom the marks appeared as coloured circles; in Gertrude von
Oosten of Delft (1344) they were coloured scars, and, as in the case
of St Catherine, disappeared in answer to prayer as they also did on
Dominica de Paradis; in Sister Pierona, a Franciscan, they were
blackish grey. They were true wounds in Margaret Ebnerin of
Nuremberg (d. 1351; see her Life, Augsburg, 1717), in Brigitta, a
Dominican tertiary (1390), and also in Lidwina. An intermission
is described in the marks on Johanna delta Croce of Madrid (1524),
in whom the wound in the side was large, and the others were rose-
coloured circular patches. The marks appeared on each Friday and
vanished on Sunday. These emitted an odour of violets; but in
Sister Apollonia of Volaterra they were fetid while she lived. Angela
della Pace (1634) was fully stigmatized at nine years of age, being
even marked with the sponge and hyssop on the mouth; while
Joanna de Jesu-Maria at Burgos (1613), a widow, who had entered
the convent of Poor Clares, was marked in her sixtieth year. To her
in vision two crowns were offered one of flowers and one of thorns ;
she chose the latter and immediately was seized with violent pain
and her confessor heard a sound as of her skull breaking. This case
was investigated by the officers of the Inquisition. The stigmatiza-
tion of Veronica Giuliani (1696) was also the subject of inquiry, and in
this case the nun drew on a paper a representation of the images
which she said were engraved on her heart. On a post-mortem
examination being made in 1727 by Professor Gentili and Dr Bordiga,
the image of the cross, the scourge, &c., were said to have been
impressed on the right side of the organ ( Vita della Veronica Giuliana,
by Salyatori, Rome, 1803). The case of Christina Stumbelen, a
Dominican at Cologne, is noteworthy, as on her skull there was
found a raised ridge or crown which was at first green, with red dots.
In Lucia di Narni (1546) the marks were variable, as they also were
on Sister Maria di S. Dominico. On the body of St Margaret of
Hungary the stigmata were found fresh and clear when her body was
exhumed some time after her death for transportation to Presburg.
Other stigmatized persons were Elizabeth von Spalbeck, a Cister-
cian ; Sister Coleta, a Poor Clare ; Matilda von Stanz ; Margaret Bruch
of Endringen (1503); Maria Razzi of Chios (1582); Catharina Janu-
ensis; Elizabeth Reith of Allgau; Stieva zu Hamm in Westphalia;
Sister Mary of the Incarnation at Pontoise; Archangela Tardera in
Sicily (1608) ; Catharina Ricci in Florence (1590) ; and Joanna Maria
della Croce, a Poor Clare at Roveredo (d. 1673), upon whom the
markings of the thorn crown and spear wound were especially deep.
2. In some cases, although the pains of stigmatization were felt,
there were no marks apparent. This occurred to Helen Brumsen
(1285); Helena of Hungary (1270); Osanna of Mantua (1476);
Columba Rocasani; Magdalena de Pazzis; Anna of Vargas; Hiero-
nyma Carvaglio; Maria of Lisbon, a Dominican; Joanna di Vercelli;
Stephania Soncinas, a Franciscan; Sister Christina, a Carthusian;
and Joanna Rodriguez, a Poor Clare. In the case of Ursula Aguir
de Valenza, a tertiary of St Dominic (1608), and Catharine Cialina
(d. 1619) the pain was chiefly that of the crown of thorns, as it was
also in Amelia Bicchieri of Vercelli, an Augustinian.
3. In a third series some of the marks were visible on the body,
while others were absent or only subjectively indicated by severe
pains. The crown of thorns only was marked on the head of Vin-
centia Ferreria at Valencia (d. 1515) and Philippa de Santo Tomaso
of Montemor (1670), while according to Torellus the Augustinian
Ritta von Cassia (d. 1430) had a single thorn wound on the
forehead. The crown was marked on Catharina of Raconizio
(b. 1486), who also suffered a severe bloody sweat. In the case of
Stephano Quinzani, in Soncino (1457), there was a profuse bloody
sweat and the wounds were intermitting, appearing on Friday
and Saturday, vanishing on Sunday. Blanche Gazinan, daughter
of Count Arias de Sagavedra (1564), was marked only on the right
foot, as also was Catherine, a Cistercian nun. The heart wound
was visible in Christina Mirabilis (1232). Gabrielda de Piezolo
(d. 1473) died from the bleeding of such a wound, and similar wounds
were described in Maria de Acosrin in Toledo; Eustochia, a tertiary
of St Francis; Clara de Bugny, a Dominican (1514); Cecilia Nobili,
a Poor Clare of Nuceria (d. 1655). In the last instance the heart
wound was found after death a three-cornered puncture. A similar
wound was seen in the heart of Martina de Arilla (d. 1644). Maria
Villana, a Poor Clare, daughter of the margrave of La Pella, was
marked with the crown and the spear thrust, and after her death the
impresses of the spear, sponge and reed were found on her heart
(d. 1670). The wound was usually on the left side, as in Sister
Masrona of Grenoble, a tertiary of St Francis (1627) ; it was on the
right in Margareta Columna, also a Clare. In Maria de Sarmiento it
was said to have been inflicted by a seraph in a vision.
4. In a fourth set of cases the imprints were said to have been
found on the heart, even though there was no surface marking.
Thus the Dominican Paula de St Thomas was said to have had the
stigmata on her heart. The heart of Clare of Montfaucpn (1308)
was said to have been as large as a child's head and impressed
with the cross, the scourge and the nails. Similar appearances
were found in Margaret of Citta di Capello and Johanna of Yepes
The instances of masculine stigmatization are few. Benedict
di Rhegio, a Capuchin at Bologna, had the marks of the crown
(1602); Carolus Sazia, an ignorant lay brother, had the wound
in his side. Dodo, a Praemonstratensian lay brother, was fully
stigmatized, as also was Philip de Aqueria. The marks after
death were found on the heart of Angelos del Pas, a minorite of
Perpignan, as also on Matheo Carery in Mantua, Melchior of
Arazel in Valentia, Cherubin de Aviliana (an Augustinian), and
Agolini of Milan. Walter of Strassburg, a preaching friar ( 1 264) ,
had the heart-pain but no mark, and the same was the case with
a Franciscan, Robert de Malatestis (1430), and James Stephanus.
On Nicholas of Ravenna the wounds were seen after death,
while John Gray, a Scotsman, a Franciscan martyr, had one
wound on his foot.
Several later instances have been recorded. Anna Katherina
Emmerich, a peasant girl born at Minister in 1774, afterwards
an Augustinian nun at Agnetenberg, was even more famous for
her visions and revelations than for the stigmata. Biographies,
STILBITE STILES
919
with records of her visions, have been published by Brentano
at Munich in 1852 and the Abbe Cazales at Paris (1870).
Colombe Schanolt of Bamberg (1787) was fully stigmatized,
as also was Rose Serra, a Capuchin of Ozieri in Sardinia
(1801), and Madeleine Lorger (1806). Two well-known cases
occurred in Tirol one " L'Ecstatica " Maria von Mori of
Caldaro, a girl of noble family, stigmatized in 1839, the other
" L'Addolorata " Maria Dominica Lazzari, a miller's daughter
at Capriana, stigmatized in 1835 (see Bore, Les Stigmatisees du
Tyrol, Paris, 1846). A case of the second class is that of
Elizabeth Eppinger of Niederbrunn in Bavaria (1814), reported
on by Kuhn. An interesting example of stigmatic trance also
occurred in the case of a Protestant young woman in Saxony
in 1820, who appeared as if dead on Good Friday and
Saturday, and revived on Easter Sunday.
The last case recorded is that of Louise Lateau, a peasant girl,
at Bois de Haine, Hainault, upon whom the stigmata appeared
on the 24th of April 1868. This case was investigated by
Professor Lefebvre of Louvain, who for fifteen years was physi-
cian to two lunatic asylums. In her there was a periodic
bleeding of the stigmata every Friday, and a frequent recur-
rence of the hystero-cataleptic condition. Her biography has
been written by Lefebvre and published at Louvain (1870).
On surveying these ninety cases we may discount a certain
number, including all those of the second class, as examples of
subjective sensations suggested by the contemplation of the
pains of crucifixion. A second set, of which the famous case
of Jetzer (Wirz, Helvetische Kirchengcsckickte, 1810, iii. 389) is a
type, must be also set aside as obvious and intentional frauds
produced on victims by designing persons. A third series, and
how large a group we have not sufficient evidence to decide, we
must regard as due to the irresponsible self-infliction of injuries
by persons in the hystero-epileptic condition, those perverted
states of nervous action which Charcot has done so much to
elucidate. To any experienced in this form of disease, many of
the phenomena described in the records of these examples
are easily recognizable as characteristic of the hystero-epileptic
state.
There are, however, some instances not easily explained,
where the self-infliction hypothesis is not quite satisfactory.
Parallel cases of physical effects due to mental suggestion are
well authenticated. Beaunis vouches for rubefaction and vesica-
tion as produced by suggestion in the hypnotic state, andBourru
and Burot describe a case of bloody sweat, and red letters
marked on the arm by simple tracing with the finger. See
Congres scientifique de Grenoble, progres medicate (Aug. 29,
1885), and Berjon's La Grande hysteric chcz I'homme (Paris, 1886) .
We know so little of the trophic action of the higher nerve centres
that we cannot say how far tissue nutrition can be controlled
in spots. That the nerve centres have a direct influence on local
nutrition is, in some cases, capable of experimental demonstra-
tion, and, in another sphere, a few of the recorded instances of
connexion between maternal impression and congenital deformity
seem to indicate that this trophic influence may have wider
limits and a more specific capacity of localization than at first
sight seems possible.
LITERATURE. See references to each name in Ada sanctorum or
Hueber, Menologium franciscanorum (1698); Henriquez, Menologium
cistersiense; Marchese, Sagro diario; Steill, Ephemerides dominicano
sacrae (Dillingen, 1692) ; Pctrus de Alva y Astorga, Prodigium
naturae portenlium gratiae (Strassburg, 1664); Thiepolus, De passione
Christi, tract, xii. ; Meyer, Blatter fur hohere Wahrheit, vii. 5; Hurter,
Tableau des institutions et des mceurs de Veglise au moyen age
(Paris, 1842) ; Gorres, Die christliche Mystik, ii. 410 sqq. (Ratisbon) ;
Franciscus Quaresmius, De mdneribus domini, i. 4 (Venice, 1652) ;
Raynaud, Opera, vol. xiii. (Lyons, 1665); Dublin Review (1871), p.
170; Maury, Magie et astrologie; Beaunis, Recherches exp. sur
I'activite cerebrale (Paris, 1886); Bourbeyre, Les Stigmatisees
(Paris, 1886) ; Ennemoser, Der Magnetismus im Verhaltniss zur
Religion, 92 (Stuttgart, 1853); Tholuck's Vermischte Schriften,
p. 97 (Hamburg, 1839); Schmieder, in Evang. Kirchenzeitung,
pp. 1 80, 345 (Berlin, 1875); Comptes rendus de la societe de biologie
(July 12, 1885); Barth61emy, Etude sur le dermographisme ou dermo-
neurose toxi-vaso-motrice (Paris, 1898); Imbert-Goarbeyre, Les
Stigmatisees (1873). (A. MA.)
STILBITE, a mineral of the zeolite group consisting of
hydrated calcium aluminium silicate, CaAl2(Si03)6+6H 2 O.
Usually a small proportion of the calcium is replaced by sodium.
Crystals are monoclinic, and are invariably twinned, giving rise
to complex groups and characteristic sheaf-lide aggregates.
The colour is usually white, sometimes red, and on the perfect
cleavage (parallel to the plane of symmetry) the lustre is
markedly pearly; hence the name stilbite given by R. J.
Haiiy in 1796, from Gr. oriXj&ii', to shine. After the separa-
tion of heulandite from this species in 1818, the name desmine
(from 5eafj.rj, a bundle) was proposed, and this name is now
employed in Germany. The hardness is 35 and the specific
gravity 2-2. Stilbite is a mineral of secondary origin, and
occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of
basic volcanic rocks; it is sometimes found in granite and
gneiss, and exceptionally in metalliferous veins. It is abundant
in the volcanic rocks of Iceland, Faeroe Islands, Island of
Skye, Bay of Fundy, in Nova Scotia and elsewhere. Beautiful,
salmon-pink crystals occur with pale green apophyllite in the
Deccan traps near Bombay and Poona; white sheaf -like groups
encrust the calcite (Iceland-spar) of Berufjord near Djupivogr
in Iceland; and crystals of a brick-red colour are found at
Old Kilpatrick in Dumbartonshire. ' (L. J.S.)
STILE, a series of steps of stone or wood, or a combination
of bars and steps used for passing over a fence or wall without
the necessity of a permanent open passage or of opening or
shutting a gate. The Old English, stigcl is formed from stigan,
to climb, ascend; stair (O. Eng. staegcr) and stirrup are from
the same root. Stile (Lat stilus, a pointed instrument) is
really the correct spelling of style (q.v.).
STILES, EZRA (1727-1795), American clergyman and educa-
tionalist, seventh president of Yale College, was born on the
2gth of November 1727 in North Haven, Connecticut, where
his father, Isaac Stiles (d. 1760), was minister of the Congrega-
tional Church. He graduated at Yale in 1746; studied there
for the three years following; was licensed to preach in 1749 and
was a tutor at Yale in 1749-1755. He preached in 1750 to the
Indians at Stockbridge, later studied law, was admitted to the
bar in 1753, and practised in New Haven for two years. He
was pastor of the Second Congregational Church of Newport,
Rhode Island, from 1755 to 1777; in 1776-1777 he preached
occasionally in Dighton, Massachusetts, whither he had removed
his family after the British occupation of Newport; and in
April 1777 he became pastor of the North Church of Portsmouth,
New Hampshire. In 1778 he became president of Yale College
and professor of ecclesiastical history there, having insisted that
no theological statement be required of him except assent to
the Saybrook platform of 1708; in 1780-1782 he was professor
of divinity, and he lectured besides on astronomy and philo-
sophy. He died in New Haven on the I2th of May 1795. His
wise administration as president made possible the speedy
recovery of Yale College after the War of Independence, and his
intellectual and theological breadth helped to secularize and
strengthen the college. As an undergraduate he became
deeply interested in astronomy; he observed the comet of 1759
and the transit of Venus of June 1769, and left a quarto volume
of astronomical notes. He experimented successfully with the
electrical apparatus presented to Yale by Benjamin Franklin,
whose intimate friend he became. He carefully kept thermo-
metric and meteorological statistics; he imported silkworms
and books on silk culture; he corresponded with many litterati
notably with Dr Nathaniel Lardner and with Sir William
Jones, of whom he besought information of all kinds, but
especially any that would lead to the discovery of the
whereabouts of the ten lost tribes; and he undertook the
study of Hebrew at the age of forty and became an able
scholar. On Franklin's recommendation he was made a
doctor of divinity by the university of Edinburgh in 1765;
he had received a master's degree at Harvard in 1754,
and was made doctor of divinity in 1780 by Dartmouth
and in 1784 by the college of New Jersey (now Princeton
University) .
920
STILETTO STILLICIDIUM
Dr Stiles published several sermons, notably, a Discourse on the
Christian Union (1761), which has remarkable ecclesiastical breadth
of view ; an A ccount of the Settlement of Bristol, Rhode Island ( 1 785) ;
and a History of Three of the Judges of King Charles I.: Major-
General Whalley, Major-General Goffe and Colonel Dixwell (1794).
He began in 1768 but never finished an Ecclesiastical History of New
England and British America. His Literary Diary was published in
New York in 3 vols. in 1901, being edited by F. B. Dexter, who
quotes largely from Dr Stiles's Itineraries, a daily account of his
travels ; the Diary gives a valuable picture of the life of New England
in 17691795 and many interesting estimates of Stiles's contempo-
raries. See the Life of Ezra Stiles (Boston, 1798), by his daughter's
husband, Abiel Holmes, the father of Oliver Wendell Holmes.
STILETTO (an Italian diminutive of stilo, dagger, Lat. stilus,
a pointed instrument), a short stabbing dagger, the blade of
which is either triangular or square in form. The term is also
applied to a pointed bodkin of ivory, bone or metal used for
making eyelet holes, &c.
STILICHO, FLAVIUS (?~4o8), Roman general and states-
man, was the son of a Vandal who had served as an officer in
the army of the emperor Valens (364-378). He himself entered
the imperial army at an early age and speedily attained high pro-
motion. He had .already become master of the horse when in 383
he was sent by Theodosius (379-395) at the head of an embassy
to the Persian king, Sapor III. His mission was very successful,
and soon after his return he was made count of the domestics
and received in marriage Serena, the emperor's niece and adopted
daughter. In 385 he was appointed master of the soldiery
(magister militum) in Thrace, and shortly afterwards directed
energetic campaigns in Britain against Picts, Scots and Saxons,
and along the Rhine against other barbarians. Stilicho and
Serena were named guardians of the youthful Honorius when
the latter was created joint emperor in 394 with special juris-
diction over Italy, Gaul, Britain, Spain and Africa, and Stilicho
was even more closely allied to the imperial family in the follow-
ing year by betrothing his daughter Maria to his ward and by
receiving the dying injunctions of Theodosius to care for his
children. Rivalry had already existed between Stilicho and
Rufinus, the praetorian praefect of the East, who had exercised
considerable influence over the emperor and who now was in-
vested with the guardianship of Arcadius. Consequently in
395, after a successful campaign against the Germans on the
Rhine, Stilicho marched to the east, nominally to expel the
Goths and Huns from Thrace, but really with the design of
displacing Rufinus, and by connivance with these same bar-
barians he procured the assassination of Rufinus at the close of
the year, and thereby became virtual master of the empire. In
396 he fought in Greece against the Visigoths, but an arrangement
was effected whereby their chieftain Alaric was appointed master
of the soldiery in Illyricum (397). In 398 he quelled Gildo's
revolt in Africa and married his daughter Maria to Honorius.
Two years later he was consul. He thwarted the efforts of
Alaric to seize lands in Italy by his victories at Pollentia and
Verona in 402-3 and forced him to return to Illyricum, but was
criticized for having withdrawn the imperial forces from Britain
and Gaul to employ against the Goths. He manceuvred so
skilfully in the campaign against Radagaisus, who led a large
force of various Germanic peoples into Italy in 405, that he
surrounded the barbarian chieftain on the rocks of Fiesole near
Florence and starved him into surrender. Early in 408 he
married his second daughter Thermantia to Honorius. It was
rumoured about this time that Stilicho was plotting with Alaric
and with Germans in Gaul and taking other treasonable steps
in order to make his own son Eucherius emperor. There are
conflicting accounts of the plots and counterplots and of the
court intrigues, the relative truth of which will probably never
be known. It is certain, however, that he was suspected
by Honorius and abandoned by his own troops, and that he
fled to Ravenna, and, having been induced by false promises to
quit the church in which he had taken sanctuary, was assassin-
ated on the 23rd of August 408.
The principal sources for the life of Stilicho are the histories of
Zosimus and of Orosius and the flattering verses of Claudian. See
T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols. i. and ii. (Oxford, 1880);
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by J.
B. Bury, vol. iii. (London, 1902); P. Villari, The Barbarian Invasions
of Italy, translated by L. Villari, vol. i. (New York, 1902) ; S. Dill,
Roman Society in the last century of the Western Empire (London,
1899). (C. H. HA.)
STILL, (i) (0. Eng. stille, a word appearing in many Teutonic
languages, all derived from the root, meaning to set in position
or rest, seen in " stall," Ger. stellen, &c.), motionless, noiseless,
or when used of wines or mineral waters, having little or no
effervescence. As an adverb, " still" has preserved the original
sense of " that which preserves its position," and thus means
continually, permanently, now as before. (2) From the
shortened form of " distil," Lat. distillare, to drip, trickle down,
stilla, a drop, dim. of stiria. The older word for a " still " in
English was stillatory, Medieval Latin stillalorium, an ap-
paratus for heating substances and condensing the vapours
(see DISTILLATION and SPIRITS).
STILL, JOHN (c. 1543-1608), bishop of Bath and Wells,
formerly reputed to be the author of Gammer Gurton's Needle,
was born about 1543 at Grantham, Lincolnshire. He became
a student of Christ's College, Cambridge, where he graduated
B.A. in 1562, M.A. in 1565, and D.D. in 1575. In 1561 he
became a fellow of his college and took holy orders. He was
appointed in 1570 Lady Margaret professor of divinity, sub-
sequently held livings in Suffolk and Yorkshire, and was master
successively of St John's College (1574) and of Trinity College
(1577). Still was vice-chancellor of his university in 1575-1576
and again in 1592-1593, and was raised to the bishopric of Bath
and Wells in 1593. He died on the 26th of February 1608,
leaving a large fortune from lead mines discovered in the
Mendip Hills.
Gammer Gurton's Needle is the second extant English comedy,
properly so called. Still, whose reputation as a serious church-
man cannot be easily reconciled with the buffoonery of A Ryght
Pithy, Pleasaunt and merie Comedie: Intytuled Gammer Gurtons
Nedle, was first credited with its authorship by Isaac Reed in his
edition (1782) of Baker's Biographia dramatica. The title-page
of the piece, which was printed by Thomas Col well in 1575, states
that it was played not long ago at Christ's College, Cambridge,
and was " made by Mr S. Mr of Art." A play was acted at
Christmas 1567, and Still was chosen as being the only M.A. on
the register at that time whose name began with S. There are
reasons to suppose however that the play had been in Colwell's
hands some time before it was printed, and it may well be identical
with the Dyccon of Bedlam for which he took out a licence in
1562-1563, " Diccon the Bedlem " being the first of the dramatis
personae of Gammer Gurton. In the accounts of Christ's College
for 1550-1560 is the entry, " Spent at Mr Stevenson's plaie, 53."
William Stevenson was born at Hunwick, Durham, matriculated
in 1546, took his M.A. degree in 1553, and became B.D.in 1560.
Stevenson was a fellow of Christ's College from 1559 to 1561, and
is perhaps to be identified with a William Stevenson who was a
fellow from 1551 to 1554. If such is the case, there is reason
to think that the composition of Gammer Gurton's Needle should
be referred to the earlier period. He was made prebendary of
Durham in 1560-1 561, and died in 1575. Contemporary Puritan
writers in the Marprelate tracts allude to Dr John Bridges, dean
of Salisbury, author of A Defence of the Government of the Church
of England, as the reputed author of Gammer Gurton's Needle, but
he obviously could not be properly described as " Mr S." Dr
Bridges took his M.A. degree at Pembroke College, Cambridge,
in 1560, and the witty and sometimes coarse character of his
acknowledged work makes it reasonable to suppose that he may
have been a coadjutor of the author.
For the argument on behalf of William Stevenson's authorship,
see Henry Bradley 's essay prefixed to his edition of the play in
Representative English Comedies (1903). The piece is also reprinted
in Dodsley's Old Plays (vol. i., 1744; vol. ii., 1780); in Ancient
British Drama (1810), vol. i.; and in J. M. Manly's Specimens of the
Pre-Shakspearean Drama (Boston, U.S.A., 1897).
STILLICIDIUM, a dripping of water from the eaves (stilla,
diop,cadere, to fall), the term in architecture given by Vitruvius
(iv. 7) to the dripping eaves of the roof of the Etruscan temple.
STILLINGFLEET STILLWATER
921
Similar dripping eaves existed in most of the Greek Doric temples
in contradistinction to the Ionic temples, where the water of the
roof was collected in the cymatium or gutter and thrown out
through the mouths of lions, whose heads were carved on the
cymatium.
STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD (1635-1699), English divine, was
born at Cranborne, Dorset, on the iyth of April 1635. There
and at Ringwood he received his early education, and at the age
of thirteen was entered at St John's College, Cambridge. He took
his B.A. in 1652, and in the following year was elected to a fellow-
ship. After residing as tutor first in the family of Sir Roger
Burgoyne in Warwickshire and then with the Hon. Francis
Pierrepoint at Nottingham, he was in 1657 presented by the
former to the living of Sutton in Bedfordshire. Here he pub-
lished (1659) his Irenicum, in which he sought to give expression
to the prevailing weariness of the faction between Episcopacy
and Presbyterianism, and to find some compromise in which all
could conscientiously unite. He looks upon the form of church
government as non-essential, but condemns Nonconformity.
In 1662 (the year of the Act of Uniformity) he reprinted the
Irenicum with an appendix, in which he sought to prove that
" the church is a distinct society from the state, and has divers
rights and privileges of its own." Stilh'ngfleet's actions were as
liberal as his opinions, and he aided more than one ejected
minister. In later years he was not so liberal. But, though in
1680 he published his Unreasonableness of Separation, his
willingness to serve on the ecclesiastical commission of 1689, and
the interpretation he then proposed of the damnatory clauses of
the Athanasian creed, are proof that to the end he leaned
towards toleration. His rapid promotion dates from 1662, when
he published Origines sacrae, or a Rational Account of the
Christian Faith as to the Truth and Divine Authority of the
Scriptures and the Matters therein contained, Humphrey Hench-
man, bishop of London, employed him to write a vindication of
Laud's answer to John Fisher, the Jesuit. In 1665 the earl of
Southampton presented him to St Andrew's, Holborn, two years
later he became prebendary of St Paul's, in 1668 chaplain to
Charles II., in 1670 canon residentiary, and in 1678 dean of St
Paul's. He was also preacher at the Rolls Chapel and reader at
the Temple. Finally he was consecrated bishop of Worcester
on the i3th of October 1689. During these years he was cease-
lessly engaged in controversy with Nonconformists, Romanists,
Deists and Socinians. His unrivalled and various learning, his
dialectical expertness, and his massive judgment, rendered him a
formidable antagonist; but the respect entertained for him by his
opponents was chiefly aroused by his recognized love of truth
and superiority to personal considerations. He was one of the
seven bishops who resisted the proposed Declaration of Indul-
gence (1688). The range of his learning is most clearly seen in his
Bishop's Right to Vote in Parliament in Cases Capital. His
Origines Britannicae, or Antiquities of the British Church (1685),
is a strange mixture of critical and uncritical research. He was
so handsome in person as to have earned the sobriquet of " the
beauty of holiness." In his closing years he had some contro-
versy with John Locke, whom he considered to have impugned the
doctrine of the Trinity. He died at Westminster on the 28th of
March 1699, and was buried at Worcester. His manuscripts
were bought by Robert Harley (afterwards earl of Oxford), his
books by Narcissus Marsh, archbishop of Armagh.
A collected edition of his works, with life by Richard Bentley,
was published in London (1710) ; and a useful edition of The Doctrines
and Practices of the Church of Rome Truly Represented was published
in 1845 by William Cunningham.
STILLMAN, WILLIAM JAMES (1828-1901), American painter
and journalist, was born at Schenectady, New York, on the ist of
June 1828. His parents were Seventh-Day Baptists, and his
early religious training 'influenced him all though his life. He
was sent to school in New York by his mother, who made great
sacrifices that he might get an education, and he graduated at
Union College, Schenectady, in 1848. He studied art under
Frederick E. Church and early in 1850 went to England, where
he made the acquaintance of Ruskin, whose Modern Painters he
had devoured, was introduced to Turner, for whose works he had
unbounded admiration, and fell so much under the influence of
Rossetti and Millais that on his return home in the same year he
speedily became known as the " American Pre-Raphaelite. " In
1852 Kossuth sent him on a fool's errand to Hungary to dig up
crown jewels, which had been buried secretly during the insurrec-
tion of 1848-1849. While he was awaiting a projected rising
in Milan, Stillman studied art under Yvon in Paris, and then, as
the rising did not take place, he returned to the United States
and devoted himself to landscape painting on Upper Saranac
Lake in the Adirondacks and in New York City, where he started
the Crayon. It numbered Lowell, Aldrich and Charles Eliot
Norton among its contributors, and when it failed for want of
funds, Stillman removed to Cambridge, Massachusetts. There
he passed several years, but a fit of restlessness started him
off once more to England. He renewed his friendship with
Ruskin, and went with him to Switzerland to paint and draw
in the Alps, where he worked so assiduously that his eye-
sight was affected. He then lived in Paris and was in
Normandy in 1861 when the American Civil War broke out.
He made more than one attempt to serve in the Northern
ranks, but his health was too weak; in the same year he was
appointed United States consul in Rome. In 1865 a dispute
with his government led to his resignation, but immediately
afterwards he was appointed to Crete, where, as an avowed
champion of the Christians in the island and of Cretan indepen-
dence, he was regarded with hostility both by the Mussulman
population and by the Turkish authorities, and in September 1868
he resigned and went to Athens, where his first wife (a daughter
of David Mack of Cambridge) , worn out by the excitement of life
in Crete, committed suicide. He was an editor of Scribner's
Magazine for a short time and then went to London, where he
lived with D. G. Rossetti. In 1871 he married a daughter of
Michael Spartali, the Greek consul-general. When the insurrec-
tion of 1875 broke out in Herzegovina he went there as a corre-
spondent of The Times, and his letters from the Balkans aroused
so much interest that the British government was induced to
lend its countenance to Montenegrin aspirations. In 1877-1883
he served as the correspondent of The Times at Athens; in 1886-
1898 at Rome. He was a severe critic of Italian statesmen, and
embroiled himself at various times with various politicians, from
Crispi downwards. After his retirement he lived in Surrey,
where he died on the 6th of July 1901. He wrote The Cretan
Insurrection of 1866-1868 (1874). On the Track of Ulysses (1888),
Billy and Hans (1897) and Francesco Crispi (1899).
See his Autobiography of a Journalist (2 vols., Boston, 1901).
STILLWATER, a city and the county-seat of Washington
county, Minnesota, U.S.A., at the head of Lake St Croix, on
the west bank of the St Croix river, 20 m. above its mouth, and
about 20 m. N.E. of St Paul. Pop. (1890) 11,260; (1900)12,318;-
(1905 state census) 12,435, 3586 being foreign-born (1189 Swedes,
849 Germans, 828 Canadians); (1910 U.S. census) 10,198.
It is served by the Northern Pacific, the Chicago, St Paul,
Minneapolis & Omaha, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul
railways, and is connected by electric line with St Paul and
Minneapolis. The city is picturesquely situated on bluffs
rising from the St Croix and commanding fine views. Among
the public buildings are a handsome public library, the city
hall, the county court-house, the Federal building, an audi-
torium, and the city hospital, and the city is the seat of the
Stillwater business college, and of the Minnesota state prison,
established in 1851, in which a system of parole and of graded
diminution of sentences is in force, and in connexion with
which is maintained a school and a library. Commercially
Stillwater is important as a centre of the lumber trade and as a
shipping point for cereal products. The valuable water-power
is utilized by its varied manufactories. In 1905 the value of the
factory products was $2, 784, 113 an increase of 54-6% since 1900.
Stillwater, the first town platted in Minnesota, was permanently
settled in 1843, and was laid out in 1848 by Joseph Renshaw
Brown (1805-1870), a pioneer editor and soldier. Here met in
1848 the " Stillwater Convention," famous in Minnesota history
922
STILO PRAECONINUS STILT
as the first step in the erection of Minnesota Territory. Still-
water was chartered as a city in 1854. The first electric railway
in the state was completed here in 1889, but failed later.
STILO PRAECONINUS, LUCIUS AELIUS, (c. 154-74 B.C.),
of Lanuvium, the earliest Roman philologist, was a man of
distinguished family and belonged to the equestrian order. He
was called Stilo (stilus, pen), because he wrote speeches for
others, and Praeconinus from his father's profession (praeco,
public crier). His aristocratic sympathies were so strong
that he voluntarily accompanied Q. Caecilius Metellus Numi-
dicus into exile. At Rome he divided his time between teaching
(although not as a professional schoolmaster) and literary work.
His most famous pupils were Varro and Cicero, and amongst his
friends were Coelius Antipater, the historian, and Lucilius,
the satirist, who dedicated their works to him. According to
Cicero, who expresses a poor opinion of his powers as an orator,
Stilo was a follower of the Stoic school. Only a few fragments
of his works remain. He wrote commentaries on the hymns
of the Salii, and (probably) on the Twelve Tables; and invest-
igated the genuineness of the Plautine comedies, of which he
recognized 25, four more than were allowed by Varro. It is
probable that he was the author of a general glossographical
work, dealing with literary, historical and antiquarian questions.
The rhetorical treatise Ad Herennium has been attributed to
him by some modern scholars.
See Cicero, Brutus, 205207, De legibus, ii. 23, 59; Suetonius,
De grammaticis, 2; Gellius iii. 3, I. 12; Quintilian, Insl. oral, x.,
i, 99; monographs by J. van Heusde (1839) and F. Mentz (1888);
Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, bk. iv. ch. 12, 13; J. E. Sandys, History
of Classical Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906); M. Schanz, Ceschichte der
romischen Literatur (1898), vol. i. ; Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature
(Eng. trans., 1900), p. 148.
STILPO [STILPON], Greek philosopher of the Megarian school
(q.v.), was a contemporary of Theophrastus and Crates. Intel-
lectually in agreement with the Megarian dialectic, he followed
the practical ethics of the Cynics both in theory and in practice.
He extolled the Cynic airafida (loosely, self-control) as the
principal virtue. Cicero (De fato, 5) describes him as a man
of the highest character. Suidas attributes twenty dialogues
to him, but of these no fragments remain. Among his followers
were Menedemus and Asclepiades, the leaders of the Eretrian
school of philosophy. Seneca (Epistle 9) shows how closely
allied Stilpo was to the Stoics (q.v.).
STILT, or LONG-LEGGED PLOVER, a bird so-called (see STILTS)
for reasons obvious to anyone who has seen it, since, though
not very much bigger than a snipe, the length of its legs (their
bare part measuring 8 in.), in proportion to the size of its body
exceeds that of any other bird's. The first name (a trans-
lation of the French tchasse, given in 1760 by M J. Brisson)
seems to have been bestowed by J. Rennie only in 1831; but,
recommended by its definiteness and brevity, it has wholly
supplanted the second and older one. The bird is the Charadrius
himantopus 1 of Linnaeus, the Himantopus candidus or melan-
opterus of modern writers, and belongs to the group Limicolae,
having been usually placed in the family Scolopacidae, though
it might be quite as reasonably referred to the Charadriidae,
and, with its allies to be immediately mentioned, would seem
to be not very distant from Haematopus, notwithstanding the
wonderful development of its legs and the slenderness of it3
bill.
The stilt obtains its food by wading in shallow water and
seizing the insects that fly over or float upon its surface or the
small crustaceans that swim beneath, for which purpose its
slender extremities are, as might be expected, admirably
adapted. Widely spread over Asia, North Africa, and Southern
Europe, it has many times visited Britain though always as a
straggler, for it is not known to breed to the northward of the
Danube valley and its occurrence in Scotland (near Dumfries)
1 The possible confusion by Pliny's transcribers of this word with
Haematopus is referred to under OYSTERCATCHER. Himantopus,
with its equivalent Loripes, " by an awkward metaphor," as re-
marked by Gilbert White, " implies that the legs are as slender and
pliant as if cut out of a thong of leather."
was noticed by Sibbald so long ago as 1684. It chiefly resorts
to pools or lakes with a margin of mud, on which it constructs
a slight nest, banked round or just raised above the level so as
to keep its eggs dry (Ibis, 1859, p. 360); but sometimes they are
laid in a tuft of grass. They are four in number, and, except
in size, closely resemble those of the oystercatcher (q.v.). The
bird has the head, neck, and lower parts white, the back and
wings glossy black, the irides red, and the bare part of the legs
pink. In America the genus has two representatives, one 2
(Alter Gosse.)
FIG. I. Black-necked American Stilt.
(fig. i) closely resembling that just described, but rather smaller
and with a black crown and nape. This is H. nigricollis or
mexicanus, and occurs from New England to the middle of South
America, beyond which it is replaced by H. brasiliensis, which
has the crown white. The stilt inhabiting India is now recognized
to be H. candidus, but Australia possesses a distinct species,
H. novae-hollandiae, which also occurs in New Zealand, though
that country has in addition a species peculiar to it, H. novae-
zelandiae, differing from all the rest by assuming in the breeding-
season an altogether black plumage. Australia, however,
presents another form, which is the type of the genus Clado-
rhynchus, and differs from Himantopus both in its style of
plumage (the male having a broad bay pectoral belt), in its
shorter tarsi, and in having the toes (though, as in the stilt's
feet, three in number on each foot) webbed.
Allied in many ways to the stilts, but differing in many
undeniably generic characters, are the birds known as Avocets, 3
forming the genus Recurvirostra of Linnaeus. Their bill, which
is perhaps the most slender to be seen in the whole class, curves
upward towards the end, and has given the oldest known species
two names which it formerly bore in England, " cobbler's-awl,"
from its likeness to the tool so called, and " scooper," because
it resembled the scoop with which mariners threw water on their
sails. The legs, though long, are not extraordinarily so, and the
feet, which are webbed, bear a small hind toe.
This species (fig. 2), the R. avocetta of ornithology, was of old time
plentiful in England, though doubtless always restricted to certain
localities. Charleton in 1668 says that when a boy he had shot
not a few on the Severn, and Plot mentions it so as to lead one to
suppose that in his time (1686) it bred in Staffordshire, while F.
Willughby (1676) knew of it as being in winter on the eastern
coast, and T. Pennant in 1769 found it in great numbers opposite to
Fossdyke Wash in Lincolnshire, and described the birds as hovering
over the sportsman's head like lapwings. In this district they were
called " Yelpers " from their cry; 4 but whether that name was
2 This species was made known to Ray by Sloane, who met with it
in Jamaica, where in his day it was called " long-legs."
3 This word is from the Bolognese Avosetta, which is considered to
be derived from the Latin avis the termination expressing a diminu-
tive of a graceful or delicate kind, as donnetta from donna (Professor
Salvadori in epist.).
4 Cf. " yarwhclp " (see GODWIT) and " yaup " or " whaup " (see
CURLEW). " Barker " and " clinker " seem to have been names
used in Norfolk.
STILTED STIPEND
923
elsewhere applied is uncertain. At the end of the last century they
frequented Romney Marsh in Kent, and in the first quarter of the
present century they bred in various suitable spots in Suffolk and
Norfolk the last place known to have been inhabited by them
being Salthouse, where the people made puddings of their eggs,
while the birds were killed for the sake of their feathers, which were
used in making artificial flies for fishing. The extirpation of this
settlement took place between 1822 and 1825 (cf. Stevenson, Birds
of Norfolk, ii. 240, 241). The avocet's mode of nesting is much like
that of the stilt, and the eggs are hardly to be distinguished from
those of the latter but by their larger size, the bird being about as
big as a lapwing (g.f.), white, with the exception of its crown, the
back of the neck, the inner scapulars, some of the wing-coverts and
(After Naumann.)
FIG. 2. Avocet.
the primaries, which are black.'while the legs are of a fine light blue.
It seems to get its food by working its bill from side to side in shallow
pools, and catching the small crustaceans or larvae of insects that
may be swimming therein, but not, as has been stated, by sweeping
the surface of the mud or sand a process that would speedily
destroy the delicate bill by friction. Two species of avocct,
R. americana and R. andina, are found in the New World; the
former, which ranges so far to the northward as the Saskatchewan,
is distinguished by its light cinnamon-coloured head, neck and
breast, and the latter, confined so far as known to the mountain
lakes of Chile, has no white in the upper parts except the head and
neck. Australia produces a fourth species, R. novae-hottandiae or
rubricollis, with a chestnut head and neck; but the European R.
avocetta extends over nearly the whole of middle and southern Asia
as well as Africa. (A. N.)
STILTED, a term in architecture, given to anything raised
above its usual level; it is usually applied to the arch, which is
said to be stilted when its centre is raised above the capital
or impost. In Byzantine architecture this was frequently done in
order to give more importance to the twin arches of the windows,
and less to the shaft which divided them. In Romanesque and
Gothic work the stilted arch was often employed in the semi-
circular apses, where in consequence of the closer juxtaposition
of the columns round the apse the arches were much narrower
than those of the choir; in order, however, that the apex of all
the arches should be of the same height, the apse arches were
stilted.
STILTS, poles provided at a certain distance above the ground
with steps or stirrups for the feet, for the purpose of walking
on them. As a means of amusement stilts have been used by
all peoples in all ages, as well as by the inhabitants of marshy
or flooded districts. The city of Namur in Belgium, which
formerly suffered from the overflowing of the rivers Sambre and
Meuse, has been celebrated for its stilt- walkers for many centuries.
Not only the towns-people but also the soldiers used stilts, and
stilt-fights were indulged in, in which parties of a hundred or
more attacked each other, the object being to overset as many
of the enemy as possible. The governor of Namur having
promised the archduke Albert (about 1600) a company of
soldiers that should neither ride nor walk, sent a detachment
on stilts, which so pleased the archduke that he conferred upon
the city perpetual exemption from the beer-tax, no small
privilege at that time.
The home of stilt-walking at the present day is the department
of Landes in Gascony, where, owing to the impermeability of the
subsoil, all low-lying districts are converted into marshes,
compelling the shepherds, farmers and marketmen to spend the
greater part of their lives on stilts. These are strapped to the
leg below the knee, the foot resting in a stirrup about five feet
from the ground. Their wearers, who are called tchaiignes
(long-legs) in the Gascon dialect, also carry long staves, which
are often provided with a narrow piece of board, used as a seat
in case of fatigue. In the last quarter of the igth century stilt-
races, for women as well as men, became very popular in the
Landes district, and still form an important feature of every
provincial festivity. One winner of the annual championship
races accomplished 490 kilometres (more than 304 m.) in '103
hours, 36 minutes. Silvain Dornon, a baker of the Landes,
walked on stilts from Paris to Moscow in 58 days in the spring
of 1891. The rapids of the Niagara have been waded on stilts.
In many of the Pacific islands, particularly the Marquesas, stilts
are used during the rainy season. Stilts used by children are
very long, the upper half being held under the arms; they are
not strapped to the leg. Stilts play an important part in the
Italian masquerades, and are used for mounting the gigantic
figures in the grotesque processions of Lisle, Dunkirk,
Louvain and other cities.
STINDE, JULIUS (1841-1905), German author, was born at
Kirchniichel near Eutin on the 28th of August 1841, the son of a
clergyman. Having attended the gymnasium at Eutin, he was
apprenticed in 1858 to a chemist in Lubeck. He soon tired of
the shop, and went to study chemistry at Kiel and Giessen where
he proceeded to the degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1863
Stinde received an appointment as consulting chemist to a
large industrial undertaking in Hamburg; but, becoming editor
of the Hamburger Gewerbeblatt, he gradually transferred his
energies to journalism. His earliest works were little comedies,
dealing with Hamburg life, though he continued to make scientific
contributions to various journals. In 1876 Stinde settled in
Berlin and began the series of stories of the Buchholz family,
vivid and humorous studies of Berlin middle-class life by which
he is most widely known. He died at Olsberg near Kassel on
the 7th of August 1905.
The first of the series Buchholzens in Italien (translated by H. F.
Powell, 1887) appeared in 1883 and achieved an immense success".
It was followed by Die Familie Buchholz in 1884 (translated by L. D.
Schmitz, 1885); Frau Buchholz im Orient in 1888; Frau Wilhelmine
(Der Familie Buchholz letzter Teil; translated by H. F. Powell, 1887)
in 1886; Wilhelmine Buchholz' Memoiren, in 1894; and Hotel Buch-
holz; Ausstellungserlebnisse der Frau Wilhelmine Buchholz, in 1896.
Under the pseudonyms of Alfred de Valmy, Wilhelmine Buchholz
and Richard 'E. Ward, he also published various other works of
more or less merit, among which his Naturphilosophie (1898) deserves
special mention; his Waldnovellen (1881) have been translated into
English.
STINK-WOOD, in botany, a South African tree, known botani-
cally as Ocolea bullala, and a member of the family Laurineae.
Other names for it are Cape Walnut, Stinkhout, Cape Laurel and
Laurel wood. It derives its name from having a strong and
unpleasant smell when fresh felled. It is used for building in
South Africa and is described by Stone ( Timbers of Commerce,
p. 174) as " the most beautiful dark-coloured wood that I have
yet met with." It is said to be a substitute for teak and equally
durable. The wood is dark walnut or reddish brown to black
with a yellow sap-wood, and the grain extremely fine, close,
dense and smooth. .
STIPEND, a fixed periodical payment or salary for services
rendered. The word is particularly used of the income from an
ecclesiastical benefice or of the salary paid to any minister of
religion. In the United Kingdom a paid magistrate or justice
of the peace, appointed by the Crown on the advice of the home
secretary for certain boroughs are termed " stipendiaries " or
" stipendiary magistrates " (see JUSTICE OF THE PEACE). The
Latin slipendium (for stipipendium) is derived from slips, a gift,
contribution (originally a heap of coins, stipare, to press; mass
together) and pendere, to weigh out, pay. This was applied
first to the pay of the army, and hence was used in the sense of
924
STIRLING, M. A. STIRLING, EARL OF
military service, in such phrases as stipendia facere, and of a
campaign, e.g. iiicena stipendia meritis (Tac. Ann. i. 17). It also
meant a tax or impost, payable in money.
STIRLING, MARY ANNE [FANNY] (1815-1895), English
actress, was born in London, the daughter of a Captain Kehl.
After soine experience at outlying theatres, she appeared in
London in 1836. Having been successful as Celia in As You Like
It and Sophia in The Road to Ruin, Macready gave her an
opportunity to play Cordelia to his Lear, and Madeline Weir to
his James V. in the Rev. James White's King of the Commons.
In 1852 she created Peg Woffington in Reade and Taylor's
Masks and Faces. Meanwhile she had married Edward Stirling
(d. 1894), an actor, manager and dramatic author. In later
years Mrs Stirling gained a new popularity as the nurse in Irving's
presentation (1882) of Romeo and Juliet, and again (1884) with
Mary Anderson; and she was the Martha in Irving's production
of Faust (1885). She died on the 3oth of December 1895, having
in the previous year married Sir Charles Hutton Gregory (1817-
1898).
STIRLING, JAMES (1692-1770), Scottish mathematician,
third son of Archibald Stirling of Garden, and grandson of Sir
Archibald Stirling of Keir (Lord Garden, a lord of session), was
born at Garden, Stirlingshire, in 1692. At eighteen years of age
he went to Oxford, where, chiefly through the influence of the
earl of Mar, he was nominated (1711) one of Bishop Warner's
exhibitioners at Balliol. In 1715 he was expelled on account of
his correspondence with members of the Keir and Garden
families, who were noted Jacobites, and had been accessory
to the " Gathering of the Brig o' Turk " in 1708. From Oxford
he made his way to Venice, where he occupied himself as a pro-
fessor of mathematics. In 1717 appeared his Lineae tertii
ordinis Newtonianae, sine . . . (8vo, Oxford). While in Venice,
also, he communicated, through Sir Isaac Newton, to the Royal
Society a paper entitled " Methodus differentials Newtoniana
illustrata" (Phil. Trans., 1718). Fearing assassination on
account of having discovered a trade secret of the glass-makers
of Venice, he returned with Newton's help to London about the
year 1725. In London he remained for ten years, being most
part of the time connected with an academy in Tower Street, and
devoting his leisure to mathematics and correspondence with
eminent mathematicians. In 1730 his most important work was
published, the Methodus differential, siw tractatus de summa-
tione et interpolatione serierum infinitarum (410, London),
which, it must be noted, is something more than an expansion of
the paper of 1718. In 1735 he communicated to the Royal
Society a paper " On the Figure of the Earth, and on the Varia-
tion of the Force of Gravity at its Surface." In the same year
he was appointed manager for the Scots Mining Company at
Leadhills. We are thus prepared to find that his next paper to
the Royal Society was concerned, not with pure, but with applied
science " Description of a Machine to blow Fire by the Fall of
Water " (Phil. Trans. 1745). His name is also connected with
another practical undertaking, since grown to vast dimensions.
The accounts of the city of Glasgow for 1752 show that the very
first instalment of ten millions sterling spent in making Glasgow
a seaport, viz. a sum of 28, 43. 4d., was for a silver tea-kettle
to be presented to " James Stirling, mathematician, for his service,
pains, and trouble in surveying the river towards deepening it by
locks." Stirling died in Edinburgh on the 5th of December
1770.
See W. Fraser, The Stirling! gf Keir, and their Family Papers,
(Edinburgh, 1858); " Modern History of Leadhills," in Gentleman's
Magazine (June, 1853); Brewster, Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton, ii.
300,307, 411, 516; J. Nicol, Vital Statistics of Glasgow (1881-1885),
p. 70; Glasgow Herald (Aug. 5, 1886).
Another edition of the Lineae tertii ordinis was published in Paris
in 1797; another edition of the Methodus differentialis in London in
1764; and a translation of the latter into English by Halliday in
London in 1749- A considerable collection of literary remains,
consisting of papers, letters and two manuscript volumes of a treatise
on weights and measures, are still preserved at Garden.
STIRLING, JAMES HUTCHISON (1820-1909), Scottish philo-
sopher, was born at Glasgow on the 22nd of June 1820. He
was educated at Glasgow University, where he studied medicine
and philosophy. For a short time he practised as a doctor in
Wales, but gave up his profession in order to continue his philo-
sophical studies in Germany and France. From 1888 to 1890
he was Gifford lecturer at the university of Edinburgh and
published his lectures in 1890 (Philosophy and Theology). He
was an LL.D. of Edinburgh University, and foreign member of
the Philosophical Society of Berlin. He died in March 1909.
His principal works are: The Secret of Hegel (1865; new
ed. 1893) ; Sir William Hamilton: The Philosophy of Percep-
tion; a translation of Schwegler's Geschichte der Philosophic
(1867; I2th ed., 1893); Jerrold, Tennyson and Macaulay, &c.
(1868); On Materialism (1868); As Regards Protoplasm (1869;
2nd ed., 1872) ; Lectures on the Philosophy of Law (1873) ; Burns in
Drama (1878); Text-Book to Kant (1881); Philosophy in the
Poets; Darwinianism; Workmen and Work (1894); What is
Thought ? Or the Problem of Philosophy; By Way of a Conclusion
So Far (1900); The Categories (1903). Of these the most
important is The Secret of Hegel, which is admitted, both in
England and in Germany, to be among the most scholarly and
valuable contributions to Hegelian doctrine and to modern
philosophy in general. In the preface to the new edition he
explains that he was first drawn to the study of Hegel by seeing
the name in a review, and subsequently heard it mentioned with
awe and reverence by two German students. He set himself at
once to grapple with the difficulties and to unfold the principles
of the Hegelian dialectic, and by his efforts he introduced an
entirely new spirit into English philosophy. Closely connected
with the Secret is the Text-Book to Kant, which comprises a trans-
lation of the Critique with notes and a biography. In these two
works Dr Stirling endeavoured to establish an intimate con-
nexion between Kant and Hegel, and even went so far as to
maintain that Hegel's doctrine is merely the elucidation and
crystallization of the Kantian system. " The secret of Hegel,"
he says in the preliminary notice to his great work, " may be
indicated at shortest thus: Hegel made explicit the concrete
universal that was implicit in Kant."
The sixth part of the Secret contains valuable criticisms on the
Hegelian writings of Schwegler, Rosenkranz and Haym, and explains
by contrast much that has been definitely stated in the preceding
pages. Of Dr Stirling's other works the' most important is the
volume of Gifford Lectures, in which he developed a theory of natural
theology in relation to philosophy as a whole. As Regards Proto-
plasm contains an attempted refutation of the Essay on the Physical
Basis of Life by Huxley.
STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, EARL OF (c. 1567-
1640), most generally known as Sir William Alexander, Scottish
poet and statesman, son of Alexander Alexander of Menstrie
(Clackmannanshire), was born at Menstrie House, near Stirling,
about 1567. The family was old and claimed to be descended
from Somerled, lord of the Isles, through John, lord of the Isles,
who married Margaret, daughter of Robert II. William
Alexander was probably educated at Stirling grammar school.
There is a tradition that he was at Glasgow University; and,
according to Drummond of Hawthornden, he was a student at
the university of Leiden. He accompanied Archibald, 7th earl
of Argyll, his neighbour at Castle Campbell, on his travels in
France, Spain and Italy. He married, before 1604, Janet,
daughter of Sir William Erskine, one of the Balgonie family.
Introduced by Argyll at court, Alexander speedily gained the
favour of James VI., whom he followed to England, where he
became one of the gentlemen-extraordinary of prince Henry's
chamber. For the prince he wrote his Paraenesis to the Prince
. . . (1604), a poem in eight-lined stanzas on the familiar theme
of princely duty. He was knighted in 1609. On the death
of Henry in 1612, when he wrote an elegy on his young patron,
he was appointed to the household of prince Charles. In
1613 he (in conjunction with Thomas Foulis and Paulo Pinto,
a Portuguese) received from the king a grant of a silver-mine
at Hilderston near Linlithgow, from which, however, neither the
Crown nor the undertakers made any profit. In 1613 he began
a correspondence with the poet Drummond of Hawthornden,
which ripened into a lifelong intimacy after their meeting (March
1614) at Menstrie House, where Alexander was on one of his
STIRLING, EARL OF
925
short annual visits. In 1614 Alexander was appointed to the
English office of master of requests, and in July of the following
year to a seat on the Scottish privy council. In 1621 he received
from James I. enormous grants of land in America embracing
the districts of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Gaspe
Peninsula, accompanied by a charter appointing him hereditary
lieutenant of the new colony. This territory was afterwards
increased on paper, so as to include a great part of Canada.
Alexander proceeded to recruit emigrants for his " New Scot-
land," but the terms he offered were so meagre that he failed to
attract any except the lowest class. These were despatched in
two vessels chartered for the purpose, and in 1625 he published
an Encouragement to Colonies in which he vainly painted in
glowing colours the natural advantages of the new territory.
The enterprise was further discredited by the institution of an
order of baronets of Nova Scotia, who were to receive grants
of land, each 6 sq. m. in extent, in the colony for a considera-
tion of 150. An attempt made by the French to make good
their footing in the colony was frustrated (1627) by Captain
Kertch, and Alexander's son and namesake made two expeditions
to Nova Scotia. But Alexander found the colony a constant
drain on his resources, and was unable to obtain from the
treasury, in spite of royal support, 6000 which he demanded
as compensation for his losses. He received, however, a grant
of 1000 acres in Armagh. He was the king's secretary for Scot-
land from 1626 till his death, and in 1630 was created Viscount
Stirling and Lord Alexander of Tullibody. In the same year he
was appointed master of requests for Scotland, and in 1631 an
extraordinary judge of the Court of Session. Meanwhile French
influence had gained ground in America. In 1631 Charles sent
instructions to Alexander to abandon Port Royale, and in the
following year, by a treaty signed at St Germain-en-Laye, the
whole of the territory of Nova Scotia was ceded to the French.
Alexander continued to receive substantial marks of the royal
favour. In 1631 he obtained a patent granting him the privilege
of printing a translation of the Psalms, of which James I. was
declared to be the author. There is reason to believe that in
this unfortunate collection, which* the Scottish and English
churches refused to encourage, Alexander included some of his
own work. He had been commanded by James to submit
translations, when James was carrying out his long entertained
wish to supplant the popular version of Sternhold and Hopkins ;
but these the royal critic had not preferred to his own. It has
been assumed from the scanty evidence that when Alexander
was entrusted with the editing and publishing of the Psalms by
Charles I. he had introduced some of his own work. In 1633 he
was advanced to the rank of earl, with the additional title of
Viscount Canada, and in 1639 he became earl of Dovan. His
affairs were still embarrassed and he had begun to build Argyll
House at Stirling. In 1623 he received the right of a royalty
on the copper coinage of Scotland, but this proved unproductive.
He therefore secured for his fourth son the office of general of the
Mint, and proceeded to issue small copper coins, known as
" turners," which were put into circulation as equivalent to two
farthings, although they were of the same weight as the old
farthings. These coins were unpopular, and were reduced to
their real value by the privy council in 1639. Alexander died in
debt on the lath of February 1640, at his London house in
Covent Garden.
He was succeeded in the title by his grandson William, who
died a few months later, and then by his son Henry (d. 1644),
who became the 3rd earl. When Henry's grandson Henry, the
5th earl (1664-1739), died, the earldom became dormant, and in
1759 it was claimed by William Alexander (see below). In
1825 the earldom was claimed by Alexander Humphreys-
Alexander, who asserted that his mother was a daughter of the
first earl. The charter of 1639, however, on which his title rested,
was declared in 1839 to be a forgery. See W. Turnbull, Stirling
Peerage Claim (1839).
All Alexander's literary work was produced after 1603 and before
his serious absorption in politics about 1614. The verse may be
classed in three groups, (a) poetical miscellanies and minor verse,
(b) dramas, (c) the heroic fragment on Jonathan and the long poem
on Doomesday.
a. His earliest effort was Aurora, containing the first fancies of the
author's youth (London, 1604), a miscellany of sonnets, songs and
elegies, showing considerable formal felicity, if little originality, in
the favourite themes of the Elizabethan sonneteers. To this may
be added the Paraenesis to Prince Henry (u.s.), An Elegie on the
Death of Prince Henrie (u.s.), and shorter pieces, including a sonnet
to Michael Drayton, who had called Alexander " a man of men,"
and lines on the Report of the Death of Drummond of Hawthornden.
b. He wrote four tragedies, Darius (1603), Croesus (1604), The
Alexandraean (1605), and Julius Caesar (1607). The first and
second were published together in 1604 as the Monarchicke Tragedies,
a title which was afterwards given by Alexander to a print of the
four works in the editions of 1607 and 1616. They are didactic
poems rather than plays, a sequence of reflections of the type of the
Falls of Princes, the Mirror for Magistrates, or Lyndsay's Dialog
between Experience and a Courteour (known also as the " Monarche ").
It is very probable that the last suggested both motif and title.
The pieces are dialogues rather than dramas: the choruses are of
the " Moralitas " type of Renaissance verse rather than classical;
and the varied versification is unsuitable for representation. Yet
they contain not a few fine passages in the soliloquies, notably one
in Darius, (IV., iii.) on the vanishing of " Those golden palaces, those
gorgeous halls " as " vapours in the air," which recall Shakespeare's
later lines in the Tempest.
c. Of Jonathan, an Heroicke Poeme intended, only the first book
(105 eight-lined stanzas) was written. Doomesday, or The Great
Day of the Lord's Judgement (1614) is a dreary production in twelve
books or " hours," extending to nearly 12,000 lines. It is written in
eight-lined stanzas.
In addition to the pamphlet on Colonization, he wrote (1614) a
continuation or " completion " to the third part of Sidney's Arcadia,
which appears in the fourth and later editions of the Romance;
and a short critical tract entitled Anacrisis, a " censure " of poets,
ancient or modern.
A collected edition of his works appeared in his lifetime (1637)
with the title Recreations with the Muses (folio). Aurora and the
Elegie were not included. A complete modern reprint The Poetical
Works . . . now first collected and edited (but without the editor's name
on the title-page) was published in 3 vols. 8vo. in 1870 (Glasgow:
Maurice Ogle & Co.).
His Encouragement to Colonies was edited for the Bannatyne
Club by David Laing (1867), and by Edmund F. Slafter, in Sir W.
Alexander and Amer. Colonization (Prince Society, Boston, Massa-
chusetts, 1865). See also E. F. Slafter, The Copper Coinage of
the Earl of Stirling, 1632 (1874); The Earl of Stirling's Register of
Royal Letters relative to the Affairs of Scotland and Nova Scotia from
1615-163$ (ed. C. Rogers, with biographical introduction (1884-1885);
C. Rogers, Memorials of the Earl of Stirling (1877) ; the introduction
to the Works (1870) referred to above; the Register of the Privy
Council of Scotland, passim; and the bibliography for William
Drummond (q.v.) of Hawthornden. (A. B. G.; G. G. S.)
STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, (titular) EARL OF
(1726-1783), American soldier, was born in New York City.
He was the son of James Alexander (1690-1756), at one time
surveyor-general of New York and New Jersey, a noted colonial
lawyer who was disbarred for a year for his conduct of the
defence in the famous trial of John Peter Zenger. William
served first as commissary and then as aide-de-camp to Governor
William Shirley at the beginning of the French and Indian War,
and in 1756 he accompanied Shirley to England, where he was
persuaded to claim the earldom of Stirling (see above). In
1759 an Edinburgh jury declared him to be the nearest heir
to the last earl of Stirling, and in 1761 he returned to America
and assumed the title, although the House of Lords in 1762
forbade him to use it until he had proved his legal right. Soon
after his return t<^ America he settled at Basking Ridge, New
Jersey, and became a member of the New Jersey Provincial
Council and surveyor-general of the colony. Warmly espousing
the colonial cause at the outbreak of the War of Independence,
he was appointed in November 1775 colonel of the first regiment
of continental troops raised in New Jersey, and in the following
January distinguished himself by the capture of an armed
British transport in New York Bay. In March he became
brigadier-general, and for some time was in command at New
York and supervised the fortification of the city and harbour.
At the battle of Long Island he was taken prisoner, but was
soon afterward exchanged, and in February 1777 became a
major-general. He participated in the battles of Trenton,
Princeton, Brandywine and Germantown, and especially
926
STIRLING
distinguished himself at Monmouth. He took an active part in
exposing the Conway Cabal, presided over the court-martial
of General Charles Lee, and enjoyed the confidence of Washing-
ton to an unusual degree. In October 1781 he took command
of the northern department at Albany to check an expected
invasion from Canada. He died at Albany on the i$th of
January 1783. He was a member of the board of governors of
King's College (now Columbia University) and was himself
devoted to the study of mathematics and astronomy.
See W. A. Duer, " Life of William Alexander, Earl of Stirling,"
in vol. ii. of the Collections of the New Jersey Historical Society (New
York, 1847).
STIRLING, a royal, municipal and police burgh, river port
and county town of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901),
18,697. It is finely situated on the right bank of the Forth,
39i m. N.W. of Edinburgh and 295 m. N.E. of Glasgow, being
served by the North British and the Caledonian railways.
The old town occupies the slopes of a basaltic hill (420 ft. above
the sea) terminating on the north and west in a sheer precipice.
The modern quarters have been laid out on the level ground at
the base, especially towards the south. Originally the town
was protected on its vulnerable sides by a wall, of which remains
still exist at the south end of the Black Walk. Formerly there
were two main entrances the South Port, 100 yds. to the
west of the present line of Port Street, and the " auld brig "
over the Forth to the north, a quaint high-pitched structure of
four arches, now closed to traffic. It dates from the end of the
I4th century and was once literally "the key to the Highlands."
It still retains the gateway towers at both ends. Just below
it is the new bridge erected in 1829 from designs by Robert
Stevenson, and below this again the railway viaduct. According
to local tradition, a bridge stood at Kildean, i m. up the river,
not far from the field of the battle of Stirling Bridge (1297).
The castle crowning the eminence is of unknown age, but from
the time that Alexander I. died within its walls in 1124 till the
union of the crowns in 1603 it was intimately associated with
the fortunes of the Scottish monarchs. It is one of the for-
tresses appointed by the Act of Union to be kept in a state of
repair, and is approached from the esplanade, on which stands
the colossal statue of Robert Bruce, erected in 1877. The main
gateway, built by James III., gives access to the lower and then
to the upper square, on the south side of which stands the
palace, begun by James V. (1540) and completed by Mary of
Guise. The east side of the quadrangle is occupied by the
parliament house, a Gothic building of the time of James III.,
now used as a barrack-room and stores. On the north side of
the square is the chapel royal, founded by Alexander I., rebuilt
in the isth century and again in 1594 by James VI. (who was
christened in it), and afterwards converted into an armoury
and finally a store-room. Beyond the upper square is the small
castle garden, partly destroyed by fire in 1856 but restored, in
which William, 8th earl of Douglas, was murdered by James II.
(1452). Just below the castle on the north-east is the path of
Ballangeich, which is said to have given private access to the
fortress, and from which James V. took his title of "Guidman of
.Ballangeich " when he roved incognito. Below it is Gowan
Hill, and beyond this the Mote or Heading Hill, on which Mur-
doch Stuart, 2nd duke of Albany, his two sons, and his father-
in-law the earl of Lennox, were beheaded in 1^.25. In the plain
to the south-west were the King's Gardens, now under grass,
with an octagonal turf-covered mound called the King's Knot
in the centre. Farther south lies the King's Park, chiefly
devoted to golf, cricket, football and curling, and containing
also a race-course. On a hill of lower elevation than the castle
and separated from the esplanade .by a depression styled the
Valley the tilting-ground of former times a cemetery has
been laid out. Among its chief features are the Virgin Martyrs'
Memorial, representing in white marble a guardian angel and
the figures of Margaret M'Lauchlan and Margaret Wilson,
who were drowned by the rising tide in Wigtown Bay for their
fidelity to the Covenant (1685); the large pyramid to the
memory of the Covenanters, and the Ladies' Rock, from which
ladies viewed the jousts in the Valley. Adjoining the cemetery
on the south is Greyfriars, the parish church, also called, since
the Reformation (1656), when it was divided into two places
of worship, the East and West churches. David I. is believed
to have founded (about 1130) an earlier church on their site
dedicated to the Holy Rood, or Cross, which was burned in
1406. The church was rebuilt soon afterwards and possibly
some portions of the preceding structure were incorporated in
the nave. The choir (the East church) was added in 1494 by
James IV., and the apse a few years later by James Beaton,
archbishop of St Andrews, or his nephew, Cardinal David Beaton.
At the west stands the stately battlemented square tower,
90 ft. high. The nave (the West church), divided from the
aisles by a double row of massive round pillars, is a transition
between Romanesque and Gothic, with pointed windows.
The crow-stepped Gothic gable of the south transept affords
the main entrance to both churches. The choir is in the
Decorated and Perpendicular styles and is higher than the nave.
The parish church is 200 ft. long, 55 ft. broad and 50 ft. high.
Within its walls Mary Queen of Scots was crowned in 1543,
when nine months old, and in the same year the earl of Arran,
regent of Scotland, abjured Protestantism; in 1544 an assembly
of nobles appointed Mary of Guise queen-regent; on the 2gth of
July 1567 James VI. was crowned, John Knox preaching the
sermon, and in August 1571 and June 1578 the general assembly
of the Church of Scotland met. James Guthrie (1612-1661),
the martyr, and Ebenezer Erskine (1680-1794), founderofthe
Scottish Secession Church, were two of the most distinguished
ministers. To the south-west of the church is Cowane's Hos-
pital, founded in 1639 by John Cowane, dean of gild, for twelve
poor members of the gildry; but the deposition of the charity
has been modified and the hall serves the purpose of a gildhall.
Adjoining it is the military prison. Near the principal entrance
to the esplanade stands Argyll's Lodging, erected about 1630
by the ist earl of Stirling. On his death in 1640 it passed to the
ist marquess of Argyll and is now a military hospital. Broad
Street contains the ruins of Mar's Work, the palace built by
John Erskine, ist (or 6th) earl of Mar, about 1570, according
to tradition, out of the stones of Cambuskenneth Abbey; the old
town house, erected in 1701 instead of that in which John Hamil-
ton, the last Roman Catholic archbishop of St Andrews, was
hanged for alleged complicity in the murders of Darnley and the
regent Moray; the town cross, restored in 1891, and the house
which was, as a mural tablet says, the " nursery of James VI.
and his son Prince Henry." The important buildings include:
the high school; the trades hall, founded by Robert Spittal,
James IV.'s tailor, in the Back Walk; the burgh buildings,
with a statue of Sir William Wallace over the porch ; the National
Bank, occupying the site of the Dominican monastery, founded
in 1223 by Alexander II. and demolished at the Reformation;
the Smith Institute, founded in 1873 by Thomas Stewart Smith,
an artist, containing a picture-gallery, museum and reading-
room; the public halls; the Royal Infirmary and various
charitable institutions. Woollen manufactures (carpets, tartans,
shawls) are the staple industry, and tanning, iron-founding,
carriage-building and agricultural implement-making are also
carried on, in addition to furniture factories, cooperage and
rubber works. The harbour being accessible only at high
water, and then merely to vessels of small tonnage, the shipping
trade is inconsiderable.
Stirling is under the jurisdiction of a council with provost
and bailies, and, along with Culross, Dunfermline, Inverkeithing
and Queensferry (the Stirling burghs) returns a member, to
Parliament. The Abbey Craig, an outlying spur of the Ochils,
15 m. north-east of Stirling, is a thickly-wooded hill (362 ft.
high), on the top of which stands the Wallace monument (1869),
a baronial tower, 220 ft. high, surmounted with an open-work
crown. The Valhalla, or Hall of Heroes, contains busts of
eminent Scotsmen. Cambuskenneth Abbey is situated on the
left bank of the Forth, about i m. east-north-east of Stirling by
ferry across the river. The name is derived from the Gaelic
and means " the Crook of Kenneth," or Cairenachus. a friend
STIRLING-MAXWELLSTIRLINGSHIRE
927
of St Columba and patron of Kilkenny in Ireland. The abbey,
which was in the Early Pointed style, was founded by David I.
in 1147 for monks of the order of St Augustine. Several Scots
parliaments met within its walls, notably that of 1326, the first
attended by burgesses from the towns. At the Reformation
Mary Queen of Scots bestowed it on the ist earl of Mar (1562),
who is said to have used the stones for his palace in Stirling.
In 1 709 the town council of Stirling purchased the land and ruins.
All that remains of the abbey is the massive, four-storeyed
tower which is 70 ft. high, and 35 ft. square, and was painted
and repaired in 1864 the graceful west doorway and the
foundations of some of the walls. The bones of James III. and
his queen, Margaret of Denmark, who were buried within the
precincts, were discovered in 1864 and re-interred next year
under a tomb erected by Queen Victoria at the high altar.
Earlier forms of the name of Stirling are Strivilen, Estriuelen,
Striviling and Sterling, besides the Gaelic Struithla. It was
known also as Snowdoun, which became the official title of the
Scots heralds. The Romans had a station here (Benobara).
In 1119 it was a royal burgh and under Alexander I. was one
of the Court of Four Burghs (superseded under James III. by
the Convention of Royal Burghs). In 1174 it was handed over
to the English in security for the treaty of Falaise, being restored
to the Scots by Richard I. The earliest known charter was that
granted in 1226 by Alexander II., who made the castle a royal
residence. The fortress^ was repeatedly besieged during the
wars of the Scottish Independence. In 1304 it fell with the town
to Edward I. The English held it for ten years, and it was in
order to raise the Scottish siege in 1314 that Edward II. risked
the battle at Bannockburn. Edward Baliol surrendered it in
1334 in terms of his compact with Edward III., but the Scots
regained it in 1330. From this time till the collapse of Queen
Mary's fortunes in 1568, Stirling almost shared with Edinburgh
the rank and privileges of capital of the kingdom. It was the
birthplace of James II. in 1430 and probably of James III. and
James IV. In 1571 an attempt was made to surprise the castle
by Mary's adherents, the regent Lennox being slain in the fray,
and seven years later it was captured by James Douglas, 4th
earl of Morton, after which a reconciliation took place between
the Protestants and Roman Catholics. It was occupied in 1584
by the earls of Angus and Mar, the Protestant leaders, who,
however, fled to England on the approach of the king. Next
year they returned with a strong force and compelled James VI.
to open the gates, his personal safety having been guaranteed.
In 1594 Prince Henry was baptized in the chapel royal, which
had been rebuilt on a larger scale. After the union of the
crowns (1603) Stirling ceased to play a prominent part on the
national stage. The privy council and court of session met in
the town in 1637 on account of the disturbed state of Edinburgh.
In 1641 Charles I. gave it its last governing charter, and four
years afterwards parliament was held in Stirling on account of
the plague in the capital, but the outbreak of the pest in Stirling
caused the legislators to remove to Perth. During the Civil
War the Covenanters held the town, to which the committees
of church and state adjourned after Cromwell's victory at
Dunbar (1650), but in August next year the castle was taken
by General Monk. In 1715 the 3rd duke of Argyll held it to
prevent the passage of the Forth by the Jacobites, and in 1746
it was ineffectually besieged by Prince Charles Edward. In
1773, in consequence of an intrigue on the part of three members
of the council to retain themselves in office, the town was
deprived of its corporate privileges, which were not restored
until 1781.
See History of the Chapel Royal, Stirling (Grampian Club, 1882);
Charters of Stirling (1884); John Jamieson, Bell the Cat (Stirling,
1902); The Battle of Stirling Bridge the Kildean Myth (Stirling
Natural History and Archaeological Society, 1905).
STIRLING-MAXWELL, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1818-1878),
Scottish man of letters and virtuoso, the only son of Archibald
Stirling of Keir, Perthshire, and of Elizabeth, third daughter
of Sir John Maxwell, seventh baronet of Pollok, Renfrewshire,
was born at Kenmure, near Glasgow, on the 8th of March,
1818. William Stirling was educated privately and, at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1839. On leaving
Cambridge he spent some years abroad, chiefly in Spain and
Syria. Having succeeded his father as proprietor of Keir in
1847, when he was made vice-lieutenant of Perthshire, he in
1852 entered parliament as member for that county; and he was
several times re-elected. On the death of his uncle in 1865 he
succeeded to the baronetcy and estates of Pollok, assuming the
additional name of Maxwell. In the same year he became
deputy-lieutenant of Lanarkshire, and a like office was con-
ferred on him in Renfrewshire in 1870. He married in 1865
Anna Maria, daughter of the loth earl of Leven and Melville.
She died in 1 874, and in 1 876 Sir William married Caroline Norton.
In 1862 he was chosen lord rector of St Andrews, in 1872 the same
honour was conferred by Edinburgh, and in 1876 he became
chancellor of Glasgow. He was a trustee of the British Museum,
of the National Gallery, and member of the senate of London
University. In 1876 he was created a Knight of the Thistle,
being the only commoner of the order. He died at Venice on
the 1 5th of January 1878.
Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell's works, which are invariably charac-
terized by thorough workmanship and excellent taste, were in some
cases issued for private circulation only, and almost all of them are
now exceedingly rare. They include an early volume of verse
(Songs of the Holy Land, 1848), and several volumes containing
costly reproductions of old engravings, along with valuable explana-
tory matter. His best-known publications are Annals of the Artists
of Spain (1848), The Cloister Life of Charles V. (1852). Part of the
Annals was revised and published as Velasquez and his Works (1855).
The Cloister Life was at once recognized as a valuable contribution
to history, but its importance was lessened by the appearance
a year or two later of Mignet's Charles-Quint and L. P. Gachard's
Retraite et mart de Charles-Quint. A life of Don John of Austria,
from his posthumous papers, edited by Sir G. W. Cox, appeared in
1883. A collected edition of his works, with a short memoir,
appeared in 1891.
STIRLINGSHIRE, a midland county of Scotland, bounded
N. by Perthshire, N.E. by Clackmannanshire and the Firth of
Forth, S.E. by Linlithgowshire, S. by Lanarkshire and the
detached part of Dumbartonshire and S.W. and W. by Dum-
bartonshire; area 288,842 acres, or 451-3 sq. m. In the north-
west a spur of the Grampians culminates in Ben Lomond
(3192 ft.), and the centre is occupied by a group known as the
Lennox Hills, consisting of Gargunnock Hills (1591), Fintry Hills
(1676), Kilsyth Hills (1870), and Campsie Fells (1894). The
chief river is the Forth, the windings of which constitute most
of the northern boundary. The other important streams are
the Carron, which rises in Campsie Fells and flows mainly east
for 25 m. to the Forth of Grangemouth; the Endrick, which,
rising in Fintry Hills, first flows east, then south and finally bends
round to the west, a direction which it maintains for most of its
course of 31 m. till it empties itself into Loch Lomond; the
Kelvin, which, from its source in Kilsyth Hills, flows south-
west to the Clyde at Glasgow after a run of 22 m., and the Avon,
rising in the detached portion of Dumbartonshire, and flowing
for 21 m. east and then north to the Forth. The principal lochs
include the greater part of the eastern waters of Loch Lomond,
from Endrick mouth to a point 2 m. north of Inversnaid; a
small portion of the upper end of Loch Katrine, from a point
in the centre of the lake opposite to Stronachlachar to Glengyle
at the head; Loch Arklet, in the north-west area, i m. long by
J m. wide, forming part of the water supply of Glasgow;
the small Loch Coulter, in the parish of St Ninians, and
Black Loch, partly in Lanarkshire. The Forth and Clyde
Canal crosses the south-eastern corner of the county from
Grangemouth to Castlecary.
Geology. The oldest rocks in the county are the Dalradian
schists which occupy the north-west beyond a great fault which
runs across from near the bottom end of Loch Lomond in a north-
easterly direction passing not far from Aberfoyle. These schists
are less altered and micaceous near the fault and there is some
evidence for believing them to be of Ordovician age. On the south-
eastern side of the fault are the conglomerates and sandstones of
Lower Old Red Sandstone age, which are more highly inclined and
coarser nearer the fault. Resting uniformly on the lower series is
928
STIRRUP
the Upper Old Red series of sandstones ; but the junction between the
two is faulted between Balfron and Kippen; the fault runs E.N.E.-
W.S.W. Then follows the Carboniferous system which occupies
the rest of the county. The lowest member, the Calciferous Sand-
stone group, consisting of clays and marls with cement nodules,
may be seen on both sides of the Campsie Fells ; it is well exposed
near Strathblane in Ballagan Burn. These beds are succeeded by
alternating beds of contemporaneous tuffs and sandstones and then by
great sheets of diabase-porphyrite which attain a considerable thick-
ness and form well-marked ridges on the southern side of the Campsie
Hills ; they are best developed north of Kilsyth and east of Fintry.
Meikle Bin and Dungoil mark the sites of the vents from which
some of these volcanic rocks were erupted. The Carboniferous
Limestone series is the next in order and the lower beds may be
found resting upon the volcanic rocks except where the junction is
faulted and this series is let down, as it is between Strathblane and
the Carron Water. As in the neighbouring counties, this series
consists of a lower limestone group with the Index, Calmy and
Castle Gary limestones a middle group with coals and clay iron-
stones and an upper limestone group with the Hosie and Hurlet
limestones ; below the latter is a bed of alum shale. These rocks are
considerably folded about Kilsyth and in the directions of Banton
and Cairnbeg; the " Riggin " near Kilsyth is a noteworthy example
of an anticlinal fold. The next series is the Millstone Grit sand-
stones with some coal-seams and fireclays which occurs towards
the eastern boundary. The true Coal-measures are well developed
between Grangemouth and Stenhpusemuir and about Falkirk. The
more important seams are the Virtuewell (the highest), the Splint,
Craw and Coxhead coals. Intrusive sheets of basalt have penetrated
the Carboniferous rocks and are now quarried for road metal; Abbey
Craig and Stirling Castle hill are formed of one of the more important
of these intrusions. Later basalt dikes of Tertiary age are not
uncommon. A good deal of boulder clay covers the older -rocks and
an interesting blue marine clay is found beneath it in the Endrick
valley. The Carse of Stirling is overlaid by the muds and sands of
the 50 ft. raised beach ; and traces of the 100 ft. beach are also to be
found.
Climate and Agriculture. The rainfall for the year varies from
35 in. in the far east to 55 in. in the Highland region in the extreme
north-west. The mean annual temperature is 47-5 F.; for January
38 F., for July 59 F. The arable soils are of two kinds, locally
distinguished as " carse " and " dryfield," the rest of the land being
composed of pasture, moor and peat. The " carse " extends along
the valley from Buchlyvie to the eastern boundary, a distance of
32 m. (by the river), with a breadth of I to 4 m. The soil consists
of the finest clays, without stones, but interspersed with strata of
marine shells. It has been largely stripped of the overlying peat,
.and by draining, subsoil ploughing and the use of lime has been
converted into a rich soil, especially adapted for wheat and beans.
The " dryfield," mostly reclaimed since the beginning of the l8th
century, occupies the valleys and the higher ground bordering the
carse. It is fertile and well suited for potatoes and turnips. In the
order of their importance the grain crops are oats, barley and wheat.
Beans are also extensively grown. Livestock is raised in increasing
numbers. The sheep are chiefly black-faced, the cattle Irish, short-
horns and cross-breeds. Ayrshires are the principal breed on the
" dryfield " farms, where butter-making is largely carried on.
Horses are kept only for farming operations or for stock, and a
considerable number of pigs are reared. The average size of the
holdings is from 70 to 80 acres. The area under wood is small.
Birches grow naturally on the lower slopes of the mountains in
Buchanan and Drymen, and oaks freely on the banks of Loch
Lomond. Larch and Scots fir are the leading trees in modern
plantations.
Other Industries. The coalfield of the south-east supplies the
staple industry. Iron ore, fireclay and oil-shale are also obtained,
while limestone is extensively wrought in the Campsie district, and
sandstone is quarried in -many parts. The ironworks at Carron and
Falkirk are important. Woollens are manufactured at Stirling and
Bannockburn; calico-printing and bleaching are established in the
south-west, especially at Lennoxtown, Strathblane and Milton.
There are chemical works at Falkirk, Stirling, Denny and Lennox-
town. Throughout the county there are several breweries and
distilleries, and at Grangemouth, the principal port, shipbuilding is
carried on. The southern and south-eastern districts are served by
the North British railway from Edinburgh to Glasgow (via Falkirk)
and the Caledonian railway from Glasgow to Stirling (via Larbert),
while branches connect Grangemouth, Denny and other places with
the through-lines. The Forth & Clyde railway crosses the shire,
mostly in the north, from Stirling to Balloch, and the North British
also runs from Glasgow to Aberfoyle. In the tourist season there is
a steamer service from Leith to Stirling (37 m.).
Population and Administration. In 1891 the population
numbered 118,021, and in 1901 it was 142,291, or 315 persons
to the square mile, an increase for the decade exceeded only by
the shires of Linlithgow and Lanark. In 1901 there were ten
persons who spoke Gaelic only and 2014 Gaelic and English.
The principal towns are Falkirk (pop. 29,380), Stirling (18,697),
Grangemouth (8386), Kilsyth (7292), Stenhousemuir (5184),
Denny and Dunipace (5158), Bridge of Allan (3240), and Bonny-
bridge (3009). The shire returns a member to parliament,
and Stirling and Falkirk respectively belong to the Stirling
and Falkirk district groups of parliamentary burghs. The
police burghs include Falkirk, Grangemouth, Kilsyth, Denny
and Dunipace and Bridge of Allan. The shire forms a sheriff-
dom with the counties of Dumbarton and Clackmannan, but
there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Stirling and another at
Falkirk. The shire is under schoolboard jursidiction, and there
are secondary as well as science and art schools at Stirling and
Falkirk. The town councils of Stirling and Kilsyth subsidize
classes in science and art, besides manual instruction, and Denny
and Dunipace maintains a mining instruction class.
History and Antiquities. The wall of Antonius, . built by
Lollius Urbicus, in A.D. 142, connecting the Forth and Clyde,
passed through the south-east of the county, in which it is locally
known as Graham's Dyke. At Castlecary and Camelon, which
were both stations of consequence on the line of the wall,
many interesting relics have been found. The Camelon cause-
way, a Roman road, ran eastwards from Castlecary, crossed
the rampart at Camelon, whence it proceeded northwards to
Stirling and the Forth, where there was a station near the
present bridge of Drip. Thence it crossed the river to Keir
and Dunblane in Perthshire. To the north-east of the Car-
ron foundry there stood, till its demolition in 1743, a fine
circular Roman building called Arthur's Oon (oven), or Julius's
Hof, but the two mounds in Dunipace parish supposed to have
been raised as monuments of peace between the Romans and
Caledonians are probably of natural origin. After the with-
drawal of the Romans the county once more fell into the hands
of the Picts, the original inhabitants, who, however, gradually
retired before the advance of the Saxons and Scots. By the
time of Malcolm Canmore (d. 1093) the lowland area had be-
come settled, but the highland tract remained a disturbed and
disturbing region until the pacification following the Jacobite
rising of 1745-46. The county played a conspicuous part in the
struggle for Scottish independence, being particularly associated
with many of the exploits of Sir William Wallace and Robert
Bruce. The three great battles of the independence were
fought in the shire Stirling Bridge (1297), Falkirk (1298),
Bannockburn (1314). James III. was stabbed to death in a
cottage in the village of Milton after the battle of Sauchieburn
(1488), but apart from the disastrous defeat of the Covenanters
at Kilsyth (1645) an d tne transitory triumph which Prince
Charles Edward won at Falkirk (1746), the history of the shire
practically centres in that of the county town.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir Robert Sibbald, Description of Stirlingshire
(1710); Nimmo, History of Stirlingshire (1777, 1880); Registrum
Monasterii S. Marie de Cambuskenne.th (Edinburgh, 1872); W.
Rowand Anderson, Stirling Castle (1893); J. S. Fleming, Old
Lodgings of Stirling (Stirling, 1897), Old Nook of Stirling (Stirling,
1898) ; J. W. Small, Old Stirling (1897).
STIRRUP (O. Eng. stirap, stigrap, M. Eng. stirop,styrope,&c.,i.e.
a mounting or climbing-rope; O. Eng. stigan, to mount, climb, and
rap, rope, cf. Du. stijbeugel, literally mounting bow or loop, Ger.
Sleigbiigel) , a loop usually of metal, suspended by an adjustable
strap from the saddle and used as a support for the foot of a
rider of a horse when seated in the saddle and as an aid in mount-
ing. The earliest use of stirrups seems to have been in the East,
for they -are mentioned in early Chinese literature and examples
which must be earlier than the 7th century A.D. have been found
in Japan. The Greeks and Romans did not use them but
mounted by vaulting or from a mounting block (see SADDLERY
AND HARNESS). The earliest evidence of their use in Europe is
in the Art of War of the emperor Maurice (A.D. 582-602). They
were probably brought into use by the nomad horsemen of Asia.
The stirrup of the early middle ages seems to have been light
and semicircular or triangular in shape. By the i4th century
the footplate became broader and the sides heavier and orna-
mented. By the i6th century this ornamentation increases
STJERNHJELM STOCKBRIDGE
and open metal-work is used. The Arab stirrup is very large,
affording a rest for the entire sole of the foot ; sometimes the heel
part projects and terminates in a sharp point used as a spur.
See the plates in F. Hotteuroth, Trachten, Haus- Feld- und Kriegs-
gerathschaften, &c. (1901); and R. Zschille, Die Steigbiigel in Hirer
Formen-Entwicklung (1896).
STJERNHJELM, GEOR6 (1598-1672), Swedish poet and
scholar, whose original name was Goran Lilja, was born at Wika
in Dalecarlia on the 7th of August 1598. He took his degree
at Greifswald, and spent some years in travelling over every
quarter of Europe. On his return in 1626 he maintained a
correspondence with Salmasius, Heinsius, and other scholars.
He taught at Vesteras, and then at Stockholm, attracting the
notice of Gustavus Adolphus, who gave him a responsible post
at Dorpat in 1630, and raised him next year to the nobility.
After the king's death, Christina attached him, as a kind of
poet laureate, to her court in Stockholm. His property lay in
Livonia, and when the Russians plundered that province in
1656 the poet, who was in temporary disgrace at court, was
reduced to extreme poverty for two or three years. He subse-
quently became judge at Trondhjem, member of the council of
war (1661), and president (1667) of the College of Antiquities at
Stockholm. He died at Stockholm on the 22nd of April 1672.
His greatest poem Hercules, is a didactic allegory in hexameters,
written in very musical verse, and with almost Oriental splendour
of phrase and imagery. The Hercules, which deals with the
familiar story of the dispute for the hero between Duty and
Pleasure, was first printed at Upsala in 1653 but was finished
some years earlier. Brollops-Besvars Ihugkommelse, a sort of
serio-comic epithalamium in the same measure, is another
very brilliant work. His masques, Then Jangne Cupido (Cupid
Caught) (1649), Freds-afl (The Birth of Peace) (1649), and.
Parnassus Iriumphans (1651), were written for the entertain-
ment of Queen Christina. He can scarcely be said to have
been successful in his attempt, in the first two of these, to
introduce unrhymed song-measures.
Stjernhjelm was an active philologist, and left a great number of
works on language, of which only a few have been printed. He also
wrote on history, mathematics, philosophy and natural science,
producing original and valuable work on every subject he attempted.
Among his numerous works are Letter A of the Lexicon vocabulorum
antiquorum gothicorum (1643, &c.), Archimedes reformatus (1644),
Runa suetica (Liibeck, 1700), and an edition of Wast Gotha Lagbok
(1663). His works were partially edited by P. Hanselli (Samlade
vitterhets arbeten af Svenska Forfattare, vol. i., 1871), by L. Hammar-
skold (Stockholm, 1818), by F. Tamm (Upsala, 1891). See also
C. J. Lenstrom, Litterart PortriUtgalleri (Upsala, 1838) ; there is a full
list of his writings in the Svenskt biographiskt Lexikon, vol. xv.
(Upsala, 1848).
STOA, the term in Greek architecture (Lat. porticus) given
to a building, the roof of which is supported by one or more rows
of columns, the stoai at Elis described by Pausanias being
important examples.
STOBAEUS, JOANNES, so called from his native place Stobi
in Macedonia, the compiler of a valuable series of extracts from
Greek authors. Of his life nothing is known, but he probably
belongs to the latter half of the sth century A.D. From his
silence in regard to Christian authors, it is inferred that he was
not a Christian.
The extracts were intended by Stobaeus for his son Septimius,
and were preceded by a letter briefly explaining the purpose of
the work and giving a summary of the contents. From this
summary (preserved in Photius's Bibliotheca) we learn that
Stobaeus divided his work into four books and two volumes.
In most of our MSS. the work is divided into three books, of
which the first and second are generally called 'E/cXcryat <f>vaiK<u
Kal i7(?tK<H (Physical and Moral Extracts), and the third 'Avdo-
\ayiov (Florilegium or Sermones). As each of the four books
is sdmetimes called 'KvBoKayiov, it is probable that this name
originally belonged to the entire work; the full title, as we know
from Photius, was 'TZK\oy)v airocbdfy narwv vTro6r]K&i> /3i(3Xta
Ttrrapa (Four Books of Extracts, Sayings and Precepts). The
modern arrangement is somewhat arbitrary and there are
several marked discrepancies between it and the account given
xxv. 30
929
by Photius. The introduction to the whole work, treating
of the value of philosophy and of philosophical sects, is lost,
with the exception of the concluding portion; the second
book is little more than a fragment, and the third and
fourth have been amalgamated by altering the original
sections. From these and other indications it seems probable
that what we have is only an epitome of the original work,
made by an anonymous Byzantine writer of much later
date. The didactic aim of Stobaeus's work is apparent
throughout. The first book teaches physics in the wide sense
which the Greeks assigned to this term by means of extracts.
It is often untrustworthy: Stobaeus betrays a tendency to
confound the dogmas of the early Ionic philosophers, and he
occasionally mixes up Platonism with Pythagoreanism. For
part of this book and much of book ii. he depended on the works
of Ae'tius, a peripatetic philosopher, and Didymus. The third
and fourth books, like the larger part of the second, treat of
ethics; the third, of virtues and vices, in pairs; the fourth,
of more general ethical and political subjects, frequently citing
extracts to illustrate the pros and cons of a question in two
successive chapters. In all, Stobaeus quotes more than five
hundred writers, generally beginning with the poets, and then
proceeding to the historians, orators, philosophers and physi-
cians. It is to him that we owe many of our most important
fragments of the dramatists, particularly of Euripides.
Editio princeps (1609) ; Eclogae, ed. T. Gaisford (1822), A. Meineke,
(1860-1864) : Florilegium, ed. T. Gaisford (1850) ; A. Meineke (1855-
1857), C. Wachsmuth and O. Hense (1884-1894, and 1909).
STOCKBRIDGE, a township of Berkshire county, in western
Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1900), 2081; (1910, U.S. census)
1933. It comprises an area of 24 sq. m. Lake Mahkeenac,
or Stockbridge Bowl, is about 2 m. north of Stockbridge
village. Immediately south of the village, in a cleft in the
north-western part of Bear Mountain, is Ice Glen, with
caverns ice-lined even in midsummer. In the southern
part of the township, on the boundary of Great Barrington,
is Monument Mountain (1710 ft.). Stockbridge village is
on the Housatonic river, about 13 m. south by east of
Pittsfield, and is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, and by an interurban electric line. It is
well known as a summer resort, with a casino and golf links,
a war monument, a bell tower erected by David Dudley Field
to commemorate the Indian mission, a monument in the old
burial ground of the Stockbridge Indians, a public library,
and the Stockbridge Academy. Jonathan Edwards (com-
memorated by a monument, 1871) was the pastor (1750-1758),
and wrote his Freedom of the Will here; the Sedgwick mansion,
the home of Theodore Sedgwick (1746-1813), is at Stockbridge;
his daughter, the author, Catherine M. Sedgwick, was born (and
buried) here; and Stockbridge was the birthplace of Mark
Hopkins and of Cyrus W. Field, who presented a park to the
village. The " village improvement society " movement seems
to have originated at Stockbridge in 1853. The Stockbridge
(or Muh-he-kan-ne-ok) Indians, survivors of the Mohican tribe,
removed to the Housatonic Valley from the west bank of the
Hudson .river soon after the first white settlements were made
in New York; and in 1734 a mission was established among them
in what is now the township of Great Barrington by John
Sergeant (1710-1749), who translated part of the Bible into their
language. In 1736 a town 6 m. square (including the present
Stockbridge) was laid out for them. Lands were held in severally,
the Indians were guaranteed the civil rights of whites; they had
a church (under the charge of Jonathan Edwards in 1750-1758),
and a school. In 1739 their township was incorporated under
the name of Stockbridge, possibly adopted because of a resem-
blance to the country about Stockbridge, England. Many of
the Indians fought on the American side in the War of Indepen-
dence. In 1783-1788 nearly all of them removed to the Brother-
ton settlement (established 1775), 14 m. south of what is now
Utica, New York; there they built New Stockbridge. By
1829 nearly all had left New York for Wisconsin, settling near
what is now South Kaukauna. By 1859 they had removed to
930
STOCK EXCHANGE
the reservation in Shawano county, Wisconsin, where they
now live.
See E. F. Jones, Stockbridge Past and Present (Springfield, 1854);
and J. N. Davidson, Miihhekaneok: a History of the Stockbridge
Indians (Milwaukee, 1863).
STOCK EXCHANGE, a market for the purchase and sale of
all descriptions of negotiable securities (see MARKET). In the
immense majority of cases the securities so dealt in are what
are known as " stocks, bonds and shares," on which interest,
or dividend, is payable when earned; but bills issued by govern-
ments and municipal corporations are also occasionally dealt
in. Many years ago, when the British government was in the
habit of issuing exchequer bills, a now obsolete form of security,
these bills were quoted in the official list of the London Stock
Exchange; this was possible because though nominally bills,
they were really bonds with a variable rate of interest fixed half-
yearly in advance by the treasury. The inconvenience of this
arrangement led to their being abandoned as a portion of the
system of British government finance. Markets for dealing in
securities have existed for some hundreds of years. Their
organization was loose, there was no specific body of persons
forming the market, and there were no special rules governing
their procedure until within the last hundred and fifty years.
London. Previous to 1773 the London stockbrokers con-
ducted their business in and about the Royal Exchange, but in
that year, having formed themselves into an association under
the designation of the Stock Exchange, they, after temporarily
locating their headquarters in Sweeting Ally, Threadneedle
Street, removed to Capel Court, Bartholomew Lane. The
growth of business necessitating improved accommodation, a
capital of 20,000 in four hundred shares of 50 each was raised
in 1801 for the purpose of erecting a new building in Capel Court,
which was finished and occupied in the following year, the
members at that date numbering about five hundred. With
the occupation of the new building new rules came into force;
all future members were admitted by ballot, while both members
and their authorized clerks were required to pay a subscription
of ten guineas each. As only the wealthier members of the
association had provided the capital for the new building, the
Stock Exchange henceforth consisted of two distinct bodies
proprietors and subscribers. In 1854 the membership having
increased to about one thousand persons, an extension of the
premises in Capel Court was effected at a cost of 16,000. A
very extensive increase in the accommodation was made in 1885,
when what was for many years afterwards known as the " new
house " was erected. It occupies by far the greater portion
of the triangular area of which Throgmorton Street, Bartholo-
mew Lane, part of Threadneedle Street and part of Old Broad
Street form the sides. Sections of the external parts of this
area are in the hands of banks, insurance companies and other
places of business, but most of the south side of Throgmorton
Street and most of the north side of that portion of Old
Broad Street which lies between Throgmorton Street and Thread-
needle Street are Stock Exchange premises. Since 1885 various
alterations in the use of the space available have been made,
but there has been no considerable extension to the building.
A portion of the share and loan department occupies premises
in Austin Friars.
The Stock Exchange site and buildings are the property of the
holders of the share capital in the company called the Stock
Exchange (Limited), which is under the control of
The Man-
agers, the nme trustees and managers, who are appointed
Members by the shareholders. There are now 20,000 shares of
unlimited amount on which 12 has been paid up;
no one person may hold more than 200 shares, and
only members of the Stock Exchange can hold shares,
except in the case of the representatives of proprietors who
acquired their shares before the 3ist#f December 1875. When
a proprietor dies his shares must be sold to a member within
twelve months of his decease. As the dividends are handsome,
there is rarely any difficulty in finding a buyer for such
shares. The income of the company is derived from the annual
subscriptions of members and their clerks, from entrance fees
paid by new members, and from rents and investments.
The business and discipline of the Stock Exchange is under
the control of the " committee for general purposes, " shortly
known as " the committee. " This body is composed of thirty
persons, and is elected annually. It is entirely distinct from the
" managers. " The committee, when called upon, settles disputes
between members and sometimes between members and their
clients. It does not move in any matter until this is brought
to its notice, and even then it frequently declines to act. It
does part of its work through sub-committees, buj all ques-
tions are finally settled in full meeting. Its powers are very
wide, ranging from the granting or refusing of a quotation to a
new stock, to the expulsion of a member, and the suspension of
a " special settlement, " as well as such trifles as reprimanding
young members overburdened with animal spirits, and the
closing of the "house" for holidays other than those provided
for by the rules. The committee has an enormous amount of
routine work to do or superintend; the " official list " of prices
and the marking of " business done, " for which the share
and loan department is responsible, is supervised by it; the
" official assignees, " who are appointed to deal with the assets
of defaulting members, act under the orders of the committee.
Membership of the Stock Exchange is for twelve months
only; everyone without exception who wishes to remain a mem-
ber must be re-elected annually; the year ends on the 25th of
March. New members may be elected, (a) by the nomination
of a member who retires in favour of the new member, or of a
former member, or of the legal personal representative of a
deceased member. The candidate must be recommended by
three members, who also become sureties for him during the
first four years from the date of his admission for 500 each.
(b) A certain number of admissions are made each year, with-
out nomination, of candidates with two sureties; under this
arrangement clerks who have completed four years' service
are admitted.
Since the 23rd of November 1904, every member has been
obliged to become the owner of at least one share in the Stock
Exchange (Limited). This arrangement is the outcome of the
long-standing controversy respecting the " dual management "
of the Stock Exchange, the managers and the committee being,
as already* explained, independent authorities. The arrange-
ment is, no doubt, anomalous, but it has worked efficiently.
Its principal drawback is the fact that, as the managers are
proprietors and represent the body of proprietors who were,
and still are, a minority of the members, they may be uncon-
sciously biased in favour of increasing the number of members,
since the dividends on the Stock Exchange shares are derived
from this source. In 1904 the number of members had become,
temporarily, at any rate, too great, relatively to the business
to be done by them, and it was decided to introduce the principle
of limitation, not directly, but by the methods briefly described
above. It is hoped that, if the shares are all gradually dis-
tributed among the members, the slight difference between the
interests of the managers and the rest of the Stock Exchange
will disappear. The plan adopted involves of course the diffi-
culty that it may not be easy at all times for a candidate to
obtain his qualifying shares except at a high price. The new
system, however, appears to work well.
The London Stock Exchange is remarkable for having
developed spontaneously a special mode of doing business,
namely the differentiation of members into jobbers
r ,1 r>, i Jobbers ana
and brokers. A jobber is a member of the block Brokers.
Exchange who, according to the rules of that
body, does business only with other members, as opposed
to a broker who does business with the public as well as with his
fellow members. Any member may at any time make kiwwn
his intention to act as either jobber or broker, but he must not
act as both simultaneously. The business of a jobber (who is
sometimes called a dealer) is to be prepared to " make prices "
and deal in certain classes of securities selected by himself, in
which he causes it to be known that he is a jobber. He thus
STOCK EXCHANGE
becomes a jobber in " the American market, " or in the " South
African market, " or in the " Consols market "; or in any other
market which he chooses. At the beginning of his career he
usually has to rely for business on such friends as he has made
in the house, while serving his time as a clerk to a broker; but
if he shows ability for the work he soon becomes known to a
wider circle and may eventually make for himself a position of
considerable importance in the house. A jobber's method of
doing business is simple in appearance. All he has to do is to
remain in or near that portion of the Stock Exchange where
other jobbers in the class of stocks he is concerned with congre-
gate, during the greater part of the day, and wait for brokers to
propose transactions to him. If he is in the Home Railways
market and a broker tells him that he wants to deal in, say 1000
" Easterns, " meaning Great Eastern ordinary, he replies that
they are 80 to 8oj, or whatever the price is at the moment; this
means that he will sell at the higher and buy at the lower of these
prices the amount of shares mentioned, not knowing " which
way " the broker wishes to operate. On the latter saying that
he will sell, or buy, as the case may be, the bargain is made, and
is noted by both parties in memorandum books for completion
at the next " settlement. " The broker is understood to be,
and usually is, acting for a client outside the house, and is paid
for his trouble by a brokerage fixed by rules and paid by the
client. The jobber's profit consists in the " turn, " that is, the
difference between the two prices quoted. But it is obvious
that the realization of this profit by the jobber depends on his
being able to effect a counter-sale, or purchase, with some other
broker in 1000 " Easterns, " and it is in so fixing the prices he
quotes that, on the average of the day's or fortnight's trans-
actions, his book shows a balance on the right side that his
ability is displayed. If he has sold the stock and has not got
it on his books already, he must procure it by the next settle-
ment in order to deliver it; if he cannot procure it he must
borrow it (backwardation). If he has bought it he must
pay for it by the next settlement, and should it have gone down
in the interval he will evidently have made nothing on the
transaction, so far as that settlement is concerned; he will have
the stock " on his book " and will have to carry it over (con-
tango) and wait till someone wants to buy it of him in order
to " undo " the bargain. If he is possessed of capital he may
pay for and hold the stock until its price has risen considerably,
but as a rule a jobber tries to make quick profits. A jobber is
not obliged to make a price, and in times of serious trouble the
weaker ones among them refuse to do so, or merely stay away.
A jobber has another defence against the risk of making a bar-
gain which he thinks he will not be able to " undo " promptly;
he can quote a " wide " price, that is, he could quote for
1000 " Easterns " " 795-805, " a price no broker would be
likely to deal at. The extent of a jobber's business depends on
the reputation he has acquired. Good brokers, in their own
as well as their client's interest, always " pick their man, "
especially in times of danger and difficulty. A broker may be
acquainted with several men in a particular market any one of
whom he considers quite safe to deal with in ordinary times,
but he will be very careful whom he chooses to execute an order
with, when, owing to money being dear, or for some other
reason, markets are " bad. " The usefulness of the jobber has
from time to time been denied by critics, who have pointed out
that in other stock exchanges no differentiation of members
into brokers and jobbers has taken place. It has also been
alleged that his " turn " is too easily earned, which is not true,
and that it is often too large; as to the latter statement, it may
safely be said that no jobber who habitually quoted prices which
were too " wide " would get much business.
Since 1900 a controversy has arisen as to the propriety of
jobbers dealing direct with members of country stock exchanges,
Dealings and of brokers dealing direct with financial houses
with known to have certain shares to sell. The difficulty
Outside " as regards the latter chiefly affected the mining
Parties. snare market. It may be argued that both parties
are wrong according to the letter of Stock Exchange law,
but their action can be defended. The broker who goes for
a particular share direct to a financial house (colloquially called
" the shop ") may get better terms for his client, and though
he also gets a second commission for himself, provided he makes
known this latter fact to the client, the transaction is an innocent
one. The jobber's action in regard to provincial stock exchanges,
known in Stock Exchange slang as " shunting " business, may
be regarded as a rough compensatory operation for loss of busi-
ness he may incur through the broker's desertion of him for the
financial houses. The quarrel would not have arisen but for
the great increase in the members of the Stock Exchange and the
fact that business during and for some years after the South
African War was insufficient to give a living to so many
competitors for it.
The hours of business on the Stock Exchange have varied
little since the early days of the institution. They now begin
at ii a.m. and end at 3.30 p.m. on ordinary days
except Saturday, but the house remains open
until 4 p.m. On Saturdays the closing hour is 1.30.
During the settlement (see ACCOUNT) the house is kept open till
4.30 p.m. Bargains are " marked, " that is, the prices at which
they are " done " are recorded in the official list, between n a.m.
and 3.30 p.m. on ordinary days, and n a.m. and i p.m. on
Saturdays; the marking of a bargain is effected at the request of
the broker who made it; whenever investment purchases are
made a large proportion of them are usually marked, as brokers
like to be able to show that they did the business at the price
stated in the " contract note " sent to the client. The amount
of trouble a broker takes for a client is not always realized.
An investment order gives much more trouble to a broker than
a speculative order. In the former case the broker after arrang-
ing the purchase or sale has to perform various operations before
the whole transaction is complete. He has to procure transfer
forms, get them properly signed and witnessed, obtain the
certificates, if the security dealt in is registered stock or shares,
or the bonds if the security is " to bearer. " There may be delay
in the delivery of securities bought for which he is not responsible,
but for which he may be blamed by an inconsiderate client. In
cases of serious and unreasonable delay a broker has the drastic
remedy open to him of calling upon the officials of the " buying-
in and selling-out department " to buy the stock at whatever
price may be necessary, the other party, that is, the jobber with
whom he dealt, paying any difference between the agreed price
and the price at which the security was " bought-in. " Inscribed
stock may be bought in on the day following the day specified
for delivery of it. Bearer securities not punctually delivered
may, in some cases, be bought in on the day they were due for
delivery. Similar rules apply to unreasonable delay in payment
for securities sold, which may be ended by a demand that the
stock shall be ," sold out." These rules are intended for use in
extreme cases, and are not often resorted to.
Every bargain which a broker executes for a client is under-
stood to be " for the account, " unless otherwise specified; that
is, the completion of the bargain is understood as
intended to take place on the next "settling day." settlement.
There are two settlements in securities generally,
and one in consols and British government securities, India
stock, &c., each month (see ACCOUNT). The interval between
two settlements varies from 12 days to 19 days, but the normal
interval is 14 days, and the settlement is usually spoken of as
" the fortnightly settlement " or " account." In most securities
it would not be easy to deal " for money, " that is, to obtain cash
or stock on the day of the transaction; but this can always
be done in consols and other British government securities;
"money" bargains in these are sometimes very numerous. Of
late the practice of .dealing in consols for next ordinary (not
consols) account has become fairly common, and is now
recognized officially.
All bargains for sale or purchase of stock are supposed
prima facie to be investments, that is, the form of contract is
the same in all cases. But if a client has bought or sold
speculatively he will when the settlement arrives either " close
932
STOCK EXCHANGE
the account " by effecting a sale, or purchase, of the stock
he has operated in, or he may request his broker to " carry
over " the bargain or " continue " it until the next
ve account. This operation may be repeated as often as
the client chooses, provided the broker is ready to give
the required facilities. But the broker is under no obligation
to carry over, and in times of difficulty, when money is dear,
or politics threatening, he would very likely decline to do so.
Since about 1890 an increasing number of speculative trans-
actions have been effected in a manner which disguises their real
character; the security is, to all appearance, bought and paid
for in the Stock Exchange, but the client has, as a matter of fact,
obtained the money by " pawning " the security with a bank.
For many years the relations between the Stock Exchange
and the money market in its wider sense (see MARKET) have been
becoming closer ; banks now lend more freely than they used to,
and on a wider range of securities; but they also lend more
often direct to the holder of the securities borrowed on, and not
through a member of the Stock Exchange. Formerly the. usual
practice of those banks which had considerable business with the
Stock Exchange was to lend large sums on high-class stocks
to wealthy brokers, who employed the money inside the house
in carrying over the accounts of their clients, or to other brokers
whom they trusted. This class of business is still very large,
but clients are not now always satisfied to borrow through their
brokers; they not infrequently go direct to banks and borrow
from them. This practice has its inconveniences: formerly it
was possible for the jobbers in all important markets on the Stock
Exchange to form a good idea, by comparing notes at each
settlement, of what the condition of the speculative account
really was, but it is less easy to do so now, because so much
stock is " pawned " with banks that the conclusions arrived at
by the jobbers from examining only what they are carrying over
themselves are liable to be falsified through their finding (a) that
the account is either lighter than they expected, stock having
been taken off the market temporarily by means of loans obtained
from banks; or (b) that it is much heavier than they were pre-
pared for, the banks having suddenly refused to lend any longer
on a mass of stock they had hitherto been carrying. Banks are
apt to be more capricious in their action as regards this class of
business than the big " money brokers "; they cannot so well
feel the pulse of the market, and are therefore liable to sudden
fits of alarm, and also to hurried changes of policy on the part
of their boards, which may be, and .usually are, based on sound
principles, but are not infrequently carried out without sufficient
regard to the circumstances existing at the moment chosen
for putting them in practice.
Speculative dealings sometimes take the form of " options. "
An option is a right to buy or sell a specified quantity of a speci-
o tions ^ e< ^ security at a certain price, within a specified
period; for this right a sum of cash is paid which
is usually quoted as a percentage on the face value of the
security. Having paid this sum the purchaser of the option
watches the market during the period fixed; if a rise or fall
sufficient to show a profit occurs he sells or buys an amount
of the security equal to that bargained for in the option contract
and informs the broker with whom he " did the option " that he
" calls " the security from, or " puts " it on him. If no move-
ment, or an insufficient movement, occurs in the price during
the specified period, the " option " is " abandoned." This
form of transaction is often a useful one for a business man, but
attempts have been made to represent it as a " safe " way of
making money on the ground that " risk is limited," and, as such,
it has been recommended to inexperienced persons who are
foolish enough to wish to speculate without comprehending
the nature of speculation. Option dealings are neither more
nor less " safe " than other speculative operations. Brokers
who quote prices for an option always fix them at a level which
will, on the average, make their own positions safe, and their
clients, unless they are unusually acute and well informed, are
not more likely to make exceptional, or any, profits than by the
more usual speculative methods.
During recent years the volume of transactions in interest-
bearing securities has grown enormously in all the great cities of
the world. In London the membership of the The Growth
Stock Exchange, the number of securities quoted of stock
in the official list, and the number of securities Marketa ~
dealt in, have expanded greatly, and the markets in New
York and Paris, especially the former, have acquired enhanced
importance. The Berlin Bourse, the business of which was
steadily growing during the 'eighties and early 'nineties,
was checked in its expansion after 1896 by drastic legislation
passed in July of that year against bargains for future
delivery, and much of the business of German speculators has
been done since then in other exchanges, especially London,
Amsterdam and Brussels, but it has grown nevertheless, and if
the existing restrictions are removed will grow more. Com-
munication between the various great cities of the world is much
closer than it was before the telephone came into use; what is
known as arbitrage business having attained very large propor-
tions. This class of business consists in watching closely the
fluctuations in certain securities which are dealt in in two big
markets, and simultaneously selling in one and buying in the
other. Previous to 1884 and 1885 it was chiefly confined to
operations between London and Paris, the difference in the
times of London and New York having up till then prevented the
growth of a similar business between those cities, as New York
morning prices do not reach London till about 3-15 p.m., and the
London Stock Exchange is shut at 4 p.m. But in London, about
the middle of the 'eighties, the practice of staying in " the street,"
after the Stock Exchange was shut, to deal in " Americans,"
began to become common, though many old-fashioned brokers
set their faces against it. It is worth noting that in most of the
foreign cities there has always been a disposition to stay later
than in London, where it was formerly the rule to cease business
definitely at a more or less fixed hour. Since 1885 there has
been more laxity in this respect, but it is not even yet the
practice to do business in the evening. In Paris, dealing " on
the boulevard " goes on intermittently in summer as late as
9 p.m. when trade is active.
The market for mining shares had, up to about 1888, held a
very small place in the business of the Stock Exchange, but the
discovery of an extensive goldfield on the Witwaters-
rand in the Transvaal produced a great change. At Market. "*
first, although the transactions in the new group of
securities were very large, and enormous sums of money were
won and lost in them, the " Kaffir circus," as it was called, was
regarded with contempt by the older habituHs of the Stock
Exchange, and it was not until the winter of 1894-1895, when
the number of brokers engaged in the new market had become
greater than those in any other, that special recognition was
given to the mining department by a rule that the arrangements
for carrying over bargains in mining shares should begin the
day before the regular settlement commenced (see ACCOUNT).
Even with these new facilities the Stock Exchange clearing
house found it difficult to cope with the huge mass of work
thrown on it in 1895, and once or twice it broke down temporarily.
Much of the trouble to all concerned arose from the fact that
mining shares, like nearly all securities dealt in in London, were
" registered " and not " to bearer." The offices of the companies
were naturally not equipped with the staffs that would have
enabled them to furnish certificates promptly in the enormous
quantities unexpectedly required: it must be remembered that
the preparation of a certificate for 50 or 100 shares of i each is
just as troublesome as the preparation of one for 500 or 1000.
The new feature, which upset all calculations, was the extra-
ordinary number of small speculative investors who bought and
paid for their shares, very often to their subsequent regret. If
the shares had been " to bearer, " the work could have been done
with comparative ease.
Another remarkable feature of the " boom," to use the slang
which came into general use during the great speculative mania
for South African shares in 1895, was the fact that of the 200
or 300 shares dealt in, less than a dozen were officially quoted.
STOCK EXCHANGE
933
As a rule no quotation was asked for, though a " special settle-
ment " was obtained. Most of the companies concerned had
Mining been registered under the laws of the then existing
Shares not South African Republic. After the Jameson raid
Quoted business in the South African market slackened
Officially. sonlew ijat, and there were few new " Kaffir " com-
panies introduced; but the volume of mining transactions was
kept up by the discovery of the Coolgardie goldfields of West
Australia, which led to the creation of a great number of com-
panies, whose shares were " introduced " in London from 1895
onwards. Very few of these also were, or are, quoted in the
official list. A minor " boom " occurred in the winter of 1900-
1901 in West African shares, but although it created a good deal
of noise, it was not to be compared in magnitude to the South
African and West Australian movements. The West African
goldfields are expected by the best authorities to be very pro-
ductive eventually, but are at present in an early stage of
development.
Recent events have been very unfavourable to the South
African market, which has ceased to attract the attention it
met with before the South African War. Many jobbers have left
it for other markets, and the volume of business in it is so small
that the additional day granted for the settlement of bargains
in mining shares is said by some to be no longer necessary.
Though the older mining markets are comparatively quiet, some
new ones have come into existence, especially that for Siberian,
British Columbian and New Zealand properties. There has
also been an attempt to establish a market for Egyptian securities,
chiefly those of land and financial companies; an extraordinary
speculation took place in Cairo during 1905-1906, and collapsed
in the early part of 1907 with unfortunate results to those who
financed it. In 1910 a rubber market became active.
Paris. The Paris Bourse is an institution of enormous
strength, but it plays a smaller part in international business than
might be expected, owing to the deep-rooted conservatism and
caution of the French people in money matters. It is true that
they are liable to occasional outbursts of imprudence, such as led
to the loss of great sums in the Panama Canal Company; but, as
a rule, it is difficult to induce the average Frenchman to place his
money in anything which he does not think a safe interest-
yielding security under French law: he almost always wants to
invest, not to speculate. In Great Britain and America the
distinction between the two is too frequently forgotten. Since
the Panama collapse in 1894 the French investor that is, the
bulk of the French nation has been very prudent. The French
have gone on saving money, and have been very difficult to
satisfy in the matter of the securities offered to them. Appeals
to patriotism have drawn from some French capitalists a con-
siderable amount of money from time to time for Russian govern-
ment loans, but these appeals were backed by assurances given
by large banking institutions like the Credit Lyonnais, the
Comptoir d'Escompte, and the Societe Generale, in addition to
the Bank of France, that the interest was secure. As a rule,
investments outside France are not popular with the French
peasantry and middle classes; but there has always been a
minority ready to speculate from time to time, besides the body
of professional operators on the Bourse. The dimensions of this
minority increased during the last eight or ten years of the igth
century, owing to the attractions presented by the South
African goldfields. Operators and speculative investors in
France were large holders of South African mining shares when
the Boer War broke out in 1899, and though they sold them freely
in consequence of the war, they did so with the intention of
" coming in " again, and on more than one occasion made tenta-
tive purchases. The great banking firms and institutions of
Paris have been occupied a good deal with the finances of Spain,
Portugal, Egypt, Turkey and other minor countries. They are
often large purchasers of British Treasury bills, which during
the first two years of the South African War afforded an extra-
ordinary opportunity to the investor, it being possible to buy
them at prices yielding a rate equal to 3! % per annum during
the currency of the bills.
The Paris Bourse exists in virtue of the decree of the 7th of
October, 1890, to regulate the execution of article 90 of the Code
du Commerce and of the law of the 28th of March 1885, on
marches a tcrme, as modified by the decree of the 29th of June
1898. Agents de change, who form the members of the official
bourses in France, must be Frenchmen over twenty-five years of
age, and must be in possession of civil and political rights. They
are " nominated " by decrees countersigned by the minister of
finance or the minister of commerce and industry. In a bourse
possessing six or more agents de change a parquet may be formed,
that is, a portion of the bourse may be railed off to which only
agents de change have the right of entry, the rest of the bourse
being known as the coulisse. A bourse provided with a parquet
elects a chambre syndicate, or committee, composed of a syndic
and members varying in number according to the number of
agents in the bourse. The maximum, when there are over sixty
agents, is eight. In Paris there were only sixty agents de change
until 1898, but in that year the number 'was raised to seventy,
owing to the volume of securities to be dealt with on the bourse
having expanded considerably. The individual members are
not, in law, responsible for any liabilities that may be incurred
by fellow-members, but the practice is that the chambre syn-
dicate meets the liabilities of any defaulting member. Each
member owns what is called a charge, for which he has paid a
sum varying from 1,50x3,000 fr. to 2,000,000 fr. (60,000 to
80,000) to his predecessor by a private arrangement. In
addition the new member must deposit 250,000 fr. (10,000)
as caution money, and 1 20,000 f r. (4800) in the caisse commune
of the chambre syndicate. The agents de change have a monopoly
of many kinds of legal business; they have various privileges
denied to the dealers in the coulisse, as, for instance, the right to
sell or buy certain securities for cash, the coulissiers being allowed
only to deal for delivery at the settlement. The securities dealt
in by the coulisse are known as iialeurs en banque, and the coulisse
is often called the marche en banque. The agents de change are
responsible for the production of the official price list of the
bourse, but the coulisse also issues a list of its own. A much
bigger business is done in the coulisse than in the parquet,
the market for foreign securities being in their hands; many
coulissiers are wealthy men.
All continental securities are " to bearer," and when it is
desired to induce French capitalists to take an interest in British
securities which are inscribed or registered, it has been found
necessary to convert a part of the stocks into bearer bonds or
shares. The fact that all securities are to bearer has led to
special arrangements being made for guarding against the
delivery of bonds to which the seller's title may be considered
doubtful. A journal called the Bulletin officiel des oppositions
is published by the syndicat des agents de change, giving the
designations and numbers of securities which have been frappes
d' 1 opposition, that is, whose currency on the bourse is temporarily
stopped, either because they have been stolen or for other
reasons. It is always necessary, before taking delivery in
London of foreign bonds, to look through this list to see whether
the bonds in question are included in it. Settlement (liquidation)
in Paris takes place twice a month; that at the end of the
month lasts five days, and that in the middle of the month
four days. French rentes are " settled " at the end of the
month.
New York. The New York Stock Exchange is a wealthy
association consisting of members, who must be citizens of the
United States, of twenty-one years of age or more. Their
number cannot be increased except by the governing committee,
which consists of the president, treasurer and secretary of the
Stock Exchange, and forty members. There are twelve standing
committees to deal with various departments of administration,
the more important of these being the Admission, Arbitration
and Clearing House committees.
Persons attain membership by election, or by transfer from a
member who has died or resigned. Various dues and charges
are payable by a new member. A member who is admitted
by transfer pays an " initiation fee " of $2000 (400). When a
934
STOCKHOLM
transfer is made the approval of the governing committee must
be obtained before it can be completed. The person to whom the
transfer is made pays a sum to the transferor for his " seat in
the house," the amount of which is a matter of private arrange-
ment; as much as $90,000 (18,000) has been paid for a " seat "
when business is active, but when it is quiet the price falls
considerably below this. A member may transfer his seat to his
son (if the committee approve) without charging anything for it;
but in all cases the transferee pays the above-mentioned initia-
tion fee of $2000.
The gratuity fund is an arrangement for providing for the
families of deceased members. Every member on election pays
$10 to this fund; when a member dies an assessment of $10 is
levied on all other members, and the Stock Exchange hands over
$10,000 (2000) to the family of the deceased.
The New York Stock Exchange building is opened at 9.30 a.m.,
but business does not begin until 10 a.m. The daily session
continues until 3 p.m. No transactions must be
Bus/ness entered into before 10 a.m. or after 3 p.m. (with
certain exceptions) under severe penalties. The
object of this is to enable all members to feel secure that no
business has been done except within the official period, during
which they are prepared to watch the market or provide for its
being watched. Loans of money or securities, that is, what is
called in London contango and backwardation business, may be
arranged after 3 p.m. This latter provision is a necessary result
of the settling arrangements on the Exchange.
Transactions may be: (a) for cash, in which case payment
is made or stock delivered the same day; (6) " the regular way,"
i.e. the transaction is to be completed on the following day to
that on which the bargain was made; (c) " three days," in this
case the bargain must be carried out in three days; (d) in the case
of options bargains may be made up to a limit of sixty days. If
no time is specified when the bargain is made it is treated as
being " regular way." It will be seen that these arrangements
differ materially from those in London, Paris and Berlin, where
business is done on the basis of fortnightly or, in the case of some
classes of securities, monthly settlements. New York has a daily
settlement for the bulk of its transactions.
All leading banking and finance houses in New York have one
partner who is a member of the Stock Exchange and attends to
the firm's stock business. All partnerships in which a member
is interested must be disclosed to the governing committee, who
have very wide disciplinary powers which they can use if any-
thing is done which is contrary to the rules, or the spirit of the
rules, of the Exchange.
The Exchange building is situated in Wall Street, and the
Exchange is colloquially known as " Wall Street," just as the
London Exchange is sometimes called " Throgmorton Street "
or " Capel Court." It has in it accommodation including a
telephone installation for each member and a large staff of
messengers, &c., for their service. The Exchange has met
in the past with difficulties of the same kind as have troubled
the London Exchange. In 1898 it was found necessary to regu-
late the growth of direct dealings with provincial exchanges,
which were held to constitute a breach of the rules relating
to commissions. Dealing for " outside " exchanges of an
irregular character was forbidden in 1896.
The New York Exchange is often the scene of gigantic specula-
tive movements, and enormous sums are won and lost on it
from time to time; but a huge investment business, or, at any
rate, what is intended to be investment business, is done in Wall
Street. Too frequently, however, the ideas of the purchaser as
to what constitutes an investment are not very clear, and he
finds that he has acquired a speculative article; this is inevitable
in a country which still contains a good deal of dormant wealth
which must sometimes be developed by new methods whose
merits, when expressed in terms of capital expenditure, are not
always as great as their enthusiastic authors imagined they would
prove.
Berlin. The business of the Berlin Borse is conducted under
the strict regulations of the Imperial German law of the 22nd of
June 1896, a measure which was intended to put a check on
speculation in stocks and commodities in the supposed interests
of the community. The term " Borse " is applied equally to the
Effectenborse (or Fondsborse), that is, the " market.for securities "
(the Stock Exchange), and to the Warenborse in which commodi-
ties are dealt in. " Borse " is, in fact, a term equivalent to
" exchange " as used in the expressions " stock exchange,"
" corn exchange," " wool exchange," &c. The brokers (Makler)
who carry on business at the Berlin Bourse are under the super-
vision of the Ober- President of the province of Brandenburg and
the Ober- President of the city of Berlin, in accordance with the
terms of the Maklerordnung fur die Kursmakler an der Berliner
Borse, which was issued in the form of a decree (Dec. 4, 1896)
of the ministers of trade and industry.
The Bourse opens at 11.50 a.m. and closes at 3 p.m. for
official dealings, and a quarter of an hour before and half an hour
after those hours for " unofficial dealings." The unimportant
part which the Berlin Bourse plays in the world of finance,
owing to the legislative shackles with which it is loaded, has led
to a movement in favour of a reform of the law, which would
give more freedom to legitimate speculation in commodities as
well as in securities. (W. Ho.)
STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden, on the east coast, not
far south of the junction of the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of
Bothnia. It is celebrated for the beauty and remarkable
physical characteristics of its situation. The coast is here
thickly fringed with islands (the skarg&rd), through which a
main channel, the Saltsjo, penetrates from the open sea, which
is nearly 40 m. from the mainland. A short stream with a fall
normally so slight as to be sometimes reversed by the tide,
drains the great lake Malar into the Saltsjo. The scenery of both
the lake and the skargdrd is similar, the numerous islands low,
rocky, and generally wooded, the waterways between them narrow
and quiet. The city stands at the junction of the lake and the
sea, occupying both shores and the small islands intervening.
From the presence of these islands a fanciful appellation for
this city is derived " the Venice of the North "; but actually
only a small part is insular. There are three main divisions,
Staden, the ancient nucleus of the city, properly confined to
Stadholmen (the city island) which divides the stream from
Malar into two arms, Norrstrom and Soderstrom ; Norrmalm on
the north shore of the channel, and Sodermalm on the south.
The ancient origin of Staden is apparent in the narrow and
winding streets, though the individual houses are not very old,
owing to the ravages of frequent fires. A few, stadea
however, preserve antique narrow fronts with gables,
as in some of the North German towns. The old market, still
called Stortorg (great market) is now one of the smallest in
Stockholm. At the north angle of the island is the Royal Palace
(Slott). The original building was destroyed by fire in 1697,
the body of Charles XI. being with difficulty rescued from the
flames. A new palace after designs of Nicodemus Tessin the
younger (d. 1728) was not completed, owing to wars and the
general distress, until 1754; while a restoration carried out in
1901 included many ornamental details devised by the architect,
and executed at the expense of King Oscar II. The palace is
quadrangular with two wings towards the east and four (two
straight and two curving) towards the west. The style, that of
the Italian Renaissance, is noble and refined, the royal apart-
ments rich in treasures of art. In the north-east wing is a
museum of armour and costume, one of the finest of the kind
existing. West of the palace are the offices of the majority of the
ministries, some of them in the former buildings of the Royal
Mint. Beyond these, on the west side of the island, is a square
named from the palace on its northern side, the Riddarhustorg.
The Riddarhus (house of the nobility) was the meeting-place of
the Council of the Nobles until 1866, and its hall is adorned with
the armorial bearings of noble families. In the northern fore-
court is a statue (1890) of Axel Oxenstjerna, the chancellor, by
J. Borjeson. The town-hall is also in Riddarhustorg, and a
statue of Gustavus Vasa, unveiled in 1773 on the 2soth anniver-
sary of his accession to the throne, stands here. South-west of
STOCKHOLM
935
STOCKHOLM
and Environs
Scale, 1:107,000
English Miles
1. Storlorg (Great Market)
2. Slott (Royal PalactJ
3. Kiddarhustorg
4. Storkyrka
6. Helgeandsholmtn
6. Guataf-Adolfs-Torg
7. Karl-den-Tolftes-Torg
8. Kungstradgard (Royal Gardtn)
9. Klarakyrka
10. Central Railway Station
11. Observatory
12. Sf Johanueskyrka
13. Caroline Medical Institute
14. Serafimer Hospital
15. Royal Library
Emety Walker sc.
the Royal Palace is the Storkyrka (great church), dedicated to
St Nicholas, the oldest church of Stockholm, though greatly
altered from its original state. The date of its foundation is
1264; but it was practically rebuilt in 1726-1743. Within it is
richly adorned with paintings and wood-carving. Staden is the
commercial centre of the city. At the broad shipping quay
(Skeppsbro) which flanks the palace on the north and east, most
of the sea-going steamers lie; and the exchange, custom-house,
numerous banks and merchants' offices are in the immediate
vicinity. Riddarholmen (nobles' island), lying immediately
west of Stadholmen, contains the old Franciscan church (Riddar-
holmskyrka) , no longer used for regular service, which since the
time of Gustavus Adolphus has been the burial-place of the royal
family. It contains many trophies of the European wars of
Sweden. On one side of it stands the old house of parliament;
on the other a statue of Birger Jarl, the reputed founder of the
city. On Riddarholm also are various government offices, and
most of the steamers for Malar and the inland navigation lie
alongside its quays.
Staden is connected with Norrmalm by the Norrbro (north
bridge) and Vasabro, the first crossing Helgeandsholmen (the
island of the Holy Spirit), on which are the new
Houses of Parliament and the Bank of Sweden. A
third bridge connects with the main thoroughfare of Norrmalm,
Drottningsgatan (Queen Street). The Norrbro gives upon
Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg, where a statue of that king stands between
the royal theatre, royal opera house and the palace of the
crown prince. Norrmalm is the finest quarter of the city, with
broad straight streets, several open spaces with gardens, and
handsome buildings. East and north of the theatre royal, the
Karl-den-Tolftes-Torg and Kungstradgard (royal garden) form
the most favoured winter promenade. There are a statue of
Charles XII. and a fountain with allegorical figures, by J. P.
Molin, also a statue of Charles XIII., and in the small Berzelii
Park close at hand one of the chemist J. J. Berzelius. Near
Drottningsgatan is the Klara church, the burial-place of
the poet K. M. Bellman, and west of this, occupying one
side of a square, is the central railway station. In the
building of the academy of science is the national museum
of natural history, including mineralogical, zoological, and
ethnographical departments. Drottningsgatan terminates at
the observatory, on a rocky eminence, near which are the offices
for the distribution of the Nobel fund. To the east the modern
Gothic church of St Johannes, with a lofty spire, stands con-
spicuously on the Brunkebergsas, one of the highest points in the
city. To the north is the small Vanad's Park. To the west is
the modern quarter of Vasastad, with its park. On the island
of Kungsholm, south of Vasastad, are the Caroline medical
institute, several hospitals, the principal of which is the Serafimer
(1752), the royal mint and factories. Ostermalm, lying east,
that is, on the seaward side, of Norrmalm, is a good residential
quarter, containing no public buildings of note, save the barracks
of the Swedish Guards and the fine royal library, which is entitled
to receive a copy of every work printed in Sweden. The library
stands in the beautiful park of Humlegard (hop-garden), in which
is also a statue of Linnaeus. South of Ostermalm, and east of
the Kungstradgard and Staden, lies the peninsula of Blasieholm
(formerly an island) and, connected by bridges, the islands of
Skeppsholm and Kastellholm, the three forming the foreground
in the beautiful seaward view from the Norrbro. On the first
93^
STOCKHOLM
is the national museum (1866), a Renaissance building, contain-
ing historical, numismatic and art-industrial collections, with
ancient and modern sculptures, picture-gallery and engravings.
The numismatic collection is notable for its series of Anglo-
Saxon coins. About 11,000 pieces came from the island of
Gotland, some dating from 901-924, but the majority are later.
In front of the museum is a bronze cast of the famous group of
J. P. Molin (1859), the Baltespannare (belt-bucklers), repre-
senting an early form of duel in Scandinavia, in which the
combatants were bound together by their belts. On Skeppsholm
are naval and military depots, and on Kastellholm a small
citadel. East of Skeppsholm an inlet, Ladugardslandsviken,
so named from the proximity of the former royal farm-yard
(ladugard), and bordered on the mainland by a quay with hand-
some houses called Strandvagen, throws off a narrow branch
(Djurgardsbrunnsviken) and separates from the mainland an
island about 2 m. in length by J m. broad. This is mainly
occupied by Djurgarden (the deer-park), a beautiful park con-
taining the buildings of the northern museum, a collection of
Scandinavian costumes and domestic and agricultural utensils,
and a biological museum housed in a wooden building imitating
the early Norwegian timber churches (stavekirke). Here also
is Skansen, an ingenious reproduction in miniature of the salient
physical features of Sweden with its flora, fauna, and character-
istic dwellings inhabited by peasants in the picturesque costumes
of the various districts. Both the northern museum and Skansen
were founded by Dr Arthur Hazelius (1833-1901). There is a
bust of the poet K. M. Bellman, whose festival is held on the
26th of July. Sodermalm, the southern quarter, is principally
residential. Rocky heights rise to 1 20 ft. above the water, and two
steam lifts, Katarina-Hissen and Maria-Hissen, surmount them.
Environs. The beautiful environment of sea and lake is fully
appreciated by the inhabitants. To the north of the city,
accessible by rail and water, are the residential suburbs of Haga
and Ulriksdal, with royal chateaux, and Djursholm. Saltsjo-
baden, 9 m. east of Stockholm, on Baggensfjord, is the nearest
and most favoured seaside resort, but Dalaro (20 m. south-east)
and Nynashamn (39 m. south) are much frequented. Vaxholm,
12 m. north-east by water, is a pleasant fishing- village where
numerous villas have been built. A fortification on one of the
islands here was erected by Gustavus Vasa, but has been modern-
ized and is maintained.
Educational and Scientific Institutions. Stockholm has no state
university. A private university (Hogskoler) was founded in 1878,
and was brought under state control in 1904. The president of the
governing body is appointed by the government, while the appoint-
ment of the remaining members is shared by the Swedish Academy,
the Academy of Sciences and the City Council. The faculties are
four philosophy and history, philology, mathematics and natural
sciences, and jurisprudence. The Caroline Institute (Karolinska
Mediko-Kirurgiska Institut) is a medical foundation dating from 1815,
which ranks since 1874 with the state universities of Upsala and Lund
in the right to hold examinations and confer degrees in its special
faculty. Special and secondary education is highly developed;
there are schools of agriculture, mining and forestry, military
schools, technical schools, a veterinary school, a school of pharmacy,
&c. Among the public colleges under state control, one, the Nya
Elementarskolan, was founded experimentally in 1828, after the
Education Committee of 1825-1828, among the membersof which were
Tegner and Berzelius, had reported on the want of such schools.
This school retains its separate governing board ; whereas others of
the class are under a central board. The control of the primary
schools in the parishes is similarly centralized ; whereas in Sweden
generally each parish has its school-board. Stockholm is the seat
of the principal learned societies and royal academies (see SWEDEN).
There are schools of painting, sculpture and architecture under the
direction of the Royal Academy of Arts; a conservatory of music
under that of the Royal Academy of Music; and experimental
gardens and laboratories under the Royal Society of Agriculture.
The Natural History Museum, the observatory and meteorological
office, and the botanical gardens are under the supervision of the
royal academy of sciences. Minor collections deserving mention
are the museums of the geological survey and the Caroline Medical
Institute, and the archives in the record office (Riksarkivet) .
Recreations. Among places of entertainment, the royal theatre
is managed by a company receiving a state subsidy. The Dramatic
Theatre (Dramatiska Teatern), in Kungstradgards-Gatan, the
Swedish (Svenska) theatre in Blasieholms-Gatan, and the Vasa
theatre in Vasa-Gatan may also be mentioned. The Djiirgard is
the principal place for variety entertainments in summer. Several
of the leading sporting clubs have their headquarters in Stockholm.
An annual regatta is held early in August by the Royal Swedish
Yacht Club (Svenska Segelsallkapet). A harbour much frequented
by yachts is Sandhamn in the outer skargard. The Stockholm
General Skating Club (Almdnna Skridskoklubb) is the leading institu-
tion for the most favoured winter sport. A characteristic spectacle
in winter is the tobogganing in the Humlegard on holidays. The
principal athletic ground is the Idrottspark (Sports Park), on the
north side of Ostermalm, with tennis courts and a cycling track,
which may be changed into a skating-rink in winter. There is a
similar park at Djursholm.
Commerce. The industries of Stockholm are miscellaneous. The
value of the output of these is nearly thrice those of Malmo or Gothen-
burg, the next most important manufacturing towns, and the indus-
tries of Stockholm exceed those of every Ian (administrative division)
except Malmohus. The iron and steel industries are very important,
including engineering in every branch, and shipbuilding. Factories
for articles ofhuman consumption (e.g. breweries and tobacco works)
are numerous; and cork, wood, silk and leather works may also be
mentioned. Fine ware is produced by the Rorstrand and Gustafs-
berg porcelain works. In addition there are various government
works, as the mint and printing works. Stockholm is the first port
in Sweden for import trade, but as regards exports ranks about level
with Malmo and is exceeded by Gothenburg. The imports average
nearly 30% of those of the whole country, but the exports only
9 %, Stockholm having proportionately little share in the vast
timber export trade. Vessels of 23 ft. draught can go up to the city
(Skeppsbro and Blasieholm quays), and there is an outport at
Vartan on the Lilla Vartan channel to the north-east.
Government. Stockholm is the centre of government and the
usual residence of the king; in summer he generally occupies one
of the neighbouring country palaces. The city is the seat of the
high court of justice (Hogsta Domslolcn) and of the court of
appeal for the northern and midland districts (Svea H of rait).
It is one of the two Swedish naval stations (Karlskrona being the
principal one), and the headquarters of the fourth and fifth army
divisions. As regards local government, Stockholm is a Ian
(administrative district) in [itself, distinct from the rural Ian of
the same name, under a high governor (oftierstatliallare) and
deputy, with departments for secretarial work, taxation and
police. The city is in the diocese of Upsala, but has a separate
consistory, composed of the rectors of the city parishes, the
president of which is the rector of St Nicholas (Slorkyrka).
Population. Thepopulation of Stockholm in 1900 was 300,624.
In 1751 it was 61,040; in 1850, 93,070; and in 1880, 176,875.
History. Before the rise of Stockholm, Bjorko, Sigtuna and
Upsala were places of great importance. Bjorko (" the isle of
birches "), by foreign authors called Birka, was a kind of capital
where the king lived occasionally at least; history speaks of its
relations with Dorestad in the Netherlands, and the extensive
refuse heaps of the old city, as well as the numerous sepulchral
monuments, show that the population must have been large.
But though situated at a central point on Lake Malar, it was
destroyed, apparently before the beginning of the nth century
(exactly when or by whom is uncertain) ; and it never recovered.
Sigtuna, lying on the shore of a far-reaching northern arm of
Lake Malar, also a royal residence and the seat of the first mint
in Sweden, where English workmen were employed by King
Olaf at the beginning of the nth century, was destroyed in the
1 2th century. Stockholm was founded by Birger Jarl, it is said, in
or about 1255, at a time when pirate fleets were less common than
they had been, and the government was anxious to establish
commercial relations with the towns which were now beginning to
flourish on the southern coast of the Baltic. The city was originally
founded as a fortress on the island of Stadholm. The castle was
erected at the north-eastern corner, and the city was surrounded
with walls having fortified towers on the north and south. It
came to be called Stockholm (" the isle of the log," Latin Holmia,
German Holm) ; the true explanation of the name is not known.
During the middle ages the city developed steadily, and grew
to command all the foreign commerce of the midlands and
north, but it was not until modern times that Stockholm became
the capital of Sweden. The medieval kings visited year by year
different parts of the kingdom.
See P. R. Ferlin, Stockholm! Stad (Stockholm, 1854-1858);
C. Lundin and A. Strindberg, Gamla Stockholm (Stockholm, 1882);
C. Lundin Nya Stockholm (Stockholm, 1890) ; G. Nordensvan, Malar-
drottningen ["the queen of Malar"] (Stockholm, 1896); E. W.
STOCKING STOCKS AND SHARES
937
Dahlgren, Stockholm, Sveriges hufvustad skildrad (Stockholm, 1897,
issued by the municipal council on the occasion of the Stockholm
Exhibition, 1897).
STOCKING (a diminutive of " stock," post, stump, properly
that which is stuck or fixed), a close-fitting covering for the foot
and lower part of the leg, formerly made of cloth but now of wool,
silk or cotton thread knitted by hand or woven on a frame (see
HOSIERY) . " Stock " being the stump, i.e. the part left when the
body is cut off, the word was applied to the whole covering of the
lower limbs, which was formerly in one piece, the " upper-
stocks " and " nether-stocks " forming the two pieces into which
it was subsequently divided, when the upper part became the
trunk hose and later knee-breeches, the lower the " stockings."
A parallel is found in French; the hose are chamses, the upper
part haul de chausses, the stockings has de chausses, or simply has.
The German Strumpf, stocking, means also a stump, pointing to
the original use of the word. Half-stockings, reaching to the lower
part of the calf of the leg, and worn by men since the use of the
long trousers has superseded knee-breeches, and also by children,
are usually styled " socks." This word is an adaptation of Latin
soccus, a slipper or light shoe. It was the shoe worn by the actors
in Roman comedy and so was used symbolically of comedy,
as " buskin," the high boot or cothurnus, was of tragedy.
STOCKMAR, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH, BARON VON (1787-
1863), Anglo-Belgian statesman, who came of a Swedish family,
was born at Coburg on the 22nd of August 1787. ^He was educated
as a physician, and in that capacity became attached in 1816 to
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha on his marriage to Princess
Charlotte of England. When she died next year he remained
Leopold's private secretary, controller of the household and
political agent, until the prince became in 1831 king of the
Belgians. He was thus brought into' contact with the leading
statesmen of Europe, and his disinterestedness and profound
acquaintance with English and European social and political
questions impressed themselves on all who were associated with
him. In 1831 he retired to his home at Coburg, in order not to
excite Belgian jealousies by residing at his master's court in the
capacity of confidential adviser, but he continued to be Leopold's
right-hand man. In 1837 Leopold sent him to England as
adviser to the young Queen Victoria, and in the next year he
accompanied Prince Albert (afterwards Prince Consort) on his
tour in Italy, partly as tutor but also with the direct object of
satisfying King Leopold and the queen as to the fitness of the
prince for the position already marked out for him in England.
He won the complete confidence of tl\e prince as well as of the
queen, and on their marriage in 1840 he became their trusted
though unofficial counsellor, dividing his time more or less between
England and the Continent. In 1848 he was the ambassador of
Coburg to the German parliament. He had at heart the unity
of Germany under Prussia and close relations between Germany
and England, and for these he steadfastly worked; but his
political activity was a good deal resented in English circles,
which were jealous of Prince Albert's and generally of German
influence. He died at Coburg on the gth of July 1863.
See the articles on VICTORIA, QUEEN; and ALBERT, PRINCE
CONSORT. Selections from Stockmar's papers were published by
his son Ernest in 1872, and a biography by Justi appeared at Brussels
in 1873; see also The Letters of Queen Victoria (1907).
STOCKPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary
borough of England, mainly in Cheshire, but partly in Lanca-
shire, 6 m. S.E. of Manchester. Pop. (1901), 92,832. Itoccupies
a hilly site at the junction of the rivers Tame and Mersey; the
larger part of the town lying on the south (left) bank, while the
suburb of Heaton Norris is on the Lancashire bank. Several
bridges cross the stream, and a lofty railway viaduct bestrides
the valley. Stockport is served by the London & North
Western, Midland, Great Central, Cheshire lines, and Sheffield
& Midland railways, and has tramway connexion with Man-
chester. It is a town of varied industries, but the most important
are the cotton and hat manufactures. The church of St Mary
was built mainly c. 1817, but the chancel belonged to a former
church, and retains a Decorated east window and other good
details. The town hall was designed by Sir Brumwell Thomas,
xxv. 30 a
and opened in 1908, and St George's church (1897). On the
acquisition of the market rights by the town from Lord Vernon
in 1847 the corporation secured the site of Vernon Park, in
which stands a museum presented in 1858 by James Kershaw
and John Benjamin Smith. The grammar school was founded
n 1487 by Sir Edmund Shaa or Shaw, lord mayor of London.
The Stockport Sunday school, founded in 1784, is one of the
argest in England. Stockport was enfranchised in 1832, and
returns two members. Its most distinguished representative
was Richard Cobden (1841-1847), who is commemorated by a
statue in St Peter's Square. The town was incorporated in
1835, and is under a mayor, 16 aldermen and 48 councillors.
The county borough was created in 1888. Area, 5492 acres.
During the Roman occupation of Britain there was a small
military station on the site of Stockport, acting as an outpost
to the Roman camp at Manchester. The convergence of Roman
roads at this point would make the place a particularly convenient
centre. The etymology of the name may be Saxon, but there is
no evidence of a Saxon settlement, and the place is not mentioned
in Domesday. A castle was in existence in the 1 2th century, but
is not mentioned after 1327. Stockport (Stokeporte, Stopport,
Stopford) was made a free borough by a charter of Robert de
Stokeport about the year 1220. It was then granted that the
burgesses might elect from among themselves a chief officer, who
was first called a mayor in 1296. The right of the burgesses
to his election was, however, lost, and the mayor was always
nominated by the lord of the manor. This arrangement lasted
until 1565, when the burgesses put in a claim to their right of
election, and it was decided that out of four burgesses nominated
by the lord of the manor the jury of the court leet should select
the mayor. Thus Stockport was not a true municipal borough
until formally incorporated under the Municipal Corporations
Act of 1835. The manufacture of hemp began in Stockport
in the i6th century, and that of silk-covered buttons in the
1 7th. In 1732 a silk mill was erected, but the silk trade
was superseded by the cotton trade early in the igth century.
The hat trade developed at least as early as the end of the i8th
century.
See Henry Heginbotham, Stockport Ancient and Modern (1882);
J. P. Earwaker, East Cheshire (1877); John Watson, Memoirs of the
Earls of Warren and Surrey (1782).
STOCKS, a wooden structure formerly in use both on the
continent of Europe and in Great Britain as a method of
punishment for petty offences. The culprit sat on a wooden
bench with his ankles, and sometimes his wrists or even neck,
thrust through holes in movable boards, generally for at least
several hours. That stocks were used by the
Anglo-Saxons is proved by their often figuring
in drawings of the time (see Harleian MSS. No.
65). The second Statute of Labourers (1350)
ordered the punishment for unruly artisans.
It further enjoined that stocks (ceppes) should
be made in every town between the passing of
the act and the following Pentecost. The act
appears to have been ill observed, for in 1376
the Commons prayed Edward III. that stocks
should be set up in every village. Though never
expressly abolished, the punishment of the
stocks began to die out in England during
the early part of the igth century, though
there is a recorded case of its use so late as 1865 at Rugby. In
many of the villages in the country may still be seen well-preserved
examples of stocks, in some cases with whipping posts attached.
In the United States stocks were of frequent use in the i8th
century, more particularly in the New England States; while in
the Southern States they were employed for punishing slaves.
STOCKS and SHARES. A " share," in the financial sense, is
simply the right to participate in the profits of a particular joint-
stock undertaking. In the United Kingdom, in the case of a
company constituted under the Companies Acts 1862-1907
as a company limited by shares, the memorandum of association
is required to state among other matters the amount of capital
STOCKTON, F. R. STOCKTON
with which the company proposes to be registered and the amount
of the shares into which such capital is divided. Company
statistics show a tendency of late years on the part of companies
to register with a smaller nominal capital than they did. The
tendency too has been to lower the denomination of the shares.
100 shares, for instance, are now very rare. i shares and 5
shares are the most common. They obviously appeal better to
the small investor. A typical capital clause runs thus: " The
capital of the company shall be 100,000 divided into 100,000
shares of i each with such rights as regards dividends and other
privileges as are defined by the company's articles of association
for the time being," or " The capital of the company is 150,000
divided into 50,000 preference shares of i and 100,000 ordinary
shares of i each. Such preference shares shall confer a right
to a fixed cumulative preferential dividend at the rate of 10%
per annum." The form of capital clause varies of course, but
the more approved practice now is to leave the rights of prefer-
ential shareholders to be defined by the articles, and for this
reason: that if such rights are fixed by the memorandum of
association without qualification they cannot be subsequently
varied. Articles, on the contrary, are always alterable, and as
the preference shareholder takes his shares subject to this known
liability to alteration no wrong is done him. If the powers of
alteration were abused so as to amount to a fraud by the ordinary
shareholders on the minority of preference shareholders the
court would probably interfere by injunction. The preferential
or other special privileges of any particular class of shareholders
are now further safeguarded by s. 39 of the Companies Act 1907.
The right of a preference shareholder is commonly confined to a
preferential dividend and this dividend is prima facie cumulative,
that is to say if the profits of the particular year are insufficient
to pay it the deficiency must be made good out of the profits
of subsequent years: but it is very common to give preference
shareholders priority also as regards capital in the winding-up.
Founders' shares originated with private companies, being a
convenient means of securing to the partners in the vendor firm,
on conversion, the control of the business as well as the lion's
share of the profits. Thence they passed to ordinary trading
companies, that is, companies which appeal to the public for
their capital. Founders' shares in this connexion commonly
entitle the holders to one-half or one-third of the company's
profits after payment of a fixed dividend of, say, 7 to 10% to the
ordinary shareholders. Founders' shares are mostly subscribed
for by the vendors or promoters, though sometimes used by
way of bonus to attract subscribers for the ordinary or deferred
shares. They are now becoming rare.
Share Warrants to Bearer. The Companies Act (1862) made no
provision for the creation of shares to bearer. All shares under the
act are registered and the title on the register is evidenced by a share
certificate. The act of 1867 introduced shares to bearer under the
title of " share warrants to bearer." A share warrant entitles the
bearer to the shares or stock specified in it and such shares or stock
are transferable by delivery of the warrant. The warrant is always
treated as a negotiable instrument.
" Stock " in the case of companies constituted under the
Companies Acts 1862-1907 is created by converting paid-up
shares into stock. This may be done under s. 1 2 of the Companies
Act 1862 by resolution. Under the same section a company
may increase its capital by the issue of new shares or consolidate
it into shares of larger amount; and by s. 21 of the Companies
Act 1867 a company may subdivide its shares. The Companies
Act 1907 (s. 39) gives a company a further power by special
resolution, confirmed by an order of the court, to reorganize
its capital, whether by the consolidation of shares of different
classes or by the division of its shares into shares of different
classes but no preference or special privilege attached to any
class of shares is to be interfered with except by a resolution
passed by a majority of shareholders of that class representing
three-fourths of the capital of that class. A limited company
cannot reduce its capital without the sanction of the court.
Public Companies. The provisions as to shares and stock
under the Companies Clauses Acts 1845, 1863, 1869, are, with a
few exceptions, analogous to those under the Companies Acts.
The capital of the company is to be divided into shares of a
certain number and amount. A share register is to be kept and
certificates are to be issued to shareholders; and power is given
to convert paid-up shares into a general capital stock to be
divided among the shareholders according to their respective
interests therein. Such stock has been called a " set of shares
put together in a bundle." Preference shares may be created,
but there is this difference between preference shares under the
Companies Clauses Act and under the Companies Acts, that under
the Companies Clauses Acts preference shares are entitled to
dividends only out of the profits of each year; under the
Companies Acts the dividends as above stated are prima facie
cumulative. Shares and stock may under the Companies Clauses
Act be issued at a discount; under the Companies Acts they
cannot. Under the Companies Clauses Acts if the old shares of
the company are at a premium any new shares are to be offered
first to the old shareholders. This is not found in the Com-
panies Acts, but a similar provision is commonly inserted in the
articles of companies formed under the acts. (E. MA.)
STOCKTON, FRANCIS RICHARD (1834-1902), American
novelist, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 5th of
April 1834. lie had a high school education; became a skilled
wood engraver; wrote for the Philadelphia Morning Post, the
New York Hearth and Home, Scribner's Monthly and St Nicholas,
of which he became assistant editor in 1873; and about 1880 he
gave up editorial work for independent authorship. Thereafter
he lived in Nutley, New Jersey, in Convent, New Jersey, and after
1899 in the Shenandoah Valley, near Charles Town, West Virginia.
He died in Washington, D.C. on the 2oth of April 1902. His
fanciful stories for children made him very popular; among them
are The Ting-a-Ling Stories (1870), Roundabout Rambles in
Lands of Fact and Fancy (1872), What Might Have Been Expected
(1874), Tales Out of School (1875), A Jolly Fellowship (1880),
The Floating Prince and Other Fairy Tales (1881), The Story of
Viteau (1884), Personally Conducted (1889), and Captain Chap
(1897). His amusing and original Rudder Grange (1879), a
series of sketches rather than a novel, established his reputation
with older readers and is his best long work. His peculiar talent
was for the short story; and the best examples are the title
stories of the volumes The Lady or the Tiger? (1884), one of the
most popular of American stories, The Christmas Wreck (1886),
The Bee Man ofOrn (1887), (also in the latter volume " A Tale of
Negative Gravity "and" The Remarkable Wreck of the Thomas
Hyke "), and the novelette The Casting Away of Mrs Leeks and
Mrs Aleshine (1886), with its sequel The Dusantes (1888).
Among his other works of fiction are The Late Mrs Null (1886),
The Hundredth Man (1887), Amos Kilbright: his Adscititious Experi-
ences, with Other Stories (1888), The Great War Syndicate (1889),
The Merry Chanter (1890), Ardis Claverden (1890), The Rudder
Grangers Abroad, and Other Stories (1891), The House of Martha
(1891), The Squirrel Inn (1891), The Watchmaker's Wife and Other
Stories (1893), Pomona's Travels (1894), The Adventures of Captain
Horn (1895), with its sequel, Mrs Cliff's Yacht (1896), The Great
Stone of Sardis (1898), Kate Bonnet (1902), and The Captain's Toll-
Gate (with a memoir by Mrs Stockton, and a bibliography, 1903).
STOCKTON, a city and the county seat of San Joaquin county
in central California, U.S.A., at the head of the Stockton channel
of the San Joaquin river, about 48 m. S.E. of Sacramento. Pop.
(1900), 17,506, of whom 4057 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
2 3> 2 53- It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the
Western Pacific and the Southern Pacific railways, and has also
a considerable river trade with San Francisco. It is at the head of
regular navigation on the river; at high water boats occasionally
go to Hills Ferry, 150 m. beyond Stockton. The channel has
been much improved by the Federal government since 1877.
Stockton has a perfectly level site, broad streets and a regular
plan. In the city are a good public library, the San Joaquin
county law library, St Agnes academy, St Mary's college, a
children's home (1896; under the Ladies' Aid Society), St
Joseph's home (1899) for the aged, and St Joseph's hospital
(1899), both under the Sisters of St Dominic, the Pacific hospital,
a county hospital and a state hospital for the insane (1851).
Situated in the great valley of the San Joaquin, in the midst of a
STOCKTON-ON-TEES STOICHIOMETRY
939
rich agricultural region, it is one of the largest grain, vegetable
and fruit markets of the West. It manufactures flour, lumber,
agricultural machinery and implements, &c. Its factory product
in 1905 was valued at $8,029,490, or 45-3% more than in 1900.
Stockton rose into prominence in the early mining days. A
settlement named Tuleberg, later called New Albany, stood
on the city site in 1847; its future was precarious when the dis-
covery of gold insured its prosperity. In the spring of 1849
a town was laid out and the present name adopted in honour of
Commander Robert Field Stockton (1795-1866), who with
Colonel John C. Fremont and General Stephen W. Kearny had
gained possession of California for the United States during the
war with Mexico. In 1850 Stockton became the county-seat
and was chartered as a city.
STOCKTON-ON-TEES, a market town, municipal and parlia-
mentary borough, and port of Durham, England, on the N.
bank of the Tees, 53 m. above its mouth, and on the North
Eastern railway, 236 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. (1901),
51,478. The parliamentary borough extends across the river
into Yorkshire, to include the municipal borough of Thornaby-on-
Tees. At Norton, i m. north, the church of St Mary, formerly
collegiate, shows fine Norman work. The chief buildings are a
town hall, with clock-tower and spire, borough-hall, exchange
and public library. The quays are accessible to vessels drawing
20 ft. at high water spring tides. There are extensive steel works,
blasting furnaces, iron and brass foundries and rolling-mills;
and iron shipbuilding is an important industry. There are
also sailcloth works, potteries, breweries and brick and tile
works. Exports (iron manufactures, coal and agricultural
produce) were valued at 435,439 in 1900; imports (timber, iron,
grain, &c.) at 280,371; trade being chiefly with Holland and the
Baltic ports, and coastal. The parliamentary borough returns
one member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 10
aldermen and 30 councillors, and has an area of 2935 acres.
It would seem that Stockton (Stokton) grew up round the
castle of the bishops of Durham, to whom the town belonged
even before their purchase of the earldom of Sadberge. In 1183
the Boldon Book records that the whole town rendered one milch
cow and the ferry twenty pence to the bishop. The castle was
probably built between 1183 and 1214. King John visited
Bishop Philip of Poitou (d. 1 208) there and is said to have granted
the place a charter similar to that of Hartlepool in 1214. Of this,
however, no traces remain, the rights of the borough, which must
have come into existence during the I3th century, being purely
prescriptive. Stockton was divided into two parts: the " town,"
governed by the bailiff of the bishop and afterwards by the
vicar and vestrymen, and the borough, under a mayor and alder-
men. The bishop's bailiff was also the keeper of the castle,
though in the tyth century the office belonged to the borough-
bailiff. The borough is first mentioned in 1283, when the king
took tallage from it during the vacancy of the see. It occurs
again in a record of 1328, and in 1344 the mayor and bailiffs
entered into an agreement with the mayor and bailiffs of New-
castle for the regulation of trade between the two places. Bishop
Hatfield's survey (1377-1382) gives a list of tenants within the
borough: 22 burgages and 15 half-burgages are mentioned, the
rent of which varies from twenty-two pence to a penny half-
penny. In 1644 the parliamentary troops besieged and captured
the castle, which was dismantled in 1652. Iri 1666 the popula-
tion was only 544, for Stockton was an isolated place with little
trade. It became a parliamentary borough, returning one
member, in 1867. In 1310 the bishop gave the town a market
and a fair during the octave of the Translation of St Thomas the
Martyr, reserving to himself the tolls; Bishop Morton revived the
market, which had lapsed at the beginning of the i7th century.
Camden speaks of Stockton as a neat, well-built corporation
town and especially commends the ale brewed there and sent to
various parts of the country. The importance of Stockton as a
port dates from trie-end of the i8th century, when there was a
considerable trade in lead, dairy produce and timber.
STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY (1825-1903), American
author, was born in Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of
July 1825. He spent most of his boyhood in New York City,
where he became a blacksmith and later an iron moulder, but
in 1849 he gave up his trade and began to write for a living.
He contributed to the Union Magazine, the Knickerbocker
Magazine, Putnam's Monthly Magazine and the New York
Evening Post. In 1853 Nathaniel Hawthorne helped him to
secure the appointment of inspector of customs of the Port of
New York. He was confidential clerk to George B. McClellan
in the New York dock department in 1870-1872, and city
librarian of New York in 1874-1875; literary reviewer for the
New York World (1860-1870); one of the editors of Vanity
Fair; editor of the Aldine (1869-1874), and literary editor of
the Mail and Express (1880-1903). He died in New York on
the 1 2th of May 1903. Among the numerous books that he
edited are The Loves and Heroines of the Poets (1861); Melodies
and Madrigals, Mostly from the old English Poets (1865); The
Late English Poets (1865), selections; Griswold's Poets and
Poetry of America (1872), and Female Poets of America (1874);
The Bric-a-Brac Series, in 10 vols. (1874-1876); English
Verse, in 5 vols. edited with W. J. Linton (1883); and four
editions of Poe's works, with a memoir (1872-1894). His
original poetry includes Footprints (1849), privately printed
and afterwards suppressed; Poems (1852); the juveniles, Adven-
tures in Fairyland (1853); Town and Country (1857), and The
Story of Little Red Riding Hood (1864); Songs of Summer (1857);
The King's Bell (1862), one of his most popular narrative poems;
Abraham Lincoln: A Horatian Ode (1865), The Book of the
East (1867), Poems (1880), a collective edition; and The Lion's
Cub, with Other Verse (1890). He also wrote Life, Travels
and Books of Alexander von Humboldt (1860) ; Under the Evening
Lamp (1892), essays dealing mainly with the modern English
poets; and Recollections Personal and Literary (1903), edited by
Ripley Hitchcock. More important than his critical was his
poetical work, which at its best is sincere, original and maiked
by delicate fancy, and felicity of form; and his songs have given
him a high and permanent place among American lyric poets.
His wife ELIZABETH DREW (BARSTOW) STODDARD (1823-
1902), poet and novelist, was born in Mattapoisett, Massa-
chusetts, on the 6th of May 1823. She studied at \\heaton
Seminary, Norton, Mass. After her marriage in 1852 she
assisted her husband in his literary work, and contributed
stories, poems and essays to the periodicals. She wrote three
novels The Morgesons (1862), Two Men (1865) and Temple
House (1867), and a volume of poems (1895). A new edition
of her novels was issued in 1901. She died in New York on the
ist of August 1902.
STOFFLET, JEAN NICOLAS (1751-1796), Vendean general,
was born at Luneville, the son of a miller. Long a private
soldier in a Swiss regiment in France, and afterwards game-
keeper to the comte de Colbert-Maulevrier, he joined the
Vendeans when they rose against the Revolution to defend
their religious and royalist principles. During the war in La
Vendee he served first under Gigot d'Elbee, fought at Fontenay,
Cholet and Saumur, and distinguished himself at the battles
of Beaupreau, Laval and Antrain. He was appointed major-
general of the royalist army, and in 1794 succeeded La Roche-
jaquelein as commander-in-chief. But his quarrels with
another Vendean leader, F. A. Charette, and the reverses sus-
tained by the Vendean arms, led him to give in his submission
and to accept the terms of the treaty of La Jaunaie (May 2,
1795). He, however, soon violated this treaty, and at the
instigation of royalist agents took arms in December 1795 on
behalf of the count of Provence (the future Louis XVIII.),
from whom he had received the rank of marechal-de-camp.
This last attempt of Stofflet's failed completely. He was taken
prisoner by the republicans, condemned to death by a military
commission, and shot at Angers on the 23rd of February 1796.
See General d'Andigne 1 , Memoires, edited by E. Bir6 (1900-
1901); C. Loyer, " Cholet sous la domination de Stofflet," in L'Anjou
historique, vol. iii. (1902-1903).
STOICHIOMETRY (Gr. aroixeta, fundamental parts, or
elements, nirpov, measure), in chemistry, a term introduced by
940
STOICHIOMETRY
Benjamin Richter to denote the determination of the relative
amounts in which acids and bases neutralize one another; but
this definition may be extended to include the determination of
the masses participating in any chemical reaction. The work of
Richter and others who explored this field is treated under
ELEMENT; here we discuss a particular branch of the subject,
viz. the determination of equivalent and atomic weights of ele-
ments, and the molecular weights of elements and compounds.
Reference to CHEMISTRY, ATOM and ELEMENT will explain the
principles involved. Every element has an " equivalent weight "
which is usually defined as the amount of the element which
combines with or replaces unit weight of hydrogen; the " atomic
weight " may be regarded as the smallest weight of an element
which can be present in a chemical compound, and the " mole-
cular weight " is the weight of the least part of an element or
compound which can exist alone. The atomic weight is there-
fore some multiple of the equivalent weight, and the determin-
ing factor is termed the valency (q.v.) of the element. We
have mentioned hydrogen as our standard element, which was
originally chosen as being the lightest known substance; but
Berzelius, whose stoichiometric researches are classical, having
pointed out that few elements formed stable compounds with
hydrogen, and even these presented difficulties to exact analysis,
proposed to take oxygen as the standard. This suggestion has
been adopted by the International Committee of Atomic Weights,
who take the atomic weight of oxygen as 16-000, hydrogen being
i-ooS;. 1
Deferring the discussion of gaseous elements and compounds
we will consider the modus operandi of determining, first, the
equivalent weight of an element which forms solid compounds,
and, secondly, its atomic weight. Suppose we can cause our
element in known quantity to combine with oxygen to form a
definite compound, which can be accurately weighed, or,
conversely, decompose a known weight of the oxide into its
constituents, of which the element can be weighed, then the
equivalent weight of the element may be exactly determined.
For if x grams of the element yield y grains of the oxide, and
if W be the equivalent of the element, we have x grams of the
element equivalent to y-x grams of oxygen, and hence the
equivalent weight W, which corresponds to 8 grams of oxygen,
is given by the proportion y-x : x : : 8 : W, i.e. W = 8x/(y x).
For example, Lavoisier found that 45 parts of red oxide of
mercury on heating yielded 415 parts of mercury; hence
415 parts of mercury is equivalent to 45 415 = 35 parts of
oxygen, and the equivalent of mercury in this oxide is therefore
8 X 413 -f- 35 = 95. The question now arises : is this value the
true equivalent, i.e. half the amount of mercury which combines
with one atom of oxygen (for one atom of oxygen is equivalent
to two atoms of hydrogen)? Before considering this matter,
however, we will show how it is possible to obtain the equivalent
of elements whose oxides are not suitable for exact analysis.
No better example can be found than Stas's classical determina-
tion of the atomic weight of silver and of other elements. 2 It
will be seen that the routine necessary to the chemical
determination of equivalents consists in employing only such
substances as can be obtained perfectly pure and stable (under
the experimental conditions), and that the reactions chosen must
be such as to yield a series of values by which any particular
value can be checked or corrected.
Stas's experiments can be classified in five series. The object
of the first series was to obtain the ratio Ag : O by means of the ratios
KC1:O and Ag:KCl. The ratio KC1:O was determined by de-
composing a known weight of potassium chlorate (a) by direct
heating, (6) by heating with hydrochloric acid and weighing the
residual chloride. The reaction may be written for our purpose
in the form: KC1O3 = KC1+3O; in case a the oxygen is liberated
as such; in case b it oxidizes the hydrochloric acid to water and
chlorine oxides. The equation shows that one KC1 is equivalent
1 We may here state that the equivalent weight of oxygen on
this basis is 8-000, i.e. one half of its atomic weight. This matter
is considered below.
2 The formulae used in the following paragraph were established
before Stas began his work; and as oxygen is taken as 1 6, the
results are atomic and not equivalent weights.
to 36, and hence if x grams of chlorate yields y grams of chloride,
then the ratio KC1: O = y/$(x y). Taking O as 16 and the
experimental value of x and y, Stas obtained KC1:O = 74-9502.
To find the ratio of Ag : KC1, a known weight of silver was dissolved
in nitric acid and the amount of potassium chloride necessary for
its exact precipitation was determined. The reaction may be
written as AgNO s + KCl = AgCl + KNO 8 , which shows that one
Ag is equivalent to one KC1. The value found was Ag : KC1
= 1-447110. The ratio Ag:O is found by combining these values,
for Ag:O = KCl:OXAg:KCl = 74'952 X 1-44710 = 107-9401.
In the second series the ratios AgChO and AgCl:Ag were
obtained, the first by decomposing the chlorate by heating, and the
second by synthesizing the chloride by burning a known weight
of the metal in chlorine gas and weighing the resulting chloride,
and also by dissolving the metal in nitric acid and precipitating
it with hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride. These two
sets yield the ratio Ag : O, and also the ratio Cl : O, which, com-
bined with the ratio KC1 : O obtained in the first series, gave the-
atomic weight of potassium. The third and fourth series resembled
the second, only the bromate and bromide, and iodate and iodide
were worked with. The experiments gave additional values for
Ag: O and also the atomic weights of bromine and iodine.
The fifth series was concerned with the ratios Ag 2 SO4 : Ag ;
Ag 2 S : Ag and Ag 2 S:O. The first was obtained by reducing
silver sulphate to the metal by hydrogen at high temperatures;
the second by the direct combination of silver and sulphur, and also
by the interaction of silver and sulphuretted hydrogen ; these ratios
on combination gave the third ratio Ag 2 S:O. These experiments
besides giving values for Ag:O, yielded also the atomic weight
of sulphur. There is no need to proceed any further with Stas's
work, but it is sufficient to say that the general routine which he em-
ployed has been adopted in all chemical determinations of equivalent
weights.
The derivation of the atomic from the equivalent weight
may be effected in several ways. The simplest are perhaps
by means of Dulong and Petit's law of atomic heats (and by
Neumann's extension of this law), and by Mitscherlich's doctrine
of isomorphism. Dulong and Petit's law may be stated in the
form that the product of the specific heat and atomic weight
is approximately 6-4, or that an approximate value of the
atomic weight is 6-4 divided by the specific heat. This appli-
cation may be illustrated in the case of mercury. We have
seen above that the red oxide yields a value of about 95 for the
equivalent; but a green oxide is known which contains twice
as much metal for each part of oxygen, and therefore in this
compound the equivalent is about 190. The specific heat of
mercury, however, is 0-033, and this number divided into
6-4 gives an approximate atomic weight of 194. More accurate
analyses show that mercury has an equivalent of 100 in the red
oxide and 200 in the green; Dulong and Petit's law shows us
that the atomic weight is 200, and that the element is divalent
in the red oxide and monovalent in the green. For exceptions
to this law see CHEMISTRY: Physical.
The application of isomorphism follows from the fact that
chemically similar substances crystallize in practically identical
forms, and, more important, form mixed crystals. If two salts
yield mixed crystals it may be assumed that they are similarly
constituted, and if the formula of one be known, that of the other
may be written down. For example gallium sulphate forms a salt
with potassium sulphate which yields mixed crystals with potash
alum; we therefore infer that gallium is trivalent like aluminium,
and therefore its atomic weight is deduced by multiplying the
equivalent weight (determined by converting the sulphate into
oxide) by three. General chemical resemblances yield valuable
information in fixing the atomic weight after the equivalent
weight has been exactly determined.
Gases. The generalization due to Avogadro that equal
volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure contain equal numbers of molecules may be stated in
the form that the densities of gases are proportional to their
molecular weights. It therefore follows that a comparison of
the density of any gas with that of hydrogen gives the ratio of
the molecular weights of the two gases, and if the molecular
contents of the gases be known then the atomic weight is deter-
minable. Gas reactions are available in many cases for solving
the question whether a molecule is monatomic, diatomic, &c.
Thus from the combination of equal volumes of hydrogen and
chlorine to form twice the volume of hydrochloric acid, it may
STOICHIOMETRY
94 1
be deduced that the molecule of hydrogen and of chlorine con-
tains two atoms (see ATOM) ; and similar considerations show
that oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, &c., are also diatomic. Physical
methods may also be employed. For instance, in monatomic
gases the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the
specific heat at constant volume is 1-66; in diatomic gases
1-42; with other values for more complex molecules (see MOLE-
CULE). This ratio may be determined directly by finding the
velocity of sound in the gas (Kundt) or by other methods, or
indirectly by finding the specific heats separately and then taking
the ratio. It is found that the gases just mentioned are
diatomic, whereas argon, helium, neon and the related gases,
and also mercury and some other metals when in the gaseous con-
dition, are monatomic. A knowledge of the atomicity of a gas
combined with its density (compared with oxygen and hydrogen)
would therefore give its atomic weight if Avogadro's law were
rigorously true. But this is not so, except under extremely low
pressures, and it is necessary to correct the observed densities.
The correction involves a detailed study of the behaviour
of the gas over a large range of pressure (presuming the
densities are already corrected to o),and may be conveniently
written in the form c = 4&L, Thus if D be the observed
pv dp
relative densities of a gas to hydrogen at o and under normal
atmospheric pressure, a-a and O H the coefficients of the gas and
hydrogen, then the true density, or ^atio of molecular weights,
is DX (I+<ZX)/(I+OH).
Lord Rayleigh and D. Berthelot have corrected several mole-
cular weights in this fashion. The importance is well shown
in the modification of Morley's observed density of oxygen,
viz. 15-90, which, with Rayleigh's values of a = 0-0x3094 and
# H =-j- 0-00053, gives the corrected density as 15-88. And this
value is the atomic weight, for both hydrogen and oxygen
molecules contain two atoms. Compound gases can also be
experimented with. For example Gray (Journ. Chem. Soc.,
1905, 87, p. 1601) found that it was easier to prepare perfectly
pure nitric oxide than to obtain pure nitrogen, and he therefore
determined the density of this gas from which the atomic
weight of 14-012, or, corrected for deviations from Avogadro's
law, 14-006, was deduced.
The principle indicated here is applicable to the determination
of the molecular weight of any vaporizable substance by the
so-called method of vapour-density (see DENSITY).
Solutes. The theory of solution permits the investigation of
the molecular weights of substances which dissolve in water
or some other solvent. It is shown in SOLUTION that a solute
lowers the freezing point and raises the boiling point of the
solvent in a regular manner as long as dilute solutions are dealt
with. It has been shown that if one gram molecule of a solute be
dissolved in 100 grams of solvent then the boiling point is raised
by 0-02 T 2 /w. (say D) degrees, where T is the absolute boiling
point and iv the latent heat of vaporization of the solvent;
this constant is known as the molecular rise of the boiling point,
and varies from solvent to solvent. If we dissolve say m grams
of a substance of molecular weight M in 100 grams of the solvent
and observe the elevation in the boiling point, then M is given
by M = mD/d. Similar considerations apply to the freezing
points of solutions. In this case D =' 0-02 T>/w, where T is
the absolute freezing point of the pure solvent and w the latent
heat of solidification. To apply these principles it is only
necessary therefore to determine the freezing (or boiling)
point of the solvent (of which a known weight is taken), add
a known weight of the solute, allow it to dissolve and then
notice the fall (or rise) in the freezing (or boiling point), from
which values, if the molecular depression (or elevation) be
known, the molecular weight of the dissolved substance is
readily calculated.
The following are the molecular depressions and elevations
(with the freezing and boiling points in brackets) of the
commoner solvents.
Molecular depressions: aniline (6), 58-7; benzene (5-4),
50-0; acetic acid (17-0), 39-0; nitrobenzene (5-3), 70-0; phenol
(40), 72; water (o), 18-5.
Molecular elevations: acetic acid (118-1), 25-3; acetone
(56), 17-1; alcohol (78), 11-7; ether (35), 21-7; benzene (79),
26-7; chloroform (61), 35-9; pyridine (115), 29-5; water
(100), 5-1.
The apparatus used in cryoscopic measurements is usually that
devised by Beckmann (Zeit. phys. Chem. ii. 307). The working part
consists of a tube 2-3 cms. in diameter, bearing a side tube near
the top ; the tube is fitted with a cork through which pass a differ-
ential thermometer of a range of about 6 and graduated in soths
or looths, and also a stout platinum wire to serve as a stirrer. The
lower part of the tube is enclosed in a wider tube to serve as an
air-jacket, and the whole is immersed in a large beaker. The ther-
mometer is adjusted so that the freezing point of the pure solvent
comes near the top of the scale. A weighed quantity of the solvent
is placed in the inner tube, and the beaker is filled with a freezing
mixture at a temperature a few degrees below the freezing point
of the solvent. The thermometer is inserted and both solvent
and freezing mixture are stirred. When the temperature is about
0-3 below the correct freezing point the tube is removed from the
beaker and the stirring continued. There ensues a further fall
in the thermometer reading until ice separates, whereupon the
temperature rises to the correct freezing point. The ice is then
melted and the operation repeated so as to obtain a mean value.
A known weight of the substance is introduced through the side
tube, and the freezing point determined as with the pure solvent.
The difference of the readings gives the depression; and from this
value, knowing the weight of the solute and solvent, and also
the molecular depression, the molecular weight can be calculated
from the formula given above.
In the boiling point apparatus of Beckmann the solvent is con-
tained in a tube fitted with side tubes to which spiral condensers
can be attached; the neck of the tube carries a stopper through
which passes a delicate differential thermometer, whilst the bottom
is perforated by a platinum wire and contains glass beads, garnets
or platinum foil to ensure regular boiling. The tube is surrounded
by a jacket mounted on an asbestos box, so that the heating
is regular. In conducting a determination the thermometer is
adjusted so that the boiling point of the pure solvent is near the
bottom of the scale. A known weight of the solvent is placed in
the tube, the thermometer is inserted (so that the liquid completely
covers the bulb), and the condensers put into position. The liquid
is now cautiously heated, and when the thermometer becomes
stationary the boiling point is reached. The temperature having
been read, the apparatus is allowed to cool slightly, and the observa-
tion repeated. A known weight of the substance is now intro-
duced, and the solution so obtained treated in the same fashion as
the original solvent.
A different procedure wherein the boiling tube is heated, not
directly, but by a stream of the vapour of the pure solvent, was
proposed by Sakurai (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1892, 61, p. 994). Sakurai's
apparatus has been considerably modified, and the form now princi-
pally used is essentially due to Landsberger (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 461).
The boiling vessel is simply a flask fitted with a delivery tube,
which is connected with the measuring tube. This consists of a
graduated tube fitted with a stopper through which passes a ther-
mometer and an inlet tube reaching nearly to the bottom. The
measuring tube is surrounded by an outer tube which has an exit
to a condenser at the side or bottom, communication being made
between the measuring tube and jacket by a small hole near the
top of the former. In outline the operation consists in placing
some solvent in the measuring tube and passing in vapour until
the condensed liquid falls at the rate of one drop per second or two
seconds. The temperature is then read off. A known weight of
the substance is introduced and the boiling point determined
as before; out immediately the temperature is read the tube must
be disconnected, so that no more vapour passes over and so alters
the concentration of the solution. Two methods are in use for
determining the quantity of the solvent. Landsberger weighed
the tube; Walker and Lumsden (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1898, 73, p. 502)
graduated the tube and thus measured the volume of the solvent;
in W. E. S. Turner's apparatus (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1910. 97, p. 1184)
both the weight and volume can be determined. Whilst the
calculations in both the Beckmann and Sakurai-Landsberger methods
are essentially the same the " molecular elevations " differ according
as one deals with 100 grams or 100 ccs. of solvent. In all these
methods it is necessary to carefully choose the solvent in order to
avoid dissociation or association. For example, most salts are dis-
sociated in aqueous solution; and acids are bi-molecular in benzene
but normal in acetic acid.
Other methods are available for dissolved substances such as
measurements of the osmotic pressure, lowering of the vapour
pressure and diminution of solubility, but these are little used.
Mention may also be made of Ramsay and Shield's method of
finding the molecular weights of liquids from surface tension
measurements. (See CHEMISTRY : Physical.)
942
STOICS
STOICS, a school of philosophers founded at the close of the
4th century B.C. by Zeno of Citium, and so called from the
Stoa or painted corridor (aroa iroud\rf) on the north side of the
market-place at Athens, which, after its restoration by Cimon,
the celebrated painter Polygnotus had adorned with frescoes
representing scenes from the Trojan War. But, though it
arose on Hellenic soil, from lectures delivered in a public place
at Athens, the school is scarcely to be considered' a product of
purely Greek intellect, but rather as the firstfruits of that inter-
action between West and East which followed the conquests
of Alexander. Hardly a single Stoic of eminence was a citizen
of any city in the heart of Greece, unless we make Aristo of
Chios, Cleanthes of Assus and Panaetius of Rhodes exceptions.
Such lands as Cyprus, Cilicia and Syria, such cities as Citium,
Soli, Heraclea in Pontus, Sidon, Carthage, Seleucia on the Tigris,
Apamea by the Orohtes, furnished the school with its scholars
and presidents; Tarsus, Rhodes and Alexandria became famous
as its university towns. As the first founder was of Phoenician
descent, so he drew most of his adherents from the countries
which were the seat of Hellenistic (as distinct from Hellenic)
civilization; nor did Stoicism achieve its crowning triumph
until it was brought to Rome, where the grave earnestness of
the national character could appreciate its doctrine, and where
for two centuries or more it was the creed, if not the philosophy,
of all the best of the Romans. Properly therefore it stands in
marked antithesis to that fairest growth of old Hellas, the
Academy, which saw the Stoa rise and fall the one the typical
school of Greece and Greek intellect, the other of the Hellenized
East, and, under the early Roman Empire, of the whole civilized
world. The transcendent genius of its author, the vitality
and romantic fortunes of his doctrine, claim our warmest sym-
pathies for Platonism. But it should not be forgotten that
for more than four centuries the tide ran all the other way.
It was Stoicism, not Platonism, that filled men's imaginations
and exerted the wider and more active influence upon the ancient
world at some of the busiest and most important times in all
history. And this was chiefly because before all things it was a
practical philosophy, a rallying-point for strong and noble
spirits contending against odds. Nevertheless, in some depart-
ments of theory, too, and notably in ethics and jurisprudence,
Stoicism has dominated the thought of after ages to a degree
not easy to exaggerate.
The history of the Stoic school may conveniently be divided
in the usual threefold manner: the old Stoa, the middle or
transition period (Diogenes of Seleucia, Boethus of Sidon,
Panaetius, Posidonius), and the later Stoicism of Roman times.
By the old Stoa is meant the period (c. 304-205 B.C.) down to
the death of Chrysippus, the second founder; then was laid the
foundation of theory, to which hardly anything of importance
was afterwards added. Confined almost to Athens, the school
made its way slowly among many rivals. Aristo of Chios and
Herillus of Carthage, Zeno's heterodox pupils, Persaeus, his
favourite disciple and housemate, the poet Aratus, and Sphaerus,
the adviser of the Spartan king Cleomenes, are noteworthy
minor names ; but the chief interest centres about Zeno, Cleanthes,
Chrysippus, who in succession built up the wondrous system.
What originality it had at first sight it would seem not much
belongs to these thinkers; but the loss of all their works except
the hymn of Cleanthes, and the inconsistencies in such scraps
of information as can be gleaned from unintelligent witnesses,
for the most part of many centuries later, have rendered it a
peculiarly difficult task to distinguish with certainty the
work of each of the three. The common standpoint, the relation
to contemporary or earlier systems, with all that goes to make
up the character and spirit of Stoicism, can, fortunately, be
more certainly established, and may with reason be attributed
to the founder.
Zeno's residence at Athens fell at a time when the great
movement which Socrates originated had spent itself in the
second generation of his spiritual descendants.
Neither Theophrastus at the Lyceum, nor Xeno-
crates and Polemo at the Academy, nor Stilpo, who was drawing
crowds to hear him at Megara, could be said to have inherited
much of the great reformer's intellectual vigour, to say nothing
of his moral earnestness. Zeno visited all the schools in turn,
but seems to have attached himself definitely to the Cynics;,
as a Cynic he composed at least one of his more important
works, " the much admired Republic," which we know to
have been later on a stumbling-block to the school. In the
Cynic school he found the practical spirit which he divined to
be the great need of that stirring troublous age. For a while
his motto must have been " back to Socrates," or at least
" back to Antisthenes." The Stoics always counted themselves
amongst the Socratic schools, and canonized Antisthenes and
Diogenes; while reverence for Socrates was the tie which united
to them such an accomplished writer upon lighter ethical topics
as the versatile Persaeus, who, at the capital of Antigonus
Gonatas, with hardly anything of the professional philosopher
about him, reminds us of Xenophon, or even Prodicus. Zeno
commenced, then, as a Cynic; and in the developed system we
can point to a kernel of Cynic doctrine to which various philo-
sophemes of other thinkers (more especially Heraclitus and
Aristotle, but also Diogenes of Apollonia, the Pythagoreans,
and the medical school of Hippocrates in a lesser degree) were
added. Thus, quite apart from the general similarity of their
ethical doctrine, the Cynics were materialists; they were also
nominalists, and combated the Platonic ideas; in their theory
of knowledge they made use of " reason " (\6yos), which was
also one of their leading ethical conceptions. In all these par-
ticulars Zeno followed them, and the last is the more important,
because, Chrysippus having adopted a new criterion of truth
a clear and distinct perception of sense it is only from casual
notices we learn that the elder Stoics had approximated to
Cynicism in making right reason the standard. At the same
time, it is certain that the main outlines of the characteristic
physical doctrine, which is after all the foundation of their
ethics and logic, were the work of Zeno. The Logos, which
had been an ethical or psychological principle to the Cynics,
received at his hands an extension throughout the natural world,
in which Heraclitean influence is unmistakable. Reading the
Ephesian doctrine with the eyes of a Cynic, and the Cynic ethics
in the light of Heracliteanism, he came to formulate his dis-
tinctive theory of the universe far in advance of either. In
taking this immense stride and identifying the Cynic "reason,"
which is a law for man, with the " reason " which is the law of
the universe, Zeno has been compared with Plato, who similarly
extended the Socratic " general notion " from the region of
morals of justice, temperance, virtue to embrace all objects
of all thought, the verity of all things that are.
If the recognition of physics and logic as two studies co-
ordinate with ethics is sufficient to differentiate the mature
Zeno from the Cynic author of the Republic, no less
than from his own heterodox disciple Aristo, the
elaboration on all sides of Stoic natural philosophy belongs to
Cleanthes, who certainly was not the merely docile and receptive
intelligence he is sometimes represented as being. He carried
on and completed the assimilation of Heraclitean doctrine;
but his own contributions were more distinctive and original
than those of any other Stoic. Zeno's seeming dualism of God
(or force) and formless matter he was able to transform into the
lofty pantheism which breathes in every line of the famous
hymn to , Zeus. Heraclitus had indeed declared all to be in
flux, but we ask in vain what is the cause for the unceasing
process of his ever-living fire. It was left for Cleanthes to
discover this motive cause in a conception familiar to Zeno,
as to the Cynics before him, but restricted to the region of
ethics the conception of tension or effort. The soul of the
sage, thought the Cynics, should be strained and braced for
judgment and action; his first need is firmness (tvrovia) and
Socratic strength. But the mind is a corporeal thing. Then
followed the flash of genius: this varying tension of the one
substance everywhere present, a purely physical fact, accounts
for the diverse destinies of all innumerable particular things;,
it is the veritable cause of the flux and process of the universe.
Cleanthes.
STOICS
943
Herein lies the key to the entire system of the Stoics, as
Cleanthes's epoch-making discovery continually received fresh
applications to physics, ethics and epistemology. Other of his
innovations, the outcome of his crude materialism, found less
favour with his successor, who declined to follow him in iden-
tifying the primary substance with fire, or in tracing all vitality
to its ultimate source in the sun, the " ruling power " of the
world a curious anticipation of scientific truth. Yet under
this poetical Heraclitean mystic the school was far from
flourishing. The eminent teachers of the time are said to have
been Aristo, Zeno's heterodox pupil, and Arcesilas, who in
Plato's name brought Megarian subtleties and Tyrrhenian
agnosticism to bear upon the intruding doctrine; and after
a vigorous upgrowth it seemed not unlikely to die out. From
all danger of such a fate it was rescued by its third great
teacher, Chrysippus; " but for Chrysippus there had been no
Porch."
Zeno had caught the practical spirit of his age the desire
for a popular philosophy to meet individual needs. But there
was another tendency in post-Aristotelian thought
to lean upon authority and substitute learning
for independent research which grew stronger just in pro-
portion as the fresh interest in the problems of the universe
and the zeal for discovery declined a shadow, we may call it, of
the coming Scholasticism thrown a thousand years in advance.
The representative of this tendency, Chrysippus, addressed
himself to the congenial task of assimilating, developing,
systematizing the doctrines bequeathed to him, and, above
all, securing them in their stereotyped and final form, not
simply from the assaults of the past, but, as after a long and
successful career of controversy and polemical authorship he
fondly hoped, from all possible attack in the future. To his
personal characteristics can be traced the hair-splitting and
formal pedantry which ever afterwards marked the activity of
the school, the dry repellent technical procedure of the Dialec-
ticians par excellence, as they were called. He created their
formal logic and contributed much that was of value to their
psychology and epistemology; but in the main his work was
to new-label and new-arrange in every department, and to
lavish most care and attention on the least important parts
the logical terminology and the refutation of fallacies, or, as
his opponents declared, the excogitation of fallacies which
even he could not refute. In his Republic Zeno had gone so
far as to declare the routine education of the day (e.g. mathe-
matics, grammar, &c.) to be of no use. Such Cynic crudity
Chrysippus rightly judged to be out of keeping with the re-
quirements of a great dogmatic school, and he laboured on all
sides after thoroughness, erudition and scientific completeness.
In short, Chrysippus made the Stoic system what it was, and
as he left it we proceed to describe it.
And first we will inquire, What is philosophy? No idle
gratification of curiosity, as Aristotle fabled of his life intel-
Conceptioa lectual (which would be but a disguise for refined
ofPMtoso- pleasure), no theory divorced from practice, no
fhy- pursuit of science for its own sake, but knowledge
so far forth as it can be realized in virtuous action, the
learning of virtue by exercise and effort and training. So
absolutely is the " rara and priceless wisdom " for which we
strive identical with virtue itself that the three main divisions of
philosophy current at the time and accepted by Zeno logic,
physics and ethics are defined as the most generic or com-
prehensive virtues. How otherwise could they claim our atten-
tion? Accordingly Aristo, holding to Cynicism when Zeno
himself had got beyond it, rejected two of these parts of philo-
sophy as useless and out of reach a divergence which excluded
him from the school, but strictly consistent with his view that
ethics alone is scientific knowledge. Of the three divisions
logic is the least important; ethics is the outcome of the whole,
and historically the all-important vital element ; but the foun-
dations of the whole system are best discerned in the science of
nature, which deals pre-eminently with the macrocosm and the
microcosm, the universe and man, including natural theology
and an anthropology or psychology, the latter forming the direct
introduction to ethics.
The Stoic system is in brief: (a) materialism, (6) dynamic
materialism, lastly (c) monism or 'pantheism, (a) The first
of these characters is described by anticipation in ph
Plato's Sophist (246 C seq.), where, arguing with those
" who drag everything down to the corporeal " (oxo/ua), the
Eleatic stranger would fain prove to them the existence of some-
thing incorporeal, as follows. " They admit the existence of
an animate body. Is soul then something existent (ovtria)?
Yes. And the qualities of soul, as justice and wisdom are
they visible and tangible? No. Do they then exist? They
are in a dilemma." Now, however effective against Plato's
contemporary Cynics or Atomists, the reasoning is thrown
away upon > the Stoics, who take boldly the one horn of this
dilemma. That qualities of bodies (and therefore of the
corporeal soul) exist they do not deny; but they assert most
uncompromisingly that they are one and all (wisdom, justice,
&c.) corporeal. And they strengthen their position by taking
Plato's own definition (247 D), namely " being is that which
has the power to act or be acted upon," and turning it against
him. For this is only true of Body; action,
..'.,. , ' Materialism.
except by contact, is inconceivable; and they reduce
every form of causation to the efficient cause, which implies
the communication of motion from one body to another. Again
and again, therefore, only Body exists. The most real realities
to Plato and Aristotle had been thought and the objects of
thought, vovs and foijTo., whether abstracted from sensibles
or inherent in " matter," as the incognizable basis of all concrete
existence. But this was too great an effort to last long. Such
spiritualistic theories were nowhere really maintained after
Aristotle and outside the circle of his immediate followers. The
reaction came and left nothing of it all; for five centuries the
dominant tone of the older and the newer schools alike was
frankly materialistic. " If," says Aristotle, " there is no
other substance but the organic substances of nature, physics
will be the highest of the sciences," a conclusion which passed
for axiomatic until the rise of Neoplatonism. The analogues
therefore of metaphysical problems must be sought in physics;
particularly that problem of the causes of things for which
the Platonic idea and the Peripatetic " constitutive form "
had been, each in its turn, received solutions, (b) Tension
But the doctrine that all existence is confined within
the limits of the sensible universe that there is no being save
corporeal being or body does not suffice to characterize the
Stoic system; it is no less a doctrine of the Epicureans. It is
the idea of tension or tonicity as the essential attribute of body,
in contradistinction to passive inert matter, which is distinctively
Stoic. The Epicureans leave unexplained the primary con-
stitution and first movements of their atoms or elemental
solids; chance or declination may account for them. Now, to
the Stoics nothing passes unexplained; there is a reason (Xiryos)
for everything in nature. Everything which exists is at once
capable of acting and being acted upon. In everything that
exists, therefore, even the smallest particle, there are these
two principles. By virtue of the passive principle the thing is
susceptible of motion and modification; it is matter which
determines substance (ovtrio). The active principle makes the
matter a given determinate thing, characterizing and qualifying
it, whence it is termed quality (XOIOTTJS). For all that is or
happens there is an immediate cause or antecedent; and as
" cause " means " cause of motion," and only body can act
upon body, it follows that this antecedent cause is itself as truly
corporeal as the matter upon which it acts. Thus we are led
to regard the active principle " force " as everywhere co-
extensive with " matter," as pervading and permeating it,
and together with it occupying and filling space. This is that
famous doctrine of universal permeation (xpacrts 5i* oXov), by
which the axiom that two bodies cannot occupy the same space
is practically denied. Thus that harmony of separate doctrines
which contributes to the impressive simplicity of the Stoic
physics is only attained at the cost of offending healthy common
944
STOICS
sense, for Body itself is robbed of a characteristic attribute. A
thing is no longer, as Plato once thought, hot or hard or bright
by partaking in abstract heat or hardness or brightness, but by
containing within its own substance the material of these
qualities, conceived as air-currents in various degrees of tension.
We hear, too, of corporeal days and years, corporeal virtues,
and actions (like walking) which are bodies (ffdj^ara) . Obviously,
again, the Stoic quality corresponds to Aristotle's essential
form; in both systems the active principle, " the cause of all
that matter becomes," is that which accounts for the existence
of a given concrete thing (Xcxyos TTJS ovalas). Only here,
instead of assuming something immaterial (and therefore un-
verifiable), we fall back upon a current of air or gas (irvtviio.);
the essential reason of the thing is itself material, standing to
it in the relation of a gaseous to a solid body. Here, too, the
reason of things that which accounts for them is no longer
some external end to which they are tending; it is something
acting within them, " a spirit deeply interfused," germinating
and developing as from a seed in the heart of each separate thing
that exists (Xiryox <rirp^aTt/c6s). By its prompting the thing
grows, develops and decays, while this " germinal reason,"
the element of quality in the thing, remains constant through
all its changes, (c) What then, we ask, is the relation between
the active and the passive principles? Is there,
Fonx or * s there not, an essential distinction between sub-
stance or matter and pervading force or cause or
quality? Here the Stoa shows signs of a development of
doctrine. Zeno began, perhaps, by adopting the formulas
of the Peripatetics, though no doubt with a conscious diffe-
rence, postulating that form was always attached to matter,
no less than matter, as known to us, is everywhere shaped or
informed. Whether he ever overcame the dualism <; which
the sources, such as they are, unanimously ascribe to him is
not clearly ascertained. It seems probable that he did not.
But we can answer authoritatively that to Cleanthes and Chry-
sippus, if not to Zeno, there was no real difference between
matter and its cause, which is always a corporeal current, and
therefore matter, although the finest and subtlest
matter: In fact they have reached the final result
of unveiled hylozoism, from which the distinction of the active
and passive principles is discerned to be a merely formal con-
cession to Aristotle, a legacy from his dualistic doctrine. His
technical term Form (tldos) they never use, but always Reason
or God. This was not the first time that approaches had been
made to such a doctrine, and Diogenes of Apollonia in particular
was led to oppose Anaxagoras, who distinguished Nous or
Thought from every other agent within the cosmos which is its
work by postulating as his first principle something which should
be at once physical substratum and thinking being. But
until dualism had been thought out, as in the Peripatetic school,
it was impossible that monism (or at any rate materialistic
monism) should be definitely and consciously maintained.
One thing is certain: the Stoics provided no loophole of escape
by entrenching upon the " purely material " nature of matter;
they laid down with rigid accuracy its two chief properties
extension in three dimensions, and resistance, both being traced
back to force. There were, it is true, Certain inconsistent
conceptions, creations of thought to which nothing real and
external .corresponded, namely, time, space, void, and the
idea expressed in language (X/CTOI>). But this inconsistency
was covered by another: though each of these might be said
to be something, they could not be said to exist.
The distinction of force and matter is then something transitory
and relative. Its history will serve as a sketch of the cosmogony
_ of the Stoics, for they too, like earlier philosophers,
<nony. have their .. fairy tales ?f science." Before there was
heaven or earth, there was primitive substance or Pneuma, the
everlasting presupposition of particular things. This is the totality
of all existence; out of it the whole visible universe proceeds,
hereafter to be again resolved into it. Not the less is it the
creative force, or deity, which develops and shapes this universal
order or cosmos. To the question, What is God? Stoicism rejoins,
What is God not? In this original state of Pneuma God and the
world are absolutely identical. But even then tension, the essential
Monism.
attribute of matter, is at work. Though the force working every-
where is one, there are diversities of its operation, corresponding to
various degrees of tension. In this primitive Pneuma there must
reside the utmost tension and heat; for it is a fact of observation
that most bodies expand when heated, whence we infer that there
is a pressure in heat, an expansive and dispersive tendency. The
Pneuma cannot long withstand this intense pressure. Motion
backwards and forwards once set up goes to cool the glowing mass of
fiery vapour and to weaken the tension. Hereupon follows the first
differentiation of primitive substance the separation of force from
matter, the emanation of the world from God. The germinal world-
making powers \(<rirtpna.TiKoi \b-yoi), which, in virtue of its tension,
slumbered in Pneuma, now proceed upon their creative task. The
primitive substance, be it remembered, is not Heraclitus's fire
(though Cleanthes also called it flame of fire, <X6) any more than
it is the air or " breath " of Anaximenes or Diogenes of Apollonia.
Chrysippus determined it, following Zeno, to be fiery breath or
ether, a spiritualized sublimed intermediate element. The cycle
of its transformations and successive condensations constitutes the
life of the universe, the mode of existence proper to finite and
particular being. For the universe and all its parts are only
different embodiments and stages in that metamorphosis of primi-
tive being which Heraclitus had called a progress up and down
(656s ava K&.TU). Out of it is separated, first, elemental fire, the
fire which we know, which burns and destroys; and this, again,
condenses into air or aerial vapour; a further step in the downward
path derives water and earth from the solidification of air. At
every stage the degree of tension requisite for existence is slackened,
and the resulting element approaches more and more to " inert "
matter. But, just as one element does not wholly pass over into
another (e.g. only a part of air is transmuted into water or earth),
so the Pneuma itself does not wholly pass over into the elements.
The residue that remains in original purity with its tension yet
undiminished is the ether in the highest sphere of the visible heavens,
encircling the world of which it is lord and head. From the elements
the one substance is transformed into the multitude of individual
things in the orderly universe, which again is itself a living thing
or being, and the Pneuma pervading it, and conditioning life and
growth everywhere, is its soul. But this process of differentiation is
not eternal; it continues only until the times of the restoration of
all things. For the world which has grown up will in turn decay.
The tension which has been relaxed will again be tightened; there
will be a gradual resolution of things into elements, and of elements
into the primary substance, to be consummated in a general confla-
gration when once more the world will be absorbed in God. Then
in due order a new cycle of development begins, reproducing the last
in every minutest detail, and so on for ever.
The doctrine of Pneuma, vital breath or " spirit," arose in the
medical schools. The simplest reflection among savages and half-
civilized men connects vitality with the air inhaled in _
respiration; the disciples of Hippocrates, without much
modifying this primitive belief, explained the maintenance of vital
warmth to be the function of the breath within the organism. In the
time of Alexander the Great Praxagoras discovered the distinction
between the arteries and the veins. Now in the corpse the former
are empty; hence, in the light of these preconceptions they were
declared to be vessels for conveying Pneuma to the different parts
of the body. A generation afterwards Erasistratus made this the
basis of a new theory of diseases and their treatment. Vital spirit,
inhaled from the outside air, rushes through the arteries till it
reaches the various centres, especially the brain and the heart, and
there causes thought and organic movement. But long before this
the peculiar character of air had been recognized as something
intermediate to the corporeal and the incorporeal: when Diogenes
of Apollonia revived the old Ionian hylozoism in opposition to the
dualism of Anaxagoras, he made this, the typical example of matter
in the gaseous state, his one element. In Stoicism, for the moment,
the two conceptions are united, soon, however, to diverge the
medical conception to receive its final development under Galen,
while the philosophical conception, passing over to Philo and others,
was shaped and modified at Alexandria under the influence of
Judaism, whence it played a great part in the developments of
Jewish and Christian theology.
The influence upon Stoicism of Heraclitus has been differently
conceived. Siebeck would reduce it within very small dimensions,
but this is not borne out by the concise history found at coatrasito
Herculaneum (Index here., ed. Comparetti, col. 4 seq.). fferaclitus
They substituted primitive Pneuma for his primitive
fire, but so far as they are hylozoists at all they stand upon the
same ground with him. Moreover, the commentaries of Cleanthes,
Aristo and Sphaerus on Heraclitean writings (Diog. Laer. vii. 174,
ix. 5, 15) point to common study of these writings under
Zeno. Others again (e.g. Lassalle) represent the Stoics as merely
diluting and distorting Heracliteanism. But this is altogether
wrong, and the proofs offered, when rightly sifted, are often seen to
rest upon the distortion of Heraclitean doctrine in the reports of
later writers, to assimilate it to the better known but essentially
distinct innovations of the Stoics. In Heraclitus the constant flux
is a metaphysical notion replaced by the interchange of material
STOICS
945
elements which Chrysippus stated as a simple proposition of physics.
Heraclitus offers no analogy to the doctrine of four (not three)
elements as different grades of tension ; to the conception of fire and
air as the " form," in Aristotelian terminology, of particulars; nor
to the function of organizing fire which works by methodic plan
to produce and preserve the world (irOp rex"A" 65 ftal>l(oi> eirl
y'tvtaiv Koatwv). Nor, again, is there any analogy to the peculiar
Stoic doctrine of universal intermingling (xpoffis Si 6Xou). The
two active elements interpenetrate the two lower or more relaxed,
winding through all parts of matter and so pervading the greater
masses that there is no mechanical mixture, nor yet a chemical
combination, since both " force " and " matter " retain their relative
characters as before. Even the distinction between " force " and
" matter " so alien to the spirit of Heraclitus is seen to be a
necessary consequence. Once assume that every character and
property of a particular thing is determined solely by the tension
in it of a current of Pneuma, and (since that which causes currents
in the thing cannot be absolutely the same with the thing itself)
Pneuma, though present in all things, must be asserted to vary
indefinitely in quantity and intensity. So condensed and coarsened
is the indwelling air-current of inorganic bodies that no trace of
elasticity or life remains; it cannot even afford them the power of
motion; all it can do is to hold them together ((TUMKTIKI) Swajuis),
and, in technical language, Pneuma is present in stone or metal
as a retaining principle (lis = hold), explaining the attributes
of continuity and numerical identity (avvfXTJ nai r\vuinkva) which
even these natural substances possess. In plants again and all
the vegetable kingdom it is manifest as something far purer and
possessing greater tension, called a " nature," or principle of growth
(<t>iiais). Further, a distinction was drawn between irrational
animals, or the brute creation, and the rational, i.e. gods and men,
leaving room for a divergence, or rather development, of Stoic
opinion. The older authorities conceded a vital principle, but denied
a soul, to the brutes: animals, they say, are fia but not 8/u^uxa.
Later on much evidence goes to show that (by a divergence from
the orthodox standard perhaps due to Platonic influence) it was a
Stoic tenet to concede a soul, though not a rational soul, throughout
the animal kingdom. To this higher manifestation of Pneuma can
be traced back the " esprits animaux " of Descartes and Leibnitz,
which continue to play so great a part even in Locke. The universal
presence of Pneuma was confirmed by observation. A certain
warmth, akin to the vital heat of organic being, seems to be found
in inorganic nature: vapours from the earth, hot springs, sparks from
the flint, were claimed as the last remnant of Pneuma not yet utterly
slackened and cpld. They appealed also to the velocity and dilata-
tion of aeriform bodies, to whirlwinds and inflated balloons. The
Logos is quick and powerful, and sharper than any two-edged
sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of the joints and marrow.
Tension itself Cleanthes defined as a fiery stroke (irXTj^iJ wvpos) ;
in his hymn to Zeus lightning is the symbol of divine activity.
Take the fundamental properties of body extension and resistance.
The former results from distance; but distances, or dimensions,
are straight lines, i.e. lines of greatest tension (th axpov rera^ei'T)).
Tension produces dilatation, or increase in distance. Resistance,
again, is explained by cohesion, which implies binding force. Again,
the primary substance has rectilinear motion in two directions, back-
wards and forwards, at once a condensation, which produces cohesion
and substance, and a dilatation, the cause of extension and qualities.
How near this comes to the scientific truth of attraction and repul-
sion need hardly be noted. From the astronomers the Stoics
borrowed their picture of the universe a plenum in the form of a
series of layers or concentric rings, first the elements, then the
planetary and stellar spheres, massed round the earth as centre a
picture which dominated the imagination of men from the days of
Eudoxus down to those of Dante or even Copernicus. As to the
physical constitution of bodies, they were content to reproduce the
Peripatetic doctrine with slight modifications in detail, of hardly
any importance when compared with the change of spirit in the
doctrine taught. But they rarely prosecuted researches in physics
or astronomy, and the newly created sciences of biology and compara-
tive anatomy received no adequate recognition from them.
If, however, in the science of nature the Stoics can lay claim
to no striking originality, the case is different when we come
to the science of man. In the rational creatures
Psychology. man an( j ^ gods Pneuma is manifested in a
high degree of purity and intensity as an emanation from
the world-soul, itself an emanation from the primary sub-
stance of purest ether a spark of the celestial fire, or,
more accurately, fiery breath, which is a mean between fire
and air, characterized by vital warmth more than by dryness.
The physical basis of Stoic psychology deserves the closest
attention. On the one hand, soul is corporeal, else it would have
no real existence, would be incapable of extension in three
dimensions (and therefore of equable diffusion all over the body),
incapable of holding the body together, as the Stoics contended
that it does, herein presenting a sharp contrast to the Epicurean
tenet that it is the body which confines and shelters the light
vagrant atoms of soul. On the other hand, this corporeal thing
is veritably and identically reason, mind, and ruling principle
(\oyos, vovs, TjyfuovLKov) ; in virtue of its divine origin Cleanthes
can say to Zeus, " We too are thy offspring," and a Seneca can
calmly insist that, if man and God are not on perfect equality,
the superiority rests rather on our side. What God is for the
world that the soul is for man. The Cosmos must be conceived
as a single whole, its variety being referred to varying stages
of condensation in Pneuma. So, too, the human soul must
possess absolute simplicity, its varying functions being con-
ditioned by the degrees or species of its tension. It follows
that of " parts " of the soul, as previous thinkers imagined,
there can be no question; all that can consistently be maintained
is that from the centre of the body the heart seven distinct
air-currents are discharged to various organs, which are so
many modes of the one soul's activity. 1 The ethical consequences
of this position will be seen at a later stage. With this psy-
chology is intimately connected the Stoic theory
of knowledge. From the unity of soul it follows 1?"""**
, . . . Knowledge.
that all psychical processes sensation, assent,
impulse proceed from reason, the ruling part; that is to
say, there is no strife or division: the one rational soul alone
has sensations, assents to judgments, is impelled towards
objects of desire just as much as it thinks or reasons. Not
that all these powers at once reach full maturity. The soul
at first is void of content; in the embryo it has not developed
beyond the nutritive principle of a plant (<wris): at birth
the " ruling part " is a blank tablet, although ready prepared
to receive writing. This excludes all possibility of innate ideas
or any faculty akin to intuitive reason. The source of all our
knowledge is experience and discursive thought, which manipu-
lates the materials of sense. Our ideas are copied from stored-
up sensations. No other theory was possible upon the
foundation of the Stoic physics.
Note the parallel between the macrocosm and the microcosm.
The soul of the world fills and penetrates it: in like manner the
human soul pervades and breathes through all the body, informing
and guiding it, stamping the man with his essential character of
rational. There is in both alike a ruling part, though this is situate
in the human heart at the centre not in the brain, as the analogy
of the celestial ether would suggest. Finally, the same cause, a
relaxation of tension, accounts for sleep, decay and death of man and
for the dissolution of the world ; after death the disembodied soul
can only maintain its separate existence, even for a limited time,
by mounting to that region of the universe which is akin to its nature.
It was a moot point whether all souls so survive, as Cleanthes
thought, or the souls of the wise and good alone, which was the
opinion of Chrysippus; in any case, sooner or later individual souls
are merged in the soul of the universe, from which they proceeded.
The relation of the soul of the universe to God is quite clear: it
is an inherent property, a mode of His activity, an effluence or
emanation from the fiery ether which surrounds the universe,
penetrating and permeating it. A Stoic might consistently main-
tain that World-Soul, Providence, Destiny and Germinal Reason
are not mere synonyms, for they express different aspects of God,
different relations of God to things. We find ourselves on the verge
of a system of abstractions, or " attributes turned into entities,"
as barren as any excogitated in medieval times. In a certain
sense, Scholasticism began with Chrysippus. To postulate different
substances as underlying the different forces of nature would have
been to surrender the fundamental thought of the system. What
really is the Pneuma neither increases nor diminishes; but its
modes of working, its different currents, can be conveniently
distinguished and enumerated as evidence of so many distinct
attributes.
One inevitable consequence of materialism is that subject and
object can no longer be regarded as one in the act of perception, as
Plato and Aristotle tended to assume, however imper- p^ tl n
fectly the assumption was carried out. The presump-
tion of some merely external connexion, as between any other
two corporeal things, is alone admissible and some form of the
1 These derivative powers include the five senses, speech and the
reproductive faculty, and they bear to the soul the relation of
qualities to a substance. The ingenious essay of Mr R. D. Archer
Hind on the Platonic psychology (Journ. of Phil. x. 120) aims at
establishing a parallel unification on the spiritualistic side; cf.
Rep. x. 612 A.
94 6
STOICS
representative hypothesis is most easily called in to account for
perception. The Stoics explained it as a transmission of the per-
ceived quality of the object, by means of the sense organ, into the
percipient's mind, the quality transmitted appearing as a disturb-
ance, or impression upon the corporeal surface of that " thinking
thing," the soul. Sight is taken as the typical sense. A conical
pencil of rays diverges from the pupil of the eye, so that its base
covers the object seen. In sensation a presentation is conveyed,
by an air-current, from the sense organ, here the eye, to the mind,
i.e. the soul's " ruling part " in the breast; the presentation, besides
attesting its own existence, gives further information of its object
visible colour or size, or whatever be the quality in the thing seen.
That Zeno and Cleanthes crudely compared this presentation to
the impression which a seal bears upon wax. with protuberances
and indentations, while Chrysippus more prudently determined it
vaguely as an occult modification or " mode " of mind, is an interest-
ing but not intrinsically important detail But the mind is no mere
passive recipient ot impressions from without, in the view of the
Stoics. Their analysis of sensation supposes it to react, by a
variation in tension, against the current from the sense-organ;
and this is the mind's assent or dissent, which is inseparable from
the sense presentation. The contents of experience are not all
alike true or valid: hallucination is possible: here the Stoics join
issue with Epicurus. It is necessary, therefore, that assent should
not be given indiscriminately; we must determine a criterion of
truth, a special formal test whereby reason may recognize the
merely plausible and hold fast the true. In an earlier age such
an inquiry would have seemed superfluous. To Plato and Aristotle
the nature and operation of thought and reason constitute a suffi-
cient criterion. Since their day not only had the opposition between
sense and reason broken down, but the reasoned scepticism of
Pyrrho and Arcesilaus had made the impossibility of attaining
truth the primary condition of well-being. Yet the standard which
ultimately found acceptance in the Stoic school was not put forward,
in that form, by its founder. Zeno, we have reason to believe,
adopted the Cynic Logos for his guidance to truth as well as to
morality. As a disciple of the Cynics he must have started with a
theory of knowledge somewhat like that developed in the third part
of Plato's Theaetetus (201 C seq.) that simple ideas are given by
sense, whereas " opinion," which is a complex of simple ideas, only
becomes knowledge when joined with Logos. We may further
suppose that the more obvious of Plato's objections had led to the
correction of " reason " into " right reason." However that may
be, it is certain from Aristotle (Nic. Eth. vi. 13, 1 144!), 17) that virtue
was defined as a " habit " in accordance with right reason, and
from Diog. Laer. vii. 54 that the earlier Stoics made right reason
the standard of truth. The law which regulates our action is thus
the ultimate criterion of what we know practical knowledge being
understood to be of paramount importance. But this criterion
was open to the persistent attacks of Epicureans and Academics,
who made clear (l) that reason is dependent upon, if not derived
from, sense, and (2) that the utterances of reason lack consistency.
Chrysippus, therefore, conceded something to his opponents when
he substituted for the Logos the new standards of sensation (at<r0t)<ris)
and general conception (irp6Xi^i$= anticipation, i.e. the generic
type formed in the mind unconsciously and spontaneously). At the
same time he was more clearly defining and safeguarding his prede-
cessors' position. For reason is consistent in the general conceptions
wherein all men agree, because in all alike they are of spontaneous
growth. Nor was the term sensation sufficiently definite. The
same Chrysippus fixed upon a certain characteristic
of true presentations, which he denoted by the much
disputed term " apprehensive " (icaTaXjjirTtKi) ^avraala).
Provided the sense organ and the mind be healthy, provided an
external object be really seen or heard, the presentation, in virtue
of its clearness and distinctness, has the power to extort the assent
which it always lies in our power to give or to withhold.
Formerly this technical phrase was explained to mean " the
perception which irresistibly compels the subject to assent to it
as true." But this, though apparently supported by Sextus Empiri-
cus (Adv. Math. vii. 257), is quite erroneous; for the presentation
is called Kara\riwT6v, as well as xoTaXrjirT-uci) <t>cu>Tcurla, so that beyond
all doubt it is something which the percipient subject grasps,
and not that which grasps or " lays hold of " the percipient. Nor,
again, is it wholly satisfactory to explain /caTaXijirroc^ as virtually
passive, "apprehensible," like its opposite d/caT-iXTjflros ; for we
find dcriXijTTTuciJ TUV inroKemeyoH' used as an alternative phrase
(ibid. vii. 248). It would seem that the perception intended to con-
stitute the standard of truth is one which, by producing a mental
counterpart of a really existent external thing, enables the percipient,
in the very act of sense, to " lay hold of " or apprehend an object
in virtue of the presentation or sense impression of it excited in his
own mind. The reality of the external object is a necessary condi-
tion, to exclude hallucinations of the senses ; the exact correspondence
between the external object and the internal percept is also necessary,
but naturally hard to secure, for how can we compare the two?
The external object is known only in perception. However, the
younger Stoics endeavoured to meet the assaults of their persistent
critic Carneades by suggesting various modes of testing a single
Criterion of
Troth.
presentation, to see whether it were consistent with others, especially
such as occurred in groups, &c. ; indeed, some went so far as to add
to the definition " coming from a real object and exactly correspond-
ing with it " the clause " provided it encounter no obstacle."
The same criterion was available for knowledge derived more
directly from the intellect. Like all materialists, the Stoics can
only distinguish the sensible from the intelligible as
thinking when the external object is present (alat>.vtaeo.C) Degrees of
and thinking when it is absent (tvvotiv) The product **'
of the latter kind includes memory (though this is, upon a
strict analysis, something intermediate), and conceptions or general
notions, under which were confusedly classed the products of
the imaginative faculty. The work of the mind is seen first in
" assent "; if to a true presentation the result is " simple apprehen-
sion " (xardXTii/'is : this stands in close relation to the KoTaXijTrroo)
tpavTaala. of which it is the necessary complement) ; if to a false or
unapprehensive presentation, the result is opinion " (86u), always
deprecated as akin to error and ignorance, unworthy of a wise man.
These processes are conceivable only as " modes " of mind, changes
in the soul's substance, and the same is true of the higher conceptions,
the products of generalization. But the Stoics were not slow to
exalt the part of reason, which seizes upon the generic qualities,
the essential nature of things. Where sense and reason conflict,
it is the latter that must decide. One isolated " apprehension,"
however firm its grasp, does not constitute knowledge or science
(iiriarrinri) ; it must be of the firmest, such as reason cannot shake,
and, further, it must be worked into a system of such apprehensions
which can only be by the mind's exercising the " habit " () of
attaining truth by continuous tension. Here the work of reason
is assimilated to the force which binds together the parts of an
inorganic body and resists their separation. There is nothing more
in the order of the universe than extended mobile bodies and forces
in tension in these bodies. So, too, in the order of knowledge there
is nothing but sense and the force of reason maintaining its tension
and connecting sensations and ideas in their proper sequence. Zeno
compared sensation to the outstretched hand, flat and open; bending
the fingers was assent; the clenched fist was " simple apprehension,"
the mental grasp of an object; knowledge was the clenched fist
tightly held in the other hand. The illustration is valuable for the
light it throws on the essential unity of diverse intellectual operations
as well as for enforcing once more the Stoic doctrine that different
grades of knowledge are different grades of tension. Good and
evil, virtues and vices, remarks Plutarch, are all capable of being
" perceived "; sense, this common basis of all mental activity, is a
sort of touch by which the ethereal Pneuma which is the soul's
substance] recognizes and measures tension.
With this exposition we have already invaded the province of
logic. To this the Stoics assigned a miscellany of studies rhetoric,
dialectic, including grammar, in addition to formal roxic
logic to all of which their industry made contributions.
Some of their innovations in grammatical terminology have lasted
until now: we still speak of oblique cases, genitive, dative, accusa-
tive, of verbs active (6p6&), passive (6jma), neuter (oMSertpa), by the
names they gave. Their corrections and fancied improvements of
the Aristotelian logic are mostly useless and pedantic. Judgment
(<Mru>|ua) they defined as a complete idea capable of expression in
language (\fxrAv a&roreXes), and to distinguish it from other
enunciations, as a wish or a command, they added " which is either
true or false." From simple judgments they proceeded to compound
judgments, and declared the hypothetical syllogism to be the normal
type of reason, of which the categorical syllogism is an abbreviation.
Perhaps it is worth'while to quote their treatment of the categories.
Aristotle made ten, all co-ordinate, to serve as " heads of predica-
tion " under which to collect distinct scraps of information respecting
a subject, probably a man. For this the Stoics substituted four
summa genera, all subordinate, so that each in turn is more precisely
determined by the next. They are Something, or Being, determined
as (i) substance or subject matter, (2) essential quality, i.e. substance
qualified, (3) mode or chance attribute, i.e. qualified^ substance in a
certain condition (TTOIS t\ov), and, lastly, (4) relation or relative
mode (in full inroKtlntvov iroitm irpAs ri irwt ifxoc). The zeal with
which the school prosecuted logical inquiries had one practical
result they could use to perfection the unrivalled weapon of an-
alysis. Its chief employment was to lay things bare and sever them
from their surroundings, in order that they might be contemplated
in their simplicity, with rigid exactness, as objects of thought,
apart from the illusion and exaggeration that attends them when
presented to sense and imagination. The very perfection and
precision of this method constantly tempted the later Stoics to
abuse it for the systematic depreciation of the objects analysed.
The ethical theory of the Stoics stands in the closest connexion
with their physics, psychology and cosmology. A critical account
of it will be found in the article ETHICS. It may be Ethics
briefly summarized here. Socrates had rightly said
that Virtue is Knowledge, but he had not definitely shown in what
this knowledge consists, nor had his immediate successors, the
Cynics, made any serious attempt to solve the difficulty. The
Stoics not only drew up an elaborate scheme of duties, but also
crystallized their theory in a general law, namely that true goodness
STOICS
947
lies in the knowledge of nature and is obtained by the exercise of
Reason. The most elementary part of nature is pure ether, which
is possessed of divine reason. This Reason even non-rational
man unconsciously manifests in his mechanical or instinctive actions
which tend to the preservation of himself. The truly wise man
will therefore live as much as possible in conformity with nature,
(i.e. nature uncorrupted by the errors of society), and, though as
an individual and part of the whole not master of his fate, will yet
have self-control even in the midst of misfortune and pain. All
evil passion is due to erroneous judgment and morbid conditions
of mind which may be divided into chronic ailments (voj-ti^aTa)
and infirmities (Appuxn-^uaTa), i.e. into permanent or temporary
disorders. In contrast to the Cyrenaics and the Epicureans, the
Stoics denied that pleasure is actually or ought to be the object of
human activity. The non-rational man aims at self-preserva-
tion, and the wise man will imitate him deliberately, and when he
fails he will suffer with equanimity. To him the so-called " goods "
(e.g. health, wealth, &c.) are " indifferent " (dSiA^opa) ; since he must
live, he will exercise his reasoning faculty upon them, and will
regard some as" preferred" (npoTiy/iti>a.) and others as to be" rejected"
(tuiroirporwiitva.), but he will not regard either class as possessed of
an intrinsic value. The end of action is, therefore, a harmonious
consistent life " according to nature " and (cf. Heraclitus) an ordered
unity of action. Virtue is its own good; the highest exercise of
reason is its own perfection. It follows (l) that pleasure, being
quite outside the pale is not the object but merely an kinyivvTi^a
(accompaniment) of virtuous action, and (2) that there is, within
the circle of virtue, no degree. An action is simply virtuous or
not; it cannot be more or less virtuous. The result of this theory of
ethics is of great value as emphasizing the importance of a sys-
tematic view of conduct, but it fails to resolve satisfactorily the great
Socratic paradox that evil is the result of ignorance. For even
though they attempt to substantiate the idea of responsibility by
maintaining that ignorance is voluntary, they cannot find any answer
to the question whether some men may not be without the capacity
to choose learning (but see ETHICS: History, Stoics).
In their view of man's social relations the Stoics are greatly
in advance of preceding schools. We saw that virtue is a law
which governs the universe: that which Reason
. an< ^ God ordain must be accepted as binding upon
the particle of reason which is in each one of us.
Human law comes into existence when men recognize this
obligation; justice is therefore natural and not something
merely conventional. The opposite tendencies, to allow to
the individual responsibility and freedom, and to demand
of him obedience to law, are both features of the system; but
in virtue even of the freedom which belongs to him qua rational,
he must recognize the society of rational beings of which he is a
member, and subordinate his own ends to the ends and needs
of this society. Those who own one law are citizens of one
state, the city of Zeus, in which men and gods have their dwell-
ing. In that city all is ordained by reason working intelligently,
and the members exist for the sake of one another; there is an
intimate connexion (avuiradtia) between them which makes
all the wise and virtuous friends, even if personally unknown,
and leads them to contribute to one another's good. Their
intercourse should find expression in justice, in friendship, in
family and political life. But practically the Stoic philosopher
always had some good excuse for withdrawing from the narrow
political life of the city in which he found himself. The cir-
cumstances of the time, such as the decay of Greek city-life,
the foundation of large territorial states under absolute Greek
rulers which followed upon Alexander's conquests, and after-
wards the rise of the world-empire of Rome, aided to develop
the leading idea of Zeno's Republic. There he had anticipated
a state without family life, without law courts or coins, without
schools or temples, in which all differences of nationality would
be merged in the common brotherhood of man. This cos-
mopolitan citizenship remained all through a distinctive Stoic
dogma; when first announced it must have had a powerful
influence upon the minds of men, diverting them from the
distractions of almost parochial politics to a boundless vista.
There was, then, no longer any difference between Greek and
barbarian, between male and female, bond and free. All are
members of one body as partaking in reason, all are equally men.
Not that this led to any movement for the abolition of slavery.
For the Stoics attached but slight importance to external cir-
cumstances, since only the wise man is really free, and all the
unwise are slaves. Yet, while they accepted slavery as a per-
manent institution, philosophers as wide apart as Chrysippus
and Seneca sought to mitigate its evils in practice, and urged
upon masters humanity in the treatment of their slaves.
The religious problem had peculiar interest for the school
which discerned God everywhere as the ruler and upholder,
and at the same time the law, of the world that _ /; /
He had evolved from Himself. The physical ground-
work lends a religious sanction to all moral duties, and
Cleanthes's noble hymn is evidence how far a system of natural
religion could go in providing satisfaction for the cravings of
the religious temper:
" Most glorious of immortals, O Zeus of many names, almighty
and everlasting, sovereign of nature, directing all in accordance
with law, thee it is fitting that all mortals should address. . . . Thee
all this universe, as it rolls circling round the earth, obeys whereso-
ever thou dost guide, and gladly owns thy sway. Such a minister
thou holdest in thy invincible hands the two-edged, fiery, ever-
living thunderbolt, under whose stroke all nature shudders. No
work upon earth is wrought apart from thee, lord, nor through the
divine ethereal sphere, nor upon the sea; save only whatsoever
deeds wicked men do in their own foolishness. Nay, thou knowest
how to make even the rough smooth, and to bring order out of
disorder; and things not friendly are friendly in thy sight. For
so hast thou fitted all things together, the good with the evil, that
there might be one eternal law over all. . . . Deliver men from
fell ignorance. Banish it, father, from their soul, and grant them
to obtain wisdom, whereon relying thou rulest all things with
justice."
To the orthodox theology of Greece and Rome the system
stood in a twofold relation, as criticism and rationalism. That
the popular religion contained gross errors hardly needed to be
pointed out. The forms of worship were known to be trivial
or mischievous, the myths unworthy or immoral. But Zeno
declared images, shrines, temples, sacrifices, prayers and
worship to be of no avail. A really acceptable prayer, he taught,
can only have reference to a virtuous and devout mind: God
is best worshipped in the shrine of the heart by the desire to
know and obey Him. At the same time the Stoics felt at
liberty to defend and uphold the truth in polytheism. Not
only is the primitive substance God, the one supreme being,
but divinity must be ascribed to His manifestations to the
heavenly bodies, which are conceived, like Plato's created
gods, as the highest of rational beings, to the forces of nature,
even to deified men; and thus the world was peopled with
divine agencies. Moreover, the myths were rationalized and
allegorized, which was not in either case an original procedure.
The search for a deeper hidden meaning beside the literal one
had been begun by Democritus, Empedocles, the Sophists
and the Cynics. It remained for Zeno to carry this to a much
greater extent and to seek out or invent " natural principles "
(\6yoL (jjvcnKoi) and moral ideas in all the legends and in the
poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In this sense he was the
pattern if not the " father " of all such as allegorize an4 re-
concile. Etymology was pressed into the service, and the
wildest conjectures as to the meaning of names did duty as a
basis for mythological explanations. The two favourite Stoic
heroes were Hercules and Ulysses, and nearly every scene in
their adventures was made to disclose some moral significance.
Lastly, the practice of divination and the consul- DMaatloa
tation of oracles afforded a means of communication
between God and man a concession to popular beliefs
which may be explained when we reflect that to the faith-
ful divination was something as essential as confession and
spiritual direction to a devout Catholic now, or the study and
interpretation of Scripture texts to a Protestant. Chrysippus
did his best to reconcile the superstition with his own rational
doctrine of strict causation. Omens and portents, he explained,
are the natural symptoms of certain occurrences. There must
be countless indications of the course of Providence, for the
most part unobserved, the meaning of only a few having
become known to men. His opponents argued, " if all events
are foreordained, divination is superfluous "; he replied that
both divination and our behaviour under the warnings which
STOICS
it affords are included in the chain of causation. Even here,
however, the bent of the system is apparent. They were at
pains to insist upon purity of heart and life as an indispensable
condition for success in prophesying and to enlist piety in the
service of morality.
When Chrysippus died (Ol. 143 = 208-204 B.C.) the structure
of Stoic doctrine was complete. With the Middle Stoa we
Middle enter upon a period at first of comparative inaction,
stoa. e afterwards of internal reform. Chrysippus's im-
mediate successors were Zeno of Tarsus, Diogenes of
Seleucia (often called the Babylonian) and Antipater of Tarsus,
men of no originality, though not without ability; the two last-
named, however, had all their energies taxed to sustain the
conflict with Carneades (q.v.). This was the most formidable
assault the school ever encountered; that it survived was due
more to the foresight and elaborate precautions of Chrysippus
than to any efforts of that " pen-doughty " pamphleteer,
Antipater (/ca\a/io/36as), who shrank from opposing himself in
person to the eloquence of Carneades. The subsequent history
testified to the importance of this controversy. The special
objects of attack were the Stoic theory of knowledge, their
theology and their ethics. The physical basis of the system
remained unchanged but neglected; all creative force or even
original research in the departments of physics and metaphysics
vanished. Yet problems of interest bearing upon psychology
and natural theology continued to be discussed. Thus the
cycles of the world's existence, and the universal conflagration
which terminates each of them, excited some doubt. Diogenes of
Seleucia is said to have wavered in his belief at lastjBoethus,
one of his pupils, flatly denied it. He regarded the Deity as
the guide and upholder of the world, watching over it from
the outside, not as the immanent soul within it, for according
to him the world was as soulless as a plant. We have here a
compromise between Zeno's and Aristotle's doctrines. But
in the end the universal conflagration was handed down without
question as an article of belief. It is clear that the activity
of these teachers was chiefly directed to ethics: they elaborated
fresh definitions of the chief good, designed either to make yet
clearer the sense of the formulas of Chrysippus or else to meet
the more urgent objections of the New Academy. Carneades
had emphasized one striking apparent inconsistency: it had
been laid down that to choose what is natural is man's highest
good, and yet the things chosen, the " first objects according to
nature," had no place amongst goods. Antipater may have
met this by distinguishing " the attainment " of primary natural
ends from the activity directed to their attainment (Plut.
De Comm. Not. 27, 14, p. 1072 F); but, earlier still, Diogenes
had put forward his gloss, viz. " The end is to calculate rightly
in the selection and rejection of things according to nature."
Archedemus, a contemporary of Diogenes, put this in plainer
terms still: " The end is to live in the performance of all fitting
actions " (TTCLVTO. TO. KodrjKovra (TnTf\ovvras tfv). Now it is
highly improbable that the earlier Stoics would have sanctioned
such interpretations of their dogmas. The mere performance
of relative or imperfect duties, they would have said, is some-
thing neither good nor evil; the essential constituents of human
good is ignored. And similar criticism is actually passed by
Posidonius: " This is not the end, but only its necessary con-
comitant; such a mode of expression may be useful for the
refutation of objections put forward by the Sophists " (Car-
neades and the New Academy?), " but it contains nothing
of morality or well-being " (Galen, De Plac. Hipp, et Plat.
p. 470 K). There is every ground, then, for concluding that we
have here one concession extorted by the assaults of Carneades.
For a similar compromise there is express testimony: " good
repute " (eu5ota) had been regarded as a thing wholly indiffer-
ent in the school down to and including Diogenes. Antipater
was forced to assign to it " positive value," and to give it a place
amongst " things preferred " (Cic. De fin. iii. 57). These
modifications were retained by Antipater's successors. Hence
come the increased importance and fuller treatment which
from this time forward fall to the lot of the " external duties "
(Kadf)KovTa). The rigour and consistency of the older system
became sensibly modified.
To this result another important factor contributed. In all
that the older Stoics taught there breathes that enthusiasm
for righteousness in which has been traced the
earnestness of the Semitic spirit; but nothing '
presents more forcibly the pitch of their moral idealism than
the doctrine of the Wise Man. All mankind fall into two
classes the wise or virtuous, the unwise or wicked the dis-
tinction being absolute. He who possesses virtue possesses it
whole and entire; he who lacks it lacks it altogether. To be
but a hand's-breadth below the surface of the sea ensures drown-
ing as infallibly as to be five hundred fathoms deep. Now the
wise man is drawn as perfect. All he does is right, all his opinions
are true; he alone is free, rich, beautiful, skilled to govern,
capable of giving or receiving a benefit. And his happiness,
since length of time cannot increase it, falls in nothing short of
that of Zeus. In contrast with all this, we have a picture of
universal depravity. Now, who could claim to have attained
to the sage's wisdom? Doubtless, at the first founding of the
school Zeno himself and Zeno's pupils were inspired with this
hope; they emulated the Cynics Antisthenes and Diogenes, who
never shrank out of modesty from the name and its responsi-
bilities. But the development of the system led them gradually
and reluctantly to renounce this hope as they came to realize
the arduous conditions involved. Zeno indeed could hardly
have been denied the title conferred upon Epicurus. Cleanthes,
the " second Hercules," held it possible for man to attain to virtue.
From anecdotes recorded of the tricks played upon Aristo and
Sphaerus (Diog. Laer. vii. 162, 117) it may be inferred that the
former deemed himself infallible in his opinions, i.e. set up for a
sage; Persaeus himself, who had exposed the pretensions of
Aristo, is twitted with having failed to conform with the perfect
generalship which was one trait of the wise man when he
allowed the citadel of Corinth to be taken by Aratus (Athen. iv.
102 D). The trait of infallibility especially proved hard to
establish when successive heads of the school seriously differed
in their doctrine. The prospect became daily more distant,
and at length faded away. Chrysippus declined to call himself
or any of his contemporaries a sage. One or two such manifesta-
tions there may have been Socrates and Diogenes? but the
wise man was rarer, he thought, than the phoenix. If his
successors allowed one or two more exceptions, to Diogenes of
Seleucia at any rate the sage was an unrealized ideal, as we learn
from Plutarch (De comm. not. 33, 1076 B), who does not fail
to seize upon this extreme view. Posidonius left even Socrates,
Diogenes and Antisthenes in the state of progress towards virtue.
Although there was in the end a reaction from this Modifica-
extreme, yet it is impossible to mistake the bearing tionsin
of all this upon a practical system of morals. So Practlce '
long as dialectic subtleties and exciting polemics afforded
food for the intellect, the gulf between theory and practice
might be ignored. But once let this system be presented to
men in earnest about right living, and eager to profit by what
they are taught, and an ethical reform is inevitable. Conduct
for us will be separated from conduct for the sage. We shall be
told not always to imitate him. There will be a new law, dwell-
ing specially upon the " external duties " required of all men,
wise or unwise; and even the sufficiency of virtue for our happi-
ness may be questioned. The introducer and expositor of such
a twofold morality was a remarkable man. Born at Rhodes
c. 185 B.C., a citizen of the most flourishing of Greek states and
almost the only one which yet retained vigour and freedom,
Panaetius lived for years in the house of Scipio Africanus
the younger at Rome, accompanied him on embassies and cam-
paigns, and was perhaps the first Greek who in a private capacity
had any insight into the working of the Roman state or the
character of its citizens. Later in life, as head of the Stoic
school at Athens, he achieved a reputation second only to that
of Chrysippus. He is the earliest Stoic author from whom
we have, even indirectly, any considerable piece of work,
as books i. and ii. of the De officiis are a rtchauffi, in Cicero's
STOICS
949
fashion, of Panaetius " Upon External Duty " (irtpl TOV
Panaetius.
The introduction of Stoicism at Rome was the most momen-
tous of the many changes that it saw. After the first sharp
collision with the jealousy of the national authorities
Stoicism la i( . f oun d a rea dy acceptance, and made rapid progress
me ' amongst the noblest families. It has been well said
that the old heroes of the republic were unconscious Stoics,
fitted by their narrowness, their stern simplicity and devotion
to duty for the almost Semitic earnestness of the new doctrine.
In Greece its insensibility to art and the cultivation of life was
a fatal defect; not so with the shrewd men of the world, desirous
of qualifying as advocates or jurists. It supplied them with an
incentive to scientific research in archaeology and grammar; it
penetrated jurisprudence until the belief in the ultimate identity
of the jus gentium with the law of nature modified the praetor's
edicts for centuries. Even to the prosaic religion of old Rome,
with its narrow original conception and multitude of burden-
some rites, it became in some sort a support. Scaevola, following
Panaetius, explained that the prudence of statesmen had estab-
lished this public institution in the service of order midway
between the errors of popular superstition and the barren truths
of enlightened philosophy. Soon the influence of the pupils
reacted upon the doctrines taught. Of speculative interest the
ordinary Roman had as little as may be; for abstract discussion
and controversy he cared nothing. Indifferent to the scientific
basis or logical development of doctrines, he selected from
various writers and from different schools what he found most
serviceable. All had to be simplified and disengaged from
technical subtleties. To attract his Roman pupils Panaetius
would naturally choose simple topics susceptible
of rhetorical treatment or of application to indi-
vidual details. He was the representative, not merely
of Stoicism, but of Greece and Greek literature, and would
feel pride in introducing its greatest masterpieces: amongst
all that he studied, he valued most the writings of Plato. He
admired the classic style, the exquisite purity of language, the
flights of imagination, but he admired above all the philosophy.
He marks a reaction of the genuine Hellenic spirit against the
narrow austerity of the first Stoics. Zeno and Chrysippus
had introduced a repellent technical terminology; their writings
lacked every grace of style. With Panaetius the Stoa became
eloquent: he did his best to improve upon the uncouth words
in vogue, even at some slight cost of accuracy, e.g. to discard
irporjyuevov for ev\prj(TTov, or else designate it" so-called good,"
or even simply " good," if the context allowed.
The part Panaetius took in philological and historical studies is
characteristic of the man. We know much of the results of these
studies; of his philosophy technically we know very little. He
wrote only upon ethics, where historical knowledge would be of
use. Crates of Mallus, one of his teachers, aimed at fulfilling the
high functions of a " critic " according to his own definition that
the critic must acquaint himself with all rational knowledge. Panae-
tius was competent to pass judgment upon the critical " divination "
of an Aristarchus (who was perhaps himself also a Stoic), and took
an interest in the restoration of Old Attic forms to the text of
Plato. Just then there had been a movement towards a wider and
more liberal education, by which even contemporary Epicureans
were affected. Diogenes the Babylonian had written a treatise
on language and one entitled The Laws. Along with grammar,
which had been a prominent branch of study under Chrysippus,
philosophy, history, geography, chronology and kindred subjects
came to be recognized as fields of activity no less than philology
proper. It has been recently established that Polybius the historian
was a Stoic, and it is clear that he was greatly influenced by the form
of the system which he learned to know, in the society of Scipio and
his friends, from Panaetius. 1 Nor is it improbable that works of
the latter served Cicero as the originals of his De republica and De
legibus. 1 Thus the gulf between Stoicism and the later Cynics,
who were persistently hostile to culture, could not fail to be widened.
1 Hirzel, Untersuch. ii. 841 seq. Polybius's rejection of divina-
tion is decisive. See, e.g. his explanation upon natural causes of
Scipio the Elder's capture of New Carthage, " by the aid of Neptune,"
x. II (cf. x. 2). P. Voigt holds that in vi. 5, I, TUJIV trkpoa rav
<t>i\oa6<t>oit> is an allusion to Panaetius.
* This at least, is maintained by Schmekel.
A wave of eclecticism passed over all the Greek schools in the ist
century B.C. Platonism and scepticism had left undoubted traces
upon the doctrine of such a reformer as Panaetius. He cvi^t-i
had doubts about a general conflagration; possibly (he
thought) Aristotle was right in affirming the eternity of the present
order of the world. He doubted the entire system of divination.
On these points his disciples Posidonius and Hecato seem to have
reverted to orthodoxy. But in ethics his innovations were more
suggestive and fertile. He separated wisdom as a theoretic virtue
from the other three which he called practical. Hecato slightly
modified this: showing that precepts (BeuprifnaTa) are needed for
justice and temperance also, he made them scientific virtues, reserv-
ing for his second class the unscientific virtue (ASeajpT/ros iperi?) of
courage, together with health, strength and such-like " excellen-
cies." Further, Panaetius had maintained that pleasure is not
altogether a thing indifferent: there is a natural as well as an
unnatural pleasure. But, if so, it would follow that, since pleasure
is an emotion, apathy or eradication of all emotions cannot be un-
conditionally required. The gloss he put upon the definition of the
end was " a life in accordance with the promptings given us by
nature "; the terms are all used by older Stoics, but the individual
nature (iwu") seems to be emphasized. From Posidonius, the last
representative of a comprehensive study of nature _ .. .
and a subtle erudition, it is not surprising that we get
the following definition: the end is to live in contemplation of the
reality and order of the universe, promoting it to the best of our
power, and never led astray by the irrational part of the soul. The
heterodox phrase with which this definition ends points to innova-
tions in psychology which were undoubtedly real and important,
suggested by the difficulty of maintaining the essential unity of the
soul. Panaetius had referred two faculties (those of speech and of
reproduction) to animal impulse and to the vegetative " nature "
($iwu) respectively. Yet the older Stoics held that this <j>iian was
changed to a true soul (^yx'n) at birth. Posidonius, unable to
explain the emotions as " judgments " or the effects of judgments,
postulated, like Plato, an irrational principle (including a concupis-
cent and a spirited element) to account for them, although he
subordinated all these as faculties to the one substance of the soul
lodged in the heart. This was a serious departure from the principles
of the system, facilitating a return of later Stoicism to the dualism of
God and the world, reason and the irrational part in man, which
Chrysippus had striven to surmount. 3
Yet in the general approximation and fusion of opposing views
which had set in, the Stoics fared far better than rival schools.
Their system became best known and most widely used by indi-
vidual eclectics. All the assaults of the sceptical Academy had
failed, and within fifty years of the death of Carneades his degener-
ate successors, unable to hold their ground on the question of the
criterion, had capitulated to the enemy. Antiochus of Ascalon, the
professed restorer of the Old Academy, taught a medley of Stoic
and Peripatetic dogmas, which he boldly asserted Zeno had first
borrowed from his school. The wide diffusion of Stoic phraseology
and Stoic modes of thought may be seen on all hands in the
language of the New Testament writers, in the compendious " his-
tories of philosophy " industriously circulated by a host of writers
about this time (cf. H. Diels, Doxographi graeci).
The writings of the later Stoics have come down to us, if not
entire, in great part, so that Seneca, Cornutus, Persius, Lucan,
Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius are known at first hand.
They do not profess to give a scientific exposition stoics
of doctrine, and may therefore be dismissed some-
what briefly (see EPICTETUS and MARCUS AURELIUS). We
learn much more about the Stoic system from the scanty frag-
ments of the first founders, 4 or even from the epitomes of Dio-
genes Laertius and Stobaeus, than from these writers. They
testify to the restriction of philosophy to the practical side, and
to the increasing tendency, ever since Panaetius, towards a
relaxation of the rigorous ethical doctrine and its approximation
to the form of religious conviction. This finds most marked
expression in the doctrines of submission to Providence and
universal philanthropy. Only in this way could they hold their
ground, however insecurely, in face of the religious reaction of
the ist century. In passing to Rome, Stoicism quitted the
school for actual life. The fall of the republic was a gain, for it
8 Works of Posidonius and Hecato have served as the basis of
extant Latin treatises. Cicero, De divinatione, perhaps De natura
deorum, i. ii., comes in part from Posidonius; Cicero, De finibus,
iii., and Seneca, De beneficiis, i.-iv., from Hecato, who is also the
source of Stobaeus, Ed. elh. ii. no. Cf. H. H. Fowler, Panaetii el
Hecatonis fragments, (Bonn, 1885).
4 Cf. C. Wachsmuth, Commentationes II. de Zenone Citiensi et
Cleanthe Assio (Gottingen, 1874). Baguet's Chrysippus (Louvain,
1822) is unfortunately very incomplete.
950
STOICS
released so much intellectual activity from civic duties. The life
and death of Cato fired the imagination of a degenerate age in
which he stood out both as a Roman and a Stoic. To a long line
of illustrious successors, men like Thrasea Paetus and Helvidius
Priscus, Cato bequeathed his resolute opposition to the domi-
nant power of the times; unsympathetic, impracticable, but
fearless in demeanour, they were a standing reproach to the
corruption and tyranny of their age. But when at first, under
Augustus, the empire restored order, philosophy became bolder
and addressed every class in society, public lectures and spiritual
direction being the two forms in which it mainly showed activity.
Books of direction were written by Sextius in Greek (as after-
wards by Seneca in Latin), almost the only Roman who had the
ambition to found a sect, though in ethics he mainly followed
Stoicism. His contemporary Papirius Fabianus was the popular
lecturer of that day, producing a poweriul effect by his denun-
ciations of the manners of the time. Under Tiberius, Sotion and
Attalus were attended by crowds of hearers. In Seneca's
time there was a professor, with few hearers it is true, even in a
provincial town like Naples. At the same time the antiquarian
study of Stoic writings went on apace, especially those of the
earliest teachers Zeno and Aristo and Cleanthes.
Seneca is the most prominent leader in the direction which
Roman Stoicism now took. His penetrating intellect had
mastered the subtleties of the system of Chrysippus,
but they seldom appear in his works, at least without,
apology. Incidentally we meet there with the doctrines of
Pneuma and of tension, of the corporeal nature of the virtues
and the affections, and much more to the same effect. But his
attention is claimed for physics chiefly as a means of elevating
the mind, and as making known the wisdom of Providence and
the moral government of the world. To reconcile the ways of
God to man had been the ambition of Chrysippus, as we know
from Plutarch's criticisms. He argued plausibly that natural
evil was a thing indifferent that even moral evil was required
in the divine economy as a foil to set off good. The really difficult
problem why the prosperity of the wicked and the calamity
of the just were permitted under the divine government he met
in various ways: sometimes he alleged the forgetfulness of
higher powers; sometimes he fell back upon the necessity of
these contrasts and grotesque passages in the comedy of human
life. Seneca gives the true Stoic answer in his treatise On
Providence: the wise man cannot really meet with misfortune;
all outward calamity is a divine instrument of training, designed
to exercise his powers and teach the world the indifference of
external conditions. In the soul Seneca recognizes an effluence
of the divine spirit, a god in the human frame; in virtue of this
he maintains the essential dignity and internal freedom of man
in every human being. Yet, in striking contrast to this orthodox
tenet is his vivid conception of the weakness and misery of men,
the hopelessness of the struggle with evil, whether in society
or in the individual. Thus he describes the body (which, after
Epicurus, he calls the flesh) as a mere husk or fetter or prison
of the soul; with its departure begins the soul's true life.
Sometimes, too, he writes as if he accepted an irrational as well
as a rational part of the soul. In ethics, if there is no novelty
of doctrine, there is a surprising change in the mode of its applica-
tion. The ideal sage has receded; philosophy comes as a
physician, not to the whole but to the sick. We learn that
there are various classes of patients in " progress " (irpo/coin?),
i.e. on their way to virtue, making painful efforts towards it.
The first stage is the eradication of vicious habits: evil ten-
dencies are to be corrected, and a guard kept on the corrupt
propensities of the reason. Suppose this achieved, we have
yet to struggle with single attacks of the passions: irascibility
may be cured, but we may succumb to a fit of rage. To achieve
this second stage the impulses must be trained in such a way that
the fitness of things indifferent may be the guide of conduct.
Even then it remains to give the will that property of rigid
infallibility without which we are always liable to err, and this
must be effected by the training of the judgment. Other
peculiarities of the later Stoic ethics are due to the condition
of the times. In a time of moral corruption and oppressive
rule, as the early empire repeatedly became to the privileged
classes of Roman society, a general feeling of insecurity led
the student oi philosophy to seek in it a refuge against the
vicissitudes of fortune which he daily beheld. The less any one
man could do to interfere in the government, or even to safe-
guard his own life and property, the more heavily the common
fate pressed upon all, levelling the ordinary distinctions of class
and character. Driven inwards upon themselves, they employed
their energy in severe self-examination, or they cultivated
resignation to the will of the universe, and towards their fellow
men forbearance and forgiveness and humility, the virtues of
the philanthropic disposition. With Seneca this resignation
took the form of a constant meditation upon death. Timid by
nature, aware of his impending doom, and at times justly
dissatisfied with himself, he tries all means of reconciling him-
self to the idea of suicide. The act had always been accounted
allowable in the school, if circumstances should call for it:
indeed, the first three teachers had found such circumstances
in the infirmity of old age. But their attitude towards the
" way out " (e 0.70)717) of incurable discomforts is quite unlike the
anxious sentimentalism with which Seneca dwells upon death.
From Seneca we turn, not without satisfaction, to men of
sterner mould, such as Musonius Rufus, who certainly deserves
a place beside his more illustrious disciple, Epic-
tetus. As a teacher he commanded universal
respect, and wherever we catch a glimpse of his activity
he appears to advantage. His philosophy, however, is yet
more concentrated upon practice than Seneca's, and in ethics
he is almost at the position of Aristo. Epictetus testifies
to the powerful hold he acquired upon his pupils, each of whom
felt that Musonius spoke to his heart. The practical conclusion
of his philosophy is that he must cheerfully accept the inevitable.
In the life and teaching of Epictetus this thought bore
abundant fruit. The beautiful character which rose superior to
weakness, poverty and slave's estate is also presented
to us in the Discourses of his disciple Arrian as a model
of religious resignation, of forbearance and love towards our
brethren, that is, towards all men, since God is our common
father. With him even the " physical basis " of ethics takes the
form of a religious dogma the providence of God and the
perfection of the world. We learn that he regards the dainuv
or " guardian angel " as the divine part in each man; sometimes
it is more nearly conscience, at other times reason. His ethics,
too, have a religious character. He begins with human weakness
and man's need of God: whoso would become good must first
be convinced that he is evil. Submission is enforced by an
argument which almost amounts to a retractation of the difference
between things natural and things contrary to nature, as under-
stood by Zeno. Would you be cut off from the universe? he
asks. Go to, grow healthy and rich. But if not, if you are a
part of it, then become resigned to your lot. Towards this goal
of approximation to Cynicism the later Stoics had all along been
tending. Withdrawal from the active duty of the world must
lead to passive endurance, and, ere long, complete indiffer-
ence. Musonius had recommended marriage and condemned
unsparingly the exposure of infants. Epictetus, however,
would have the sage hold aloof from domestic cares, another
Cynic trait. So, too, in his great maxim " bear and forbear,"
the last is a command to refrain from the external advantages
which nature offers.
Epictetus is marked out amongst Stoics by his renunciation
of the world. He is followed by a Stoic emperor, M. Aurelius
Antoninus, who, though in the world, was not of it.
The Meditations give no systematic exposition of
belief, but there are many indications of the religious spirit
we have already observed, together with an almost Platonic
psychology. Following Epictetus, he speaks of man as a
corpse bearing about a soul; at another time he has a threefold
division (i) body, (2) soul, the seat of impulse (irvtviifnlov),
and (3) vovs or intelligence, the proper ego. In all he writes
there is a vein of sadness: the flux of all things, the vanity of
STOKE NEWINGTON STOKES, SIR G. G.
95 1
life, are thoughts which perpetually recur, along with resignation
to the will of God and forbearance towards others, and the
religious longing to be rid of the burden and to depart to God.
These peculiarities in M. Antoninus may perhaps be explained
in harmony with the older Stoic teaching; but, when taken in
connexion with the rise of Neoplatonism and the revival of
superstition, they are certainly significant. None of the ancient
systems fell so rapidly as the Stoa. It had just touched the
highest point of practical morality, and in a generation after
M. Antoninus there is hardly a professor to be named. Its most
valuable lessons to the world were preserved in Christianity;
but the grand simplicity of its monism slumbered for fifteen
centuries before it was revived by Spinoza.
LITERATURE. The best modern authority is Zeller, Phil. d. Griech.
iii. pt. i. (3rd ed., 1880) Eng. trans. Stoics, by Reichel (1879), and
Eclectics, by S. F. Alleyne (1883). Further may be cited F. Ravais-
son, Essai sur le stoicisms (Paris, 1856); M. Heinze, Vie Lehre vom
Logos (Oldenburg, 1872) ; H. Siebeck, Untersuchungen ztir Phil. d.
Griechen (Halle, 1873), and Gesch. d. Psychologic, i. 2 (Gotha, 1884);
R. Hirzel, " Die Entwicklung der stoisch. Phil.," in Untersuchungen
zu Ciceros Schriften, ii. 1-566 (Leipzig, 1882) ; Ogereau, Essai sur le
systeme des Stoiciens (Paris, 1885); L. Stein, .Die Psychologie der
Stoa, i. p. ii. (Berlin, 1886-1888); A. C. Pearson, The Fragments of
Zeno and Cleanthes (London 1891); A. Schmekel, Die Philosophic
der mittleren Stoa (Berlin. 1892); A. Bonhoffer, Epictet und die Stoa
(Stuttgart, 1890); Die Ethik des Stoikers Epictet (Stuttgart, 1894);
A. Dyroff, Die Ethik der alien Stoa (Berlin, 1897). Indispens-
able to the student are H. Diels, Doxographi graeci (Berlin,
1879); J- von Arnim, Stoicorum veterum fragmenta, i-iii. (Leipzig,
1903-1905). (R. D. H.)
STOKE NEWINGTON, a north-eastern metropolitan borough
of London, England, bounded E. by Hackney and W. by
Islington, and extending N. to the boundary of the county
of London. Pop. (1901), 51,247. It is mainly occupied by
small villas. On its western boundary, adjoining Green Lanes,
lies Clissold Park (54 acres) and outside the north-western
boundary is Finsbury Park (115 acres). In Church Street is
the ancient parish church of St Mary, largely restored, but
still bearing the stamp of antiquity; opposite to it stands a
new church in Decorated style by Sir Gilbert Scott. In the
north of the borough are the main waterworks and reservoirs
of the New River Company, though the waterway continues
to a head in ; Finsbury. Stoke Newington is partly in the
north division of the parliamentary borough of Hackney, but
the district of South Hornsey, included in the municipal
borough, is in the Hornsey division of Middlesex. The borough
council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen and 30 councillors.
Area, 863-5 acres.
STOKE-ON-TRENT, a market town and municipal and
parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, England, on the upper
Trent, in the heart of the Potteries district. Pop. (1901),
30,458. This was the population of the separate borough of
Stoke-upon-Trent (area, 1882 acres) which existed until 1910.
In 1908 arrangements were made whereby Stoke-upon-Trent,
Burslem, Fenton, Hanley, Longton and Tunstall should be
amalgamated as one borough, under the name of Stoke-on-
Trent, from the 3ist of March 1910. The new corporation
consists of a mayor, 26 aldermen and 78 councillors. Stoke is on
the North Staffordshire railway, 146 m. north-west from London
by the London & North- Western railway; and on the Grand
Trunk (Trent and Mersey) Canal. The principal public build-
ings in the old town of Stoke are the town hall, with assembly
rooms, law library and art gallery, the market hall, the Minton
memorial building, containing a school of art and science; the
free library and museum, and the North Staffordshire infirmary,
founded in 1815 at Etruria, and removed to its present site in
1868. The head offices of the North Staffordshire Railway
Company are here. Four large firms manufacturing every
variety of art china and earthenware alone employ over 5000
hands. Coal-mining and iron and machine manufactures are
also carried on. A statue commemorates Josiah Wedgwood,
born at Burslem in 1730; but other famous names in the
pottery trade are more intimately connected with Stoke. Thus
Josiah Spode the second was born here in 1754, and had a great
house at Penkhull, on the western outskirts of Stoke. He
entered into partnership with the Copelands, who continued his
business. Herbert Minton (1793-1858) was the founder of
another of the large works. The parliamentary borough
returns one member.
In the Domesday Survey of 1086 half the church of Stoke and
lands in Stoca are said to have belonged to Robert of Stafford.
Part of Stoke (Stoche or Stoca) at this time belonged to the
Crown, since the royal estate of Penculla (now Penkhull) was
included within its bounds. Frequent references to the parish
church of Stoke are found during the I4th and isth centuries.
Contemporary writers from 1787 onwards describe Stoke as a
market town, but the official evidence states that the market
rights were not acquired until 1845. Since then the market
days have been Saturday and Monday. Stoke-upon-Trent
became the railway centre and head of the parliamentary
borough of Stoke-upon-Trent, comprising the whole of the
Staffordshire Potteries, which was created by the Reform Bill
of 1832. In 1874 it was incorporated as a municipality. From
1833 to 1885 Stoke returned two members to parliament. From
the early i7th century, if not earlier, porcelain and earthenware
manufactories existed at Stoke-upon-Trent, but they remained
unnoticed until in 1686 Dr Plot wrote his survey of Stafford-
shire. In the middle of the i8th century there was a great
industrial development in the Pottery district.
See John Ward, The Borough of Stoke-upon-Trent (London, 1843).
STOKE POGES, a village in the south of Buckinghamshire t
England, 3 m. N. of Slough, famous for its connexion with the
poet Thomas Gray. The church of St Giles has portions of
Norman, Early English, and later dates, and contains a fine
Decorated canopied tomb and brasses of members of the family
of Moleyns. A passage or cloister leading towards the ancient
manor-house contains some good original stained-glass windows.
Gray is buried beside his mother in the churchyard, and there
is a monument to his memory in the adjacent Stoke Park. The
churchyard is generally considered to be the original of the poet's
Elegy in a Country Churchyard; and the manor-house finds
mention in his Long Story. West End Cottage, where he often
stayed, remains in altered form as Stoke Court. Burnham
Beeches (q.v.), now preserved to public use, and a favourite
resort of the poet, are 3 m. distant to the north-west.
STOKES, SIR GEORGE GABRIEL, BART. (1819-1903),
British mathematician and physicist, was the youngest son of
the Rev. Gabriel Stokes, rector of Skreen, Co. Sligo, where he
was born on the I3th of August 1819. After attending schools
in Dublin and Bristol, he matriculated in 1837 at Pembroke
College, Cambridge, where, four years later, on graduating as
senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, he was elected to a
fellowship. This he had to vacate by the statutes of that society
when he married in 1857, but twelve years later, under new
statutes, he was re-elected, and retained his place on the founda-
tion until 1902, when, on the day before he entered on his
eighty-fourth year, he was elected to the mastership. But he
did not long enjoy this position, for he died at Cambridge on the
ist of February in the following year. In 1849 he was appointed
to the Lucasian professorship of mathematics in the university,
and on the ist of June 1899 the jubilee of his appointment was
celebrated at Cambridge in a brilliant ceremonial, which was
attended by numerous delegates from European and American
universities. On that occasion a commemorative gold medal
was presented to him by the chancellor of the university, and
marble busts of him by Hamo Thornycrof t were formally offered
to Pembroke College and to the university by Lord Kelvin.
Sir George Stokes, who was created a baronet in 1889, further
served his university by representing it in parliament from 1887
to 1892. During a portion of this period (1885-1890) he was
president of the Royal Society, of which he had been one of the
secretaries since 1854, and thus, being at the same time Lucasian
professor, he united in himself three offices which had only once
before been held by one man, Sir Isaac Newton, who, however,
did not hold all three simultaneously.
Stokes was the oldest of the trio of natural philosophers,
952
STOKES, SIR G. G.
Clerk Maxwell and Lord Kelvin being the other two, who especi-
ally contributed to the fame of the Cambridge school of mathe-
matical physics in the middle of the ipth century. His original
work began about 1840, and from that date onwards the great
extent of his output was only less remarkable than the bril-
liance of its quality. The Royal Society's catalogue of scientific
papers gives the titles of over a hundred memoirs by him pub-
lished down to 1883. Some of these are only brief notes,
others are short controversial or corrective statements, but many
are really long and elaborate treatises. In matter his work is
distinguished by a certain definiteness and finality, and even of
problems, which when he attacked them were scarcely thought
amenable to mathematical analysis, he has in many cases given
solutions which once and for all settle the main principles.
This result must be ascribed to his extraordinary combination
of mathematical power with experimental skill, for with him,
from the time when about 1840 he fitted up some simple
physical apparatus in his rooms in Pembroke College, mathe-
matics and experiment ever went hand in hand, aiding and
checking each other. In scope his work covered a wide range
of physical inquiry, but, as Alfred Cornu remarked in his Rede
lecture of 1899, the greater part of it was concerned with waves
and the transformations imposed on them during their passage
through various media. His first published papers, which
appeared in 1842 and 1843, were on the steady motion of incom-
pressible fluids and some cases of fluid motion; these were
followed in 1845 by one on the friction of fluids in motion and
the equilibrium and motion of elastic solids, and in 1850 by
another on the effects of the internal friction of fluids on the
motion of pendulums. To the theory of sound he made several
contributions, including a discussion of the effect of wind on the
intensity of sound and an explanation of how the intensity is
influenced by the nature of the gas in which the sound is pro-
duced. These inquiries together put the science of hydro-
dynamics on a new footing, and provided a key not only to the
explanation of many natural phenomena, such as the suspension
of clouds in air, and the subsidence of ripples and waves in
water, but also to the solution of practical problems, such as the
flow of water in rivers and channels, and the skin resistance of
ships. But perhaps his best-known researches are those which
deal with the undulatory theory of light. His optical work
began at an early period in his scientific career. His first papers
on the aberration of light appeared in 1845 and 1846, and were
followed in 1848 by one on the theory of certain bands seen in
the spectrum. In 1849 he published a long paper on the dynami-
cal theory of diffraction, in which he showed that the plane of
polarization must be perpendicular to the direction of vibration.
Two years later he discussed the colours of thick plates; and in
1852, in his famous pa'per on the change of refrangibility of light,
he described the phenomenon of fluorescence, as exhibited by
fluorspar and uranium glass, materials which he viewed as
having the power to convert invisible ultra-violet rays into rays
of lower periods which are visible. A mechanical model, illus-
trating the dynamical principle of Stokes's explanation was shown
in 1883, during'a lecture at the Royal Institution, by Lord Kelvin,
who said he had heard an account of it from Stokes many years,
before, and had repeatedly but vainly begged him to publish it. In
the same year, 1852, there appeared the paper on the composition
and resolution of streams of polarized light from different sources,
and in 1853 an investigation of the metallic reflection exhibited
by certain non-metallic substances. About 1860 he was engaged
in an inquiry on the intensity of light reflected from, or trans-
mitted through, a pile of plates; and in 1862 he prepared for the
British Association a valuable report on double refraction, which
marks a period in the history of the subject in England. A
paper on the long spectrum of the electric light bears the same
date, and was followed by an inquiry into the absorption spec-
trum of blood. The discrimination of organic bodies by their
optical properties was treated in 1864; and later, in conjunction
with the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, he investigated the relation
between the chemical constitution and the optical properties
of various glasses, with reference to the conditions of trans-
parency and the improvement of achromatic telescopes. A still
later paper connected with the construction of optical instru-
ments discussed the theoretical limits to the aperture of micro-
scopical objectives. In other departments of physics may be
mentioned his paper on the conduction of heat in crystals (1851)
and his inquiries in connexion with the radiometer; his explana-
tion of the light border frequently noticed in photographs just
outside the outline of a dark body seen against the sky (1883);
and, still later, his theory of the Rb'ntgen rays, which he suggested
might be transverse waves travelling as innumerable solitary
waves, not in regular trains. Two long papers published in 1849
one on attractions and Clairaut's theorem, and the other on
the variation of gravity at the surface of the earth also demand
notice, as do his mathematical memoirs on the critical values
of the sums of periodic series (1847) and on the numerical calcula-
tion of a class of definite integrals and infinite series (1850) and
his discussion of a differential equation relating to the breaking
of railway bridges (1849).
But large as is the tale of Stokes's published work, it by no
means represents the whole of his services in the advancement
of science. Many 'of his discoveries were not published, or at
least were only touched upon in the course of his oral lectures.
An excellent instance is afforded by his work in the theory of
spectrum analysis. In his presidential address to the British
Association in 1871, Lord Kelvin (Sir William Thomson, as he
was then) stated his belief that the application of the prismatic
analysis of light to solar and stellar chemistry had never been
suggested directly or indirectly by any other savant when
Stokes taught it to him in Cambridge some time prior to the
summer of 1852, and he set forth the conclusions, theoretical
and practical, which he learnt from Stokes at that time, and
which he afterwards gave regularly in his public lectures at
Glasgow. These statements, containing as they do the physical
basis on which spectrum analysis rests, and the mode in which
it is applicable to the identification of substances existing in the
sun and stars, make it appear that Stokes anticipated Kirchhoff
by at least seven or eight years. Stokes, however, in a letter
published some years after the delivery of this address, stated
that he had failed to take one essential step in the argument
(not perceiving that emission of light of definite refrangibility
not merely permitted, but necessitated, absorption of light of
the same refrangibility), and modestly disclaimed " any part
of Kirchhoff's admirable discovery," adding that he felt some
of his friends had been over-zealous in his cause. It must be
said, however, that English men of science have not accepted
this disclaimer in all its fullness, and still attribute to Stokes the
credit of having first enunciated the fundamental principles of
spectrum analysis. In another way, too, Stokes did much for
the progress of mathematical physics. Soon after he was elected
to the Lucasian chair he announced that he regarded it as part
of his professional duties to help any member of the university
in difficulties he might encounter in his mathematical studies,
and the assistance rendered was so real that pupils were glad
to consult him, even after they had become colleagues, on
mathematical and physical problems in which they found
themselves at a loss. Then during the thirty years he acted
as secretary of the Royal Society he exercised an enormous if
inconspicuous influence on the advancement of mathematical and
physical science, not only directly by his own investigations, but
indirectly by suggesting problems for inquiry and inciting men to
attack them, and by his readiness to give encouragement and help.
Several of the honours enjoyed by Sir George Stokes have
already been enumerated. In addition, it may be mentioned
that from the Royal Society, of which he became a fellow in 1851,
he received the Rumford medal in 1852 in recognition of his
inquiries into the refrangibility of light, and later, in 1893, the
Copley medal. In 1869 he presided over the Exeter meeting
of the British Association. From 1883 to 1885 he was Burnett
lecturer at Aberdeen, his lectures on Light, which were published
in 1884-1887, dealing with its nature, its use as a means of
investigation, and its beneficial effects. In 1891, as Gifford
lecturer, he published a volume on Natural Theology. His
STOKES, W. STOLE
953
academical distinctions included honorary degrees from many
universities, together with membership of the Prussian Order
Pour le Merite.
Sir George Stokes's mathematical and physical papers were
published in a collected form in five volumes ; the first three (Cam-
bridge, 1880, 1883, and 1901) under his own editorship, and the two
last (Cambridge, 1904 and 1905) under that of Sir Joseph Larmor,
who also selected and arranged the Memoir and Scientific Corre-
spondence of Stokes published at Cambridge in 1907.
STOKES, WHITLEY (1830-1909), British lawyer and Celtic
scholar, was a son of William Stokes (1804-1878), and a grand-
son of Whitley Stokes (1763-1845), each of whom was regius
professor of physic in the university of Dublin. In his day,
William Stokes, who was the author of several books on medical
subjects, was one of the foremost physicians in Europe. Edu-
cated at Trinity College, Dublin, young Stokes became an English
barrister in 1855, and in 1862 he went to India, where he filled
several official positions. In 1877 he was appointed legal mem-
ber of the viceroy's council, and he drafted the codes of civil
and criminal procedure and did much other valuable work of
.the same nature. In 1879 he was president of the commission
on Indian law. He returned to England in 1882. In 1887
he was made a C.S.I., and two years later a C.I.E.; he obtained
.honorary degrees from many universities, and was a fellow of
the British Academy. He died in London on the 1 3th of April
1909. Whitley Stokes is perhaps most famous as a Celtic
Scholar, and in this field he worked both in India and in England.
He studied Irish, Breton and Cornish texts, and among his
'numerous works may be mentioned editions of Three Irish
Glossaries (1862); Three Middle-Irish Homilies (1877); and
Old Irish Glosses at Wiirzburg and Carlsruhe (1887). He was
one of the editors of the Itische Texte published at Leipzig (1880-
1900); and he edited and translated Lives of Saints from the
Book of Lismore (1890). With Professor A. Bezzenberger he
wrote Urkeltischer Sprachschalz (1894). His principal legal
work was The Anglo-Indian Codes (1887).
STOKESLEY, JOHN (c. 1475-1539), English prelate, was born
at Colly Weston in Northamptonshire, and became a fellow of
Magdalen College, serving also as a lecturer. In 1498 he was
made principal of Magdalen Hall, and in 1505 vice-president of
Magdalen College. Soon after 1 509 he was appointed a member
of the royal council and chaplain to Henry VIII. In 1520 he
was at the Field of the Cloth of Gold; in 1529 and 1530 he went
to France and Italy as ambassador to Francis I. and to gain
opinions from foreign universities in favour of the king's divorce
from Catherine of Aragon. In 1 530 he became bishop of London.
In 1533 he christened the princess Elizabeth, and his later years
were troubled by disputes with Archbishop Cranmer. Stokesley
opposed all changes in the doctrines of the Church and was very
active in persecuting heretics. He was a man of learning, writ-
ing in favour of Henry's divorce, and with Cuthbert Tunstall,
bishop of Durham, a treatise against Cardinal Pole. He died
on the 8th of September, 1539.
STOLBERG, FRIEDRICH LEOPOLD, GRAF zu (1750-1819),
German poet, the younger son of Count Christian Stolberg, was
born at Bramstedt in Holstein on the 7th of November 1750.
He studied in Gottingen and was a prominent member of the
famous Hain or Dichterbund. After leaving the university he
made a journey to Switzerland with his brother Christian, in
company with Goethe. In 1777 he was appointed envoy of the
prince bishop of Liibeck at the court of Copenhagen, but often
stayed at Eutin, where he was the intimate associate of his
college friend and member of the Dichterbund, Johann Heinrich
Voss. In 1782 he married Agnes von Witzleben, whom he
celebrated in his poems. After her early death in 1788, he
became Danish envoy at the court of Berlin, and contracted a
second marriage with the countess Sophie von Redern in 1789.
In 1791 he was appointed president of the Liibeck episcopal court
at Eutin; he resigned this office in 1800, and retiring to Munster
in Westphalia, there joined, with his whole family, the eldest
daughter only excepted, the Roman Catholic Church. For this
step he was severely attacked by his former friend Voss (Wie ward
Fritz Stolberg cin Unfreier? 1819). After living for a while
(from 1812) in the neighbourhood of Bielefeld, he removed to his
estate of Sondermuhlen near Osnabrtick, where he died on the
5th of December 1819. He wrote many odes, ballads, satires
and dramas among the last the tragedy Timoleon (1784),
translations of the Iliad (1778), of Plato (1796-1797), Aeschylus
(1802), and Ossian (1806); he published in 1815 a Leben
Alfreds des Grossen, and a voluminous Geschichte der Religion
Jesu Christi (17 vols., 1806-1818).
Stolberg's brother, CHRISTIAN, GRAFZU STOLBERG (1748-1821),
was also a poet. Born at Hamburg on the isth of October 1748,
he became a magistrate at Tremsbiittel in Holstein in 1777, and
died on the i8th of January 1821. Of the two brothers Friedrich
was undoubtedly the more talented, but Christian, though not a
poet of high originality, exceUed in the utterance of gentle
sentiment. They published together a volume of poems,
Gedichte (edited by H. C. Boie, 1779); Schauspiele mil Choren
(1787), their object in the latter work being to revive a love for
the Greek drama; and a collection of patriotic poems Vater-
Idndische Gedichte (1815). Christian von Stolberg was the sole
author of Gedichte aus dem Griechischen (1782), a translation of
the works of Sophocles (1787), and of a poem in seven ballads, Die
weisse Frau (1814), which last attained considerable popularity.
The Collected Works of Christian and Friedrich Leopold zu Stol-
berg were published in twenty volumes in 1820-1825; 2nd ed. 1827.
Friedrich's correspondence with F. H. Jacobi will be found in
Jacobi's Briefwechsel (1825-1827) ; that with Voss has been edited by
O. Hellinghaus (1891). Selections from the poetry of the two
brothers will be found in A. Sauer's Der Gottinger Dichterbund, iii.
(Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 50, 1896). See also
T. Menge, Der Graf F. L. Stolberg und seine Zeitgenossen (2 vols.,
1862); J. H. Hennes, Aus F. L. von Stolbergs Jugendjahren (1876);
the same, Stolberg in den zwei letzlen Jahrzehnten seines Lebens
('875); J- Janssen, F. L. Graf zu Stolberg (2 vols., 1877), 2nd ed.
1882; W. Keiper, F. L. Stolbergs Jugendpoesie (1893).
STOLBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, situated on the Vichtbach, 7 m. E. of Aix-la-Chapelle,
on the main line of railway to Cologne. Pop. (1905), -14,963.
It contains two Protestant and two Roman Catholic churches,
a castle occupying the site of one said to have been used by
Charlemagne as a hunting seat. It is the centre of a very
active and varied industry, exporting its produce to all parts of
the world. The leading branch is metal-working, which is here
carried on in important zinc, brass, and iron foundries, smelting-
works of various kinds, puddling and rolling works, and manu-
factories of needles, pins and other metal goods. The ore is
mostly found in the mines around the town, but some is imported
from a considerable distance. In or near the town there are
also large chemical works, glass-works, a mirror-factory and
various minor establishments. Extensive coal-mines in the
neighbourhood provide the enormous supply of fuel demanded
by the various industries. The industrial prosperity of the town
was founded in the middle of the I7th century by French
religious refugees, who introduced the art of brass-founding.
STOLE (Lat. stola and orarium, Fr. etole, It. slola, Sp. estola,
Ger. Stola), a liturgical vestment of the Catholic Church, peculiar
to the higher orders, i.e. deacons,
priests and bishops. It is a strip of
stuff, usually silk, some 25 yards long
by 4 inches broad; in the middle and
at the ends, which are commonly
broadened out, it is ornamented with
a cross. Its colour varies with the
liturgical colour of the day, or of the
function at which it is worn.
There is very little evidence as to
the form and character of the stole
before the Carolingian age; but from
the 9th century onwards representa-
tions of the stole show that it varied
in no essential particular from that of
the present day. In the i ith, 1 2th and
1 3th centuries it was remarkably long
and narrow. From the gth to the i3th
954-
STOLEN GOODS
century it was mostly provided with a separate piece by
way of finish to the ends, and this in the i2th and I3th
centuries was as a rule trapeze-shaped. In the late middle ages
the stole was usually of uniform breadth; but from the i6th
century onwards the ends again began to be widened, until in
the 1 8th century we have the hideous form with large shovel-
shaped ends. Fringes, tassels, little bells and the like were used
as decorations of the ends of stoles at least as early as the gth
century; but crosses in the middle and at the ends were rarely
added during the middle ages. The usual material of medieval
stoles was silk, and the better ones were embroidered with silk,
gold thread, pearls, &c.
The stole is worn immediately over the alb; by deacons,
scarf-wise over the left shoulder, across the breast and back to
the right side; by priests and bishops, dependent from the neck,
the two ends falling over the breast. In the case of bishops,
however, the stole always hangs straight down; while priests
wear it crossed over the breast when vested in the alb. Essenti-
ally, the actual method of wearing the stole conforms to the
original practice. During the middle ages there were, however,
deviations of custom: e.g. priests, even according to the Roman
use, did not wear the stole crossed over the alb, though this had
been prescribed for Spain so early as 675 by the 4th canon of the
council of Braga. In southern Italy, probably under Greek
influence, and in Milan (where the custom still survives) the
diaconal stole was put on over the dalmatic. Similarly in Spain
and Gaul, anterior to the Carolingian age, the stole was worn by
deacons over the alba or outer tunic.
According to the Roman use the stole is now only worn at
mass, in administering the sacraments and sacramentalia, when
touching the Host, &c., but not e.g. at solemn offices or in proces-
sions. In the middle ages, however, it was the custom to wear
it at nearly all liturgical functions. In the gth and loth century
it was even made obligatory, by the decrees of the synods of
Mainz (813) and Tribur (895), on priests throughout the Frank
Empire to wear it at all times, especially when travelling. Else-
where it was the custom to wear it always, at least for a year after
ordination.
The custom of giving the stole to priests and deacons at their
ordination is of great antiquity. So far as Spain is concerned
there is evidence for it in the decrees of the 4th council of Toledo
(633), and for Rome that of the 8th century Ordo of Mabillon.
The present practice according to which the bishop lays the
stole over the left shoulder of the deacon, and crosses it over the
breast of the priest is already found in the pontificals of the
loth century.
There is no evidence to show when the stole was first used in
the Western Church. In Gaul and Spain we already find it in
the 6th century; our first evidence for its use in Rome is of the
8th century, which is however, of course, no proof that it was
not in use earlier. The mosaic in the apse of S. Vitale at Ravenna,
which has been taken to prove the existence of the stole in the
first half of the 6th century, has no value as evidence, as the
lower part of the figure of Bishop Ecclesius (see VESTMENTS,
fig. 2) was renewed in the i2th century. It is noteworthy that
at Rome, until the loth century, the stole was worn by the
lower orders of the clergy also.
In the Eastern Church the stole (Gr. upapiov, the diaconal
stole, tmrpaxri^iov, the priestly stole; Slav, orar and epitrachil;
Arm. urar; Syr. uroro; Nest, urara; Copt, orarion and patrashil)
makes its appearance very early. The stole of the deacons is
mentioned so early as the 4th and 5th centuries, the first instance
being in the 22nd canon of the council of Laodicea, where it is
mentioned specifically as the insignia of a deacon. Of a priestly
stole we hear for the first time in the Theoria mystica (8th century) .
In the Maronite, Syrian, and Nestorian Churches subdeacons
also wear the stole, and among the Maronites the lectors as well.
There is very little evidence as to the character of the stole in
the ancient Church of the East. The stole of priests and bishops,
decorated with crosses, was worn originally in all rites as in the
West, i.e. hanging in two loose bands over the breast; at the
present day, according to the Greek rite, the two bands are
firmly sewn together, while in the Armenian, Syrian and Coptic
rites they have even been amalgamated into a single broad strip
with an opening at the top for the head. Its ancient form has
been retained only by the Nestorians, who wear it crossed over
the breast. The diacona! stole was and continues to be worn
usually hanging over the left shoulder, the ends falling straight
down before and behind. Only the Copts and Armenians wear
it scarf -wise. Originally the diaconal stole would seem to have
been a narrow strip of folded linen, and it appears in the pictures
of the Qth century as a narrow band ornamented with crosses.
Later, it was often the habit to embroider on Greek diaconal
stoles the words AFIOS AFIOS AFIOS.
The question of the origin of the stole admits of no conclusive
answer. It is certainly not derived from the antique stola, called
tunica, as was formerly always held, nor yet from the prayer blanket
(tallith) of the Jews. More careful investigation, moreover, throws
very considerable doubt on the possibility of the derivation of the
priest's stole from the ancient neck-cloth (orarium) and of the
diaconal stole from a napkin used in the liturgy. A more reason-
able theory seems to be that which suggests that, in the East, the
stole was originally introduced as that which it was when it first
appears in the 22nd canon of Laodicea, viz. a special liturgical
mark of distinction for deacons, which in course of time was extended
to all the higher orders. In all probability it was introduced
straight from, the East into Spain and Gaul. Rome also probably
imported it from the same quarter, but weakened its significance
by making it a cloth sanctified by being laid on the Confessio of
St Peter, the bestowal of which at ordination was intended to express
the fact that elevation to clerical office in the Roman Church was a
grace bestowed de benedictione S. Petri and that the ordinands were
undertaking with their consecration the duty of serving St Peter,
i.e. the Roman Church.
Wherever the Reformation was introduced the stole was done
away with, even when chasuble, alb and cope were retained; the
reason being that it was the ensign of the major orders, which in
the Catholic sense were rejected by the Reformers. 1 (J. BRA.)
STOLEN GOODS. In English law, various points of impor-
tance arise in connexion with chattels which have been the
subject of larceny and have not been returned to the possession
of their owner. The owner of the goods stolen has an action
against the thief for the goods or their value. How far he is
entitled to pursue his civil right to the exclusion of criminal
prosecution does not seem very clear upon the authorities. In
Midland Insurance Co. v. Smith (1881, L.R. 6 Q.B.D., 568), Mr
Justice Watkin Williams said: " It has been said that the true
principle of the common law is that there is neither a merger of
the civil right, nor is it a strict condition precedent to such right
that there shall have been a prosecution of the felon, but that
there is a duty imposed upon the injured person not to resort
to the prosecution of his private suit to the neglect and exclusion
of the vindication of the public law; in my opinion this view is
the correct one." Dealing with stolen goods by persons other
than the thief may affect the rights of such persons either
criminally or civilly. Two varieties of crime arise from such
dealings, (i) Receiving stolen goods knowing them to have
been stolen, a misdemeanour at common law, is by the Larceny
Act a felony punishable by penal servitude for fourteen years
where the theft amounts to felony, a misdemeanour punish-
able by penal servitude for seven years where the theft is a
lr The stole was not one of the vestments prescribed by the
rubrics of the first Prayer-book of Edward VI. (see VESTMENTS).
It was replaced in the Church of England from the Reformation
onwards by the scarf, a broad band of black silk, formerly part of
the outdoor dress of the dignified clergy and without liturgical
significance. This vestment has some resemblance to the stole,
in that it is worn round the neck and hanging straight down in front
over each shoulder. This resemblance led, during the igth century,
to a confusion of the two vestments. The scarf was narrowed into
the black stole, sometimes ornamented with crosses embroidered
in the centre behind and at the ends, and this was gradually replaced
by coloured stoles, varying according to the church's seasons. The-
stole, either black or coloured, is now almost universally worn by
the Anglican clergy, eren where the other " eucharistic vestments
have not been adopted. It may be noted that, whatever may be-
the case with the other reformed churches, it is unsafe to argue
from the disuse of the stole in the Church of England that this
was intended to symbolize the rejection of the major orders " ini
the Catholic sense," unless this sense be taken to imply a necessary
connexion with the doctrine of transubstantiation and the sacrifice
of the mass. (W. A. P.)
STOLICZKA STOMACH
955
misdemeanour, as in obtaining goods by false pretences. Recent
possession of stolen property may, according to circumstances,
support the presumption that the prisoner is a thief or that he is
a receiver. The Prevention of Crime Act, 1871, made important
changes in the law of evidence in charges of receiving. It allows,
under proper safeguards, evidence to be given in the course of the
trial of the finding of other stolen property in the possession of
the accused, and of a previous conviction for any offence involv-
ing fraud and dishonesty. (2) Compounding theft, or theftbote
(redemptio furti), that is, taking back stolen goods or receiving
compensation on condition of not prosecuting, is a misdemeanour
at common law. It need not necessarily be committed by the
owner of the goods. Under the Larceny Act it is a felony punish-
able by seven years' penal servitude to take money or reward
corruptly for helping to recover stolen goods without using all
due diligence to bring the offender to trial. By the same act, to
advertise or print or publish any advertisement offering a reward
for the return of stolen goods, and using any words purporting
that no questions will be asked, &c., renders the offender liable
to a penalty of 50. This penalty must, by the Larceny (Adver-
tisements) Act 1870, be sued for within six months, and the
assent of the attorney-general is necessary. Various acts provide
for the liabilities of pawnbrokers, publicans, marine-store dealers,
and others into whose possession stolen goods come. Search for
stolen goods can only be undertaken by a police officer under the
protection of a search warrant. The law as to stolen goods, as
far as it affects the civil rights and liabilities of the owner and
third parties, is shortly as follows. As a general rule a purchaser
takes goods subject to any infirmities of title. The property in
money,bank-notes,and negotiable instruments passes by delivery,
and a person taking any of these bonafide and for value is entitled
to retain it as against a former owner from whom it may have
been stolen. In the case of other goods, a bonafide purchaser of
stolen goods in market overt (see SALE OF GOODS) obtains a good
title (except as against the Crown), provided that the thief has
not been convicted. After conviction of the thief the property
revests in the owner, and the court before which the thief was
convicted may order restitution, except in the cases specially
mentioned in the Larceny Act, i.e. the bona fide discharge or
transfer of a security for value without notice and the fraudulent
dealing by a trustee, banker, &c., with goods and documents of
title to goods entrusted to him. After conviction of the thief
the goods must be recovered from the person in whose hands they
are at the time of the conviction, for any sales and resales, if
the first sale was in market overt, are good until conviction of the
thief. The protection given by market overt is unknown in
Scotland. If the goods were obtained by false pretences and
not by larceny, the question then is whether the property in the
goods has passed or not, and the answer to this question depends
upon the nature of the false pretences employed. If the vendee
obtains possession of goods with the intention by the vendor
to transfer both the property and the possession, the property
vests in the vendee until the vendor has done some act to dis-
affirm the transaction. But if there was never any such inten-
tion if, for instance, the vendor delivers the goods to A.B. under
the belief that he is C.D. the property does not vest in the
transferee, and the owner may recover the goods even from a
bona fide purchaser.
In the United States the law as to stolen goods is regulated
by statute in the various states, but the broad principles are
practically in accordance with English law. The doctrine oi
market overt is not, however, acknowledged by any state.
The purchaser from a thief gets no title as against the owner.
One who buys goods from a factor who procured them by larceny
is not protected by the Factors Act in New York (Soltau v
Gerdau, 119 N.Y. 380). To the same effect (Gentry v. Singleton
(1904), 128 Fed. R. 679) is a purchase of cattle from a thief
The U.S. Supreme Court held, in an action of detinue to recover
five negro slaves, that the English rule as to sale in market overt
did not apply in the United States (Ventress v. Smith, 10 Peters
175). In Pennsylvania there is no market overt and a purchaser
of personal property cannot get a good title from one without
itle by paying for it (1907, Heisley v. Economy Tool Co. 33, Pa.
Super. Ct. 218). So in Maine (Combs v. Garden, 59 Me. in),
in Massachusetts a sale of butter in the open market by one who
lad feloniously acquired possession of it did not transfer the
property (Dame v. Baldwin, 8 Mass. 518). So held also in New
York where horses stolen from there were sold in Canada,
though a purchaser there is entitled to be reimbursed before
delivering to the owner (Edgerly v. Bush, 81 N.Y. 199).
See also FALSE PRETENCES; LARCENY.
STOLICZKA, FERDINAND (1838-1874), Austrian palaeonto-
ogist, was born at Hochwald, in Moravia, in May 1838. He was
iducated at Prague and at the university of Vienna where he
graduated Ph.D. He was encouraged to work at geology and
palaeontology by Professor E. Suess and Dr M. Hoernes; and
as early as 1859 he communicated to the Vienna Academy a
description of some freshwater mollusca from the Cretaceous
rocks of the north-eastern Alps. In 1861 he joined the Austrian
Geological Survey, and in the following year he was appointed
palaeontologist to the Geological Survey of India. In Calcutta
the description of the Cretaceous fossils of Southern India was
placed in his hands, and the publication of this great work which
formed part of the Palaeontologia indica, was commenced with
the assistance of H. F. Blanford in 1863 and completed in 1873.
During the last ten years of his life he published geological
memoirs on the western Himalayas and Tibet, and numerous
papers on all branches of Indian zoology, from mammals to
insects and corals. In 1873 he was selected as naturalist and
geologist to accompany a mission despatched by the Indian
government to Yarkund and Kashgar under Mr (afterwards Sir
Douglas) Forsyth. His health, which had been severely affected
by his previous field work in India, proved unequal to the strain,
and he died on the igth of June 1874, at Shayok, in Ladak,
while " returning loaded with the spoils and notes of nearly a
year's research in one of the least-known parts of Central Asia."
Memoir (with bibliography) by V. Ball, appended to Scientific
Results of the second Yarkand Mission, 1886; Obituary by W. T.
Blanford, Nature, July 9, 1874.
STOLP, or STOLPE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Pomerania, on the Stolpe, 10 m. from the Baltic Sea
and 64 m. W. of Danzig on the railway to Stargard, and with
branches to Stolpmiinde and Neustettin. Pop. (1905), 31,154.
The large church of St Mary, with a lofty tower, dating from the
i4th century, the Renaissance castle of the i6th century, now
used as a prison, and one of the ancient town-gates restored in
1872 are memorials of the time when Stolp was a prosperous
member of the Hanseatic League. It has also the church of St
John, built in the i3th century, a new town hall, and a statue of
Bismarck. The manufacture of machinery, amber articles,
tobacco and cigars, and bricks, with some iron-founding,
linen-weaving, and salmon-fishing in the Stolpe, are the chief
industrial occupations of the inhabitants, who also carry on trade
in grain, cattle, spirits, timber, fish and geese. Stolpmiinde, a
fishing-village and summer resort, at the mouth of the river, is
the port of Stolp.
Stolp, mentioned in the nth century, received town rights in
1273. From the i4th to the i6th century it was a member
of the Hanseatic League. Until 1637, when it passed to Branden-
burg, the town was generally in the possession of the dukes of
Pomerania.
STOMACH (Gr. ffro^iaxos from aro^a, a mouth), the bag-like
digestive organ which in man is situated in the upper left part
of the abdomen. See, for anatomical details, ALIMENTARY
CANAL. For the diseases of the stomach in general see DIGESTIVE
ORGANS; and for special forms GASTRITIS, GASTRIC ULCER,
DYSPEPSIA, &c.; also ABDOMEN (Abdominal Surgery).
Cancer of the Stomach is a common disease. It occurs for the
most part in persons at or after middle life, and in both sexes equally.
Its favourite situation is the outlet (pyloric cancer), where a hard,
fibrous growth forms a contracting ring of the scirrhous variety.
But when cancer attacks the inlet of the stomach, the tumour is
of the scaly epitheliomatous variety. It often begins in the tissues
of the end of the gullet, spreading downwards to the stomach.
Chronic gastric ulcer is not unfrequently the starting point of cancer.
STONE, C. P. STONE, F.
The symptoms of cancer of the stomach are apt to be indefinite
(for many weeks or months). There may be long-standing com-
plaints of " indigestion," which is sometimes made better, sometimes
worse, by taking food. Then comes a feeling of discomfort which can
be often localized, the individual pointing with his finger to a spot
somewhere behind the end of the breastbone. Difficulty and pain
in swallowing may be complained of when the cancer is beginning
to block the inlet, but if it is situated at the pylorus the discomfort
comes on an hour or two after a meal at the time that the partially
digested food is trying to make its way into the small intestine.
Much of the food remains in the stomach and, undergoing fermenta-
tion, causes the evolution of gas which distends the stomach and
gives rise to unavoidable belching. Later on vomiting occurs.
The vomiting may take place every two or three days, enormous
quantities of undigested food mixed with frothy, yeast-like mucous
being thrown up. And whilst the stomach is slowly filling up again
after one of these uncontrollable emptyings, sudden and violent
movements of the individual may cause the fluid to give rise to
audible " splashings." But even at this stage the disease may be
unrecognizable, though the symptoms are extremely suggestive.
But later the vomited matter is blackened by blood which has
escaped into the stomach from the ulcerated growth. The patient
then rapidly loses flesh and strength, and a hard lump may be felt
in the upper part of the abdomen.
A characteristic feature of cancer is the carrying of the epithelial
cells (which are the essential element of the growth) to the nearest
lymphatic glands, and in cancer of the stomach the secondary
implication of the glands may cause the formation of large masses
between the stomach and the liver, which may press upon the
large veins and give rise to dropsy. Secondary deposits are apt
to form also in the liver and they may cause the appearance of a
bulging below the ribs on the right side.
Another characteristic of cancer is that it spreads far and wide,
drawing other tissues to itself by contracting fibrous bands. These
are sometimes erroneously spoken of as the " roots " of cancer,
and in the case of cancer of the stomach they may fix it to the
pancreas, the liver, the bowels or the spine. The invasion of the
lymphatic glands and the spreading of the growth into neighbouring
organs, render the successful operative treatment of gastric cancer
hazardous and disappointing. By the time that a tumour has
made itself recognisable the probability is that it is. too late for the
attempt to be made for its removal. But in many cases the patient
prefers that the abdomen should be opened for exploration for a
possible operation than that he should hopelessly give himself over
to the disease. And sometimes the surgeon is enabled by operation
to give great relief, though the removal of the growth itself is
impracticable.
When the growth is at the cardiac end of the stomach, blocking
the gullet and causing slow starvation, the abdomen may advisedly
be opened, and, the stomach having been fixed to the surface-wound,
a permanent opening may be arranged for the introduction of an
adequate amount of food. This operation is called gastrostomy
and may be the means of giving many weeks of comfort to the
unhappy patient provided that its performance is not too long
postponed. In the case of pyloric obstruction a permanent opening
may be established between the stomach and a neighbouring piece
of intestine, so that the food may find its way along the alimentary
canal greatly to the relief of the symptoms of gastric dilatation.
This is called " short-circuiting."
In some early cases of pyloric cancer resection of the disease may
be performed, the upper end of the intestine being afterwards
joined to the middle of the stomach by a kind of short-circuiting
operation. In certain rare cases the whole of the stomach has been
removed, the bowel being brought up and spliced to the end of the
gullet.
In the case of gastric dilatation from pyloric obstruction great
relief may be afforded by washing out the viscus by means of a
long rubber tube, a funnel, and a jug of hot water, as originally
suggested by Adolf Kiissmaul.
Pyloroplasty. Simple fibrous narrowing of the gateway of the
stomach or of the intestine is dealt with by dividing it longitudinally
and then suturing the edges of the wound transversely. This
ingenious operation widens the track at the expense of an unimpor-
tant fraction of its length. In cases of great dilatation of the stomach
with no obstruction to the outlet the slack of the walls may be
gathered up by pleating and so permanently secured by suturing.
Loreta's operation for dilatation of the outlet of the stomach is now
rarely performed. (E. O.*)
STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887), American soldier,
was born in Greenfield, Massachusetts, on the 3oth of September
1824. He graduated at West Point in 1845, and in the Mexican
War earned two brevets for distinguished conduct. In 1856
he resigned from the army; and in 1857-1861 he led a scientific
expedition in the state of Sonora, Mexico. He re-entered the
service in 1861, and became a brigadier-general, United States
Volunteers, but the defeat of a detachment at Ball's Bluff
(Oct. 21, 1861) was attributed to him, and he was imprisoned
for six months, being then released without any charge being
brought against him. After serving for short periods in the
latter stages of the war, he resigned his commission (Sept.
1864). He was engineer and superintendent of a mining company
in Virginia from 1865 to 1870, when he entered the military
service of the khedive of Egypt, whose chief of staff and general
aide-de-camp he became, with the rank of lieutenant-general
and the title of " Ferik Pasha." He returned to the United
States in 1883, and resumed his engineering work. He died in
New York City on the 24th of January 1887.
STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897), British astronomer,
was born in London on the 28th of February 1831. Educated
at the City of London School, he obtained a studentship at
King's College, London, and in 1856 a scholarship at Queen's
College, Cambridge, graduated as fifth wrangler in 1859, and was
immediately elected fellow of his college. The following year
he succeeded the Rev. R. Main as chief assistant at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, and at once undertook the fundamental
task of improving astronomical constants. The most important
of these, the sun's mean parallax, was at that time subject to
considerable uncertainty. From a discussion of the observations
of Mars made in 1860 and 1862 at Greenwich and Williams-
town (near Melbourne), Stone deduced for it a value of 8-932"
(Man. Not. R.A.S. xxiii. 183), and in a further investigation
in which he included the observations made in 1862, at the
Cape of Good Hope, he obtained 8-945" (Mem. of R.A.S. , vol.
xxxiii.). Confirmatory results were afforded by his discus-
sion of the observations of the transit of Venus in 1769 which
yielded the figure 8-91" (Man. Not. R.A.S. xxviii. 255). In
1865 he contributed a memoir to the Royal Astronomical
Society on the constant of lunar parallax. He also deter-
mined the mass of the moon, and from a discussjpn of the
Greenwich transit circle observations between 1851 and 1865
he found for the constant of nutation the value 9-134".
These services were recognized by the award of the Royal
Astronomical Society's gold medal in 1869, and on the resig-
nation of Sir Thomas Maclear in 1870 he was appointed Her
Majesty's astronomer at the Cape. His first task on taking up
this post was the reduction and publication of a large mass of
observations left by his predecessor, from a selected portion of
which (those made 1856-1860) he compiled a catalogue of 1159
stars. His principal work was, however, a catalogue of 12,441
stars to the 7th magnitude between the South Pole and 25 S.
declination, which was practically finished by the end of 1878
and published in 1881. Shortly after the death of Main on the
9th of May 1878, Stone, was appointed to succeed him as Radcliffe
Observer at Oxford, and he left the Cape on the 27th of May 1879.
At Oxford he extended the Cape observations of stars to the 7th
magnitude from 25 S. declination to the equator, and collected
the results in the Radcli/e Catalogue for 1800, which contains
the places of 6424 stars. Stone observed the transit of Venus
of 1874 at the Cape, and organized the government expeditions
for the corresponding event in 1882. He was elected president
of the Royal Astronomical Society (1882-1884), and he was the
first to recognize the importance of the old observations accumu-
lated at the Radcliffe Observatory" by Hornsby, Robertson and
Rigaud (Man. Not. R.A.S., vol. lv.). He successfully observed
the total solar eclipse of the 8th of August 1896 at Novaya
Zemlya, and purposed a voyage to India for the eclipse of 1898,
but died suddenly at the Radcliffe Observatory on the gth of
May 1897. The number of his astronomical publications exceeds
150, but his reputation depends mainly on' his earlier work at
Greenwich and his two great star catalogues the Cape Catalogue
for 1880 and the Radcli/e 'Catalogue for 1890.
See Proc. Roy. Society, Ixii. 10; Month. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. Iviii.
143; The Times, loth of May 1897; Observatory, xx. 234; Astr. Nach.
No. 3426; Roy. Soc. Cat. Scient. Papers. (A. M. C.)
STONE, FRANK (1800-1859), British painter, was born in
Manchester, and was entirely self-taught. He was elected an
associate of the Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1833 and
member in 1843; and an associate of the Royal Academy in 1851.
The works he first exhibited at the Academy were portraits, but
STONE, G. STONE,
957
from 1840 onwards he contributed figure pictures, scenes from
Shakespeare, scripture and sentimental subjects, many of which
were engraved.
STONE, GEORGE (1708-1764), archbishop of Armagh, was
the son of Andrew Stone, a London banker, and was educated
at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. Having
taken holy orders his advancement in the Church was very rapid,
mainly through the influence of his brother Andrew. Andrew
Stone (1703-1773), who was five years older than George,
became private secretary to the duke of Newcastle about 1729,
and was for many years on the most intimate and confidential
terms both with the duke and with his brother Henry Pelham.
In 1734 he was appointed under-secretary of state, and he soon
gained a position of great personal influence with George II.
by whom he was made tutor to Prince George, afterwards
George III. On the accession of the latter to the throne,
Andrew Stone was appointed treasurer to Queen Charlotte,
and attaching himself to Lord Bute he became an influential
member of the party known as " the king's friends," whose
meetings were frequently held at his house. He was, therefore,
well able to promote the preferment of his brother George, who
went to Ireland as chaplain to the duke of Dorset when that
nobleman became lord-lieutenant in 1731. In 1733 George
Stone was made dean of Ferns, and in the following year he
exchanged this deanery for that of Derry; in 1740 he became
bishop of Ferns, in 1743 bishop of Kildare, in 1745 bishop of
Derry, and in 1747 archbishop of Armagh. During the two
years that he occupied the see of Kildare he was also dean of
Christchurch, Dublin.
From the moment that he became primate of Ireland, Stone
proved himself more a politician than an ecclesiastic. " He was
said to have been selfish, worldly-minded, ambitious and
ostentatious; and he was accused, though very probably falsely,
of gross private vice." l His aim was to secure political power,
a desire which brought him into conflict with Boyle, the Speaker
of the Irish House of Commons, who had organized a formidable
opposition to the government. The duke of Dorset's reappoint-
ment to the lord-lieutenancy in 1751, with his son Lord George
Sackville as secretary of state for Ireland, strengthened the
primate's position and enabled him to triumph over the popular
party on the constitutional question as to the right of the Irish
House of Commons to dispose of surplus Irish revenue, which
the government maintained was the property of the Crown. But
when Dorset was replaced by the duke of Devonshire in 1755,
Boyle was raised to the peerage as earl of Shannon and received
a pension, and other members of the opposition also obtained
pensions or places; and the archbishop, finding himself excluded
from power, went into opposition to the government in alliance
with John Ponsonby. These two, afterwards joined by the
primate's old rival Lord Shannon, and usually supported by
the earl of Kildare, regained control of affairs in 1758, during the
viceroyalty of the duke of Bedford. In the same year Stone
wrote a remarkable letter, preserved in the Bedford Correspon-
dence (ii. 357), in which he speaks very despondingly of the
material condition of Ireland and the distress of the people.
The archbishop was one of the " undertakers " who controlled
the Irish House of Commons, and although he did not regain the
almost dictatorial power he had exercised at an earlier period,
which had suggested a comparison between him and Cardinal
Wolsey, he continued to enjoy a prominent share in the adminis-
tration of Ireland until his death, which occurred in London on
the igth of December 1764.
Although this "much-abused prelate," as Lecky calls him,
was a firm supporter of the English government in Ireland, he
was far from being a man of tyrannical or intolerant disposition.
It was due to his influence that in the anti-tithe disturbances in
Ulster in 1763 the government acted with conspicuous modera-
tion, and that the movement was suppressed with very little
bloodshed; he constantly favoured a policy of conciliation to-
wards the Roman Catholics, whose loyalty he defended at
1 W. E. H. Lecky, Hist. 0} Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (1892),
i. 462.
different periods of his career both in his speeches in the Irish
House of Lords and in his correspondence with ministers in
London. Archbishop Stone, who never married, was a man of
remarkably handsome appearance, and his manners were " emi-
nently seductive and insinuating." Richard Cumberland, who
was struck by the " Polish magnificence " of the primate, speaks
in the highest terms of his courage, tact, and qualities as a popu-
lar leader. Horace Walpole, who gives an unfavourable picture
of his private character, acknowledges that Stone possessed
" abilities seldom to be matched "; and he had the distinction
of being mentioned by David Hume as one of the only two men of
mark who had perceived merit in that author's History of England
on its first appearance. He was himself the author of several
volumes of sermons which were published during his lifetime.
See Richard Mant, History of the Church of Ireland, vol. ii. (London,
1840) ; J. A. Froude,77je English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century
(3 vols., London, 1872-1874) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in
the Eighteenth Century (5 vols., London, 1892); J. R. O'Flanagan,
Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of Ireland
(2 vols., London, 1870); Richard Cumberland, Memoirs (London,
1806) ; F. Hardy, Memoirs of the earl of Charlemont (2 vols., 2nd. ed.,
London, 1812) ; Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George II.
(3 vols., London, 1846); Bedford Correspondence (3 vols., London,
1842-1846) ; Correspondence of Chatham (4 vols., London, 1838-1840).
(R. J. M.)
STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893), American reformer,
anti-slavery and woman's-rights leader, was born in West
Brookfield, Massachusetts, on the I3th of August 1818. Her
father refused her the college education that she so eagerly
desired, but she earned enough to carry her through Oberiin
College, where she graduated in 1847. She immediately went
on the lecture platform as an advocate of abolition and of
woman's rights, and her remarkable voice and commanding
eloquence often held in check the most disorderly audiences.
In 1855 she married Dr Henry B. Blackwell (1824-1909), a
prominent abolitionist and advocate of woman's rights, who
agreed that she should keep her maiden name; after .1870 he
assisted his wife in the management of the Woman's Journal of
Boston, of which she became editor in 1872. She allowed her
New Jersey property to be sold for taxes, and then published a
pamphlet on " taxation without representation." She cam-
paigned for woman's suffrage amendments in Kansas (1867),
Vermont (1870), Michigan (1874), Colorado (1877) and Nebraska
(1892). She died in Dorchester, Mass., on the i8th of October
1893. Her daughter, ALICE STONE BLACKWELL (b. 1857), carried
on, with her father, the Woman's Journal after 1893, and in
1885-1905 edited the Woman's Column.
Her husband's sisters, ELIZABETH BLACKWELL (1821-1910)
and EMILY BLACKWELL (1826-1910), were prominent physicians.
The former graduated at the Geneva Medical College, Geneva,
New York, in 1849, receiving the first physician's degree granted
to a woman in the United States, and studied in Philadelphia,
in Paris and in London, where she began to practise in 1869.
She died at Hastings on the ist of June 1910. Emily Blackwell
graduated at the Medical Department of Western Reserve
University in 1854; in 1853, with her sister, she founded the New
York Infirmary for Women and Children; and she was for many
years dean of the Woman's Medical College of the New York
Infirmary which she and her sister established in 1865.
STONE, MARCUS (1840- ), English painter, son of Frank
Stone, A.R.A., was trained by his father and began to exhibit
at the Academy before he was eighteen; and a few years later he
illustrated with much success books by Charles Dickens, Anthony
Trollope, and other writers, friends of his family. He was elected
an associate of the Royal Academy in 1877, and academician in
1887. In his earlier pictures he dealt much with historical
incidents, but in his later work he occupied himself chiefly with a
particular type of dainty sentiment, treated with much charm,
refinement and executive skill. One of his canvases is in the
National Gallery of British Art. Most of his works have been
engraved, and medals have been awarded to him at exhibitions
in all parts of the world.
See the Life and Work of Marcus Stone, R.A., by A. L. Baldry
(Art Journal office, 1896).
STONE, N. STONE
STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647), English sculptor and archi-
tect, was the son of a quarryman of Woodbury, near Exeter,
and as a boy was apprenticed to Isaac James, a London mason.
About 1603 he went to Holland and worked under the sculptor
Hendrik de Keyser (1567-1621) and his son Pieter, and married
his master's daughter. Stone is said to have made the portico
to the Westerkerk at Amsterdam. Returning to London about
1613 with Bernard Janssens (fl. 1610-1630), a fellow pupil, 1 he
settled in Southwark and obtained a large practice; in 1619
he was appointed master-mason to James I., and in 1626 to
Charles I.; and he died in London on the 24th of August 1647.
Stone, whose work is associated with Inigo Jones's introduction
of Renaissance architecture into England, ranks as the great
sculptor of his time and the rejuvenator of the art in England.
He is best known by his monuments, notably those to Sir
Francis Vere, the earl of Middlesex, and Francis Holies in West-
minster Abbey; Sir Dudley Digges at Chilham church, Kent;
Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, in Dover Castle (removed
to Greenwich); Sir Thomas Sutton, at the Charterhouse (with
Janssens); Sir Robert Drury at Hawstead church, Suffolk;
Sir William Stonhouse at Radley church, Berkshire; Sir Thomas
Bodley at Merton College, Oxford; Sir William Pope, in Wroxton
church, near Banbury; Sir Nicholas Bacon, in Redgrave church,
Suffolk (with Janssens); Dr John Donne (winding-sheet), at
St Paul's Cathedral; and Sir Julius Caesar, in St Helen's,
Bishopsgate.
He had three sons: John (d. 1667), a sculptor; Henry (d. 1653)
commonly known as " Old Stone " a painter, whose copies
of Van Dyck were famous, and whose portraits of Charles I.
and others are in the National Portrait Gallery; and Nicholas
(d. 1647), a sculptor, who worked under Bernini at Rome and
left a sketch-book, which, with a note-book of his father's
(giving a list of his works between 1614 and 1641), is in the Soane
Museum.
See an article by A. E. Bullock in the Architectural Review,
1907, and the same author's illustrated monograph Some Sculptural
Works of Nicholas Stone (Batsford, London, 1908).
STONE, a market town in the western parliamentary division
of Staffordshire, England, on the river Trent, 7 m. N. of Stafford
by the North Staffordshire railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 5680. Part of the walls and crypt remain of an abbey
which dates from the foundation of a college of canons in 670.
The church of St Michael dates from 1750, the abbey church
having collapsed in the previous year. Alleyne's grammar school
is a foundation of 1558. The chief industry is shoemaking,
but malting, brewing and tanning are also carried on. At Bury
Bank, on the hills to the north, an earthwork is traditionally
considered to be the site of the capital of the Kingdom of
Mercia; there are other works in the neighbourhood at Saxon
Low.
STONE (0. Eng. stdn; the word is common to Teutonic
languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the
root is also seen in Gr. aria., pebble), a detached piece or fragment
of rock. The word is thus applied to the small fragments scattered
in the ground or on roads, to the water-worn pebbles of the sea
shore or river beds, and to the hewn, dressed or shaped rock used
as a building material, with which this article deals. A qualifying
word generally accompanies " stone " when the term is applied
to pieces of rock cut to a particular size and shape and used for a
specific purpose, e.g. " mill-stone," " hearth-stone," " grave-
stone," &c. The term " precious stone " is used of those minerals
which, from their beauty of colour, &c., their rarity, and some-
times their hardness, are valued for their suitability for ornaments
(see GEMS). The word is also often applied to many objects
resembling a stone or pebble, such as the hard kernel of certain
fruits, as of the cherry, plum, peach, &c., or the calculi or con-
'Also called Janssen (Diet. Nat. Biog.'), Jansen and Janson.
Possibly he was the brother of the Gerard (Geraert) Jansen or John-
son, of Southwark, who in 1616 executed the bust of Shakespeare in
Stratford church ; but it is uncertain whether the latter was identical
with, or the son of, the Dutch tomb-maker Gerard Jansen described
in Sir W. Dugdale's Diary as having, in 1593, lived for twenty-six
years in England and as the father of five sons.
cretions sometimes formed in the gall or urinary bladder or the
kidneys (see BLADDER DISEASES and KIDNEY DISEASES). The
" stone " has been a common measure of weight in north-
western Europe. In Germany the " Stein" was of 20 to 22 Ib.
In the British system of weights the "legal" stone, or "horse-
man's " weight is of 14 Ib avoirdupois; in weighing wool it was
also of 14 Ib, but is now usually 16 Ib. The " customary "
stone for fish or butcher's meat is of 8 Ib.
Building-stone. In selecting a stone for building purposes
many important points have to be considered. The stone must
be strong enough to bear the load placed upon it, it must be
durable and weather well in the atmosphere of the district, and
its colour and appearance need to be studied. It must further
be ascertained whether a sufficient supply is available, and the
price also must be taken into account; some difficulty is often
experienced in obtaining a suitable stone at a moderate cost, and
considerations of expense frequently have more to do with the
choice of a stone than the architect would wish. Where there
is risk of fire, as is often the case in business and factory premises,
it is necessary to select a stone able to stand the effect of a great
heat without damage. Great experience of the strength of stones
and of their behaviour in different situations is desirable; but
even when this knowledge is given and the greatest care is
combined with it, some point may be overlooked. For example,
the stone facing of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster was
chosen on the recommendation of a committee composed of men
of eminent scientific and technical skill; yet it has not weathered
well because it is not constituted to resist the destroying effects
of the London atmosphere.
The prime factor in the choice of a building stone should be the
climate to which the material has to be exposed. Stone that in
the pure country air has proved extremely durable
may quickly decay in an impure city atmosphere, or Lonstttu-
when subjected to the strong salt winds from the sea. toa '
Extremes of temperature, too, are, generally speaking, prejudicial to
the life of stone, the alternations of heat and cold setting up move-
ments in the substances of the stone, which, though slight, will in
many cases hasten its disintegration. There are few materials which
more quickly decay and fail than stone placed under unsuitable
conditions. An analysis, made by E. G. Clayton, of a sample of
incrustation found on the Portland stone masonry of St Paul's
Cathedral, London, gave the following result:
Weight per cent.
Water (lost at 100) 2-06
Water (lost at 150) 22-48
Carbon (soot) i-io
Calcium sulphate 59'38
Calcium phosphate 2-22
Calcium silicate 1-63
Magnesium silicate 0-67
Iron silicate 2-40
Sand and uncombined silica . . . 8-06
100-00
The deposit when reduced to a fine grey powder and placed under
the microscope did not appear to contain any organic matter.
Mr Clayton says that this test points to the fact that the principal
constituent of limestones, namely calcium carbonate, has been
changed into calcium sulphate by the action of sulphurous and
sulphuric acids ever present in the smoky London air. Impurities
of this nature lodge on the face of the stone and are diluted and
driven into the pores by subsequent rain. Having by their chemical
action destroyed a portion of the substance of the material, they cause
a slight crust to form on the surface which is in turn washed off.
Carbonates of lime and magnesia, the chief constituents of ordinary
marbles and limestones, are very susceptible to the solvent action
of these acids. Pure water has little or no chemical action upon
most building stones, but a danger arises to a porous stone even when
situated in pure air. Water will soak into some stones in consider-
able quantities, and in frosty weather this fact constitutes a serious
menace to the rock; for water when passing from the liquid to the
solid state exerts if checked an enormous pressure, and the face, and
sometimes the bulk, of the stone is frequently damaged in this way.
One of the best precautions that can be taken by an architect is
a personal visit to the quarry, to examine the stone in its natural
situation. This, of course, will give little clue to its behaviour in
an impure atmosphere, and therefore, if the particular stone has been
previously used in the same district, the buildings in which it has
been employed should also be inspected. A hard and lasting stone
will show the marks of the tooling, and the arrises of the blocks will
be sharp and good, even after many years' exposure.
STONE
959
The colour has a considerable bearing upon the selection of a
stone, but this, although a very important matter, must give way
before the question of durability. In large towns and
Colour. manufacturing districts this is most emphatically the case,
for within a few years of erection the exterior of a building in such
districts is disguised under a coating of soot and grime.
Should the stone contain iron, especially in the form of "pyrites,"
there is a great likelihood of its being stained more or less badly
by iron " rust." If the metal is distributed evenly in small particles
throughout the mass the rusting may do no more harm than
merely deepen the tone of the stone, but if present in large pieces
the stain may be so serious as to spoil the appearance entirely.
When the durability of stone has not been tried over some con-
siderable period in a building actually erected, the most careful
_ .. physical and chemical tests should be made. If the
?< stone passes the following tests satisfactorily it may
safely be assumed to be of good quality and likely to prove durable:
(l) Resistance to crushing; (2) acid test; (3) absorption test; (4)
microscopical examination.
The resistance to crushing varies to an enormous extent with
the different kinds of stone, from a little over 60 tons per square
foot, which is the limit for a weak limestone, up to a load of over
1300 tons necessary to crush the hardest granites. In general
practice the load placed upon stone should not exceed one-tenth of
the crushing weight as found by testing typical specimens. A six-
inch cube is a convenient size often adopted for the blocks to which
the crushing test is to be applied.
The effect produced by soaking pieces of stone for some days
in a I % solution of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids will decide
roughly whether it will be durable in a city atmosphere. The
vessel containing the test should be agitated twice a day; the
action of the acid is to dissolve any portions of the stone that would
be decomposed by the action of smoke and acid fumes.
A block of the stone under consideration should be dried thoroughly
in a warm kiln or oven and carefully weighed before it has time to
absorb moisture from the air. It must then be placed to soak in
clean water for twenty-four hours and after removal again weighed.
The difference between the weights registered will give the weight
of water absorbed, and this should not be more than 10% of the
weight of the dry block. There are, however, exceptions to this
test, some very porous stones being capable of taking up a large
Suantity of water and at the same time proving durable in use.
ut such material is liable to allow damp to penetrate through
it to the interior of the building in which it is employed.
The microscope is the best means of determining the structure
of a stone, and of recognizing the presence of matter likely to affect
its usefulness adversely. Should iron pyrites be discovered in any
quantity the stone should be rejected, as this impurity easily
decomposes on exposure, and badly stains and sometimes splits
the stone.
The hardest, least absorbent, and most compact and uniform
stones are of ancient geological formation, and with time and in-
crease of superimposed pressure have become dense and very hard.
The softer stones are of later formation, and are usually lighter
in weight and more porous. A good stone should ring clearly
when struck with steel, and a fresh fracture should on examination
be bright, clean and sharp in texture and free from loose grains.
A dull earthy appearance indicates an inferior stone.
A simple test for determining whether a stone contains much
earthy matter is this: Some small chippings from the stone are
placed in a vessel with sufficient water to cover the pieces, and are
left undisturbed for about three-quarters of an hour. The water
is then gently agitated. With stone of a highly crystalline nature,
having its particles well cemented together, the water will remain
clear, but stone containing earth and clay will cause the water to
become thick and cloudy in appearance.
The action of the air of certain districts has been shown to be
prejudicial to the durability of many stones. A striking instance
of this peculiarity is afforded by Cleopatra's Needle
on the Thames Embankment. This is an Egyptian
monument of carved granite which undoubtedly stood
for some thousands of years with little deterioration on the spot
from which it was removed. But since its erection in London it has
been found necessary to coat it periodically with a preservative
solution in order to check the rapid decay set up by the impurities
of the London atmosphere. Similarly the Egyptian obelisk in
Central Park, New York, U.S.A., has for the same reason been
coated with a preparation of paraffin containing creosote dissolved
in turpentine. The surface of the stone was heated by means of
lamps and charcoal stoves, and the compound applied hot. .
The most usual method adopted for preserving stonework is
to paint the exposed surfaces with ordinary oil colour. This fills
the pores of the stone and forms a coat which, though weather-
proof, completely hides the natural beauty of the stone. The paint-
ing must be redone every four or five years. Boiled linseed oil is
sometimes used on stonework, one or more coats being well brushed
in after cleaning it. Its use deepens the colour of the stone, and
unless very carefully done the work is apt to appear patchy. A
large number of processes consist of coating the stonework with a
solution of soluble silica. In Kuhlmann's process a solution of silicate
of potash or soda is brushed into the stone and, aided by the carbonic
acid in the air, acts upon some of the constituents of the stone
and forms a hard surface which is not liable to decay. In Ransome's
process, a solution of silicate of soda is applied until the surface of the
stone has become saturated. This is allowed to dry and a solution
of chloride of calcium is thenapplied in a similar manner. The
two solutions act together and by decomposition produce an insoluble
silicate of lime which fills the pores of the stone and binds its par-
ticles together, thereby checking decay. Baryta water will, when
applied to limestone that has decayed owing to the action of sul-
phurous fumes, penetrate into and solidify the crumbling portions,
with the result that the stone is reconstituted and becomes hard
and quite solid. Professor A. H. Church employed this method
in arresting the decay of the frescoes in the Houses of Parliament
and the stonework of the chapter house at Westminster was also
treated by him in the same manner. Fluate is the name given
to a siliceous preservative specially recommended for use upon the
limestones from the Bath district. It may also be applied to other
limestones, and to bricks, tiles, terra-cotta, &c. It does not materially
change the appearance of the stone but enters the pores and prevents
decay. Stonework that is much decayed may be restored by
Tabard's Metallic Stone, which is a natural stone of trachyte origin
reduced to powder. The stone is restored to its original condition
by mixing the powder with an acid which softens and reunites
the molecules without decomposition. The invention is of French
origin and has been used for much important work on the continent
of Europe and in England.
The natural bed of a stone is that surface on which it was originally
deposited. But volcanic and other disturbances may have occurred
since that time and completely altered its " lie" ; .
and therefore it frequently happens that a horizontal '
line does not coincide with the natural bed of stone as it rests in the
quarry. Care must be taken, however, before using the stone in a
building, to find the proper bed and to set all stones with their
laminae quite level. Exceptions to this rule occur in the projecting
stones of cornices and string courses, especially those with undercut
members which would be likely to drop off were the natural bed level ;
in these cases the stones should be placed on edge with the laminae
vertical, except of course at the angles of the building where the stone
must be specially selected and laid on its natural bed. Limestones
and sandstones which are granular in structure and are found with
wide planes of cleavage, giving deep beds which can be quarried
in large blocks having no tendency to split in any particular direction,
are known as freestone.
Stone fresh from the quarry is found to contain a quantity of
moisture called " quarry sap," on account of which all stones (even
granite) are comparatively soft when first quarried. s eason j asr
This water gradually evaporates, and after some months'
exposure stones that were quite soft and weak when quarried
acquire hardness and strength. For these reasons it is desirable
from an economical point of view to " work " the stone to its desired
shape and mould and carve it when soft and easily workable. By
adopting this method a considerable saving in carriage will be
effected, and the durability of the stone is enhanced, for the quarry
sap on drying out leaves a hard outer crust or protective skin
which would be removed if the working of the stone were left until
it had become seasoned. It is an interesting fact that Sir Christopher
Wren directed that the stones used in the erection of St Paul's
Cathedral should be seasoned for three years on the sea beach.
Building-stones are divided into several groups; limestones and
sandstones are classified as aqueous or stratified rock,
granite being the principal igneous or unstratified stone.
Limestones consist chiefly of calcium carbonate with small pro-
portions of other substances. They are often classified under four
heads: Compact limestones consist of carbonate of lime, either
pure or in combination with clay and sand. Granular or oolitic
limestones consist of grains of carbonate of lime cemented together
by the same substance or mixed with sand and clay. The grains
are egg-shaped (hence the name " oolite ") and vary in size from
tiny particles to grains as large as peas. Shelly limestones consist
almost entirely of small shells, cemented together by carbonate of
lime. Magnesian limestones are composed of carbonates of lime
and magnesia in varying proportions, and usually also contain small
quantities of silica, iron and alumina. Stones having less than
15% of magnesia are not classed under this head. Dolomites are
limestones containing equal proportions of carbonate of lime and
carbonate of magnesia. Many of the finest building-stones are
limestones. In England typical examples are the Bath stones,
Portland stone and Kentish ragstone, and in America those from
the states of New York, Indiana (Bedford quarry, light brown stone),
Illinois (Grafton and Chester quarries) and Kentucky (Bowling
Green stone, light grey, similar to Portland). Notable French
limestones are obtained from the quarries at Peuren (cream),
Chateau-Gaillard (white), Abrots, Normandoux (white), and Villars
(light brown). The hardest and closest grained of these are capable
of taking a fine polish. Limestones should be used with care as
they are uncertain in their behaviour and usually more difficult to
work than sandstones, and as a general rule they do not stand the
960
STONE AGE STONEHAVEN
action of fire well. On being treated with a dilute acid, limestones
will effervesce and by this test they can easily be identified. Lime-
stones weigh between 130 Ib and 166 Ib per cubic foot. They vary
in colour, but most of them are cream or yellowish brown. Marble
is a limestone which has been changed by the action of heat and
pressure into a crystalline form. Many beautiful varieties are found
which are suitable for interior deception, such as for columns, wall
lining, paving, &c., and in dry sunny climates they may be employed
with great effect in external situations. They will take a high polish
and the fine grained varieties are well adapted for intricate carving.
The principal supplies of marble are drawn from Italy, Belgium
and France, but the marbles from Ireland and those from Devon-
shire and Derbyshire possess a remarkable range of colour and
variety of markings. America has few notable coloured marbles;
most of the stones quarried are white or black. The states of
Vermont (West Rutland and Sutherland Falls quarries), Tennessee
and Georgia produce large quantities of marble. Marezzo and
scagliola are imitations of marbles, and their manufacture and use
are described in PLASTERWORK.
Sandstones are composed of grains of sand held together by a
cementing substance to form a compact rock. The cementing
medium may be silica, alumina, carbonate of lime or an oxide of
iron. Those stones that have a siliceous cement are the most
durable. Sandstones vary more in colour than limestones, the
colour being largely due to the presence of iron. Cream, brown,
grey, pink, red, light and dark blue, and drab are common colours.
Typical British sandstones are Corsehill (red) from Dumfriesshire,
the Yorkshire sandstones (brown), Pennant stone and Forest of
Dean (blue and grey) from Gloucestershire. In America sandstones
are quarried in many states, principally Connecticut (brown stone),
New York (Potsdam red stone), Ohio (Amherst Berea and other
quarries, light brown or grey stone) and Massachusetts (Long-
meadow brown stone). The texture of sandstones varies from a
fine, almost microscopical, grain to one composed of large particles
of sand. It will generally be found that the heaviest, densest,
least porous and most lasting stones are those with a fine grain.
Granites are igneous rocks formed by volcanic action and are of all
geological ages. Granite is composed of quartz, felspar and mica
intimately compacted in varying proportions to form a hard granular
stone. Quartz is the principal constituent and imparts to the rock
the qualities of durability and strength. Stones containing a large
proportion of quartz are hard and difficult to work. Felspar of
an earthy nature is opaque in appearance and is liable to decay;
it should be clear and almost transparent. The characteristic
colour of the granite is generally due to this substance, but the
stone is often affected by the nature of the mica it contains, whether
it be light or dark in tint. Granite is the hardest, strongest and
most durable of building-stones, and is difficult and costly to work.
When polished, many varieties present a beautiful and lasting
surface. By reason of its strength and toughness this stone is often
used for foundations, bases, columns, kerbs and paving and in all
positions where great strength is required. The granites from the
Peterhead and Aberdeen districts of Scotland and from Cornwall
and Devonshire in England are much used. In the United States
good granites are quarried in Connecticut, Massachusetts and
Minnesota. Canada, especially the eastern provinces, supplies many
excellent varieties of granites. Much granite is also exported from
Norway and Sweden. Syenitic granite contains hornblende in
addition to quartz, felspar and mica. True syenite consists of
quartz, felspar and hornblende, the latter taking the place of mica.
It obtains its name from a stone found at Syene in Egypt, but it
has since been discovered that this stone is not a " syenite " as it
actually contains more mica than hornblende. These rocks are
very hard and are need more for paving and road-metalling than for
building purposes.
Slates. The slate used for roofing and other purposes in building
is a fine-grained and compact rock composed of sandy clay which
has been more or less metamorphosed by the action of heat and
tremendous pressure. Such rocks were originally deposited in
the form of sediment by the sea or river, afterwards becoming
compacted by the continual heaping up of superincumbent material.
Owing no doubt to some sliding motion having at some time taken
place, slaty rocks are capable of being split into thin sheets which are
trimmed to the various marketable sizes. A good slate is hard,
tough and non-absorbent, will give out a metallic ring if struck,
and when trimmed it will not splinter nor will the edges become
ragged. Slates range in colour from purple to grey and green.
The best-known British slates are those of the Welsh and Westmor-
land quarries. In America good slate is found in the states of New
York, Pennsylvania and Maine. (See also ROOFS.)
There are several kinds of artificial stone on the market, consisting
of fine cement concrete placed to set in wooden or iron moulds.
Artificial Although from an artistic point of view its use is not
desirable, it is prepared with such care that its cheap-
IDe * ness, strength and uniform character have led to its wide
employment. One of the best-known varieties is Victoria stone
which is composed of finely crushed Mount Sorrel (Leicestershire)
granite and Portland cement, carefully mixed by machinery in the
proportions of three to one, and filled into moulds of the required
shape. When the blocks are set hard the moulds are loosened and
the blocks placed in a solution of silicate of soda for about two weeks
for the purpose of indurating and hardening them. Many manufac-
turers turn out a material that is practically non-porous and is
able effectually to resist the corroding influence of sea air or the
impure atmosphere of large towns.
See Rivingtqn's Notes on Building Construction, vol. Hi.; F. E.
Kidder, Building Construction and Superintendence, vol. i. ; P.
Merril, Stones for Building and Decoration (American); H. Blagrove,
Marble Decoration; W. R. Johnson, Report on Building Stone for
Extension of United States Capitol; Report of Committee upon the
Decay of Stone at the Palace at Westminster. (J. BT.)
STONE AGE, the term employed by anthropologists to describe
the earliest stage of human civilization when man had gained no
knowledge of metals, and his weapons and utensils were formed of
stone, horn or bone. The term has no chronological value, as
the Stone Age was earlier in some parts of the world than in
others, and even to-day races exist who are still in their Stone
Age. This first period of human culture has been subdivided by
Lord Avebury into Palaeolithic and Neolithic, words which have
been generally accepted as expressing the two stages of the rough,
unpolished and the finely finished and polished stone implements.
(See ARCHAEOLOGY.)
STONE-FLY, the name given to medium-sized, neuropterous
insects of the family Perlidae with long flexible antennae, wide
thoracic sterna and with the wings resembling, as regards size,
shape and the fan-like folding of the posterior pair, those typical
of the Orthoptera except that the anterior pair is membranous
and not coriaceous. The immature forms, which are aquatic,
carnivorous and active, are very like the adults except in the
absence of wings and in their method of respiration, which is
either cutaneous or effected by means of variously placed integu-
mental tufts richly supplied with tracheae. By some authors the
Perlidae are regarded as a special order, Plecoptera; by others
as a sub-order of an order Platyptera, which contains the
Termitidae and some other insects as well.
STONEHAM, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A. Pop. (1890), 6155; (1900), 6197; (1910, U.S. census),
7090. Area, 6-6 sq. m. In the township is Spot Pond, a large
lake with islets, so named in 1632 by Governor John Winthrop
and others who then first discovered it ; it is a storage basin for
the Metropolitan Water District, and supplies Medford, Melrose
and Stoneham. A large part (730 acres) of the Middlesex Fells
Reservation of the Metropolitan Park System is in Stoneham.
The village of Stoneham, with the only post office in the town-
ship, is about 9 m. north by east of Boston, and is served by the
Boston & Maine railway and by inter-urban electric lines; it has
a public library. Steam power was first used in the manufacture
of shoes in Stoneham by John Hill & Co., who introduced many
labour-saving devices, notably the heeling machine (1862).
Stoneham, long a part of Charlestown and first settled about
1668, was incorporated as a township in 1725, but its
boundaries have been frequently changed since then.
STONEHAVEN (locally Stanehive), a police burgh, seaport
and county town of Kincardineshire, Scotland, 15 m. S.S.W. of
Aberdeen by rail. Pop. (1901), 4577. It consists of two quarters,
the old town picturesquely situated on the south bank of the
Carron and the new on the land between this stream and the
Cowie, the two being connected by the bridge which carries the
main road from the south to Aberdeen. The principal buildings
are the market-house and town hall, and the industries include
distilling, brewing, tanning, the making of net, rope and twine
and woollen manufactures. The harbour, a natural basin, is
protected on the south-east by cliffs and has a quay. The trade
is mostly in coal and lime and the exports are chiefly agricultural.
The town is an important centre of the fishing industry, and has
become a favourite watering-place. On the decay of Kincardine,
the original capital, Stonehaven became the county town in 1600,
and suffered heavily during the covenanting troubles, Montrose
setting it on fire in 1645. The Slug Road to Banchory-Ternan,
or Upper Banchory (pop. 1475), 15 m. distant, a favourite
residential resort of Aberdeen citizens, begins at Stonehaveu.
It pursues mainly a north-western direction, at one point being
carried over the shoulder of Cairn mon-earn (1245 ft.).
STONEHENGE
961
STONEHENGE (Sax. Stanhengist, hanging stones), a circular
group of huge standing stones (see STONE MONUMENTS), situated
on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England, about 7 m. N. of
Salisbury. Until comparatively recent times the surrounding
district was in a state of nature with merely a thin coating of
turf interspersed with tufts of heath and dwarf thistles, but bare
of trees and shrubs and altogether devoid of the works of man,
with the exception of a series of prehistoric barrows of the Bronze
Age which, singly and in groups, studded the landscape. It is
safe to say that no prehistoric monument in Great Britain has
given rise to more speculation as to its origin, date and purpose ;
and although the few hoary stones still extant are but a small
portion of the original structure they are still sufficiently imposing
to excite the wonder of the passing traveller, and mysterious
enough to puzzle the antiquary.
Stonehenge was first mentioned by Nennius in the 9th century,
who asserts that it was erected in commemoration of the 400 nobles
who were treacherously slain near the spot by Hengist in 472.
A similar account of its origin is given in the triads of the Welsh
bards, where its erection is attributed to Aurelius Ambrosius,
the successor of Vortigern. This was regarded as a miraculous
feat brought about by the incantations of the magician Merlin,
who caused a great stone circle in Ireland (said to have been
previously carried thither out of Africa by giants) to be trans-
ported to Salisbury Plain, where, at Merlin's " word of power,"
all the stones moved into their proper places. On the other
hand, the Welsh bard Aneurin states that Stonehenge existed
before the time of Aurelius, whose title of Ambrosius may, as sug-
gested by Davies, have been derived from Stonehenge. Geoffrey
of Monmouth, in recording the death of Constantine, which took
place about the middle of the 6th century (Historic, britonum),
states that he was buried " close by Uther Pendragon, within
the structure of stones which was set up with wonderful art not
far from Salisbury, and called in the English tongue, Stone-
henge." Inigo Jones, in his work on Stonehenge, published in
1655, endeavours to prove that it was a " Roman temple,
inscribed to Coelus, the senior of the heathen gods, and built
after the Tuscan order." This theory was attacked by Dr
Charleton (1725), one of the physicians of Charles II., who
maintained that it was erected by the Danes, and consequently
after the departure of the Romans from Britain. The next
controversialist who appeared on the scene was the famous Dr
Stukely (1740) who propounded the theory that Stonehenge, the
stone circle at Avebury (Abury), &c., were temples for serpent
worship, '' Dracontia " as he called them, the serpent worship-
pers being the Druids. Subsequent writers dropped the ophite
portion of this theory, but still continued to regard Stonehenge
as a temple or observatory of the Druids. Lord Avebury regards
it as a temple of the Bronze Age (1500-1000 B.C.), though appar-
ently it was not all erected at one time, the inner circle of small
unwrought, blue stones being probably older than the rest
(Prehistoric Times). On the other hand James Fergusson
(1872) contended that it was a sepulchral monument of the Saxon
period.
The original number and position of the stones have suffered
in the course of time from wind and weather, in days when
archaeological interest was not alive to the importance of pre-
serving so ancient a monument. That, however, these natural
causes of its dilapidation were assisted by the sacrilegious hand
of man there is no lack of documentary evidence. Thus Inigo
Jones laments the disappearance of stones that were standing
when he measured it; and both Stukely and Aubrey deplore
the loss of fallen stones that were removed to make bridges,
mill-dams and the like. On the evening of the 3ist of December
1900, one of the outer trilithons (22 on plan), with its lintel,
was blown down in the course of a severe storm, this being the
first collapse since the 3rd of January 1797, when one of the fine
trilithons (57, 58) of the horseshoe fell. This catastrophe
attracted renewed attention to the state of Stonehenge, and
much discussion took place as to the taking of precautions against
further decay.
The annexed plan, which is that of Professor Flinders Petrie,
xxv. 31
shows the state of Stonehenge at the moment preceding the fall
of the trilithon on the 3ist of December 1900. Within a circular
earthwork, 300 ft. in diameter and approached from the north-
east by a road or avenue which can still be traced by banks of
earth, is an outer circle of trilithons (100 ft. in diameter) formed by
great monoliths (sarsens), originally thirty in number, with large
SCALE OF FEET
\Stonesstanding on 300'December I&OO
\Stones recumbent on same d<tte.
lintel stones. About 9 ft. within this circle and concentric
with it is another, formed of smaller " blue stones," originally
forty in number, but only a few of which now remain in situ;
within that was a horseshoe of five huge trilithons formed by ten
monoliths with their imposts (all sarsens) ; and within the horse-
shoe was an inner horseshoe of " blue stones," originally nine-
teen in number. The open part of the horseshoe exactly faces
the sunrise at the summer solstice. Beyond the outer circle
(not shown on plan) a great monolith the sun stone, or so-called
" Friar's Heel " standing on the axis of the horseshoe, marks
the point where a spectator, centrally placed within the horse-
shoe, would see the sun rise on the horizon at the solstice. On
the circumference of the earthern circle or surrounding rampart
(not shown on plan), which is here intentionally broken, a great
recumbent stone the slaughter stone lies along the axis:
and across the axis, near the central curve of the inner horse-
shoe, lies a fine recumbent stone the altar stone 15 ft. long.
Only half the outer circle (sarsens) now remained upright,
three on the west, thirteen on the east; and this indicated the
effect of the prevalent west wind. The fall of trilithon 22 and its
lintel opened a larger path to the wind, and added to the danger
of further destruction. Moreover, the narrow passages between
the eastern monoliths had become worn by use into hollows which
threatened their foundations. The acquisition of Salisbury
Plain by the war office for military purposes seemed likely,
again, to add to the risk of harm from thoughtless visitors.
For all reasons an attempt to preserve Stonehenge was desirable;
and the owner, Sir Edmund Antrobus 1 was willing, on certain
conditions, as to limitations of access, to co-operate with the
Society of Antiquaries, Wiltshire Archaeological Society and
Society for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments in taking
such steps as might be necessary to prevent more stones from
falling, and even (if possible) to set up some which had fallen.
1 The ownership of Stonehenge having been questioned, Sir
E. Antrobus's legal title to it was confirmed by a lawsuit in 1905.
962
STONEMAN STONE MONUMENTS
The societies advised that trilithon 6, 7, with lintel which had
slewed round and trilithon 56, which was leaning at a dangerous
angle, should be examined with a view to replacement with as
little excavation as possible; that the monolith and lintel 22 be
replaced, and its companion sarsen (21) secured; and that trili-
thon 57, 58, should be re-erected in its place, which was exactly
known. Steps were taken to place the matter in the hands of
engineering experts. On the ipth of September 1901 trilithon
56 was successfully raised to a perpendicular position. It then
presented an imposing appearance, standing 21 ft. above ground:
its total length was found to be 29 ft. 6 in., and its weight about
30 tons. The excavations were carried to a depth of 8 ft. 3 in.
below the datum line, and many objects were found, including
chippings and lumps of the stones, stone tools, bones, and (in
the upper strata) coins and fragments of pottery. Nearly 100
stone implements were excavated axes, hammer axes, stone
hammers and mauls which, according to Dr Gowland, who
superintended the work, had been used not only for breaking the
rude blocks into regular forms, but also for working down their
faces to a level or curved surface. No light was thrown, however,
on the transport of the blocks.
Notwithstanding the many attempts, both by excavations
and speculative writings, to elucidate the history of this unique
monument, the archaeological data available are insufficient to
decide definitely between the conflicting opinions held with
regard to the date of its construction and the purpose for which it
was originally intended. The finding of chips of " sarsens " and
" blue stones " together " down to the bed of the rock " would
seem to disprove the theory that the inner circle and inner
horseshoe were built earlier than the rest of the monument.
Dr Gowland at a meeting of the Society of Antiquaries (Dec. 19,
1901), read a paper on his recent excavations on the site of
Stonehenge, in which he came to the conclusion that the struc-
ture was a temple dedicated to the worship of the sun, and he
assigns its erection to the end of the Neolithic period (2000 to
1800 B.C.), on the ground that no bronze implements or relics
were found during his explorations. It does not follow, however,
from the fact that only stone tools were found at the bottom of
the trenches that the monument was constructed when metal
tools were unknown, because none of the Stonehenge tools have
the characteristic forms of Neolithic implements, so that they
might have been specially improvised for the purpose of roughly
hewing these huge stones, for which, indeed, they were really
better adapted, and more easily procured, than the early and
very costly metal tools of the Bronze Age. On the other hand,
the recorded discovery of iron armour, Roman and British
pottery and coins, together with the bones and horns of deer
and other animals, is of little evidential value without a precise
record of the circumstances in which they were found. Only
one object, viz. an incense burner, seems to the present writer
to have any chronological value, as it is an undoubted sepulchral
relic of the Bronze Age.
That the sun on midsummer day rises nearly, but not quite,
in line with the " avenue " and over the Friar's Heel, has long
been advanced as the chief argument in support of the theory
that Stonehenge was a temple for sun-worship. On the sup-
position that this stone was raised to mark exactly the line of
sunrise on midsummer's day when the structure was erected, it
would naturally follow, owing to well-known astronomical causes,
that in the course of time the direction of this line would slowly
undergo a change, and that, at any subsequent date since,
the amount of deviation would be commensurate with the lapse
of time, thus supplying chronological data to astronomers for
determining the age of the building. The solution of this
problem has recently been attempted by Sir Norman Lockyer
(Stoneheng^ and other British Stone Monuments) , who calculates
that on midsummer day, 1680 B.C., the sun would rise exactly
over the Friar's Heel, and in a direct line with the axis of the
temple and " avenue." The above date he therefore considers
to be the date of the erection of this great national monument,
within a margin of possible error, on either side, of 200 years.
Looking at Stonehenge from the architectural standpoint,
there can be no hesitancy in regarding it as an advanced re-
presentative of the ordinary stone circles, some two hundred
of which, great and small, are known within the British Isles.
It is, however, differentiated from them all by having hewn
stones, capstones, tenons and sockets. That its analogues were
chiefly used as sepulchres has been fully established, and this
is presumptive evidence that the sepulchral element was, at
least, one of the objects for which Stonehenge was constructed:
and it was probably for this reason that it was erected on Salis-
bury Plain, where there already existed an extensive necropolis
of the Bronze Age. Nor would this by any means militate
against its use as a temple for consecrating the dead, or for
sun-worship, or any other religious purpose.
AUTHORITIES. Among numerous writings on Stonehenge may
be mentioned Stonehenge and Abury, by Dr William Stukely (1740;
reprinted in 1840); Davies, Celtic Researches (1804), and Mythology
of the Druids (1809); Hoare, Ancient Wiltshire (1812), vol. i.; Browne,
An Illustration of Stonehenge and Abury (1823); Fergusson, Rude
Stone Monuments (1872); Long, Stonehenge and its Barrows (1876);
Gidley, Stonehenge viewed in the Light of Ancient History and Modern
Observation (1877); W. M. Flinders Petrie, Stonehenge: Plans,
Descriptions and Theories (1880); E. T. Stevens, Jottings on Stone-
henge (1882) ; Edgar Barclay, Stonehenge and its Earth Works (1895) ;
Lockyer, Stonehenge and other British Stone Monuments, Astro-
nomically Considered (1906). See also The Times (April 9, 1901).
For a complete bibliography of Stonehenge see The Wiltshire
Archaeological and Natural History Magazine (Dec. 1901), by W.
Jerome Harrison. (R. Mu.)
STONEMAN, GEORGE (1822-1894), American soldier, was
born at Busti, in Chautauqua county, New York, on the 8th
of August 1822. He graduated at West Point in 1846, served
as second lieutenant with the Mormon battalion in California
during the Mexican War, and became a captain in 1855. In
February 1861, while in command of Fort Brown, Texas, he
disregarded the orders of his superior officer, Major-General
D. E. Twiggs, to surrender to the Confederate forces, and escaped
with the garrison. He served on McClellan's staff during the
West Virginia campaign, and was commissioned brigadier-
general of volunteers and appointed chief of cavalry of the
Army of the Potomac in August 1861, in which capacity he
took part in the Peninsula campaign and the Seven Days' Battle.
He commanded the III. corps in the Fredericksburg campaign;
and was promoted, in November 1862, to be major-general of
volunteers. During the Chancellorsville campaign he made
an unsuccessful cavalry raid toward Richmond. In the early
months of 1864 he commanded the XXIII. corps, and then,
as commander of the cavalry of the department of the Ohio,
took part in the Atlanta campaign. While attempting to seize
the Confederate prison at Andersonville (July 31, 1864), he
was captured at Clinton, Georgia. After his release in October
he commanded cavalry in East Tennessee, making successful
raids into Virginia and North Carolina, and on the i2th of
April 1865 defeated a Confederate force near Salisbury, North
Carolina, and captured a large number of prisoners. After-
ward he held commands in Tennessee and Virginia until 1868.
He was mustered out of the volunteer service in September
1866, but served in the regular army as colonel and brevet-
major-general till 1871. He then removed to California, was
elected governor by the Democrats, and served from 1883 to
1887. In February 1891 he was made a colonel on the retired
list, U.S. Army, and on the 5th of September 1894 died at Buffalo,
New York.
STONE MONUMENTS, PRIMITIVE. The raising of com-
memorative monuments of such enduring material as stone is a
practice that may be traced in all countries to the remotest
times. The highly sculptured statues, obelisks and other
monumental erections of modern civilization are but the lineal
representatives of the unhewn monoliths, dolmens, cromlechs,
&c., of prehistoric times. Judging from the large number of
the latter that have still survived the destructive agencies
(notably those of man himself) to which they have been exposed
during so many ages, it would seem that the motives which led
to their erection had as great a hold on humanity in its earlier
stages of development as at the present time. In giving some
STONEHENGE
PLATE.
XXV. 962.
STONE MONUMENTS
9 6 3
idea of the characteristics of these rude and primitive monu-
ments in Britain and elsewhere it will be convenient to classify
them as follows: (i) Isolated pillars, or monoliths (novos,
solitary, and Xi0os, stone) of unhewn stones raised on end, are
called menhirs (Cornish, maenhir, and Welsh maen, a stone,
and hir, long). (2) When these monoliths are arranged in lines
they become alignments (ad, to, and Fr. ligne, a line), as at
Menec, Carnac (see Plate, fig. 5). (3) But if their linear arrange-
ment be such as to form an enclosure (enceinte), whether
circular, oval or irregular, the group is designated by the name
of cromlech (Gaelic, crom, crooked, and leac, Welsh llech, a
flagstone), as at Carrowmore, Ireland (see Plate, fig. 4). (4)
When the monoliths, instead of standing apart as in the previous
structures, are placed close to each other and enclose an area
sufficiently small and narrow to be roofed over by one or more
capstones so as to form a rude chamber, the monument is
called a dolmen (Breton, dolmen, from dol, a table, and men,
Welsh maen, a stone). For illustrations of the dolmens at
Keriaval and Kit's Coty House (see Plate, figs, i and 2). This
megalithic chamber is sometimes wholly embedded in a mound
of earth or stones so as to present to outward appearance the
form of a tumulus or cairn. As, however, there are many
tumuli and cairns which do not contain megalithic chambers,
it is only partially that these prehistoric remains come under
the category of primitive stone monuments. In the rare
instances of a dolmen being constructed of two single standing
stones supporting a third, like the lintel of a door, as may be
seen at Stonehenge (?..), the monument is called a trilithon
(rpi = rpTs, three, and \L6os, stone).
Menhirs. Rude monoliths set on end appear to have been
erected in all ages for a variety of commemorative purposes,
such as on the accession of kings and chiefs, or to mark the site
of a battle, a grave, or a boundary line, &c. Throughout the
British Isles such standing stones are widely interspersed,
especially in the less cultivated districts. In Scotland, when
stones were used ceremonially in the act of crowning a king, they
were called tanist stones, the most celebrated of which was
the Lia Fail, formerly at Scone (now at Westminster Abbey),
on which the kings of Scotland used to be crowned. We read
also of hare or hoer stones, cambus or camus stones (cam,
crooked), cat (calh, battle) stones, witch stanes, Druid
stanes, &c. The Hawk stane, or Saxum Falconis, at St Madoes,
Perthshire, was erected in memory of the defeat of the Danes at
Luncarty, and a monolith now standing on the field of Flodden
is said to mark the place where King James fell. When menhirs
were grouped together their number was often significant,
e.g. twelve (Joshua iv. 5) or seven (Herod, iii. 8). Some standing
stones are found to have been artificially perforated, and with
these superstition has associated some curious ceremonies.
As examples of this class may be mentioned the famous Stone
of Odin near the circle of Stennis, the Clach-Charra, or Stone
of Vengeance, at Onich near Balachulish, Argyllshire, and
Men-en-tol (the holed-stone) in Cornwall. Two rude mono-
liths in Scotland bear inscriptions the famous Newton Stone
in the district of Garioch, and the Cat Stane near Edinburgh.
Others have cup-and-ring markings, spirals or concentric circles.
In Ireland, Wales and Scotland they are occasionally found
with Ogam inscriptions and in the north-east of Scotland (Pict-
land) with some remarkable and hitherto unexplained symbolical
figures, which were continued on the hewn and elaborately
sculptured stones of early Christian times so largely found
in that locality. In England monoliths are often associated
with the cromlechs or stone circles, as the King's Stone at
Stanton Drew, Long Meg at Little Salkeld, the Ring Stone at
Avebury, &c. One of the finest British monoliths stands in the
churchyard of Rudston, Yorkshire.
Menhirs are found in all countries which abound in mega-
lithic structures. In France over 1600 isolated examples have
been recorded, of which about the half, and by far the most
remarkable, are within the five departments which constitute
Brittany. Over the rest of France they are generally small,
and not to be compared in size to those of Brittany. At
Locmariaquer, Morbihan, is the largest menhir in the world.
It was in the form of a smooth-sided obelisk, but now lies
on the ground broken into four fragments, the aggregate
length of which amounts to 20^50 metres (about 67 ft.). It
was made of granite foreign to the neighbourhood, and its
weight, according to the most recent calculations, amounted to
347, S3i kilogrammes, or 342 tons (L'Homme, 1885, p. 193). The
next largest menhir is at Plesidy (C6tes-du-Nord), measuring
about 37 ft. in height. Then follows a list of sixty-seven gradually
diminishing to 16 ft. in height of which the first ten (all above
26 ft.) are in Brittany. As regards form these menhirs vary
greatly. Some are cylindrical, as the well-known pierre de
champ-Dolent at Dol (height 30 ft.), and that of Cadiou in
Finistere (28 ft.); while that of Penmarch (26 ft.) takes the
shape of a partially expanded fan. A menhir of quartz at
Medreac (Ille-et-Vilaine) stands 165 ft. high in the form of a
rectangular pillar indubitablement faille. On the introduction
of Christianity into France its adherents appear to have made use
of these menhirs at an early period; many of them at present
support a cross, and some a Madonna. While the scattered
positions of some monoliths suggest that they were sometimes
used as landmarks, or perhaps as places of rendezvous for
hunters, the singular grouping of others shows that these were
only secondary or subsidiary functions. So far as the Ogam
inscriptions, found on some of the standing stones in Scotland,
Ireland and Wales, have thrown light on the subject they appear
to have been the headstones of graves. It is not uncommon to
find a monolith overtopping a tumulus, thus simulating the
bauta (grave or battle) stones of Scandinavia. Menhirs of all
sizes are also met with in Algeria, Morocco, India, Central
Asia, &c.
Alignments. The most celebrated monuments of this class
are to be seen in the vicinity of Carnac in Brittany. They are
situated in groups at Menec (see Plate, fig. 5), Kermario, Ker-
lescant, Erdeven and Ste Barbe all within a few miles of each
other, and in the centre of a district containing the most remark-
able megalithic remains in the world. The first three groups
are supposed by some archaeologists to be merely portions of
one original and continuous series of alignments, which extended
nearly 2 m. in length in a uniform direction from south-
west to north-east. Commencing at the village of Menec the
menhirs extend in eleven rows. At first they stand from 10
to 13 ft. above ground, but as we advance they become gradu-
ally smaller till they attain only 3 or 4 ft. in height, and then
cease altogether. After a vacant space of about 350 yards
we come to the Kermario group, which contains only ten lines,
but the menhirs are nearly of the same magnitude as those at
the beginning of the former group. After a still greater interval
the menhirs again appear at the village of Kerlescant, but this
time in thirteen rows. In 1881 M. Felix Gaillard, Plouharnel,
made a plan of the alignments at Erdeven, from which it appears
that, out of a total of 1 1 20 menhirs which originally constituted
the group, 290 are still standing, 740 fallen, and 90 removed.
The menhirs here may be traced for nearly a mile, but their
linear arrangement is not so distinct, nor are the stones so large
as those at Carnac. About 50 alignments are known in France.
At Penmarch there is one containing over 200 stones arranged
in four rows. Others, however, are formed of only a single
row of stones, as at Kerdouadec, Leure and Camaret. The
first is 480 metres in length, and terminates at its southern ex-
tremity in a kind of cfoix gammee. At Leure three short lines
meet at right angles. The third is situated on the rising ground
between the town of Camaret and the point of Toulinguet.
It consists of a base line, some 600 yards long, with 41 stones
(others had apparently been removed), and two rectangular
lines as short offsets. Close to it were a dolmen and a pros-
trate menhir. All these monoliths consist of a coarse quartz
and are of small dimensions, only one, at Leure, reaching a
height of 9 ft. Alignments are also found in the regions
flanking the Pyrenees, but here they are generally in single file
mostly straight, but sometimes reptiliform. One at Peyrelade
(Billiere) runs in a straight line from north to south for nearly
9 6 4
STONE MONUMENTS
300 yds. and contains 93 stones, some of which are of great
size. At St Columb, in Cornwall, there is one called the Nine
Maidens, which consists of eight quartz stones extending in
a perfectly straight line for 262 ft. In Britain, however,
the alignments are more frequently arranged in a double file,
or in avenues leading to, or from, other megalithic monuments,
such as still exist, or formerly existed, in connexion with the
cromlechs or circles at Avebury, Stonehenge, Dartmoor, Shap,
Callernish, &c. The stone circle at Callernish, in the island of
Lewis, shows an unusually elaborate design with two parallel
rows of upright stones running northwards and a single line
across, thus presenting a cruciform appearance. A very tall
menhir (17 ft. long) occupies the centre of the circle (42 ft.
in diameter). The peat which in the course of ages had accumu-
lated to a depth of 5 ft. was removed in 1858, and hence
the characteristic features of this remarkable monument
are well seen in the Plate, fig. 3. The only example in England
comparable to the great alignments of Carnac is in the vale of
the White Horse, in Berkshire. Here the stones, numbering
about 800, are grouped in three divisions, and extend over an
irregular parallelogram measuring from 500 to 600 yds. in
length and from 250 to 300 yds. in breadth. Sir Henry Dryden
describes several groups of alignments in Caithness, as at Garry-
whin, Camster, Yarhouse, and the " Many Stones " at Clyth
(Fergusson, Rude Stone Monuments, p. 529). Alignments in
single and multiple rows have also been observed in Shetland,
India, Algeria, &c.
Cromlechs. In Britain the use of the word cromlech is vir-
tually synonymous with that of dolmen. In France, however,
and on the Continent generally, it is exclusively applied to that
class of monument for which in this country only the descrip-
tive name of " stone circles," or " circles of standing stones,"
is used. This application of the term in various countries to
different classes of monuments has given rise to some confusion.
The earliest known use of the word occurs in Bishop
Morgan's translation of the Bible into Welsh (1588), where " the
clefts of the rocks " is rendered by cromlechydd y creigiau. Its
earliest occurrence in the special sense in which it has continued
to be used by British antiquaries is in a description of some
ancient remains by the Rev. John Griffith of Llanddyfnan
(1650), in which he says " There is a crooked little cell of
stone not far from Alaw, where according to tradition Bronwen
Leir was buried; such little houses, which are common in this
country, are called by the apposite name cromlechaw." In
this article the word cromlech retains its continental meaning
and is exclusively used to indicate enclosures (enceintes) formed
of rude monoliths placed at intervals of a few yards; and as
such enclosures generally assume a circular, or oval, shape they
are not infrequently described as stone circles. Rectangular
enclosures are, however, not unknown, examples of which may be
seen at Curcunno (Morbihan), near the well known dolmen of
that name, and at Saint Just (Ille-et-Vilaine). The former
measures 37 by 27 yds., and is now composed of 22 menhirs,
all of which are standing (some fallen ones having been restored
by the government), while about a dozen appear to be wanting.
A " donkey-shoe-shaped " enclosure has been described by
Sir Henry Dryden in the parish of Latheron, Caithness, measur-
ing 226ft. long, no ft. wide in the middle, and 85 ft. wide
at the two extremities. Stone circles are frequently arranged
concentrically, as may be seen in the circles at Kenmore, near
Aberfeldy, Perthshire, as well as in many other Scottish, Irish
and Scandinavian examples. More rarely one large circle
surrounds inner groups without having a common centre, as
at Avebury where the outer circle (1200 ft. in diameter) sur-
rounded two others each of which contained an inner con-
centric circle. The stone circle of Ballynoe, Co. Down,
Ireland, consists of inner and outer (eccentric) circles; the
former measures about 57 ft. in diameter with 22 stones, and
the latter 105 ft. in diameter with 45 stones. At Boscawen,
in Cornwall, there is a group of circles confusedly attached and
partially overlapping. Also, on the small island of Er-Lanic
(near the famous tumulus of Gavr'inis), there is a double
cromlech (now partially submerged), the circles of which intersect
each other. Cromlechs may also be connected by alignments or
avenues, as already explained; and they are often associated
with other megalithic monuments. Thus, at the end of the
great Carnac alignments are the remains of a large circle which
can be readily traced, notwithstanding that some houses
are constructed within its area. In the British Isles and in
the north of Europe they frequently surround dolmens (as at
Carrowmore, Ireland Plate, fig. 4), tumuli and cairns. A few
examples of a dolmen being surrounded by one or more circles
have been recorded by M. Cartailhac from the department of
Aveyron, in France. Outside the stone circle there is also
frequently to be found a circular ditch as at Avebury, Stone-
henge, Arbor Low, Ring of Brogar, &c. The most remark-
able megalithic monument of this class now extant is Stone-
henge, which differs, however, from its congeners in having the
stones of its outer circle partially hewn and attached by trans-
verse lintels. The largest cromlech in France was situated at
the village of Kergonan, on the Ile-aux-Moines (Morbihan),
about the half of it being now destroyed by the encroachment
of the houses. The remaining semi-circumference contains
36 menhirs, from 6 to 10 ft. high, and its diameter is about
328 ft. This cromlech, like so many English " circles,"
was not circular but slightly elliptical. Only a few of the
British cromlechs exceed these dimensions, among which may
be mentioned Avebury (1260 by 1170 ft.), Stonehenge (outer
circle 300 ft., inner 106 ft.), Stanton Drew (360 ft.), Brogar
(345 ft.), Long Meg and her Daughters (330 ft.). One near
Dumfries with n stones and 291 ft. in diameter, called the
Twelve Apostles, also closely approaches what Fergusson calls
the loo-metre size; but, generally speaking, the Scotch and Irish
examples are of smaller proportions, rarely exceeding 100 ft.
in diameter. That most of the smaller circles have been used
as sepulchres has been repeatedly proved by actual excavations
which showed that interments had taken place within their areas.
It is difficult, however, to believe that this could have been the
main object of the larger ones. At Mayborough, near Penrith,
there is a circular mound entirely composed of an immense
aggregation of small stones in the form of a gigantic ring and
enclosing a flat area, about 300 ft. in diameter. This space
is entered by a wide aperture in the ring, and near the centre
there is a fine monolith, one of several known to have formerly
stood there. Of the same type is the Giant's Ring, near Bel-
fast; but the ring in this instance is made of earth and it is
considerably larger in diameter (580 ft.), while the central
object is a fine dolmen. It is more probable that such enclosures
were used, like many of our modern churches, for the double
purpose of burying the dead and addressing the living.
Dolmens. In its simplest form a dolmen consists of three,
four, or five stone supports, covered by one selected megalith
called a capstone, or table. A well-known example of this kind
in England is Kit's Coty House (see Plate), situated between
Rochester and Maidstone, which is formed of three large sup-
ports with a capstone measuring n by 8 ft. From this simple
form there is an endless variety of structures till we reach the
so-called Giant Graves and Grottes des Fees, which consist of
numerous supports and several capstones. The dolmen of
Bagneux, situated in the corner of a plantation on the outskirts
of the town of Saumur, measures 18 metres in length, 6-50 in
breadth and 3 in height. It is constructed of huge flagstones,
4 on each side, and 4 capstones the largest capstone measuring
7-50 metres in length, 7 in breadth and i in thickness. Another
near Esse (Ille-et-Vilaine) called La Roche aux Fees, is con-
structed of 30 supports and 8 capstones, including the vesti-
bule. Dolmens of this kind are extremely rare in the British
Isles, the only one comparable to them in form being Calliagh
Birra's House near Monasterboice, Ireland, which consists
of 4 capstones supported by 4 or 5 thin stones on edge to form
each side, and one stone closing one end. Owing to its small
size (12 ft. long by 4 wide) this monument is disappointing in
appearance. These free standing megalithic chambers, generally
known as allies couvertes, as well as many other examples of the
STONE MONUMENTS
PLATE.
Photo, Netirdein. Plioto, F. Frith & Co.
FIG. i. DOLMEN OF KERIAVAL, CARNAC, FRANCE. FIG. 2. KIT'S COTY HOUSE, AYLESFORD.
Photo, Valentine & Co.
FIG. 3. DRUIDICAL STONES AT CALLANISH, STORNOWAY.
Plwlo, R. Welch.
FIG. 4. LEABA-NA-BFIAN, THE "KISSING STONE" CROMLECH
CARROWMORE, SLIGO.
Photo, Neurdein.
XXV. g64.
FIG. 5. THE ALIGNMENT OF MENEC, CARNAC, FRANCE.
I
STO'NE MONUMENTS
9 6 5
simple dolmen, show no evidence of having been covered over
with a mound. When there was a mound, it necessitated in
the larger ones an entrance passage which, like the chamber,
was constructed of a series of side stones and capstones. Some
archaeologists maintain that all dolmens were formerly covered
with a cairn or tumulus a theory which undoubtedly derives
some support from the condition of many examples still extant,
especially in France, where they may be seen, as it were,
in all stages of degradation from a partial to a complete state
of denudation. Were the soil and stones which compose the
tumulus of New Grange, Ireland, removed, leaving only the large
stones which form its entrance passage and central chambers,
there would be exposed to view a very imposing megalithic
structure, not unlike the group of monoliths at Callernish
in the Lewis (see Plate, fig. 3). The allies couvertes of France,
Germany and the Channel Islands had their entrance at the end;
but, on the other hand, those of the Drente, in Holland (Hune-
bedden) , had both ends closed and the entrance was on the side
facing the sun. The covered dolmens are extremely variable in
shape circular, oval, quadrangular and irregular being forms
commonly met with; and as to size they range from that of an
ordinary barrow up to that of New Grange, which rises in the
form of a truncated cone to a height of 70 ft. with a diameter
of 315 ft. at the base and 120 ft. at the top. Around its
base was a circle of some thirty rude monoliths, placed about
10 yds. apart, and forming a circumference of 1000 ft.
only a few of these menhirs are now in situ. The entrance
passage to the interior of this huge tumulus measures about
63 ft. long, 4 ft. 9 in. high, and 3 ft. 6 in. wide, and discloses
some large blocks of stone; and its cruciform chamber
measures 26 ft. long, 21 ft. broad and 195 ft. high in the
middle. The entrance gallery may be attached to the end of
the chamber, as in the Grotte de Gavr'inis, or to the side, as in
the Giant's Grave at Oem near Roskilde. In other instances
there is no distinct chamber, but a long passage gradually
widening from the entrance; and this may be bent at an angle,
as in the dolmen du Rocher (Morbihan). Again, there may be
several chambers communicating with one entrance passage;
or, two or three chambers, having separate entrances, may be
imbedded in the same tumulus. A curious specimen of the
former may be seen in a ruined tumulus near St Helier, Jersey;
and an excellent example of the latter is the partially destroyed
tumulus of Rondosec, near Plouharnel railway station, which
contains three separate dolmens. That such variations are
not due to altered customs, in consequence of wideness of
geographical range, is shown by de Mortillet, who gives plans
of no less than 16 differently shaped dolmens (Musee pre-
historique, pi. 58), all within a confined district in Morbihan.
Ruined dolmens are abundantly met with in the provinces of
Hanover, Oldenburg and Mecklenburg. At Riestedt, near
Uelzen in Hanover, there is, on the summit of a tumulus, a
very singular dolmen which measures about 40 ft. long and
6 ft. wide. Another at Naschendorf, near Weimar, consists
of a mound surrounded by a large circle of stones and a covered
chamber on its summit. Remains of a megalithic structure at
Rudenbeck, in Mecklenburg, though now very imperfect, show
that originally it had been constructed like an allee couverte.
It had four supports on each side, two at one end (the other end
being open and forming the entrance), and two large capstones.
The length in its completed state was about 20 ft., breadth
75 ft., and height from the floor to the under surface of the
roof 3 ft. According to Bonstetten, no less than 200 of these
megalithic monuments are distributed over the three provinces
Liineburg, Osnabriick and Stade; and the most gigantic ex-
amples in Germany are in the duchy of Oldenburg. In Holland,
with one or two exceptions, they are confined to the province of
Drente, where between 50 and 60 still exist, under the name of
Hunebedden (Huns' beds). The Borger Hunebed, the largest
of the group, is 70 ft. long and 14 ft. wide. In its original
condition it contained 45 stones, ten of which were capstones.
All the Drente monuments are now denuded, but a few show
evidences which suggest that they had formerly been surrounded
by a mound containing an entrance passage. Only one dolmen
has been recorded in Belgium; but in France their number
amounts to 3000-4000. They are irregularly distributed over
78 departments, no less than 618 being in Brittany. In the
centre of the country they are also numerous, some 435 having
been recorded in Aveyron; but here they are of much smaller
dimensions than in Brittany. From the Pyrenees these rude
stone monuments are sparsely traced along the north coast
of Spain and through Portugal to Andalusia, where they occur
in considerable numbers, but of their precise numbers and
distribution we have no trustworthy accounts. According to
Cartailhac (Ages prehistoriques de I'Espagne el du Portugal,
p. 152) 118 were recorded up to 1879 under the name of antas.
Many of them are in the form of free standing dolmens and
allies couvertes. The most remarkable monument of this kind
in Spain, and certainly one of the finest in Europe, is that near
the village of Antequera, some distance north of Malaga. The
chamber, slightly oval in shape, measures 24 metres long,
6-15 metres broad, and from 2-70 metres to 3 metres high.
The entire structure comprises 31 monoliths ten on each
side, one at the end and five on the roof. Moreover, the roof
is strengthened by three pillars placed along the middle line
at the widest part of the chamber. The huge stones are made
of the Jurassic limestone of the district and, like those of
Stonehenge, appear to have been partly dressed. The entire
structure was originally, and still is partially covered by
earth, which formed a mound about 100 ft. in diameter.
In Africa dolmens are found in large groups in Morocco,
Algeria and Tunis. General Faidherbe writes of having
examined five or six thousand at the cemeteries of Bou
Merzoug, 1'Oued Berda, Tebessa, Gastal, &c. (Congres inter-
national d'anth. et d'arc/t. prehist., 1872, p. 408). In the Channel
Islands every kind of megalithic monument is met with. At
Mont Cochon, near St Helier, there was lately discovered in a
mound of blown sand an allee couverte and, close to it, a stone
circle surrounding a small dolmen. In the British Isles dolmens
are common in many localities, particularly in the west of
England, Anglesey, the Isle of Man, Ireland and Scotland. In
the last named country they are not, however, the most numerous
and striking remains among its rude stone monuments the
stone circles and cisted cairns having largely superseded them.
No dolmens exist in eastern Europe beyond Saxony. They
reappear, however, in the Crimea and Circassia, whence they
have been traced through Central Asia to India where they are
widely distributed. Similar structures have also been recog-
nized by travellers in Palestine, Arabia, Persia, Australia,
Madagascar, Peru, &c. The irregular manner in which these
megalithic monuments are distributed along the western parts
of Europe bordering on the seashore has led to the theory that
they were erected by a special people, but as to the when,
whence and whither of this megalithic race we have no know-
ledge whatever. Although the European dolmens, however
widely apart they may be situated, have a strong family like-
ness, yet they present some striking differences in certain locali-
ties. In Scandinavia they are confined to Danish lands and a
few provinces in the south of Sweden. In the former country
the exposed dolmens are often placed on artificial mounds and
surrounded by cromlechs which are either circular (runddysser) ,
or oval (langdysser) . In Sweden the sepulture a galerie is very
rarely entirely covered up as in the Giant graves of Denmark.
In the absence of historical records and scientific investiga-
tions it was formerly, the custom to regard all these different
varieties of primitive stone monuments as of Celtic origin. By
some they were supposed to have been constructed by the Druids,
the so-called priests of the Celts; and hence they have been
described, especially since the time of Aubrey and Stukely,
under the name of Celtic or Druidical monuments. But from
more recent researches there can be no doubt that the primary
object of this class of remains was sepulchral, and that the mega-
lithic chambers with entrance passages were used as family
vaults. Against the theory that any of them were ever used as
altars, there is prima facie evidence in the care taken to have
9 66
STONE RIVER, BATTLE OF STONY POINT
the smoothest and flattest surface of the stones composing the
chambers always turned inwards. Moreover, cup marks and
other primitive markings, when found on capstones, are almost
invariably on their underside, as at the dolmens of Keria-
val, Kercado and Dol ar Marchant. Also, all the six stones
forming the three-sided chamber of the great tumulus of Gavr'inis
(Morbihan) and most of those in the sides of its long entrance
passage (44 ft.), are elaborately sculptured with primitive
incised patterns, perfectly analogous to those on the walls of
the chamber of New Grange (Ireland). From its position in
the centre of a large circular enclosure, as uniformly even as a
garden lawn, no dolmen could be more suggestive as a place
of sacrifice than that within the Giant's Ring near Belfast;
yet nothing could be more inappropriate for such a purpose
that its capstone, which, in fact, is nothing more than a large
granite boulder presenting on its upper side an unusually rounded
surface.
No chronological sequence has been detected in the construc-
tion and evolution of these primitive stone monuments; nor
can their existence and special forms in different countries be
said to indicate contemporaneity. The dolmens of Africa
are often found to contain objects peculiar to the Iron Age,
and it is said that in some parts of India the people are still
in the habit of erecting menhirs, cromlechs, dolmens and other
megalithic monuments. Scandinavian archaeologists assign
their dolmens exclusively to the Stone Age. It would appear
that, subsequent to the great chambered cairns of the Stone
Age, a period of degradation in this kind of architecture occurred
in Britain when the Bronze Age barrows replaced the dolmens,
and these again gave way to simple burial in the earth. In
Scandinavia the megalithic chamber seems to have been dis-
carded in the Iron Age for burials, either by cremation or
inhumation under huge tumuli, as may be seen in the three
great mounds of Thor, Odin and Freya at Gamla Upsala, and
the ship-barrow at Gokstad on the Sandefiord, the scene of the
discovery of the Viking ship now exhibited in the museum at
Christiania.
Just on the borderland between the works of nature and art
comes the so-called Rocking-Stone (Logan, or Loggan, stone,
French, picrre branlante), which usually is nothing more than
an erratic, ice-transported boulder, poised so nicely over a
rocky bed that gentle pressure with the hand may cause it to
rock or oscillate. Such stones appear to be sparsely distributed
over the whole area occupied by the primitive stone monu-
ments, and, being very large, they were pre-eminently cal-
culated to awaken astonishment in the minds of the worship-
pers of the mysterious works of nature. Hence the important
position assigned to them in the Druidical worship invented by
Stukely and other antiquaries of the i8th century. Some
rocking-stones are evidently artificial, having had the rock cut
underneath them, leaving in each a pivot-like prominence
on which the block rests; but, on the other hand, natural causes
can produce similar results, the stone itself acting like an um-
brella to protect the central portion of the bed while weathering
outside is going on all around. The same process is often well
illustrated on moraine-bearing glaciers where a huge stone may
be seen resting on a pillar of ice several feet in height. That
man sometimes imitated such striking natural phenomena is
quite probable, and to this extent rocking-stones come within
the category of primitive stone monuments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fergusson, Rude Stone Monuments; W. C. Bor-
lase, The Dolmens of Ireland, &c. ; de Mortillet, Le Prehistorique,
&c. ; Bonstetten, Essai stir les dolmens; P. Bezier, Imientaire des
monuments megalithiques du departement d'lle-et-Vilaine; Congres
international d'anth. et d'arch. prehistoriques (13 vols., 1860-1906) ;
Materiaux pour I'histoire primitive et naturelle de Vhomme (22 vols.,
1865-1888), continued as L' Anthropologie since 1890; Inventaire des
monuments megalithiques de France; Proceedings of the various
Archaeological Societies of Europe. (R. Mu.)
STONE RIVER, BATTLE OF, a battle of the American Civil
War, called the battle of Murfreesboro by the Confederates,
fought on the 3ist of December 1862 and the 2nd of January
1863. After his appointment in October to command the Army
of the Cumberland, General W. S. Rosecrans with Chattanooga
as his objective moved from Nashville upon General Braxton
Bragg, who left the winter quarters he had established at
Murfreesboro and met the Union army on Stone river imme-
diately north of Murfreesboro, on the last day of December.
The plan of attack on each side was to crush the enemy's right.
Bragg's left, commanded by Lieut .-General W. J. Hardee, over-
lapped and bore back the Union right under Major- General
A. McD. McCook, and Major-General T. L. Crittenden command-
ing the Union left was hurriedly called back from his attack on
the Confederate right to support McCook. The Union right was
crumpled up on the centre, where Major-General G. H. Thomas's
corps checked the Confederate attack. There was practically
no fighting on the ist of January, but on the 2nd the Con-
federates renewed the attack, Major-General J. C. Breckinridge
with Bragg's right attempting in vain to displace Crittenden's
division on high ground above the river. On the night of the
3rd Bragg withdrew and the Union army occupied Murfreesboro.
Tactically a drawn battle, Stone River was strategically a
Union victory. The losses on both sides were heavy: of 37,712
Confederates present for duty, 1294 were killed, 7945 were
wounded, and about 2500 were missing; and of 44,800 Union
soldiers present for duty, 1677 were killed, 7543 were wounded
and 3686 were missing.
STONINGTON, a township of New London county, Con-
necticut, U.S.A., in the S.E. corner of the state, on Long Island
Sound. Pop. of the township (1900), 8540 (of whom 1968
were foreign-born), (1910), 9154, including that of the borough
of Stonington, 2083. Stonington is served by the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railway, which has repair shops here,
by an electric line connecting with New London, Conn., and
Westerly, Rhode Island, and, in summer, by steamer to Watch
Hill and Block Island. Its harbour is excellent, and it is a port
of entry, but its foreign trade is unimportant. The township
covers an area of about 45 sq. m., and includes, besides the
borough of Stonington, the villages of Mystic, Old Mystic
and Pawcatuck (which is closely allied with Westerly, Rhode
Island). Among the manufactures of the township are foundry
and machine-shop products, printing presses, silk machinery,
fertilizers, spools, thread and cotton, and woollen, silk and velvet
goods. Ship building and fishing are among the industries.
After its settlement in 1649 and the years immediately suc-
ceeding by English planters from Rehoboth in Plymouth Colony
(to whom a monument was erected in 1889 in Wequetequock
Burying Ground), the territory now included in Stonington town-
ship was first a part of New London township, and then (1658),
in accordance with a boundary decision of the United Colonies
of New England, a part (under the name of Southertown) of
Suffolk county, Massachusetts, finally reverting to Connecticut
in accordance with the new boundaries fixed by the Connecticut
royal charter in 1662. In 1664 it gained representation in the
General Court of Connecticut; in 1665 the name was changed to
Mystic, and in 1666 to Stonington. In the i8th century the
village (now the borough) of Stonington (settled in 1752) de-
veloped a brisk trade with Boston, Plymouth and the West
Indies. Whaling and sealing were for many years important
industries and a whaling captain of Stonington, Nathaniel B.
Palmer, early in the igth century, discovered Palmer Land in
the Antarctic. The village was the seat of military stores
during the War of Independence, and was bombarded by a
British frigate in August 1775. In August 1814 another
British attack, by a squadron under Commander Thomas M.
Hardy, was successfully resisted. The borough of Stonington,
the first in the state, was incorporated in 1801.
See R. A . Wheeler, History of the Town of Stonington (New
London, 1900).
STONY POINT, a township in Rockland county, New York,
U.S.A., on the west bank of the Hudson river, containing a
village of the same name which is 35 m. N. of New York City
and 12 m. S. of West Point. Pop. of the township (1890) 4614;
(1900), 4161; (1905), 3862, (1910). ^i. Area, about 30 sq. m.
The village is served by the West Shore and the New York,
STOOL STOPPANI
967
Ontario, and Western railways. Other villages in the township
are Grassy Point, where, as in Stony Point, brick-making is the
principal industry; Tomkins Cove, where there are stone crushing
works; and Jones Point, which has a trade in gravel, building
sand and crushed stone. The surface of the township is rough
Dunderberg (1090 ft.) and Bear Mountain (1350 ft.) are the
principal eminences, and there is good farming land only at the
margin of the river. The township was named from a rocky
promontory which juts into the river in the north-east part of
the township and rises precipitously on all sides to a height of
about 140 ft. above the river. A small part of the promontory
is under the jurisdiction of the United States Government
which has erected a lighthouse here, and the remaining portion
was bought by the state in 1897 for a state battlefield
reservation, and has been laid out as a public park. At
the entrance to the park is a Memorial Arch (1909), designed
by H. K. Bush-Brown and presented to the state by the
Daughters of the American Revolution. On lona Island in
the north part of the township is a United States naval
magazine. The promontory guards the lower passage to
the Highlands of the Hudson, and during the War of Inde-
pendence, when the King's Ferry between it and Verplanck' s
Point on the opposite bank was part of an important
line of communication between the New England and the
Middl* States, it was of considerable strategic importance. The
Americans occupied it in November 1776, and about two years
later erected a blockhouse upon it. The garrison, however, was
very small, and on the 3ist of May 1779, it was taken by the
British, who immediately erected much stronger fortifications.
On the night of the I5th/i6th of July it was recovered by General
Anthony Wayne, in command of about 1350 picked American
troops, the garrison (under Lieut.-Colonel Henry Johnson) losing
63 in killed, 70 in wounded, and 543 in captured. The American
loss was only 15 killed and 83 wounded. The Americans,
however, had no thought from the first of holding the place
and evacuated it on the i8th of July. The British immediately
reoccupied it, and erected stronger fortifications, but late in
October they, too, abandoned it. In the " old Treason House "
in the township General Benedict Arnold and Major John
Andre met before daylight on the 22nd of September 1780,
to^ settle upon plans for the surrender of West Point by
Arnold to the British.
See H. P. Johnston, The Storming of Stony Point (New York,
1900); H. B. Dawson, The Assault on Stony Point (Morrisania,
N. Y., 1863); E. H. Hall and F. W. Halsey, Stony Point Batlle-Field
(New York, 1902) ; and D. Cole and E. Gay, History of Rockland
County (ibid. 1884).
STOOL, a low seat without back or arms. The stool is an
ancient piece of furniture which came into use when the need
began to be felt for a seat more easily portable than heavy
settles and benches the chair was an appanage of rank and
dignity to which no ordinary person dreamed of aspiring.
Since it could also be used as a small table, it quickly became
common. In the First Book of The Task William Cowper gives
a sketch of the evolution of the stool which, for all its vapidity,
is reasonably exact:
" Joint stools were then created, on three legs
Upborn they stood. Three legs upholding firm
A massy slab, in fashion square or round.
******
At length a generation more refined
Improved the simple plan; made three legs four,
Gave them a twisted form vermicular,
And o'er the seat, with plenteous wadding stuff'd,
Induc'd a splendid cover, green and blue,
Yellow and red, of tap'stry richly wrought,
And woven close, or needle-work sublime."
" Joint " or " joyned-stool " simply meant that the parts
were joined or framed together with mortise and tenon.
The wooden four-legged, square or oblong variety is often
called a " coffin-stool." It may be perfectly true that it
was used for supporting coffins, but that was merely one and
a very occasional one of many uses, and the name is an
entire misnomer. The round three-legged stool was a primitive
construction, destitute of ornament and rudely, as well as
heavily, made. By the middle of the i6th century stools had
acquired four legs, braced together by stretchers, and the frame
was often well carved. As the Renaissance impulse waned,
forms relapsed into cumbrous and unadorned, and, so far as the
oak stool of the yeoman and the farmer was concerned, little
ornamentation was attempted after the middle of the I7th
century. These seats continued to be made until about the
end of that period until, indeed, the increasing cheapness of
the chair and the growth of habits of comfort caused it to fall
into disuse. Towards the end of the Stuart period the up-
holstered stool reached England from France. It was not
entirely unknown at an earlier date, but what had been an occa-
sional luxury then became a common plenishing of the houses
of the rich. The legs and stretchers took the " twisted form
vermicular " of which the poet speaks so far as their under-
framing was concerned these stools were, to all intents and
purposes, chairs. Thenceforward, indeed, they followed very
closely the fashions in seats with backs, acquiring the cabriole
leg, the claw and ball or pad feet, the carved knees and other
characteristics of chairs. The footstool is probably more
ancient than the stool itself. The ducking-stool was a contri-
vance whereby scolding or drunken women could be ducked in a
pond without danger. The stool of repentance was reserved,
chiefly in Scotland, for the public penance of persons who had
offended against morality. The " cutty-stool," which Jenny
Geddes threw or, according to Dr Hill Burton, did not throw
at the beginning of the riotous protests against Laud's Liturgy
in St Giles's Church, Edinburgh, in 1637, was of the fald-stool
variety. " Cutty " simply means short. A fald-stool was
originally a folding stool used chiefly for ecclesiastical purposes.
Eventually, while retaining the old name, it became rigid, and
the designation has now been extended to a litany-desk. The
camp-stool is immediately derived from the original form of the
fald-stool. In France under the ancien regime, the stool, or
tabouret, acquired a social and courtly significance of the first
importance. The wives of princes, dukes, and a few of the
highest dignitaries of the realm alone had the right to occupy
a tabouret in the presence of the king, and ladies who became
widows used every expedient of intrigue to retain a privilege
which they regarded as the summit of earthly felicity. The
prise du tabouret, when a lady first took possession of her seat,
was an occasion of considerable ceremony.
STOOL-BALL, a game formerly very popular in England, and
commonly considered as the ancestor of cricket. Joseph Strutt,
writing in 1801, says of it: " I have been informed that a
pastime called stool-ball is practised to this day in the northern
parts of England, which consists simply in setting a stool upon
the ground, and one of the players takes his place before it, while
his antagonist, standing at a distance, tosses a ball with the
intention of striking the stool, and this it is the business of the
former to prevent by beating it away with the hand, reckoning
one to the game for every stroke of the ball; if, on the contrary,
it should be missed by the hand and touch the stool, the players
change places; the conqueror at this game is he who strikes
the ball most times before it touches the stool. I believe the
same also happens if the person who threw the ball can catch
and retain it when driven back, before it touches the ground."
Some variety of the game, with modifications due to the develop-
ment of cricket, has probably been played even since these days.
STOPPANI, ANTONIO (1824-1891), Italian geologist and
palaeontologist, was born at Lecco on the 24th of August 1824.
He became professor of geology in the Royal Technical Institute
of Milan, and was distinguished for his researches on the Triassic
and Liassic formations of northern Italy. Among his works
were Paleontologie Lombarde (1858-1881); Les petrifactions
d'Asino (1858-1860); Gtologie et paUontologie des conches d
Avicula Contorta en Lombardie (1860-1865); Corso di geologia,
(3 vols., 1871-1873); and L'Era Neozoica (1881). In this last
work the author discussed the glaciation of the Italian Alps
and the history of Italy during the Pleistocene age. He died
at Milan on the ist of January, 1891.
9 68
STORAGE STORM, T. W.
STORAGE, STEPHEN (1763-1796), English musical composer,
was born in London in 1763. His father, Stefano Storace, an
Italian contrabassist, taught him the violin so well that at ten
years old he played successfully the most difficult music of the
day. After completing his education at the Conservatorio di
Sant' Onofrio, at Naples, he produced his first opera, Gli Sposi
malcontenti, at Vienna, in 1785. Here he made the acquaint-
ance of Mozart, in whose Nozze di Figaro his sister, Anna Selina
Storace, first sang the part of Susanna. Here also he produced
a second opera, Gli Equivoci, founded on Shakespeare's Comedy
of Errors, and a " Singspiel " entitled Der Doctor und der Apothe-
ker. But his greatest triumphs were achieved in England,
whither he returned in 1787. After creating a favourable
impression by bringing out his " Singspiel " at Drury Lane,
under the title of The Doctor and the Apothecary, Storace attained
his first great success in 1789, in The Haunted Tower, an opera
which ran for fifty nights in succession. No Song, No Supper
was equally successful in 1790; and The Siege of Belgrade scarcely
less so in 1791. The music of The Pirates, produced in 1792,
was partly adapted from Gli Equivoci, and is remarkable as
affording one of the earliest instances of the introduction of a
grand finale into an English opera. These works were followed
by some less successful productions; but The Cherokee (1794)
and The Three and the Deuce (1795) were very favourably re-
ceived, and the music to Colman's play, The Iron Chest, first
performed on the I2th of March 1796, created even a greater
sensation than The Haunted Tower. This was Storace's last
work. He caught cold at the rehearsal, and died on the igth
of March 1796.
The character of Storace's music is pre-eminently English;
but his early intercourse with Mozart gave him an immense
advantage over his contemporaries in his management of the
orchestra, while for the excellence of his writing for the voice he
was no doubt indebted to the vocalization of his sister Anna.
This lady was born in London in 1766, completed her education
at Venice under Sacchini, sang for Mozart at Vienna, and first
appeared at the King's Theatre in London in 1787. After
contributing greatly to the success of The Haunted Tower and her
brother's later operas, she crowned a long and brilliant career
by winning great laurels at the Handel Commemoration at
Westminster Abbey in 1791, retired from public life in 1808,
and died on the 24th of August 1817. During her stay in Vienna
she married John Abraham Fisher, a celebrated violinist; but
he used her so cruelly that she refused to bear his name, and in
her will bequeathing property to the amount of 50,000
styled herself " spinster."
STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or
instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of in-
staurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore), a
stock or supply of provisions, goods or other necessaries kept
for future daily or recurrent use or for a specific purpose; thus
the term applies equally to the domestic supply of provisions,
&c., and to the accumulated stock of arms, ammunition, cloth-
ing, food, &c., kept for the general use of a navy or army. A
common secondary meaning is that of the place where a supply
or stock is kept, a storehouse, and thus the term is used particu-
larly in the country districts of America for the general shop
where goods of all kinds are sold by retail. In English the term
" stores " has come into use for large general shops with many
departments selling all kinds of goods.
STOREY (equivalents are Fr. etage, Ital. piano, Ger. Stock),
the term in architecture given to the floor of a building, and
employed generally when referring to a number of floors one
above the other; thus a building may be of two, three or more
storeys high. It used to be applied to a series of apartments on
one floor, which are now generally known as a flat. " Storey "
or " story " is from O. Fr. estoree, building, estorer, to build,
equip, furnish, store, from Lat. staurare, only seen in compound
instaurare, to repair, restore, ultimately from root sta, to stand.
" Story," a tale or narrative, is a shortened form of " history."
STORK (A. S. store, Ger. Starch), the Ciconia alba of ornitho-
logy, a well-known bird, which, however, though often visiting
Britain, has never been a native or even inhabitant of that
country. It is a summer visitor to most parts of the European
continent the chief exceptions being France (where the native
race has been destroyed), Italy and Russia breeding from
southern Sweden to Spain and Greece, and being especially
common in Poland. 1 It reappears again in Asia Minor, the
Caucasus, Persia and Turkestan, but farther to the eastward
it is replaced by an allied species, C. boyciana, which reaches
Japan. Though occasionally using trees (as was most likely
its original habit) for the purpose, the stork most generally
places its nest on buildings, 2 a fact familiar to travellers in Den-
mark, Holland and Germany, and it is nearly everywhere a
cherished guest, popular belief ascribing good luck to the house
to which it attaches itself. 3 Its food, consisting mainly of frogs
and insects, is gathered in the neighbouring' pastures, across
which it may be seen stalking with an air of quiet dignity; but
in the season of love it indulges in gestures which can only be
called grotesque leaping from the ground with extended wings
in a kind of dance, and, absolutely voiceless as it is, making a
loud noise by the clattering of its mandibles. At other times it
may be seen gravely resting on one leg on an elevated place,
thence to sweep aloft and circle with a slow and majestic flight.
Apart from its considerable size and a stork stands more than
three feet in height its contrasted plumage of pure white and
deep black, with its bright red bill and legs, makes it a conspicuous
and beautiful object, especially when seen against the fresh
green grass of a luxuriant meadow. In winter the storks of
Europe retire to Africa some of them, it would seem, reaching
Cape Colony while those of Asia visit India. A second
species, with much the same range, but with none of its relative's
domestic disposition, is the black stork, C. nigra, of which the
upper parts are black, brilliantly glossed with purple, copper and
green, while it is white beneath the bill and legs, with a patch
of bare skin round the eyes, being red. The bird breeds in lofty
trees, generally those growing in a large forest. Two other
dark-coloured, but somewhat abnormal, species are the purely
African C. abdimii and the C. episcopus, which has a wider
range, being found not only in Africa but in India, Java and
Sumatra. The New World has only one true stork, Dissura
maguari, which inhabits South America, and resembles not a
little the C. boyciana above mentioned, differing therefrom in
its greenish-white bill and black tail. Both these species are
very like C. alba, but are larger and have a bare patch of red
skin round the eyes.
The storks form the family Ciconiidae, and together with the
ibises (Ibididae) are now ranked as a sub-order of Ciconiiform
birds (see BIRD). There is no doubt that they include the
jabiru (q.v.) and its allies, as well as the curious genus Anastomus
(known in India as the " open-bill," because its lower mandible
is hollowed out so as only to meet the maxilla at the base and
the tip), of which there are an African and an Asiatic species.
In all the storks the eggs are white and pitted with granular
depressions. (A. N.)
STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888), German poet
and novelist, was born at Husum, in Schleswig, on the i4th of
September 1817. Having studied jurisprudence at Kiel and
Berlin, where he formed a close friendship with the brothers
Theodor and Tycho Mommsen, he settled in his native town
as advocate; but, owing to his German sympathies, lost his post
in 1853. Entering the Prussian service as assessor at Potsdam,
he was appointed district judge at Heiligenstadt. After the
1 In that country its numbers are said to have greatly dimin-
ished since about 1858, when a disastrous spring storm overtook
the homeward-bound birds. The like is to be said of Holland since
about 1860.
2 To consult its convenience a stage of some kind, often a cart-
wheel, is in many places set up and generally occupied by successive
generations of tenants.
* Its common Dutch name is Ooijevaar, which can be traced
through many forms (Koolmann, Worterb. d. ostfries. Sprache, i. 8,
sub voce " Adebar ") to the old word Odeboro (" the bringer of
good "). In countries where the stork is abundant it enters largely
into popular tales, songs and proverbs, and from the days of Aesop
has been a favourite in fable.
STORM STORY, J.
969
Danish War of 1864 Storm returned to Husum, and after filling
various judicial appointments in the district, retired on a pension
and died at Hademarschen on the 4th of July 1888. Storm
is hardly less remarkable as a lyric poet than as a novelist. As
the former, he made his debut, with the two Mommsens, with
Liederbuch dreier Freunde (1843); but his Gedichle (1852; izth
edition, 1900) first obtained for him general recognition. As a
novelist he gained his first great success with Immensee (1852;
Sist edition, 1901); and this was followed by numerous other
short stories. He was never weary of painting the scenes of
rustic simplicity and the quiet joys of the simple life. He is at
his best when dealing retrospectively with episodes and incidents
from his own earlier life. Later he passed to psychological
problems with Aquis submersus (1877) and Zur Chronik von
Grieshuus (1884), and made a deep impression with his fantastic
Schimmelreiter (1888).
Storm's Gesammelte Schriften appeared in 19 vols. between 1868
and 1889; new edition in 8 vols. (1898). His correspondence with
E. Morike was published in 1891, with G. Keller in 1904. See E.
Schmidt, Charakteristiken, i. (1886); also P. Schiitze, Theodor Storm,
sein Leben und seine Dichtung (1887) ; F. Wehl, Theodor Storm, ein
Bild seines Lebens und Schaffens (1888); A. Biese, Th. Storm und
der moderne Realismus (1888); and P. Remer, Theodor Storm als
norddeutscher Dichter (1897).
STORM (in O. Eng. storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger. ; in
O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in
" stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen), a disturbance of
the atmosphere, accompanied by high winds or by heavy falls
of rain, hail or snow, together with thunder and lightning.
The word is not a part of scientific terminology, such terms as
" area of low pressure " and " cyclone " being used. In the
Beaufort scale (q.v.) the wind-force of a storm is estimated at
lo-n and the limit of velocity at from 56 to 75 m. per hour.
(See METEOROLOGY, and for magnetic storms MAGNETISM,
TERRESTRIAL.)
STORNOWAY (Norse, Sljarna vagr, " Stjarna's Bay "),
the chief and largest town in the western islands and also the
principal town of the county of Ross and Cromarty. Pop.
(1901), 3852. It is situated on the east coast of Lewis, at the
head of a capacious harbour with ample quays and wharves,
accessible at all tides and available for steamers of 3000 tons
burden. The harbour is protected by two headlands, on the
more southerly of which Arnish Point stands a lighthouse.
From the end of this point there juts out a line of rocks on the
extremity of which a beacon, 32 ft. high, has been erected, which
is illuminated by means of a light thrown on to a prism in the
lantern from the light in the lighthouse. Stornoway was made
a burgh of barony by James VI., and is also a police burgh.
It is the centre of the Outer Hebrides fishery district, and
during the herring season the population is trebled. Among the
public buildings are Lewis Hospital, Mossend Hospital, the Court
House, the Drill Hall, the Masonic Hall, a commodious struc-
ture in which the public library is housed, and the fish mart.
Stornoway Castle, overlooking the town from a height on the
west side, is a handsome castellated mansion in the Tudor
style, built as the residence of Sir James Matheson.
STORRS, RICHARD SALTER (1821-1900), American Con-
gregational clergyman, was born in Braintree, Massachusetts,
on the 2ist of August 1821. He bore the same name as his
grandfather (1763-1819), pastor at Long Meadow, Massachu-
setts, from 1785 to 1819, and his father (1787-1873), pastor at
Braintree, Massachusetts, from 1811 to 1873 (except the years
1831-1836), both prominent Congregational ministers, who were
descendants of Richard Mather. He graduated at Amherst in
1839, studied law in Boston under Rufus Choate, graduated at
Andover theological seminary in 1845, and was pastor of the
Harvard Congregational church of Brookline, Massachusetts, in
1845-1846, and of the Church of the Pilgrims in Brooklyn, New
York, from 1846 until shortly before his death in Brooklyn on
the sth of June 1900. He was a conservative in theology, and
an historical writer of considerable ability. From 1848 to 1861
he was associate editor of the New York Independent, which he
had helped to establish; from 1887 to 1897 he was president of
the American board of commissioners for foreign missions, and
he was prominent in the Long Island Historical Society. His
great-grandfather, John Storrs (1735-1799), a chaplain in the
Continental Army, had been pastor of the Southold Church in
1763-1776 and in 1782-1787. Dr Storrs's more important
published works were: John Wy cliff e and the First English Bible
(1880), The Recognition of the Supernatural in Letters and in Life
(1881), Bernard of Clairvaux (1892), and Foundation Truths of
American Missions (1897).
See Charles Storrs, The Storrs Family (New York, 1886).
STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571), English martyr, was educated
at Oxford, where he became lecturer on civil law in 1535, being
made later principal of Broadgates Hall, afterwards Pembroke
College. He appears to have disavowed his Roman Catholic
opinions just after the accession of Edward VI., but having been
chosen a member of parliament in 1547 he gained notoriety by
his opposition to the act of uniformity in 1548. For crying out
" Woe unto thee, O land, when thy king is a child," he was
imprisoned by the House of Commons, but he was soon released
and went into exile. Returning to England in 1553, he resigned
his position at Oxford, which was now that of regius professor
of civil law, and was made chancellor of the dioceses of London
and of Oxford and dean of arches. Queen Mary being now on
the throne, Story was one of her most active agents in prose-
cuting heretics, and was one of her proctors at the trial of Cranmer
at Oxford in 1555. Under Elizabeth he was again returned to
parliament, but in 1560 he underwent a short imprisonment
for boasting about his work in the former reign. In 1563 he
was again arrested, but managed to escape to Flanders, where
he became a pensioner of Philip II. of Spain. The duke of Alva
authorized him to exclude certain classes of books from the
Netherlands and, in 1570, while engaged in this work, he was
decoyed on to a ship at Antwerp and conveyed to Yarmouth.
In spite of his claim that he was a Spanish subject, he was tried
for high treason, and executed at Tyburn on the ist of June
1571. In 1886 Story was beatified by papal decree.
STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845), American jurist, was born at
Marblehead, Massachusetts, on the i8th of September 1779.
He graduated at Harvard in 1798, was admitted to the bar
at Salem, Mass., in 1801, and soon attained eminence in his
profession. He was a member of the Democratic party, and
served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1805-
1808, and in 1810-1812 for two terms as speaker, and was a
representative in Congress from December 1808 to March 1809.
In November 1811, at the age of thirty-two, he became, by
President Madison's appointment, an associate justice of the
United States Supreme Court. This position he retained until
his death. Here he found his true sphere of work. The tradi-
tions of the American people, their strong prejudice for the local
supremacy of the states and against a centralized government,
had yielded reluctantly to the establishment of the Federal
legislative and executive in 1789. The Federal judiciary had
been organized at the same time, but had never grasped the
full measure of its powers. Soon after Story's appointment
the Supreme Court began to bring out into plain view the powers
which the constitution had given it pver state courts and state
legislation. The leading place in this work belongs to Chief
Justice John Marshall, but Story has a very large share in that
remarkable series of decisions and opinions, from 1812 until 1832,
by which the work was accomplished. In addition to this he
built up the department of admiralty law in the United States
courts; he devoted much attention to equity jurisprudence, and
rendered invaluable services to the department of patent law.
In 1819 he attracted much attention by his vigorous charges to
grand juries, denouncing the slave trade, and in 1820 he was a
prominent member of the Massachusetts Convention called to
revise the state constitution. In 1829 he became the first Dane
Professor of Law at Harvard University, and continued until
his death to hold this position, meeting with remarkable success
as a teacher and winning the affection of his students, whom
he imbued with much of his own enthusiasm. He died at
970
STORY, R. H. STOTHARD, T.
Cambridge, Mass., on the loth of September 1845. His industry
was unremitting, and, besides attending to his duties as an asso-
ciate justice and a professor of law, he wrote many reviews and
magazine articles, delivered various orations on public occasions,
and published a large number of works on legal subjects, which
won high praise on both sides of the Atlantic.
Among his publications are : Commentaries on the Law of Bailments
(1832) ; Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States (3 vols.,
1833), a work of profound learning which is still the standard treatise
on the subject; Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws (1834), by many
regarded as his ablest work; Commentaries on Equity Jurisprudence
(2 vols., 1835-1836) ; Equity Pleadings (1838) ; Law of Agency (1839) ;
Law of Partnership (1841); Law of Bills of Exchange (1843); and
Law of Promissory Notes (1845). He also edited several standard
legal worKs. His Supreme Court decisions may be found in Craach's,
Wheaton's and Peters's Reports, his Circuit Courts decisions in
Mason's, Sumner's and Story's Reports. His Miscellaneous Writings,
first published in 1835, appeared in an enlarged edition (2 vols.
in 1851).
See The Life and Letters of Joseph Story (2 vols., Boston and
London, 1851), by his son, W. W. Story.
STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907), Scottish divine,
principal of Glasgow University, was born on the 28th of January
1835 at Rosneath, Dumbartonshire. He was educated at the
universities of Edinburgh, St Andrews and Heidelberg. In
1859 he was assistant minister at St Andrew's Church, Montreal,
and in February 1860 was inducted as minister of Rosneath
in succession to his father. In 1887 he removed to Glasgow as
professor of church history; he had also been appointed in 1886
to a chaplaincy to Queen Victoria. In 1898 he became princi-
pal of the university in succession to John Caird. He was
moderator of the General Assembly in 1894, and its principal
clerk from that year till his death on the i3th of January 1907.
Story was a staunch supporter of his Church, and had little
sympathy for schemes of reunion with the other Presbyterian
communities. He vigorously opposed the action of Bishop
Welldon, then metropolitan of Calcutta, in excluding Scottish
chaplains and troops from the use of garrison churches in India
because these had received episcopal consecration. He was
characterized by an absolutely fearless honesty, which sometimes
gave offence, but at the basis of his nature there was a warm,
tender and sympathetic heart, incapable of meanness or intrigue.
In addition to lives of his father (1862), Professor Robert Lee
(1870) and William Carstares (1876), he published a devotional
book Christ the Consoler; a volume of sermons, Creed and
Conduct (1878); The Apostolic Ministry in the Scottish Church
(Baird Lecture, 1897), and several pamphlets on church ques-
tions.
See Principal Story, a Memoir by his Daughters (1909).
STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1810-1895), American
sculptor and poet, son of the jurist, Joseph Story, was born at
Salem, Massachusetts, on the 1 2th of February 1819. He gradu-
ated at Harvard College in 1838 and at the Harvard Law School
in 1840, continued his law studies under his father, was admitted
to the Massachusetts bar, and prepared two legal treatises of
value Treatise on the Law of Contracts not under Seal (2 vols.,
1844) and Treatise on the Law of Sales of Personal Property (1847).
Abandoning the law, he devoted himself to sculpture, and
after 1850 lived in Rome, whither he had first gone in 1848,
and where he was intimate with the Brownings and with Landor.
He died at Vallombroso, Italy, on the 7th of October 1895.
He was a man of rare social cultivation and charm of manner,
and his studio in Rome was a centre for the gathering of dis-
tinguished English and American literary, musical and artistic
people. During the American Civil War his letters to the Daily
News in December 1861 (afterwards published as a pamphlet,
"The American Question," i.e. of neutrality), and his articles
in Blackwood's, had considerable influence on English opinion.
One of his earliest works in sculpture was a statue of his father,
now in the memorial chapel of Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cam-
bridge, Mass. ; others are " Cleopatra " (of which there is an
enthusiastic description in Hawthorne's Marble Faun) and
" Semiramis " in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York;
the "Libyan Sibil," "Saul," " Sardanapalus," "Judith,"
"Delilah," "Jerusalem Desolate," " Alcestis," "Medea,"
" Electra," " Nemesis," " Sappho " and other ideal figures;
and portraits of George Peabody, erected in 1869 in London
(a replica in bronze being jn Baltimore, Maryland) ; President
Quincy of Harvard, at Cambridge, Mass.; Colonel Prescott, at
Bunker Hill; Edward Everett, Public Gardens, Boston, Mass.;
Chief Justice Marshall, on the west terrace of the Capitol, and
Professor Henry for the Smithsonian Institution, Washington;
and Francis Scott Key, San Francisco. Among his writings,
in addition to the legal treatises mentioned above, are Life and
Letters of Joseph Story (1851), Roba di Roma (1862), Proportions
of the Human Figure (1866), Fiammetta (1885), a novel, Conversa-
tions in a Studio (1890), Excursions in Art and Letters (1891),
and several volumes of poems of considerable merit. His
poems were collected in two volumes in 1885. Among the
longer are " A Roman Lawyer in Jerusalem " (a rehabilita-
tion of Judas Iscariot), " A Jewish Rabbi in Rome," " The
Tragedy of Nero " and " Ginevra di Siena." The last named,
with " Cleopatra," was included in his Graffiti d'ltalia, a
collection published in 1868.
His son, JULIAN STORY (1857- ), the portrait painter,
was a pupil of Frank Duveneck, and of Boulanger and Lefebvre
in Paris, and became a member of the Society of American
Artists, 1892, a chevalier of the Legion of Honour, Paris, 1901,
and an associate of the National Academy of Design. He married
in 1891 Emma Eames (b. 1867), the operatic prima donna, who
secured a divorce in 1907.
See also Henry James, William Wetmore Story and his Friends
(2 vols., London, 1903).
STOSS, VEIT (1438 or 1440-1533), German sculptor and
wood carver, was born in Nuremberg. In 1477 he went to
Cracow, where he was actively engaged until 1499. It was here
that he carved the high altar for the Marienkirche, between
1477 and 1484. On the death of King Kasimir IV. in 1492
Stoss carved his tomb in red marble for the cathedral in Cracow.
To the same date is ascribed the marble tombstone of the arch-
bishop Zbigniew Ollsnicki in the cathedral at Gnesen; and soon
after this he executed the Stanislaus altar for the Marienkirche
at Cracow. In 1496 he returned to Nuremberg, where he did a
great deal of work in completing altars. His main works are:
a relief with the Coronation of the Blessed Virgin in the Germanic
museum at Nuremberg, a statue of the Blessed Virgin in the
Frauenkirche, the Annunciation in the Lorenzkirche and the
circular rosary in the Germanic museum.
STOTHARD, CHARLES ALFRED (1786-1821), antiquarian
draughtsman, son of Thomas Stothard (q.v.), was born in London
on the 5th of July 1786. After studying in the schools of the
Royal Academy, he began, in 1810, his first historical piece, the
Death of Richard II. in Pomfret Castle. He published in 1811
the first part of his valuable work, The Monumental Effigies
of Great Britain. He was appointed historical draughtsman to
the Society of Antiquaries, and was deputed by that body to
visit Bayeux to make drawings of the tapestry. He was made
a fellow of the society in 1819, and subsequently engaged in
numerous journeys with the view of illustrating the works
of D. Lysons. While engaged in tracing a portrait from one of
the windows of the church of Beer Ferrers, Devonshire, he fell
and was killed on the spot (May 27, 1821). His widow (after-
wards Mrs Bray), with her brother, completed his Monumental
Effigies, left unfinished at his death.
A biography, by his widow, was published in 1823.
STOTHARD, THOMAS (1755-1834), English subject painter,
was born in London on the I7th of August 1755, the son of a
well-to-do innkeeper in Long Acre. Being a delicate child, he
was sent at the age of five to a relative in Yorkshire, and attended
school at Acomb, and afterwards at Tadcaster and at Ilford in
Essex. Showing a turn for drawing he was apprenticed to a
draughtsman of patterns for brocaded silks in Spitalfields, and
during his leisure hours he attempted illustrations to the works
of his favourite poets. Some of these drawings were praised
by Harrison, the editor of the Novelist's Magazine, and, Stot-
hard's master having died, he resolved to devote himself to art.
STOUGHTON STOURPORT
971
In 1778 he became a student of the Royal Academy, of which he
was elected associate in 1792 and full academician in 1794.
In 1812 he was appointed librarian, having served as assistant
for two years. He died in London on the 27th of April 1834.
Among his earliest book illustrations are plates engraved for
Ossian and for Bell's Poets; and in 1780 he became a regular
contributor to the Novelist's Magazine, for which he executed
one hundred and forty-eight designs, including his eleven admir-
able illustrations to Peregrine Pickle and his graceful subjects
from Clarissa and Sir Charles Grandison. He contentedly de-
signed plates for pocket-books, tickets for concerts, illustrations
to almanacs, portraits of popular players and into even the
slightest and most trivial sketches he infused a grace and
distinction which render them of value to the collectors of
the present time. Among his more important series are the two
sets of illustrations to Robinson Crusoe, one for the New Magazine
and one for Stockdale's edition, and the plates to The Pilgrim's
Progress (1788), to Harding's edition of Goldsmith's Vicar of
Wakefield (1792), to The Rape of the Lock (1798), to the works
of Gessner (1802), to Cowper's Poems (1825), and to The
Decameron; while his figure-subjects in the superb editions of
Roger's Italy (1830) and Poems (1834) prove that even in latest
age his fancy was still unexhausted, and his hand hardly at all
enfeebled. He is at his best in subjects of a domestic or a
gracefully ideal sort; the heroic and the tragic were beyond
his powers. The designs by Stothard were estimated by R. N.
Wornum to number five thousand, and of these about three
thousand have been engraved. His oil pictures are usually
small in size, and rather sketchy in handling. Their colouring
is often rich and glowing, being founded upon the practice of
Rubens, of whom Stothard was a great admirer. The " Vintage,"
perhaps his most important oil painting, is in the National
Gallery. He was a contributor to Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery,
but his best-known painting is the " Procession of the Canterbury
Pilgrims," also in the National Gallery, the engraving from
which, begun by Luigi and continued by Niccolo Schiavonetti
and finished by James Heath, attained an immense popularity.
The commission for this picture was given to Stothard by
R. H. Cromek, and was the cause of a quarrel with his friend
William Blake. It was followed by a companion work, the
" Flitch of Bacon," which was drawn in sepia for the engraver
but was never carried out in colour.
In addition to his easel pictures, Stothard adorned the grand
staircase of Burghley House, near Stamford, with subjects of
War, Intemperance, and the Descent of Orpheus in Hell (1799-
1803); the mansion of Hafod, North Wales, with a series of
scenes from Froissart and Monstrelet (1810); the cupola of the
upper hall of the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh (now occupied
by the Signet Library), with Apollo and the Muses, and figures
of poets, orators, &c. (1822); and he prepared designs for a
frieze and other decorations for Buckingham Palace, which
were not executed, owing to the death of George IV. He
also designed the magnificent shield presented to the duke of
Wellington by the merchants of London, and executed with
his own hand a series of eight etchings from the various
subjects which adorned it. In the British Museum is a
collection, in four volumes, of engravings of Stothard's works,
made by Robert Balmanno.
An interesting but most indiscriminately eulogistic biography
of Stothard, by his daughter-in-law, Mrs Bray, was published in
1851. A. C. Coxhead's Thomas Stothard, R.A., an Illustrated Mono-
graph (1906), contains a short biographical chapter, and an accurately
dated summary of the various books and periodicals illustrated by
Stothard; see also Austin Dobson, Eighteenth Century Vignettes,
1st series (1892).
STOUGHTON, JOHN (1807-1897), English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Norwich on the i8th of November 1807.
His father was an Episcopalian, his mother a member of the
Society of Friends. Stoughton was educated at Norwich
Grammar School, and, after an interval of legal study, at High-
bury Congregational College. In 1833 he became minister at
Windsor, in 1843 at Kensington; in 1856 he was elected chair-
man of the Congregational Union. From 1872 to 1884 he was
professor of historical theology in New College, Hampstead.
He died at Ealing on the 24th of October 1897. Stoughton was
no controversialist, but did a good deal of sound historical
work which was published in Church and State 1660-1663
(London, 1862) ; Ecclesiastical History of England 1640-1660
(4 vols., London, 1867-1870); Religion in England under Queen
Anne and the Georges (2 vols., 1878); Religion in England from
1800 to 1880 (2 vols., 1884). He contributed an account of
Nonconformist modes of celebrating the Lord's Supper to the
ritual commission of 1870, arranged a conference on co-operation
between Anglicans and dissenters (presided over by Archbishop
Tail) in 1876, was one of Dean Stanley's lecturers in Westminster
Abbey and a pall-bearer at his funeral. He was elected to the
Athenaeum Club in 1874 on the nomination of Matthew Arnold.
Besides the books already mentioned he wrote a number of more
popular works, among which Homes and Haunts of Luther (1875),
The Italian Reformers (1881), and The Spanish Reformers (1883)
are conspicuous. His Recollections of a Long Life (1894) furnish
interesting autobiographical material.
STOUR, the name of several English rivers, (i) The East-
Anglian Stour rises in the slight chalk hills in the south-east of
Cambridgeshire and follows a course ranging from east to south-
east to the North Sea at Harwich, passing Clare, Sudbury, Nay-
land and Manningtree. It falls about 380 ft. in a course of 60 m.,
and drains an area of 407 sq. m. Over nearly its entire course it
forms the boundary between Suffolk and Essex. From Manning-
tree downward its course is estuarine, and it is joined immediately
above Harwich by the estuary of the Orwell. It is navigable
up to Sudbury but does not bear much traffic. (2) The Kentish
Stour or Great Stour rises on the southern face of the North
Downs, the branch called the East Stour having its source not
far inland from Hythe, but flowing at first away from the sea,
while the main or western branch rises near Lenham. They
unite at Ashford. Passing Canterbury, the Stour divides
into two branches, the larger reaching the English Channel
in Pegwell Bay, while the smaller runs north to the North
Sea at Reculver. The larger branch is joined in the levels
by the Little Stour from the south. The Stour is navigable
to Fordwich near Canterbury, but is little used above Sand-
wich. Its length is about 40 m., its fall from Ashford 150 ft.,
and its drainage area 370 sq. m. The name of Stour belongs
also to (3) a considerable but unnavigable tributary of the
Hampshire Avon, rising in Wiltshire, and touching Somersetshire
and Dorsetshire before it joins the main river in Hampshire
close to its mouth; (4) a left bank tributary of the Severn,
which it joins at Stourport, its course being followed by the
Worcestershire and Staffordshire canal; and (5) a small
tributary of the upper Avon, rising in the north of Oxfordshire
in the hills west of Banbury, and joining the main river a little
below Stratford-on-Avon.
STOURBRIDGE, a market town in the Droitwich parlia-
mentary division of Worcestershire, England, 144 m. N.W. by W.
of London and 10 W. of Birmingham by the Great Western
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 16,302. A branch canal
connects with the Worcestershire and Staffordshire system. The
town stands on an eminence on the left bank of the Stour.
Among public buildings are a town-hall (1887) and town offices,
and a school of science and art. There is an endowed grammar
school founded by Edward VI., and a bluecoat or hospital
school. Dr Johnson received part of his education in this town
(1726-1727). The principal manufactures are in iron, leather
and skins; there are glue works and fire-brick works. Coal and
fire-clay are raised. The manufacture of glass was established
in 1556 by emigrants from Hungary, the place where they erected
their factory being still known as Hungary Hill. Annual
fairs are held. The town was originally called Bedcote, a
name retained by the manor. The urban district includes the
townships of Upper Swinford and Wollaston.
STOURPORT, a market town in the Bewdley parliamentary
division of Worcestershire, England, 145 m. N. by W. of Wor-
cester by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district
972
STOVE STOWE
(1901), 4529. It lies on the left bank of the Severn, at the
junction of the Stour and the Staffordshire and Worcestershire
canal. The town grew up after the opening of the canal in 1768.
Ironworks, carpet-weaving and tanneries occupy many hands.
At Redstone, the site of a former important ferry over the
Severn, is a curious hermitage, excavated out of the red
sandstone bank.
STOVE, an apparatus for heating a room, building, green-
house or hothouse, or for cooking. It is essentially closed or
partially closed, as distinct from the open grate or fireplace, and
consists of a receiver in which the fuel is burned, of cast or sheet-
iron, tiles cemented together and backed or even of solid masonry.
Stoves may be classified according to the fuel burned (see HEAT-
ING). The word was originally of wider meaning and was used of
a heated room, house or chamber, thus the O. Eng. 5/0/0 glosses
balneum, and mod. Ger. Stube and Dan. stue mean merely a room,
O. H. Ger. Stuba, Stupa being used of a heated bathroom; early
Du. stove also was used in this wider sense, the later form stoof is
used as in modern English, and this may be the immediate source
of the present meaning, the early word having been lost. Romanic
languages borrowed it, e.g. Ital. stufa, FT. ftuve, O. Fr. esluve,
whence was adapted Eng. " stew," properly a bath or hothouse,
used chiefly in plural " stews," a brothel, and " to stew," originally
to bathe, then to boil slowly, and as a noun, a mess of stewed
meat. " Stew," a fish-pond, is a Low German word stouwe,
dam, weir, fish-pond, from stouwen, to dam up, cf. Ger. slauen,
Eng. stow.
STOW, JOHN (c. 1525-1605), English historian and antiquary,
was the son of Thomas Stow, a tailor, and was born about 1525
in London, in the parish of St Michael, Cornhill. His parents
were poor, for his father's whole rent for his house and garden
was only 6s. 6d. a year, and Stow himself in his youth fetched
every morning the milk for the family from a farm belonging to
the nunnery of the Minories. He learned the trade of his father,
but possibly did not practise it much after he grew up. In
1549 he " kept house " near the well within Aldgate, but after-
wards he removed to Lime Street ward, where he resided till his
death. About 1560 he entered upon the work with which his
name is associated. He made the acquaintance of the leading
antiquaries of his time, including William Camden, and in 1561
he published his first work, The ivoorkes of Geffrey Chaucer, newly
printed with divers additions tuhiche were never in printe before. This
was followed in 1565 by his Summarie of Englyshe Chronicles,
which was frequently reprinted, with slight variations, during
his lifetime. Of the first edition a copy was said to have been at
one time in the Grenville library. In the British Museum there
are copies of the editions of 1567, 1573, 1590, 1598 and 1604.
Stow having in his dedication to the edition of 1567 referred to the
rival publication of Richard Graf ton (c. isoo-c. 1572) in con-
temptuous terms, the dispute between them became extremely
embittered. Stow's antiquarian tastes brought him under
ecclesiastical suspicion as a person " with many dangerous and
superstitious books in his possession," and in 1568 his house was
searched. An inventory was taken of certain books he possessed
" in defence of papistry," but he was apparently able to satisfy
his interrogators of the soundness of his Protestantism. A second
attempt to incriminate him in 1570 was also without result.
In 1580 Stow published his Annales, or a Generate Chronicle of
England from Brute until the present yeare of Christ 1580 ; it was
reprinted in 1592, 1601 and 1605, the last being continued to
the 26th of March 1605, or within ten days of his death; editions
" amended " by Edmund Howes appeared in 1615 and 1631.
The work by which Stow is best known is his Survey of London,
published in 1598, not only interesting from the quaint simplicity
of its style and its amusing descriptions and anecdotes, but of
unique value from its minute account of the buildings, social
condition and customs of London in the time of Elizabeth. A
second edition appeared in his lifetime in 1603, a third with
additions by Anthony Munday in 1618, a fourth by Munday and
Dyson in 1633, a fifth with interpolated amendments by John
Strype in 1720, and a sixth by the same editor in 1754. The
edition of 1598 was reprinted, edited by W. J. Thorns, in 1842,
in 1846, and with illustrations in 1876. Through the patronage
of Archbishop Parker, Stow was enabled to print the Flares
historiarum of Matthew of Westminster in 1567, the Chronicle of
Matthew Paris in 1571, and the Historia brevis of Thomas
Walsingham in 1574. At the request of Parker he had himself
compiled a " farre larger volume," An history of this island, but
circumstances were unfavourable to its publication and the
manuscript is now lost. Additions to the previously published
works of Chaucer were twice made through Stow's " own painful
labours " in the edition of 1 561 , referred to above, and also in 1597.
A number of Stow's manuscripts are in the Harleian collection
in the British Museum. Some are in the Lambeth library
(No. 306) ; and from the volume which includes them were pub-
lished by the Camden Society, edited by James Gairdner, Three
Fifteenth-Century Chronicles, with Historical Memoranda by John
Stowe the Antiquary, and Contemporary Notes of Occurrences
written by him (1880). Stow's literary labours did not prove very
remunerative, but he accepted poverty in a cheerful spirit.
Ben Jonson relates that once when walking with him Stow
jocularly asked two mendicant cripples " what they would
have to take him to their order." In March 1604 James I.
authorized him and his deputies to collect " amongst our loving
subjects their voluntary contributions and kind gratuities,"
and himself began " the largesse for the example of others."
If the royal appeal was successful Stow did not live long to enjoy
the increased comfort resulting from it, as he died on the
6th of April 1605. He was buried in the London church of St
Andrew Undershaft, where the monument erected by his
widow, exhibiting a teira-cotta figure of him, still remains.
Stow's Survey of London has been edited with notes by C. L.
Kingsford (Oxford, 1908).
STOWE, HARRIET ELIZABETH [BEECHER] (1811-1896),
American writer and philanthropist, seventh child of Lyman and
Roxana (Foote) Beecher, was born at Litchfield, Connecticut,
U.S.A., on the I4thof June 1811. Her father (the Congregational
minister of the town) and her mother were both descended from
members of the company that, under John Davenport, founded
New Haven in 1638; and the community in which she spent her
childhood was one of the most intellectual in New England.
At her mother's death in 1815 she came most directly under the
influence of her eldest sister Catherine, eleven years her senior,
a woman of keen intellect, who a few years later set up a school
in Hartford to which Harriet went, first as a pupil, afterwards as
teacher. In 1832 her father, who had for six years been the
pastor of a church in Boston, accepted the presidency of the
newly founded Lane Theological Seminary at Cincinnati.
Catherine Beecher, who was eager to establish what should be in
effect a pioneer college for women, accompanied him; and with
her went Harriet as an assistant, taking an active part in the
literary and school life, contributing stories and sketches to local
journals and compiling a school geography. She was mairied
on the 6th of January 1836 to one of the professors in the
seminary, Calvin Ellis Stowe. In the midst of privation and
anxiety, due largely to her husband's precarious health, she
wrote continually, and in 1843 published The Mayflower, a
collection of tales and sketches. Mrs Stowe passed eighteen
years in Cincinnati under conditions which constantly thrust
the problem of human slavery upon her attention. A river only
separated Ohio from a slave-holding community. Slaves were
continually escaping from their masters, and were harboured,
on their way to Canada, by the circle in which Mrs Stowe lived.
In the practical questions which arose, and in the great debate
which was political, economical and moral, she took a very
active part. When, therefore, in 1850, Mr Stowe was elected
to a professorship in Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, and
removed his family thither, Mrs Stowe was prepared for the great
work which came to her, bit by bit, as a religious message which
she must deliver. In the quiet of a country town, far removed
from actual contact with painful scenes, but on the edge of the
whirlwind raised by the Fugitive Slave Bill, memory and
imagination had full scope, and she wrote for serial publication
in The National Era, an anti-slavery paper of Washington, D.C.,
STOWELL STRABO
973
the story of " Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life among the Lowly."
The publication in book form (March 20, 1852) was a factor
which must be reckoned in summing up the moving causes of the
war for the Union. The book sprang into unexampled popularity,
and was translated into at least twenty-three tongues. Mrs
Stowe used the reputation thus won in promoting a moral and
religious enmity to slavery. She reinforced her story with A
Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin, in which she accumulated a large
number of documents and testimonies against the great evil;
and in 1853 she made a journey to Europe, devoting herself
especially to creating an entente cordiale between Englishwomen
and Americans on the question of the day. In 1856 she pub-
lished Dred; a Tale of the Dismal Swamp, in which she threw
the weight of her argument on the deterioration of a society-
resting on a slave basis. The establishment of The Atlantic
Monthly in 1857 gave her a constant vehicle for her writings, as
did also The Independent of New York, and later The Christian
Union, of each of which papers successively her brother, Henry
Ward Beecher, was one of the editors. From this time forth she
led the life of a woman of letters, writing novels, of which The
Minister's Wooing (1859) is best known, and many studies of
social life in the form both of fiction and essay. She published
also a small volume of religious poems, and towards the end of
her career gave some public readings from her writings. In 1852
Professor Stowe accepted a professorship in the Theological
Seminary at Andover, Massachusetts, and the family made its
home there till 1863, when he retired wholly from professional
life and removed to Hartford. After the close of the war for the
Union Mrs Stowe bought an estate in Florida, chiefly in hope of
restoring the health of her son, Captain Frederick Beecher
Stowe, who had been wounded in the war, and in this southern
home she spent many winters. After the death of her husband
in 1886 she passed the rest of her life in the seclusion of her
Hartford home, where she died on the ist of July 1896. She is
buried by the side of her husband at Andover.
See Life of Harriet Beecher Stowe, compiled from her letters and
journals by her son, Charles Edward Stowe (Boston, 1890). Life
and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe, edited by Annie Fields
(Boston, 1898). (H. E. S.*)
STOWELL, WILLIAM SCOTT, BARON (1745-1836), English
judge and jurist, was born at Heworth, a village about 4 m. from
Newcastle, on the i7th of October 1745, the son of a " coalfitter"
(or tradesman engaged in the transport of coal). His younger
brother John became the famous Lord Chancellor Eldon.
Scott was educated at the Newcastle grammar school and Corpus
Christi College, Oxford, where he gained a Durham scholarship
in 1761. In 1764 he graduated and became first a probationary
fellow and then as successor to William (afterwards the well-
known Sir William) Jones a tutor of University college. As
Camden reader of ancient history (1774) he rivalled the reputation
of Blackstone. Although he had joined the Middle Temple
in 1762, it was not till 1776 that Scott devoted himself to a syste-
matic study of law. In 1779 he graduated as doctor of civil
law, and, after the customary " year of silence," commenced
practice in the ecclesiastical courts. His professional success
was rapid. In 1783 he became registrar of the court of faculties,
and in 1788 judge of the consistory court and advocate-general,
in that year too receiving the honour of knighthood; and in 1798
he was made judge of the high court of admiralty. Sir William
Scott twice contested the representation of Oxford University
in 1780 without success, but successfully in 1801. He also sat
for Downton in 1790. Upon the coronation of George IV. (1821)
he was raised to the peerage as Baron Stowell. After a life of
distinguished judicial service Lord Stowell retired from the
bench from the consistory court in August 1821, and from
the high court of admiralty in December 1827. His mental
faculties became gradually feebler in his old age, and he died on
the 28th of January 1836. Lord Stowell was twice married
in 1781 to Anna Maria, eldest daughter and heiress of John
Bagnall of Early Court, Berks., by whom he had four children,
one of these, a daughter, survived him; and in 1813 to the
dowager marchioness of Sligo.
Lord Stowell's judgments are models alike of literary execution
and of judicial reasoning. His style is chaste yet not inornate,
nervous without abruptness, and perfectly adjusted in every instance
to the subject with which he deals. His decisions in the cases of
Dalyrmple v. Dalyrmple (Dr Dodson's Report) and Evans v. Evans
(i Hagg. 35) from their combined force and grace, from the
steadiness with which every collateral issue is set aside, from their
subtle insight into human motives and from the light which they
cast on marriage law deserve and will repay attentive perusal.
Lord Stowell composed with great care, and some of the MSS. which
he revised for Haggard and Phillimore's Reports were full of inter-
lineations. Stowell's mind was judicial rather than forensic reason-
ing, not as for a dialectic victory nor so as to convince the parties
on whose suit he was deciding, but only with sufficient clearness,
fulness and force to justify the decision a.t which he had arrived.
The chief doctrines of international law with the assertion and
illustration of which the name of Lord Stowell is identified are these :
the perfect equality and entire independence of all states (" Le
Louis," 2 Dod. 243) a logical deduction from the Austinian
philosophy and still one of the fundamental principles of English
jurisprudence; that the elementary rules of international law bind
even semi-barbarous states (the " Hurtige Hane," 2 Rob. 325) ; that
blockade to be binding must be effectual (the " Betsey," I Rob. 93) ;
and that contraband of war is to be determined by " probable destina-
tion " (the " Jonge Margaretha," I Rob. 189). In the famous
Swedish convoy case (the "Maria," I Rob. 350; see, too, the
" Recovery," 6 C. Rob. 348-9) Lord Stowell asserted that " a
prize court is a court not merely of the country in which it
sits but of the law of nations." " The seat of judicial authority,"
he added, in words which have become classic, " is indeed
locally here, in the belligerent country, but the law itself has
no locality." His dictum concerning the right of a belligerent
to sink a neutral ship, when unable to take her before a prize court,
was much quoted in 1904 in reference to the sinking of the " Knight
Commander " by the Russians in the Far East.
The judgments of Lord Stowell were, almost without exception,
confirmed on appeal, and they are to this day the international law
of England, and have become presumptive though not conclusive
evidence of the international law of America. " I have taken care,"
wrote Justice Story, " that they shall form the basis of the maritime
law of the United States, and 1 have no hesitation in saying that
they ought to do so in that of every civilized country in the world."
See Townsend, Lives of Twelve Eminent Judges, vol. ii. ; Quarterly
Review, vol. Ixxv. ; W. E. Surtees, Sketch of Lords Stowell and Eldon ;
Creasy, First Platform of International Law, Reports of Prize Cases
from 1745 to 1859, ed. E. S. Roscoe (2 vols. 1905; contains all the
more important of Lord Stowell's judgments).
STOWMARKET, a market town in the Stowmarket parlia-
mentary division of Suffolk, England; 12 m. N.N.W. of Ipswich
by the Great Eastern railway, on the river Gipping. Pop. of
urban district (1901), 4162. The church of St Peter and St Mary
is Decorated and Early English, with a lofty tower and wooden
spire. The ancient vicarage has associations with Milton through
his tutor, Dr Young. The town has an extensive chemical
manufactory, iron foundry, and factories for the manufacture of
guncotton, agricultural implements and compressed leather.
There is also considerable trade in corn, malt, coal, slate and
timber.
STRABANE, a market town and the principal town of Co.
Tyrone, Ireland. Pop. (1901), 5033. It stands at the junction
of the rivers Mourne and Finn, which thenceforward form the
Foyle. It is i6ij m. N.W. by N. from Dublin by the Great
Northern railway, and has also a station on the Donegal railway,
the two companies using separate lines to Londonderry. Lifford,
across the river, practically a suburb of Strabane, is the county
town of Co. Donegal. A short canal connects the town with
the point at which the Foyle becomes navigable. The trade in
corn is considerable. Linen and shirt making, and iron and brass
founding, are prosecuted. A castle of the time of James I. has
left no remains. The town is governed by an urban district
council. It returned two members to the Irish parliament until
the Union in 1800.
STRABO (born c. 63 B.C.), Greek geographer and historian,
was born at Amasia in Pontus, a city which had been much
Hellenized, and was the royal residence of the kings of Pontus.
We know nothing of his father's family, but several of his mother's
relatives held important posts under Mithradates V. and VI.
Some were of Hellenic, others of Asiatic origin, but Strabo himself
was by language and education thoroughly Greek. The date '
of his birth cannot be exactly determined, but from various
974
STRACHAN
indications in his work it seems to have been about 63 B.C. He
studied at Nysa under the grammarian Aristodemus, under
Tyrannic the grammarian at Rome, under the philosopher
Xenarchus either at Rome or at Alexandria, and he had studied
Aristotle along with Boethus (possibly at Rome under Tyrannic,
who had access to the Aristotelian writings in Sulla's library).
He states that he saw P. Servilius Isauricus, who died at Rome
in advanced years in 44 B.C., from which it has been inferred that
he visited Rome early in life. He also tells us that he was at
Gyaros (one of the Cyclades) when Augustus was at Corinth on
his return to Rome from the East in 29 B.C., and that he accom-
panied the prefect of Egypt, Aelius Callus, on his expedition to
Upper Egypt, which seems to have taken place in 25-24 B.C.
These are the only dates in his life which can be accurately fixed.
The latest event mentioned in his work is the death of Juba, king
of Mauretania, which took place in A.D. 21.
Although he had seen a comparatively small portion of the
regions which he describes, he had travelled much. As he states
himself: " Westward I have journeyed to the parts of Etruria
opposite Sardinia; towards the south from the Euxine to the
borders of Ethiopia; and perhaps not one of those who have
written geographies has visited more places than I have between
those limits." He tells us that he had seen Egypt as far south as
Syene and Philae, Comana in Cappadocia, Ephesus, Mylasa, Nysa
and Hierapolis in Phrygia, Gyarus and Populonia. Of Greece
proper he saw but little; it is by no means certain that he even
visited Athens, and though he describes Corinth as an eye-
witness, it is clear that he was never at Delphi, and was not aware
that the ruins of Mycenae still existed. He had seen Cyrene
from the sea, probably on his voyage from Puteoli to Alexandria,
where he remained a long time, probably amassing materials,
and studying astronomy and mathematics. For nowhere could
he have had a better means of consulting the works of historians,
geographers and astronomers, such as Eratosthenes, Posidonius,
Hipparchus and Apollodorus. We cannot tell where his Geo-
graphy was written, but it was at least finally revised between
A.D. 17 and 23, since we have historical allusions which can be
dated to that time. Probably Strabo was then in Rome; the
fact that his work passed unnoticed by Roman writers such as the
elder Pliny does not prove the contrary.
Works. His earliest writing was an historical work now lost,
which he himself describes as his Historical Memoirs. He tells
us (xi. 9, 3) that the sixth book of the Memoirs was identical with
the second of the Continuation of Polybius; probably, therefore,
books i.-iv. formed an introduction to the main work. This
accounts for the fact that he speaks (ii. 70) of having treated of
the exploits of Alexander in his Memoirs, a topic which could not
have found a place in a work which began where that of Polybius
ended (146 B.C.). According to Suidas, the continuation of
Polybius was in forty-three books. Plutarch, who calls him
" the Philosopher," quotes Strabo's Memoirs (Luc. 28), and cites
him as an historian (Sulla, 26). Josephus, who constantly
calls him " the Cappadocian," often quotes from him, but does
not mention the title of the work.
The Geography is the most important work on that science which
antiquity has left us. It was, as far as we know, the first attempt
to collect all the geographical knowledge at the time attainable,
and to compose a general treatise on geography. It is not merely
a new edition of Eratosthenes. In general outline it follows neces-
sarily the work of the last-named geographer, who had first laid
down a scientific basis for geography. Strabo made considerable
alterations, but not always for the better. The three books of the
older work formed a strictly technical geographical treatise. Its
small size prevented it from containing any such general description
of separate countries as Strabo rightly conceived to fall within
the scope of the geographer. " Strabo indeed appears to be the
first who conceived a complete geographical treatise as comprising
the four divisions of mathematical, physical, political and historical
geography, and he endeavoured, however imperfectly, to keep all
these objects in view." The incidental historical notices, which are
often of great value and interest, are all his own. These digressions
at times interrupt the symmetry of his plan; but Strabo had all
the Greek love of legendary lore, and he discusses the journeyings
of Heracles as earnestly as if they were events within recent history.
He regarded Homer as the source of all wisdom and knowledge
indeed, his description of Greece is largely drawn from ApoIIodorus's
commentary on the Homeric " Catalogue of Ships " and treated
Herodotus with undeserved contempt, classing him with Ctesias
and other " marvel-mongers." Yet in some respects Herodotus had
better information (e.g. in regard to the Caspian) than Strabo him-
self. Again, Strabo may be censured for discarding the statements
of Pytheas respecting the west and north of Europe, accepted as
they had been by Eratosthenes. But in this he relied on Polybius,
whom he might justly consider as having from his position at Rome
far better means of gaining accurate information. It must be
admitted that the statements of Pytheas did not accord with the
theory of Strabo just in those very points where he was at variance
with Eratosthenes. He showed likewise an unwarranted scepticism
in reference to the island of Cerne on the west coast of Africa, which
without doubt the Carthaginians had long used as an emporium.
Strabo chiefly employed Greek authorities (the Alexandrian
geographers Polybius, Posidonius and Theophanes of Mytilene,
the companion of Pompey) and made comparatively little use of
Roman authorities. Although he refers to Caesar's Commentaries
once by name, and evidently made use of them in other passages,
he but imperfectly availed himself of that work. He designed his
geography as a sequel to his historical writings, and it had as it were
grown out of his historical materials, which were chiefly Greek.
Moreover Strabo probably amassed his material in the library of
Alexandria, so that Greek authorities would naturally furnish the
great bulk of his collections. Doubtless, however, he returned to
Rome after a long sojourn in Alexandria, a fact which explains
the defectiveness of his information about the countries to the east
of his native land, and renders it possible for him to have made-
use of the " chorography " of Agrippa, a map of the Roman Empire
and adjacent countries set up by order of Augustus in the Porticus
Vipsamae.
He designed the work for the statesman rather than for the
student. He therefore endeavours to give a general sketch of the
character, physical peculiarities and natural productions of each
country, and consequently gives us much valuable information re-
specting ethnology, trade and metallurgy. It was almost necessary
that he should select what he thought most important for description,
and at times omit what we deem of more importance. With respect
to physical geography, his work is a great advance on all preceding
ones. Judged by modern standards, his description of the direction
of rivers and mountain-chains seems defective, but allowance
must be made for difficulties in procuring information, and for want
of accurate instruments. In respect of mathematical geography,
his lack of scientific training was no great hindrance. He had
before him the results of Eratosthenes, Hipparchus and Posidonius.
The chief conclusions of astronomers concerning the spherical
figure and dimensions of the earth, its relation to the heavenly
bodies, and the great circles of the globe the equator, the ecliptic
and the tropics were considered as well established. He accepted
also the division into five zones; he quotes approvingly the assertion
of Hipparchus that it was impossible to make real advances in geo-
graphy without astronomical observations for determining latitudes
and longitudes.
The work consists of seventeen books, of which the seventh is-
imperfect. The first two are introductory, the next eight deal with
Europe (two being devoted to Spain and Gaul, two to Italy and
Sicily, one to the north and east of Europe, and three to Greek lands).
The eleventh book treats of the main divisions of Asia and the more
easterly districts, the next three of Asia Minor. Book xv. deals
with India and Persia, book xv ; . with Assyria, Babylonia, Syria
and Arabia, and the closing book with Egypt and Africa.
Editions. The Aldine (Venice, 1516) was unfortunately based
on a very corrupt MS. The first substantial improvements in the
text were due to Casaubon (Geneva, 1587; Paris, 1620), whose text
remained the basis of subsequent editions till that of Coraes (Paris,
1815-1819), who removed many corruptions. The MSS. were first
scientifically collated by Kramer (Berlin, 1844-1852), who demon-
strated that Par. 1397 was the best authority for the first nine books
(it contains no more) and Vat. 1329 for the remainder. Of later
editions the most important are those of C. Miiller (Paris, 1853) and
Meineke (Leipzig, 1866-1877). H. F. Tozer's volume of selections
(Oxford, 1893) is useful. Napoleon I., an admirer of Strabo, caused
a French translation of the Geography to be made by Coraes, Letronne
andothers(Paris 1805-1819) ;Grosskurd's German translation(Berlin,
1831-1834), with notes, is a monumental work. The fragments of
the Historical Memoirs have been edited by P. Otto (Leipziger
StudienXI, 1891); see also Muller's Fragmenta historicorum grae-
corum, iii. 490 sqq. Bunbury's History of Ancient Geography,
vol. ii. chs. 2 1 , 22 ; and F. Dubois's Examen de la geographic de Strabon
(Paris, 1891) should also be consulted. (H. S. J.)
STRACHAN, JOHN (1778-1867), first bishop of Toronto, son
of John Strachan and Elizabeth Finlayson his wife, was born at
Aberdeen, Scotland, on the i2th of April 1778. His father died
in 1 79 2 from an accident in the granite quarries of which he was.
an overseer. Thus from an early age young Strachan bad to
depend upon his own resources and even to assist his mother,
STRACHEY, SIR J.
whom he loyally aided till her death in 1812. He managed, by
undertaking private teaching and with the aid of a bursary, to
go to the university of Aberdeen, where he took his M.A. degree.
He attended some of the divinity classes at the university, where
also he formed a lasting friendship with two of his fellow students,
well known afterwards as Professor Duncan and Dr Chalmers.
In 170,9 he emigrated to Canada, having been recommended to
the Hon. Richard Cartwright, of Kingston, Upper Canada, as
suitable for tutorial work. Strachan went to Canada a Presby-
terian. His associations there, however, were almost exclusively
with Episcopalians, including Mr Cartwright and the Rev. Dr.
Stuart, for a time the only clergyman in the district. Moreover,
special provision had been made in the Constitutional Actof 1791
for the liberal endowment of the Protestant religion, then
identified in the official mind with the Church of England,
through what were afterwards known as the Clergy Reserves,
being one-seventh of the lands of the new townships opened for
settlement. Having decided to enter the Episcopal Church,
Strachan was ordained on the 22nd of May 1803, and was
1 immediately afterwards appointed to the parish of Cornwall.
Thither he removed his school, which soon became the most
noted educational institution in the country. There many
future leaders of public and professional life in Canada came
under the influence of Strachan's vigorous personality. In
1807 he married the youthful widow of Andrew McGill, a wealthy
merchant of Montreal, and brother of the founder of McGill
University. In 1811 he received the honorary degree of D.D.
from his alma mater, Aberdeen University. During the same
year Dr Stuart of Kingston died and was succeeded by his son
George O'Kill Stuart, incumbent at York, the capital of the
province. Through the influence of Lieut .-Governor Gore,
supplemented by that of Sir Isaac Brock, Strachan was pre-
vailed upon in 1812 to transfer himself to York, where he was
soon deeply involved in civil and ecclesiastical politics.
During the War of 1812 he was of special service to the
executive government and the citizens of the town when the
American troops captured York and burned the public buildings.
He was chiefly instrumental also in founding the Loyal and
Patriotic Society of Upper Canada, which raised funds for the
relief of the wounded and the assistance of the widows and
orphans of the slain. On the urgent recommendation of Lieut. -
Governor Gore he was appointed to the executive council of
Upper Canada in 1815. A man of great force of character and
much ability, of keen ambitions and unusual shrewdness, though
not remarkable for breadth of mind, he attained to great influence
in the executive government and was soon the leading spirit in
that dominant group known in Upper Canadian history as the
Family Compact. In 1820 he was appointed by Sir Peregrine
Maitland a member of the legislative council in order that the
governor might have a confidential medium through whom to
make communication to the council. At the instance of the
lieutenant-governor he went to England in 1824, to discuss
various colonial questions with the earl of Bathurst, then colonial
secretary. Strachan had no difficulty in convincing Lord
Bathurst of the justice of his claims on all essential matters, the
most important of which was the exclusive right of the Church of
England in Canada to the Clergy Reserves. Though in favour
of selling a portion of these lands to provide a fund for the exist-
ing needs of the Church, he secured the defeat of the proposal
then before the government to dispose of the Clergy Reserves
to the Canada Company. He took much interest in the educa-
tional affairs of the province, and in 1807 was instrumental in
having provision made for the establishment of the first grammar
schools. In 1824 he secured the passing of an act providing
assistance for the public schools of each district. During his
second visit to England in 1826-1827 he obtained a royal charter
for the university of King's College, with provision for its endow-
ment out of the crown lands. It was, however, to be entirely
under the control of the Church of England. In 1827 Strachan
became archdeacon of York.
The break-up of the Liverpool ministry in 1827 interrupted the
successful development of Strachan's plans for placing virtually
975
the whole of the government endowments for religion and
education under the control of the Episcopal Church. The storm
of protest of the other religious denominations caused the colonial
office to undertake an investigation of the whole question, the
result of which was presented in the report of 1828. After a
long silence in the face of severe and persistent criticism, Strachan
made a general reply in a very able speech in the legislative
council in March 1828. When the storm had subsided the
Clergy Reserves and university questions remained dormant
until 1836, when the attempt to apply the Reserves to the
endowment of rectories renewed the trouble and contributed
largely to the crisis of 1837. Adverse criticism and a sugges-
tion from the colonial office that he should cease from active
participation in political affairs led to his resignation from the
executive council, but he declined to give up his seat in the
legislative council.
On the death of Bishop Stewart of Quebec the Canadian see
was divided, and Strachan was made bishop of Toronto in
August 1839. He energetically opposed the act of 1840, which
sought to settle the Clergy Reserves question by dividing the
proceeds among the different religious denominations, the larger
share still remaining with the Church of England.
The university of King's College was finally established,
with certain modifications of its charter, in 1843, Bishop Strachan
being the first president. The renewed agitation finally resulted
in the elimination of all religious tests by the act of 1849, which
also changed the name to that of the university of Toronto.
Strachan at once took steps to found another university which
should be completely under the control of the Episcopal Church,
hence the establishment of Trinity University, which was opened
in 1852. Bishop Strachan also raised once more the question
of the disposal of the Clergy Reserves. After several strong
appeals and counter-appeals to the British government, the
Canadian parliament was allowed to deal as it pleased with the
question, with the result that the Reserves were completely
secularized in 1854, provision being made for the life-interest of
the beneficiaries at the time. Bishop Strachan devoted the
latter years of his long life entirely to his episcopal duties, and
by introducing the diocesan synod he furnished the Episcopal
Church in Canada with a more democratic organ of government.
He died in November 1867.
STRACHEY, SIR JOHN (1823-1907), British Indian civilian,
fifth son of Edward Strachey, was born in London on the 5th of
June 1823. After passing through Haileybury, Strachey entered
the Bengal civil service in 1842, and served in the North- Western
Provinces, occupying many important positions. In 1861 Lord
Canning appointed him president of a commission to investigate
the great cholera epidemic of that year. In 1862 he became
judicial commissioner in the Central Provinces. In 1864, after
the report of the royal commission on the sanitary condition
of the army, a permanent sanitary commission was established
in India, with Strachey as president. In 1866 he became chief
commissioner of Oudh, having been chosen by Lord Lawrence
to remedy as far as possible the injustice done after the Mutiny
by the confiscation of the rights of tenants and small proprietors
of land, maintaining at the same time the privileges of the
Talukdars of great landlords As member of the legislative
council he introduced several bills for that purpose, which, with
the full approval of the Talukdars, passed into law. In 1868 he
became member of the governor-general's council, and on the
assassination of Lord Mayo in 1872 he acted temporarily as
viceroy. In 1874 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of the
North-Western Provinces. In 1876, by request of Lord Lytton
and the secretary of state, he consented to relinquish that office,
and returned to the governor-general's council as financial
minister, which post he retained until 1880. During this time,
while Lord Lytton was viceroy, important reforms were carried
out. The measures for decentralizing financial administration,
initiated under Lord Mayo, were practically completed. The
salt duties were reduced, and the system under which they were
levied was altered, and that opprobrium of our administration,
the inland customs line, was abolished. The removal of all
976
STRACHEY, SIR R. STRADELLA
import duties, including those on English cotton goods, and the
establishment of complete free trade, was declared to be the fixed
policy of the government, and this was in great measure carried
into effect before 1880, when Strachey left India. The defective
system on which the military accounts were kept occasioned a
very erroneous estimate of the cost of the Afghan War of 1878-
80. For this error Strachey was technically responsible, and
it was made the occasion of a violent party attack which resulted
in his resignation. The fact that almost the entire cost of the
war was paid for out of revenue is a conclusive .proof of the state
of financial prosperity to which India attained as the result of his
administration. From 1885 to 1895 Strachey was a member of
the council of the secretary of state for India. He was joint
author with Sir Richard Strachey of The Finances and Public
Works of India (1882), besides writing India (ycd. ed., 1903), and
Hastings and the RohUla War (1892). He died on the igih of
December 1907.
STRACHEY, SIR RICHARD (1817-1908), British soldier and
Indian administrator, third son of Edward Strachey, was born on
the 24th of July 1817, at Sutton Court, Somersetshire. From
Addiscombe he passed into the Bengal Engineers in 1836, and
was employed for some years on irrigation works in the North-
Western Provinces. He served in the Sutlej campaign of 1845-
46, and was at the battles of Aliwal and Sobraon, was mentioned
in despatches, and received a brevet-majority. From 1858 to
1865 he was chiefly employed in the public works department,
either as acting or permanent secretary to the government of
India, and from 1867 to 1871 he rilled the post of director-general
of irrigation, then specially created. During this period the
entire administration of public works was reorganized to adapt
it to the increasing magnitude of the interests with which this
department has had to deal since its establishment by Lord
Dalhousie in 1854. For this reorganization, under which the
accounts were placed on a proper footing and the forest adminis-
tration greatly developed, Strachey was chiefly responsible.
His work in connexion with Indian finance was important. In
1867 he prepared a scheme in considerable detail for decentraliz-
ing the financial administration of India, which formed the
basis of the policy afterwards carried into effect by his brother
Sir John Strachey under Lord Mayo and Lord Lytton. He left
India in 1871, but in 1877 he was sent there to confer with the
government on the purchase of the East Indian railway, and was
then selected as president of the commission of inquiry into
Indian famines. In 1878 he was appointed to act for six months
as financial member of the governor-general's council, when he
made proposals for meeting the difficulties arising from the
depreciation of the rupee, then just beginning to be serious.
These proposals did not meet with the support of the secretary
of state. From that time he continued to take an active part
in the efforts made to bring the currencies of India and England
into harmony, until in 1892 he was appointed a member of Lord
Herschell's committee, which arrived at conclusions in accord-
ance with the views put forward by him in 1878. He attended
in 1892 the International Monetary Conference at Brussels as
delegate for British India. Strachey was a member of the council
of the secretary of state for India from 1875 to 1889, when he
resigned his seat in order to accept the post of chairman of the
East Indian Railway Company. Strachey's scientific labours
in connexion with the geology, botany and physical geography
of the Himalaya were considerable. He devoted much time to
meteorological research, was largely instrumental in the forma-
tion of the Indian meteorological department, and became
chairman of the meteorological council of the Royal Society in
1883. From 1888 to 1890 he was president of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society. In 1897 he was awarded one of the royal
medals of the Royal Society, of which he became a fellow in
1854; and in the same year he was created G. C.S.I. He died on
the 1 2th of February 1908. His widow, Lady Strachey, whom
he married in 1880, became well-known as an authoress and a
supporter of women's suffrage.
STRACHWITZ, MORITZ KARL WILHELM ANTON, GRAF
VON (1822-1347), German poet, was born on the I3th of March
1822 at Peterwitz near Frankenstein in Silesia. After studying
in Breslau and Berlin he settled on his estate in Moravia, where
he devoted himself to literary pursuits. When travelling in
Italy in 1847 ne was taken ill at Venice, and died on the nth of
December at Vienna. Although he had thus only reached his
twenty-fifth year, he revealed a lyric genius of remarkable force
and originality. His first collection of poems, Lieder tines
Erwachenden, appeared in 1842 and went through several
editions. Neue Gedichte were published after his death in 1848.
These poems are characteristic of the transition through which
the German lyric was passing between 1840 and 1848; the old
Romantic strain is still dominant, especially in his ballads,
which are unquestionably his finest productions; but, side by
side with it, there is to be seen the influence of Platen, to whose
warmest admirers Strachwitz belonged, as well as echoes of the
restless political spirit of those eventful years. His political
lyric was, however, tempered by an aristocratic restraint which
was absent from the writings of men like Herwegh and Freili-
grath. Strachwitz's early death was a great loss to German
letters; for he was by far the most promising of the younger
lyric poets of his time.
Strachwitz's collected Gedichte appeared first in 1850 (8th ed.,
1891); a convenient reprint will be found in Reclam's Universal-
bibliothek. See A. K. T. Tielo, Die Dichtung des Grafen Moritz von
Strachwitz (1902).
STRADELLA, ALESSANDRO (?i64 5-1682), Italian composer,
was one of the most accomplished musicians of the i7th century.
The hitherto generally accepted story of his life was first circum-
stantially narrated in Bonnet -Bourdelot's Hisloire de la musique
el de ses ejfels (Paris, 1715). According to this account, Stradella
not only produced some successful operas at Venice, but also
attained so great a reputation by the beauty of his voice that a
Venetian nobleman engaged him to instruct his mistress, Ortensia,
in singing. Stradella, the narrative goes on to say, shamefully
betrayed his trust, and eloped with Ortensia to Rome, whither
the outraged Venetian sent two paid bravi to put him to death.
On their arrival in Rome the assassins learned that Stradella
had just completed a new oratorio, over the performance of
which he was to preside on the following day at S. Giovanni in
Laterano. Taking advantage of this circumstance, they deter-
mined to kill him as he left the church; but the beauty of the
music affected them so deeply that their hearts failed them at the
critical moment, and, confessing their treachery, they entreated
the composer to [ensure his safety by quitting Rome immediately.
Thereupon Stradella fled with Ortensia to Turin, where, notwith-
standing the favour shown to him by the regent of Savoy, he
was attacked one night by another band of assassins, who, headed
by Ortensia's father, left him on the ramparts for dead. Through
the connivance of the French ambassador the ruffians succeeded
in making their escape; and in the meantime Stradella, recovering
from his wounds, married Ortensia, by consent of the regent, and
removed with her to Genoa. Here he believed himself safe ; but
a year later he and Ortensia were murdered in their house by a
third party of assassins in the pay of the implacable Venetian.
Recent research has shown that Stradella was the son of a
Cavaliere Marc' antonio Stradella of Piacenza, who in 1642-1643
was vice-marchese and governor of Vignola for Prince Bon-
compagni, who did not wish to live in the dominions from which
he took the title of marchese di Vignola. He was deprived of his
office in 1643 for having surrendered the castle to the papal
troops, although it might have sustained a siege of several days
and the help of the duke of Modena was expected. An elder
brother of Alessandro, Francesco by name, became a member of
the Augustinian order, and seems to have enjoyed the protection
of the house of Este. Alessandro is supposed to have been born
about 1645 or earlier, probably at Vignola, or Monfestino, a town
on the road from Modena to Pistoja,to which his father retired
after his dismissal; but no records of his birth have come to light
in either of these places. The first certain date in his life is
1672, in which year he composed a prologue for the performance
of Cesti's opera La Dori at Rome ; and we may conclude that he
spent a considerable time at Rome about this period, since his
STRADIVARI STRAFFORD, EARLS OF
977
cantatas and other compositions contain frequent allusions to
Rome and noble Roman families. There is, however, no proof
that he ever performed the oratorio 5. Giovanni Battista in the
Lateran. Documents in the archives at Turin relate that in
1677 he arrived there with the mistress of Alvise Contarini, with
whom he had eloped from Venice. Contarini demanded that
both should be given up to him, or failing that, that Stradella
should not be allowed to exercise his profession until the lady
had been either placed in a convent or made his legitimate wife.
Stradella was protected by the regent of Savoy, the duchess
Giovanni Battista de Nemours, and the Contarini family,
indignant at his audacity, sent two hired assassins to Turin, by
whom Stradella was wounded but not murdered. We hear of
Stradella last at Genoa. An opera by him, La Forza dell' amor
paterno, was given there in 1678, and his last composition, //
Barcheggio (i.e. a " Water-Music "), was performed on the i6th
of June 1 68 1 in honour of the marriage of Carlo Spinola and
Paola Brignole, which was solemnized on the 6th of July of the
same year. Documents in the archives at Modena inform us that
in February 1682 Stradella was murdered at Genoa by three
brothers of the name of Lomellini, whose sister he had seduced.
It is extremely improbable that Stradella had any great reputa-
tion as a singer, since the great Italian singers of the 1 7th century
were almost exclusively casirali; but he may well have been a
teacher of singing, and he appears to have instructed his lady
pupils in Genoa on the harpsichord. He is principally important
as a composer of operas and chamber-cantatas, although com-
pared with his contemporaries his output was small. In spite of
his dissolute life his command of the technique of composition was
remarkable, and his gift of melodic invention almost equal to
that of A. Scarlatti, who in his early years was much influenced
by Stradella. His best operas are // Floridoro, also known as II
Moro per amore, and II Trespolo lutore, a comic opera in three
acts which worthily carried on the best traditions of Florentine
and Roman comic opera in the I7th century. His church music,
on which his reputation has generally been based, is of less im-
portance, though the well-known oratorio 5. Giovanni Battista
displays the same skill in construction and orchestration (so far
as the limited means at his disposal permitted) as the operas. A
serenata for voices and two orchestras, Qual prodigo ch'io miri,
was used by Handel as the basis of several numbers in Israel in
Egypt, and was printed by Chrysander (Leipzig, 1888); the
MS., however, formerly in the possession of Victor Schoelcher,
from which Chrysander made his copy, has entirely disappeared.
The well-known aria Field, signore, also sung to the words
Se i miei sospiri, cannot possibly be a work of Stradella, and
there is every reason to suppose that it was composed by Fetis,
Niedermeyer or Rossini.
The finest collection of Stradella's works extant is that at the
Biblioteca Estense at Modena, which contains 148 MSS., including
four operas, six oratorios and several other compositions of a semi-
dramatic character. A collection of cantate a voce sola was be-
queathed by the Contarini family to the library of St Mark at Venice ;
and some MSS. are also preserved at Naples and in Paris. Eight
madrigals, three duets, and a sonata for two violins and bass will
be found among the Additional MSS. at the British Museum, five
pieces among the Harleian MSS., and eight cantatas and a motet
among those in the library at Christ Church, Oxford. The Fitz-
william Museum at Cambridge possesses a large number of his
chamber-cantatas and duets.
See also Heinz Hess, Die Opern Alessandro Stradellas (Leipzig,
1905), which includes the most complete catalogue yet made of
Stradella's extant works; Catelani, Delle Opere di A. Stradella
instenti neW archivio musicale della r. biblioteca palatina di Modena
(Modena, 1865); and Sedley Taylor, The Indebtedness of Handel
to other Composers (Cambridge, 1906).
STRADIVARI, ANTONIO (1644-1737), Italian violin-maker, is
associated throughout his life with Cremona, where he brought
the craft of violin-making to its highest pitch of perfection.
The obscure details of his life have been thoroughly worked out
in the monograph on him by W. H Hill, A. F. Hill and Alfred
Hill (1902). He was still a pupil of Nicolas Amati in 1666,
when he had already begun to insert his own label on violins
of his making, which at first follow the smaller Amati model,
solidly constructed, with a thick yellow varnish. It was not
till 1684 that he began to produce a larger model, using a deeper
coloured varnish, and beautifying the instruments in various
details, his " long " patterns (from 1690) representing a complete
innovation in its proportions; while from 1700, after for a few
years returning to an earlier style, he again broadened and other-
wise improved his model. He also made some beautiful violon-
cellos and violas. The most famous instruments by him are:
Violins: the " Hellier " (1679), the " Selliere " (before 1680),
the " Tuscan " (1690), the " Belts " (1704), the" Ernst " (1709),
" La Pucelle " (1709), the " Viotti " (1709), the " Vieuxtemps "
(1710), the " Parke " (1711), the " Boissier " (1713), the "Dol-
phin " (1714), the " Gillot " (1715), the " Alard," the finest of all
(1715), the " Cessot " (1716), the " Messiah " (1716), the " Sas-
serno " (1717), the " Maurin " (1718), the "Lauterbach" (1719),
the "Blunt" (1721), the " Sarasate " (1724), the "Rode"
(1722), the " Deurbroucq " (1727), the " Kiesewetter " (1731),
the "Habeneck" (1736), the " Muntz " (1736). Violas: the
" Tuscan " (1690), two of 1696 formerly belonging to the king
of Spain, the " Archinto " (1696), the " Macdonald " (1701),
and the " Paganini " (1731). Violoncellos: the "Archinto"
(1689), the "Tuscan" (1690), the " Aylesford " (1696), the
" Cristiani " (1700), the " Servais " (1701), the " Gore-Booth "
(1710), the "Duport " (1711), the "Adam" (1713), the " Batta "
(1714), the " Piatti," the finest of all (1720), the " Bandiot "
(1725), the " Gallay " (1725). Antonio Stradivari's sons Fran-
cesco (1671-1743) and Omobono (1679-1742) were also violin-
makers, who assisted their father, together with Carlo Bergonzi,
who appears to have succeeded to the possession of Antonio's
stock-in-trade. The Stradivari method of violin-making created
a standard for subsequent times; but what is regarded as Antonio's
special advantage, now irrecoverable, was his varnish, soft in
texture, shading from orange to red, the composition of which has
been much debated. (See also VIOLIN.)
STRAFFORD, EARLS OF. The first earl of Strafford was
Charles I.'s friend and adviser, Thomas Went worth (see below).
When he was attainted and executed in May 1641 his honours
were forfeited, but later in the year his only son, William (1626-
1695), was created earl of Strafford, his father's attainder being
reversed by act of parliament in 1662. William died without
issue on the i6th of October 1695, when all his titles, except the
barony of Raby, became extinct. His estates passed to a kins-
man, Thomas Watson, afterwards Watson- Wentworth (d. 1723),
a son of Anne (1620-1695), daughter of the ist earl, and her
husband Edward Watson, 2nd Baron Rockingham. In 1746
Watson- Wentworth's son, Thomas Watson- Wentworth (c. 1690-
1750), was created marquess of Rockingham, and when his son
Charles, the 2nd marquess, died in 1782, the estates passed to his
maternal nephew, William Fitzwilliam, 2nd Earl Fitzwilliam
(1748-1833). His descendant, the present Earl Fitzwilliam, is
the owner of Wentworth Woodhouse, near Rotherham, and the
representative of the Wentworth family.
The barony of Raby passed to the 2nd earl's cousin, Thomas
Wentworth (1672-1739), son and heir of Sir William Wentworth
of Northgate Head, Wakefield. In early life he saw much service
as a soldier in the Low Countries, and was occasionally employed
on diplomatic errands. From 1711 to 1714 he was British
ambassador at the Hague, and in 1711 he was created earl of
Strafford. The earl was one of the British representatives
at the congress of Utrecht, and in 1715 he was impeached
for his share in concluding this treaty, but the charges against
him were not pressed to a conclusion. He died on the I5th of
November 1739. The earldom became extinct when Frederick
Thomas, the sth earl, died in August 1799. William, the 4th
earl (1722-1791), had a sister Anne, who married William
Connolly; and one of their daughters, Anne, married George
Byng (d. 1789) of Wrotham Park, Middlesex. Their son, Sir
John Byng (1772-1860), a distinguished soldier, was created earl
of Strafford and Viscount Enfield in 1847. Having entered the
army in r793, Byng served in Flanders and commanded a brigade
during the Peninsular War. He was present at Waterloo and
became a field marshal in 1855. The earldom of Strafford is still
held by his descendants.
97 8
STRAFFORD, EARL OF
STRAFFORD, THOMAS WENTWORTH, EARL OF (1593-1641),
English statesman, son of Sir William Wentworth, of Wentworth
Woodhouse, near Rotherham, a member of an ancient family
long established there, and of Anne, daughter of Sir Robert
Atkins of Stowell, Gloucestershire, was born on the I3th of April
1593, ir London. He was educated at St John's College, Cam-
bridge, was admitted a student of the Inner Temple in 1607, and
in 1611 waS knighted and married Margaret, daughter of Francis
Clifford, 4th earl of Cumberland. In 1614 he represented York-
shire in the Addled Parliament, but, so far as is now known,
it was not till the parliament of 1621, in which he sat for the same
constituency, that he took part in the debates. His position
towards the popular party was peculiar. He did not sympathize
with their zeal for war with Spain, but James's denial of the rights
and privileges of parliament seems to have caused him to join in
the vindication of the claims of the House of which he was a mem-
ber, and he was a warm supporter of the protestation which drew
down a sentence of dissolution upon the third parliament of James.
In 1622 Wentworth's wife died, and in February 1625 he
married Arabella Holies, daughter of the earl of Clare. He was
returned for Pontefraet to the parliament of 1624, but appears to
have taken no part in the proceedings. He had no sympathy
with the popular outcry against Spain nor for wars undertaken
for religious considerations to the neglect of the practical interests
of the country. He desired also to avoid foreign complications
and " do first the business of the commonwealth." To the
advances of Buckingham he replied coldly that " he was ready
to serve him as an honest man and a gentleman." In the first
parliament of Charles I., June 1625, he again represented York-
shire, and at once marked his hostility to the proposed war
with Spain by supporting a motion for an adjournment before
the house proceeded to business. He took part in the opposition
to the demand made under the influence of Buckingham for war
subsidies, and was consequently, after the dissolution in Novem-
ber, made sheriff of Yorkshire, in order to exclude him from the
parliament which met in 1626. Yet he had never taken up an
attitude of antagonism to the king. His position was very
different from that of the regular opposition. He was anxious
to serve the- Crown, but he disapproved of the king's policy. In
January 1626 he had asked for the presidency of the council of
the North, and had visited and been favourably received by
Buckingham. But after the dissolution of the parliament he
was dismissed from the justiceship of the peace and the office of
custos rotulorum of Yorkshire, to which he had been appcinted
in 1615, as the\ result probably of his resolution not to support
the court in its design to force the country to contribute money
without a parliamentary grant. At all events he refused in
1627 to contribute to the forced loan, and was imprisoned in
consequence.
Wentworth's position in the parliament of 1628 was a striking
one. He joined the popular leaders in resistance to arbitrary
taxation and imprisonment, but he tried to obtain his end with
the least possible infringement of the prerogative of the Crown,
to which he looked as a reserve force in times of crisis. With the
approbation of the House he led the movement for a till which
would have secured the liberties of the subject as completely as
the Petition of Right afterwards did, but in a manner less offen-
sive to the king. The proposal was wrecked between the uncom-
promising demands of the parliamentary party who would give
nothing to the prerogative and Charles's refusal to make the
necessary concessions, and the leadership was thus snatched
from Wentworth's hands by Eliot and Coke. Later in the
session he fell into conflict with Eliot, as, though he supported
the Petition of Right in substance, he was anxious to come to a
compromise with the Lords, so as to leave room to the king to
act unchecked in special emergencies.
On the 22nd of July 1628, not long after the prorogation,
Wentworth was created. Baron Wentworth, and received a
promise of the presidentship of the Council of the North at the
next vacancy. This implied no change of principle whatever.
He was now at variance with the parliamentary party on two
great subjects of policy, disapproving both of the intention of
parliament to seize the powers of the executive and also its
inclination towards puritanism. When once the breach was made
it naturally grew wider, partly from the engrossing energy which
each party put into its work, and partly from the personal
animosities which of necessity arose. Such and no other was the
nature of Wentworth's so-called " apostacy."
As yet Wentworth took no part in the general government
of the country. In December he became Viscount Wentworth
and president of the Council of the North. In the speech delivered
at York on his taking office he announced his intention, almost
in the words of Bacon, of doing his utmost to bind up the
prerogative of the Crown and the liberties of the subject in indis-
tinguishable union. " Whoever," he said, " ravels forth into
questions the right of a king and of a people shall never be able
to wrap them up again into the comeliness and order he found
them." His government here was characterized by the same
feature which afterwards marked his administration in Ireland
and which it was the gravest charge in his impeachment that he
intended to introduce into the whole English administration,
namely the attempt to centralize all power with the executive
at the expense of the individual in defiance of those constitutional
liberties which ran counter to and impeded this policy.
The session of 1629 ended in a breach between the king and
the parliament which made the task of a moderator hopeless.
Wentworth had to choose between helping a Puritan House
of Common's to dominate the king and helping the king to
dominate a Puritan House of Commons. He instinctively
chose the latter course, and he threw himself into the work of
repression with characteristic energy, as if the establishment of
the royal power was the one thing needful. Yet even when he was
most resolute in crushing resistance he held that he and not his
antagonists were maintaining the old constitution, which they
had attempted to alter by claiming supremacy for parliament.
In November 1629 Wentworth became a privy councillor.
In October 1631 he lost his second wife, and in October 1632
he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Godfrey Rhodes. In
January 1632 he had been named lord-deputy of Ireland, and
arrived in Dublin in July 1633.
Here he had to deal with a people who had not arrived at
national cohesion, and amongst whom English colonists had been
from time to time introduced, some of them, like the early
Norman settlers, being Roman Catholics, whilst the later im-
portations stood aloof and preserved their Protestantism. In
his government here he showed the most remarkable abilities
as a ruler. " The lord deputy of Ireland," wrote Sir Thomas
Roe to the queen of Bohemia, " doth great wonders and governs
like a king, and hath taught that kingdom to show us an example
of envy, by having parliaments and knowing wisely how to
use them." He reformed the administration, getting rid
summarily of the inefficient English officials. He succeeded in
so manipulating the parliaments that he obtained the necessary
grants, and secured their co-operation in various useful legis-
lative enactments. He set on foot a new victualling trade with
Spain, established or promoted the linen manufacture, and
encouraged the development of the resources of the country
in many directions. The customs rose from a little over 25,000
in 1633-1634 to 57,000 in 1637-1638. He raised an army. He
swept the pirates from the seas. He reformed and instilled
life into the Church and rescued church property. His strong
and even administration broke down the tyranny of the great
men over the poor. Such was the government of " Thorough,"
as Strafford expresses it. Yet these good measures were all
carried out by arbitrary methods which diminished their use-
fulness and their stability. Their aim moreover was not the
prosperity of the Irish community but the benefit to the English
exchequer, and Strafford suppressed the trade in cloth " lest
it should be a means to prejudice that staple commodity of Eng-
land." 1 Extraordinary acts of despotism took place, as in the
case of Esmond, Lord Chancellor Loftus and Lord Mountnorris,
the last of whom Strafford caused to be sentenced to death
a Strafford's Report of 1636. Cat. of State Papers; Irish, 1633-
1647, p. 134.
STRAFFORD, EARL OF
979
in order to obtain the resignation of his office, and then par-
doned. Promises of legislation such as the concessions known
as the " graces " were not kept. In particular Strafford set
at naught Charles's promise that no colonists should be forced
into Connaught, and in 1635 he proceeded to that province,
where, raking up an obsolete title the grant in the I4th century
of Connaught to Lionel, duke of Clarence, whose heir Charles
was he insisted upon the grand juries in all the counties
finding verdicts for the king. One only, that of Galway, re-
sisted, and the confiscation of Galway was effected by the
court of exchequer, while he fined the sheriff 1000 for sum-
moning such a jury, and cited the jurymen to the castle chamber
to answer for their offence. In Ulster the arbitrary confis-
cation of the property of the city companies aroused dangerous
animosity against the government. Towards the native Irish
Wentworth's bearing was benevolent but thoroughly un-
sympathetic. Having no notion of developing their qualities
by a process of natural growth, his only hope for them lay in
converting them into Englishmen as soon as possible. They
must be made English in their habits, in their laws and in their
religion. " I see plainly," he once wrote, " that, so long as this
kingdom continues popish, they are not a people for the Crown
of England to be confident of." High-handed as Wentworth
was by nature, his rule in Ireland made him more high-handed
than ever. As yet he had never been consulted on English
affairs, and it was only in February 1637 that Charles asked his
opinion on a proposed interference in the affairs of the Con-
tinent. In reply, he assured Charles that it would be unwise
to undertake even naval operations till he had secured absolute
power at home. He wished that Hampden and his followers
" were well whipped into their right genses." The opinion of
the judges had given the king the right to levy ship-money,
but, unless his majesty had " the like power declared to raise
a land army, the Crown " seemed " to stand upon one leg at
home, to be considerable but by halves to foreign princes
abroad." When the Scottish Puritans rebelled he advocated
the most decided measures of repression, in February 1639 send-
ing the king 2000 as his contribution to the expenses of the
coming war, at the same time deprecating an invasion of Scot-
land before the English army was trained, and advising certain
concessions in religion.
Wentworth arrived in England in September 1639, after.
Ch"arles's failure in the first Bishops' War, and from that moment
he became Charles's principal adviser. Ignorant of the extent
to which opposition had developed in England during his absence,
he recommended the calling of a parliament to support a
renewal of the war, hoping that by the offer of a loan from the
privy councillors, to which he himself contributed 20,000, he
would place Charles above the necessity of submitting to the
new parliament if it should prove restive. In January 1640 he
was created ear! of Strafford, and in March he went to Ireland
to hold a parliament, where the Catholic vote secured a grant
of subsidies to be used against the Presbyterian Scots. An Irish
army was to be levied to assist in the coming war. When in
April Strafford returned to England he found the Commons
holding back from a grant of supply, and tried to enlist the peers
on the side of the king. On the other hand he induced Charles
to be content with a smaller grant than he had originally asked
for. The Commons, however, insisted on peace with the
Scots. Charles, on the advice, or perhaps by the treachery of
Vane, returned to his larger demand of twelve subsidies; and
on the gth of May, at the privy council, Strafford, though
reluctantly, voted for a dissolution. The same morning the
Committee of Eight of the privy council met again. Vane and
others were for a mere defence against invasion. Strafford's
advice was the contrary. " Go on vigorously or let them alone
.... go on with a vigorous war as you first designed, loose and
absolved from all rules of government, being reduced to extreme
necessity, everything is to be done that power might admit.
.... You have an army in Ireland you may employ here to
reduce this kingdom . . . ." He tried to force the citizens of
London to lend money. He supported a project for debasing
the coinage and for seizing bullion in the Tower, the property
of foreign merchants. He also advocated the purchase of a loan
from Spain by the offer of a future alliance. He was ultimately
appointed to command the English army, and was made a
knight of the Garter, but he was seized with illness, and the
rout of Newburn made the position hopeless. " Pity me,"
he wrote to his friend Sir George Radcliffe, " for never came
any man to so lost a business .... In one word here alone
to fight with all these evils, without any one to help." In the
great council of peers, which assembled on the 24th of September
at York, the struggle was given up, and Charles announced that
he had issued writs for another parliament.
The Long Parliament assembled on the 3rd of November
1640, and Charles immediately summoned Strafford to London,
promising that he " should not suffer in his person, honour or
fortune." He arrived on the gth and on the loth proposed
to the king to forestall his impeachment, now being prepared
by the parliament, by accusing the leaders of the popular
party of treasonable communications with the Scots. The
plan however having been betrayed, Pym immediately took
up the impeachment to the Lords on the nth. Strafford came
to the house to confront his accusers, but was ordered to with-
draw and committed into custody. On the 25th of November
the preliminary charge was brought up, whereupon he was
sent to the Tower, and, on the 3ist of January 1641, the accusa-
tions in detail were presented. These were, in sum, that
Strafford had endeavoured to subvert the fundamental laws
of the kingdom, and that the attempt was high treason. Much
stress was laid on Strafford's reported words, already cited
" You have an army in Ireland you may employ here to reduce
this kingdom," England, it being contended, and not Scotland
being here meant. It is clear nevertheless that however tyran-
nical and mischievous Strafford's conduct may have been, his
offense was not one which could by any straining of language
be included in the limits of high treason; while the copy of a
copy of rough notes of Strafford's speech in the committee of
the council, the genuineness of which was asserted only by the
defendant's accusers or personal enemies and not supported by
other councillors who had also been present on the occasion,
could not be evidence which would convict in a court of law.
In addition, the words had to be arbitrarily interpreted as
referring to the subjection of England and not of Scotland,
and were also spoken on a privileged occasion. Advantage was
freely taken by Strafford of the weak points in the attack, and
the lords, his judges, were considerably influenced in his favour.
But behind the legal aspect of the case lay the great consti-
tutional question of the responsibility to the nation of the
leader of its administration, a principle which was now to be
revived after many centuries of neglect, and, in the circumstances
which then prevailed, could only be enforced by the destruction
of the offender. The Commons therefore, feeling their victim
slipping from their grasp, dropped the impeachment, and
brought in and passed a bill of attainder, though owing to the
opposition of the Lords, and Pym's own preference for the more
judicial method, the procedure of an impeachment was prac-
tically adhered to. Strafford might still have been saved
but for the king's ill-advised conduct. A scheme to gain over
the leaders of the parliament, and a scheme to seize the Tower
and to liberate Strafford by force, were entertained concurrently
and were mutually destructive; and the revelation of the army
plot on the 5th of May caused the Lords to pass the attainder.
Nothing row remained but the king's signature. Charles had,
after the passing of the attainder by the Commons, for the
second time assured Strafford " upon the word of a king, you
shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune." Strafford now wrote
releasing the king from his engagements and declaring his
willingness to die in order to reconcile Charles to his subjects.
" I do most humbly beseech you, for the preventing of such
massacres as may happen by your refusal, to pass the bill;
by this means to remove . . . the unfortunate thing forth of
the way towards that blessed agreement, which God, I trust,
shall for ever establish between you and your subjects."
980
STRAIN STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
Finally Charles yielded, giving his fatal assent on the loth of
May. Stratford met his fate on the izth of May on Tower
Hill, receiving Laud's blessing, who was then also imprisoned
in the Tower, on his way to execution.
Thus passed into history " the great person," as Clarendon
well calls him, without doubt one of the most striking figures
in the annals of England. Stratford's patriotism and ideas
were fully as noble as those of his antagonists. Like Pym,
a student of Bacon's wisdom, he believed in the progress of
England along the lines of natural development, but that
development, in opposition to Pym, he was convinced could
only proceed with the increase of the power of the executive,
not of the parliament, with a government controlled by the
king and not by the people. He was equally an upholder of
the union of interests and affection between the sovereign and
his subjects, but believed this could only exist when the king's
will, and not that of the parliament, was paramount. The
development of the constitution, in his opinion, either in the
direction of a democracy or an aristocracy, was equally fatal
and could only lead to anarchy, to the waste of national re-
sources and to degeneration. With a strong and untrammelled
executive directed by a single will, wise reforms could be carried
out, the weak defended against the strong, the resources of the
country developed to their full extent, the hesitations, delays
and contradictions caused by barren discussions avoided, and
the national forces concentrated on objects worth the aim.
For one brief moment it was given to Stratford to carry out
his ideals, and the final failure of his Irish administration, and
especially its inability to endure in spite of its undoubted suc-
cesses, has afforded an object-lesson in one-man government
for all time. If such was the event in Ireland, where political
ideas were still rude and elementary, still less could success be
expected from the attempt to introduce the centralization
and absolute power of the executive into England, where
principles of government had been highly developed both in
theory and practice, and a contrary tendency had long been
established towards the increase of the rights of the individual
and the power of parliament.
While arousing in the course of his career the most bitter
enmities and no man's death was ever received with more
public rejoicing Stratford was capable of inspiring strong
friendships in private life. Sir Thomas Roe speaks of him as
" Severe abroad and in business, and sweet in private con-
versation; retired in his friendships but very firm; a terrible
judge and a strong enemy." His appearance is described
by Sir Philip Warwick: " In his person he was of a tall stature,
but stooped much in the neck. His countenance was cloudy
whilst he moved or sat thinking, but when he spake, either
seriously or facetiously, he had a lightsome and a very pleasant
air; and indeed whatever he then did he performed very grace-
fully." He himself jested on his own " bent and ill-favoured
brow," Lord Exeter replying that had he been " cursed with a
meek brow and an arch of white hair upon it," he would never
" have governed Ireland nor Yorkshire."
Stratford was married three times: (i) in 1611 to Lady
Margaret Clifford, daughter of Francis, 4th earl of Cumberland;
(2) in 1625 to Lady Arabella Holies, daughter of John, ist earl
of Clare; (3) in 1632 to Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Godfrey Rhodes.
He left three daughters and one son, William, 2nd earl of Stratford.
See the article on Stratford in the Diet. Nat. Biog. by S. R. Gar-
diner; Stratford's Letters, ed. by W. Knowler (1739); R. Browning's
Life of Slrafford, with introduction by C. H. Firth (1892); Papers
relating to Thos. Wenlworth. ed. by C. H. Firth for the Camden
Society (1890), Camden Miscellany, vol. ix. ; Private Letters from the
Earl of Strafford to his third Wife (Philobiblon Soc. Biog. & Hist.
Misc. 1854, vol. i.) ; Lives by H. D. Traill (1889) in " English Men of
Action Series," and by Elizabeth Cooper (1886) ; Cat. of State Papers,
Domestic and Irish, esp. 1633-1647 Introduction ; Hist. MSS. Comm.
MSS. of Earl Cowper; Stratford's Correspondence, ot which the
volumes published by Knowler represent probably only a small
selection, remains still in MS. in the collection of Earl Fitzwilliam
at Wentworth Woodhouse. (P. C. Y.)
STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, eslraindre, mod. Ureindre,
from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch,
string, &c.), to draw out, extend, stretch, especially with
the idea of great effort or beyond measure or limit; hence, from
the idea of pressure or constriction, to separate coarser matter
or light solids from a liquid by pressure through a " strainer,"
which may be either a sieve or a colander (Lat. colare, to
strain) , a metal vessel with perforations in the bottom. Another
type is the filter (q.v.). Straining can also be effected by means
of cloths, and the name strainer is used of a coarse open doth
usually of flax; a coarser cloth of a more open texture is
technically known as " screw."
For " strains " and " stresses " in physics see MECHANICS; ELAS-
TICITY and STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, the collective name given to the
crown colony formed by the British possessions on or adjacent
to the mainland of the Malay Peninsula, as opposed to the
Federated Malay States, the British protectorates in the same
region. The Straits Settlements consist of the island of Singa-
pore with about a score of islets of insignificant size lying in its
immediate vicinity, of the town and territory of Malacca, the
islands and territory of the Bindings, the island of Penang,
sometimes officially called Prince of Wales Island, and Province
Wellesley.
The colony of the Straits Settlements is administered by the
governor with the aid of an executive council, composed wholly
of official members, and there is a legislative council, composed
partly of official and partly of nominated members, of which
the former have a narrow permanent majority. The governor
of the Straits Settlements is also high commissioner for the
Federated Malay States of the peninsula, for British North
Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak in Borneo, and since the admin-
istration of the colony of Labuan, which for a period was vested
in the British North Borneo Company, has been resumed by
the British government he is also governor of Labuan. The
Cocos Keeling Islands (which were settled and are still owned
by a Scottish family named Ross) and Christmas Island were
formerly attached to Ceylon, but in 1886 the care of these
islands was transferred to the government of the Straits Settle-
ments. Penang and Malacca are administered, under the
governor, by resident councillors. British residents control
the native states of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan and Pahang,
but since the ist of July 1896, when the federation of these
states was effected, a resident-general, responsible to the high
commissioner, has been placed in supreme charge of all the
protectorates in the peninsula. The work of administration,
both in the colony and in the Federated Malay States, is carried
on by means of a civil service whose members are recruited by
competitive examination held annually in London.
Population. The following are the area and population,
with details of race distribution, of the colony of the Straits
Settlements, the figures being those of the census of 1901:
Area in
Popula-
1
'opulation i
n 1901.
Square
Miles.
tion in
1891.
Total.
Euro-
peans.
Eura-
sians.
Chinese.
Malays.
Indians.
Other
Nationalities.
Singapore
206
184,554
228,555
3824
4120
164,041
36,080
17.823
2667
Penang, Province Wellesley and )
Dindings )
Malacca
38l
659
235,618
92,170
248,207
95,487
1160
74
1945
1598
98,424
19,468
106,000
72,978
38,051
1,276
2627
93
Total . . .
1246
512,342
572.249
5058
7663
281,933
215,058
57,150
5387
STRALSUND
981
The population, which was 306,775 in 1871 and 423,384 in 1881,
had in 1901 reached a total of 572,249. As in former years, the
increase is solely due to immigration, more especially of Chinese,
though a considerable number of Tamils and other natives of India
annually settle in the Straits Settlements. The total number of
births registered in the colony during the year 1900 was 14,814, and
the ratio per 1000 of the population during 1896, 1897 and 1898
respectively was 22-18, 20-82 and 21-57; while the number of
registered deaths for the years 1896-1900 gave a ratio per 1000 of
42-21, 36-90, 30-43, 31-66 and 36-25 respectively, the number of
deaths registered during 1900 being 23,385. The cause to which
the excess of deaths over births is to be attributed is to be found
in the fact that the Chinese and Indian population, which numbers
339,083, or over 59% of the whole, is composed of 261,412 males
and only 77,671 females, and a comparatively small number of
the latter are married women and mothers of families. The male
Europeans also outnumber the females by about two to one; and
among the Malays and Eurasians, who alone have a fair proportion
of both sexes, the infant mortality is always excessive, this being
due to early marriages and other well-known causes. The number
of immigrants landing in the various settlements during 1906 was:
Singapore 176,587 Chinese; Penang 56,333 Chinese and 52,041
natives of India; and Malacca 598 Chinese. The total number
of immigrants for 1906 was therefore 285,560, as against 39,136
emigrants, mostly Chinese returning to China. In 1867, the date
of the transfer of the colony from the East India Company to the
Crown, the total population was estimated at 283,384.
Finance. The revenue of the colony in 1868 only amounted to
$1,301,843. That for 1906 was $9,512,132, exclusive of $106,180
received on account of land sales. Of this sum $6,650,558 was
derived from import duties on opium, wines and spirits, and licences
to deal in these articles, $377,972 from land revenue, $592,962
from postal and telegraphic revenue, and $276,019 from port and
harbour dues. The expenditure, which in 1868 amounted to
$1,197,177, had risen in 1906 to $8,747,819. The total cost of the
administrative establishments amounted to $4,450,791, of which
$2,586,195 was on account of personal emoluments and $1,864,596
was on account of other charges. The military expenditure (the
colony pays on this account 20 % of its gross revenue to the Imperial
fovernment by way of military contribution) amounted in 1906 to
1,762,438. A sum of $578,025 was expended on upkeep and
maintenance of existing public works, and $1,209,291 on new roads,
streets, bridges and buildings.
The Bindings and Province Wellesley. The various settle-
ments of which the colony of the Straits Settlements is composed,
and the protectorates named in this article, are all dealt with
separately, except the Bindings and Province Wellesley. The
former, which consists of some islands near the mouth of the
Perak River and a small piece of territory on the adjoining main-
land, belonged originally to Perak, and was ceded to the British
goVernment under the treaty of Pangkor in 1874. Hopes were
entertained that its excellent natural harbour would prove
to be valuable, but these have been doomed to disappointment,
and the islands, which are sparsely inhabited and altogether
unimportant both politically and financially, are now adminis-
tered by the government of Perak.
Province Wellesley, which is situated on the mainland opposite
to the island of Penang, was ceded to Great Britain by the
sultan of Kedah in 1798. It marches with Perak on the
south, but on the north and east with Kedah. The boundary
with Kedah was rectified by treaty with Siam in 1867. It is
administered by a district officer, with some assistants, who is
responsible to the resident councillor of Penang. The country
consists, for the most part, of fertile plain, thickly populated
by Malays, and occupied in some parts by sugar-planters and
others engaged in similar agricultural industries and employing
Chinese and Tamil labour. About a tenth of the whole area is
covered by low hills with thick jungle. Large quantities of
rice are grown by the Malay inhabitants, and between October
and February there is excellent snipe-shooting to be had in the
paddy-fields. A railway from Batu Kawan, opposite to Penang,
runs through Province Wellesley into Perak, and thence via
Selangor and the Negri Sembilan to Malacca. There is also
an extension via Muar, which is under the rule of the sultan of
Johor, and through the last-named state to Johor Bharu,
opposite the island of Singapore.
See Straits Settlements Blue Book, 1906 (Singapore, 1907) ; Straits
Directory, 1908 (Singapore, 1908) ; Journal of the Straits branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore); Sir Frederick Weld and
Sir William Maxwell, severally, on the Straits Settlements in the
Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute (London, 1884 and 1892);
Henry Norman, The Far East (London, 1894); Alleyne Ireland,
The Far Eastern Tropics (London, 1904); Sir Frank Swettenham,
British Malaya (London, 1906); The Life of Sir Stamford Raffles
(London, 1856, 1898). (H. CL.)
STRALSUND, a seaport of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Pomerania, on the west side of the Strelasund, an arm of the
Baltic, if m. wide, which separates the island of Riigen from the
mainland, 135 m. by rail N. from Berlin and 45 m. N.W. of Ros-
tock. Pop. (1905), 31,813, of whom more than a fourth reside in
the Knieper, Tribseeser, Franken and other suburbs on the main-
land. A steam railway ferry connects it with the island railway
on Riigen, and so with Sassnitz, whence a regular steamboat
mail service affords communication with Trelleborg in Sweden.
The situation of the town proper, on a small triangular islet
only connected with the mainland by three moles and bridges
at the angles, has always rendered its fortification comparatively
easy, and down to 1873 it was a fortress of the first rank. Since
that year the ramparts have been levelled and their site occupied
by public promenades and gardens. The defences of the place
are now solely confined to the island of Danholm, known down
to the i3th century as Strehla or Strehlo, lying in the Sound.
The quaint architecture of the houses, many of which present
their curious and handsome gables to the street, gives Stralsund
an interesting and old-fashioned appearance. The four Gothic
churches of St Nicholas, 1 St Mary, with a lofty steeple, St
James and The Holy Ghost, and the fine medieval town hall,
dating in its oldest part from 1306 and restored in 1882, are
among the more striking buildings. The last houses the pro-
vincial antiquarian museum and the municipal library of
70,000 volumes. There is a fine monument commemorating
the war of 1870-71, one (1859) to the local patriot Ferdinand
von Schill, and another (1900) to the poet and patriot E. M.
Arndt. Among the educational establishments of the place
must be mentioned the classical school (Gymnasium), founded
in 1560, and a school of navigation. The manufactures of
Stralsund are more miscellaneous than extensive; they include
machinery, playing cards, sugar, soap, cigars, gloves, furniture,
paper, oil and beer. The trade is chiefly confined to the ship-
ping of grain, fish, coal, malt and timber, with some cattle and
wool, and to the import of coal and tar, but of late years it has
declined, despite excellent wharf accommodation and a consider-
able depth of water (12-15 ft.). Stralsund entertains passenger-
boat communications with Barth, Stettin, Rostock and Liibeck
as well as with various small ports on the isle of Riigen.
Stralsund was founded in 1234, and, though several times
destroyed, steadily prospered. It was one of the five Wendish
towns whose alliance extorted from King Eric of Norway a
favourable commercial treaty in 1284-1285; and in the I4th
century it was second only to Liibeck in the Hanseatic League.
Although under the sway of the dukes of Pomeiania, the city
was able to maintain a marked degree of independence, which
is still apparent in its municipal privileges. . Its early Pro-
testant sympathies placed it on the side of Sweden during the
Thirty Years' War, and in 1628 it successfully resisted a siege
of eleven weeks by Wallenstein, who had sworn to take it
" though it were chained to heaven." He was forced to retire
with the loss of 12,000 men, and a yearly festival in the town
still celebrates the occasion. After the peace of Westphalia
Stralsund was ceded with the rest of Western Pomerania to
Sweden; and for more than a century and a half it was exposed
to attack and capture as the lete-de-pont of the Swedes in con-
tinental Europe. It was taken by France in 1807, and in 1815
it passed to Prussia. In 1809 it was the scene of the death of
Ferdinand von Schill, in his gallant though ineffectual attempt
to rouse his countrymen against the French invaders.
See Mohnike and Zober, Stralsundische Chroniken (Stralsund,
1833-1834); Israel, Die Stadt Stralsund (Leipzig, 1893); Baier,
Stralsundische Ceschichten (Stralsund, 1902) ; and T. Reishaus,
Wallenstein und die Belagerung Stralsunds (Stralsund, 1887).
*A remarkable series of 14th-century frescoes, in perfect
condition, were disclosed in 1909 by the removal of the whitewash
which had for centuries covered the interior of this fine church.
982
STRAMONIUM STRANGE
STRAMONIUM, in medicine, a drug obtained from the leaves
and seeds of the Datura stramonium. Both contain an alkaloid
known as daturine. From the seeds is made extractum stramonii.
The tinctura stramonii is made from the leaves. The physio-
logical action of stramonium resembles that of belladonna,
except that stramonium relaxes to a greater extent the un-
striped muscle of the bronchial tubes; for this reason it is used
in asthma to relieve the bronchial spasm. Cigarettes made of
stramonium leaves may be smoked or the tincture may be
taken internally. Frequently the leaves powdered together
with equal quantities of the powdered leaves of the Cannabis
Indica and lobelia mixed with potassium nitrate are burned in
an open dish. The preparation gives off dense fumes which
afford great relief to the asthmatic paroxysm. Numerous
patent " cures " for asthma contain these ingredients in vaiying
proportions. Daturine is used as daturinae sulphas. In acute
mania it acts like hyoscyamine in producing sleep. In large
doses stramonium is a narcotic poison producing the well-
marked stages of exaltation of function, diminution of functional
activity, and later loss of function, sinking into coma and
paralysis.
STRAN6, WILLIAM (1859- ), English painter and en-
graver, was born at Dumbarton, N.B., on the i3th of February
1859, the son of Peter Strang, builder. He was educated at
the Dumbarton Academy, and worked for fifteen months in the
counting-house of a firm of shipbuilders. He went to London
in 1875 when he was sixteen, and studied his art under Alphonse
Legros at the Slade School for six years. Strang became
assistant master in the etching class, and himself followed this
art with great success. He was one of the original members
of the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers, and exhibited at their
first exhibition in 1881. Some of his early plates were published
in the Portfolio and other art magazines. He worked in many
manners, etching, dry point, mezzotint, sand-ground mezzotint,
and burin engraving, and invented a draw-burin of his own.
Lithography and wood-cutting were also used by him to re-
produce his abundant imaginings. He cut a large wood-
engraving of a man ploughing, that has been published by the
Art for Schools Association. A privately produced catalogue
of his engraved work contains more than three hundred items.
Amongst his earlier works " Tinkers," " St Jerome," " A
Woman washing her Feet," an " Old Book-stall with a man
lighting his pipe from a flare," and " The head of a Peasant
Woman," on a sand-ground mezzotint, may be remembered.
Later plates such as " Hunger," " The Bachelor's End " and
" The Salvation Army " cannot be forgotten. Some of his
best etchings have been in series; one of the earliest, illustrating
William Nicholson's ballad of " Aken Drum," is remarkable
for delicate and clear workmanship in the shadow tones, show-
ing great skill and power over his materials, and for strong
drawing. Another good series was the " Pilgrim's Progress,"
revealing austere sympathy with Bunyan's teaching. Coleridge's
" Ancient Mariner " and Strang's own " Allegory qf Death "
and the " Plowman's Wife," have served him with suitable
imaginative subjects. Some of Rudyard Kipling's stories
have been illustrated by him, too, and Strang's portrait of
Kipling has been one of his most successful portrait plates.
Other good etched portraits are of Mr Ernest Sichel, fine as a
Vandyck, and of Mr J. B. Clark, with whom Strang collabo-
rated in illustrating Baron Munchausen and Sinbad the Sailor
and AH Baba, published in 1895 and 1896. Thomas Hardy,
Henry Newbolt and many other distinguished men also sat
to him. Proofs from these plates have been much valued;
in fact, Strang's portrait etchings have inaugurated a new form
of reproductive portraiture. A portrait which is a work of art
and can be reproduced a number of times without losing any of
its art qualities is one ideal way of recording appearances, as
such prints can be treasured by many owners. Strang pro-
duced a number of good paintings, portraits, nude figures in
landscapes, and groups of peasant families, which have been
exhibited in the Royal Academy, the International Society, and
several German exhibitions. He painted a decorative series
of scenes from the story of Adam and Eve for the library of
Mr Hodson of Wolverhampton; they were exhibited at the
Whitechapel exhibition in 1910. Some of his drawings from the
nude model in silver point and red and black chalk are very
beautiful as well as powerful and true. He also painted a number
of landscapes, mostly of a small size. In later years he de-
veloped a style of drawing in red and black chalk, with the
whites and high lights rubbed out, on paper stained with water
colour. This method gives qualities of delicate modelling and
refined form and gradations akin to the drawings of Holbein.
He drew portraits in this manner of many members of the
Order of Merit for the royal library at Windsor Castle. In
1902 Strang retired from the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers,
as a protest against the inclusion in its exhibitions of etched
or engraved reproductions of pictures. His work was sub-
sequently seen principally in the exhibitions of the Society of
Twelve, of the International Society, to which body he was
elected in 1905, and of the Royal Academy. Strang was elected
an associate engraver of the Royal Academy when that degree
was wisely revived in 1906. (C. H.*)
STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792), Scottish line engraver,
descended from the Scottish family of Strange, or Strang, of
Balcasky, Fife, was born in the mainland of Orkney, on the
i4th of July 1721. In his youth he spent some time in an
attorney's office; but, having manifested a taste for drawing, he
was apprenticed, in 1735, to Richard Cooper, an engraver in
Edinburgh. After leaving Cooper in 1741 he started on his own
account as an engraver, and had attained a fair position when,
in 1745, he joined the Jacobite army as a member of the corps
of life-guards. He engraved a half-length of the Young Pre-
tender, and also etched plates for a bank-note designed for the
payment of the troops. He was present at the battle of Cul-
loden, and after the defeat remained in hiding in the Highlands,
but ultimately returned to Edinburgh, where, in 1747, he married
Isabella, only daughter of William Lumisden, son of a bishop
of Edinburgh. In the following year he proceeded to Rouen,
and there studied drawing under J. B. Descamps, carrying off
the first prize in the Academy of Design. In 1749 he removed
to Paris, and placed himself under the celebrated Le Bas. It
was from this master that he learned the use of the dry point,
an instrument which he greatly improved and employed with
excellent effect in his own engravings. In 175 Strange returned
to England. Presently he settled in London along with his
wife and daughter, and superintended the illustrations of Dr
William Hunter's great work on the Gravid Uterus, published in
1774. The plates were engraved from red chalk drawings by
Van Rymsdyk, now preserved in the Hunterian Museum, Glas-
gow, and two of them were executed with great skill by Strange's
own hand. By his plates of the " Magdalen " and " Cleopatra,"
engraved after Guido in 1753, he at once established his pro-
fessional reputation. He was invited in 1759 to engrave the
portraits of the prince of Wales and Lord Bute, by Allen Ramsay,
but declined, on the ground of the insufficient remuneration
offered and of the pressure of more congenial work after the
productions of the Italian masters. His refusal was attributed
to his Jacobite proclivities, and it led to an acrimonious corre-
spondence with Ramsay, and to the loss, for the time, of royal
patronage. In 1760 Strange started on a long-meditated tour
in Italy. He studied in Florence, Naples, Parma, Bologna,
and Rome, executing innumerable drawings, of which many
the " Day " of Correggio, the " Danae " and the " Venus and
Adonis " of Titian, the " St Cecilia " of Raphael, and the Bar-
berini " Magdalen " of Guido, &c. were afterwards reproduced
by his burin. On the Continent he was received with great
distinction, and he was elected a member of the academies
of Rome, Florence, Parma and Paris. He left Italy in 1764,
and, having engraved in the French capital the " Justice "
and the " Meekness " of Raphael, from the Vatican, he carried
them with him to London in the following year. The rest
of his life was spent mainly in these two cities, in the diligent
prosecution of his art. In 1766 he was elected a member
of the Incorporated Society of Artists, and in 1775, piqued by
STRANGFORD STRANRAER
983
the exclusion of engravers from the Royal Academy, he published
an attack on that body, entitled An Enquiry into the Rise and
Progress of the Royal Academy of Arts at London, and prefaced
by a long letter to Lord Bute. In 1787 he engraved West's
" Apotheosis of the Princes Octavius and Alfred," and was
rewarded with the honour of kinghthood. He died in London
on the 5th of July 1792.
After his death a splendid edition of reserved proofs of his engrav-
ings was issued; and a catalogue of his works, by Charles Blanc, was
published in 1848 by Rudolph Weigel of Leipzig, forming part of
Le Graveur en taille douce.
See Memoirs of Sir Robert Strange, Knt., and his Brother-in-law
Andrew Lumisden, by James Dennistoun of Dcnnistoun (1855).
STRANGFORD, VISCOUNT, an Irish title held by the family
of Smythe, from 1625, when it was conferred upon Sir Thomas
Smythe (d. 1635) of Ostenhanger and Ashford, Kent, until
1869, when it became extinct. From Sir Thomas the title passed
down to his descendant, Percy Clinton Sydney Smythe (1780-
1855), who succeeded his father, Lionel, as 6th viscount in 1801.
Entering the diplomatic service in 1802, Smythe represented
his country at Lisbon, in Brazil, at Stockholm, Constantinople
and St Petersburg, and in 1825 he was created a peer of the
United Kingdom as Baron Penshurst. He had literary tastes,
and in 1803 published Poems from the Portuguese of Camoens,
with Remarks and Notes, Byron at this time describing him as
" Hibernian Strangford "; he died on the 2gth of May 1855.
His eldest son George Augustus Frederick Percy Sydney
Smythe (1818-1857), wno now became the 7th viscount, was
associated with Disraeli and Lord John Manners in the conduct
of the " Young England " party. He entered parliament in
1841, and was under-secretary for foregin affairs in 1845-1846,
losing his seat at Canterbury in 1852. In 1852 he fought a
duel at Weybridge with Colonel Frederick Romilly (1810-1887),
the last encounter of this kind in England. Like his father,
Smythe had literary tastes, and he is thought to be the original
of Disraeli's Coningsby. In 1844 he wrote Historic Fancies,
a collection of poems and essays, and his novel Angela Pisani
was published posthumously, with a memoir of the author in
1875. As a journalist he wrote in the Morning Chronicle.
He died on the 23rd" of November 1857, and was succeeded by
his brother Percy Ellen Frederick William Sydney Smythe
(1826-1869) as 8th viscount.
Born at St Petersburg on the 26th of November 1826, during
all his earlier years Percy Smythe was nearly blind, in con-
sequence, it was believed, of his mother having suffered very
great hardships on a journey up the Baltic in wintry weather
shortly before his birth. His health through life was very
delicate, but did not prevent his showing quite early most re-
markable powers of mind. His education was begun at Harrow,
whence he went to Merton College, Oxford. From the very first
he gave proofs of extraordinary ability as a linguist, and was
nominated by the vice-chancellor of Oxford in 1845 a student-
attache at Constantinople. A very interesting account of his
colleagues, more especially of Mr Almerick Wood, who was a
man of phenomenal capacity, was written by him later in life,
and is to be found in the two volumes of his collected essays
published by his widow. While at Constantinople, where he
served under Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, Percy Smythe gained
a mastery not only of Turkish and its dialects, but of almost
every form of modern Greek, from the language of the literati
of Athens to the least Hellenized Romaic. Before he went
to the East he had a large knowledge both of Persian and
Arabic, but until his duties led him to study the past, present
and future of the sultan's empire he had given no attention to
the tongues which he well described. as those of the international
rabble in and around the Balkan peninsula. He made, while
in the East, a careful study of these, and was the first English-
man to see that the Bulgarians were much more likely than the
Servians to come to the front as the Ottoman power declined.
He avowed himself a Liberal in English politics, and those
with whom he chiefly lived were Liberals; but he was not
an anti-Turk, as so many Liberals afterwards became. On
succeeding to the peerage in 1857 he did not abandon the East,
but lived on at Constantinople for several years, immersed in
Oriental studies. At length, however, he returned to England
and began to write a great deal, sometimes in the Saturday
Review, sometimes in the Quarterly, and much in the Pall Mall
Gazette. A rather severe review in the first of these organs of the
Egyptian Sepulchres and Syrian Shrines of Emily Anne Beaufort
(d. 1887) led to a result not very usual the marriage of the
reviewer and of the authoress. One of the most interesting
papers Lord Strangford ever wrote was the last chapter in his
wife's book on the Eastern Shores of the Adriatic. That chapter
was entitled " Chaos," and was the first of his writings which
made him widely known amongst careful students of foreign
politics. From that time forward everything that he wrote
was watched with intense interest, and even when it was
anonymous there was not the slightest difficulty in recognizing
his style, for it was unlike any other. He died in London on
the gth of January 1869, when his titles became extinct. A
Selection from the Writings of Viscount Strangford on Political,
Geographical and Social Subjects was edited by his widow and
published in 1869. His Original Letters and Papers upon
Philology and Kindred Subjects were also edited by Lady
Strangford (1878).
See E. B. de Fonblanque, Lives of the Lords Strangford through Ten
Generations (1877).
STRANRAER, a royal and police burgh and seaport of
Wigtownshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 6036. It is situated
at the head of Loch Ryan, an arm of the North Channel (Irish
Sea), 59 m. S.S.W. of Ayr by the Glasgow & South- Western
railway, with a station in the town and at the harbour. It
lies 39 m. E. by N. of Larne in Co. Antrim, Ireland, with
which there is daily communication by mail steamer. Stran-
raer, originally called St John's Chapel, became a burgh of
barony in 1596, and a royal burgh in 1617. In the centre
of the town are the ruins of the castle of the isth century,
occupied for a time by John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount
Dundee, when he held the office of sheriff of Galloway (1682).
The principal buildings within the parish are the old town hall,
now used as a volunteer drill hall and armoury; the county
buildings, containing the town hall and court house; the
academy; reformatory and the Wigtownshire combination poor-
house. Dairy utensils and implements are made; there are
several nurseries; brewing and milling are carried on, but
the bulk of the trade is in farm and dairy produce. Pier and
harbour accommodation has been extended and the shipping
is brisk. The oyster beds, for which Loch Ryan was once
noted, are not cultivated, but the fisheries (white fish and
herrings) are still of some consequence. Three miles east of
Stranraer is Lochinch, the residence of the earl of Stair, a modern
structure in the Scots Baronial style. It stands in grounds
4000 acres in extent, which include the White and Black Lochs
and the ruins of Castle Kennedy, finely situated on the isthmus
between the lakes. This castle was erected in the reign of
James VI. for the earls of Cassilis, and passed into the hands of
the Stair family in the i7th century. It was struck by lightning
in 1716 and burned down and never rebuilt. The estate is
famous for its plantations and Dutch gardens, the pinetum con-
taining the most representative collection of araucarias, deodars
and other conifers in Europe. A mile south are the green
mounds marking the site of the abbey of Saulseat, founded for
Premonstratensian monks by Fergus, " king " of Galloway,
early in the 1 2th century. It stood on the banks of a small loch
and was known as the Monastery of the Green Lake from the
mass of confervae with which the water was continually covered.
Four miles west by north of Stranraer is situated Lochnaw Castle,
the ancient seat of the Agnews, who were hereditary sheriffs of
Galloway till 1747, when hereditable jurisdictions were abolished.
The five-storied embattled tower in the centre dates from 1426,
and the modern mansions from 1820. On the coast, 7^ m.
south-west of Stranraer by rail, lies Portpatrick, formerly called
Port Montgomerie. Owing to its proximity to Ireland (215 m.
to Donaghadee), it was for more than 200 years a starting-point
9 8 4
STRASSBURG
of the mail service between Great Britain and Ireland. In
consequence, however, of the frequent violence of the south-
westerly gales and other causes, the communication ceased in
the middle of the igth century, and the artificial harbour de-
signed by John Rennie has gradually fallen into decay. The
town is in repute as a holiday resort for its healthy climate
and beautiful situation.
STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg), a town of
Germany, the capital of the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine
and a fortress of the first rank, is situated in a fertile plain at
the junction of the 111 and the Breusch, 2 m. W. of the Rhine,
88 m. by rail N. from Basel, 370 m. S.W. from Berlin, 30 m. E.
of the French frontier. Pop. (1890), 123,500; (1900), 150,268;
(1905), 167,342. Since 1871 it has been the seat of government
for the German territory of Alsace-Lorraine, and it is also the
see of a Roman Catholic bishop and the headquarters of the
XV. Corps of the German army. It is surrounded by outlying
fortifications and strategic works and contains a garrison of
16,000 men of all arms.
The town proper is divided by the arms of the 111 into three
parts, of which the central is the largest and most important.
Most of the streets in the heart of the city are narrow and
irregular, and the quaint aspect of a free medieval town has to
a considerable extent been maintained. The quarters which
suffered most in the bombardment of 1870 have, however,
been rebuilt in more modern fashion, and the recent widening
of the circle of fortifications, with the destruction of the old
walls, has given the city opportunity of expansion in all direc-
tions; thus, with the exception of Berlin and Leipzig, there is
perhaps no town in Germany which can show so many handsome
new public buildings as Strassburg. Of its older edifices by
far the most interesting and prominent is the cathedral, or
Munster, which in its present form represents the activity of
four centuries. Part of the crypt dates from 1015; the apse
shows the transition from the Romanesque to the Gothic style;
and the nave, finished in 1275, is a fine specimen of pure Gothic.
Of the elaborate west fagade, with its screen of double tracery
and its numerous sculptures, the original design was finished
by Erwin von Steinbach (d. 1318). The upper part of the
fafade and the towers were afterwards completed in accordance
with a different plan, and the spire on the north tower was
added in 1435. This tower is 465 ft. high, being thus one of the
highest buildings in Europe, and it commands a fine view. The
cathedral has some fine stained glass, a sculptured pulpit and the
famous astronomical clock in the south transept; this contains
some fragments of the clock built by the mathematician, Conrad
Dasypodius, in 1574. The Protestant church of St Thomas, a
Gothic building of the i3th and I4th centuries, contains a fine
monument of Marshal Saxe, considered the chef d'ceuvre of
the sculptor, Jean Baptiste Pigalle. Other notable churches
are the Protestant Temple Neuf, or Neue Kirche, rebuilt since
1870, and the Roman Catholic chur<*h of the Sacred Heart,
erected in 1889-1893.
The old episcopal palace, built in 1731-1741, was used for
university purposes from 1872 to 1895; it is now the municipal
museum of art. Other notable buildings are the Frauenhaus,
with some interesting sculptures, and the H6tel du Commerce,
the finest Renaissance building in the town. The imperial
palace, designed by H. Eggert in the Florentine Renaissance
style, was built in 1880-1893; it is crowned by a cupola 115 ft.
high and is richly ornamented. The provincial and university
library, with over 800,000 volumes, and the hall of the provincial
Diet (Landesausschuss) , built in 1888-1892, both in the Italian
Renaissance style, occupy the opposite side of the Kaiserplatz,
and behind the latter is the large new post office. Between the
university and the library is the Evangelical garrison church
(1892-1897), built of reddish sandstone in the early Gothic style.
The principal squares of the town are the Kaiserplatz, the
Broglieplatz, the Schlossplatz and the Kleberplatz. Still to be
mentioned are the Grosse Metzig, containing the Hohenlohe
museum, the theatre, the town hall, and the so-called Aubette,
with the conservatorium of music. A new synagogue was
completed in 1898, and the viceregal palace was entirely rebuilt
in 1872-1874. The town has new law courts, a Roman Catholic
garrison church, an iron bridge across the Rhine to Kehl and
statues of General Kleber and of the printer Gutenberg.
The university of Strassburg, founded in 1567 and suppressed
during the French Revolution as a stronghold of German senti-
ment, was reopened in 1872; it now occupies a site in the new
town and is housed in a handsome building erected for it in
1877-1894. This is adorned with statues and frescoes by
modern German artists, and has near it the chemical, physical,
botanical, geological, seismological and zoological institutes, also
the observatory, all designed by Eggert and built between 1877
and 1888. On the south of the old town are the various schools,
laboratories and hospitals of the medical faculty, all built since
1877. The university, which has six faculties, is attended by
about 1400 students and has 130 professors. Other educa-
tional establishments are the Protestant gymnasium, founded
in 1538, various seminaries for teachers and theological students
and numerous schools.
The chief industries of Strassburg are tanning, brewing,
printing and the manufacture of steel goods, musical instru-
ments, paper, soap, furniture, gloves and tobacco. To these
must be added the fattening of geese for Strassburg's cele-
brated pdles de foie gras, which forms a useful source of income
to the poorer classes. There is also a brisk trade in agricultural
produce, hams, sausages, coal, wine, leather goods and hops.
The development of this trade is favoured by the canals which
connect the Rhine with the Rhone and the Marne, and by a new
port of 250 acres in extent with quays and wharves on the
Rhine, which has been constructed since 1891.
Strassburg has always been a place of great strategical impor-
tance, and as such has been strongly fortified. The pentagonal
citadel constructed by Vauban in 1682-1684 was destroyed
during the siege of 1870. The modern German system of for-
tification consists of a girdle of fourteen detached forts, at a
distance of from three to five miles from the centre of the town.
Kehl, the t&te-de-pont of Strassburg, and several villages are
included within this enceinte, and three of the outworks lie
on the jight bank of the Rhine, in the territory of Baden. In
case of need the garrison can lay a great part of the environs
under water.
The site of Strassburg was originally occupied as a Celtic
settlement, which was captured by the Romans, who replaced
it by the fortified station of Argentoratum, afterwards the head-
quarters of the eighth legion. In the year 357 the emperor
Julian saved the frontier of the Rhine by a decisive victory
gained here over the Alamanni, but about fifty years later the
whole of the district now called Alsace fell into the hands of
that people. Towards the end of the sth century the town
passed to the Franks, who gave it its present name. The famous
" Strassburg oaths " between Charles the Bold and Louis the
German were taken here in 842, and in 923, through the homage
paid by the duke of Lorraine to the German king Henry I.,
began the connexion of the town with the German kingdom
which was to last for over seven centuries. The early history
of Strassburg consists mainly of struggles between the bishop
and the citizens, the latter as they grew in wealth and power
feeling that the fetters of ecclesiastical rule were inconsistent
with their full development. This conflict was finally decided
in favour of the citizens by the battle of Oberhausbergen in
1262, and the position of a free imperial city which had been
conferred upon Strassburg by the German king, Philip of Swabia,
was not again disputed. This casting off of the episcopal yoke
was followed in 1332 by an internal revolution, which admitted
the gilds to a share in the government of the city and impressed
upon it the democratic character which it bore down to theFrench
Revolution. Strassburg soon became one of the most flourish-
ing of the imperial towns, and the names of natives or residents
like Sebastian Brant, Johann Tauler and Geiler von Kaisersberg
show that its eminence was intellectual as well as material.
In 1349 two thousand Jews were burned at Strassburg on a
charge of causing a pestilence by poisoning the wells. In 1381
STRATA-FLORIDA STRATEGUS
985
the city joined the Stadtebund, or league of Swabian towns,
and about a century later it rendered efficient aid to the Swiss
confederates at Granson and Nancy. The reformed doctrines
were readily accepted in Strassburg about 1523, its foremost
champion here being Martin Bucer, and the city was skilfully
piloted through the ensuing period of religious dissensions by
Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, who secured for it very favourable
terms at the end of the war of the league of Schmalkalden.
In the Thirty Years' War Strassburg escaped without molestation
by observing a prudent neutrality. In 1681, during a time of
peace, it was suddenly seized by Louis XIV., and this un-
justifiable action received formal recognition at the peace of
Ryswick in 1697. The immediate effect of this change was
a partial reaction in favour of Roman Catholicism, but the
city remained essentially German until the French Revolution,
when it was deprived of its privileges as a free town and sank
to the level of a French provincial capital. In the war of 1870-71
Strassburg, with its garrison of 17,000 men, surrendered to the
Germans on the 28th of September 1871 after a siege of seven
weeks. The city and the cathedral suffered considerably from
the bombardment, but all traces of the havoc have now disap-
peared. Before the war more than half of the inhabitants spoke
German, and this proportion has increased greatly of recent
years, owing to the large influx of pure German elements into
the city and the almost complete reconciliation of the older
inhabitants to the rule of Germany.
The bishopric of Strassburg existed in the days of the Mero-
vingian kings, being probably founded in the 4th century, and
embraced a large territory on both banks of the Rhine, which
was afterwards diminished by the creation of the bishoprics
of Spires and Basel. The bishopric was in the archdiocese
of Mainz and the bishop was a prince of the empire. The
episcopal lands were annexed by France in 1789 and the sub-
sequent Roman Catholic bishops of Strassburg discharged
spiritual duties only.
For the history of the bishopric see Grandidier, Histoire de I'eglise
et des deques-princes de Strasbourg (Strassburg, 1775-1778) ; Glockler,
Geschichte des Bistums Strasburg (Strassburg, 1879-1880); and J.
Fritz, Das Territorium des Bistums Strasburg (Strassburg, 1885).
For the city see the Strassburger Chroniken, edited by Hegel
(Leipzig, 1870-1871); the Urkunden und Akten der Stadt Strassburg
(Strassburg, 1879 seq.); G. Schmoller, Strassburgs Blute im 13. Jahr-
hundert (Strassburg, 1875); Schricker, Zur Geschichte der Universildt
Strassburg (Strassburg, 1872); J. Kindler, Das goldene Buck von
Strassburg (Vienna, 1885-1886); H. Ludwig, Deutsche Kaiser und
Konige in Strassburg (Strassburg, 1889); A. Seyboth, Strasbourg his-
torique (Strassburg, 1894); and C. Stahling, Histoire contemporaine
de Strasbourg (Nice, 1884 seq.).
STRATA-FLORIDA (Ysiradflur), the ruins of a celebrated
Cistercian abbey of Cardiganshire, Wales, situated amidst wild
and beautiful scenery near the source of the river Teifi. The
abbey is 2 m. distant from the village of Pontrhydfendigaid
(bridge of the blessed ford) on the Teifi, and about 4 m. from
the station of Strata-Florida on the so-called Manchester and
Milford branch line of the Great Western railway. The existing
remains are not extensive, but the dimensions of the church,
213 ft. long by 61 ft. broad, are easily traceable, and excavations
made at different times during recent years have brought to
light encaustic tiles and other objects of interest. The most
prominent feature of the ruined abbey is the elaborate western
portal of the church, which is regarded as a unique specimen
of the transitional Norman-English architecture of the I2th
century. A fine silver seal of the abbey is preserved in the
British Museum.
Founded and generously endowed in 1164 by Rhys ap Griffith,
prince of South Wales, the Cistercian abbey of St Mary at Strata-
Florida (which was probably a revival of an older monastic
house on or near the same site) continued for over a century
to be reckoned one of the wealthiest and most influential of the
Welsh religious houses. It was much favoured by Welsh bards,
nobles and princes, several of whom were buried in the adjoin-
ing cemetery; and in its library were deposited many official
documents and records of the native princes. In 1138 Llewelyn
ap lorwerth, " the Great," summoned all his vassals to this
spot to do homage to his heir, afterwards Prince David II.
The abbey suffered severely during the Edwardian wars, and
in or about 1294 a large portion of its buildings was destroyed
by fire, though whether as the result of accident or design
remains unknown; in any case Edward I. gave a donation of
75 towards the restoration of the fabric. During Owen
Glendower's rebellion in Henry IV.'s reign, the abbey was held
for some months by Harry of Monmouth (Henry V.) with a
body of troopers. With the extinction of Welsh independence
the abbey lost much of its wealth and influence, and at the
dissolution of the monasteries its gross revenue was returned
at only 122, 6s. 8d. a year, one Richard Talley being its last
abbot. The fabric of the abbey and its surrounding lands came
into the possession of the Stedman family, whose 17th-century
mansion, built out of materials from the monastic buildings,
has long been used as a farmhouse. By marriage the abbey
and the estate of the Stedmans passed into the possession of
the family of Powell of Nanteos.
STRATEGUS (arpcu-^os), strictly the Greek word for a
general, or officer in command of an army, but frequently the
name of a state officer with much wider functions. Such an
officer is found in many Greek states, the best known being the
Athenian strategus, originally a military official, whose functions
gradually developed until, in the latter half of the 5th century
B.C., he became the most important magistrate in the state.
According [to Aristotle's Constitution of Athens iv., the office
existed in the time of Draco and the qualification was property
to the value of 100 minae {i.e. ten times as high as that for
the archonship) ; but it is certain that until the end of the 6th
century the archon (q.v.) was the most important state official.
If, as is probable, the chapter in the Constitution is a forgery
(see DRACO), we may conclude that the Strategia (board of ten
generals) was a result of the tribal system of Cleisthenes, and
that the college is to be ascribed to the year 501 B.C. Some
maintain that Cleisthenes himself created it, but the evidence
(Ath. Pol. xxii.) is against this. At all events, as late as the
battle of Marathon the head of the army was the Polemarch
(see ARCHON). It follows that the strategus was, until 487 B.C.,
subordinate to the Polemarch. The tribal unit was repre-
sented in the army by the taxis, and each taxis was led by a
strategus. After the Persian Wars the command of the taxis
passed to officers called taxiarchs, who acted as colonels under
the strategi. If Herodotus may be trusted, the command of
the army, at the time of the battle of Marathon, passed to the
strategi in turn from day to day. No trace of this system,
however, is to be found in the subsequent history. It was the
customary practice in the 5th century to appoint a certain
number of the generals, usually three or five, for a particular
field of operations, and to assign the chief command to one of
them. Exceptions to this rule are found in the well-known
instances of the Sicilian expedition(when the three commanders,
Nicias, Alcibiades and Lamachus were given co-ordinate powers),
and of the battle of Arginusae, when the command was divided
among the whole board. In crises such as the Samian revolt,
the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War or that which led to the
recall of Alcibiades, we find the whole board subordinated to
a single member (e.g. Pericles or Alcibiades). Originally each
strategus was elected by and out of the tribe he commanded
(Ath. Pol. Ixi.), and it may probably be inferred from Plutarch
(Cimon, viii.) that this system prevailed as late as the archonship
of Apsephion (469 B.C.). In the 4th century, however, the strategi
were elected out of all the citizen body irrespective of tribes;
the change must have occurred between 470 and 440 B.C.,
because in the latter year, and again in 433, one of Pericles'
colleagues was Diotimus, a member of his own tribe (cf. Alci-
biades and Adeimantus in 408 B.C.). But from Xenophon
(Memorab. iii. 4) we learn that one strategus was still elected
by each tribe, i.e. each strategus represented a tribe, though
he might not be a member of it. Though the strategi were the
nominal heads of the army, it is important to notice that they
had no power to choose their taxiarchs, who, like the strategi,
were elected by the tribes they were to command. It was only
9 86
STRATEGY
as low as the lochagi (commanders of Xoxot, companies) that
the Ecclesia allowed them to select. From the Constitution
(Ixi. 3), however, it appears that in the 4th century, at any rate,
the lochagi were appointed by the taxiarchs, not the strategi.
By a gradual process in the course of the sth century, the regi-
mental command was transferred to the taxiarchs, the strategi
thus becoming general officers in command, while they at the
same time acquired important political functions (see below).
On the other hand the strategi commanded by both land and
sea, and thus held the power divided at Sparta between the
kings and the nauarchus (admiral).
In the course of the sth century the powers of the strategia
were increased by important political functions, especially in
foreign affairs; hence the office, unlike that of the archon (q.v.),
remained on in its original elective character and was held by
the most important men (e.g. Pericles, Nicias, Alcibiades).
Owing to the fact that the Boule was the chief administrative
body, it was necessary to bring the strategi into close connexion
with it; it was, therefore, provided that they, though not
members, should be allowed to attend its meetings and to bring
motions before it. As the Boule of one year rarely contained
members of the previous Boule, the strategi acquired great
power from the fact that they were frequently re-elected for
many years together, and so had greater experience and con-
tinuity of policy. Secondly, in the Ecclesia, the strategus had
the advantage over the ordinary citizen that his business took
precedence (the meetings always discussed first the question
of national defence) and that he could in cases of emergency
convene a special meeting (cf. Thuc. ii. 59 and iv. 118).
Many historians in dealing with the strategia have been misled
by modern analogies. The strategia was, for example, by no means
analogous to the British cabinet, which (l) has collective responsi-
bility and (2) is executive in the sense that its members are heads
of state departments. The strategi had no such characteristics;
their influence over the Ecclesia in voting was merely that of a
private citizen ; there was no collective responsibility, no unanimous
policy. Nor was the strategia a foreign office, though it clearly
performed a ministerial act in attaching its signature to treaties.
In general it had no powers of originating negotiation, but merely
carried out the psephism of the Ecclesia. It was their relation to
the empire which gave the strategi their authority. It was they
who took the oath on behalf of Athens when an alliance was
concluded, and their advice would have special weight in settling
the terms of the treaty and the amount of tribute to be paid.
They were not, indeed, compelled to submit a budget, nor did an
adverse vote by the Ecclesia involve their resignation. On the
authority of Plutarch it has been asserted that there was always a
president of the strategic college, and this may well have been the
case during the Persian Wars (Themistocles, 480; Aristides, 478).
The three alleged occasions in the later years of the 5th century
when a single strategus was in absolute authority (see above) were
all critical occasions and in no way represent the normal condition
of affairs. It is abundantly clear that Pericles owed his long
ascendancy to his personal force, not to the constitutional authority
of his office. Though at first the strategi acted as a single
body, in the 4th century and later special duties were assigned
to particular members of the board. Thus we hear of strategi 4iri
rout oirXiras, twi TIJV x"P<" / . ifl T"n" A.KT^V, iirl ras <rujujuopfas, and
inscriptions of the 3rd century refer to others. Under the Roman
domination the strategus iirl r<i 8jrXa was the chief state officer.
The law of the emperor Hadrian regarding the export of oil to Athens
speaks of him as managing the corn supply and presiding over the
education of the Ephebi. In general, their' duty was still mainly
the foreign policy, offensive and defensive, of Athens; they nomi-
nated trierarchs, and, if any nominee refused to serve, brought
him before the Heliaea to defend his case. They had powers of life
and death over the army in the field even a trierarch might be
put in irons by a strategus. They presided over certain religious
festivals and processions, and appear to have been responsible for
the protection of the corn supply.
AUTHORITIES: 1 A. H. J. Greenidge Handbook of Greek Con-
stitutional History (London, 1896), especially on the question of the
presidency, p. 253; Gilbert, Greek Constitutional antiquities (Eng.
trans., 1895); Hauvette-Besnault, Les Strateges atheniens (Paris,
1885); Beloch, D. alt. Politik seit Perikles, pp. 276, 277; Paulus,
Progr. v. Maulbronn (1883, 34 seq.) ; Aristotle's Constitution of Athens
passim, but especially iv., xxii., Ixi. ; the general histories of Greece
Busolt, Meyer, Bury, Grote (ed. 1907). (J. M. M.)
1 AH works written prior to 1891 must be read in the light of the
Constitution of Athens.
STRATEGY, a term literally meaning " the art of the leader
or general " (Gr. (TTparriyos). In the strict sense the word
" strategy " was originally introduced into European military
literature about the opening of the i8th century, when the
practice of warfare had settled down into an established
routine, and the need of some term arose which should express
that peculiar quality of a general's mind which rendered victory
the almost certain consequence of his appearance in the field.
As at that period only some small departure from established
precedent a trick or stratagem could turn the scale between
armies of about equal power, the idea of a ruse became con-
nected with the word, and the essential quality in the general's
personality which alone rendered ruses practicable, or guaran-
teed success in their execution, passed out of men's minds,
until the gradual disappearance of these methods in the
Napoleonic period focused attention again on its essential
meaning, i.e. the art of the leader. Then the term " strategy "
became limited as a technical term to the " practice of the art
of war by an executive agent of a supreme government," or in
Moltke's words, " the practical adaptation of the means placed
at a general's disposal to the attainment of the object in view."
This definition fixes the responsibility of a commander-in-chief
to the government he serves. He cannot be held answerable
for the " means," not even for the training of the " means "
for a particular operation, unless he be appointed to his task
in adequate time. He is charged with their employment
within the limits of the theatre of operations assigned to him.
If he considers the means placed at his disposal inadequate he
need not accept the position offered him, but he steps beyond
his province as a strategist if he attempts to dictate to the
government what, in the widest sense, the means supplied to
him should be.
Since, however, the " means," i.e. the conditions of the pro-
blems presented by war, are subject to infinite variation (climate,
topography, equipment, arms and men, all being liable to col-
lective or independent change) it is clear that their employment
can never be reduced to a " science " but must retain to the full
the characteristics of an " art." This distinction is essential,
and must be borne in mind, for no soldier can expect to
become a Napoleon merely by the study of that great strate-
gist's campaigns. But if he lack practice and experience, and
above all genius, the man who neglects such teachings as the
contemplation of the works of his predecessors can supply does
so at his own peril; and when, as in the case of the soldier, the
whole destiny of an empire may depend on his action, he must
be bold indeed who would neglect all possible precautions. The
cases for study, however, rest on yet broader foundations, for,
though theory deduced from history can never, from the nature
of things, formulate positive prescriptions, it can at any rate
enable the student to throw off the chains of convention and
prepare his mind to balance the conflicting claims of the many
factors which at every moment clamour for special recognition.
To understand the subject thoroughly it is necessary to
follow in some detail the successive stages of human evolution.
From the earliest times the defeat of the fighting men of a race
has been the most certain road to the acquisition of its wealth,
or the trade conditions on which that wealth was based.
To defeat an enemy it was first necessary to march to meet
him, and during that march the invaders must either live on
the country or carry their own food. If the defender drove off
the cattle and burnt the crops, the latter alternative was forced
upon them. Thus, since the supplies which could be carried
were of necessity small, the defenders had only to create or
utilize some passive obstacle for defence which the invaders
could not traverse or destroy in the limit of time (fixed by the
provisions they carried) at their disposal, to compel the latter to
retire to their own country. Every sedentary nation, therefore,
had a fixed striking radius which could only be extended by the
exercise of ingenuity in the improvement of means of transport,
i.e. carts and roads. The existence of roads, however, limited
the march of an invader to certain directions, and hence it be-
came possible for the defender to concentrate his efforts for their
STRATEGY
987
defence on certain points, in fact, to create fortresses, greater
or less in proportion to his fear of the enemy and his intelligent
appreciation of the degree of sacrifice it was worth while to
make to obtain security. A barbarian horde could be stopped by
any barrier which could not be set on fire or escaladed without
ladders or appliances. Ruses, such as the wooden horse of
Troy, then became the fashion, and these had to be met by the
cultivation of a higher order of intelligence, which naturally
throve best in a crowded, community, where each felt his
dependence on his neighbour. Thus, for ages, the fort or fortress
limited barbarian encroachments, and made possible the growth
of civilization in the plains. Ultimately, when the civilized
communities grew into contact with one another, developed
antagonistic interests, and fell out with one another, intelligence
was brought to bear on both sides, and the assailant met fortifi-
cation with siege-craft. Then the whole cycle worked itself out
again. To carry out a siege, men in numbers had to be concen-
trated and fed whilst concentrated. The stores for attack were
also heavy and difficult to convey, hence roads developed in-
creased importance, and troops had to be abstracted from the
fighting force to protect them. Thus again a limit of striking
radius was fixed for the invader, and in proportion as the
dimensions of the invaded country exceeded this radius, and its
people made the requisite sacrifices to maintain their fortifica-
tions in order, the continued existence and growth of the smaller
country was assured. Broadly, this equilibrium of forces
remained for generations; the smallest states were eaten up,
the larger ones continued to exist side by side with far more
powerful enemies, but only on condition of their readiness to
make the requisite sacrifice of their personal liberty and the
property of their constituent units.
Then came the introduction of gunpowder and of siege
artillery, and a fresh readaptation of conditions, which culmin-
ated in the Netherlands during the I7th century and forms the
starting-point of all modern practice.
Essentially the change consisted in this, viz. that in spite of
the superiority of the cannon-ball to the battering-ram, yet to
attack a wall effectively many guns had to be employed, and
while the duration of the siege was enormously shortened, a far
greater strain was thrown on the line of supply, for not only did
guns weigh as much as their predecessors but they could expend
their own weight of ammunition in a day. Hence the impor-
tance of good roads became enhanced and correspondingly the
incentive to attack the fortresses which guarded them. In com-
parison to the money devoted to modern armies, the sums sunk
on passive defences during the i6th and lyth centuries were
colossal, but they could not keep pace with the progress of the
attack, and once more fresh readjustment of means to end became
necessary. The obvious course was to carry the war into the
enemy's country from the outset, but since this transferred the
burden of the siege upon the aggressor, the latter was compelled
to develop the standing mercenary army, as feudal levies could
not keep the field long enough to reduce a fortress. Mercenary
armies, however, were difficult to keep together. They had to be
tactfully commanded to ensure contentment, and allowed to main-
tain social order amongst themselves, and the prospect of loot
while on active service had to be held out to them. The sack
of a city became thus the absolute and undeniable right of the
soldiers. If in this or any other way their employer broke his
contract, individuals promptly deserted to the other side. But
this right of sack led to a recrudescence of the spirit of resistance
in the fortresses (War of Dutch Independence and Thirty Years'
War), and hence to a reaction in favour of greater humanity in
warfare. But this was only obtained by the concession of a
higher scale of pay and comfort to the men, which again threw
an increased strain upon the communications, and also upon
the treasure chest of their employer.
The growth of the mercenary system, and the facility with
which such men could and did change their allegiance, led very
rapidly to almost complete uniformity in the composition,
training and tactical methods of all armies. Every one knew
in advance the degree of effort his adversary proposed to put
forward in the next campaign, and made corresponding prepara-
tions to meet him. Practically the king desiring to make wai
submitted his idea to the best-known generals of his day and asked
them to tender for its execution. The king, on his side, generally
agreed to find the bulk of the labour his standing army, re-
inforced by auxiliaries to any desired extent and as in the case
of a modern government contract, the lowest tender was almost
invariably accepted, with a pious exhortation to the successful
competitor to spare his employer's troops to the best of his
ability. Thus the opposing generals took the field, each equally
fettered by the conditions of his tender. But two such armies,
alike in almost every respect, were far too closely matched- to
be able easily to gain a decision in the open field. Once they
were committed to a battle it was impossible to separate them
until sheer physical exhaustion put a stop to the slaughter, and
these highly trained men were difficult and expensive to replace.
Naturally, then, the generals sought to destroy the existing
equilibrium by other means. Primarily they took to strong
entrenchments, but the building of these being a matter of time,
the communications grew in importance and attempts against
them became more serious. One side or the other, consequently,
to cover its communications, so extended its front that at
length lines stretched right across whole frontiers till their flanks
rested on the sea, or on some great fortress or neutral territory.
The two armies would then face one another for months, each
exhausting every device to induce the other to concentrate on one
part of his front whilst an attempt was made by a rapid move to
carry a relatively unguarded point elsewhere, e.g. Marlborough's
surprise of the Ne plus ultra lines (see SPANISH SUCCESSION).
During such periods of immobility the works grew to the solidity
of permanent fortifications, with wide and deep ditches, and
with every obstacle known to engineers, whilst to render them
defensible by the minimum number of muskets, they were laid out
so as to cross their fire over and over again opposite every weak
point in their tracing. No amount of battering could alter their
general trace, and so they remained defensible as long as their
garrisons could be trusted to line the parapets at all. This state
of things must have continued until progress in artillery had
evolved a weapon with sufficient accuracy and shell power to
drive the defenders from their parapets and keep them away till
the last moment preceding assault, had not fresh factors evolved
themselves from causes at work under totally different topo-
graphical limitations and conditions.
First amongst these comes the accession to the throne of
Prussia of a king who was commander-in-chief of his own army,
and as such responsible to no one for the use he chose to make
of it. This would really remove him at once from the category
of strategists in the restricted sense in which the term is now
employed, but since no convenient word exists to define the
action of a ruler playing the double part of soldier and governor,
it is convenient both in his case and in that of Napoleon to use
the expression to cover the wider sphere. The permanence of
the association between king and army enabled Frederick the
Great to train his men specifically for the work he intended them
to perform. Realizing to the full the value of the foundation
laid by his father in developing to its utmost the fire power of
the infantry, he devoted special attention to imparting to them
a skill and rapidity in manoeuvre which ensured that in the
open field his generals would always be able to place the muskets
at their disposal in the best positions relatively to the enemy;
and his cavalry were trained to such a pitch of mobility and
precision in drill that they could be relied on to arrive at the
appointed time and place to reap the fruits which the infantry
fire had sown. To these startling innovations the Austrians had
no new ideas to oppose. The old school, the survival of the fittest
in the special theatre of its growth, i.e. the Netherlands and the
Rhine, could not deal with the complete change in topographic
surroundings the far wider area of operations, the comparative
scarcity of fortresses and the general practicability of the
country for the movement of troops not trains off the roads.
Frederick, relying absolutely on the intrinsic superiority of his
army, knew that if he could catch his enemy in the open victory
STRATEGY
was a foregone conclusion. If the enemy, in accordance with
precedent, fortified a position, a threat to his communications
would force him to come out on pain of being surrounded
(Pirna 1756, Prague 1757). He followed this principle (see SEVEN
YEARS' WAR) until the accession, first of France and the South
German states, and afterwards of Russia, to the list of his
enemies compelled him to give one enemy time to prepare a
position whilst he was engaged against another. Before
deliberately prepared positions his men were shot down in
thousands, as "they would have been in the Netherlands,
and at length he was compelled, for want of an adequate
artillery, to adopt the same procedure as his adversary. Thus
the war ultimately came to an end by a process of mutual exhaus-
tion. But it had brought out conspicuously the value of
highly disciplined soldiery, and a fresh fetter was prepared for
those on whom, after Frederick's death, the responsibility
of command was to fall, and practically all Europe went back
to the warfare by contract of the previous generation.
Meanwhile in France events were at work preparing the
instrument Napoleon was destined to wield. Contrary to the
prevailing opinion amongst modern historians, it is the fact
that at no time in history was the art of war, and of all things
appertaining to it, more closely studied than during the last
years of the old royal army of France. Gribeauval paved
the way for the creation of the artillery destined to win for
Napoleon his greatest victories, and authors and generals such
as the prince de Ligne (<?..), the due de Broglie, Guibert (q.v.),
Bosroger, du Teil and many others, pointed out clearly the line
reform must take if the existing deadlock between attack and
defence was to be removed; but none could suggest the first
practical steps to apply, because the existing conditions were
too closely interwoven and consolidated. In fact reform was
impossible until the dissolution of society itself gave its ultimate
particles freedom to combine in more suitable formations.
Broadly, however, all were agreed that the protracted and inde-
cisive operations of former wars were economically disastrous.
A crushing and decisive victory was the aim for which all should
strive; as a first step towards this object decentralization of
command was essential, for freedom of manoeuvre, the only
answer to Frederician methods, was impossible without it.
This led to the idea of the permanently organized division
of all arms; and events had reached this point when the
deluge of the French Revolution overwhelmed them, and in face
of a coalition of all Europe it became necessary to build up a new
army from the very foundations. The steps by which it was
sought to provide the men are dealt with in the article CON-
SCRIPTION; it is only necessary to point out here that it was not
till 1799 that the laws became sufficiently defined to ensure a
regular annual increment of recruits, and it was this regularity
of supply, and not the fact that compulsion was needed to
enforce it, which rendered expedient the complete revolution
in warfare which Napoleon was destined to effect.
Until this reform was complete the revolutionary commanders
were compelled to make war as best they could under pressure
of the law of self-preservation, with the consequence that the
whole army became habituated to the fact that orders in the
field had to be obeyed at any sacrifice of life and comfort, and
that neither hunger nor want of shoes, even of muskets, could
be accepted as an excuse for hesitation to advance and to fight.
Threatened on all sides, France was at first compelled to guard
every avenue of approach by small separate forces taking
their instructions only from a central authority in Paris, and
thus the " division," a mobile force of all arms, which the earlier
reformers had demanded, came spontaneously into existence
to meet the requirements of the moment, and, thrown on its
own resources, developed the brain and nervous system, i.e.
the staff, necessary to co-ordinate the action of its limbs.
The next step in evolution came from the obvious advantage
which must arise if these units, though starting from different
bases, operated towards the attainment of a common purpose.
The realization of this ideal, the starting-point of modern
strategy, was the creation of Carnot, whose ideas, though far in
advance both of contemporary opinion and of the technical
means of execution then available (especially in the matter of
imperfect means of telegraphy), formed a necessary step in the
preparation of the machinery Napoleon was to inherit.
These, therefore, were the materials placed at his disposal
when he began to practise the art of the leader: (i) a practically
inexhaustible supply of men (the law in fact was not passed
till two years later, but the idea was sufficiently evident) ; (2)
divisional units and commanders, trained to unhesitating
obedience to field orders, and accustomed to solve the problems
presented to them in their own way, without guidance from
superior authority; (3) the idea of co-operation between separate
columns for a common purpose; and (4) a tradition that the
word " impossible " did not exist for French soldiers.
The equipment of the allies started from very different founda-
tions. To them the individual soldier was a valuable possession,
representing an investment of capital generally estimated at
200 cash (as great a strain on the exchequer then as 2,000
would be to-day); and not only was he exposed to the risk of
death in action, but he might die of disease or exhaustion on
the march, and could always desert if he felt discontented.
Moreover, the last campaigns of the Seven Years' War seemed
altogether to justify methods of evasion and " strong positions."
Frederick the Great, beginning with the most audacious offensive,
had ended by copying the caution of his antagonists, and each
side had learnt to gauge the fighting value of a single battalion
so accurately that to move a force, recognized by both as
adequate for its purpose, into a threatening position, sufficed
of itself to induce the adversary to accept the situation thus
created. Since the value of a fortified position depended largely
on the ground, the cult of topography became a mania, and (as
Clausewitz puts it) the world lost itself in debating whether
" the battalion defended the mountain or the mountain defended
the battalion." The care for the comfort of the private soldier
was pushed to such a degree that commanders would not report
their units fit for action until complete to the last gaiter button
and provided in advance with the regulation scale of rations
for a fixed number of days. Over-centralization continued;
though the expressions " divisions " and " corps " were already
known, the idea these words now convey had not yet even come
into existence. Though a certain number of units might be
assigned to a subordinate commander, they still received all
orders, except on the battlefield, from the central authority,
and were, moreover, considered interchangeable. There was
no personal bond between them and their general. To what
lengths this system was pushed, and the consequences which
flowed from it, may best be gauged from the fact that in
1805 Mack, when writing his defence for his failure at Ulm (see
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS), thought it quite natural to explain
the delay in his movements on the day of Elchingen by the fact
that when news of the French attack was received he was busy
writing out the orders for the following day, which occupied
fourteen pages of foolscap and " did not contain one super-
fluous word." Further, the idea prevailed in middle Europe
that war was a matter concerning the contending governments
in which the ordinary citizen had no interest whatever. It was
true that the result of a war might transfer his allegiance from
one crown to another, but this was scarcely more to the people
than a change of landlords. Consequently they took little if
any interest in the progress of a war, and on the whole were
most inclined to help the army which most respected their
private property and was willing to pay highest for its accom-
modation while billeted in their towns and villages. Since the
goodwill of inhabitants is always valuable, commanders vied
with one another in their efforts to purchase it, and respect for
private property and rights reached an unprecedented level.
Thus, during the whole of the campaign of the Netherlands in
1793 the Austrians paid hire to the owners of the fields in which
they camped; and when on one occasion payment for lodgings
hired for the wounded was in arrear, the wretched men were
flung out on the streets. Yet another, and in a way more re-
markable, illustration of this tendency occurred at the capture
STRATEGY
989
of Mainz by the French (1794). A strong armed party of
Austrians, endeavouring to escape across the Rhine to Kastel,
were refused the use of the ferry boats until the regular payment
was made, and actually laid down their arms to the enemy rather
than break the law and seize the boats.
The cumulative influence of all these forces of retardation
is easily followed. To avoid the cost of innumerable petty cash
transactions with the inhabitants the troops were compelled
to have recourse to the magazine system, which in turn tied
them absolutely to the main roads; and the roads being numerous
the army had to be broken up into small detachments to guard
them. Thus the so-called " cordon " system grew out of its
surroundings in a perfectly natural way, and was not due to the
imbecility of the generals who employed it, but to the restraints
placed upon them by custom and public feeling. Nothing
more fortunate for the French could be imagined. Destitute
of all the paraphernalia hitherto considered necessary, and com-
pelled to fight at any cost in order to live, they found in these
accumulated magazines and moving convoys the best possible
bait to attract their starving men; relieved of all impedimenta,
they could move freely through forests and marshes generally
considered impracticable; and since from the magnitude of front
covered, and the relatively small number of troops available, the
allies could not oppose an unbroken front to their raids, they could
swarm around the flanks of the positions and thus compel their
evacuation. This struggle to safeguard or turn the flanks of
positions led, as before in Marlborough's time and in our own
day in Manchuria and South Africa, to a competition in
extension, and at Napoleon's advent it was common to find
armies of 20,000 to 30,000 men fighting desultory actions over a
front of 20 to 30 m. This over-extension gave him his first
opportunity, when the fire and energy he threw into his work,
and the reckless disregard of human life he immediately displayed,
stamped him at once as a born leader of men, and laid the
foundation of that confidence in his guidance on the part of his
troops which to the last proved his truest talisman of victory.
For the details of Napoleon's evolution the reader is referred
to the articles FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS and NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS, and here it will suffice to point out the leading
characteristics of those campaigns. Having swept the Austrians
out of Sardinia, he turned against them in eastern Lombardy,
and by a series of outflanking attacks threw them back into
the Alps, defeating all their attempts to break out again by
what is now known as a " series of operations on interior lines."
All these were successful, not because of the form the operations
took, but because the enormous increment of mobility he man-
aged to impart to his men deprived his adversary of all accepted
data by which to time his own combinations. It cannot with
justice be said that the French won because they fought harder;
but the rapid sequence of success confirmed both leader and
men in a conviction of their combined superiority which led
Napoleon in 1800 to the very brink of disaster. In 1796 through-
out he was acting fairly in accordance with the teaching he had
imbibed from his studies; in 1800 he appears as if seeking to
determine how many of the established rules he could afford
to neglect. We find him advancing to meet his adversary
on a widely extended front without even exploring the country
to learn where or in what strength that adversary stood. In
1805 this mistake is not repeated; a cavalry screen covers his
advance, and his orders are based on the intelligence it transmits.
But this precaution also proves insufficient. Cavalry can only
see, they cannot hold; and only a combination of circumstances
which he could not by any possibility have foreseen prevents
his enemy from evading the blow at the last moment. What
the position of the French would have been had Mack carried
out his intention of leaving Ulm and destroying all his accumu-
lation of supplies can only be imagined. But contemporary
evidence proves beyond doubt that Napoleon had already tried
the endurance of his men to the utmost.
In r8o6 the mistake of sole reliance on a cavalry screen is
no longer repeated. The cavalry now is backed by a strong
advanced guard, one quarter of the whole army, following
behind it at short distance; and the whole command is now
disposed in such a manner that no matter in what direction the
enemy may appear it can concentrate in forty-eight hours to
meet him. It is another form of the idea, prominent in British
campaigns in the Sudan, of the advance in squares through the
desert against a mobile enemy, the difference being that
Napoleon's great "bataillon carree" has the advantage of
mobility over its adversary. Concentration within forty-
eight hours, however, would in itself be worse than useless
unless the enemy stood fast to receive the intended shock;
and it was the special object of the strong advanced guards or
flank detachments to secure that he should do so. This could
only be attained by a resolute offensive; no mere feeling the
enemy's position would suffice to compel him to stand, and
might even frighten him into retreat. Hence the task devolving
upon the troops thus selected was essentially distinct from that
usually connected with the idea of an advanced or flank guard,
and involved the conception of purchasing with their lives and
by the vigour of their action the time necessary for the rest of
the army to deliver a decisive blow.
This is the true meaning of Napoleon's maxim: On ne
manoiuvre qu'autour d'un point fixe, a phrase which has been
much misunderstood. The troops first engaged fix the enemy
by the vigour of their attack, and thus constitute a pivot about
which the remainder can manoeuvre.
Hitherto, however, the French armies had been operating in
a country in which roughly one square mile of area would feed
one thousand men for two days. Their freedom from convoys
and other impedimenta enabled them to sweep out an area
sufficient for their needs from day to day. But events now led
them into a region in which this relation between the day's
march and their subsistence no longer obtained. The emperor
in fact had formed no conception of the roadlessness and poverty
of Poland and East Prussia. His men, no longer able to pick
up their day's food by a day's march, rapidly fell off in condition
and discipline (for short commons with the French always en-
tailed marauding). As men and horses lost in condition the day's
march dwindled further, with the result that heavier demands
were made on the supply columns; and these being improvised
and entrusted to an untrained personnel, the sufferings of the
troops became unendurable, while the mobility of the French
army sank below that of the enemy. Under these conditions
the system of the advanced guard could no longer be trusted to
work. Moreover the Russians, though deficient in the dash
necessary to win victories in attack, have always taken longer
to defeat than any other continental troops, and in the short
winter days of the first half of the Polish campaign the emperor
had no longer time to beat them into dissolution. The Russians
would fight all day and retreat at night. As they fell back
along their communications their feeding was easy. The
exhausted French could never overtake them, and the emperor
was at length compelled to adopt an expectant attitude. Not
before Friedland (June 14, 1807), when the days were long and
the country dry and everywhere passable, did his calculations
of time and space prove realized and the system justified by
the results.
When in 1812 he again attempted to apply it at Vilna and
Smolensk the Russians successfully repeated their tactics of
evasion on every occasion, until, when they had fallen back to
Borodino, their enemy had so far diminished that a battle in a
selected position promised reasonable chances of success.
Meanwhile a fresh development in the tactics of the three
arms added a new weapon to Napoleon's armoury, rendering
the application of his system or any variant of it markedly
more certain and efficacious. Whilst the infantry which fought
under Napoleon's eagles had been steadily deteriorating, owing
to the exorbitant demands his ceaseless marching campaigns
had made upon them, the quality of his enemies had been as
steadily improving. The growth of the sentiment of nationality
had rendered it possible to throw aside the rigidity and impedi-
ments of the old conditions. There was no longer any fear that
men would desert if called on to bivouac or if rations failed to
990
STRATEGY
come up to the accepted standard, and the essential points of
the French infantry tactics having been assimilated they
developed a relatively higher standard of endurance as measured
by time. Means had to be discovered to ensure their destruc-
tion before nightfall gave them the opportunity of withdrawal;
and the evolution of the artillery arm (see ARTILLERY) at last
gave Napoleon the weapon he required to realize the ideal
implanted in his mind by his teacher du Teil, vix. concentration
of the destructive elements on the decisive point, which was
derived originally from the analogy between the attack on a
fortress and the conduct of a battle. A battle is but an abbrevi-
ated siege, or a siege a prolonged battle. In the former the
object is to purchase time at the cost of men's lives, in the
latter to economize men by expenditure of time; but in both
the final step is the same, viz. the creation of a breach of con-
tinuity in the enemy's defence through which the assaulting
columns can penetrate to the heart of his position. Thanks
to the increased mobility in the field artillery and skill in
handling it (the result of years of experience), it was now pos-
sible, once the aim of the enemy's infantry had been unsteadied,
to bring up masses of guns to case-shot range and to breach
the living rampart of the defence; and through the gap
thus created, infantry or cavalry, or both combined, poured
to overwhelm the last reserves beyond. This step completed
Napoleon's means of destroying that " independent will power "
of his adversary which is after all the greatest variable in the
whole problem of war. His advanced guard engaged and fixed
his enemy's attention, inducing him prematurely to use up his
reserves, and when the battle was " ripe, " to use his own
expression, the great blow was delivered with overwhelming
suddenness by the balance of fresh troops which he had in hand.
But the whole of his action depended essentially on an exact
appreciation of the endurance of his own troops first engaged,
at the cost of whom the reserves were saved up. It was the
possession of this method which rendered Napoleon supreme
upon the battlefield and fully justified the reluctance which his
enemies showed to hazard its issue; but in the end it also proved
the cause of his downfall, for in his fruitless efforts to bring the
allies to action in 1813 he so completely wore out his troops that
it became physically impossible for them to meet his demands.
The campaign of 1813 deserves attentive study, for in it
Napoleon was both at his best and worst, acting as strategist
pure and simple, applying the means at hand to the attainment
of the object in view almost without a second thought for the
diplomatic relations which so often hampered his military
action, notably in 1814. In the famous " defensive campaign "
of the latter year, which is usually held up as a model for imitation,
he can hardly be said to have acted as a strategist at all, his
movements being primarily directed to the destruction of the
personal relations existing between the three allied monarchs,
not to the annihilation of their respective armies, a task for
which from the first he knew his resources to be entirely inade-
quate. The Waterloo campaign (q.v.) again reveals the appli-
cation of this system in its most finished form. That it failed
ultimately was due primarily to atmospheric influences beyond
the emperor's control, and in the second place to the intro-
duction of a new tactical method by the British army for
which his previous experience had in no way prepared him.
That after the event Napoleon should have sought to justify
himself is further proof of the essential duality of his nature,
which only rose to intuitive genius in war under the pressure of
visible and tangible realities. Relaxed from excitement, he
was the creature of his surroundings, controlled by contemporary
thought like everyone else; and it is to failure to recognize this
duality in his mind that all subsequent confusion in strategical
thought owes its origin. It was clear that the career of such a
genius could not pass unnoticed by military critics, hence, even
while it was still in the making, every student of the military
art felt compelled to pass judgment upon its incidents merely to
show that he was abreast of the times. More or less, each one
tried to show that Napoleon's victories were due to the observance
of the critic's own hobbies. These men, brought up on the old
military classics, and unaware of the ceaseless current of social
changes which was seething around them, instinctively distorted
facts to fit in with their preconceived theories. This is always
inevitable with regard to contemporary criticism, since distance of
time is always needed to bring facts down to their true perspective.
It is quite clear from his innumerable reported conversations,
and it is quite natural when one considers Napoleon's age, that
in the back of his mind he stood rather in awe of these older
and often far more deeply-read men. In any case it was quite
obvious to him that his military reputation would stand or fall
by their collective judgment. Hence, as soon as he had leisure,
he set himself to explain his exploits in terms which they could
understand. That he would be criticized for his frequent de-
parture from established practice (for instance, in neglecting
his communications, and again and again accepting or forcing
on a battle in situations in which defeat must have spelt utter
ruin) he was well aware. Hence to stifle such criticism in advance
he went out of his way to accentuate the care he had devoted
to his communications, as in the Marengo campaign, at Ulm,
at Austerlitz, and again and again in the campaigns of Wagram
and of Dresden. But the truth really is that as long as he
adhered to his " bataillon carree " formation, and the country
in which he was operating was fertile enough to support his men,
his communications mattered little to him. His certainty of
victory, if only the enemy could be induced to stand, was so
great that he could fight his way through to where his rein-
forcements were prepared for him, in whatever direction suited
him best. Whilst he admitted, as all must do, the sound common
sense at the bottom of all rules deduced from centuries of experi-
ence, he never raised them to the dignity of inviolable principles,
as he did the principle of the fixed point as a pivot for manoeuvres,
the case-shot attack, and the employment of the avant-garde
generate. It seems indeed as if these fundamental principles
appeared to his mind so self-evident that he assumed them as
common knowledge in every intelligent mind, and hence never
took the trouble to explain them to his marshals, though he did
condescend to allude to them when writing to his brother Jerome
and to Eugene de Beauharnais, with the limitations of whose
minds he was quite familiar. Marmont, Rogniat, Soult and
St Cyr were men for whose intellect he had the highest esteem,
and all wrote at length on the subject of his campaigns, yet
not an expression in their works, not a manoeuvre in their
independent commands, can be held to betray a knowledge of
what was really the secret of the emperor's successes. For
instance, by the year 1812 Marmont may fairly be assumed to
have learnt all he ever could learn from Napoleon's example; yet
at Salamanca we find him manoeuvring quite like one of
Frederick's generals. Napoleon would have attacked Welling-
ton with a strong advanced-guard, one-fourth of his command
at the least, and whilst the latter was busied in warding off his
assailant's successive blows the emperor would have swung the
remainder round upon his enemies' flank, and, with a three-to-
one superiority at the decisive point, have driven him off the
road back to Salamanca. This idea never even entered
Marmont's head. Watching Wellington with a screen of vedettes
only, he set his whole army in motion to march round
his flank, like Frederick at Leuthen. An Austrian army in the
old days would usually stand to be surrounded, but Wellington,
instead, set his whole force in motion, i.e. manoeuvred. Again
in 1813 (just after frequent conversations with the emperor,
in one of which the latter stated his opinion that war was a
" science " like any other, and that some day he would write a
book out of which any one could learn it), Marmont, in command
of the VI. corps, found himself opposed to the Silesian army
under Bliicher, and immediately took up a defensive position,
which he occupied by two lines of brigades deployed in line and
echeloned from left to right. No one who had entered into the
spirit of the emperor's method could have adopted such a
formation. Instances of a similar nature might be multiplied,
and their multiplicity need surprise no one who has studied the
psychology of action taken under circumstances of intense
excitement or imminent danger. Most of us know rules for
STRATEGY
99
conduct in all kinds of emergencies, but how often afterwards
could anyone describe with accuracy the mental process by
which his action in such crises was dictated? Probably never.
Intuitively the mind recognizes the right course and fixes upon
it, and with the cessation of the emergency finds it impossible
to recall the order in which the facts presented themselves to
his consciousness. In war these emergencies are constantly
arising, so that by degrees the recollection of them becomes
blurred, and the chief actor's presentation of them is often the
least trustworthy testimony we possess. The act speaks for
itself. But where hundreds of thousands of acts are crowded
into the short compass of a campaign, a true view of their whole
can only be obtained when all have become accessible and time
emancipates criticism from partiality. But nations cannot afford
to wait until lapse of time renders it safe to publish all diplomatic
and other secrets; and many were ready to attempt the solution
of the problems of Napoleon's career.
The most prominent were Jomini (q.v.), speaking for the
French army, and Clausewitz (q. v.) , for the Prussian. The former,
a native of Switzerland, had attracted the attention of Napoleon
by the insight his criticisms revealed, and had been attached by
him to the staff, where he served under Ney almost continuously
from 1806 to 1813. In the latter year there is no doubt that he
A '& Line of Communication
.ine of
Forming Front to a Flank
did valuable service in the operations culminating with the
battle of Bautzen; but, receiving no adequate recognition for
them, he deserted to the allies, and was attached by the emperor
Alexander, where again he rendered conspicuous service, notably
at Leipzig; but his desertion caused him to be viewed with such
marked disfavour by all honourable men that he speedily sank
into social oblivion, although he remained in the Russian service
until his death in 1869. Nevertheless, though he had deserted
his cause, he still retained unbounded admiration for the genius
of his great master, whose reputation certainly does not suffer
at his hands, except for the excess of adulation and bombast
with which his historical writings are disfigured. But his social
isolation cut him off from authentic eyewitness sources, and he
was by nature an inventor of systems. The secret of Napoleon's
success he found in the system of " interior lines " a phrase he
invented to designate a method which was almost as old as war
itself; and from this system he deduced its opposite, " exterior
lines, " and a whole sequence of others, which in the end all
resolve themselves into the same idea. A diagram will make
the matter clearer than many words. If an army A stands in a
central position relatively to two other armies B, C, converging
upon it, then, if it moves against each in succession and beats
them both, it is said to act on " interior lines "; whilst B and C
act on " exterior lines. " What it is said to do when at the first
shock B beats it out of existence the books fail to inform us.
From this theorem are deduced in succession the advantages
and disadvantages of salient and re-entering angles, &c., with
which, as a rule, military historians so freely befog their pages.
Since the object of all strategy is to bring the greatest possible
force to bear against the decisive point, it is obvious to ask why
armies should not always be concentrated, and why they should
ever divide. The answer is that a given district and a single
road will only subsist a certain number of men, a number which in
practice is found toTae about 60,000 with their requisite guns and
train. Hence an army, say of 120,000 men, not only cannot sub-
sist on a single line or road, but when divided into two equal parts,
and separated only by a short day's march, is really more ready
for instant action than an army oif 90,000 on one road. Separa-
tion, therefore, when large numbers are in question, is a necessity
of existence, not a matter of free choice; but when it is thus
forced upon a commander he regulates the rate of his march so
that his separate columns cannot be attacked singly before the
heads of both are within supporting distance of one another;
the jaws of the crackers then close on the nut, and unless the nut
proves harder than the crackers the nut is crushed. But this
calculation reposes on an accurate knowledge of the marching
powers of the adversary, and it was in this that Napoleon's
enemies failed. Accustomed only to their own deliberate methods,
they were quite unable to imagine Napoleon's lightning-like
rapidity. Marching twenty-five miles in a day, his whole army
would hurl itself on one of the columns whilst the other was still
too far off to come to its aid, or if they had already approached
so close that mutual co-operation was imminent, he would send a
detachment against one to purchase time by the sacrifice of its
men's lives, and would then strike at the other with the bulk of
his forces united. How the detachment executed its task depended
chiefly on the nature of the ground. It might fight a series of
rear-guard actions if a succession of readily defensible sections
favoured such action, or it might conceal its weakness and impose
caution and respect on its opponent by the vigour of its attacks;
for that there could be no rule, and circumstances alone could
decide. In this form Napoleon won most of his earlier successes,
but a little reflection will show that the method depended
essentially upon his superior mobility and the willingness of
his enemy to fight or the reverse. In time this dawned upon
his opponents also, and when in i8r3 around Dresden he
tried to put this plan into force the allied column immediately
threatened retreated before him, whilst the other continued its
advance, thus compelling him to return to succour his retaining
detachment, which, of course, could not struggle on indefinitely
against a marked- superiority of numbers. He himself confessed
during the September days in Dresden that this jeu de va-el-
vient, as he described it, had completely broken down his army.
If, on the other hand, the commander of the central army under-
estimates his opponent's marching powers its doom is sealed,
for both his flanks are turned in advance and he comes under
a concentrated fire to which it can only oppose a divergent
one. This difference is more marked now than formerly; and
stated in its extreme form, for rifle fire only, it really means
that every bullet fired from the circumference stands a tenfold
better chance of hitting something vulnerable than those directed
from the centre towards the circumference. The only salvation
for an army thus threatened is to move by a lateral march out-
side the jaws of the crackers, and fall on one limb only, when,
if it is tactically formidable, it stands a good chance of over-
whelming the force immediately opposed to it before the others
can arrive. For instance, at Koniggratz, if the Austrian main
army, pivoting on the fixed point made by their 2nd and 4th
corps engaged with Prince Frederick Charles's army, had
swung round the remaining six corps upon that of the crown
prince by a short march of from six to eight miles, the Elbe
army would have struck a blow in the air, and the situation
992
STRATEGY
would have been rescued in spite of the slowness and indecision
of previous movements. An army standing on interior
lines, therefore, occupies a position of advantage or the reverse
according to the skill of its leader and its own inherent
fighting capacity, and this whether its position arises from opera-
tions 'during the actual course of hostilities, or from circum-
stances already pre-existent in peace time, as for instance, the
configuration of frontiers. The phrase, therefore, " the use of
interior lines, " though convenient to those who are thoroughly
agreed as to its limitations, of itself explains nothing, and is a
pitfall for the inexperienced.
A, however, in moving as suggested against his enemy's
outer flank, exposes at the same time his own communications
with any place lying directly behind his point of departure.
If his army suffers only from slowness, but is really superior in
fighting power, this risk may be lightly taken victory settles
all things. In proportion, however, as the result of collision is
doubtful, alternative lines of retreat or supply will be advan-
tageous. Hence a broad, if possible a concave or re-
entering, base or starting-line is of great importance, and,
since as an invader penetrates into his enemy's country his base
becomes salient, whilst that of the defender becomes re-entrant,
we have here a compensating arrangement which, under given
conditions of country, equipment and the like, fixes the striking
radius of an aggressor precisely as was the case in former times.
The case of the French invasion of Russia in 1812 is an illus-
tration. The Russian base at any moment may be considered
as formed by lines traced just outside the striking radius of
small bands of French marauders; the French base as including
all the territory in their occupation, for within that area they
were free to fortify or protect any accumulations of stores and
supplies they chose to make. By the time the French reached
Moscow the Russians could afford to attack them from any
direction, for, whatever happened, retreat into their own
undevastated country was always open. The South African
war affords a modern example of the same thing.
These ideas are, after all, elementary, and readily grasped
even by the average intellect, though many volumes have been
devoted to proving them, and yet they are all that Jomini and
his followers have to offer us a fact that both explains and
justifies the contempt with which military study was so long
regarded by practical soldiers in England.
Clausewitz, however, approached his subject from a higher
standpoint. Gifted with a mind of exceptional power, which
he had trained to the utmost in the school of German philosophy,
and haying seen war from the beaten side, he knew well that
something more than phrase-making was needed to force a
great nation to the final abnegation of its independent will.
He stood throughout in the closest connexion with the directing
wills which guided the German nation to achieve the final
downfall of Napoleon; and he knew that these men were neither
bunglers nor fools, but men whose experience well entitled
them to the authority they exercised. Hence he reasoned
that the catastrophes they had shared in common needed
deeper analysis than they had as yet received. First of all he
sought a satisfactory definition of what war really meant,
and he found the closest analogy to it in the " unrestricted
competition of the business world. " Had he written in modern
times he would doubtless have cast it in the Darwinian mould,
viz. " war is the struggle for existence transferred to the national
plane, " and this is a far more important contribution to sociology
and the welfare of humanity, and will certainly exercise much
greater influence on the evolution of the nations (on which, after
all, the fate of the individual depends) than all the works of
Darwin and Herbert Spencer combined. This transference
of the question to the national plane is in fact their very
antithesis, for whereas the survival of the fittest threatens the
stability of society on the principle of the Kilkenny cats, the
survival of the race necessitates its coherence. Next, Clause-
witz analysed his subject into its constituent factors. In this
process he investigates all the theories of bases and geometrical
relations, only to discard them as quite inadequate solutions of
war's many phenomena; and finally, as between equally armed
opponents, he shows that essentially success in war depends on
the moral factors only. First is " courage " in all its forms,
from its lowest manifestation in the excitement of a charge, to
its highest in the fearless acceptance of supreme reponsibility in
face of the most imminent personal danger. Next comes
" duty," again in its widest sense, from the uncomplaining
endurance of the humblest musketeer in the ranks, to the readi-
ness of the whole nation to submit to the sacrifice cf, and- the
restraint on, personal liberty that readiness for war entails.
This " readiness, " moreover, he shows to be cardinal (for nations
with land frontiers), for indubitably, under the conditions then
prevailing, the surest guarantee of victory in the field was the
concentration of every man, horse and gun in the shortest time
on the decisive point. Thus only could the advantages of
greater wealth, larger population and so forth be neutralized;
and the growth of modern means of communication, railways,
telegraphs, &c., have only confirmed his position. It has been
the gradual appreciation of portions of Clausewitz's teaching,
enforced by the drastic lessons of 1866 and 1870, which has
turned all Europe into an armed camp, and this fact must,
for generations, stultify all ideas of European disarmament.
For since everything depends on instantaneous readiness for
action, it is absurd to expect that any nation will voluntarily
consent to throw away the advantages these sacrifices have
obtained by agreeing to delay at the very moment when its
existence is most gravely threatened. An unready nation has
obviously everything to gain from delay.
All this portion of Clausewitz's work is fundamental, and no
changes in armament or other conditions can ever affect it;
it applies as much to land as to sea power, and essentially was
the doctrine of Nelson and St Vincent. Indeed, at sea Nelson
was in advance of Napoleon, for he quite understood the advan-
tage to be gained in paralysing the independent will-power- of
his opponent by a vigorous attack, and was willing to stake his
existence upon this principle, notwithstanding the infinitely
more uncertain elements of wind and weather which conditioned
his movements. But the rest of Clausewitz's teaching is too
deeply coloured by his personal experiences, and he stood in
too close a relation to the events of his time to be able to focus
the details of the whole subject. Although he was the first to
seize the meaning of Napoleon's case-shot attack (the descrip-
tion occurs for the first time in his Campaign of 1815), he did
not realise how this might be applied to the destruction of what
he himself formulated as the most serious of all the many
indeterminate factors with which a commander is called upon
to deal, viz. " the independent will-power of his opponent."
He saw clearly enough that time and space were the underlying
conditions of all strategical calculation, and that time could be
STRATEGY
993
bought at the cost of men's lives; but he did not take the next
step forward and show how these calculations must inevitably
be upset if the enemy possessed the power of destroying men
faster than experience led one to expect. He formulates from
his experience that a force of the magnitude of a division, say
10,000 men, can hold an overpowering enemy at bay for about
six hours, and an army corps can hardly be destroyed in less
than a day; on these data he bases his estimates of the marching
area which an army may safely cover. But what if a new and
unexpected method of applying " the means at hand to the
attainment of the object in view " suddenly wipes out the divi-
sion in two hours, or the army corps in six? In that case, surely,
the independent will-power of the adversary would receive a
most unwelcome check. Nor did he ever clearly formulate as
a principle the importance of mobility. Every one of course
has in a general way understood the advantages of " getting
there first," and all of us have for years been familiar with the
importance which Napoleon attached to rapid marching. But
the tendency has always been to consider the rate of marching
in itself as an invariable factor, and to calculate every operation
or disposition from the time a column normally takes to deploy
into position from a road or defile. But no systematic attempt
to determine the advantages which might on occasion be obtained
by sacrificing comfort and convenience to the acceleration of
a march has ever been undertaken. Yet Napoleon saw and
appreciated the point, and it must remain a riddle for all time
how such a mind as Clausewitz's, which again and again had seen
at first hand the consequences which followed from Napoleon's
mar die de manotuvre guns and trains upon the roads, infantry
and cavalry moving in mass across country could have failed
to place on record the enormous advantages which might follow
its adoption. The book as it stood, however, became the bible
of the Prussian army, and its comprehension is an indispensable
preliminary to all useful study of contemporary practice in war.
Moltke's mind, and that of his whole generation, was formed
upon it. To its strength the Germans owed all their successes,
and to its weaknesses certain grave errors that were almost
disasters.
Meanwhile the progress of invention suddenly destroyed the
governing condition of all previous experience. The Napoleonic
strategy, as we have shown, depended primarily on the certainty
of decision conferred on him by his " case-shot attack "; but
the introduction of the long-range infantry rifle (muzzle-loader)
rendered it practically impossible to bring the masses of artillery
to the close ranges required by the Napoleonic method. In
the 1859 campaign (see ITALIAN WARS) between France and
Austria both sides were handled with such a general absence
of intelligence, and the marksmanship of the Austrians in
particular was so very inferior, that neither side derived advan-
tage from the change. But when, in 1861-65 ( see AMERICAN
CIVIL WAR), the theatre of interest was transferred across the
Atlantic, the other causes united to give it immense importance.
America in the sixties was almost as roadless as East Prussia
and Silesia in Frederick the Great's time, and its forests, rivers
and marshes were far more impenetrable. Both the Southern
and Northern armies, moreover, were entirely new to their
work, and consequently their operations became exceedingly
slow. As far as the generals and staff had studied war at all
they had been brought up to the Napoleonic tradition as handed
down by Jomini and his school; and failing as a body to
appreciate the intimate interdependence of the three arms, they
believed that a resolute crowding on of masses (whether in line
or column does not signify) upon the decisive point must suffice
to overrun all opposition. But the slowness of operations gave
time for entrenchments, and consequently scope for the powers
of the new rifle. Whereas against the old musket one rush
sufficed to cover the danger zone, the rifle widened this zone
about threefold, so that human lungs and limbs could no longer
accomplish the distance without pauses, during which pauses,
since guns could no longer assist effectively, the attacking
infantry had to protect itself by its own fire, standing in the
open within point-blank range of the rifles of the cool, skilful
xxv. 32
and well-covered defenders. Thus when similar experiences
had established uniformity of practice in the two contending
forces the result was a deadlock, which was ended only by
enormous numerical superiority and the " policy of attrition."
The lesson, however, passed unnoticed in Europe except in so
far as popular attention was caught by the deadliness of the
rifle fire, which was attributed, not as it should have been to the
peculiar .conditions under which it was employed, but to the
nature of the weapon itself; and from this conclusion it was a
short step to the inference that the breech-loader, firing five
rounds to one of the muzzle-loader, must prove a terrible instru-
ment of destruction. Actually this inference has hampered
strategic progress ever since.
The campaigns of 1866 in Bohemia, and of 1870 in France,
furnish positive proof that Clausewitz had not appreciated the
Napoleonic teaching to its full extent, for though the conditions
again and again were ideal for its application, no trace of his
fundamental principle is distinguishable in Moltke's orders. In
the former it would seem from the maps that the Austrians
actually possessed the form, though they had forgotten the
spirit, as the detached group in Bohemia (see SEVEN WEEKS'
WAR) might well be considered as an avant-garde generale, and
on the three days preceding Koniggriitz, the distribution of the
Austrian main army was such that the application of Napoleon's
method must have followed had the idea been present. That
Moltke himself never contemplated its employment is sufficiently
evident from his unfulfilled plan of the 2nd of July, noon,
wherein the whole Prussian army was to march across the front
of the Austrians in position, precisely as Frederick had done
with disastrous results at Kolin a century before.
No campaign, however, demonstrates in more striking manner
the fatal consequences of ignoring Napoleon's saying, On ne
manceuwe qu'autour d'une poinle fixe than 1870. Here was
an army enormously superior in numbers and organization,
disposing of an admirable cavalry and far superior artillery,
repeatedly on the edge of disaster, not because of the superior
cunning of their adversary, but simply because the mind of a
reasonable man proved quite incapable of conceiving the
blunders that his adversary perpetrated. Moltke always placed
himself in his enemy's position and decided on what would be
the rational course for him to pursue. He gave him the recog-
nized three courses, but it happened that it was always the fourth
(the unexpected, because from Moltke's standpoint so hopelessly
irrational) that he took. The situations of the 8th, i ith and i6th
of August are all instances in point. On the last of these dates
(see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR) the French commander-in-chief
by merely standing still through irresolution found himself
in a situation promising certain victory. It is true that he took
no advantage of it, and nothing can detract from the magnifi-
cent resolution of von Alvensleben, commander of the III. Corps,
and the gallantry with which his troops and his comrades sup-
ported him. But, equally, nothing can alter the fact that in
spite of all Bazaine's mistakes the dawn of the i7th of August
found the German headquarters with only the debris of two
corps on the ground face to face with the whole French army,
of which only one-third had been seriously engaged.
Sedan nearly ended in the same way. The Germans had, with
their cavalry, fixed to a man the precise position of their enemy,
but no troops were told off to hold them, and all throughout the
afternoon of the 3ist and morning of the ist the French army
was free to issue from the bridge-head of Torcy on a broad front
in masse de manceuwe and separate the wings of the Prussian
army. Judging by the way they actually fought in the hopeless
position in which they elected to remain, their prospects of
success in the suggested manoeuvre were not small. After the
war it was easy and natural to place the blame for the situations
in the early days on the shoulders of the German cavalry, but
closer study of the facts has shown that in spite of all their
shortcomings this arm did not deserve it, for they actually found
the enemy and reported his positions, while nothing could be
urged against them in respect to Sedan, for by that time they
had established a relative superiority over their enemy which
994
STRATEGY
was absolutely crushing. The truth is that the Prussian staff
had not realized that cavalry reports alone, even if they arrive
in time (which in fact very few ever did), do not afford a
sufficient foundation on which to base a manceuvre. If cavalry,
three days' march in advance, report the presence of an enemy
at a given spot, the fact affords no certain indication of where
they may be even on the following day. It is not enough to
find an enemy, he must also be fixed and held so. that he
cannot move; and the three arms, cavalry, artillery and infantry,
form the most efficient combination for economically securing
this end.
Twenty years at least elapsed before fresh light came; and then
it came from France, not from Germany. No one can accuse
the Germans of a tendency to sleep on their laurels; on the
contrary, no army in history ever set itself to work with greater
zeal and industry to profit by the lessons of its campaigns.
But it is not in the ranks of the successful that the defects of
the military machine are most surely revealed. Moreover,
they were dazzled by the very brilliance of their victories, and
gratitude to their leaders made them blind to those leaders' faults.
The French started their reforms without these disadvantages.
The younger officers, who had seen how splendidly the old
imperial army had fought, and the spirit with which it had
endured the misery brought upon it by the ineptitude of its
leaders, felt no desire to shield the reputation of the latter, while
the bitterness of the cup they were compelled to drink filled
them with the determination and energy necessary to ensure
regeneration. They had been beaten by the palpable neglect of
their own Napoleonic traditions, and this fact added additional
sting to their sufferings. Accordingly a number of the most
zealous amongst them banded themselves together to ensure
that the reason for their shame should no longer be forgotten.
Presently these men assumed, by sheer weight of merit and
industry, the practical control of the military history section of
the general staff, and here they trained one another for the posts
of instructors at the staff college (ficole de Guerre), whence
ultimately the supply of future commanders would be drawn.
As a first step in their progress they ransacked the archives of
the War Office and subjected the whole correspondence of
Napoleon to a critical investigation, exceeding in thoroughness
anything it had as yet undergone. This correspondence is incom-
plete without comparison with the actual reports on which the
letters were based and the executive orders issued, which hitherto
had never seen the light. From the juxtaposition of the two a
connected system was by degrees evolved. As has been indi-
cated above, Napoleon never really appreciated the enormous
intellectual gulf which separated him from his marshals. He
habitually treated them as enjoying his own clearness of vision
in their work, and it is only in his letters to Jerome and Eugene
(with whose limitations he was only too well acquainted, but
whom he employed because their interests were identical with
his own) that he explains things in a form which even a child
might understand. From these indications the whole web of
the modern doctrine of the Ecole de Guerre was gradually
woven, substantially in the form in which we have given it
above. With this work the names of Maillard, Langlois, Bonnal,
Foch, Colin, Camon, Desbriere and others deserve to be for
ever associated, for they averted intellectual despair in the
nation and rendered it possible for the best minds in the country
to continue their labours for its regeneration. Without some
such basis hope would have been impossible in face of the ever-
growing forces of their watchful antagonist. As matters stand,
as long as France can keep her ports open to commerce
she cannot be overwhelmed by invasion, for it is a question
of time and space; and with her existing network of railway
communications, which favour her the more the farther the
invaders penetrate, the application of this system promises
quite astounding possibilities.
All systems, however, must sooner or later be discovered by
the adversary, and require, moreover, adaptation to their
surroundings, which may vary from the roadlessness of Poland
in 1807 or the United States in 1862 to the highly developed
networks of communications of all kinds existing nowadays in
western Europe; and in each, if the war lasts long enough, a
deadlock must eventually come until some readaptation of exist-
ing means is discovered which suffices to disturb this equilibrium.
Wars, however, nowadays are so short that this condition of dead-
lock can rarely arise. The side which starts with a pronounced
superiority, whether due to more perfect organization, better
tactics or the systematic training to some secret such as has been
indicated above, will generally gain the lead from the outset and
will keep it until its forces no longer suffice for the amount of
work to be done. Then we get back to hard fighting pure and
simple, in which the iron resolution of the commander ultimately
decides the issue of events. But this resolution is not, as is
generally supposed, a fixed quantity belonging in equal magni-
tude to the leader at all times and places, but, is perhaps the
most variable quantity of all. A human being can only put out
a certain quantity of nervous energy or will-power in a given
time, and of two men of equal character that one will succumb
first upon whom the necessity for rapid decision is most fre-
quently enforced. This holds good of every man throughout
the whole army from highest to lowest. In this case the " art
of the leader " will undoubtedly consist in adopting as his course
of action that one which can be consistently followed without
change of mind. Obviously his best course will be to seize the
initiative and keep it up to the final act on the battlefield itself.
The commander who is caught in the act of concentration
or accepting battle of his own free choice cannot tell from
one moment to the other at what point the attack may come
or whether indeed it is coming at all, and the strain of
expectancy is harder to bear than that of continuous action,
and spreads also to every rank in his army. It has been held that
as a consequence of the increase of range and rapidity of fire
of modern weapons the defence has gained so enormously, in
power that a commander can accept the risks of a defensive
battle with a light heart. This, however, ignores the fact that
improved arms will be found in the hands of the assailant also,
and every increment of range and rapidity of fire renders it easier
to combine the action of many weapons on a single point.
Formerly, when bullets barely travelled, with extreme elevation.
1000 yards, and the total artillery train of an army could be
numbered in tens, not in hundreds as nowadays, tactical sur-
prise was well-nigh impossible. Troops could always, either by
selection of site or clearance around them, ensure that no formid-
able force could assemble unnoticed within range of their position,
while the round shot and the common shell of those days had
little power of clearing or levelling solid parapets. Nowadays
such selection of site, to say nothing of clearance, is impossible
and inconceivable, and once the enemy's mounted men have
been compelled to clear the field there is scarcely a limit to the
fire power which may be brought into position unnoticed, and
thence directed on any chosen point of the enemy's lines. One
has but to take the map of Waterloo and its surroundings and
consider how it would have facilitated Napoleon's purpose had
it been possible for him to prepare the way for his infantry
attack by a rain of modern shrapnel and H.E. shells directed
from a balloon observatory and coming from every unseen point
within a radius of say even 5000 yards. But Napoleon had
to wait for several hours till the ground was dry enough to
bring up even seventy-two guns to within effective case-shot
range. Nowadays he could have switched on his whole two
hundred at any moment after daybreak, and his balloon would
have told him of the true position of his enemy's reserves. A
balloon on the side of the allies could have told them no more
than what they already knew, viz. that the whole French army
was in front of them; and it is far easier to control and direct
fire by observation on the relatively fixed targets which the de-
fence necessarily presents than to do so upon the rapidly moving
ones afforded by an assailant. Even where concealment can
be practised to the utmost by the defender, and no balloons are
available, the power still remains in the hands of the assailant
of making any limited area he may choose absolutely untenable;
it is only a question of turning on guns enough for the purpose.
STRATEGY
995
But the less time the defender has been allowed in which to
improve his position, the more rapidly will a given number of
guns achieve the required result; and though we must admit
the many difficulties of execution which prevent complete reali-
zation of the ideal in practice, yet it is clear that the more closely
one can approximate to this ideal, the less the demands which
will be made upon the infantry when its turn comes to go for-
ward. This matter is of such importance to the whole subject
that we will put it forward in another form. Let us assume that
the shells on bursting create only smoke and disturb the dust,
delivering no man-killing fragments at all. Still it is clear that,
say, 1200 shells a minute bursting over a front of some 600
yards would shroud that front so completely with smoke and
dust that its occupants would be quite unable to direct their aim
upon the approaching assailants, and under cover of this smoke
and dust cloud the latter would be free to carry out what dis-
positions they might please with the minimum of loss. When
finally the shell fire had to be stopped and the smoke lifted,
the two infantries would be in presence of one another under
conditions which have always been held to offer the maximum
guarantee possible to the assailant, viz. an assured numerical
superiority disposed in relatively the best positions for the use
of their weapons, i.e. their fire converging on the point of attack.
From the consequent assault only entrenchments and physi-
cally insuperable obstacles (a deep ditch for example) or wire
entanglements which require machinery to tear away, can
save the defenders. But such obstacles require time for their
creation, hence the supreme importance of the utmost possible
mobility. Now though in practice every great commander
has utilized to the utmost such mobility as he might find in
his troops (and by its use he has often, in countries well supplied
with roads, succeeded in rendering the erection of entrenchments
practically impossible, or in forcing an entrenched enemy to
come out and fight in an unprepared position), yet no scientific
attempt has hitherto been made to study the whole question of
mobility, notwithstanding the fact that the Boer War of 1900-02
proved its importance up to the very hilt. The Boers were
wanting in every quality which renders an enemy really
formidable except mobility, but because of that supreme qualifi-
cation and the fact that the enormous area of their country and
their exact knowledge of its topography gave them every facility
to employ it to the utmost, about nine times their numbers were
required to subdue them; and the method ultimately adopted,
though freely criticized, was in fact the only one feasible under
the circumstances to bring them to a final surrender.
Actually, all systems, the Napoleonic as well as the others,
can be defeated finally by an excess of mobility, the exact
proportion depending on the topographical nature of the country
fought over, the roads available and its extent. So great is its
influence that it overrides all changes in armament or in tactics,
as was shown in Manchuria in 1904-05, where in spite of both
armies, or perhaps better because both armies were trained on
western European lines, the actual form which the war assumed
was that of Marlborough's times. It is sufficient to imagine the
Japanese supplied with sufficient pioneer battalions, of the type
employed on the Indian frontier, and a first-rate transport corps
(which would have doubled their average rate of daily progress),
to see how completely the situation would have been altered.
They could have reached Mukden in half the time actually
required, and would then have possessed a numerical superiority
sufficient to ensure for them a second Metz or even a Sedan. It
is in this direction that all great progress is to be looked for, but
it involves experiment and organization beyond the capacity
of any single student. We may, however, indicate the general
outline such a development would require. Primarily time is
chiefly lost in the hesitation of leaders and in the preparation
and circulation of orders. A clear apprehension of the powers
which modern weapons confer on the attack will lead to the
elimination of the first, and a higher intellectual training of the
whole army will materially reduce the second, for the limit to
the brevity of orders is fixed by the trained intelligence of the
recipients. Napoleon's marshals could move effectively in
response to an order of a couple of sentences; Mack's generals
needed fourteen sheets of foolscap.
Next comes the rapidity of movement of the troops themselves
when on the road. They cannot march for longer hours than
already at times they are called upon to do; but by a better
distribution of the weights carried between the men and their
transport, they might well cover much more ground in the same
time. Here again determination to take the offensive, and to
keep it, largely governs the situation. An army determined to
attack needs no entrenching gear, certainly not on its men.
Its fire is its best protection, and when as hi recent campaigns
in Bulgaria and the Far East the need for entrenchments has
arisen, that has only occurred because the whole weapon of
attack, viz. that combination of the three arms which we call
an army, was not properly balanced in its parts at those particular
moments so as to enable it to maintain its forward impulse.
Either, as in Bulgaria, the staff was not up to its duties, or, as
in the case of the Japanese, the artillery arm was too slow, or
was locally outclassed by the artillery power of its adversary.
But in all countries, roadless ones in particular, the progress of
the front is conditioned by the efficiency of the transport services
in rear, and only because this branch of the army has never
received all the attention it deserves has it been necessary
to overload the men and horses at the front in the preposterous
manner which custom has everywhere sanctioned, which for the
most part has been inherited from the time of Marlborough.
Over and over again in the past two centuries men have shown
that literally only muskets and ammunition are required to win
battles, and that a great victory won by rapid marching is by
far the most economical use that can be made of human powers.
But again and again the pendulum has swung back, and the
soldier, in order to be prepared for emergencies which only
defeat can bring about, has been burdened down by a weight
which has brought him on the field too late and too weary to
win it, but in ample time to incur all the penalties of disaster.
In the future in western Europe that army whose transport
service, based on motor vehicles and a good road maintenance
corps of real working men, will relieve the soldier and his horse
(where he has one) of every ounce of superfluous weight, includ-
ing even in that expression greatcoats and all rounds of ammuni-
tion in excess of 1 20 apiece, and whose men are uniformly trained
to the Bersaglieri march (7 m. in one hour or 15 m. in three
consecutive hours) , will possess a superiority over its adversary
which he will require twofold odds to counteract. The suggestion
that the ammunition supply should be limited may create sur-
prise, but it is a logical consequence, and precisely one of those
points on which the strategist of the future will require a firm
conviction. The fundamental fact on which all tactical practice
is based is this, that a relatively small loss suddenly inflicted
exercises a far greater demoralizing effect upon its recipient
than a much heavier punishment extended over a longer period.
First-rate troops have often broken back in disorder under a
sudden hail of bullets which has swept away not more than 2 to
3% of their strength, whilst exactly similar battalions in the
same action have held out all day and remained an efficient
fighting body after even 30% had fallen. But, armament being
equal, this sudden loss can only be inflicted by placing the troops
on the field in the best position possible, relatively to their
enemy to derive the full benefit of their fire-power; and mobility
is the chief factor in attaining this end. The point is most
clearly seen in the case of the action of a well-mounted force
against a slow-moving convoy; the convoy forms a target which
men can hardly miss; the assailants are a number of dots it is
scarcely possible to hit. Two thousand rounds per man of the
escort would scarcely suffice to obtain the same results as twenty
rounds a man on the side of the assailants. This is a clear
illustration of the principle involved, which should always be
kept in mind.
Lastly the student should master the elementary principles
of railway transportation. The progress since railways were
last used in warfare in western Europe has been so enormous
that the data supplied therefrom are entirely antiquated, and
99 6
STRATEGY
there is no indication that any general staff in Europe is alive to
the possibilities they present in defence. As already pointed
out, the assailant cannot count on their'aid once he has penetrated
within the enemy's country, and the farther he advances the
worse matters become for him. It is enough to consider an
invading force based on the east coast of Yorkshire with its head
about Leeds; the technical excellence of English railways is so
great that 1 20,000 men with all their share of guns and necessary
equipment could be easily transferred say from Glasgow and
Edinburgh round to Sheffield in twenty-four hours for a flank
attack. Even double that number, from the south of England
to the north of Yorkshire, could be moved in the same time. It
is not suggested that such movements might be in themselves
desirable, but only that in face of such mobility of masses, no
calculation of the enemy's movements would be possible.
In conclusion, the man who would fit himself for the highest
commands in war, or even for the criticism of those who exercise
them, must never for one moment forget that the momentary
spirit of the mass he directs is the fundamental condition of the
success of every movement. Just as there is no movement so
simple that its success may not be jeopardized by ill-will and
despondency in execution, there is hardly any limit to what
willing men can achieve, and it has been this power of evoking in
their commands the spirit of blind trust and confidence that places
men like Cromwell, Marlborough, Frederick and Napoleon almost
beyond reproach. By the side of this power the technical
knowledge and ingenuity displayed in their several undertakings
appear quite trivial; probably the same ideas have occurred to
thousands of quite mediocre men, but were never put into
execution, because they could not count on the whole-souled
devotion of their men to execute them. This power is born
in a man, not acquired, but even those who possess it in embryo
can increase and develop it enormously by a systematic study
of the laws which govern the action of humanity in the mass.
From the above we arrive at the following definitions for the
terms most generally employed by writers on military history and
strategy.
Base. The point, or line joining a series of points, from whence
military operations originate. Ultimately military operations
have their inception in an area, i.e. a whole country from which
organization draws men, arms, food and material of all descriptions,
forwarding them through a network of communications roads,
railways, canals, rivers, &c., and delivering them at points as near
to the proposed enemy as circumstances render expedient. As an
army never has too many men, and normal civil transport is cheaper
in every way than military, the tendency is always to maintain
the collection of men and materials under civil administration
as long as possible. Thus as an army moves forward, settling the
district behind it as it advances, the civil administration follows
after it, only ceasing to exercise its functions when these can be no
longer carried out without military protection. Generally there
is a zone in which civil transport and supply exist side by side
with military precautions greater or less, but for all practical
purposes each column, whatever its strength, has its " base " at
that point where the existing magazines are filled by civilian con-
tractors in the ordinary course of trade, and with no extra charge
for war risks.
Line of Communication. The line of communication is the great
main road, trunk railway, canal or river, or any combination of
these means, for the transport of stores leading from the base to
the army at the front. Along these arteries of communication
depots are established, military authority commands, and every
arrangement is made that foresight can suggest to meet the abnormal
demands that a condition of war naturally gives rise to. Napoleon
always used the words route de I'armee, which conveyed perhaps
a clearer idea of the conditions the road or other means of com-
munication had to comply with than the current term. In propor-
tion to the numbers which have to be supplied by this line of
communication its importance naturally increases. Thus whereas
in 1870 the Germans on the Loire had a choice of magnificent
main roads, even of canals and railroads, and if one were temporarily
interrupted could switch off the current of supply to another without
great inconvenience, the Russians in 1904 were tied to a single
railway, any interruption of which must have paralysed altogether
their vast army which ultimately numbered 400,000 mouths to
be fed. It is clear, therefore, that the importance attaching to the
protection of the line of communications must vary in accordance
with the nature of the country in which war is carried on, the
state of its communications of all sorts, the facility for establishing
new ones, and the number of men depending for subsistence on any
single road, railway, river or canal.
Line of Operations is a term applied to an imaginary line drawn
from the centre of gravity of the army at the front to the country
from which it originates. VVhereas lines of communication, being
dependent on the topographical conformation of the district may
be highly circuitous; the line of operations is merely a general
direction more convenient to keep in mind than the more complex
idea embodied in the former word. Since practically all supply
flows to an army along its line or lines of communication, and without
them it can only exist for a limited period, practically all situations
that can arise in war can be referred to their possible consequences
in endangering more or less either one's own communications or
those of the enemy. An army is thus said to " form front to a
flank " when its communications run parallel to the direction it
assumes when facing the enemy (see diagram). It is clear that in
case of a defeat at or near A the communications are most gravely
endangered, hence no commander voluntarily assumes such a posi-
tion unless he is absolutely confident in the power of his troops to
beat the enemy and by so doing places his antagonist in even a
worse position in case of defeat. This he can only do by placing
himself more or less astride his adversaries' communications, when
the latter if beaten is ruined beyond retrieval. Thus in the Marengo
campaign, in 1800, Napoleon, in placing himself astride the Austrian
communications, was himself compelled to form front to a flank,
but this was only possible because the geographical relation of the
French and Italian frontiers enabled him from the outset of the
campaign to aim a blow in the rear of his opponents' actual front.
Under modern conditions such situations in war between two
great land powers can hardly arise. The preliminary concentration
of armies is arranged in peace in such a manner that both armies
will always start with their communications perpendicularly
behind them. Hence though the advantage which can be gained
by defeating an army when forming front to a flank is equally great,
it cannot be attained except by accepting a corresponding risk,
and the same holds good if one army places itself astride the com-
munications of another, e.g. the Germans at Gravelotte. But when
a land army has to deal with a great sea power controlling the vast
mercantile navies of the present day, the latter being free to land
wherever he pleases can compel his adversary to form front to a
flank almost as he pleases. This was the advantage Wellington
derived from sea power in the campaign of Vittoria (see PENINSULAR
WAR), and there are many theatres of war in which the operation
might be repeated nowadays, for though armies have grown ten-
fold in numbers the means of carrying them with certainty and speed
have increased in a yet greater ratio. As between land powers
the question may be complicated when the frontier is formed by
some great natural obstacle, a great river or range of mountains.
There can be an almost infinite range of gradation between the imagin-
ary line marked across a plain by boundary pillars, and the hard
and fast distinction drawn between sea and land. The advantage,
however, always lies on the side of the nation that possesses behind
such barrier the better means of lateral communications. Those
on land can never be so good as the sea, but in proportion as they
approach that ideal their possessor can transfer masses of men in
complete security and comparative secrecy, to whichever portion
of the frontier may suit his purpose best.
Exterior Lines. When armies operate from several bases by
lines converging on an army centrally situated as regards them,
they are said to operate on exterior lines, and conversely the army
operating from a centre against armies converging upon it is said
to be acting on " interior lines." The question of the relative
superiority of the one form or the other has been discussed above.
It is only necessary to point out here that the question again is
one of mobility in its widest sense, i.e. the mobility resulting from
better communications both of intelligence, orders and the actual
material forces by which war is made. Owing to the configuration
of frontiers, it may be absolutely necessary to attack on exterior
lines, but once the convergence these imply has been attained,
and a victory won, the advantage of the form, which is derived from
the superiority of communications at the disposal of the nation
acting from the broader base, passes over to the defender, who
destroying all railways, &c. in his retreat, compels the assailant to
advance by route marching only, whereas as he, the defender,
falls back within his own territory, he preserves unimpeded control
over his own railways, and can thus transfer troops from one flank
of the assailant to another, as the case may require.
Obstacles. All obstacles, whether formed by rivers, marshes,
forests or mountains, are of value in strategy only in so far as they
delay the rapidity of communications by limiting the number
of the available means of transport, whether roads or railways, and
whatever angle they may form with the line of operations of the
contending forces the advantage they offer falls entirely to the side
that commands the exits of the defiles by which they are traversed
on the farther side. When neither side commands such exits
from the outset, the advantage falls to the side which can accumu-
late first at the desired point of passage a sufficient fire superiority
to cover his subsequent necessary operations; in the case of a
river, the building of one or several bridges ; in the case of a mountain
range, the deployment of his advance-guard. In the former case
there is no particular reason why the facilities of communication
should be greater on one bank than the other. In the latter the
STRATFORD, J. DE STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE 997
side which has to traverse the mountains (marsh or forest) will
always be at a disadvantage for the actual attack, but at an ad-
vantage in regard to the secrecy with which he can fall upon the
point of his own choice, and the more secure his telegraph lines,
the greater will this advantage be. (F. N. M.)
STRATFORD, JOHN DE (d. 1348), archbishop of Canter-
bury, was born at Stratford-on-Avon and educated at Merton
College, Oxford, afterwards entering the service of Edward II.
He served as archdeacon of Lincoln, canon of York and dean of
the court of arches before 1323, when he became bishop of
Winchester, an appointment which was made during his visit
to Pope John XXII. at Avignon and which was very much
disliked by Edward II. In 1327 the bishop joined Queen
Isabella's partisans; he drew up the six articles against Edward
II., and was one of those who visited the captive king at Kenil-
worth to urge him to abdicate in favour of his son. Under
Edward III. he became a member of the royal council, but his
high political importance dates from the autumn of 1330, the
time when Roger Mortimer lost his power. In November of this
year Stratford became chancellor, and for the next ten years he
was actively engaged in public business, being the king's most
prominent adviser and being politically, says Stubbs, the " head
of the Lancastrian or constitutional party." In 1333 he was
appointed archbishop of Canterbury and he resigned the chan-
cellorship in the following year; however, he held this office
again from 1335 to 1337 and for about two months in 1340.
In November 1340 Edward III., humiliated, impecunious and
angry, returned suddenly to England from Flanders and vented
his wrath upon the archbishop's brother, the chancellor, Robert
de Stratford. Fearing arrest John de Stratford fled to Canter-
bury, and entered upon a violent war of words with the king,
and by his firm conduct led to the establishment of the principle
that peers were only to be tried in full parliament before their
own order (en pleyn parlement et devant les piers). But good
relations were soon restored between the two, and the archbishop
acted as president of the council during Edward's absence from
England in 1345 and 1346, although he never regained his former
position of influence. His concluding years were mainly spent
in the discharge of his spiritual duties, and he died at Mayfield in
Sussex on the 23rd of August 1348.
John's brother, Robert de Stratford, was also one of Edward III.'s
principal ministers. He served for a time as deputy to his brother,
and in 1337 became chancellor and bishop of Chichester; he lost
the former office in 1340 and died on the gth of April 1362.
Ralph de Stratford, bishop of London from 1340 until his death
at Stepney on the 7th of April 1354, was a member of the same
family. All three prelates were benefactors to Stratford-on-Avon.
STRATFORD, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada,
and capital of Perth county, situated 83 m. W.S.W. of Toronto
by the Grand Trunk railway, on the Avon river. Pop. (1901),
9959. The repair and engineering shops of the railway, flour-,
saw- and woollen-mills, engine and agricultural implement
works are the principal industries. A large export trade in
cheese and other dairy and farm produce is carried on.
STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE, STRATFORD CANNING,
VISCOUNT (1786-1880), British diplomatist, was born in Clement's
Lane in the city of London, on the 4th of November 1786. His
father, Stratford Canning, uncle of George Canning (q.v,), had
been disinherited for his marriage with Mehetabel Patrick. He
settled in London as a merchant. On his death, six months
after the birth of his son, his widow took a house at Wanstead
near Epping Forest. Stratford Canning was educated first at a
dame's school at Wanstead, then at Hackney, and after 1794 at
Eton. In 1805 he was elected a scholar of King's College, Cam-
bridge, but he only kept two terms, and in 1807 was appointed
precis writer to the foreign office by his cousin George Canning.
He received his degree in 1812, residence having been dispensed
with on the ground that he was absent on the king's service.
In 1807 he went as secretary to Mr Merry on a diplomatic mission
to Copenhagen. In 1808 he was appointed first secretary to
Mr (afterwards Sir Robert) Adair, who was sent as ambassador
to Constantinople. When Mr Adair was transferred to Vienna
in 1810, Canning remained at Constantinople as charge d'affaires.
The British government was then in the very crisis of its struggle
with Napoleon, and it left Canning entirely to his own discretion.
His principal task was to persuade the Turkish government not
to show undue favour to the French privateers which swarmed
in the Levant. In May 1812 he was able to play the part of
" honest broker " in arranging the peace of Bucharest between
Turkey and Russia, which left a powerful Russian army free to
take part in repelling Napoleon's invasion. Canning was able
to hasten the decision of the Turks, by making judicious use of
Napoleon's plan for the partition of their empire. A copy of it
had been left in his hands by Mr Adair to be used at the proper
moment. In July he left Constantinople with the sincere desire
never to return, for he was tired of the corrupt and stiff-necked
Turkish officials. His ambition was to lead an active career at
home. But his success in arranging the treaty of Bucharest
had marked him out for diplomatic employment. His absence
from home in early youth and the independent position he had
held much before the usual age, had in fact disqualified him
for the career of a parliamentary party man. By the friendly
intervention of Castlereagh, his cousin's old opponent, he
received a pension, or rather a retaining fee, of 1200 a year, on
the " usual conditions " which were that he should bind himself
to accept the next diplomatic post' offered, and should not
attempt to enter parliament. Canning spent his leisure in travel-
ling about England, and he wrote some poetry which gained him
the praise of Byron, whom he had known in boyhood, and had
met in Constantinople. In 1814 he was appointed minister
plenipotentiary to Switzerland. In this capacity he had a share
in reorganizing the confederacy after the fall of the Napoleonic
settlement, and he attended the congress at Vienna. He was an
eye-witness of the dramatic change produced at Vienna by Napo-
leon's return from Elba. Canning retained his post in Switzer-
land till 1818. In 1816 he married Miss Harriet Raikes, daughter
of a governor of the Bank of England. Her death in child-birth in
1818, had a strong influence in inducing him to resign his post, of
which he was thoroughly tired. The British minister to Switzer-
land had merely formal duties to perform in normal times, and
the place was wearisome to a man of Canning's capacity and
desire for work. In 1819 he was appointed minister at Washing-
ton, a station of great difficulty owing to the ill-feeling created
by the war of 1812 and the many delicate questions outstanding
between the British and the American governments. Canning,
whose naturally quick temper had been developed by early
independence, came into occasional collision with John Quincy
Adams, the American secretary of state, who was, on his own
showing, by no means of a patient disposition. Yet the American
statesman recognized that the " arrogance " of the British
minister was combined with absolute candour and that he was
above all petty diplomatic trickery. They parted with mutual
respect. Canning returned to England in 1823 on leave and
did not go back to Washington. The general treaty he had
arranged with Mr Adams was rejected by the United States
Senate.
In 1824 Canning was selected as ambassador to Turkey, and
proceeded to Constantinople after a preliminary visit to Vienna
and St Petersburg. In the Russian capital he was engaged in
discussing the arrangement of the Alaska boundary, and partly
in sounding the Russian government as to the course to be taken
with the Greek revolt against Turkey. He left for Constantinople
in October 1825, accompanied by his second wife, the daughter of
Mr Alexander of Somerhill near Tonbridge. At Constantinople
he was engaged with the ambassadors of France and Russia
in an enterprise which he afterwards recognized as having been
hopeless from the beginning namely in endeavouring to induce
Sultan Mahmud II. to make concessions to the Greeks, without
applying to him the pressure of armed force. After the battle
of Navarino (q.v.) on the 2oth of October 1827, the ambassadors
were compelled to retire to Corfu. Here Canning learned that
his conduct so far had been approved, but as he desired to know
what view was taken of the final rupture with the Porte he came
home. He was sent out again on the 8th of July 1828. Canning
did not agree on all points with his superior, Lord Aberdeen, and
in 1829 he, for the time being, turned from diplomatic to
STRATFORD-ON-AVON
parliamentary life. He sat for Old Sarum, for Stockbridge (rotten
boroughs) and for Southampton, but did not make much mark
in parliament. He was twice absent on diplomatic missions.
At the end of 1831 he went to Constantinople to attend the
conferences on the delimitation of the Greek frontier, arriving
immediately after the receipt of the news of Mehemet Ali's
invasion of Syria (see MEHEMET An). Sultan Mahmud now
proposed to Canning an alliance between Great Britain and Tur-
key, and Canning strongly urged this upon Palmerston, pointing
out the advisability of helping the sultan against Mehemet Ali
in order to forestall Russia, and of at the same time placating
Mehemet Ali by guaranteeing him certain advantages. This
advice, which largely anticipated the settlement of 1841, was not
followed; but Canning himself was in high favour with the sultan,
from whom he received the unique distinction of the sovereign's
portrait set in diamonds. In 1833 he was selected as ambassador
to Russia, but the tsar Nicholas I. refused to receive him.
The story that the tsar was influenced by merely personal
animosity seems to be unfounded. Nicholas was no doubt
sufficiently informed as to the peremptory character of Sir
Stratford Canning (he had been made G.C.B. in 1828) to see
his unfitness to represent Great Britain at a really independent
court.
After Canning had declined the treasurership of the Household
and the governor-generalship of Canada, he was again named
ambassador at Constantinople. He reached his post in January
1842 and retained it till his resignation in February 1858. His
tenure of office in these years was made remarkable first by his
constant efforts to induce the Turkish government to accept
reform and to conduct itself with humanity and decency;
then by the Crimean War (?.f.). Canning had no original liking
for the Turks. He was the first to express an ardent hope
that they would be expelled from Europe with " bag and
baggage " a phrase made popular in after times by Gladstone.
But he had persuaded himself that under the new sultan Abd-ul-
Mejid they might be reformed, and he was willing to play the
part of guiding providence. He certainly impressed himself on
the Turks, and on all other witnesses, as a strong personality.
In particular he struck the imagination of Kinglake, the author
of the Invasion of the Crimea. In that 'book he appears as a kind
of magician who is always mentioned as the " great Elchi " and
who influences the fate of nations by mystic spells cast on pallid
sultans. Great Elchi is the Turkish title for an ambassador,
and Elchi for a minister plenipotentiary. The use made of the
exotic title in Kinglake's book is orily one of the Corinthian
ornaments of his style. In sober fact Canning's exertions on
behalf of reform in Turkey affected little below the surface. His
share in the Crimean War cannot be told here. On the fall of
Palmerston's ministry in February 1858 he resigned, and though
he paid a complimentary farewell visit to Constantinople, he had ,
no further share in public life than the occasional speeches he
delivered from his place in the House of Lords. He had been
raised to the peerage in 1852. During his later years he wrote
several essays collected under the title of The Eastern Question
(London, 1881). In 1873 he published his treatise, Why I am
a Christian, and in 1876 his play, Alfred the Great at Athelney.
The only son of his second marriage died before him. His wife
and two daughters survived him. Lord Stratford died on
the I4th of August 1880, and was buried at Frant in Sussex.
A monument to him was erected in Westminster Abbey in
1884.
See Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, by S. Lane Poole (London,
STRATFORD-ON-AVON, a market town and municipal borough
in the Stratford-on-Avon parliamentary division of Warwick-
shire, England; on a branch line of the Great Western railway
and on the East & West Junction railway, in connexion with
which it is served from London by the Great Central (925 m.)
and the London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), 8310.
The town lies mainly on the right (west) bank of the Avon.
The neighbourhood, comprised in the rich valley of the Avon,
is beautiful though of no considerable elevation. The river
flows in exquisite wooded reaches, navigable only for small
boats. The Stratford-on-Avon canal communicates with the
Warwick and Birmingham canal. The river is crossed at
Stratford by a stone bridge of 14 arches, built by Sir Hugh
Clopton in the reign of Henry VII. The church of the Holy
Trinity occupies the site of a Saxon monastery, which existed
before 691, when the bishop of Worcester received it in exchange
from Ethelred, king of Mercia. It is beautifully placed near the
river, and is a fine cruciform structure, partly Early English and
partly Perpendicular, with a central tower and lofty octagonal
spire. It was greatly improved in the reign of Edward III. by
John de Stratford, who rebuilt the south aisle. He also in 1332
founded a chantry for priests, and in 1351 Ralph de Stratford
built for John's chantry priests " a house of square stone," which
came to be known as the college, and in connexion with which the
church became collegiate. The present beautiful choir was built
by Dean Balshall (1465-1491), and in the reign of Henry VII. the
north and south transepts were erected. A window commemo-
rates the Shakespearian scholar J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps. The
foundation of the chapel of the gild of the Holy Cross was laid
by Robert de Stratford. The gild, to which both sexes were
admitted, was in existence early in the i3th century, and it was
incorporated by a charter from Edward III. in 1322. It was
dissolved in 1547. The guildhall is a picturesque half-timbered
building. A beautiful house of the i6th century belonged to one
Thomas Rogers, whose daughter was mother of John Harvard,
the founder of Harvard College, U.S.A. Among public buildings
are the town hall, originally dated 1633, rebuilt 1767, and altered
1863; market house, corn exchange and three hospitals. There
are recreation grounds. Brewing is carried on, but the trade is
principally agricultural. Area, 4013 acres.
Shakespearian Connexion. To no town has the memory of
one famous son brought wider notoriety than that which the
memory of William Shakespeare has brought to Stratford; yet
this notoriety sprang into strong growth only towards the end
of the iSth century. The task of preserving for modern eyes
the buildings which Shakespeare himself saw was not entered
upon until much of the visible connexion with his times had been
destroyed. Yet the town is under no great industrial or other
modernizing influence, and therefore stands in the position of an
ancient shrine, drawing a pilgrimage of modern origin. The
plan of Shakespeare's Stratford at least is preserved, for the road
crossing Clopton 's bridge is an ancient highway, and forks in the
midst of the town into three great branches, about which the
village grew up. The high cross no longer stands at the market-
place where these roads converged. But the open space where is
now a memorial fountain was the Rother market, and Rother
Street preserves its name. The word signifies horned cattle,
and is found in Shakespeare's own writing, in the restored line
" It is the pasture lards the rother's sides " (Timon of Athens),
where " brother's " was originally the accredited reading. In
Henley Street, close by, is the house in which the poet was born,
greatly altered in external appearance, being actually two half-
timbered cottages connected. A small apartment is by imme-
morial tradition shown as his birth-room, bearing on its white-
washed walls and its windows innumerable signatures of visitors,
among which such names as Walter Scott, Dickens and Thacke-
ray may be deciphered. Part of the building, used by the poet's
father as a wool-shop, is fitted as a museum. Shakespeare may
have attended the grammar school attached to the old guildhall
in Church Street. This was a foundation in connexion with the
gild of the Holy Cross, but was refounded after the dissolution
by King Edward VI. in 1553, and bears his name. The site of
Shakespeare's house, New Place, bought by him in 1597, was
acquired by public subscription, chiefly through the exertions
of J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, and was handed over to the trustees
of the birthplace in 1876. The house was built by Sir Hugh
Clopton. Shakespeare acquired a considerable property adja-
cent to it, retired here after his active life in London, and here
died. Sir John Clopton destroyed the house in 1702 (as it had
reverted to his family), and the mansion he built was in turn
destroyed by Sir Francis Gastrell in 1759. The site, which is
STRATHAVEN STRATHCLYDE
999
traceable, is surrounded by gardens. Shakespeare is buried in
the chancel of Holy Trinity church, his wife lying next to him.
The slab over the poet's grave bears the lines beginning
" Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbeare
To digg the dust enclosed heare " ;
while the effigy on the mural monument above may well
be an authentic representation, though somewhat altered and
damaged by time and restoration (see SHAKESPEARE: Portraits).
Apart from the interest attaching to the pleasant country
town and its pastoral environment, through their influence trace-
able in Shakespeare's writings, there are further connexions with
himself and his family to be found. The house adjacent to New
Place known as Nash's house was that of Thomas Nash, who
married Shakespeare's granddaughter Elizabeth Hall; it is used
as a museum. At Shottery, i m. west of Stratford, is the
picturesque thatched cottage in which Shakespeare's wife, Anne
Hathaway, was born. It was purchased for the nation in 1892.
The maiden name of the poet's mother was Mary Arden, and this
name, that of an ancient county family, survives in the district
north-west of Stratford, the Forest of Arden, though the true
forest character is long lost. At Snitterfield to the north, where
the low wooded hills begin to rise from the valley, lived
Shakespeare's grandfather and uncle.
The principal modern monument to the poet's memory in
Stratford is the Shakespeare Memorial, a semi-Gothic building
of brick, stone and timber, erected in 1877 to contain a theatre,
picture gallery and library. A performance of one of the plays
is given annually. The memorial stands by the river above
the church, and above again lie the Bancroft or Bank croft
gardens where, in 1769, a celebration in honour of the poet was
organized by David Garrick. Evidence of the intense interest
taken by American visitors in Stratford is seen in the memorial
fountain and clock-tower presented in 1887, and in a window
in the church illustrating scenes from the Incarnation and
containing figures from English and American history.
History. Stratford-on-Avon (Stradforde, Strafford, Strafford-
on-Avon) is a place of great antiquity. A Roman road may have
run past the site; coins, &c., have been found, and the district
at any rate was inhabited in Roman times. The manor was
granted by King Offa to the bishopric of Worcester; and it was
under the protection of the bishops of Worcester, who were grant-
ing them privileges as early as the reign of Richard I., that the
inhabitants of the town assumed burghal rights at an early date.
The Gild of the Holy Cross, founded in the i3th century for the
support of poor priests and others, exercised great authority
over the town for many years. Its dissolution was the cause of
the incorporation charter of Edward VI. in 1553, by which the
town was incorporated under the title of the bailiff and burgesses,
who were to bear the name of aldermen. Another charter,
confirming former liberties but altering the constitution of the
corporation, was granted in 1611. By the charters of 1664 and
1674 the corporation was given the title of mayor, aldermen and
burgesses. The governing body now consists of a mayor, 6
aldermen and 18 councillors. A market, formerly held on
Thursdays by a grant of 1309, is now held on Fridays. The
various trades of weaving, saddlery, glove-making, collar-
making, candle-making and soap-making were carried on
during the i6th, i7th and i8th centuries, but have lost their
importance.
STRATHAVEN (locally pronounced StrSmi), a manufacturing
and market town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 4076. It
lies on the Avon, 16 m. S.S.E. of Glasgow by road, and is the
terminus of the Caledonian Railway Company's branch line from
Hamilton. It has manufactures of silk, cotton and hosiery and
is a market for cheese and grain. The picturesque ruins of
Avondale Castle are situated on Powmilion Burn, a stream that
runs through Strathaven to join the Avon, a mile below the town.
Remains of a Roman road are traceable for several miles immedi-
ately to the south of the Avon. Stonehouse (pop. 2961), a
mining and weaving town about 4 m. north-west, is claimed
as the birthplace of the Scottish martyr, Patrick Hamilton
(1504-1528). Six miles south-west of Strathaven, on the
moor of Drumclog, the Covenanters defeated John Graham
of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, on the ist of June 1679.
A granite obelisk commemorates the battle, but the religious
meetings that used to take place on the anniversary are no
longer held.
STRATHCLYDE, the name given in the gth and loth centuries
to the British (Welsh) kingdom, which from the 7th century
onwards was probably confined to the basin of the Clyde, together
with the adjacent coast districts, Ayrshire, &c., on the west of
Scotland. Its capital was Dumbarton (fortress of the Britons),
then known as Alclyde. On the south this kingdom bordered on
the territories of the Niduari Picts of Galloway, including the
modern counties of Wigtown and Kirkcudbright, a region which
from the middle of the 7th century seems to have been in the
possession of the Northumbrians. Strathclyde is also sometimes
called Cumbria, or Cumberland, and the survival of the latter
name on the English side of the border preserves the memory of
'a period when the territories of the northern Welsh were of much
greater extent, though it is perhaps not certain that the race
possessed political unity at that time. Of the origin of the
kingdom of the North Britons we have no information, but there
seems little reason to doubt that they were the dominant
people in southern Scotland before the Roman invasion.
After the withdrawal of the Romans in the 5th century the
northern Britons seem to have shown greater determination in
maintaining their independence than any of the southern
kingdoms and, according to Welsh tradition, Cunedda, the
ancestor of the kings of Gwynedd, had himself come from the
north. In the Historia brittonum we read of several princes of
the northern Britons. The chief of these appear to have been
Urien, who is said to have fought against the Northumbrian
king Theodoric, and Rhydderch Hen who is mentioned also in
Adamnan's Life of S. Columba. Rhydderch Hen appears to have-
secured the supremacy amongst these Welsh princes after the
great battle of Ardderyd fought about the year 573, to which
frequent reference is made in early Welsh poetry. His death
seems to have taken place in 603. A late authority states that
he was succeeded by his son Constantine, but the subsequent
kings were descended from another branch of the same family.
Such notices as we have of the history of Strathclyde in the
7th and 8th centuries are preserved only in the chronicles of the
surrounding nations and even these supply us with little more
than an incomplete record of wars with the neighbouring Scots,
Picts and Northumbrians. It is probable that the Britons were
allied with the Scots when Aidan, the king of the latter, invaded
Northumbria in A.D. 597. In 642, however, we find the two
Celtic peoples at war with one another, for in that year the Britons
under their king Owen defeated and slew the Scottish king
Domnall Breac. In the same year they came into conflict with
the Northumbrian king Oswio. In 649 there appears to have
been a battle between the Britons and the Picts, but about this
time the former must have become subject to the Northumbrian
kingdom. They recovered their independence, however, after
the defeat of Ecgfrith by the Picts in 685. In 711 and again in
717 we hear of further wars between the Britons and the Scots
of Dalriada, the former being defeated in both years. Towards
the middle of the 8th century Strathclyde was again threatened
by an alliance between the Northumbrians and Picts, and in 750
the Northumbrian king Eadberht wrested from them a consider-
able part of their territories in the west including Kyle in Ayr-
shire. In 756 the North Britons are said to have been forced
into submission and from this time onwards we hear very little
of their history, though occasional references to the deaths of
their kings show that the kingdom still continued to exist.
In 870 Dumbarton was attacked and destroyed after four
months' siege by the Scandinavian king Ivarr, and for some time
after this the country was exposed to ravages by the Norsemen.
It is believed that the native dynasty came to an end early in
the icth century and that the subsequent kings belonged to a
branch of the Scottish royal family. At the end of the reign of
Edward the Elder (925) the Britons of Strathclyde submitted
to that king together with all the other princes of the north.
IOOO
STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, BARON
In the reign of his successor ^Ethelstan, however, they joined
with the Scots and Norwegians in attempts to overthrow the
English supremacy, attempts which were ended by their defeat at
the battle of Brunanburh in 937. In 945-46 Strathclyde was
ravaged by King Edmund and given over to the Scottish king
Malcolm I. The fall of the kingdom was only temporary, for we
hear of a defeat of the Scottish king Cuilean by the Britons in
971. In the nth century Strathclyde appears to have been
finally incorporated in the Scottish kingdom, and the last time
we hear of one of its kings is at the battle of Carham in 1018
when the British king Owen fought in alliance with Malcolm II.
The following is a list of kings whose names are mentioned in the
chronicles :
Rhydderch Hen d. 603
Constantine son of Rhydderch (?)
ludruis (?) d. 633
Owain (Eugein) d. 642
Gwraid (Gureit) d. 658
Dyfnwal (Domhnall), son of Owain .... d. 694
Beli, son of Elphin . d. 722
Tewdwr (Teudubr), son of Beli .... d. 750
Dyfnwal (Dannagual), son of Tewdwr . d. 760
Cynan, son of Ruadrach . . . . . . . d. 816
Artgha d. 872
Run, son of Artgha d. before 878 (?)
Dyfnwal (Donevaldus) d. 908
Dyfnwal (Donevaldus) , son of Ede (Aedh) Owain d. 934
Dyfnwal (Domhnall), son of Eoghain (on pilgrimage) d. 975
Malcolm, son of Dyfnwal d. 997
Owain (Eugenius) 1018
See Chronicles of the Picts and Scots, edited by W. F. Skene
(Edinburgh, 1867); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh,
1876) ; and Sir John Rhys, Celtic Britain (London, 1904).
(F. G. M. B.)
STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, DONALD ALEX-
ANDER SMITH, BARON (1820- ), Canadian statesman and
financier, was born at Forres, Scotland, on the 6th of August 1820,
the second son of Alexander Smith (d. 1850), a Highland
merchant. His mother, Barbara Stewart, of Abernethy, was
the sister of John Stewart (d. 1847), a famous fur trader in the
Canadian North-West, who gave his name to Stewart Lake and
Stewart river. Through him Donald Smith was appointed in
1838 a junior clerk in the Hudson's Bay Company, which at that
time controlled the greater part of what is now the Dominion of
Canada. Smith was sent to Labrador, and stationed at Hamilton
Inlet. For thirteen years he roughed it there, mastering the
work of the fur trade, introducing various improvements into the
conditions of life, being the first to prove that potatoes and other
vegetables could be grown with success on that bleak coast, and
varying his business routine with much reading and letter-
writing. Then he was for ten years on Hudson Bay, rising in
the company's service to be a chief trader and then a chief factor.
In 1868 he was appointed to the post of resident governor, with
headquarters at Montreal. In the next year Louis Kiel's (q.v .) re-
bellion broke out on the Red river, caused chiefly by the transfer
of territorial rights from the company to the Dominion of
Canada, and in December Smith was sent by the Canadian govern-
ment with wide powers as special commissioner to endeavour to
check the rebellion, and to report " on the best mode of quieting
and removing such discontent and dissatisfaction." On arriving
at Fort Garry (now Winnipeg) he advised the government that it
would be necessary to send troops; in the meanwhile he kept
cool in face of a very ugly situation, and it was largely owing
to his tact and diplomacy that the lives of the numerous prisoners
were saved, that Kiel's position was gradually undermined and
that the relief expedition under Colonel (afterwards Lord)
Wolseley had no fighting to do. Apart from the rebellion,
there was difficulty with the company's traders. The company's
control over the North-West was to be surrendered to Canada for
300,000, certain grants of lands and certain trading privileges,
and the traders on the spot feared that in the distribution of the
money their rights might not be guarded, but Smith succeeded
in persuading them to trust him to secure their share, and asserted
their claims so effectually that 107,000 was paid to them.
During these complications in the North-West he occupied for a
time the position of acting governor: in December 1870, on the
first election to the legislative assembly of the new province of
Manitoba, he was returned for Winnipeg; and in March 1871,
after a very bitter contest, he was elected as one cf the four
Manitoba representatives to the Dominion House of Commons,
as member for Selkirk. The reorganization of the Hudson's Bay
Company in 1871 involving the loss of its administrative func-
tions and its restriction to questions of trade only made it
necessary to appoint a chief commissioner for the North-West,
and in 1871 Smith received the appointment when in London,
after his championship of the claims of the local traders. At
Ottawa he at once became the spokesman of the new territories,
though for a time subject to the suspicion of those who thought
that the company had done too little to assist the Canadian
government against Kiel, and he was frequently attacked in
parliament and out of it on various charges. In 1872 he became
one of the original members of the first North-West council under
the act providing for the government of the territories by the
lieutenant-governor of Manitoba and a council of eleven.
It was at this time that the construction of the Canadian
Pacific railway became a practical question. The terms of
the entrance of British Columbia into the Dominion in 1871
included a stipulation for the immediate beginning of a railway
from the Pacific towards the Rocky Mountains, and from a
point to be selected east of the Rockies towards the Pacific;
this line, connecting the Pacific seaboard with eastern Canada,
was to be completed within ten years from the date of union.
After a controversy on the merits of private or government
construction, in 187 2 a charter was given by Sir John Macdonald's
government to a company, with Sir Hugh Allan at its head, for
the construction of the line, with a subsidy in land grants and
money, but in 1873 disclosures of corrupt practices in relation
to this charter (the so-called Pacific Scandal) led to the fall of
the government, and the company was soon afterwards dissolved.
In the great debate which ended in the resignation of the govern-
ment, one of the chief causes of its downfall was a moderate but
powerful speech by Smith, which led to a temporary estrange-
ment between him and Macdonald. The Liberal government
which came into power early in 1874 reverted, though timidly, to
the policy of government ownership.
Meanwhile Donald Smith, together with his cousin Mr George
Stephen (afterwards Lord Mountstephen) , and other Canadian
and American financiers, had bought out the Dutch bondholders
of the insolvent St Paul & Pacific railway, an American line,
which by 1873 had been completed from St Paul toUreckenridge,
but which lacked funds to proceed farther. After long negotia-
tions the new owners persuaded the government of Manitoba to
build a line from Winnipeg to Pembina on the American frontier.
This done, in 1879 the partners formed the St Paul, Minneapolis
& Manitoba Railway Company, and by continuing the line from
Breckenridge to Pembina united Manitoba with the south and
west.
In 1878 the Liberal party was defeated, and Sir John Macdonald
returned to office with the support of Smith, who had been driven
to rejoin the Conservatives by the over-cautious railway policy of
the Liberals. In 1880 the new government made a contract for
building the railway with a syndicate of which Stephen was the
chief director, and in which Smith, from the first largely interested,
came more and more to the front. Both were prominent directors
of the Bank of Montreal, and employed its resources in the work
without hesitation. Smith also embarked in the work the whole
of his private fortune, and it was his dogged perseverance which
more than anything else enabled the company to bring its work
to a successful conclusion. The contract allowed ten years for the
completion of the line, but such energy was shown that on the
7th of November 1885, at Craigellachie in the Rocky Mountains,
Donald Smith drove home the last spike of the first Canadian
transcontinental railway. In 1882 he left parliament, but re-
turned to it in 1887, and represented Montreal West till 1896,
when he was appointed to succeed Sir Charles Tupper in London
as high commissioner for Canada. In that year he was made
G.C.M.G.; in 1897 he was raised to the peerage and in 1909 made
G.C.V.O. In 1889 he became governor of the Hudson's Bay
STRATHNAIRN, IST BARON
1001
Company. On the 2ist of March 1896 he was appointed govern-
ment commissioner to Manitoba and the Territories to endeavour
to lessen the bitterness in the discussion as to Roman Catholic
rights in the public schools, and the compromise of 1897 followed
the lines which he suggested (see CANADA).
In January 1900, during the war in South Africa, he raised,
equipped and presented to the British government a regiment
of irregular cavalry 600 strong. Strathcona's Horse, as it was
called, was recruited in the Canadian West, and did good service
during the war. Though this was perhaps the most striking of
the many services which his great wealth enabled him to do for
Canada and the British Empire, he left no side of Canadian life
untouched. With his cousin, Lord Mountstephen, he founded
and endowed the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal, and
both in Canada and in Scotland gave largely and wisely to
university work. He was the backbone of the emigration policy
which from 1896 on did much to increase the population and the
prosperity of Canada. He helped in the improvement of the
waterways of the Canadian West, and in placing steamers on
them, and gave much assistance to the proposed All Red Route
of British-owned steamers, encircling the world. From the first
he was a member of the Pacific Cable Board, controlling the cable
laid in 1902 by the combined governments of Great Britain,
Canada and Australia. No man did more to tighten the ties
which bind Canada to the British Empire.
The Life by Heckles Willson contains some useful information.
The Histories of the Hudson's Bay Company by Beckles Willson,
Rev. George Bryce and Miss Agnes C. Laut tell his early struggles.
Sir Wilfrid Laurier (2 vols.), by J. S. Willison, describes the financial
dealings between the Canadian government and the Canadian
Pacific railway. His parliamentary speeches are in the Canadian
Hansard. (W. L. G.)
STRATHNAIRN, HUGH HENRY ROSE, ist BARON (1801-
1885), British field-marshal, third son of the Right Hon. Sir
George Henry Rose of Sandhills, Christchurch, Hampshire
(minister plenipotentiary at the Prussian court), was born at
Berlin on the 6th of April 1801. He was educated at Berlin, and
received military instruction at the cadet school. He entered
the 93rd Sutherland Highlanders as an ensign on the 8th of June
1820, but was transferred to the igth Foot, then quartered in
Ireland, and took part in preserving order during the " Ribbon "
outrages. He was promoted rapidly, to a lieutenancy in 1821, a
captaincy in 1824, and an unattached majority at the end of
1826. He was brought into the 92nd Highlanders as a regimental
major in 1829, and the following year was appointed equerry to
H.R.H. the duke of Cambridge. The 92nd Highlanders were in
Ireland, and Rose again found himself employed in maintaining
law and order. He rendered important services in suppressing
disaffected meetings, but his conduct was so courteous to the
ringleaders that he incurred no personal hostility. In 1833 he
accompanied his regiment to Gibraltar, and three years later to
Malta, where he exerted himself with so much zeal during a
serious outbreak of cholera in attending to the sick soldiers that
his conduct elicited an official approval from the governor and
commander-in-chief. In 1839 he was promoted, by purchase,
to an unattached lieutenant-colonelcy. In the following year
Rose was selected, with other officers and detachments of Royal
Artillery and Royal Engineers, for special service in Syria under
the orders of the foreign office. They were to co-operate on
shore, under Brigadier-General Michell, R.A. in conjunction
with the Turkish troops with the British fleet on the coast, for
the expulsion of Mehemet Ali's Egyptian army from Syria. Sir
Stratford Canning sent Rose from Constantinople on a diplo-
matic mission to Ibrahim Pasha, commanding the Egyptian
army in Syria, and after its execution he was attached, as deputy
adjutant-general, to the staff of Omar Pasha, who landed at
Jaffa with a large Turkish force from the British fleet. Rose
distinguished himself in several engagements, and was twice
wounded at El Mesden in January 1841. He was mentioned in
despatches, and received from the sultan the order of Nishan
Iftihar in diamonds, the war medal and a sabre of honour. The
king of Prussia sent him the order of St John, and expressed his
pleasure that " an early acquaintance " had so gallantly dis-
tinguished himself. Shortly after he succeeded to the command
of the British detachment in Syria with the local rank of colonel,
and in April 1841 he was appointed British consul-general for
Syria. For seven years, amidst political complications and
intrigues, Rose, by his energy and force of character, did much
to arrest the horrors of civil war, to prevent the feuds between
the Maronites and Druses coming to a head, and to administer
justice impartially. On one occasion in 1841, when he found the
Maronites and Druses drawn up in two lines and firing at each
other, he rode between them at imminent risk to his life, and by
the sheer force of a stronger will stopped the conflict. In the
first year of his appointment his action saved the lives of several
hundred Christians at Deir el Khama, in the Lebanon, and his
services were warmly recognized by Lord Aberdeen in the House
of Lords, and he was made C.B. In 1845, by his promptness
and energy, at great personal risk, he rescued 600 Christians
belonging to the American mission at Abaye, in the Lebanon,
from the hands of the Druses, and brought them to Beirut. In
1848, during the outbreak of cholera at Beirut, he was most
devoted in his attention to the sick and dying.
At the end of this year he left Syria on leave of absence, and
did not return, as Lord Palmerston appointed him secretary of
embassy at Constantinople in January 1851. In the following
year he was charge d'affaires in the absence of Sir Stratford
Canning during the crisis of the question of the " holy places,"
and he so strengthened the hands of the Porte by his determined
action that the Russian attempt to force a secret treaty upon
Turkey was foiled. During the war with Russia in 1854-56
Rose was the British commissioner at the headquarters of the
French army, with the local rank of brigadier-general. At Varna
he succeeded in quenching a fire which threatened the French
small-arm ammunition stores, and received the thanks of Marshal
St Arnaud, who recommended him for the Legion of Honour.
He was present at the battle of the Alma, and was wounded on
the following day. At Inkerman he reconnoitred the ground
between the British and French armies with great sang-froid
under a withering fire from the Russian pickets, and his horse
was shot under him. He distinguished himself on several other
occasions in maintaining verbal communication between the
allied forces, and by his tact and judgment contributed to the
good feeling that existed between the two armies. His services
were brought to notice by the commanders-in-chief of both
armies, and he received the medal with three clasps and the
thanks of parliament, was promoted to be major-general, and was
made K.C.B. and commander of the Legion of Honour. On the
outbreak of the Indian Mutiny in 1857 Rose was given command
of the Poona division. He arrived in September, and shortly after
took command of the Central India force. In January 1858 he
marched from Mhow, captured Rathgarh after a short siege, and
defeated the raja of Banpur near Barodia in the same month.
He then relieved Saugor, captured Garhakota and the fort of
Barodia, and early in March defeated the rebels in the Madanpur
Pass and captured Madanpur and Chanderi. He arrived before
Jhansi on the 2oth of March, and during its investment defeated
a relieving force under Tantia Topi at the Betwa on the ist of
April. Most of Rose's force was locked up in the investment,
and to Tantia Topi's army of 20,000 he could only oppose 1 500
men; yet with this small force he routed the enemy with a loss
of 1500 men and all their stores. Jhansi was stormed and the
greater part of the city taken on the 3rd, and the rest the follow-
ing day, and the fort occupied on the 5th. Kunch was captured,
after severe fighting in a temperature of 110 in the shade, on the
7th of May. Rose himself was only able to hold out by medical
treatment, and many casualties occurred from the great heat.
Under the same conditions the march was made on Kalpi. The
rebels came out in multitudes on the 22nd of May to attack his
small force, exhausted by hard marching and weakened by
sickness, but after a severe fight under a burning sun, and in a
suffocating hot wind, were utterly routed and Kalpi occupied the
following day. Having completed his programme, Rose obtained
sick leave, and Sir Robert Napier (q.n.) was appointed to succeed
him, when news came of the defection of Sindhia's troops and the
IOO2
STRATHPEFFER STRAUSS, D. F.
occupation of Gwalior by Tantia Topi. Rose at once resumed
command and moved on Gwalior by forced marches, and on the
i6th of June won the battle of Morar. Leaving Napier there, he
attacked Gwalior on the ipth, when the city was captured. The
fortress was stormed and won the following day, and Napier
gained a signal victory over the flying enemy at Jaora-Alipur
on the 22nd. Rose then made over the command to Napier and
returned to Poona. It was to Rose's military genius that the
suppression of the Indian Mutiny was largely due; but owing to
official jealousy his outstanding merit was not fully recognized at
the time. For his services he received the medal with clasp, the
thanks of both houses of parliament, the regimental colonelcy of
the 45th Foot, and was created G.C.B. By a legal quibble the
Central India force, after protracted litigation, was not allowed
its share of prize-money, a loss to Rose of 30,000. Rose was
promoted lieutenant-general for his " eminent services " in
February 1860, and the next month was appointed commander-
in-chief of the Bombay army, and on the departure of Lord Clyde
from India in the following June he succeeded him as commander-
in-chief in India. During his tenure of the command-in-chief
Rose improved the discipline of the army, while his powerful
assistance enabled the changes consequent upon the amalga-
mation of the East India Company's army with the Queen's
army to be carried out without friction. He was created K. C.S.I.
in 1861 and G. C.S.I, on the enlargement of the order. On his
return home he was made an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford
University.
Rose held the Irish command from 1863 until 1870, was raised
to the peerage in 1866 as Baron Strathnairn of Strathnairn and
Jhansi, transferred to the colonelcy of the 92nd Foot, and ap-
pointed president of the army transport committee. By a good
organization and disposition of the troops under his command
in 1866 and 1867 he enabled the Irish government to deal
successfully with the Fenian conspiracy. He was promoted
general in 1867. On relinquishing the Irish command he was
made an honorary LL.D. of Trinity College, Dublin. For the
rest of his days he lived generally in London. He was gazetted
to the colonelcy of the Royal Horse Guards in 1869, and pro-
moted to be field marshal in June 1877. He died in Paris on the
i6th of October 1885, and was buried with military honours
in the graveyard of the Priory Church, Christchurch, Hampshire.
An equestrian bronze statue, by E. Onslow Ford, R.A., was
erected to his memory at Knightsbridge, London. He was
never married.
See Sir Owen Tudor Burne, Clyde ana Stralhnairn," Rulers of India
Series " (1891). (R. H. V.)
STRATHPEFFER, a village and spa of the county of Ross
and Cromarty, Scotland, 5 m. W. of Dingwall by a branch of
the Highland railway. Pop. (1901), 354. It lies in a valley
of varying elevation (200 to 400 ft. above the sea), but is
sheltered on the west and north and has a comparatively dry
and warm climate. There are several sulphurous springs one
saline, another strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydro-
gen in great repute for gout, rheumatism, skin diseases and
affections of the liver and kidneys. The well of effervescent
chalybeate water is largely resorted to for anaemia and as a
tonic. A peat bath, similar to those at Franzensbad in Bohemia,
has also been established. The season runs from May to October,
and during the past few years Strathpeffer has become a very
popular resort. The pump-room (1829) and pavilion (1881)
are situated in the middle of the village. Castle Leod (pron.
Loud), a seat of the countess of Cromartie, upon whose pro-
perty Strathpeffer is built, lies a mile to the north and is an
example of the Scots Baronial style dating from 1660. The
village was the scene of the fight between the Mackenzies and
Macdonalds in 1478, and later between the Mackenzies and
the Munros. The Mackenzies prevailed in both encounters.
The ascent of Ben Wyvis (3429 ft.) is commonly made from
Strathpeffer.
STRAUBING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
pleasantly situated in a fertile plain, on the right bank of the
Danube, here crossed by two bridges, 25 m. S.E. of Regensburg,
on the railway to Passau. Pop. (1905), 20,856, nearly all of
whom are Roman Catholics. Its oldest and most characteristic
building is the tall square tower with its five pointed turrets,
dating from 1208. It has eight Roman Catholic churches,
among them being the church of St James, a handsome Late
Gothic edifice, with some paintings ascribed to Wohlgemuth;
the old Carmelite church containing a monument to Duke
Albert II. of Bavaria; and that of St Peter with the tomb of Agnes
Bernauer. It has also a Gothic town-hall, a castle, now used
as barracks, and two fine squares. The numerous educational
establishments include a gymnasium, an episcopal seminary
for boys and a normal school. The industries of Straubing
are tanning and brewing, the manufacture of bricks and cement,
and trade in grain and cattle. Straubing is a town of remote
origin, believed to be identical with the Roman station of
Sorbiodurum. In definite history, however, it is known only
as a Bavarian town, and from 1353 to 1425 it was the seat of
the ducal line of Bavaria-Straubing. Its chief historical interest
attaches to its connexion with the unfortunate Agnes Bernauer
(q.v.), who lived at the chateau here with her husband Duke
Albert III.
See Wimmer, Sammelbldtter zur Geschichte der Stadt Straubing
(Straubing, 18821884), and Ortner, Straubing in seiner Vcrgangen-
heit und Gegenwart (Straubing, 1902).
STRAUS, LUDWIG (1835-1899), Austrian violinist, was born
at Pressburg on the 28th of March 1835. He studied at the
Vienna Conservatorium from 1843 to 1848, as a pupil of Bohm;
made his first appearance in 1850, and five years afterwards
made a tour in Italy; in 1857 he became acquainted with his
lifelong friend, the 'cellist Piatti, and toured with him in Ger-
many and Sweden. From 1860 to 1864 he was concert-meister
at Frankfort, and during these years he visited England fre-
quently, in the year 1864 taking up his residence there. He was
for many years leader of Halle's orchestra in Manchester, and
a familiar figure at the Popular Concerts in London. He was
first violin in the Queen's Band. He retired, owing to ill health,
in 1893, and from that time till his death, on the 23rd of October
1899, lived at Cambridge. His playing, whether of violin or
viola, had very great qualities; he was perfect in ensemble,
and his power of self-effacement was of a piece with his gentle
disposition and with the pure love of art which distinguished
him through life. A more lovable nature never existed, and his
quiet influence on the art of his time was very great.
STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH (1808-1874), German theo-
logian and man of letters, was born at Ludwigsburg, near
Stuttgart, on the 27th of January 1808. In his thirteenth year
he was sent to the evangelical seminary at Blaubeuren, near
Ulm, to be prepared for the study of theology. Amongst the
principal masters in the school were Professors Kern and F. C.
Baur, who infused into their pupils above all a deep love of the
ancient classics. In 1825 Strauss passed from school to the
university of Tubingen. The professors of philosophy there
failed to interest him, but he was strongly attracted by the
writings of Schleiermacher, which awoke his keen dialectical
faculty and delivered him from the vagueness and exaggerations
of romantic and somnambulistic mysticism. In 1830 he be-
came assistant to a country clergyman, and nine months later
accepted the post of professor in the high school at Maulbronn,
having to teach Latin, history and Hebrew. In October 1831
he resigned his office in order to study under Schleiermacher and
Hegel in Berlin. Hegel died just as he arrived, and, though he
regularly attended Schleiermacher's lectures, it was only those on
the life of Jesus which exercised a very powerful influence upon
him. It was amongst the followers of Hegel that he found
kindred spirits. Under the leading of Hegel's distinction,
between Vorstellung and Begrijf, he had already conceived the
idea of his two principal theological works the Leben Jesu and
the Christliche Dogmatik. In 1832 he returned to Tubingen
and became repetent in the university, lecturing on logic,
history of philosophy, Plato, and history of ethics, with great
success. But in the autumn of 1833 he resigned this position
in order to devote all his time to the completion of his projected
STRAUSS, J. STRAUSS, R.
Leben Jesu (1835). The work produced an immense sensation
and created a new epoch in the treatment of the rise of Chris-
tianity. In 1837 Strauss replied to his critics (Streitschriften
zur Verleidigung meiner Schrift uber das Leben Jesu). In the
third edition of the work (1839), and in Zwei friedliche Blatter,
he made important concessions to his critics, which he with-
drew, however, in the fourth edition (1840; translated into
English by George Eliot, with Latin preface by Strauss, 1846).
In 1840 and the following year he published his Chris tliche
Glaubenslehre (2 vols.), the principle of which is that the history
of Christian doctrines is their disintegration. Between the
publication of this work and that of the Friedliche Blatter he
had been elected to a chair of theology in the university of
Zurich. But the appointment provoked such a storm of popular
ill will in the canton that the authorities considered it wise to
pension him before he entered upon his duties, although this
concession came too late to save the government. With his
Glaubenslehre he took leave of theology for upwards of twenty
years. In August 1841 he married Agnes Schebest, a cultivated
and beautiful opera singer of high repute, but not adapted to be
the wife of a scholar and literary man like Strauss. Five years
afterwards, when two children had been born, a separation by
arrangement was made. Strauss resumed his literary activity
by the publication of Der Romanliker aufdem Thron dcr Casaren,
in which he drew a satirical parallel between Julian the Apostate
and Frederick William IV. of Prussia (1847). In 1848 he was
nominated as member of the Frankfort parliament, but was
defeated. He was elected for the Wurttemberg chamber, but
his action was so conservative that his constituents requested
him to resign his seat. He forgot his political disappointments
in the production of a series of biographical works, which secured
for him a permanent place in German literature (Schubarts
Leben, 2 vols., 1849; Christian Marklin, 1851; Nikodemus
Frischlin, 1855; Ulrich von Hulten, 3 vols., 1858-1860, 6th
ed. 1895; H. S. Rcimarus, 1862). With this last-named work
he returned to theology, and two years afterwards (1864)
published his Leben Jesu fitr das deutschc Volk (i3th ed., 1904).
It failed to produce an effect comparable with that of the first
Life, but the replies to it were many, and Strauss answered them
in his pamphlet Die Halben und die Ganzen (1865), directed
specially against Schenkel and Hengstenberg. His Christus
des Glaubens und der Jesus der Geschichte (1865) is a severe
criticism of Schleiermacher's lectures on the life of Jesus, which
were then first published. From 1865 to 1872 Strauss resided
in Darmstadt, and in 1870 published his lectures on Voltaire
(9th ed., 1907). His last work, Der alte und der neue Glaube
(1872; i6th ed., 1904; English translation by M. Blind, 1873),
produced almost as great a sensation as his Life of Jesus, and
not least amongst Strauss's own friends, who wondered at his
one-sided view of Christianity and his professed abandonment
of spiritual philosophy for the materialism of modern science.
To the fourth edition of the book he added a Nachworl als
Vorwort (1873). The same year symptoms of a fatal malady
appeared, and death followed on the 8th of February 1874.
Strauss's mind was almost exclusively analytical and critical,
without depth of religious feeling or philosophical penetration, or
historical sympathy; his work was accordingly rarely constructive.
His Life of Jesus was directed against not only the traditional
orthodox view of the Gospel narratives, but likewise the rationalistic
treatment of them, whether after the manner of Reimarus or that
of Paulus. The mythical theory that the Christ of the Gospels,
excepting the most meagre outline of personal history, was the
unintentional creation of the early Christian Messianic expectation
he applied with merciless rigour to the narratives. But his opera-
tions were based upon fatal defects, positive and negative. He
held a narrow theory as to the miraculous, a still narrower as to
the relation of the divine to the human, and he had no true idea
of the nature of historical tradition, while, as F. C. Baur com-
plained, his critique of the Gospel history had not been preceded
by the essential preliminary critique of the Gospels themselves.
AUTHORITIES. Strauss's works were published in a collected
edition in 12 vols., by E. Zeller (1876-1878), without his Christliche
Dogmatik. His Ausgewdhlte Brief e appeared in 1895. On his life
and works, see E. Zeller, David Friedrich Strauss in seinem Leben
und seinen Schriften (1874); A. Hausrath, D. F. Strauss und die
1003
Theologie seiner Zeit (2 vols., 1876-1878); F. J. Vischer, Krilische
Gangs (1844), vol. i., and by the same writer, Altes und Neues (1882),
vol. iii.; R. Gottschall, Literarische Charakterkopfe (1896), vol. iv.;
S. Eck, D. F, Strauss (1899); K. Harraeus, D. F. Strauss, sein Leben
und seine Schriften (1901); and T. Ziegler, D. F. Strauss (2 vols.,
1908-1909).
STRAUSS, JOHANN (1804-1849), Austrian orchestral con-
ductor and composer of dance-music, was born at Vienna on the
I4th of March 1804. In 1819 he obtained his first engagement
as a violinist in a small band then playing at the Sperl, in the
Leopoldstadt, and after acting as deputy-conductor in another
orchestra, he organized in 1825 a little band of fourteen per-
formers on his own account. It was during the carnival of 1826
that Strauss inaugurated a long line of triumphs by introducing
his band to the public of Vienna at the Schwan, in the Rossau
suburb, where his famous Tauberl-Walzer (op. i) at once estab-
lished his reputation as the best composer of dance-music then
living. Upon the strength of this success he was invited back to
the Sperl, where he accepted an engagement, with an increased
orchestra, for six years. Soon after this he was appointed kapell-
meister to the ist Burger regiment, and entrusted with the duty
of providing the music for the court balls; while the number of
his private engagements was so great that he found it neces-
sary to enlarge his band from time to time until it consisted of
more than two hundred performers. In 1833 he began a long
and extended series of tours throughout northern Europe,
eventually visiting England in 1838. In Paris he associated
himself with Musard, whose quadrilles became not much less
popular than his own waltzes; but his greatest successes were-
achieved in London, where he arrived in time for the coronation
of Queen Victoria, and played at seventy-two public concerts,
besides innumerable balls and other private entertainments. -
The fatigue of these long journeys seriously injured Strauss's
health; but he soon resumed his duties at the Sperl; and on the
5th of May 1840 he removed with his band to the Imperial
" Volksgarten," which thenceforth became the scene of his most
memorable successes, his conducting being marked by a quiet
power which ensured the perfection of every minutest nuance.
In 1844 Strauss began another extensive series of tours. In
1849 he revisited London, and, after his farewell concert, was
escorted down the Thames by a squadron of boats, in one of
which a band played tunes in his honour. This was his last
public triumph. On his return to Vienna he was attacked with
scarlet fever, of which he died on the 25th of September 1849.
Strauss was survived by three sons Johann (1825-1899),
Joseph (1827-1870) and Eduard (b. 1835), all of whom dis-
tinguished themselves as composers of dance-music, and assisted
in recruiting the ranks and perpetuating the traditions of the
still famous band.
STRAUSS, RICHARD (1864- ), German composer, was
born at Munich on the nth of June 1864, the son of Franz
Strauss, an eminent hornist. To some extent a prodigy, Strauss
was something of a pianist at four, a composer at six, and at ten
he was already seriously studying music under F. W. Meyer, the
Munich Hofkapellmeister. Soon the result of this study began
to make itself apparent. Singers sang Strauss's songs; the Walter
Quartet played his Quartet in A (op. 2) ; Hermann Levi performed
his D minor Symphony a work that does not figure in the
composer's list; and Billow took the composer under his wing
and introduced his early Serenade for wind instruments to the
Meiningen public. For obvious reasons Strauss had not yet
found himself. He had passed through the gymnasium and
the university, and his music studies had been thorough. But
all this had made of the youth merely an excellent technical
musician, who in his Eight Songs (op. 10) and in his Pianoforte
Quartet (op. 13) showed how strongly he was influenced by pre-
decessors, Liszt in the one case, Mendelssohn in the other.
Blilow's efforts to kindle in Strauss something of the fire of his
own enthusiasm for Brahms's work ultimately proved fruitless.
But to Biilow, and even more to Alexander Ritter, Strauss owed
the awakening in his own mind of the interest in the modern
development of music that eventually in its ripeness placed
Strauss at the very top of the composers' tree of his time. la
STRAW AND STRAW MANUFACTURES
1885 Strauss succeeded Billow as conductor of the Meiningen
orchestra, but the appointment was held only for a few months,
since in April of this year Strauss resigned his post in order to
travel in Italy, and on his return in the early autumn he became
3rd conductor of the Munich Opera under Hermann Levi.
Four years later he was installed in Weimar as Hofkapell-
meister, but once again he held his post only for a brief period,
for in 1894, the year of his marriage to Pauline de Ahna, the
eminent singer, he was promoted to be ist conductor at Munich.
Between these various appointments and that of Hofkapell-
meister in Berlin (1899) Strauss travelled considerably in the
near East and over Europe, now in search of health, anon in
propagandism. His first professional visit to London was in
1897, and laid the foundation of a local English cult that culmi-
nated six years later in a Strauss festival. From that time
Strauss's path lay in pleasant places. He frequently returned
to London, notably to conduct a performance of Eleklra, in
Beecham's season at Covent Garden in the spring of 1910,
and a part of a concert at Queen's Hall, when he achieved a
genuine triumph by his conducting of Mozart's music.
Of the early period of Strauss the composer there is little of
importance to be said. His early works were neither better
nor worse than those of scores of talented students of an ad-
vanced skill in matters of technique. Indeed it has often been
said, with some show of authority, that the ultimate develop-
ment of Strauss is seen to any appreciable extent first in the
symphonic poem Macbeth (op. 23). Here, in spite of the
earlier Don Juan (op. 20), Strauss is himself, thematically
and orchestrally, for the first time, for Aus Italien (op. 16) is a
comparatively poor and quite unrepresentative effusion apart
altogether from the faux pas contained in it by the mistaking
of a popular song composed in St John's Wood, London,
for a Neapolitan folk-song. A year only divides Macbeth
(1887) from Don Juan (1888)" Tondramen ohne Worte,"
as they have been called. But there is an age between them
and Tod und Verklarung (1889) the bridge from one part to
the other and the opening of the second section of which are
amongst Strauss's most glorious inspirations. Between the
last-named work and Till Eulenspiegels lustigen Streiche
(1894), Strauss's first opera, Gunlram finds place (first per-
formance, Weimar, 1894), the latter a work that in spite of
much reclame for the composer failed to maintain a position
upon the stage. In Till Eulenspiegel is to be found a sense
of fun that is worthy of note (as of emulation) , and it is perhaps
worth recording that no more noteworthy example of the
Rondo form exists in modern music, while its approximate
successor, Don Quixote (1897), is an absolutely outstanding
example of the Variation form. Further, Strauss reached in
Don Quixote his zenith as a musical realist. In between
there occurred the Nietzschean poem Also sprach Zarathustra
(1895), which stirred up more temporary strife than any of
its predecessors, if not so much perhaps as was engineered later
on by the production of Ein Heldenleben (1898), or by the
comparatively ingenuous Symphonia domestica (1904). For
various reasons these compositions roused the somewhat sleepy
academics of musical Europe from their lethargy. They re-
vived, with the usual negative results, the ancient fight as to
the legitimacy or otherwise of programme music. But though
performances were comparatively rare in England up to the
middle of 1910, those that had occurred proved undoubtedly
attractive, while their rareness might quite reasonably be attri-
buted to the very large fees demanded for their performance.
Up to 1910 Strauss had composed four operas. Of these,
Guntram was on frankly Wagnerian lines. Feuersnot, on
the other hand, a satirical, purely Munich work a page
out of the Munich annals, as it were, so closely is it identified
with the Bavarian capital in its musical and personal reference,
though produced at Dresden in 1901, remained sufficiently alive
to have merited performance at His Majesty's theatre, London,
again under Thomas Beecham's direction in July 1910. The
same enthusiastic musician had previously produced Elektra
with immense yet equal success in London (Covent Garden)
in the early spring of 1910. Perhaps none of these operas
enjoyed the reclame of Salome (Dresden 1905), which in
England was originally barred by the censor of plays, but was
performed several times at Covent Garden under Thomas
Beecham in the autumn of 1910.
As a composer of songs Strauss enjoys the widest popularity
in the conventional sense of the word. Many an example could
be given from the hundred and more of his " Lieder " of Strauss's
lawful right to be considered a lineal descendant of the royal
line of German song writers. Some are transcendently beau-
tiful. But this very fact has been thought to militate against
his supreme greatness as a composer in the widest sense. The
question, indeed, though in itself ridiculous, has been asked:
which is the true Richard Strauss, the composer of the caco-
phonous Ein Heldenleben or of the exquisite Morgen or
Traum durch die Dammerung? But by 1910 he had at any
rate won his place in the musical Walhalla. Whether the
composer's name will survive by means of his many exquisite
" Lieder," by means of his satire and grim humour, by means
of his realism or his original classicism, remains to be seen.
That his position is assured among the immortals is clear if only
on account of his absolute independence of thought and of
expression, of his prodigious breadth of artistic view and of his
capacity to say his say in the musical language of his own day.
His heartiest detractors admit that Strauss has enlarged the
means of musical expression even if they cavil at his somewhat
realistic utterance on occasion. To put it no higher, he must
rank as a 20th-century Berlioz with a vastly wider musical
knowledge and equipment. (R. H. L.)
STRAW and STRAW MANUFACTURES. Straw (from
strew, as being used for strewing), is the general term applied
to the stalky residue of grain-plants (especially wheat, rye, oats,
barley). It forms the raw material of some important
industries. It serves for the thatching of roofs, for a paper-
making material, for ornamenting small surfaces as a " straw-
mosaic," for plaiting into door and table mats, mattresses, &c.,
and for weaving and plaiting into light baskets, artificial flowers,
&c. These applications, however, are insignificant in compari-
son with the place occupied by straw as a raw material for the
straw bonnets and hats worn by both sexes. Of the various
materials which go to the fabrication of plaited head-gear the
most important is wheaten straw. It is only in certain areas
that straw suitable for making plaits is produced. The straw
must have a certain length of " pipe " between the knots, must
possess a clear delicate golden colour and must not be brittle.
The most valuable straw for plaits is grown in Tuscany, and from
it the well-known Tuscan plaits and Leghorn hats are made.
The straw of Tuscany, specially grown for plaiting, is distin-
guished into three qualities Pontederas Semone being the finest,
Mazzuolo the second quality, from which the bulk of the plaits
are made, while from the third quality, Santa Fioro, only " Tuscan
pedals " and braids are plaited. The wheat-seed for these
straws is sown very thickly on comparatively elevated and arid
land, and it sends up long attenuated stalks. When the grain
in the ear is about half developed the straw is pulled up by the
roots, dried in the sun, and subsequently spread out for several
successive days to be bleached under the influence of alternate
sunlight and night-dews. The pipe of the upper joint alone is
selected for plaiting, the remainder of the straw being used for
other purposes. These pipes are made up in small bundles,
bleached in sulphur fumes in a closed chest, assorted into sizes,
and so prepared for the plaiters. Straw-plaiting is a domestic
industry among the women and young children of Tuscany and
some parts of Emilia. Tuscan plaits and hats vary enormously
in quality and value; the plait of a hat of good quality may
represent the work of four or five days, while hats of the highest
quality may each occupy six to nine months in making. The
finest work is excessively trying to the eyes of the plaiters, who
can at most give to it two or three hours' labour daily.
The districts around Luton in Bedfordshire and the neigh-
bouring counties have, since the beginning of the i7th century,
been the British home of the straw-plait industry. The straw
STRAWBERRY
1005
of certain varieties of wheat cultivated in that region is, in
favourable seasons, possessed of a fine bright colour and due
tenacity and strength. The straw is cut as in ordinary har-
vesting, but is allowed to dry in the sun before binding. Sub-
sequently straws are selected from the sheaves, and of these
the pipes of the two upper joints are taken for plaiting. The
pipes are assorted into sizes by passing them through graduated
openings in a grilled wire frame, and those of good colour are
bleached by the fumes of sulphur. Spotted and discoloured
straws are dyed either in pipe or in plait. The plaiters work
up the material in a damp state, either into whole straw or
split straw plaits. Split straws are prepared with the aid of a
small instrument having a projecting point which enters the
straw pipe, and from which radiate the number of knife-edged
cutters into which the straw is to be split. The plaiting of
straw in the countiesof Bucks., Beds., Berks, and Herts, formerly
gave employment to many thousands of women and young
children; but now vast quantities of plaits are imported at a
very cheap rate from Italy, China and Japan. The result is
that, while the Luton trade in the manufacture of straw and
fancy hats of every description has largely extended, the number
of English plaiters, all told, was not more than a few hundreds
in 1907, as compared with 30,000 in 1871. The plaits are sewed
partly by hand and in a special sewing-machine, and the hats
or bonnets are finished by stiffening with gelatin size and
blocking into shape with the aid of heat and powerful pressure,
according to the dictates of fashion.
In the United States straw-plait work is principally centred
in the state of Massachusetts.
Many substances besides straw are worked into plaits and braids
for bonnets. Among these may be noticed thin strips of willow
and cane and the fronds of numerous palms. " Brazilian " hats
made from the fronds of the palmetto palms, Sabal palmetto and
5. mexicana, are now largely made at St Albans. The famous
Panama hats, fine qualities of which were at one time worth 20 to
30 each, are made from the leaves of the screw pine, Carludovica
palmata. They are now manufactured at Dresden, Strassburg and
Nancy, and can be purchased at 305. or 2.
STRAWBERRY (Fragaria). Apart from its interest as a
dessert fruit, the strawberry has claims to attention by reason
of the peculiarities of its structure and the excellent illustrations
it offers of the inherent power of variation possessed by the
plant and of the success of the gardener in availing himself of
this tendency. The genus Fragaria consists of about eight
species, native of the north temperate regions of both hemi-
spheres, as well as of mountain districts in warmer climes; one
species is found in Chile. The tufted character of the plant, and
its habit of sending out long slender branches (runners) which
produce a new bud at the extremity, are well known. The
leaves have usually three leaflets palmately arranged, but
the number of leaflets may be increased to five or reduced to
one. While the flower has the typical Rosaceous structure, the
so-called fruit is very peculiar, but it may be understood by the
contrast it presents with the " hip " of the rose. In the last-
named plant the top of the flower-stalk expands as it grows
into a vase-shaped cavity, the " hip," within which are concealed
the true fruits or seed-vessels. In the rose the extremity of
the floral axis is concave and bears the carpels in its interior.
In the strawberry the floral axis, instead of becoming concave,
swells out into a fleshy, dome-shaped or flattened mass in
which the carpels or true fruits, commonly called pips or seeds,
are more or less embedded but never wholly concealed. A
ripe strawberry in fact may be aptly compared to the " fruit '
of a rose turned inside out.
The common wild strawberry of Great Britain (fig. i), which
indeed is found throughout Europe and great part of temperate
Asia and North America, is Fragaria vesca, and this was the
first species brought under cultivation in the early part of the
1 7th century. Later on other species were introduced, such as
F. elatior, a European species, the parent stock of the hautbois
strawberries, and especially F. virginiana from the United States
and F. chiloensis from Chile. From these species, crossed anc
recrossed in various manners, have sprung the vast number
of different varieties now enumerated in catalogues, whose
characteristics are so inextricably blended that the attempt to
trace their exact parentage or to follow out their lineage has
Become impossible. The varieties at present cultivated vary
n the most remarkable degree in size, colour, flavour, shape,
degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and
constitution of plant. Some, as previously stated, vary in foliage,
others produce no runners, and some vary materially in the
relative development of their sexual organs, for, while in most
cases the flowers are in appearance hermaphrodite, at least
n structure, there is a very general tendency towards a separa-
tion of the sexes, so that the flowers are males or females only
FIG. I. Wild Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), | nat. size. In flower
and fruit, and bearing a runner.
as to function, even although they may be perfect in construc-
tion. This tendency to dioecism is a common characteristic
among Rosaceae, and sometimes proves a source of disappoint-
ment to the cultivator, who finds his plants barren where he had
hoped to gather a crop. This happens in the United States
more frequently than in Britain, but when recognized can readily
be obviated by planting male varieties in the vicinity of the
barren kinds. Darwin, in alluding to the vast amount of
variability in the so-called " fruit " a change effected by the
art of the horticulturist in less than three centuries contrasts
with', this variability the fixity and permanence of character
presented by the true fruits, or pips, which are distributed over
the surface of the swollen axis. The will and art of the gardener
have been directed to the improvement of the one organ,
while he has devoted no attention to the other, which conse-
quently remains in the same condition as in the wild plant.
Too much stress is not, however, to be laid on this point, for
it must be remembered that the foliage, which is not specially
an object of the gardener's " selection," nevertheless varies
considerably.
The larger-fruited sorts are obtained by crossing from F.
chiloensis and F. virginiana, and the smaller alpines from
F. vesca. The alpine varieties should be raised from seeds;
while the other sorts are continued true to their kinds by
runners. If new varieties are desired, these are obtained by
judicious crossing and seeding.
The seeds of the alpines should be saved from the finest fruit
ripened early in the summer. They may at once be sown, either in a
sheltered border outdoors or in pots, or better in March under glass,
when they will produce fruits in June of the same year. The soil
should be rich and light, and the seeds very slightly covered by
sifting over them some leaf-mould or old decomposed cow dung.
When the plants appear and have made five or six leaves, they are
ioo6
STREATHAM STREATOR
transplanted to where they are to remain for bearing. The seeds
sown in pots may be helped on by gentle heat, and when the plants
are large enough they are pricked out in fine rich soil, and in June
transferred to the open ground for bearing; they will produce a
partial crop in the autumn, and a full one in the following season.
The same treatment may be applied to the choicer seedlings of the
larger-fruited sorts from which new varieties are expected. Amongst
the best alpine strawberries, to which the name of " perpetual " has now
been given, are those known as St Joseph and St Anthony of Padua.
The runners of established sorts should be allowed to root in the
soil adjoining the plants, which should, therefore, be kept light and
fine, or layered into small pots as for forcing. As soon as a few
leaves are produced on each the secondary runners should be stopped.
When the plants have become well-rooted they should at once be
planted out. They do best in a rather strong loam, and should be
kept tolerably moist. The scarlet section prefers a rich sandy loam.
The ground should be trenched 2 or 3 ft. deep, and supplied with
plenty of manure, a good proportion of which should lie just below
the roots, 10 or 12 in. from the surface. The plants may be put
in on an average about 2 ft. apart.
A mulching of strawy manure put between the rows in spring
serves to keep the ground moist and the fruit clean, as well as to
afford nourishment to the plants. Unless required, the runners are
cut off early, in order to promote the swelling of the fruit. The
plants are watered during dry weather after the fruit is set, and
occasionally till it begins to colour. As soon as the fruit season is
over, the runners are again removed, and the ground hoed and raked.
The plantation should be renewed every second or third year, or
less frequently if kept free of runners, if the old leaves are cut
away after the fruit has been gathered, and if a good top-dressing
of rotten dung or leaf-mould is applied. A top-dressing of loam is
beneficial if applied before the plants begin to grow in spring, but
after that period they should not be disturbed during the summer
either at root or at top. If the plants produce a large number of
flower-scapes, each should, if fine large fruit is desired, have them
reduced to about four of the strongest. The lowest blossoms on
the scape will be found to produce the largest, earliest and best
fruits. The fruit should not be gathered till it is quite ripe, and
then, if possible, it should be quite dry, but not heated by the sun.
Those intended for preserving are best taken without the stalk and
the calyx.
Forcing. The runners propagated for forcing are layered into
3-in. pots, filled with rich soil, and held firm by a piece of raffia, a peg
or stone. If kept duly watered they will soon form independent
plants. The earlier they are secured the better. When firmly
rooted they are removed and transferred into well-drained 6-in. pots,
of strong well-enriched loam, the soil being rammed firmly into the
pots, which are to be set in an open airy place. In severe frosts
they should be covered with dry litter or bracken, but do not
necessarily require to be placed under glass. They are moved into
the forcing houses as required. The main points to be kept in view
in forcing strawberries are, first, to have strong stocky plants, the
leaves of which have grown sturdily from being well exposed to light,
and secondly, to grow them on slowly till fruit is set. When they
are first introduced into heat, the temperature should not exceed 45
or 50 by fire heat, and air must be freely admitted; should the
leaves appear to grow up thin and delicate, less fire heat and more
air must be given, but an average temperature of 55 by day may
be allowed and continued while the plants are in flower. When
the fruit is set the heat may be gradually increased, till at the
ripening period it stands at 65, and occasionally at 75 by sun heat.
While the fruit is swelling the plants should never be allowed to get
dry, but when it begins to colour no more water should be given than
is absolutely requisite to keep the leaves from flagging. The plants
should be removed from the house as soon as the crop is gathered.
The forced plants properly hardened make first-rate outdoor planta-
tions, and if put out early in summer, in good ground, will often
produce a useful autumnal crop.
Diseases. The most troublesome fungoid attacks to which the
strawberry is subject are mildew and leaf-spot. The former, like
all mildews, attacks the leaves and spreads to the fruit, these being
covered with the white mycelium. The fungus is identical with that
causing mildew in hops (Sphaerotheca humuli), and its development
is greatly furthered by exposure of its host to cold draughts or low
night temperatures. Spraying the foliage with potassium sulphide
(i oz. to I gallon of water) should hold it in check, but the plants
should not be sprayed when the fruit is developing. The " leaf-
spot " is caused by the fungus Sphaerella fragariae. The first
symptom of this attack is the appearance of small, circular, white
spots on the leaves, having a broad, definite, dark reddish margin.
FIG. 2. Sphaerotheca humuli, Hop and Strawberry Mildew.
Small portion of surface of hop leaf showing the fructification or
perithecia (p) of the fungus attached to the surface; h, a hair
of the leaf surface. (X 200.) I, A single perithecium bursting;
2, a chain of spores or conidia. (l and 2 X 400.)
(From George Maasee's Textbook oj Plant Diseases, by permission of Duckworth & Co.)
FIG. 3. Sphaerella fragariae.
1, Strawberry leaf showing diseased spots.
2, Ascus with eight spores from a perithecium. (X 300.)
3, Spores or conidia of the Ramularia stage. (X 300.)
On these spots a whitish mould (formerly considered to be a distinct
species under the name Ramularia tulasnei) develops, and this is
followed later by the perfect form of the fungus, the fruits of which
appear to the naked eye as small black spots seated on the white
dead spot on the leaf. Potassium sulphide may be used as for the
mildew, or, perhaps better, Bordeaux mixture. It has been recom-
mended to cut off the leaves after fruiting and burn the beds over so
as to destroy the fungus in the leaves.
The grubs of the cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris) and the rose-
chafer (Cetonia aurala) frequently feed upon the roots of the straw-
berry and do considerable damage, while the larvae of the garden
swift moth (Hepialus) behave in a similar way. The imago of
Cetonia aurata also frequently damages the flowers of the strawberry
by devouring their centres, and is often troublesome in this way in
forcing-houses particularly. The carnivorous ground beetles,
particularly Pterostichus nigra and Harpalus rufimanus, when the
fruit is ripe attack it at night, returning to the soil in the daytime.
They are to be caught by placing jars containing some attractive
matter, such as meat and water, at intervals about the beds with
their mouths sunk level with the surface of the soil. Millepedes also
are often found in the ripe fruit, but occur mostly where the soil is
very rich in organic matter and poor in lime.
STREATHAM, a large residential district in the south of
London, England, within the municipal borough of Wands-
worth. The name appears to indicate its position on an ancient
" street " or highway. According to Domesday, Streatham
included several manors, two of which, Tooting and Balham
(to follow the modern nomenclature), belonged to the abbot of
St Mary de Bee in Normandy. One of several public grounds
in the neighbourhood of Streatham is called Tooting Bee
Common. The parish church of St Leonard, Streatham, contains
among its memorials that of Henry Thrale (d. 1781), with an
inscription by Samuel Johnson, who was a constant visitor at
Thrale's house, Streatham Park, which is no longer standing.
STREATOR, a city of La Salle county, Illinois, U.S.A., on
the Vermilion river, in the N. part of the state, about 95 m.
S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890), 11,414; (1900), 14,079, of whom
j 3740 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,253; land area,
STREET STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1007
2-97 sq. m. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa
Fe, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton,
the Chicago, Indiana & Southern and the Wabash railways.
Streator has a public library and a Chautauqua auditorium.
It is in the Vermilion coal region, and clay for brick and tile is
abundant in its vicinity. The city's manufactures include
glass, brick, tile, foundry and machine-shop products, &c.
In 1905 the factory product was valued at $1,888,894, being
51-4% greater than in 1900. Streator was laid out in 1868,
was incorporated as a village in 1870 and was chartered as a
city in 1882.
STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881), English architect,
was born at Woodford in Essex on the 2oth of June 1824. He
was the third son of Thomas Street, solicitor, by his second
wife, Mary Anne Millington. George went to school at Mitcham
in about 1830, and later to the Camberwell collegiate school,
which he left in 1839. For a few months he was in his father's
business in Philpot Lane, but on his father's death he went to
live with his mother and sister at Exeter. There his thoughts
first turned to architecture, and in 1841 his mother obtained a
place for him as pupil in the office of Mr Owen Carter at Win-
chester. Afterwards he worke'd for five years as an " improver "
with Sir George Gilbert Scott in London. At an early age
Street became deeply interested in the principles of Gothic
architecture, and devoted an unsparing amount of time and
labour to studying and sketching the finest examples of medieval
buildings in England and on the Continent. His first com-
mission was for the designing of Biscoray Church, Cornwall.
In 1849 he took an office of his own. He was a draughtsman of
a very high order; his sketches are masterpieces of spirit and
brilliant touch. In 1855 he published a very careful and well-
illustrated work on The Brick and Marble Architecture of Northern
Italy, and in 1865 a book on The Gothic Architecture of Spain,
with very beautiful drawings by his own hand. Street's personal
taste led him in most cases to select for his design the 13th-
century Gothic of England or France, his knowledge of which
was very great, especially in the skilful use of rich mouldings.
By far the majority of the buildings erected by him were for
ecclesiastical uses, the chief being the convent of East Grinstead,
the theological college at Cuddesden and a very large number of
churches, such as St Philip and St James's at Oxford, St John's
at Torquay, All Saints' at Clifton, St Saviour's at Eastbourne,
St Margaret's at Liverpool and St Mary Magdalene, Paddington.
His largest works were the nave of Bristol Cathedral, the choir
of the cathedral of Christ Church in Dublin, and, above all, the
new courts of justice in London. The competition for this was
prolonged and much diversity of opinion was expressed. Thus,
the judges wanted Street to make the exterior arrangements
and Barry the interior, while a special committee of lawyers
recommended the designs of Alfred Waterhouse. In June
1868, however, Street was appointed sole architect; but the
building was not complete at the time of hfs death in December
1 88 1. Street was elected an associate of the Royal Academy
in 1866, and R.A. in 1871; at the time of his death he was
professor of architecture to the Royal Academy, where he had
delivered a very interesting course of lectures on the develop-
ment of medieval architecture. He was also president of the
Royal Institute of British Architects. He was a member of the
Royal Academy of Vienna, and in 1878, in reward for drawings
sent to the Paris Exhibition, he was made a knight of the Legion
of Honour. Street was twice married, first on the i7th of June
1852 to Mariquita, second daughter of Robert Proctor, who
died in 1874, and secondly on the nth of January 1876 to Jessie,
second daughter of William Holland, who died in the same year.
The architect's own death, on the i8th of December 1881, was
hastened by overwork and professional worries connected with
the erection of the law courts. He was buried on the 2gth of
December in the nave of Westminster Abbey.
STRELITZ (Strjeltsi), a body of Russian household troops
originally raised by the tsar Ivan the Terrible in the middle
of the 1 6th century. They numbered 40,000 to 50,000 infantry,
and formed the greater part of the Russian armies in the wars
of the 1 6th and i7th centuries. They were a fierce and ill-
disciplined' force, individually brave and cruel in war, and
almost ungovernable in peace. Their mutinies were frequent
and dangerous, and at last, in 1682, an unusually serious out-
break led Peter the Great to compass the abolition of the
force. The Strelitz were gradually drawn to the western frontier
of Russia, and in 1698 they rose in mutiny for the last time.
Crushed in battle by Peter's general, Patrick Gordon, they
ceased to exist as a military force, and about 2000 of them who
fell into the hands of the tsar were barbarously tortured and
put to death.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, that part of the theory of
engineering which deals with the nature and effects of stresses
in the parts of engineering structures. Its principal object
is to determine the proper size and form of pieces which have to
bear given loads, or, conversely, to determine the loads which
can be safely applied to pieces whose dimensions and arrange-
ment are already given. It also treats of the relation between
the applied loads and the changes of form which they cause.
The subject comprises experimental investigation of the pro-
perties of materials as to strength and elasticity, and mathe-
matical discussion of the stresses in ties, struts, beams, shafts
and other elements of structures and machines.
Stress is the mutual action between two bodies, or between
two parts of a body, whereby each of the two exerts a force
upon the other. Thus, when a stone lies on the ground there
is at the surface of contact a stress, one aspect of which is the
force directed downwards with which the stone pushes the
ground, and the other aspect is the equal force directed upwards
with which the ground pushes the stone. A body is said to be
in a state of stress when there is a stress between the two parts
which lie on opposite sides of an imaginary surface of section.
A pillar or block supporting a weight is in a state of stress
because at any cross section the part above the section pushes
down against the part below, and the part below pushes up
against the part above. A stretched rope is in a state of
stress, because at any cross section the part on each side is
pulling the part on the other side with a force in the direction
of the rope's length. A plate of metal that is being cut in a
shearing machine is in a state of stress, because at the place
where it is about to give way the portion of metal on either
side of the plane of shear is tending to drag the portion on the
other side with a force in that plane.
Normal and Tangential Stress. In a solid body which is in a
state of stress the direction of stress at an imaginary surface of
division may be normal, oblique or tangential to the surface. When
oblique it is conveniently treated as consisting of a normal and a
tangential component. Normal stress may be either push (com-
pressive stress) or pull (tensile stress). Stress which is tangential
to the surface is called shearing stress. Oblique stress may be
regarded as so much push or pull along with so much shearing stress.
The amount of stress per unit of surface is called the intensity of
stress. Stress is said to be uniformly distributed over a surface
when each fraction of the area of surface bears a corresponding
fraction of the whole stress. If a stress P is uniformly distributed
over a plane surface of area S, the intensity is P/S. If the stress is
not uniformly distributed, the intensity at any point is SP/5S,
where 5P is the amount of stress on an indefinitely small area 6S
at the point considered. For practical purposes intensity of stress
is usually expressed in tons weight per square inch, pounds weight
per square inch, or kilogrammes weight per square millimetre or per
square centimetre.
Simple Longitudinal Stress. The simplest possible state of stress
is that of a short pillar or block compressed by opposite forces applied
at its ends, or that of a stretched rope or other tie. In these cases
the stress is wholly in one direction, that of the length. These
states may be distinguished as simple longitudinal push and simple
longitudinal pull. In them there is no stress on planes parallel to
the direction of the applied forces.
Compound Stress. A more complex state of stress occurs if the
block is compressed or extended by forces applied to a pair of oppo-
site sides, as well as by forces applied to its ends that is to say, if
two simple longitudinal stresses in different directions act together.
A still more complex state occurs if a third stress be applied to the
remaining pair of sides. It may be shown (see ELASTICITY) that
any state of stress which can possibly exist at any point of a body
may be produced by the joint action of three simple pull or push
stresses in three suitably chosen directions at right angles to each
ioo8
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
other. These three are called principal stresses, and their directions
are called the axes of principal stress. These axes have the impor-
tant property that the intensity of stress along one of them is greater,
and along another it is less, than in any other direction. These are
called respectively the axes of greatest and least principal stress.
Resolution of Stress. Returning now to the case of a single simple
longitudinal stress, let AB (fig. i) be a portion of a tie or a strut
which is being pulled or pushed in the direction of
the axis AB with a total stress P. On any plane
CD taken at right angles to the axis we have a
normal pull or push of intensity p = P/S, S being
the area of the normal cross-section. On a plane
EF whose normal is inclined to the axis at an
angle 9 we have a stress still in the direction of the
axis, and therefore oblique to the plane EF, of
intensity P/S', where S' is the area of the surface
EF, or S/cos 6. The whole stress P on EF may
be resolved into two components, one normal to
EF, and the other a shearing stress
tangential to EF. The normal com-
ponent (P n , fig. 2) is P cos 0; the
tangential component (P ( ) is P sin 6.
Hence the intensity of normal pull or
push on EF, or p n , is p cos 2 9, and the
intensity of shearing stress EF, or p t ,
is p sin 8 cos 9. This expression makes
p, a. maximum when # = 45: surfaces inclined at
45 to the axis are called surfaces of maximum
shearing stress; the intensity of shearing stress on
them is \p.
Combination of Two Simple Pull or Push Stresses at Right Angles to
One Another. Suppose next that there are two principal stresses:
in other words that in addition to
the simple pull or push stress of
fig. I there is a second pull or push
stress acting at right angles to it
as in fig. 3. Call these P* and P v
respectively. On any inclined
surface EF there will be an in-
tensity of stress whose normal
component p n and tangential com-
ponent p t are found by summing
up the effects due to P* and P
separately. Let p x and p v be the
intensities of stress produced by
P x and P v respectively on planes
perpendicular to their own direc-
tions. Then
pi = (Pt py) sin B cos 0,
6 being the angle which the normal to the surface makes with the
direction of P t .
The tangential stress p, becomes a maximum when is 45 , and
its value then is
Max. />, = $ (p,-p v ).
If in addition there is a third principal stress P t , it will not produce
any tangential component on planes perpendicular to the plane of
the figure. Hence the above expression for the maximum tangential
stress will still apply, and it is easy to extend this result so as to reach
the important general proposition that in any condition of stress
whatever the maximum intensity of shearing stress is equal to one-
half the difference between the greatest and least principal stresses
and occurs on surfaces inclined at 45 to them.
State of Simple Shear. A spe-
cial case of great importance
occurs when there are two prin-
cipal stresses only, equal in
magnitude and opposite in sign;
in other words, when one is a
simple push and the other a
simple pull. Then on surfaces
inclined at 45 to the axes of
pull and push there is nothing
but tangential stress, for p, = o;
and this intensity of tangential
stress is numerically equal to
pi or to p v . This condition of
stress is called a state of simple
shear.
The state of simple shear may
also be arrived at in another way.
B
FIG. 4.
Let an elementary cubical part of any solid body (fig. 4) have tangen-
tial stresses QQ applied to one pair of opposite faces, A and B, and
equal tangential stresses applied to a second pair of faces C and D,
Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24 and 25 are from
Ewing's Strength of Materials, by permission of the Cambridge
University Press.
as in the figure. The effect is to set up a state of simple shear.
On all planes parallel to A and B there is nothing but tangential
stress, and the same is true of all planes parallel to C and D. The
intensity of the stress on both systems of planes is equal throughout
to the intensity of the stress which was applied to the face of the
block.
To see the connexion between these two ways of specifying a
state of simple shear consider the equilibrium of the parts into which
the block may be divided by ideal diagonal planes of section. To
balance the forces QQ (fig. 5), there must be normal pull on the
diagonal plane, the amount of which is P = QV2. But the area of
the surface over which P acts is greater than that of the surface
over which Q acts in the proportion which P bears to Q, and hence
the intensity of P is the same as the intensity of Q.
FIG. 5.
Again, taking the other diagonal plane (fig. 6), the same argument
applies except that here the normal force P required for equilibrium
is a push instead of a pull. Thus the
state of stress represented in fig. 4
admits of analysis into two equal prin-
cipal stresses, one of push and one of
pull, acting in directions at right angles
to one another and inclined at 45 to the
planes of shear stress.
Equality of Shearing Stress in Two
Directions. No tangential stress can
exist in one direction without an equal
intensity of tangential stress existing in
another direction at right angles to the
first. To prove this it is sufficient to .*
consider the equilibrium of the ele- 9
mentary cube of fig. 4. The tangential F IG - -
forces acting on two sides A and B produce a couple which tends to
rotate the cube. No arrangement of normal stresses on any of the
three pairs of sides of the cube can balance this couple ; that can be
done only by equal tangential forces on C and D.
Fluid Stress. Another important case occurs when there are three
principal stresses all of the same sign and of equal intensity p. The
tangential components on any planes cancel each other : the stress
on every plane is wholly normal and its intensity is p. This is the
only state of stress that can exist in a fluid at rest because a fluid
exerts no statical resistance to shear. For this reason the state is
often spoken of as a fluid stress.
Strain is the change of shape produced by stress. If the
stress is a simple longitudinal pull, the strain consists of lengthen-
ing in the direction of the pull, accompanied by contraction in
both directions at right angles to the pull. If the stress is a
simple push, the strain consists of shortening in the direction
of the push and expansion in both directions at right angles to
that; the stress and the strain are then exactly the reverse of
what they are in the case of simple pull. If the stress is one of
simple shearing, the strain consists of a distortion such as would
be produced by the sliding of layers in the direction of the
shearing stresses.
A material is elastic with regard to any applied stress if
the strain disappears when the stress is removed. Strain
which persists after the stress that produced it is removed is
called permanent set. For brevity, it is convenient to speak of
strain which disappears when the stress is removed as elastic
strain.
Limits of Elasticity. Actual materials are generally very
perfectly elastic with regard to small stresses, and very imper-
fectly elastic with regard to great stresses. If the applied stress
is less than a certain limit, the strain is in general small -in
amount, and disappears wholly, or almost wholly, when the stress
is removed. If the applied stress exceeds this limit, the strain
is, in general, much greater than before, and most of it is found,
when the stress is removed, to consist of permanent set. The
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1009
limits of stress within which strain is wholly or almost wholly
elastic are called limits of elasticity.
For any particular mode of stress the limit of elasticity is
much more sharply defined in some materials than in others.
When well defined it may readily be recognized in the testing
of a sample from the fact that after the stress exceeds the limit
of elasticity the strain begins to increase in a much more rapid
ratio to the stress than before. This characteristic goes along
with the one already mentioned, that up to the limit the
strain is wholly or almost wholly elastic.
Hooke's Law. Within the limits of elasticity the strain produced
by a stress of any one kind is proportional to the stress producing it.
This is Hooke's law, enunciated by him in 1676.
In applying Hooke's law to the case of simple longitudinal stress
such as the case of a bar stretched by simple longitudinal pull
we may measure the state of strain by the change of length per unit
of original length which the bar undergoes when stressed. Let the
original length be I, and let the whole change of length be Si when a
stress is applied whose intensity p is within the elastic limit. Then
the strain is measured by Sl/l, and this by Hooke's law is propor-
tional to p. This may be written
Sl/l = plE,
where E is a constant for the particular material considered. The
same value of E applies to push and to pull, these modes of stress
being essentially continuous, and differing only in sign.
Young's Modulus. This constant E is called the modulus of
longitudinal extensibility, or Young's modulus. Its value, which is
expressed in the same units as are used to express intensity of stress,
may be measured directly by exposing a sample of the material to
longitudinal pull and noting the extension, or indirectly by measuring
the flexure of a loaded beam of the material, or by experiments on
the frequency of vibrations. It is frequently spoken of by engineers
simply as the modulus of elasticity, but this name is too general, as
there are other moduli applicable to other modes of stress. Since
H. = pl/dl, the modulus may be defined as the ratio of the intensity
of stress p to the longitudinal strain bill.
Modulus of Rigidity. In the case of simple shearing stress, the
strain may be measured by the angle by which each of the four
originally right angles in the square prism of fig. 3 is altered by the
distortion of the prism. Let this angle be <t> in radians; then by
Hooke's law p/if> = C, where p is the intensity of shearing stress and
C is a constant which measures the rigidity of the material. C
is called the modulus of rigidity, and is usually determined by
experiments on torsion.
Modulus of Cubic Compressibility. When three simple stresses
of equal intensity * and of the same sign (all pulls or all pushes) are
applied in three directions, the material (provided it be isotropic,
that is to say, provided its properties are the same in all directions)
suffers change of volume only, without distortion of form. If the
volume is V and the change of volume 5V, the ratio of the stress p
to the strain 5V/V is called the modulus of cubic compressibility, and
will be denoted by K.
Of these three moduli the one of most importance in en-
gineering applications is Young's modulus E. When a simple longi-
tudinal pull or push of intensity p is applied to a piece, the
longitudinal strain of extension or compression is p/E,. This is
accompanied by a lateral contraction or expansion, in each trans-
verse direction, whose amount may be written p/o-E, where <r is the
ratio of longitudinal to lateral strain. It is shown in the article
ELASTICITY, that for an isotropic material
Plastic Strain. Beyond the limits of elasticity the relation of
strain to stress becomes very indefinite. Materials then exhibit,
to a greater or less degree, the property of plasticity. The strain is
niuch affected by the length of time during which the stress has been
in operation, and reaches its maximum, for any assigned stress,
only after a long (perhaps an indefinitely long) time. Finally, when
the stress is sufficiently increased, the ratio of the increment of strain
to the increment of stress becomes indefinitely great if time is given
for the stress to take effect. In other words, the substance then
assumes what may be called a completely plastic state; it flows under
the applied stress like a viscous liquid.
Ultimate Strength. The ultimate strength of a material with regard
to any stated mode of stress is the stress required to produce rupture.
In reckoning ultimate strength, however, engineers take, not the
actual intensity of stress at which rupture occurs, but the value
which this intensity would have reached had rupture ensued without
previous alteration of shape. Thus, if a bar whose original cross-
section is 2 sq. in. breaks under a uniformly distributed pull of 60
tons, the ultimate tensile strength of the material is reckoned to be
30 tons per square inch, although the actual intensity of stress which
produced rupture may have been much greater than this, owing to
the contraction of the section previous to fracture. The convenience
of this usage will be obvious from an example. Suppose that a
piece of material of the same quality be used in a structure under
conditions which cause it to bear a simple pull of 6 tons per square
inch ; we conclude at once that the actual load is one-fifth of that
which would cause rupture, irrespective of the extent to which the
material might contract in section if overstrained. The stresses
which occur in engineering practice are, or ought to be, in all cases
within the limits of elasticity, and within these limits the change
of cross-section caused by longitudinal pull or push is so small that
it may be neglected in reckoning the intensity of stress.
Ultimate tensile strength and ultimate shearing strength are
well defined, since these modes of stress (simple pull and simple
shearing stress) lead to distinct fracture if the stress is sufficiently
increased. Under compression some materials yield so continuously
that their ultimate strength to resist compression can scarcely be
specified; others show so distinct a fracture by crushing that their
compressive strength may be determined with some precision.
Some of the materials used in engineering, notably timber and
wrought iron, are so far from being isotropic that their strength
is widely different for stresses in different directions. In the case
of wrought iron the process of rolling develops a fibrous structure
on account of the presence of streaks of slag which become inter-
spersed with the metal in puddling; and the tensile strength of a
rolled plate is found to be considerably greater in the direction
of rolling than across the plate. Steel plates, being rolled from a
nearly homogeneous ingot, have nearly the same strength in both
directions, provided the process of rolling is completed at a tempera-
ture high enough to allow recrystallization to take place in cooling.
Cold-rolled or cold-drawn metal is not isotropic because the crystals
of which it is made up have been elongated in one direction by
the process: but isotropy may be restored by heating the piece
sufficiently to allow the crystals to re-form.
Permissible Working Stress. In applying a knowledge of
the strength of materials to determine the proper sizes of parts
in an engineering structure we have to estimate a permissible
working stress. This is based partly on special tests and partly on
experience of the behaviour of the material when used in similar
structures. The working stress is rarely so much as one-third
of the ultimate strength; it is more commonly one-fourth or
one-fifth and in some cases, especially where the loads to be
borne are liable to reversal or to much change, it may be prudent
to make the working stress even less than this.
Factor of Safety. The ratio of the ultimate strength to the
working stress is called the factor of safety. The factor should
in general be such as to bring the working stress within the limit
of elasticity and even to leave within that limit a margin which
will be ample enough to cover such contingencies as imperfec-
tion in the theory on which the calculation of the working stress
is founded, lack of uniformity in the material itself, uncertainty
in the estimation of loads, imperfections of workmanship which
may cause the actual dimensions to fall short of those that have
been specified, alterations arising from wear, rust and so forth.
An important distinction has to be drawn in this connexion
between steady or " dead " loads and loads which are subject
to variation and especially to reversal. With the former the
working stress may reach or pass the elastic limit without
destroying the structure; but in a piece subject to reversals a
stress of the same magnitude would lead inevitably to rupture,
and hence a larger margin should be left to ensure that in the
latter case the elastic limit shall not even be approached.
It is in fact the elastic limit rather than the ultimate strength
of the material on which the question mainly depends of how
high the working stress may safely be allowed to rise in any
particular conditions as to mode of loading, and accordingly
it becomes a matter of much practical importance to determine
by tests the amount of stress which can be borne without per-
manent strain. From an engineering point of view the struc-
tural merit of a material, especially when variable loads and
possible shocks have to be sustained, depends not only on the
strength but also on the extent to which the material will bear
deformation without rupture. This characteristic is shown
in tests made to determine tensile strength by the amount of
ultimate elongation, and also by the contraction of the cross-
section which occurs through the flow of the metal before rup-
ture. It is often, tested in other ways, such as by bending and
unbending bars in a circle of specified radius, or by examining
the effect of repeated- blows. Tests by impact are generally
1010
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
made by causing a weight to fall through a regulated distance
on a piece of the material supported as a beam.
Tests of Strength. Ordinary tests of strength are made by
submitting the piece to direct pull, direct compression, bending
or torsion. Testing machines are frequently arranged so
that they may apply any of these four modes of stress; tests by
direct tension are the most common, and next to them come
tests by bending. When the samples to be tested for tensile
strength are mere wires, the stress may be applied directly by
weights; for pieces of larger section some mechanical multi-
plication of force becomes necessary. Owing to the plas-
ticity of the materials to be tested, the applied loads must
be able to follow considerable change of form in the test-piece:
thus in testing the tensile strength of wrought iron or steel
provision must be made for taking up the large extension of
length which occurs before fracture. In most modern forms of
large testing machines the loads are applied by means of hydraulic
pressure acting on a piston or plunger to which one end of the
specimen is secured, and the stress is measured by connecting
lever. The lower holder is jointed to a cross-head C, which is
connected by two vertical screws to a lower cross-head B, upon
which the hydraulic plunger shown in section in fig. 7 exerts
its thrust. G is a counterpoise which pushes up the plunger
when the water is allowed to escape. Hydraulic pressure may
be applied to the plunger by pumps or by an accumulator.
In the present instance it is applied by means of an auxiliary
plunger Q, which is pressed by screw gearing into an auxiliary
cylinder. Q is driven by a belt on the pulley D. This puts
stress on the specimen, and the weight W is then run out along
the lever so that the lever is just kept floating between the stops
E, E. Before the test-piece is put in the distance between the
holders is regulated by means of the screws connecting the upper
and lower cross-heads C and B, these screws being turned by a
handle applied at F. The knife edges are made long enough to
prevent the load on them from ever exceeding 5 tons to the linear
inch. To adapt a machine of this class for tests in compression,
a small platform is suspended like a stirrup by four rods from the
weigh-beam, and hangs below the cross-head, which is pulled
the other end to a lever or system of levers provided with adjust-
able weights. In small machines, and also in some large ones,
the stress is applied by screw gearing instead of by hydraulic
pressure. Springs are sometimes used instead of weights to
measure the stress, and another plan is to make one end of the
specimen act on a diaphragm forming part of a hydrostatic
pressure gauge.
Single-lever Testing Machine. Figs. 7 and 8 show an excellent
form of single-lever testing machine designed by J. H. Wick-
steed (Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., August 1882) in which the stress
is applied by an hydraulic plunger and is measured by a lever
or steelyard and a movable weight. The illustration shows a
3o-ton machine, but machines of similar design are in common
use which exert a force of 100 tons or more. AA is the lever,
on which there is a graduated scale. The stress on the test-
piece T is measured by a weight W of i ton (with an attached
vernier scale), which is moved along the lever by a screw-shaft
S; this screw-shaft is driven by a belt from a parallel shaft R,
which takes its motion, through bevel-wheels and a Hooke's
joint in the axis of the fulcrum, from the hand-wheel H.
(The Hooke's joint in the shaft R is shown in a separate sketch
above the lever in fig. 8.) The holder for the upper end of the
sample hangs from a knife-edge 3 in. from the fulcrum of the
FIG. 8.
down when the hydraulic cylinder is put in action. The arrange-
ment is that of two stirrups linked with one another, so that
when the two pull against each other a block of material placed
between them becomes compressed. For tests in bending one
of the stirrups, namely, the platform which hangs from the
weigh-beam, is made some 4 or 5 ft. long, and carries two knife-
edge supports at its ends on which the ends of the piece that is
to be bent rest, while the cross-head presses down upon the
middle of the piece. In both cases the force which is exerted is
measured by means of the weigh-beam and travelling weight,
just as in the tension tests. To apply the force continuously.
without shock, and either quickly or slowly at will, a very con-
venient plan is to use an hydraulic intensifier, consisting of a
large hydraulic piston operating a much smaller one. By
gradually admitting water to the large piston from any con-
venient source under moderate pressure, such as the town water
mains, a progressively increased pressure is produced in the
fluid on which the small piston acts, and this fluid is admitted
to the straining cylinder of the machine. One of the advantages
of the vertical type of machine, with its single horizontal lever,
is the facility with which the correctness of its readings may be
verified. The two things to be tested are (i) the distance
between the knife-edges, one of which forms the fulcrum of the
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
101 1
weigh-beam and from the other of which the shackle holding the
upper end of the specimen is hung, and (2) the weight of the
travelling poise. The weight of the poise is readily ascertained
by using a supplementary known weight to apply a known
moment to the beam, and measuring how far the poise has to
be moved to restore equilibrium. The distance between the
knife-edges is then found by hanging a known heavy weight
from the shackle, and again observing how far the poise has to
be moved. Another example of the single-lever type is the
Werder testing machine, much used on the continent of Europe.
In it the specimen is horizontal; one end is fixed, the other
is attached to the short vertical arm of a bell-crank lever,
whose fulcrum is pushed out horizontally by an hydraulic ram. 1
Multiple-lever Testing Machines. In many other testing
machines a system of two, three or more levers is employed to
reduce the force between the specimen and the measuring weight.
In most cases the fulcrums are fixed, and the stress is applied to
one end of the specimen by hydraulic power or by screw gear-
ing, which takes up the stretch, as in the single-lever machines
already described. David Kirkaldy, who was one of the
earliest as well as one of the most assiduous workers in this field,
applied in his 1,000,000 Ib machine a horizontal hydraulic press
directly to one end of the horizontal test-piece. The other end
of the piece was connected to the short vertical arm of a bell-
crank lever; the long arm of this lever was horizontal, and was
connected to a second lever to which weights were applied.
Machines have been employed in which one end of the speci-
men is held in a fixed support; an hydraulic press acts on the
other end, and the stress is calculated from the pressure of fluid
in the press, this being observed by a pressure-gauge. Machines
of this class are open to the obvious objection that the friction
of the hydraulic plunger causes a large and very uncertain
difference between the force exerted by the fluid on the
plunger and the force exerted by the plunger on the speci-
men. It appears, however, that in the ordinary conditions of
packing the friction is very nearly proportional to the fluid
pressure, and its effect may therefore be allowed for with some
exactness. The method is not to be recommended for work
requiring precision, unless the plunger be kept in constant rota-
tion on its own axis during the test, in which case the effects
of friction are almost entirely eliminated.
Diaphragm Testing Machines. In another class of testing
machines the stress (applied as before to one end of the piece,
by gearing or by hydraulic pressure) is measured by connecting
the other end to a flexible diaphragm, on which a liquid
acts whose pressure is determined by a gauge. Fig. 9 shows
FIG. 9.
Thomasset's testing machine, in which one end of the specimen
is pulled by an hydraulic press A. The other end acts through
a bell-crank lever B on a horizontal diaphragm C, consisting
of a metallic plate and a flexible ring of india-rubber. The
pressure on the diaphragm causes a column of mercury to rise
in the gauge-tube D. The same principle is applied in the
remarkable testing machine of Watertown arsenal, built in
1879 by the U.S. government to the designs of A. H. Emery.
This is a horizontal machine, taking specimens of any length up
1 Maschine zum Prufen d. Festigkeit d. Maierialen, &c. (Munich,
1882).
to 30 ft., and exerting a pull of 360 tons or a push of 480 tons
by an hydraulic press at one end. The stress is taken at the
other end by a group of four large vertical diaphragm presses,
which communicate by small tubes with four similar small
diaphragm presses in the scale case. The pressure of these
acts on a system of levers which terminates in the scale beam.
The joints and bearings of all the levers are made frictionless
by using flexible steel connecting-plates instead of knife-edges.
The total multiplication at the end of the scale beam is 420,000.-
Stress-strain Diagrams. The results of tests are very com-
monly exhibited by means of stress-strain diagrams, or diagrams
showing the relation of strain to stress. A few typical diagrams
for wrought iron and steel in tension are given in fig. 10, the
data for which are taken from tests of long rods by Kirkaldy. 3
Up to the elastic limit these diagrams show sensibly the same
rate of extension for all the materials to which they refer. Soon
after the limit of elasticity is passed, a point, which has been
called by Sir A. B. W. Kennedy the yield-point, is reached,
6 8 10 12 14
Extension. per cent
FIG. 10.
10 18 20
which is marked by a very sudden extension of the specimen.
After this the extension becomes less rapid; then it continues
at a fairly regular and gradually increasing rate; near the point
of rupture the metal again begins to draw out rapidly. When
this stage is reached rupture will occur through the flow of the
metal, even if the load be
somewhat decreased. The
diagram may in this way be
made to come back towards
the line of no load, by with-
drawing a part of the load
as the end of the test is
approached.
Fig. ii is a stress-strain
diagram for cast iron in ex-
tension and compression,
taken from Eaton Hodg-
kinson's experiments. 4 The
extension was measured on
a rod 50 ft. long; the
compression was also mea-
sured on a long rod, which
2 See Report of the U.S. Board appointed to test Iron, Steel and other
Metals (2 vols., 1881). For full details of the Emery machine, see
Report of the U.S. Chief of Ordnance (1883), app. 24.
3 Experiments on the Mechanical Properties of Steel by a Committee
of Civil Engineers (London, 1868 and 1870).
4 Report of the Commissioners on the Application of Iron to Railway
Structures (1849).
FIG. ii.
1012
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
was prevented from buckling by being supported in a trough
with partitions. The full line gives the strain produced by
loading; it is continuous through the origin, showing that Young's
modulus is the same for pull and push. (Similar experiments
on wrought iron and steel in extension and compression have
given the same result.) The broken line shows the set produced
by each load. Hodgkinson found that some set could be de-
tected after even the smallest loads had been applied. This is
probably due to the existence of initial internal stress in the
metal, produced by unequally rapid cooling in different por-
tions of the cast bar. A second loading of the same piece
showed a much closer approach to perfect elasticity. The
elastic limit is, at the best, ill defined; but by the time the
ultimate load is reached the set has become a more considerable
part of the whole strain. The pull curves in the diagram ex-
tend to the point of rupture; the compression curves are
drawn only up to a stage at which the bar buckled (between
the partitions) so much as to affect the results.
Autographic Recorders. Testing machines are sometimes
fitted with autographic appliances for drawing strain diagrams.
When the load is measured by a weight travelling on a
steelyard, the diagram may be drawn by connecting the
weight with a drum by means of a wire or cord, so that
the drum is made to revolve through angles proportional to the
travel of the weight. At the same time another wire, fastened
to a clip near one end of the specimen, and passing over a
pulley near the other end, draws a pencil through distances
proportional to the strain, and so traces a diagram of stress
and strain on a sheet of paper stretched round the drum. 1
In Wicksteed's autographic recorder the stress is determined
by reference, not to the load on the lever, but to the pres-
sure in the hydraulic cylinder by which stress is applied. The
main cylinder is in communication with a small auxiliary
hydraulic cylinder, the plunger of which is kept rotating to
avoid friction at its packing. This plunger abuts against a
spring, so that the distance through which it is pushed out
varies with the pressure in the main cylinder. A drum
covered with paper moves with the plunger under a fixed
pencil, and is also caused to rotate by a wire from the specimen
through distances proportional to the strain. The scale of loads
is calibrated by occasional reference to the weighted lever. 2
In Kennedy's apparatus autographic diagrams are drawn by
applying the stress to the test-piece through an elastic master-
bar of larger section. The master-bar is never strained beyond
its elastic limit, and within that limit its extension furnishes an
accurage measure of the stress; this gives motion to a pencil,
which writes on a paper moved by the extension of the test-
piece. 3 In R. H. Thurston's pendulum machine for torsion
tests, a cam attached to the pendulum moves a pencil through
distances proportional to the stress, while a paper drum attached
to the other end of the test -piece turns under the pencil through
distances proportional to the angle of twist. 4
Strain beyond the Elastic Limit: Influence of Time. In testing
a plastic material such as wrought-iron or mild steel it is found
that the behaviour of the metal depends very materially on the
time rate at which stress is applied. When once the elastic
limit is passed the full strain corresponding to a given load is
reached only after a perceptible time, sometimes even a long
1 For descriptions of these and other types of autographic recorder,
see a paper by Professor W. C. Unwin, " On the Employment of
Autographic Records in Testing Materials," Journ. Soc. Arts (Feb.,
1886) ; also Sir A. B. W. Kennedy's paper, " On the Use and Equip-
ment of Engineering Laboratories,' Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. (1886),
which contains much valuable information on the whole subject of
testing and testing machines. On the general subject of tests see
also Adolf Martens's Handbook of Testing Materials, trans, by G. C.
Henning.
* Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1886). An interesting feature of this
apparatus is a device for preventing error in the diagram through
motion of the test-piece as a whole.
'Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1886); also Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol.
Ixxxviii. pi. i (1886).
4 Thurston's Materials of Engineering, pt. ii. For accounts of
work done with this machine, see Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng. (from
1876) ; also, Report of the American Board, cited above.
time. If the load be increased to a value exceeding the elastic
limit, and then kept constant, the metal will be seen to draw out
(if the stress be one of pull), at first rapidly and then more slowly.
When the applied load is considerably less than the ultimate
strength of the piece (as tested in the ordinary way by steady
increment of load) it appears that this process of slow extension
comes at last to an end. On the other hand, when the applied
load is nearly equal to the ultimate strength, the flow of the metal
continues until rupture occurs. Then, as in the former case,
extension goes on at first quickly, then slowly, but finally,
instead of approaching an asymptotic limit, it quickens again
as the piece approaches rupture. The same phenomena are
observed in the bending of timber and other materials when in
the form of beams. If, instead of being subjected to a constant
load, a test-piece is set in a constant condition of strain, it is
found that the stress required to maintain this constant strain
gradually decreases.
The gradual flow which goes on under constant stress
approaching a limit if the stress is moderate in amount, and
continuing without limit if the stress is sufficiently great will
still go on at a diminished rate if the amount of stress be reduced.
Thus, in the testing of soft iron or mild steel by a machine in
which the stress is applied by hydraulic power, a stage is reached
soon after the limit of elasticity is passed at which the metal
begins to flow with great rapidity. The pumps often do not
keep pace with this, and
the result is that, if the
lever is to be kept
floating, the weight on
it must be run back.
Under this reduced
stress the flow continues,
more slowly than be-
fore, until presently the
pumps recover their lost
ground and the increase
of stress is resumed.
Again, near the point of
rupture, the flow again
becomes specially rapid ;
the weight on the lever
has again to be run
back, and the specimen
finally breaks under a
diminished load. These
Extension
FIG. 12.
features are well shown by fig. 12, which is copied from the
autographic diagram of a test of mild steel.
Hardening Eject of Permanent Set. But it is not only through
what we may call the viscosity of materials that the time rate of
loading affects their behaviour under test. In iron and steel,
and probably in some other metals, time has another effect of a
very remarkable kind. Let the test be carried to any point a
(fig. 13) past the original limit of elasticity. Let the load then
be removed; during the first stages of this removal the material
continues to stretch slightly, as has been explained above. Let
the load then be at once replaced and loading continued. It will
then be found that there is a new yield-point 6 at or near the
value of the load formerly reached. The full line be in fig. 13
shows the subsequent behaviour of the piece. But now let the
experiment be repeated on another sample, with this difference,
that an interval of time, of a few hours or more, is allowed to
elapse after the load is removed and before it is replaced. It will
then be found that a process of hardening has been going on
during this interval of rest; for when the loading is continued
the new yield-point appears, not at b as formerly, but at a higher
load d. Other evidence that a change has taken place is afforded
by the fact that the ultimate extension is reduced and the
ultimate strength is increased (e, fig. 13).
A similar and even more marked hardening occurs when a
load (exceeding the original elastic limit), instead of being
removed and replaced, is kept on for a sufficient length of time
without change. When loading is resumed a new yield-point
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1013
is found only after a considerable addition has been made to
the load. The result is, as in the former case, to give greater
ultimate strength and less ultimate elongation. Fig. 14 exhibits
two experiments of this kind, made with annealed iron wire. A
or,.-*
t
30
,,.</
c
o
(/:
i
C
y
,c
/^
r" 4
Cr
L
/
a
3
W
<9
V.
7
o
^15
J
I
a
o
5
5 1O 15 O 5 10 1
Extension.per cent Extension jjer cent
FIG. 13. FIG. 14.
load of 235 tons per square inch was reached in both cases; ab
shows the result of continuing to load after an interval of five
minutes, and acd after an interval of 455 hours, the stress of
235 tons being maintained during the interval in both cases. 1
It may be concluded that, when a piece of metal has in any
way been overstrained by stress exceeding its limits of elasticity,
it is hardened, and (in some cases at least) its physical properties
go on slowly changing for days or even months. Instances of
the hardening effect of permanent set occur when plates or bars
are rolled cold, hammered cold, or bent cold, or when wire is
drawn. When a hole is punched in a plate the material con-
tiguous to the hole is severely distorted by shear, and is so much
hardened in consequence that when a strip containing the
punched hole is broken by tensile stress the hardened portion,
being unable to extend so much as the rest, receives an undue
proportion of the stress, and the strip breaks with a smaller load
than it would have borne had the stress been uniformly distri-
buted. This bad effect of punching is especially noticeable in
thick plates of mild steel. It disappears when a narrow ring of
material surrounding the hole is removed by means of a rimer,
so that the material that is left is homogeneous. Another
remarkable instance of the same kind of action is seen when a
mild-steel plate which is to be tested by bending has a piece cut
from its edge by a shearing machine. The result of the shear
is that the metal close to the edge is hardened, and, when the
plate is bent, this part, being unable to stretch like the rest,
starts a crack or tear which quickly spreads across the plate on
account of the fact that in the metal at the end of the crack there
is an enormously high local intensity of stress. By the simple
expedient of planing off the hardened edge before bending the
plate homogeneity is restored, and the plate will then bend
without damage.
Annealing. The hardening effect of overstrain is removed
by the process of annealing, that is, by heating to redness and
cooling slowly. In the ordinary process of rolling plates or bars
of iron or mild steel the metal leaves the rolls at so high a tem-
perature that it is virtually annealed, or pretty nearly so. The
case is different with plates and bars that are rolled cold: they,
like wire supplied in the hard-drawn state (that is, without being
annealed after it leaves the draw-plate), exhibit the higher
strength and greatly reduced plasticity which result from
permanent set.
Exlensometers. Much attention has been paid to the design
of extensometers, or apparatus for observing the small deforma-
tion which a test-piece in tension or compression undergoes
before its limit of elasticity is reached. Such observations afford
the most direct means of measuring the modulus of longitudinal
elasticity of the material, and they serve also to determine the
limits within which the material is elastic. In such a material
1 J. A. Ewing, Proc. Roy. Soc. (June, 1880).
as wrought iron the elastic extension is only about TJ JTTO of the
length for each ton per square inch of load, and the whole amount
up to the elastic limit is perhaps rAtf of the length ; with a length
of 8 in., which is usual in tensile tests, it is desirable to read the
extension to, say, rrJinr i n - if the modulus of elasticity is to be
found with fair accuracy, or if the limits of proportionality
between strain to stress are under examination. Measurements
taken between marks oh one side of the bar only are liable to be
affected by bending of the piece, and it is essential either to make
independent measurements on both sides or to measure the dis-
placement between two pieces which are attached to the bar
in such a manner as to share equally the strain on both sides.
In experiments carried out by Bauschinger, independent measure-
ments of the strains on both sides of the bar were made by using
mirror micrometers ol the type illustrated diagrammatically in fig.
15. Two clips a and b clasp the test-piece at the place between
FIG. 15.
which the extension is to be measured. The clip b carries two small
rollers d\ di which are free to rotate on centres fixed in the clip.
These rollers press on two plane strips c\ Ci attached to the other
clip. When the specimen is stretched the rollers consequently
turn through angles proportional to the strain, and the amount of
turning is read by means of small mirrors gi and gj, fixed to the rollers,
which reflect the divisions of a fixed scale/ into the reading telescopes
e\ e 2 . In Martens's extensometer each of the rollers is replaced by
a rhombic piece of steel with sharp edges, one of which bears against
the test-piece, while the other rests in a groove formed in the spring
projecting parallel to the test-piece from the distant clip. Much
FIG. 16.
excellent work has been done by extensometers of this class, but in
point of convenience of manipulation it is of great advantage to
have the apparatus self-contained. J. A. Ewing has introduced a
microscope extensometer of the
self-contained type which is shown
in fig. 16; its action will be seen
by reference to the diagram fig. 17.
Two clips B andC are secured on the
bar, each by means of a pair of
opposed set-screws. Between the
two is a rod B' which is hinged
to B and has a blunt pointed up-
per end which makes a ball-and-
socket joint with C at P. Another
bar R hangs from C, and carries a
mark which is read by a microscope j
attached to B. Hence, when the l
specimen stretches, the length of
B' being fixed, the bar R is pulled
up relatively to the microscope,
and the amount of the movement
is measured by a micrometer scale
in the eyepiece.
B
FIG. 17.
A screw at P serves to bring the mark on R into
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
the field of view, and also to calibrate the readings of the micro-
meter scale. The scale allows readings to be taken to IO J U11 in.,
by estimating tenths of the actual divisions. The arms CP and CQ
are equal, and hence the movement of Q represents twice the
extension of the bar under test. In another form of the instru-
ment adapted to measure the elastic compression of short blocks
the arm CQ is four times the length of CP, and consequently there
is a mechanical magnification of five besides the magnification
afforded by the microscope.
When the behaviour of specimens of iron, steel, or other
materials possessing plasticity, is watched by means of a sensitive
extensometer during the progress of a tensile test, it is in general
observed that a very close proportionality between the load
and the extension holds during the first stages of the loading,
and that during these stages there is little or no " creeping "
or supplementary extension when any particular load is left
in action for a long time. The strain is a linear function of
the stress, almost exactly, and disappears when the stress
is removed. In other words, the material obeys Hooke's law.
This is the stage of approximately perfect elasticity, and
the elastic limit is the point rather vaguely denned by
observations of the strain, at which a tendency to creep
is first seen, or a want of proportionality between strain
and stress. " Creeping " is usually the first indication that
it has been reached. As the load is further augmented,
there is in general a clearly marked yield-point, at which a
sudden large extension ensues. In metals which have been
annealed or in any way brought into a condition which is
independent of the effects of earlier applications of stress, this
elastic stage is well marked, and the limit of elasticity is as a
rule sharply defined. But if the metal has been previously
overstrained, without having had its elasticity restored by
annealing or other appropriate treatment, a very different
50 ions per
so. inch
A.Primarif test
B.JO minutes after A
C. After exposure for
4 minutes to 100'Cent.
D.After further straining
ana exposure to 100'Cent
FlG. 18.
behaviour is exhibited. The yield-point may be raised, as, for
instance, in wire which has been hardened by stretching, but the
elasticity is much impaired, and it is only within very narrow
limits, if at all, that proportionality between stress and strain
is found. Subsequent prolonged rest gradually restores the
elasticity, and after a sufficient number of weeks or months the
metal is found to be elastic up to a point which may be much
higher than the original elastic limit. 1 It has been shown by
'See experiments by Johann Bauschinger, Mitt, aus dem mech-teck.
Lob. *n Munchen (1886), and by the writer, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol.
xlvm .(1895). A summary of Bauschinger's conclusions will be
knind in Martens s book, cited above, and in Unwin's Testing of
J. Muir 2 that the rate at which this recovery of elasticity occurs
depends on the temperature at which the piece is kept, and that
complete recovery may be produced in iron or steel by exposure
of the overstrained specimen for a few minutes to the tempera-
ture of boiling water. Figs. 18 and 19 illustrate interesting points
in Muir's experiments. In these figures the geometrical device
is adopted of shearing back the curves which show extension
in relation to load by reducing each of the observed extensions
by an amount proportional to the load, namely, by one unit of
extension for each 4 tons per square inch of load. The effect is
to contract the width of the diagrams, and to make any want of
straightncss in the curves more evident than it would otherwise
be. To escape confusion, curves showing successive operations
are drawn from separate origins. In the experiment of figs. 18
and 19 the material under test was a medium steel, containing
about 0-4% of carbon, which when tested in the usual way
showed a breaking strength of 39 tons per square inch with
a well-marked elastic limit at about 22 tons. In fig. 18
the line A relates to a test of this material in its primitive
condition; the loading was raised to 35 tons so as to produce
a condition of severe overstrain. The load was then removed,
and in a few minutes it was reapplied. The line B exhibits
the effect of this application. Its curved form shows plainly
that all approach to perfect elasticity has disappeared, as
a consequence of the overstraining. There is now no elastic
limit, no range of stress within which Hooke's law applies.
With the lapse of time the curve gradually recovers its straight-
ness, and the material, if kept at ordinary atmospheric tempera-
ture, would show almost complete recovery in a month or two.
But in this instance the recovery was hastened by immersing
the piece for four minutes in boiling water, and line C shows that
this treatment restored practically perfect elasticity up to a limit
as high as the load by which the previous overstraining had been
effected. The loading in C was continued past a new yield-point ;
this made the elasticity again disappear, but it was restored
in the^same way as before, namely, by a few minutes' exposure
to too* C., and the line D shows the final test, in which the elastic
limit has been raised in this manner to 45 tons. Other tests have
shown that a temperature of even 50 C. has a considerable in-
fluence in hastening the recovery of elasticity after overstrain.
In the non-elastic condition which follows immediately on
overstrain the metal shows much hysteresis in the relation of
40 Tons per
sq.inch
FIG. 19.
strain to stress during any cyclic repetition of a process of load-
ing. This is illustrated in fig. 19, where the arrows indicate the
sequence of the operations.
When a piece of iron or steel which has been overstrained
in tension is submitted to compression, it shows, as might
2 Muir, " On the Recovery of Iron from Overstrain," Phil. Trans.
A, vol. 193 (IQOO).
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1015
be expected, no approach to conformity with Hooke's law
until recovery has been brought about either by prolonged
rest at ordinary temperature or by exposure for a short time to
some higher temperature. After recovery has taken place the
elastic limit in compression is found to have been lowered;
that is to say, it occurs at a lower load than in a normal piece
of the same metal. But it appears from Muir's experiments that
the amount of this lowering is not at all equal to the amount
by which the elastic limit has been raised in tension. In other
words, the general effect of hardening by overstrain, followed
by recovery of elasticity, is to widen the range within which a
practically complete proportionality between strain and stress
holds good.
Contraction of Section at Rupture. The extension which occurs
when a bar of uniform section is pulled is at first general, and
is distributed with some approach to uniformity over the length
of the bar. Before the bar breaks, however, a large additional
amount of local extension occurs at and near the place of rupture.
The material flows in that neighbourhood much more than in
other parts of the bar, and the section is much more contracted
there than elsewhere. The contraction of area at fracture is
frequently stated as one of the results of a test, and is a useful
FIG. 20.
index to the quality of materials. If a flaw is present sufficient
to determine the section at which rupture shall occur the con-
traction of area will in general be distinctly diminished as com-
pared with the contraction in a specimen free from flaws, although
little reduction may be noted in the total extension of the piece.
Local extension and contraction of area are almost absent in
cast iron and hard steel; on the other hand, they are specially
prominent in wrought iron, mild steel and other metals that
combine plasticity with high tensile strength. An example is
shown in fig. 20, which is copied from a photograph of a broken
test -piece of Whitworth mild fluid-compressed steel. The piece
was of uniform diameter before the test.
Experiments with long rods show that the general extension
which occurs in parts of the bar not near the break is somewhat
irregular; 1 it exhibits here and there incipient local stretching,
which has stopped without leading to rupture. This is, of course,
due in the first instance to want of homogeneity. It may be
supposed that when local stretching begins at any point in the
earlier stages of the test it is checked by the hardening effect of
the strain, until, finally, under greater load, a stage is reached
in which the extension at one place goes on so fast that the
hardening effect cannot keep pace with the increase in intensity
of stress which results from diminution of area; the local
extension is then unstable, and rupture ensues. Even at this
stage a pause in the loading, and an interval of relief from
stress, may harden the locally stretched part enough to make
rupture occur somewhere else when the loading is continued.
Influence of Local Stretching on Total Elongation. Local
stretching causes the percentage of elongation which a test-
piece exhibits before rupture (an important quantity in engineers'
specifications) to vary greatly with the length and section of the
piece tested. It is very usual to specify the length which is to
exhibit an assigned percentage of elongation. This, however,
is not enough; the percentage obviously depends on the relation
of the transverse dimensions to the length. A fine wire 8 in. long
will stretch little more in proportion to its length than a vary
long wire of the same quality. An 8-in. bar, say i in. in
diameter, will show something like twice as much the percentage
of elongation as a very long rod. The experiments of Barba 2
show that, in material of uniform quality, the percentage of
1 See Kirkaldy's Experiments on Fagersta Steel (London, 1873).
5 Mint, de la soc. des ing. civ. (1880); see also a paper by W.
Hackney, " On the Adoption of Standard Forms of Test-Pieces,"
Proc. lust. Civ. Eng. (1884).
extension is constant for test-pieces of similar form, that is to
say, for pieces of various size in which the transverse dimensions
are varied in the same proportion as the length. It is to be
regretted that in ordinary testing it is not practicable to reduce
the pieces to a standard form with one proportion of transverse
dimensions to length, since tests in which the relation of length
to cross-section differ give results which are incapable of direct
comparison with one another.
Influence on Strength. The form chosen for test-pieces in
tension tests affects not only the extension but also the ultimate
strength. In the first place, if there is a sudden or rapid change
in the area of cross-section at any part of the length under tension
(as at AB, fig. 21), the stress will not be uniformly
distributed there. The intensity will be greatest
at the edges A and B, and the piece will, in con-
sequence, pass its elastic limit at a less value of the
total load than would be the case if the change from
the larger to the smaller section were gradual. In
a non-ductile material rupture will for the same
reason take place at AB, with a less total load than
would otherwise be borne. On the other hand,
with a sufficiently ductile material, although the
section AB is the first to be permanently deformed,
FIG. 21. rupture will preferably take place at some section
not near AB, because at and near AB the contraction of
sectional area which precedes rupture is partly prevented by
the presence of the projecting portions C and D. Hence, too,
with a ductile material samples such as those of fig. 22, in
o
FIG. 22.
which the part of smallest section between the shoulders or
enlarged ends of the piece is short, will break with a greater
load than could be borne by long uniform rods of the same
section. In good wrought iron and mild steel the flow of metal
preceding rupture and causing local contraction of section
extends over a length six or eight times the width of the piece;
and, if the length throughout which the section is uniform be
materially less than this, the process of flow will be rendered
more difficult and the breaking load of the sample will be
raised. 3
These considerations have, of course, a wider application
than to the mere interpretation of special tests. An important
practical case is that of riveted joints, in which the metal left
between the rivet holes is subjected to tensile stress. It is found
to bear, per square inch, a greater pull than would be borne by
a strip of the same plate if the strip were tested in the usual
way with uniform section throughout a length great enough to
allow complete freedom of local flow. 4
Fracture by Tension. In tension tests rupture may occur by
direct separation over a surface which is nearly plane and normal
to the line of stress. This is not uncommon in hard steel and
other comparatively non-ductile materials. But in ductile
materials under tension the piece generally gives way by shearing
on an inclined surface. Very often the effect is a more or less
perfect ring-shaped crater on one side of the break and a
truncated cone on the other.
8 The greater strength of nicked or grooved specimens seems to
have been first remarked by Kirkaldy (Experiments on Wrought Iron
and Steel, p. 74, also Experiments on Fagersta Steel, p. 27). See also
a paper by E. Richards, on tests of mild steel, Journ. Iron and Steel
Inst. (1882).
4 See Kennedy's " Reports on Rivetted Joints," Proc. Inst. Mech.
Eng. (1881-1885). In the case of mild-steel plates a drilled strip may
have as much as 12 % more tensile strength per square inch than an
undrilled strip. With punched holes, on the other hand, the remain-
ing metal is much weakened, for the reason referred to in the text.
-i o 1 6
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Fracture by Compression. In compression tests of a plastic
material, such as mild steel, a process of flow may go on without
limit; the piece (which must of course
be short, to avoid buckling) shortens
and bulges out in the form of a cask.
This is illustrated by fig. 23 (from
one of Sir W. Fairbairn's experi-
ments), which shows the compres-
sion of a round block of steel (the
original height and diameter of which
are shown by the dotted lines) by a
load equal to 100 tons per sq. in. of
FIG. 23.
original sectional area. The surface over which the stress is
distributed becomes enlarged, and the total load must be
increased in a corresponding degree to maintain the process
of flow. 1 The bulging often produces longitudinal cracks,
as in the figure, especially when the material is fibrous as
well as plastic (as in the case of wrought iron). A brittle
material, such as cast iron, brick or stone, yields by shearing
on inclined planes as in figs. 24 and 25, which are taken from
FIG. 24.
FIG. 25.
Hodgkinson's experiments on cast iron. 2 The simplest fracture
of this kind is exemplified by fig. 24, where a single surface
(approximately a plane) of shear divides the compressed block
into two wedges. With cast iron the slope of the plane is such
that this simplest mode of fracture can take place only if the
height of the block is not less than about f the width of the base.
When the height is less the action is more complex. Shearing
must then take place over more than one plane, as in fig. 25, so
that cones or wedges are formed by which the surrounding
portions of the block are split off. The stress required to
crush the block is consequently greater than if the height were
sufficient for shearing in a single plane.
Plane of Shear. The inclination of the surfaces of shear, when
fracture takes place by shearing under a simple stress of pull or
push, is a matter of much interest, throwing some light on the
question of how the resistance which a material exerts to stress
of one kind is affected by the presence of stress of another kind
a question scarcely touched by direct experiment. At the shorn
surface there is, in the case of tension tests, a normal pull as well
as a shearing stress, and in the case of compression tests a normal
push as well as shearing stress. If this normal component were
absent the material (assuming it to be isotropic) would shear
in the surface of greatest shearing stress, which, as has already
been shown, is a surface inclined at 45 to the axis. In fact,
however, it does not shear on this surface. Hodgkinson's
experiments on the compression of. cast iron give surfaces of
shear whose normal is inclined at about 55 to the axis of stress,
and Kirkaldy's, on the tension of steel, show that when rupture
of a rod under tension takes place by shear the normal to the
surface is inclined at about 25 to the axis. These results show
that normal pull diminishes resistance to shearing and normal
push increases resistance to shearing. In the case of cast iron
under compression, the material prefers to shear on a section
1 For examples, see Fairbairn's experiments on steel, Brit.
Assoc. Rep. (1867).
2 Report of the Royal Commissioners on the Application of Iron to
Railway Structures (1849); see also Brit. Assoc. Rep. (1837).
where the intensity of shearing stress is only 0-94 of its value on
the surface of maximum shearing stress (inclined at 45), but
where the normal push is reduced to 0-66 of the value which it
has on the surface of maximum shearing stress.
Liidcrs's Lines. It is interesting to refer in this connexion to
the phenomenon observed in 1859 by W. Ltiders 3 of Magdeburg
and afterwards studied more fully by L. Hartmann. 4 When a
bar of plastic metal such as mild steel, preferably flat and with a
polished surface, is extended a little beyond its elastic limit,
markings appear on the surface in the form of narrow bands
running transversely across it. These bands are regions within
which a shearing deformation has taken place, resulting from
the tension, as has been explained with reference to fig. i, and
they are distinguished from the remainder of the bar because in
the early stages of plastic strain the yielding is local. For the
reason that has just been explained in speaking of surfaces of
rupture, Luders's lines in a rod strained by direct pull are found
to be inclined, not at 45, but at an angle more nearly normal to
the axis of pull (making about 65 with it). Their inclination
shows that the metal prefers to elongate by shearing on a section
where p, the shearing stress is not at its maximum, because p n
the normal component which is a pull is greater there, and
this can only mean that the presence of a normal component
of the nature of a pull at any section reduces the resistance to
yielding under the shearing stress which acts at that section,
while similarly the presence of a normal component of the
nature of a push increases the resistance to shear.
Yielding under Compound Stress. A question of much
theoretical interest and also of some practical importance is,
what determines the yielding of a piece when it is subjected not
to a simple pull or push alone but to a stress combined of two or
of three principal stresses? According to one view, which in the
absence of experimental data appears to have been taken by
W. J. M. Rankine, the material yields when the greatest principal
stress reaches a certain limit, irrespective of the existence of the
other principal stresses. According to another view (Barre de
Saint -Venant), it yields when the maximum strain reaches a
certain limit, and as the strain depends in part on each of the
three principal stresses this gives a different criterion. Neither
the maximum stress theory nor the maximum strain theory can be
regarded as satisfactory, and probably a much sounder view is
that the material yields when the greatest shearing stress reaches
a certain limit. Even this, however, requires some qualification
in the light of what has just been said about the inclination of
surfaces of shear and Luders's lines, for it is clear from these
experimental indications that resistance to shear is affected by
the presence of normal stress on the plane of shear, and conse-
quently a theory which takes account of shearing stress only as
the criterion of yielding cannot be completely correct. Accord-
ing to the greatest shearing stress theory the yielding under
compound stress depends directly on the difference between the
greatest and least principal stress. In such cases of compound
stress as have to be dealt with in engineering design this furnishes
a criterion which though imperfect is certainly to be preferred
to the criterion furnished by calculating the greatest principal
stress.
Experiments on Compound Stress. In experiments carried
out by J. J. Guest (Phil. Mag., 1900, vol. 50) the action of
combined stresses in causing yielding was investigated by sub-
jecting thin tubes to (i) tension alone, (2) tension and torque,
(3) tension and internal (fluid) pressure, and (4) torque and
internal pressure, while measurements were made of the axial
strain and the twist so as to detect the first failure of elasticity.
The general result of the experiments, so far as they went, was to
support the view that yielding depends primarily on the greatest
shearing stress, that is to say, on the difference between the
greatest and least principal stresses.
Fatigue of Metals. A matter of great practical as well as
scientific interest is the destructive action which materials
3 Dinglefs Polytech. Journ. (1860), 155, p. 18.
* Bulletin de la societe d' encouragement (1896 and 1897).
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1017
may suffer through repeated changes in their state of stress. It
appears that in some if not in all materials a limited amount of
stress-variation may be repeated time after time without appre-
ciable deterioration in the strength of the piece; in the balance-
spring of a watch, for instance, tension and compression succeed
each other some 150 millions of times in a year, and the spring
works for years without apparent injury. In such cases the
stresses lie well within the elastic limits. On the other hand,
the toughest bar breaks after a small number of bendings to and
fro, when these pass the elastic limits, although the stress may
have a value greatly short of the normal ultimate strength. A
laborious research by A. Wohler, 1 extending over twelve years,
gave much important information regarding the effects on iron
and steel of very numerous repeated alternations of stress from
positive to negative, or between a higher and a lower value with-
out change of sign. By means of ingeniously-contrived machines
he submitted test-pieces to direct pull, alternated with complete
or partial relaxation from pull, to repeated bending in one
direction and also in opposite directions, and to repeated twisting
towards one side and towards opposite sides. The results show
that a stress greatly less than the ultimate strength (as tested in
the usual way by a single application of load continued to
rupture) is sufficient to break a piece if it be often enough re-
moved and restored, or even alternated with a less stress of the
same kind. In that case, however, the variation of stress being
less, the number of repetitions required to produce rupture is
greater. In general, the number of repetitions required to
produce rupture is increased by reducing the range through
which the stress is varied, or by lowering the upper limit of that
range. If the greatest stress be chosen small enough, it may be
reduced, removed, or even reversed many million times without
destroying the piece. Wohler's results are best shown by quoting
a few figures selected from his experiments. The stresses are
stated in centners per square zoll; 2 in the case of bars subjected
to bending they refer to the top and bottom sides, which are the
most stressed parts of the bar.
I. Iron bar in direct tension:
Stress. Number of Applications
Max. Min. causing Rupture.
Stress. Number of Applications
Max. Min. causing Rupture.
480 o 800
320 o 10,141,645
440 o 106,001
400 o 340,853
360 o 480,852
440 200 2.373,424
440 240 Not broken with 4 millions.
II. Iron bar bent by transverse load:
Stress. Number of Bendings
Stress. Number of Bendings
Max. Min. causing Rupture.
Max. Min. causing Rupture.
550 o 169,750
400 o 1,320,000
500 o 420,000
450 o 481,950
350 o 4.035,400
300 o Not broken with 48 millions.
III. Steel bar bent by transverse load:
Stress. Number of Bendings
Stress. Number of Bendings
Max. Min. causing Rupture.
Max. Min. causing Rupture.
ooo o 72.450
poo 200 81,200
ooo 400 225,300
ooo 500 764,000 mean of two trials.
900 300 156,200
900 600 Not broken with 33 1 millions.
IV. Iron bar bent by supporting at one end, the other end being
loaded; alternations of stress from pull to push caused by rotating
the bar:
Stress. Number of Rotations
Stress. Number of Rotations
From + to causing Rupture.
From + to causing Rupture.
320 56,430
220 3.632,588
300 99,000
200 4,917,992
280 183,145
180 19,186,791
260 479.490
160 Not broken with J32j millions.
240 909,810
From these and other experiments Wohler concluded that the
wrought iron to which the tests refer could probably bear an
indefinite number of stress changes between the limits stated (in
round numbers) in the following table (the ultimate tensile
strength was about 195 tons per sq. in.):
Stress in Tons per Sq. In.
From pull to push +7 to 7
From pull to no stress 13 to o
From pull to less pull 19 to 105
1 Die Festigkeits-Versuche mil Risen und Stahl (Berlin, 1870), or
Zeilschr. fiir Bauwesen (1860-1870); see also Engineering (1871),
vol. xi. For early experiments by Fairbairn on the same subject,
see Phil. Trans. (1864).
2 According to Bauschinger the centner per square zoll in which
Wohler gives his results is equivalent to 6-837 kilos per sq. cm.,
or 0-0434 ton P er s( l- ' n -
Hence it appears that the actual strength of this material varies
in a ratio which may be roughly given as 3 : 2 : i in the three
cases of (a) steady pull, (b) pull alternating with no stress, very
many times repeated, and (c) pull alternating with push, very
many times repeated. For steel Wohler obtained results of a
generally similar kind. His experiments were repeated by L.
Spangenberg, who extended the inquiry to brass, gun-metal and
phosphor-bronze. 3 A considerable amount of light has been
thrown on the nature of fatigue in metals by miscroscopic
investigations, which will be referred to presently.
Resilience. A useful application of diagrams showing the
relation of strain to stress is to determine the amount of work
done in straining a piece in any assigned way. The term
" resilience " is conveniently used to specify the amount of work
done when the strain just reaches the corresponding elastic limit.
Thus a rod in simple tension or simple compression has a re-
silience per unit of volume = / 2 /2E, where /is the greatest elastic
pull or push. A blow whose energy exceeds the resilience
(reckoned for the kind of stress to which the blow gives rise) must
in the most favourable case produce a permanent set; in less
favourable cases local permanent set will be produced although
the energy of the blow is less than the resilience, in consequence
of the strain being unequally distributed. In a plastic material
a strain exceeding the limit of elasticity absorbs a relatively
large amount of energy, and generally increases the resilience
for subsequent strains. Fracture under successive blows, as in
the testing of rails by placing them as beams on two supports,
and allowing a weight to fall in the middle from a given height,
results from the accumulated set which is brought about by
the energy of each blow exceeding the resilience.
Internal Stress. Professor James Thomson 4 pointed out that
the effect of any externally applied load depends, to a very
material extent, on whether there is or is not initial internal stress,
or, in other words, whether the loaded piece is initially in what
Professor Karl Pearson has called a state of ease. Internal stress
existing without the application of force from without the piece
must satisfy the condition that its resultant vanishes over any
complete cross-section. It may exist in consequence of set
caused by previously applied forces (a case of which instances are
given below), or in consequence of previous temperature changes,
as in cast iron, which is thrown into a state of internal stress by
unequally rapid cooling of the mass. Thus in (say) a spherical
casting an outside shell solidifies first, and has become partially
contracted by cooling by the time the inside has become solid.
The inside then contracts, and its contraction is resisted by the
shell, which is thereby compressed in a tangential direction, while
the metal in the interior is pulled in the direction of the radius.
Allusion has already been made to the fact, pointed out by
J. Thomson, that the defect of elasticity under small loads which
Hodgkinson discovered in cast iron is probably due to initial
stress. In plastic metal a nearly complete state of ease is brought
about by annealing; even annealed pieces, however, sometimes
show, in the first loading, small defects of elasticity, which are
probably due to initial stress, as they disappear when the load is
reapplied.
Microscopic Examination. Of all recent aids to a knowledge
of the structure of metals, of their behaviour under stress, and
of the nature of plastic strain, perhaps the most important is
microscopic examination. The microscopic study of metals was
initiated by H. C. Sorby as early as 1864 (see Brit. Assoc. Rep.
3 Ueber das Verhalten der Metalle bei wiederlwlten Anstrengungen
(Berlin, 1875). For interesting notices of the fatigue of metals in
railway axles, bridge ties, &c., and results of experiments showing
reduced plasticity in fatigued metal, see Sir B. Baker's address to
the Mechanical Section of the British Association (1885). In many
of the cases where the fatigue of metals occurs in engineering
practice the phenomenon is complicated by the occurrence of blows
or shocks whose energy is absorbed in producing strains often
exceeding the elastic limits, sometimes of a very local character in
consequence of the inertia of the strained pieces. Such shocks may
cause an accumulation of set which finally leads to rupture in a way
that is not to be confused with ordinary fatigue of strength. The
effects of the accumulation may be removed by annealing.
* Camb. and Dub. Math. Journ. (Nov. 1848).
ioi8
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
for that year). After a period of neglect, it has been pursued
with much energy by a large number of observers, and has yielded
results which are of fundamental importance in relation to the
strength of materials. For the purpose of microscopic examina-
tion it is usually necessary to bring a small piece of the metal
to a state of high surface polish, the final stage of which is per-
formed by rubbing on a surface of wash-leather charged with a
thin paste of rouge and water (see also METALLOGRAPHY). The
specimen is then lightly etched in dilute acid or treated with a
staining medium, such as liquorice or cocoa, to make the structure
visible. When the surface is examined under a lens of suitable
power it is seen to be made up of irregular areas with well-defined
boundaries. The areas into which the surface is divided
differ in apparent texture, and when illuminated obliquely it
is found that some of them shine out brightly while others are
dark; by changing the direction of the incident light other areas
become bright and those previously bright become dark. These
areas are the sections of crystalline grains which constitute the
mass of the metal. Each grain is a crystal, the elementary
portions of which are all oriented one way, but the orientation
changes as we pass from grain to grain. The irregular boundaries
are the chance surfaces in which one grain meets another during
the progress of its crystalline growth. Etching a polished
surface develops a multitude of facets which have the same
orientation over any one grain, and therefore give it a uniform
texture and a uniform brightness in reflecting light of any
particular incidence. The size of the grains depends very much
upon the previous thermal treatment to which the metal has been
subjected. Sudden cooling from a high temperature tends to
make the grains small, slow cooling tends to keep them large;
and protracted exposure to moderately high temperature has
been observed in some cases to favour the growth of very large
grains.
When the metal is strained in any manner beyond its limit of
elasticity the grains are found to have altered their shape,
becoming lengthened in the direction in which stretch has
occurred. Subsequent exposure to a temperature which is
high enough to remove the mechanical hardness produced by
overstraining is found to bring about a reconstruction of the
grains; the original pattern is not reproduced, but the reformed
grains show no direction of predominating length. Researches
by J. A. Ewing and W. Rosenhain (" The Crystalline Structure
of Metals," Phil. Trans., 1900) showed that metals retain their
crystalline character even when so severely strained as to exhibit
qualities of plasticity which are at first sight inconsistent with
the idea of crystalline structure. The manner in which a metal
yields when the strain exceeds the elastic limit is by slips which
occur in the cleavage or " gliding " planes of the individual
crystals. These slips are seen under the microscope as sharply
defined lines which appear on the polished surface of each grain
as soon as the yield-point in any process of straining has been
. C
Before straining
After straining
FlG. 26.
reached. Seen under normal illumination the lines are dark;
seen under oblique illumination they may be made to appear as
bright lines on a dark ground. The appearance of each line
shows that it is a narrow step produced by the slipping of one
part of the crystalline grain over another part. The diagram
fig. 26 represents a section between two contiguous surface grains,
having cleavage or gliding planes as indicated by the dotted lines,
AB being a part of the polished surface. When straining beyond
the elastic limit takes place, as by a pull in the direction of the
arrows, yielding occurs by finite amounts of slip at a limited
number of places, as at a, b, c, d, e. This exposes short steps,
which are portions of cleavage surfaces, and which, when viewed
under normally incident light, appear black because they return
no light to the microscope. They consequently appear as dark
lines or narrow bands extending over the polished surface in
directions which depend on the intersection of that surface with
the planes of slip. Many such lines appear as the process of
straining goes on; they are spaced at more or less regular inter-
vals, and in general three systems of them may be observed
intersecting one another. With three independent systems of
slips it is clear that the grain may take any shape in the process
of straining; in many cases four systems of slips are seen. In
this way severe deformations occur without affecting the crystal-
line character of the structure, although the shape of each crystal
undergoes much change. A bar of iron which has been rolled
cold from a large to a small section shows, when it is polished and
etched, a structure in which each grain has all the characteristics
of a crystal, although the grains have been distorted into forms
very different from those which are found in bars which are
rolled at a red heat or are annealed after rolling. It appears that
the process of straining has occurred through movements which
preserve the parallelism of all the portions of each individual
grain so long as continuity of the parts of the grain is preserved.
In many metals, however, a further effect of severe strain is to
develop twin crystals, and this implies a rotation of one group of
elements through a definite angle with respect to the other
elements of the same grain. Excessively severe straining, as,
for instance, the squeezing of a block of lead into a thin flat
plate, is found to produce a crystalline structure in which the
grains have a greatly reduced size; the slips have in that case
gone so far as to cause divisions and interpenetrations of the
crystals.
Growth of Crystals. Microscopic examination further shows
that after severe straining the structure of a metal is far from
stable, a fact which connects itself with what is observed in re-
spect to mechanical quality. In some metals at least , and notably
in lead, severe straining is followed, even at atmospheric temper-
atures, by a protracted crystalline growth which results in the
formation of crystals which are relatively very large. A piece
of ordinary sheet lead shows the effects of this growth well;
it will be found, when etched, to consist in general of crystals
enormously larger than any that could have survived the process
of manufacture by rolling. A similar growth may readily be
traced from day to day or week to week in a piece of lead which is
kept under observation after being severely strained. The process
of growth is greatly accelerated by raising the temperature.
That some process more or less analogous to this goes on in iron
and steel during the change which occurs when elastic recovery
takes place after overstraining may be conjectured, though
there is as yet no direct evidence on the point. The growth of
large crystals which is seen to occur in lead at very moderate
temperatures has perhaps a more direct relation to the changes
which occur in iron or steel at temperatures high enough to
produce annealing. The structure of steel as exhibited by the
microscope has received much attention, notably at the hands of
F. Osmond and J. O. Arnold. Microscopic examination of the
low or medium carbon steel used for structural purposes shows it
to consist of grains of iron (ferrite), interspersed with grains
which have in general a laminated structure and are composed
of alternate bands of two constituents, namely, iron and carbide
of iron (Fei C). To these laminated grains the name of pearlite
has been given. In steel such as is used for rails, containing about
0-4 or 0-5% of carbon, the grains of pearlite occupy about as
large a volume of the specimen as the grains of unlaminated
ferrite; but when the proportion of carbon is increased to about
0-9% the whole is a mass of pearlite having an exceedingly
intimate mixture of the two constituents. This appears to be
a eutectic alloy, and the same intimately blended structure is
characteristic of eutectic alloys generally. Important variations
in the visible structure result from quenching, annealing, and
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1019
othei varieties of thermal treatment, as well as from the presence
of other constituents in the steel, but to discuss these would be
beyond the scope of the present article.
In experiments by Ewing and J. C. W. Humfrey (" The
Fracture of Metals under repeated Alternations of Stress," Phil.
Trans., 1903) the microscope was employed to examine the
process by which metals break through " fatigue " when sub-
jected to repeated reversals of stress. The test-pieces were short
rods overhanging from a revolving mandrel and loaded at the
end so as to produce a bending moment. A part near the
support, where the stresses due to bending were greatest, was
polished beforehand for observation in the microscope. After a
certain number of reversals the surface was examined, and the
examination was repeated at intervals as the process continued.
The material was Swedish iron following Hooke's law (in ten-
sion) up to 13 tons per sq. in. and having a well-marked yield-
point at 14-1 tons per sq. in. It was found that the material
suffered no damage from repeated reversals of a stress of 5 tons
per sq. in., but that when the greatest stress was raised to 7 tons
per sq. in. incipient signs of fatigue began to be apparent
after many reversals, though the piece was still intact after
the number of reversals had reached three millions. With a
stress of 9 tons per sq. in., or more, repeated reversals brought
about fracture. The first sign of fatigue as detected in the
microscope was that slip lines began to appear on one or more
of the crystals in the region of greatest stress: as the process
went on these became mote distinct and tended to broaden,
and at length some of them developed into cracks which
were identified as such because they did not disappear when
the surface was rcpolished. Once a crack had formed it
quickly spread, and finally the piece broke with a sharp
fracture, showing practically no plastic change of form before
rupture.
It may be concluded that under repeated alternations of
stress fatigue, leading to fracture, is liable to occur if, and only
if, the stress is such as to produce slips in some of the crystals:
in other words if, and only if, the limit of elasticity is locally
exceeded; but the limit for particular crystals may be consider-
ably lower than what is usually taken as the.limit for the metal as
a whole. The resistance to slip in any one crystal depends on
three things: (i) the inherent strength of its own substance,
(2) the amount of support it receives from its neighbours, and
(3) the orientation of the crystal with respect to the surfaces of
maximum shearing stress. It may be inferred that even in the
most homogeneous metal some crystals have a liability to develop
slips more readily than others, and that it is with them we are
concerned in dealing with the safe limits of alternating stress.
The same considerations have a bearing on certain effects of heat
treatment. It is well known that in steel which has been over-
heated (by unnecessarily prolonged exposure to a high tempera-
ture) a somewhat gross crystalline structure is developed, showing
large ferrite areas not broken up by intermixture with pearlite.
The resistance to slip in the large ferrite crystals is comparatively
small, and hence the overheated metal has a low elastic limit and
shows but little power of resisting alternating stress. By suitable
heat treatment, on the other hand, it is possible to bring the
metal into a state in which the crystals are small and the
ferrite and pearlite are so intimately blended that there is
much mutual support: the elastic limit is high and the metal
is well adapted to endure stresses which would otherwise
cause fatigue.
It may be asked, How is the crystal constituted to admit of
elastic and plastic strain ? How can slip take place without
destroying the adhesion between the faces until that is destroyed
by many back and forth rubbings at the surface of slip? J. A.
Ewing has endeavoured to picture a molecular constitution in
which the molecules are assumed to possess polar quality along
three axes, and to be free to turn except in so far as they are
constrained by the mutual forces between the pole of each
molecule and those of its neighbours. This theory, which was
developed by its author in his presidential address to the
engineering section of the British Association in 1906, accords
well with many of the obscure phenomena of elastic and plastic
strain, with what is known of fatigue, and with the loss of
elasticity after overstrain and its subsequent recovery.
Influence of Foreign Matter. It is a well-known characteristic
of metals that small Quantities of foreign matter may produce an
altogether disproportionately large influence on their mechanical
and other properties. The effect of small quantities of carbon
in iron, of nickel in iron, of aluminium in copper, are important
practical instances where a highly beneficial effect, in respect of
strength and ductility, is produced. The wide and varied range
of qualities possessed in steel from pure iron at one end to tool
steel at the other is due to quantities of carbon which lie, for the
most part, under i %. The addition of about 3 or 4% of nickel
to mild steel has given an important new structural material
possessing increased strength and a high elastic limit, and retain-
ing ample capacity for plastic strain. The presence of manganese
in small quantities is known to be an essential condition of
strength in mild steel. The addition of from ij to 3% of
chromium enables steel to acquire, under suitable heat treat-
ment, the excessive hardness desirable in armour plate and
armour-piercing shell. Small quantities of vanadium added
to steel improve it sufficiently to be advantageous in certain
applications where saving of weight is important, notably in
steel for motor carriage engines, notwithstanding the extra
cost.
Data as to Strength of Steel. A few figures may be quoted as to
the strength and plasticity of steel, some of which are takc-n from
the reports of the Engineering Standards Committee (1906-1907)
specifying tests to which the material should conform.
Ordinary plates and bars of mild steel for structural purposes
(bridges, ships, &c.), containing as a rule not more than 2% of
carbon, have a tensile strength of 28 to 32 tons per sq. in., and an
8-in. specimen with a cross-section of from J to ij sq. in. should
stretch at least 20 %. They should stand being bent cold through
180 on a radius ij times the thickness of the specimen, the test-
piece for bending being not less than I J in. wide. Rivet bars, of
somewhat softer steel, have a tensile strength of 26 to 30 tons, with
25% of elongation on 8 in. Steel rails, containing 0-4 or 0-5% of
carbon, have a tensile strength of 38 to 48 tons and stretch 15%
on a 2-in. length, the area of section of the test-piece being
J sq. in. Steel for axles has a tensile strength of 35 to 40 tons
and stretches 25 to 30% on the 2-in. length. The elastic limit
should be at least 50 % of the breaking load. Steel for tires
may in some cases have a tensile strength as high as 60 tons with
about 8 to 10 % extension in 2 in. Steel castings commonly
range in tensile strength from 26 to 35 tons, with about 15%
extension in 2 in. The strength of steel wire is considerably
higher than that of bar or plates: 70 to 100 tons per sq. in.
is not unusual, and in steel pianoforte wire it may be as high as 150
tons per sq. in.
Steel for guns, containing generally 0-3 to 0-4% of carbon, has a
tensile strength of 33 to 44 tons per sq. in., with at least 17 %
extension in 2 in., the test-piece having the usual cross-section of
} sq. in. Nickel steel for guns, containing 0-4% of carbon and 4%
nickel, has a strength of 45 to 55 tons and an extension of at least
16% in 2 in. Much the same figures apply to nickel-chrome steel
for the same purpose, with I % of chromium, 4 % of nickel and 0-3 %
of carbon. Flat specimens of gun steel J in. wide and 0-375 in.
thick stand bending cold through 180 on a radius of I J in. All these
tests of gun steel are made after forging and after the normal heat
treatment, which consists first of oil-hardening by plunging the
steel at a temperature not lower than 1500 F. into a bath of oil,
and then tempering, by reheating to a temperature generally about
900 to 1000 F. This heat treatment brings the metal into a con-
dition in which the granular structure is minute and the constituents
are very thoroughly intermixed, with the result of giving a high
clastic limit. Tests made on gun steel containing about 0-35 % of
carbon show that the yield-point occurred at 1 8 tons per sq. in.
before the heat treatment, and at 25 tons after it, the extension
remaining practically unchanged at 30% in 2 in. In nickel steel
the yield-point is initially higher, but in it too the heat treatment
effects a considerable improvement in this respect without reducing
the extension.
It is remarkable that though the strength of wrought iron and
steel may range from 20 tons per sq. in., or even less, up to 150
tons, the moduli which measure its elastic quality are nearly the
same in all grades. Young's modulus E ranges from about 12,500
to 14,000 tons per sq. in., and the modulus of rigidity C from
5000 to 5700 tons per sq. in.
Graphic Representation of Distributed Stress. Space admits of
no more than a short and elementary account of some of the more
simple straining actions that occur in machines and engineering
structures.
1020
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
N.
The stress which acts on any plane surface AB (fig. 27), such as
an imaginary cross-section of a strained piece, may be represented
by a figure formed by setting up ordinates
Ao, B6, &c., from points on the surface,
the length of these being made proportional
to the intensity of stress at each point.
This gives an ideal solid, which may be
called the stress figure, whose height shows
the distribution of stress over the surface
which forms its base. A line drawn from
g, the centre of gravity of the stress figure,
parallel to the ordinates Aa, &c., determines
the point c, which is called the centre of
p stress, and is the point through which
' '' the resultant of the distributed stress
acts. In the case of a uniformly distributed stress, ab is a plane
surface parallel to AB, and c is the centre of gravity of the surface
AB. When a bar is subjected to simple pull applied axially that
is to say, so that the resultant stress passes through the centre of
gravity of every cross-section the stress may be taken as (sensibly)
uniformly distributed over any section not near a place where the
form of the cross-section changes, provided the bar is homogeneous
in respect of elastic quality and is initially in a state of ease and the
stress is within the limits of elasticity.
Uniformly Varying Stress. Uniformly varying stress is illustrated
by fig. 28. It occurs (in each case for stresses within the elastic
limit) in a bent beam, in
a tie subjected to non-
axial pull, and in a long
strut or column where
buckling makes the stress
become non-axial. In
uniformly varying stress
; the intensity p at any
point P is proportional
to the distance of P from
FIG. 28. a H n e MM, called the
neutral axis, which lies in the plane of the stressed surface and
at right angles to the direction AB, which is assumed to be that in
which the intensity of stress varies most rapidly. There is no
variation of stress along lines parallel to MM. If MN passes
through C, the centre of
\f n gravity of the surface, as
" in fig. 29, it may easily be
B shown that the total pull
stress on one side of the
neutral axis is equal to
FIG. 29. the total push stress on
the other side, whatever
be the form of the surface AB. The resultant of the whole stress
on AB is in that case a couple, whose moment may be found as
follows. Let dS be an indefinitely small part of the surface at a
distance x from the neutral axis through C, and let p be the
i intensity of stress on dS. The
moment of the stress on dS is
xpdS. But p = piX/Xi = pix/x,
(see fig. 29). The whole moment
6" of the stress on AB is fxpdS> =
(piXi )fx*dS = pil/Xi or p2 1 Ixi ,
where I is the moment of inertia
of the surface AB about the neutral
axis through C.
. "> A stress such as that shown in
" fig. 28 or fig. 30 may be regarded
as a uniformly distributed stress
of intensity pt> (which is the in-
tensity at the centre of gravity of
the surface C) and a stress of the
"B kind shown in fig. 29. The resul-
tant is />oS, where S is the
whole area of the surface, and it
acts at a distance CD from C such that the moment <S.CD =
(Pi -*)!/* = (Pi+p<>)l/xt. Hence fc = *<,(l+*iS.CD/I), and
pi=Pv(ixiS.CD/I).
Simple bending occurs when a beam is in equilibrium under equal
and opposite couples in the plane of the beam. Thus if a beam (fig.
D
FIG. 30.
r
l~/,->!
P k-/H
i: B 7
FIG. 31.
31), supported at its ends, be loaded at two points so that Wi/i =
W 2 /2, the portion of the beam lying between Wi and W 2 is subjected
p._
to a simple bending stress. On any section AB the only stress
consists of pull and push, and has for its resultant a couple whose
moment M = Wi/i = Wa4- This is called the bending moment at
the section. If the stress be within the elastic limits it will be
distributed as in fig. 32, with the neutral axis at
the centre of gravity of the section. The greatest
intensities of push and of pull, at the top and
bottom edge respectively, are pi Myi/l and
pi = Myt/l, and the intensity at any point at a
distance y above or below C is p = My/l.
Bending beyond Elastic Limits. Let the bend-
ing moment now be increased; non-elastic strain
will begin as soon as either pi or pt exceeds the /\~
corresponding limit of elasticity, and the distribu-
tion of stress will be changed in consequence of
the fact that the outer layers of the beam are
taking set while the inner layers are still following
Hooke's law. As a simple instance we may ,
consider the case of a material strictly elastic up
to a certain stress, and then so plastic that a
relatively very large amount of strain is produced
without further change of stress, a case not very far from being realized
by soft wrought iron and mild steel. The diagram of stress will now
take the form sketched
in fig. 33. If the elastic
limit is (say) less for
compression than for
tension, the diagram will
be as in fig. 34, with the
neutral axis shifted to-
wards the tension side.
When the beam is re-
lieved from external load
it will be left in a state
of internal stress, repre-
sented, for the case of
fig- 33i by the dotted
lines in that figure. B 1 1
In consequence of the p, G , p._ ,
action which has been ' **' ' "'
illustrated by these figures, the moment required to break the beam
cannot be calculated by taking for / the value of the ultimate
tensile or compressive strength of the material in the formula
M =fl/y, because the distribution of stress which is assumed to
exist in finding this relation ceases as soon as overstraining begins.
Strain produced by Bending. The strain produced by bending
stress in a bar or beam is, as regards any imaginary filament taken
along the length of the piece, sensibly the same as if j
that filament were directly pulled or compressed by
itself. The resulting deformation of the piece consists,
in the first place and chiefly, of curvature in the
direction of the length, due to the longitudinal extension
and compression of the filaments, and, in the second
place, of transverse flexure, due to the lateral com-
pression and extension which go along with the
longitudinal extension and compression. Let /i (fig. 35)
be a short portion of the length of a beam strained
by a bending moment M (within the limits of
elasticity). The beam, which we assume to be originally
straight, bends in the direction of its length to a curve
of radius R, such that R/l=yi/Sl, SI being the change
of / by extension or compression at a distance yi from
the neutral axis. But U = lpi/E, and pi = Myil\.
Hence R = EI/M. The transverse flexure is not, in
general, of practical importance. The centre of curva-
ture for it is on the opposite side from the centre for
longitudinal flexure, and the radius is R<r, where a is the
ratio of longitudinal extension to lateral contraction
under simple pull.
Ordinary Bending of Beams. Bending combined
with shearing is the mode of stress to which beams are
ordinarily subject, the loads, or externally applied
forces, being applied at right angles to the direction
of the length. Let HK (fig. 36) be any cross-section of a beam
in equilibrium. The portion B of the beam, which lies on one
side of HK. is in equilibrium under the joint action of the external
F,
.'R
y,
p j( ,
'
FIG. 36.
forces Fi, F 2 , F 3 , &c., and the forces which the other portion A
exerts en B in consequence of the state of stress at HK. The forces
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
IO2I
Fi, F 2 , F s , &c., may be referred to HK by introducing couples whose
moments are FI*I, FjXj, 3X3, &c. Hence the stress at HK must
equilibrate, first, a couple whose moment is 2F*, and, second, a
force whose value is 2F, which tends to shear B from A. In these
summations regard must of course be had to the sign of each force ;
in the diagram the sign of F 4 is opposite to the sign of FI, F 2 and F 3 .
Thus the stress at HK may be regarded as that due to a bending
moment M equal to the sum of the moments about the section of
the externally applied forces on one side of the section (2Fx), and
a shearing force equal to the sum of the forces about one side of
the section (SF). It is a matter of convenience only whether the
forces on B or on A be taken in reckoning the bending moment and
the shearing force. The bending moment causes a uniformly varying
normal stress on HK of the kind already discussed; the shearing
force causes a shearing stress in the plane of the section, the distribu-
tion of which will be investigated later. This shearing stress in
the plane of the section is necessarily accompanied by an equal
intensity of shearing stress in horizontal planes parallel to the length
of the beam.
The stress due to the bending moment, consisting of longitudinal
push in filaments above the neutral axis and longitudinal pull in
filaments below the neutral axis, is the thing chiefly to be considered
in practical problems relating to the strength of beams. The general
formula pi = Myi/I becomes, for a beam of rectangular section of
breadth b and depth h, i=6M/Wi 2 =6M/S/i, S being the area of
section. For a beam of circular section it becomes pi = 32M/a7 3 =
8M/SA. The material of a beam is disposed to the greatest advantage
as regards resistance to bending when the form is that of a pair of
flanges or booms at top and bottom, held apart by a thin but stiff
web or by cross-bracing, as in J beams and braced trusses. In such
cases sensibly the whole bending moment is taken by the flanges;
the intensity of stress over the section of each flange is very nearly
uniform, and the areas of section of the tension and compression
flanges (Si and 82 respectively) should be proportioned to the value
of the ultimate strengths in tension and compression /, and f c , so
that Si/i=S2/ c . Thus for cast-iron beams Hodgkinson recom-
mended that the tension flange should have six times the sectional
area of the compression flange. The intensity of longitudinal stress
on the two flanges of an I beam is approximately M/SiA and M/SjA,
h being the depth from centre to centre of the flanges.
Diagrams of Bending Moment and Shearing Force. In the ex-
amination of loaded beams it is convenient to represent graphically
the bending moment and the shearing force at various sections by
setting up ordinates to represent the values of these quantities, and
so drawing curves of bending moment and shearing force.
The area enclosed by the curve of shearing Force, up to any
ordinate, is equal to the bending moment at the same section. For let
x be increased to x+Sx, the bending moment changes to 2F(x+5*),
or SM=&t2F. Hence the shearing force at any section is
equal to the rate of change of the bending moment there per unit
of the length, and the bending moment is the integral of the
shearing force with respect to the length. In the case of a con-
tinuous distribution of load, it should be observed that, when x is
increased to x+l>x, the moment changes by an additional amount
which depends on (6x) 2 and may therefore be neglected.
Distribution of Shearing Stress. To examine the distribution of
shearing stress over any vertical section of a beam, we may consider
n A two closely adjacent sections
- ABandDE (fig. 37), on which
the bending moments are M
and M +8M respectively. The
resultant horizontal force due
to the bending stresses on a
piece ADHG enclosed be-
tween the adjacent sections,
and bounded by the hori-
zontal plane GH at a distance
yo from the neutral axis, is
shown by the shaded figure.
This must be equilibrated by
the horizontal shearing stress
on GH, which is the only other
horizontal force acting on the
piece. At any height y the in-
B
\
67 ,-'
"o
.
//
: !
C
E B
FIG. 37-
tensity of resultant horizontal
stress due to the difference of
the bending moments is ySM/l, and the whole horizontal force on
GH
5M fy
I Jy
being the breadth. If q be the intensity of
horizontal shearing stress on the section GH, whose breadth is 2o, we
have
But SM/Sx is the whole shearing force Q on the section of the beam.
Hence
and this is also the intensity of vertical shearing stress at the distance
y<s from the neutral axis. This expression may conveniently be
written 5 = QAj'/zoI, where A is the area of the surface AG and y
the distance of its centre of gravity from the neutral axis. The
intensity q is a maximum at the neutral axis and diminishes to zero
at the top and bottom of the beam. In a beam of rectangular
section the value of the shearing stress at the neutral axis is q max.
= Q/Wi. In other words, the maximum intensity of shearing stress
on any section is f of the mean intensity. Similarly, in a beam of
circular section the maximum is $ of the mean. This result is of
some importance in application to the pins of pin-joints, which may
be treated as very short beams liable to give way by shearing.
In the case of an J beam with wide flanges and a thin web, the
above expression shows that in any vertical section q is nearly con-
stant in the web and insignificantly small in the flanges. Practically
all the shearing stress is borne by the web, and its intensity is very
nearly equal to Q divided by the area of section of the web.
Principal Stresses in a Beam. The foregoing analysis of the
stresses in a beam, which resolves them into longitudinal pull and
push, due to bending moment, along with
shear in longitudinal and transverse planes,
is generally sufficient in the treatment of
practical cases. If, however, it is desired to
find the direction and magnitude of the
principal stresses at any point we may proceed
thus:
Let AC (fig. 38) be an indefinitely small
portion of the horizontal section of a beam,
on which there is only shearing stress, and let
AB be an indefinitely small portion of the
vertical section at the same place, on which
there is shearing and normal stress. Let q
be the intensity of the shearing stress, which
is the same on AB and AC, and let p be the
intensity of normal stress on AB : it is required
to find a third plane BC, such that the stress
on it is wholly normal, and to find r, the
intensity of that stress. Let 9 be the angle
(to be determined) which BC makes with AB. Then the equilibrium
of the triangular wedge ABC requires that
rBCcos0=.AB+g.AC, and rBC sin0 = g.AB;
or (rp) cos = q sin 0, and r sin = q cos 0.
Hence, Q* = r(rp),
tan 20 = 20/6,
FIG. 38.
The positive value of r is the greater principal stress, and is of
the same sign as p. The negative value is the lesser principal stress
which occurs on a plane at right angles to the former. The equation
for gives two values corresponding to the two planes of principal
stress. The greatest intensity of shearing stress occurs on the pair
of planes inclined at 45 to the planes of principal stress, and its
value is Vtf + ip 2 ). i
Deflexion of Beams. The deflexion of beams is due partly to the
distortion caused by shearing, but chiefly to the simple bending
which occurs at each vertical section. As regards the second, which
in most cases is the only important cause of deflexion, we have seen
that the radius of curvature R at any section, due to a bending
moment M, is EI/M, which may also be written E,yi/pi. Thus beams
of uniform strength and depth (and, as a particular case, beams of
uniform section subjected to a uniform bending moment) bend into
a circular arc. In other cases the form of the bent beam, and the
resulting slope and deflexion, may be determined by integrating
the curvature throughout the span, or by a graphic process, which
consists in drawing a curve to represent the beam with its curvature
greatly exaggerated, after the radius of curvature has been deter-
mined for a sufficient number of sections. In all practical cases the
curvature is so small that the arc and chord are of sensibly the
same length. Calling i the angle of slope, and u the dip or deflexion
from the chord, the equation to the curve into which an originally
straight beam bends may be written
du _ .. 6?u _di _EI
dx dx*~dx~M'
Integrating this for a beam of uniform section, of span L, supported
at its ends and loaded with a weight VV at the centre, we have, for the
greatest slope and greatest deflexion, respectively, i WL*/l6EI,
i=WL 3 /48EI. If the load VV is uniformly distributed over L,
f,=WL ! /24EI and ,=5WL/384EI.
The additional slope which shearing stress produces in any
originally horizontal layer is q/C, where q is, as before, the intensity
of shearing stress and C is the modulus of rigidity. In a round
or rectangular bar the additional deflexion due to shearing is scarcely
appreciable. In an J beam, with a web only thick enough to resist
shear, it may be a somewhat considerable proportion of the whole.
Torsion of Solid and Hollow Shafts. Torsion occurs in a bar to
which equal and opposite couples are applied, the axis of the bar
being the axis of the couples, and gives rise to shearing stress in
planes perpendicular to the axis. Let AB (fig. 39) be a uniform
circular shaft held fast at the end A, and twisted by a couple applied
in the plane BB. Assuming the strain to be within the limits of
1022
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
elasticity, a radius CD turns round to CD', and a line AD drawn at
any distance r from the axis, and originally straight, changes into
the helix AD'. Let 9 be the angle which this helix makes with lines
parallel to the axis, or in other words the angle of shear at the distance
FIG. 39.
r from the axis, and let i be the angle of twist DCD'. Taking two
sections at a distance dx from one another, we have the arc
6dx = rdi. Hence q, the intensity of shearing stress in a plane of
cross-section, varies as r, since g = C0=Cr difdx. The resultant
moment of the whole shearing stress on each plane of cross-section
is equal to the twisting moment M. Thus
fairr t qdr = 'M..
Calling ri the outside radius (where the shearing stress is greatest)
and 31 its intensity there, we have q = rqi/r\, and hence, for a solid
shaft, qi = 2M/jrri 3 . For a hollow shaft with a central hole of radius
r 2 the same reasoning applies : the limits of integration are now r\
and r 2 , and
The lines of principal stress are obviously helices inclined at 45 to
the axis.
If the shaft has any other form of section than a solid or sym-
metrical hollow circle, an originally straight radial line becomes
warped when the shaft is twisted, and the shearing stress is no longer
proportional to the distance from the axis. The twisting of shafts
of square, triangular and other sections has been investigated by
Saint-Venant. In a square shaft (side = ft) the stress is greatest at
the middle of each side, and its intensity there is g t = M/o-28lfc 3 .
For round sections the angle of twist per unit of length is
--*:* in solid and x$=m in hollow shafts -
In what has been said above it is assumed that the stress is
within the limit of elasticity. When the twisting couple is increased
so that this limit is passed, plastic yielding begins in the outermost
layer, and a larger proportion of the whole stress falls to be borne
by layers nearer the centre. The case is similar to that of a
beam bent beyond the elastic limit, described above. If we sup-
pose the process of twisting to be continued, and that after passing
the limit of elasticity the material is capable of much distortion
without further increase of shearing stress, the distribution of stress
on any cross section will finally have an approximately unifgrm
value q', and the moment of torsion will be
In the case of a solid shaft this gives for M a value greater than it
has when the stress in the outermost layer only reaches the intensity
q', in the ratio of 4 to 3. It is obvious from this consideration that
the ultimate strength of a shaft to resist torsion is no more deducible
from a knowledge of the ultimate shearing strength of the material
than the ultimate strength of a beam to resist bending is deducible
from a knowledge of the tensile and crushing strength. It should be
noticed also that as regards ultimate strength a solid shaft has an
important advantage over a hollow shaft of the same elastic strength,
or a hollo_w shaft so proportioned that the greatest working intensity
of stress is the same as in the solid shaft.
Twisting Combined with Bending. This important practical case
is realized in a crank-shaft (fig. 40). Let a force P be applied at the
crank-pin A at right angles
_ _ to the plane of the crank.
At any section of the shaft
__ L _______ _ ' ____ _ C (between the crank and
1 the bearing) there is a
\ - ' - "U twisting moment Mi =
P. AB and a bending mo-
ment M 2 = P.BC. There
is also a direct shearing
force P, but this does not
. require to be taken into
A
account in calculating the
stress at points at the
p top or bottom of the cir-
cumference (where the
intensity is greatest), since the direct shearing stress is distributed
so that its intensity is zero at these points. The stress there is
consequently made up of longitudinal normal stress (due to
bending), p\ =4Mi/irri 3 , and shearing stress (due to torsion),
gi=2Mi/7m 3 . Combining these, as in 64, we find for the prin-
cipal stresses r = 2 JM=*= V(M, 2 + M 2 2 )]/w, 3 ,or r = 2P(BCAC)/jrr, 3 .
The greatest shearing stress isaP. AC/nri 3 , and the axes of principal
stress are inclined so that tan 20 =Mi/M 2 = AB/BC. The axis of
greater principal stress bisects the angle ACB.
Long Columns and Struts : Compression and Bending. A long
strut or pillar, compressed by forces P applied at the ends in the
direction of the axis, becomes unstable as regards flexure when P
exceeds a certain value. Under no circumstances can this value
of P be exceeded in loading a strut. But it may happen that the
intensity of stress produced by smaller loads exceeds the safe com-
pressive strength of the material, in which case a lower limit of load
must be chosen. If the applied load is not strictly axial, if the strut
i= not initially straight, if it is subject to any deflexion by transverse
forces, or if the modulus of elasticity is not uniform over each cross-
section then loads smaller than the limit which causes instability
will produce a certain deflexion which increases with increase of load,
and will give rise to a uniformly varying stress of the kind illustrated
in figs. 28 and 30. We shall first consider the ideal case in which the
forces at the ends are strictly axial, the strut perfectly straight and
free from transverse loads and perfectly symmetrical as to elasticity.
Two conditions have to be distinguished that in which the ends
are held by pins or sockets which leave them free to rock, and that
in which the ends arc held fixed. Suppose in the first place that
the ends are free to rock. The value of the load which causes
instability will be found by considering what force P applied to each
end would suffice to hold an originally straight strut in a bent state,
supposing it to have received a small amount of elastic curvature in
any way. It is shown by Euler that the force required to maintain
the strut in its curved state is P = :r 2 EI/L 2 , and is independent of
the deflexion. This means that with this particular value of P
(which for brevity we shall write Pi) the strut will be in neutral
equilibrium when bent; with a value of P less than PI it will be
stable; with a greater value it will be unstable. Hence a load
exceeding PI will certainly cause rupture. The value *- 2 EI/L 2
applies to struts with ends free to rock. If the ends are fixed the
effective length for bending is reduced by one half, so that PI then
is 47r 2 EI/L 2 . When one end is fixed and the other is free to rock
Pi has an intermediate value, probably about gir'EI^L 2 .
The above theory assigns Pi as a limit to the strength of a strut on
account of flexural instability; but a stress less than PI may cause
direct crushing. Let S be the area of section, and/c the strength of
the material to resist crushing. Thus a strut which conforms to the
ideal conditions specified above will fail by simple crushing if / C S is
less than Pi, but by bending if _f e S is greater than PL Hence with
a given material and form of section the ideal strut will fail by direct
crushing if the length is less than a certain multiple of the least
breadth (easily calculated from the expression for Pi), and in that case
its strength will be independent of the length; when the length is
greater than this the strut will yield by bending, and its strength
diminishes rapidly as the length is increased.
But the conditions which the above theory assumes are never
realized in practice. The load is never strictly axial, nor the strut
absolutely straight to begin with, nor the elasticity uniform. The
result is that the strength is in all cases less than cither /<;S or PI, and
the results of experiments arc best expressed by means of a formula,
which is in part empirical, giving continuous values for struts of any
length. For very short struts we have seen that the ideal breaking
load is / C S, and for very long struts it is ir'EI/L 2 . If we write
P=/cS/(i+/< : SL 2 /jr 2 EI), we have a formula which gives correct
values in these two extreme cases, and intermediate values for struts
of medium length. By writing this P=/S/(l+cSL 2 /I), and treating
/and c as empirical constants, we have a practical formula which fits
in well with experimental results and is applicable to struts of any
length when the ends are free to^rock. For fixed ends \c is to be
taken in place of c.
Bursting Strength of Circular Cylinders and Spheres. Space
remains for the consideration of only one other mode of stress, of
great importance from its occurrence in
boilers, pipes, hydraulic and steam cylin-
ders and guns. The material of a hollow
cylinder, subjected to pressure from within,
is thrown into a stress of circumferential
pull. When the thickness t is small
compared with the radius R, we may
treat this stress as uniformly distributed
over the thickness. Let p be the intensity
of fluid pressure within a hollow circular
cylinder, and let / be the intensity of
circumferential stress. Consider the forces
on a small rectangular plate (fig. 41), with
its sides parallel and perpendicular to the
direction of the axis, of length I and width
RS6, $8 being the small angle it subtends
at the axis. Whatever forces act on this
plate in the direction of the axis are
equal and opposite. The remaining forces, which are in equilibrium,
FIG. 41.
STRESA STRICKLAND, H. E.
1023
are P, the total pressure from within, and a force T at each side due
to the circumferential stress. P = plRd6 and T=flt. But by the
triangle of forces (fig. 42) P = T50. Hence f=pR/t.
The ends of the cylinder may or may not be held together by
longitudinal stress in the cylinder sides; if they are, then, whatever
T _____ . be the form of the ends, a transverse
section, the area of whch is 2*Rt,
has to bear a total force pirR 1 . Hence,
if /' be the intensity of longitudinal
stress, f=pR/2t = %f.
A thin hollow sphere under internal
pressure has equal circumferential pull in all directions. To find
its value consider the plate of fig. 42. There are now four equal
forces T, on each of the four sides, to equilibrate the radial force P.
Hence P = 2TS0 a.ndj=pR/2t.
Thick Cylinder. When the thickness is not small compared with
the radius, the radial pressure is transmitted from layer to layer with
reduced intensity, and the circumferential pull diminishes towards
the outside. In the case of a thick cylinder with free ends 1 we have
to deal at any point with two principal stresses, radial and circum-
ferential, which may be denoted by p and p' respectively. Sup-
posing (as we may properly do in dealing with a cylinder which is
not very short) that a transverse section originally plane remains
plane, the longitudinal strain is uniform. Since there is no longi-
tudinal stress this strain is due entirely to the lateral action of the
stresses p and p', and its amount is (+')/0-E. Hence at all
points p+p' =constant. 2 Further, by considering the equilibrium
of any thin layer, as we have already considered that of a thin
cylinder, we have j- r (pr)=p'.
These two equations give by integration, p = C+C'/r 2 , ami
/>' = C-C'/r 2 .
If fi be the external and r 2 the internal radius, and pa the pressure
on the inner surface, the conditions that p = po when r = r^ and
p = o when r = r\ give C = p&^Kri* r-f) and C' = Cn 2 .
Hence the circumferential stress at any radius r is p'
p<Pi 2 (l+ri 2 /r*')/(rt'r2'). At the inside, where this is greatest,
its value is p^r^+rf)/^ r 2 2 ) a quantity always greater
than po, however thick the cylinder is.
In the construction of guns various devices have been used to
equalize the circumferential tension. With cast guns a chilled
core has been employed to make the inner layers solidify and cool
first, so that they are afterwards compressed by the later contrac-
tion of the outer layers. In guns built up of wrought-iron or steel
hoops the hoops are bored small by a regulated amount and are
shrunk on over the barrel or over the inner hoops. In J. A. Long-
ridge's system, largely used for heavy ordnance, the gun is made by
winding steel wire or ribbon, with suitable initial tension, on a central
steel tube.
The circumferential stress at any point of a thick hollow sphere
exposed to internal fluid pressure is found, by a process like that of
the last paragraph, to be />or 2 3 (i+ri 3 /2r 3 )/(ri 3 r 2 3 ), which gives,
for the greatest tension, the value
(r 1 3 -r.^). (J. A. E.)
STRESA, a village of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
Novara, situated on the west side of Lago Maggiore, on the
Simplon railway, 10 m. N. of Arona, 673 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901), 1477. It is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery
and for its fine villas, and is a favourite resort in spring, summer
and autumn.
STRICKLAND, AGNES (1806-1874), English historical writer,
was born in 1806, the third daughter of Thomas Strickland, of
Reydon Hall, Suffolk. Her first literary efforts were historical
romances in verse in the style of Walter Scott Worcester Field
(published without date), Demetrius and other Poems (1833).
From this she passed to prose histories, written in a simple style
for the young. A picturesque sketch of the Pilgrims of Walsing-
ham appeared in. 1835, two volumes of Tales and Stories from
History in the following year. Then, with the assistance of her
sister, she projected a more ambitious work, The Lines of the
Queens of England, from Matilda of Flanders to Queen Anne.
The first volume appeared in 1840, the twelfth and last in 1849.
Miss Strickland was a warm partisan on the side of royalty and
1 This condition is realized in practice when the fluid causing
internal pressure is held in by a piston, and the stress between this
piston and the other end of the cylinder is taken by some other part
of the structure than the cylinder sides.
2 The solution which follows in the text is applicable even when
there is longitudinal stress, provided that the longitudinal stress is
uniformly distributed over each transverse section. If we call this
stress p*, the longitudinal strain is p"/E. + (p+p')/aE. Since the
whole strain is uniform, and p* is uniform, the sum of p and p' is
constant at all points, as in the case where the ends are free.
the church, but she made industrious study of " official records
and other public documents," gave copious extracts from them,
and drew interesting pictures of manners and customs. While
engaged on this work she found time in 1843 to edit the Letters
of Mary, Queen of Scots, whose innocence she championed with
enthusiasm. In 1850 she followed up her Queens of England
with the Lives of the Queens of Scotland, completing the series in
eight volumes in 1859. Unresting in her industry, she turned
next to the Bachelor Kings of England, about whom she published
a volume in 1861. The Lives of the Seven Bishops followed in
1866 after a longer interval, part of which was employed in
producing an abridged version of her Queens of England. Her
last work was the Lives of the Last Four Stuart Princesses,
published in 1872. In 1871 she obtained a civil-list pension
of 100 in recognition of her merits. She died on the 8th of
July 1874.
A Life by her sister, Jane Margaret Strickland, appeared in 1887.
STRICKLAND, HUGH EDWIN (1811-1853), English naturalist
and geologist, was born at Righton, in the East Riding of York-
shire, on the 2nd of March 1811, and was grandson of Sir George
Strickland, Bart. As a lad he acquired a taste for natural history
which dominated his life. He received his early education from
private tutors and in 1829 entered Oriel College, Oxford. He
attended the anatomical lectures of Dr John Kidd and the
geological lectures of Dr W. Buckland and he became greatly
interested both in zoology and geology. He graduated B.A. in
1831, and proceeded to M.A. in the following year. Returning
to his home at Cracombe House, near Tewkesbury, he began
to study the geology of the Vale of Evesham, communicating
papers to the Geological Society of London (1833-1834). He
also gave much attention to ornithology. Becoming acquainted
with Murchison he was introduced to William John Hamilton
(1805-1867) and accompanied him in 1835 in a journey through
Asia Minor, the Thracian Bosporus and the Island of Zante.
Mr Hamilton afterwards published the results of this journey
and of a subsequent excursion by himself to Armenia in Researches
in Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia (1842). After his return
in 1836 Strickland brought before the Geological Society several
papers on the geology of the districts he had visited in southern
Europe and Asia. He also described in detail the drift deposits
in the counties of Worcester and Warwick, drawing particular
attention to the fiuviatile deposits of Cropthorne in which remains
of hippopotamus, &c., were found. With Murchison he read
before the Geological Society an important paper " On the Upper
Formations of the New Red Sandstone System in Gloucestershire,
Worcestershire and Warwickshire" (Trans. Geol. Soc., 1840). In
other papers he described the Bristol Bone-bed near Tewkesbury
and the Ludlow Bone-bed of Woolhope. He was author likewise
of ornithological memoirs communicated to the Zoological
Society, the Annals and Magazine of Natural History and the
British Association. He also drew up the report, in 1842, of a
committee appointed by the British Association to consider the
rules of zoological nomenclature. He was one of the founders
of the Ray Society suggested in 1843 and established in 1844, the
object being the publication of works on natural history which
could not be undertaken by scientific societies or by publishers.
For this society Strickland corrected, enlarged and edited the
MS. of Agassiz for the Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae (1848).
In 1845 he edited with J. Buckman a second and enlarged edition
of Murchison's Outline of the Geology of the neighbourhood of
Cheltenham. In 1846 he settled at Oxford, and two years later
he issued in conjunction with Dr A. G. Melville a work on The
Dodo and its kindred. In 1850 he was appointed deputy reader
in geology at Oxford during the illness of Buckland, and in 1852
he was elected F.R.S. In the following year, after attending the
meeting of the British Association at Hull, he went to examine the
cuttings on the Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway near
Retford, and he was there knocked down and killed by a train on
the I4th of September 1853. He was buried at Deerhurst church
near Tewkesbury, where a memorial window was erected.
See Memoirs of H. E. Strickland, by Sir William Jardine, Bart.
(1858).
1024
STRIEGAU STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
STRIEGAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, on the Striegau Water (Striegaucr Wasser), 30 m. by rail
S.W. of Breslau. Pop. (1905), 13,427. It contains four Roman
Catholic churches, among which is that of St Peter and St Paul,
with a vaulted roof too ft. in height, the highest in Silesia; a
Protestant church and numerous educational and charitable
institutions. The chief industries of the place are the making of
cigars, malt and machinery; also of albums, portfolios and other
articles in leather. Granite is quarried in the neighbourhood
and there is an extensive trade in grain. It was near Striegau
that Frederick the Great gained the important victory usually
named after the village of Hohenfriedberg, on the 4th of June
1745. The town rights of Striegau date from 1242.
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS. A strike, in the labour sense,
is a stoppage of work by common agreement on the part of a
body of work-people for the purpose of obtaining or resisting a
change in the conditions of employment. The body of work-
people may be large or small, and the cessation of work may be
simultaneous or gradual; e.g. if the notices to cease work happen
to expire at different dates, the cessation may nevertheless be
a strike, provided it takes place as the result of a common
agreement. It will be seen from the above definition that a
strike, though the immediate result of an agreement, formal or
tacit, on the part of work-people to withhold their labour, may
originate in a demand on the part of the employer as well as on
the part of the employes. In the former case the stoppage is
often (though loosely) termed a " lock-out." It is obvious,
however, that to distinguish stoppages as strikes or lock-outs
according to the source of the original demand for a change of
conditions would lead to a very arbitrary and misleading classi-
fication. Frequently it is not easy to say which side made
the original demand to which the dispute is to be attributed,
and frequently a stoppage is the result of a break-down of nego-
tiations in the course of which demands have been made by both
sides. Moreover, in so far as the distinction can be drawn, it
would lead to the result that in almost all cases a dispute in
times of improving trade would be termed a strike, and in times
of declining trade a lock-out. It is not possible to frame an
entirely satisfactory definition of a lock-out which shall enable it
always to be discriminated from a strike. It may be noticed that
the attempt to make this distinction has been abandoned in the
board of trade statistics since 1894, both kinds of stoppages being
now included under the comprehensive title of " trade disputes."
The only basis of distinction between a " strike " and a " lock-
out," which is sufficiently definite for precise or statistical
purposes, is the source from which the actual notice to cease
work emanates, cessations resulting from notices given by the
employers being termed " lock-outs," while those which either
result from notices given by the men, or from their withdrawal
from work without notice, would be termed " strikes." But
whether the term " lock-out " be restricted as above, or applied,
as in the popular use of the term, to any dispute in which the
employers appear to be the aggressors, the distinction does not
afford a sound basis for the statistical classification of disputes.
The source of the actual notices to leave work is often quite an
unimportant matter; while, on the other hand, if the ordinary
current use of the terms be followed, there will be many disputes
which, according to the workmen's view, should be termed lock-
outs, and, according to the employers, should be termed strikes
a difficulty which was well illustrated in the controversy as to
whether the " strike clauses " in admiralty contracts could be
invoked in the case of work stopped through the engineering
dispute of 1897. In the present article, therefore, no distinction
is drawn for statistical purposes between a strike and a lock-out.
Another distinction, perhaps of greater importance than the
above, but which in practice it is sometimes difficult to draw,
is between a stoppage in pursuance of a trade dispute and a
stoppage due to a bona-fide dismissal or change of employment
arising from the intention of an employer to cease to employ
a particular set of men, or of a group of workmen to cease to
work for a particular employer. Generally speaking, a stop-
page may rightly be termed a trade dispute if there be an
intention on the part of both parties (at least at the beginning)
to resume the relations of employer and employed on the
satisfaction of certain specified conditions. Where the wil-
lingness to resume this relation exists on one side only the
question is more difficult, and accordingly it is not uncommon
for an employer to deny the existence of a trade dispute,
although the men formerly in his employ may be actually
drawing " strike pay " from their unions and " picketing" his
works to prevent their places being filled. Such cases sometimes
arise when the workmen consider that the dismissal of some of
their colleagues is due not to personal faults or slackness of
employment, but to some collective action which they have
taken, or to their membership of some organization. Broadly
speaking, however, the distinction is that a trade dispute is a
temporary stoppage entered into to obtain or to resist a change
of conditions of employment.
The essence of a strike or lock-out is a refusal on the part
of a number of workmen collectively or of an employer to renew
contracts of employment except on certain changed conditions.
This simple situation may be complicated by actual breaches
of contract, as when a body of work-people leave work without
notice, or by attempts on their part to prevent other persons
from entering into contracts of service, or to persuade other
persons to terminate or break their contracts. But such
features as these, though common to many strikes, are not
essential. The question of the legal position of strikes, and of
the methods adopted for the conduct of strikes, is discussed
below. Here it is only necessary to point out that strikes,
as such, are incidents arising out of the modern relationship
of free contract as between employers and workmen, and have
little real analogy with the revolts of servile or semi-servile
labour in ancient or medieval times.
Trade Disputes in the United Kingdom.
Since 1888 the board of trade have kept a record of strikes
and lock-outs in the United Kingdom. The following table,
based on the official returns published by that department,
shows the number and importance of these stoppages in the
United Kingdom from 1893 to 1907:
Year.
Number
of Dis-
putes.
Number of Work-people affected.
Aggregate
Duration in
Working Days.
Directly.
Indirectly.
Total.
i893
6i5
594,149
40,152
634,301
30,467,765
1894
929
257-3H
67,934
325,248
9,529,010
1895
745
207,239
55,884
263,123
5,724,670
1896
926
147,950
50,240
198,190
3,746,368
1897
864
167,453
62,814
230,267
10,345,523
1898
711
200,769
53,138
253,907
15,289,478
1899
719
138,058
42,159
180,217
2,516,416
1900
648
135,145
53,393
188,538
3,152,694
1901
642
in,437
68,109
179,546
4,142,287
1902
442
116,824
139,843
256,667
3,479,255
1903
387
93,515
23,386
116,901
2,338,668
1904
355
56,380
30,828
87,208
1,484,220
1905
358
67,653
25,850
93,503
2,470,189
1906
486
157,872
59,901
217,773
3,028,816
1907
60 1
100,728
46,770
147,498
2,162,151
It should be noted that by " indirectly affected " are meant
the work-people employed in the same establishments as those
on strike, who are thrown out of employment owing to the strike,
but are not themselves engaged in it. The board of trade
statistics do not take into account the persons employed in
kindred trades who are indirectly affected.
An important thing to note about the above statistics is
that in many years they are dominated by a few large disputes.
Some of the larger cases are shown on the following page.
In 1907 487 of the recorded disputes (or about four-fifths
of the whole number) accounted for less than one-third of the
total time lost, and this, it is to be remembered, is after the
very small disputes have been excluded.
By " aggregate duration " or " time lost " is meant the
product of the number affected multiplied by the duration
of the dispute in working days, with some allowance for those
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
1025
who have found wcrk elsewhere or been replaced by others.
Though this figure is the best general index of the importance of
the disputes of each year, it is but a rough approximation to the
time actually lost through disputes.
when there is most room for bona-fide disagreement as to the
conditions of the labour market. These are undoubtedly the
most critical times in the relations of employers and employed,
but the disturbing influence of accidental causes is too great
Principal Disputes of the Year.
All other Disputes.
Year.
Number of
Aggregate
Number
Number of
Aggregate
Trade and Locality.
Work-people
Duration in
of
Work-people
Duration in
affected.
Working Days.
Disputes.
affected.
Working Days.
1893
( Coal Miners (Federated Districts) ....
/ Coal Miners (South Wales and Monmouth)
300,000
90,000
21,137,000 )
1,500,000 \
613
244,301
7,830,765
1894
Coal Miners (Scotland)
70,000
5,600,000
928
255-248
3,929,010
1895
Boot and Shoe Operatives
46,000
1,564,000
744
217,123
4,160,670
1897
Engineers, Machinemen and others. . . )
i 5,73i.ooo
863
182,767
4,6i4-5 2 3
1898
( Engineers, Machinemen and others continued \
( Coal Miners (South Wales and Monmouth) .
47, 5
100,000
/ 1,118,000 )
11,650,000 \
710
153,907
2,521,478
For example, if a strike causes a postponement or accumulation
of work, the extra demand for labour, and the overtime worked
after its conclusion, may partially compensate for the stoppage.
On the other hand, if a dispute should drive away trade or
cause the closing of works, it may lessen the field of employment
for a long period after its termination, and such lost time cannot
be taken into account in the estimates of "aggregate duration."
For these reasons all estimates of wages lost through disputes
are somewhat fallacious. The real importance of strikes lies
less in the value of the actual time consumed by their duration,
than in their indirect effects on the organization and effective-
ness of the industry, and on the relations of employer to em-
ployed, and also in their reaction on the conditions of allied
trades. The comparative insignificance of the actual loss
Group of Trades.
Mean Annual
Percentage of
Total Number
employed who
were affected
by Disputes.
Percentage of
Aggregate
Working Time
occupied by
Disputes.
Number
o!
Disputes.
Number of
Work-people
affected
(directly and
indirectly).
Aggregate
Duration in
Working
Days.
Building
Mining and Quarrying .
Metal, Engineering and
Shipbuilding
Textile
Clothing
Other
43
133
95
90
36
72
5,260
87,509
22,470
27,736
4,992
9,047
234,651
1,348,289
534,549
326,468
104,619
180,793
o-5
8-7
1-6
2-3
0-7
O-2
0-07
o-45
0-13
0-09
0-05
O-OI
All Industries, except
Agricultural Labour-
ers, Seamen and Do-
mestic Servants .
469
157,014
2,729,369
1-6
0-09
Causes.
to production owing to the mere loss of time caused by strikes
will be seen from the fact that the total duration of strikes
during the seven years 1901-1907, if spread over the entire
adult male working population, would be equivalent to less
than the loss of one-third of a day per head per annum. As
a matter of fact, however, the loss owing to strikes is very un-
equally distributed over the industrial population. In large
groups of industries, e.g. agriculture, strikes are of rare occurrence.
In others, such as the building trades, they are frequent, but
mostly small and local; while in mining they are not only fre-
quent and often prolonged, but in many cases they involve
large numbers of persons and extend over wide areas. Thus
on an average of the seven years 1901-1907 there were 43
disputes annually in the building trades, and 133 in mining and
quarrying, but the latter disputes have involved nearly seven-
teen times as many persons and had an aggregate duration
nearly six times as great. Intermediate between these groups
of trades is the metal, engineering and shipbuilding group,
in which, more perhaps than in any other group, the importance
of disputes varies according to the state of trade.
The principal facts relating to the distribution of trade dis-
putes among the more important groups of trades are given in
the above table for the mean of the seven years 1901-1907.
It would be natural to expect that trade disputes would be
most prevalent at or just after a turn in the tide of employment,
xxv. 33
to enable any regular law of variations in disputes to be estab-
lished by statistical evidence. It is to be remembered that in
recent years there has been a great development in the means
available for avoiding stoppages by conciliatory action (see
ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION), and this of itself would greatly
complicate the task of tracing any correspondence between
the prevalence of actual stoppages and the state of employ-
ment. Broadly it may be said that the great majority of up-
ward and downward changes of wages are settled nowadays
without strikes, and in many trades actual stoppages, instead
of being a normal feature in the relations between employer
and employed, are rather to be looked on as cases of accidental
breakdown of the recognized machinery of negotiation.
The causes of disputes are of course very varied, embracing
all the matters relating to conditions of
employment on which differences
may arise between employers
and employed. Experience shows, how-
ever, that the great bulk of disputes relate
to questions of wages, a much smaller
proportion to hours of labour, and the
balance to a large number of miscellaneous
questions, such as the employment of per-
sons or classes obnoxious to the strikers on
the ground that they do not belong to their
union, or have worked against its interests,
or because they are held to have no " right "
to the particular occupation on which
they are employed, either on account of
not having gone through the recognized
training or of belonging to another trade.
Among this class of strikes are to be included the so-called " de-
marcation " disputes between two bodies of workmen as to the
limits of their trades, which frequently cause suspension of work
by both groups, to the great inconvenience of the employer.
Strikes are also not uncommon on the question of trade unionism
pure and simple i.e. to obtain or defend freedom to belong to a
union, or to act through its agency in negotiations with em-
ployers. This question enters more or less as a factor into a
large number of disputes, most usually, however, as a secondary
cause or object, so that it does not appear prominently in the
tabulation of causes in the board of trade statistics, which is
based on principal causes only. Thus the formulated demands of
the strikers are usually for improved conditions of work, the ques-
tion of " recognition " of the trade union only arising incidentally
when the parties attempt to negotiate as to these demands. The
following table, showing the principal causes of disputes for the
seven years 1901-1907, is based on the official statistics:
Percentage Proportion of Work-people directly affected by
Disputes in the seven years, 1901-1907, relating to
Questions
of Wages.
Questions
of Hours.
Employment
of particular
Classes or
Persons.
Trade
Unionism.
Other
Causes.
54-5
3'6
9-2
18-2
14-5
IO26
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
The results of trade disputes are nearly as varied as their
causes. Sometimes a strike goes on until the employer is
Methoas of ruined or retires from business, and is only ended
Settlement by the permanent closing of the works; sometimes,
and especially when trade is slack and the dispute
Results. not j ar g e) the places of the men are almost imme-
diately filled, and the only economic result of the strike is to
replace one body of men by another without perceptible inter-
ruption of business. There have been frequent cases of this
kind in strikes of unskilled labourers. Sometimes, on the other
hand, the demand for labour is so active that the whole of the
strikers immediately find work elsewhere, and the only eco-
monic result is to transfer a body of men from one set of employers
to another with h'ttle or no interruption of their employment.
In years of active employment the building trades have afforded
many examples of this issue of a trade dispute. In other cases,
after a more or less prolonged stoppage, the disputes end by the
permanent " blocking " of an employer's establishment by a
union, or the permanent refusal of the employer to take back
any of his former employes. All these, however, are extreme,
and on the whole exceptional cases. The vast majority of
trade disputes are settled by mutual arrangement, and whether
such arrangement is wholly in favour of one or other party, or
involves a compromise, its terms provide that the whole or part
of the body of work-people whose labour was withheld or
excluded shall return on agreed conditions to their former
employment.
During the period 1901 to 1907 there were on an average 465
disputes settled annually, affecting directly and indirectly
156,800 work-people, and of these only 44 disputes, involving
15,700 work-people, were ended by the return to work of the
strikers on their employers' terms without negotiation of any
kind, and 69 disputes involving 5500 persons by replacement
of the work-people or by the closing of works. All the remain-
ing disputes, 352 in number, involving 135,600 persons, were con-
cluded by negotiation between the parties either with, or more
usually without, the aid of an outside mediator or arbitrator.
The following figures for 1901-1907 (which practically coincide
with those of the previous decennial average) show the compara-
tive results of trade disputes. The percentages refer to the
proportion of work-people directly involved in disputes which
resulted in the manner indicated:
Year.
In favor of
Work-people.
In favor of
Employers.
Com-
promised.
Indefinite.
Total.
1901
27-5
34-7
37-3
o-5
IOO-O
1902
31-8
31-8
36-1
0-3
IOO-O
1903
31-2
48-1
20-7
0-0
IOO-O
1904
27-3
41-7
3-9
O-I
IOO-O
1905
24-7
34-o
41-2
O-I
IOO-O
1906
42-5
24-5
33-o
0-0
IOO-O
1907
32-6
27-0
40-1
o-3
IOO-O
Mean of
7 years
3I-I
34-5
34-2
0-2
IOO-0
It is, of course, to be understood that the figures in the above
table only relate to the immediate results, as determined by the
relative extent to which one or other of the parties succeed in
enforcing their demands. The question of the ultimate effect
of the stoppages on the welfare of the parties or of the com-
munity generally is an entirely different question.
Organization of Strikes and Lock-outs.
In the great majority of cases strikes are organized and
controlled by trade unions. It does not, however, follow from
/nffuenceo/this that the growth of trade unionism has always
Trade fostered and encouraged strikes, there being evidence
>os ' that in many trades the strengthening of organiza-
tion has had the effect, not only of restraining ill-considered
partial stoppages, but also of preventing more serious disloca-
tions of industry by providing a channel for the expression
of grievances and a recognized means of negotiating with
employers. Much of the evidence given before the Royal
Commission on Labour (1891-1894) tended to show that the
growth of trade unions has the effect on the whole of lessening
the frequency, though of widening the area, of disputes. The
commission, moreover, laid down that the stage of industry
in which disputes are likely to be most frequent and bitter is
that in which it is emerging from the " patriarchal " condition,
in which each employer governs his establishment and deals
with his own men with no outside interference, but has not
fully entered into that other condition in which transactions
take place between strong associations fully recognizing each
other. In this state of industrial organization bitterness is often
caused by the insistence of the work-people on the " recognition "
of their unions, and by the treatment of these unions by the em-
ployers as outside parties interfering and causing estrangement
between them and the work-people actually in their employ.
Probably next to the patriarchal stage, in which each factory
is a happy family, the industrial conditions most favourable
to peace are when a powerful trade union is face to face with a
representative employers' association, both under the guidance
of strong but moderate leaders and 'neither feeling it beneath
its dignity to treat on equal terms with the other. When, on
the other hand, some or all of these conditions are absent, the
growth of combinations may tend to war rather than peace.
Whether, however, trade unionism tends generally to en-
courage or to restrain strikes, the organization and policy of
all trade-unions, as at present constituted, are based on the
possibility of a collective withdrawal from work in the last
resort. Dispute pay is consequently the one universal form
of trade-union benefit. Though, however, in most of the
disputes recorded the strikers are financially supported by some
trade union, this is by no means always the case. Many strikes
have been entirely carried out without the instrumentality of
a permanent combination, the work-people affected belonging
to no union and merely improvising a more or less represen-
tative strike committee to control the movement. It is not
uncommon, however, for a permanent union to originate in a
strike of non-unionists. In other cases (e.g. in the London
dock strike of 1889) an insignificant trade union may initiate a
strike movement involving several thousands of labourers out-
side its membership. In the case quoted the membership of
the Dockers' Union rose during the few weeks of strike from
800 to over 20,000. A conspicuous case of a widespread strike
of workmen not belonging to a trade union was the South Wales
coal-miners' dispute of 1898. Of the 100,000 men affected,
probably not more than 12,000 belonged at the time to any
trade union, but the workmen's representatives on the committee
of the sliding scale (against which the movement was directed)
formed the nucleus of a strike committee, and one result of
the strike was the formation of the " South Wales Miners'
Federation," affiliated to the Miners' Federation. In the case
of strikes of non-unionists, the strikers, of course, have to depend
for their maintenance on their own resources or on the proceeds
of public subscriptions. Frequently grants are made in their aid
by sympathetic trade unions, and in the case of the South Wales
dispute above referred to, several boards of guardians gave out-
door relief illegally to strikers who had exhausted their resources.
The majority of strikers, however, belong to trade unions
and receive " dispute benefit," which usually consists of a
weekly payment of from ics. to 155. In 1906 the sum expended
by 100 of the principal trade unions in support of men engaged
in disputes was 212,000. In years of big disputes this sum has
been largely exceeded.
Although most strikes are controlled by trade unions, cases
are comparatively rare in this country in which the central
committee of a trade union takes the initiative and directs its
members to cease work. More usually a local strike movement
is initiated by the local workmen, and the central committee
is generally empowered by the rules to refuse its sanction to a
strike and to close it at its discretion, but has no authority to
order it. In many unions a ballot is taken of the members
of the districts affected before a strike is authorized, and a
two-thirds (or even greater) majority, either of members or of
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
1027
branches, in favour of a stoppage may be required before the
sanction of the central executive is granted. Some unions
in their rules draw a distinction between strikes to enforce
new conditions (e.g. a rise of wages, a restriction of hours or of
overtime) and strikes to oppose the introduction of new condi-
tions by the employers, greater freedom being allowed to the local
members in the case of " defensive " than of" offensive " strikes.
Sometimes also the executive committee, while refusing their
official sanction to a strike, and declining to allow the funds of
the society to be used to support the strikers, may tacitly permit
a local committee to take what action it pleases and to collect
funds for the purpose. Some strong unions, however, especially
those which have entered into general agreements with em-
ployers' associations, not only refuse financial support to an
unauthorized strike, but even expel from their society strikers
who refuse to obey their order to return to work. The Boiler-
makers' and Iron Shipbuilders' Union has more than once
taken drastic action of this kind, even to the extent of fining or
superseding recalcitrant members and officials. In 1899 the
National Union of Boot and Shoe Operatives, which is a party
to an agreement with the Employers' Federation (known as the
" Terms of Settlement ") was fined 300 by the umpire under
that agreement for failing to expel or to induce to return to
work certain of their members who took part in a strike contrary
to the provisions of the agreement. It sometimes happens,
however, that the central committee of a trade union is not
strong enough to withhold financial support even from an
unauthorized strike. 1
When a strike has been authorized by the executive, the
conduct of it is frequently entrusted to a " strike committee,"
appointed ad hoc, one reason being that a strike of any con-
siderable dimensions often affects members of several unions,
so that the common action necessary in a conflict with employers
can only be attained by a committee representing all the socie-
ties involved. A strike committee has often no power to draw
on the funds of the unions represented, each of which pays
dispute pay in accordance with its rules to its own members,
the financial power of the strike committee being limited
to the support of non-unionists out of any funds available for
the purpose, or the collection and administration of funds in
case of the exhaustion of the resources of any of the unions
represented.
The financial support of a local or sectional strike imposes but
little strain on the resources of a large society, but where a
considerable proportion of the members are affected it is usual
for a union to replenish its funds by imposing a " levy " or special
contribution on members remaining at work. During the en-
gineering dispute of 1897-1898 the levies imposed by the Amal-
gamated Society of Engineers rose to 2s. 6d. per week, and
one of the main objects of the federated employers was to
diminish the revenue obtained from this source by enlarging
the area of the dispute.
When there is no regular provision for the financial support
of strikers, or when this provision is exhausted, the strike leaders
have a much more difficult task in preventing the return to
work of some of their followers; and it is in these cases that
intimidation and violence are most to be apprehended. In all
strikes, however, except in the few cases in which the whole of
the workmen in the trade are in the union, and the skill re-
quired is such that no new labour can enter the trade during
the dispute, there is the possibility of the strikers being replaced
by other labour, and the efforts of the strike organizers are largely
directed to the prevention of this by all means in their power.
The chief method employed has generally been that known as
"picketing," viz. the placing of members of the union to watch
the approaches to the works or factories affected, to give in-
formation as to the strike to any workmen who attempt to enter,
and to endeavour to dissuade them from accepting employment.
Other methods of preventing workmen from taking the place
of strikers may also be adopted or attempted, ranging from the
1 Noteworthy in this respect was the strike of boilermakers on
the Tyne in 1910, in defiance of their executive.
Free
Labour,
publication of information in leaflets or otherwise as to the
existence of a dispute, or appeals to workmen to avoid the
works affected, to systematic annoyance or intimidation of
workmen who take or retain employment during a stoppage by
threats or by actual violence and outrage.
The methods adopted by strikers and strike organizers natur-
ally suggest the counter measures adopted by employers. To
break down the resistance of a body of work-people supplied
with a weekly strike allowance by a powerful trade union
employers sometimes have recourse to some method of mutual
indemnification by which the financially weaker of their number
are temporarily subsidized by the stronger, whether through
the machinery of a permanent employers' association or of an
emergency committee. Employers' associations being usually
composed of much smaller numbers than trade unions, are,
as a rule, able to act in concert with greater secrecy and less
formality than is possible in a workmen's union. Apart from
any financial support which employers may guarantee their
colleagues when attacked by a trade union, they have in some
cases formed or aided organizations for the systematic provision
of a reserve of " free labourers " available to replace men on
strike. By " free labourers " is meant not necessarily non-
unionist, but labourers pledged to work amicably with others
whether members of a union or not. The Shipping Federation,
an organization of shipowners and shipowners' associations
which was formed in 1890 to combat the strikes than prevalent
among seamen, arranged a system of shipping
offices at which seamen could be engaged who were
prepared to give a pledge that they would work
with non-unionists. They also opened similar offices for shore
labourers in some ports. Other independent agencies exist
for supplying employers with labour during a dispute. It is
not uncommon, in disputes in which there is any apprehension
of intimidation or violence, for employers to board and lodge
the imported work-people. Another method on which em-
ployers in recent years showed an increased tendency to rely
was the institution of legal proceedings to restrain individual
strikers or the union to which they belong from taking wrongful
action injurious to their business. This led to the passage
of the Trade Disputes Act of 1906 legalizing several forms
of action by strikers which the courts had declared illegal (see
below). There has been no attempt in England to induce the
courts to restrain bodies of work-people from striking by in-
junction, as has been frequently done in American strikes
affecting inter-state commerce. In many disputes the attitude
of public opinion is of some importance in determining the
results, and accordingly both sides frequently issue statements
or manifestoes giving their versions of the difference, and in
other ways (e.g. by an offer of arbitration) one party or the
other endeavours to enlist public opinion on its side.
Public Action with regard to Strikes and Lock-outs.
Though the majority of labour disputes have little impor-
tance for third parties, stoppages of this kind sometimes acquire
a special interest for the general public either by reason of the
large number of work-people whose livelihood is affected, or
of their indirect effects on employment in kindred trades, or
of the danger and inconvenience that may be caused to the
public, or of the fear that industry may be diverted abroad,
or that a breach of the peace may be caused by attempts on the
part of the strikers to coerce persons outside their combinations.
For these and other reasons, strikes and lock-outs are usually
regarded as a class of disputes in which legislative interference
has more justification than in the case of other kinds of industrial
and commercial differences.
Legislative action, with the view of providing alternative
methods of adjusting labour difficulties, is discussed in the
article ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION. It is there shown
that in New Zealand, New South Wales, Western Australia,
the commonwealth of Australia and Canada (for certain in-
dustries) alternative methods have been made compulsory,
but there are indications that the great majority of employers
1028
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
and workmen in Great Britain would not be prepared for such
measures, involving as they would the surrender by those
directly concerned of their freedom to arrange these matters
by voluntary agreement or by a trial of strength. Without the
provision of some alternative by the state, it would be impos-
sible in a free country to prohibit altogether the termination of
labour contracts by collective agreement among work-people or
employers.
The law, however, may and does restrict or prohibit the use
of some of the methods of promoting or carrying on strikes
which interfere with the liberty of other labourers, or inflict a
wrong on employers, or injuriously affect the public interest.
The relation of the law in the United Kingdom to strikes and
lock-outs is briefly as follows. Since the legislation of 1871 and 1875
there has been no question of the legality of a strike as
ift 1 such, viz. of a combined abstention from work in order
to influence the conditions of employment, but the
* "^ ..^method in 'which the strike is carried out may subject
Strikes t ^ le strikers either to criminal or civil liabilities. In this
connexion the chief questions of interest relate to the
limits within which strikers may lawfully act for the purpose
of inducing other persons not to take their places, and for the
purpose of bringing indirect pressure to bear upon the employer
by influencing others not to work for or deal with him; and, on the
other hand, the limits within which employers may act in inducing
other employers to abstain from employing workmen or members of
a trade union with whom they have a dispute.
Strikers are necessarily liable to the general criminal law, but
the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875 enacted that
an agreement or combination by .two or more persons to do, or
procure to be done, any act in contemplation or furtherance of a
trade dispute between employers and workmen shall not be in-
dictable as a conspiracy if such act if committed by one person
would not be punishable as a crime, namely, on indictment or on
summary conviction with the statutory liability of imprisonment
either absolutely or alternatively for some other punishment.
The Trade Disputes Act 1906 extended the exemption to civil
liability providing that an act done in pursuance of an agreement or
combination in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute shall
not be actionable unless the act if done without such agreement or
combination would be actionable. This act also extended the
definition of trade dispute so as to include disputes between workmen
and workmen, and also to make it clear that the workmen referred
to need not necessarily be in the employment of the employer with
whom a trade dispute arises.
The act of 1875 does not affect any conspiracy punishable by
statute nor the law relating to riot, unlawful assembly, breach of the
peace or sedition, or any offence against the state or sovereign. The
act also does not apply to seamen, or to apprentices to the sea service.
Sudden breach of contract of service in gas and water under-
takings, or under circumstances likely to endanger human life or
cause serious bodily injury, or expose valuable property to destruc-
tion or serious injury, are made punishable offences by special
sections, but the miscellaneous provisions of the act are the most
important in trade disputes. These provisions, as amended by the
act of 1906, subject to a penalty of fine or imprisonment every person
who, with a view to compel any other person to abstain from doing,
or to do any act which such other person has a legal right to do or
abstain from doing, wrongfully and without legal authority,
1. Uses violence to or intimidates such other person, or his wife
or children, or injures his property ; or
2. Persistently follows such other person about from place to
place; or
3. Hides any tools, clothes or other property owned or used by
such other person, or deprives him of or hinders him in the use
thereof; or
4. Watches or besets the house or other place where such person
resides, or works, or carries on business, or happens to be, or the
approach to such house or place; or
_ 5. Follows such other person with two or more other persons in a
disorderly manner in or through any street or road.
It has, however, expressly provided by 2 of the act of 1906
that " it shall be lawful for one or more persons, acting on their
own behalf or on behalf of a trade union or of an individual employer
or firm in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute, to attend
at or near a house or place where a person resides or works or carries
on business or happens to be, if they so attend merely for the pur-
pose of peacefully obtaining or communicating information, or of
peacefully persuading any person to work or abstain from working."
The above amendment of the law introduced by the act of 1906
was intended to nullify the effect of a series of recent decisions
(of which Lyons v. Wilkins, 1896 and 1899, was the most important),
which interpreted the act of 1875 to mean that all picketing was
illegal except such as was merely for the purpose of obtaining or
communicating information. Until recently it was supposed that
for wrongs committed in strikes only the individual wrong-doers
could be made responsible. But the decision of the House of Lords
in the Taff Vale railway case (1901) showed that a trade union
could be sued in tort for acts done by its agents within the scope
of their authority and might be sued in its collective capacity,
and execution of any damages recovered could be enforced against
its general funds. The effect of this decision was nullified by
4 (i) of the Trade Disputes Act of 1906, which expressly forbids
any court to entertain any action against a trade union on behalf
of all the members of the union in respect of any tortious act alleged
to have been committed by or on behalf of the union.
Economic Effects.
The question of the effectiveness or otherwise of strikes
and lock-outs for the purpose of influencing the conditions
of employment is part of the wider question of the economic
effect of combinations, the strike or lock-out being only one
of many methods adopted by combinations of workmen or
employers to enforce their demands. (This matter is discussed
in the article TRADE UNIONS.) Apart, however, from the
question of the extent of the immediate advantage, if any,
which one party or the other is able to obtain from a stoppage,
we have to consider generally the economic effects of strikes
and lock-outs to the community as a whole. Stoppages of
work are in their nature wasteful. Time, which might be em-
ployed in work yielding wages to the work-people and profits to
the employers, is lost never to be recovered, while many forms
of fixed capital deteriorate during idleness. In attempting,
however, to estimate the utility or disadvantage of strikes
and lock-outs, whether to the parties themselves or to the
industrial community as a whole, it is insufficient to take into
account the value of the wages and profits foregone during the
stoppage, and to balance these against the gains made by one
party or the other. Attempts have often been made to measure
the loss or gain due to strikes in this way, but even as applied
to particular stoppages, looked at purely from the point of
view of one or other of the parties involved, the method is
unsatisfactory. On the one hand, the time and work apparently
lost may be afterwards partially recouped by overtime, or
some of the strikers may be replaced by others, or may them-
selves find work elsewhere, so that the actual interruption of
production may be less than would appear from the magnitude
of the dispute. On the other hand, the total loss due to the
stoppage may be augmented by the diversion of trade for a
longer or shorter period after the resumption of work. Again,
the ultimate effect of the forced concession of excessive demands
may be damaging instead of advantageous to the nominal
victors, by contracting the field of employment or by lowering
the efficiency of the labour. If, however, the arithmetical
computation of the value of the time lost compared with the
value of the terms gained is an unsatisfactory test of the benefit
or disadvantage of a particular strike to the parties concerned,
it is wholly fallacious as a method of estimating the social
utility or otherwise of strikes and lock-outs as instruments
for effecting changes in the condition of employment. For
any satisfactory consideration of this wider question we must
look not merely to the actual strike, but to the whole process
of free bargaining between employers and organized bodies
of work-people, of which, as already shown, the strike may be
regarded as merely an untoward incident. The actual cessation
of work is a symptom that for the time there is a deadlock,
and frequency of. such cessations in any trade is a sign of the
imperfection of means of negotiation. In many trades in which
both employers and workmen are strongly organized various
forms of machinery have been brought into existence for the
purpose of minimizing the chance of stoppages (see ARBITRATION
AND CONCILIATION). But wherever there is free combined
negotiation there is always in the background the possibility of
combined stoppage. This being understood, the question
of the utility of strikes as an industrial method resolves itself
into the questions: (i) Whether the process of settling the terms
of employment by agreements affecting considerable bodies
of work-people and employers is superior to the method of
individual settlements of labour contracts, or, at least, whether
its advantages are sufficient to outweigh the cost of strikes
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
1029
and lock-outs; (2) whether free collective negotiation could be
replaced with advantage by any other method of settling the
conditions of employment of bodies of work-people, which would
dispense with the necessity of testing the labour market by a
suspension of work.
1. The first of these questions is virtually the question of
the advantages and disadvantages to the community of com-
binations of workmen and employers, which is discussed at length
in the article TRADE UNIONS. As regards the question of the
direct cost of strikes and lock-outs, it is proper to remember
that individual bargaining does not do away with stoppages;
in fact, the aggregate amount of time lost in the process of
adjusting ten thousand separate labour contracts may be
considerable possibly not less than that consumed on an
average in effecting a single agreement involving the whole
body, even if the chance of a collective stoppage of work
occurring during the process of combined bargaining be taken
into account.
While, then, the strikes and lock-outs which accompany the
system of combined bargaining are rightly to be described as
wasteful, this is not so much because of the excessive amount
of working time which they consume, as because of the dis-
turbance and damage done to industry by the violent breach
of continuity a breach which may dislocate trade to an extent
quite disproportionate to the actual loss of time involved, and the
fear of which undoubtedly affects the minds of possible customers
and hampers enterprise on the part of employers. The extent
of the injury directly inflicted on the consuming public by a
strike varies greatly in different cases, being at its maximum
in the case of industries having the total or partial monopoly
of supplying some commodity or service of prime necessity, e.g.
gas-works, water- works, railway or tramway service; and least
in the case of a local stoppage in some widely-spread manufac-
turing or constructive industry open to active competition from
other districts.
In speaking above of the loss occasioned by strikes and lock-
outs attention has only beep paid to the effects of the actual
stoppage as such, and not to the particular methods adopted
by the strikers to make the stoppage effective. The evils
arising from the practice of intimidation or violence towards
other workmen, or from the increase of class-hatred and bitter-
ness engendered by the strike between employer and employed,
are patent to all, though they cannot be estimated from an
economic point of view.
2. As to the second question, viz. the possibility of main-
taining combined negotiation, but of substituting some better
method than strikes of resolving a deadlock, it is hardly necessary
to say that so far as such substitution can be voluntarily carried
out with the assent of both parties, whether by the establish-
ment of wages boards or joint-committees, or by agreements to
refer differences to third parties, the result is an economic as
well as a moral advantage.
But the increasing adoption of these voluntary expedients
for diminishing the chance of industrial friction lends no coun-
tenance to the expectation that a satisfactory universal
substitute for strikes and lock-outs can be devised except at
the price of economic liberty. Compulsory reference of dis-
putes to a state tribunal cannot be reconciled with freedom of
voluntary negotiations.
Unless, then, we are prepared for a scheme of compulsory
regulation of industry by the state, strikes and lock-outs must
be accepted as necessary evils, but their frequency may be
greatly diminished with the improvement of means of infor-
mation as to the true condition of the labour market, and the
influences by which it is determined. Many disputes arising
purely from mismanagement and misunderstanding are wholly
avoidable. While there is no warrant for expecting the total
abolition of strikes and lock-outs, it is not unreasonable. to hope
that the spread of education and the means of rapidly obtaining
information, the improvement of class relations, and the adop-
tion, where practicable, of conciliatory methods, may gradually
tend to confine actual stoppages to the comparatively few cases
in which there is a genuine and serious difference of principle
between the parties.
Important British Strikes and Lock-outs.
Some of the more important labour disputes which have occurred
in various groups of trades in the United Kingdom are noted below.
With regard to the statistics given, it may here be noted that
although for the sake of brevity it is stated in some places that a
certain number of men were idle for a specified number of days, it
must not be supposed that in all cases the whole number affected
were idle for the whole number of days.
Coal-Mining is an industry which has always been more con-
vulsed by labour disputes than any other, probably owing to the
violent oscillations of prices and wages, and to the varied and ever-
changing conditions under which work is carried on. Several of
the earliest recorded disputes among coal-miners, however, referred
to the term of engagement rather than the rate of wages. In 1765
the Northumberland miners struck for several weeks unsuccess-
fully against the system of a yearly bond of service, which was then
prevalent. In 1810 a strike of seven weeks in the same district
against a variation of the yearly bond ended in a compromise.
Turbulent strikes in Northumberland and Durham are also re-
corded in 1831 and 1832; the former, in which the men were suc-
cessful, for a general removal of grievances, and the latter, in which
they were defeated, for the maintenance of the union. These
strikes were attended with violence and destruction of property.
In 1844 still another prolonged strike took place in the north of
England to enforce alterations in the terms of the yearly bond.
From 30,000 to 40,000 men were out for 1 8 weeks. New men,
however, were obtained, and there were many evictions. In 1864
widespread strikes took place in South Yorkshire and South
Staffordshire, the one for an advance and the other against a re-
duction of wages. The Yorkshire strike is said to have affected
37,000 men, and the Staffordshire strike 20,000. The latter lasted
over four months.
The rapid fall in the price of coal after the abnormal inflation
in 18711872 produced a series of obstinate strikes and lock-outs
arising out of reductions of wages, in which the men were usually
defeated. The South Wales miners, to the number of 70,000,
were out for II weeks in 1873 and for 19 weeks in 1875, the latter
dispute being a combined strike and lock-out, and leading to the
formation of the first of the series of sliding scales under which
the industry in South Wales was regulated until the end of the year
1902. In 1877 the West Lancashire miners (30,000) were out for
6 weeks, and the Northumberland men (14,000) for 8 weeks. The
last-mentioned dispute was terminated by an arbitration award
in the miner's favour. In 1879, 70,000 Durham men were out for
6 weeks, the dispute being terminated by an arbitration award
giving half the reduction claimed. by the coal-owners. The intro-
duction of sliding scales in Durham and Northumberland in 1877
and 1879 did something to preserve peace in those districts, though
the Durham scale did not prevent the dispute of 1879 mentioned
above. Both scales, however, were terminated by the men in
1889 and 1887 respectively. In 1880-1881 the Lancashire coal-
mining industry was stopped for 7 weeks by a strike of 50,000 to
60,000 men against " contracting out " of the Employers' Liability
Act of 1880.
The fall of prices after 1890 led to a renewal of disputes. In
1892 there was a prolonged stoppage in the Durham coalfield,
75,000 men being out for about II weeks.
In 1893 the greatest dispute took place that has ever been
recorded in the coal-mining industry, affecting the whole area
covered by the Miners' Federation, viz. Yorkshire, Lancashire
and Cheshire, and the Midlands. During the years 1891 and 1892
most of the districts covered by the Miners' Federation submitted
to reductions of wages varying from 15% off the standard in
Durham to 425% in South Wales and 50% in Scotland, where
the previous rise had been greatest. The Miners' Federation,
however, refused to recognize the principle that wages should follow
prices, and put forward instead the theory that a minimum or
" living wage " should be fixed and prices left to adjust themselves
to this rate. They declined altogether to agree to any reduction,
and so strong was their combination that the coal-owners deferred
any definite action until the middle of 1893, when they considered
that some reduction was absolutely necessary to enable the trade
to be carried on. On the 3Oth of June they passed a resolution
after a conference with the men, demanding a reduction of 25%
off the "standard" (equivalent to about 18% off current rates
of wages), and offered arbitration as an alternative; but the federa-
tion absolutely refused any reduction, and the contest began.
Shortly before the beginning of the dispute Northumberland and
Durham had become affiliated to the federation, but these districts
were not threatened by a reduction, and they seceded from the
federation sooner than strike, as demanded by that body to obtain
the return of the reductions sustained since 1891. These districts
consequently remained at work throughout the dispute, as well as
Scotland and (except for a part of August and September) South
Wales, reaping the advantage of the increased prices and wages
resulting from the restriction of production due to the stoppage.
1030
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
Within the federation districts proper there were some localities
in which no notices of reduction were posted, but the policy of the
Miners' Federation was to make the stoppage as universal as possible,
and all its members were required to leave work. The Cumberland
miners, however, though members of the federation, were for
special reasons permitted to continue at work. By the middle
of August nearly 300,000' men were idle, or nearly half the total
number of coal-miners in the United Kingdom. The early stages
of the dispute were uneventful, but as the funds of the unions
affiliated to the federation became exhausted, and the pinch of
distress was felt, feeling ran high, and in some districts deplorable
acts ot violence were committed. At Featherstone, in Yorkshire,
an attack was made on a colliery, in the course of which the military
fired on the rioters, two of whom were killed.
The decision of the federation requiring all its members to leave
work, whether under notice of reduction or not, had from the
beginning met with considerable opposition in certain districts,
and this opposition naturally grew stronger as the distress caused
by the stoppage increased. At the end of August a ballot on the
question showed a small majority still in favour of a universal
stoppage, but the experience of another month led to a formal
reversal of policy in this respect, a meeting ot the federation at
Chesterfield on the 29th of September deciding to allow all men to
return to work who could do so at the old rates of pay, such men to
pay a levy of is. a day in aid ot those still on strike. Up to October
no step was taken towards a settlement beyond an offer on the
part of the miners on the 22nd of August to pledge themselves not
to ask for an advance until prices reached the 1890 level, and also
to assist the employers to prevent underselling an offer which
was rejected by the coal-owners. On the 9th of October a meeting
of the representatives of the parties was held at Sheffield, at the
invitation of the mayors of six important towns affected, but without
definite result, beyond leading to an amended proposal on the
part of the coal-owners for an immediate 15% reduction, and the
regulation of future changes in wages by a conciliation board. The
men, however, still refused all reduction, and during October a
number of coal-owners, especially in the Midlands, threw open their
pits at the old rate of wages.
A further advance towards a compromise was made by the
owners on the 25th of October, when they offered that the proposed
15% reduction should be returned to the men in the event of
the conciliation board (with an independent chairman) deciding
in their favour. In consequence of this offer a meeting was held
between the representatives of the owners and the men in London
on the 3rd and 4th of November, but without arriving at a settlement.
Matters had now reached a deadlock, and accordingly, on the I3th
of November, the government addressed an invitation to both parties
to be represented at a conference under the presidency (without
a casting vote) of Lord Rosebery, who was then foreign secretary.
The conference took place at the foreign office on the 1 7th of
November, and resulted in a settlement, the men to resume work at
once at the old rate of wages, to be continued until the 1st of
February 1894, from which date wages were to be regulated by a
conciliation board, consisting of fourteen representatives of the coal-
owners' and miners' federations respectively, with a chairman
mutually elected, or in default nominated by the Speaker of the
House of Commons, the chairman to have a casting vote.
This agreement terminated the dispute. The Speaker appointed
Lord Shand as chairman of the board. In the middle of the
following year, by mutual arrangement, the constitution of the
conciliation board was modified so as to provide for limits below
and above which wages should not move during a definite period.
These limits have since been modified from time to time, but (with
a gap from July 1896 to January 1899) the conciliation board con-
tinued to regulate miners' wages in the federated districts, and its
formation has been followed by the institution of conciliation boards
in most of the other important centres of the mining industry.
During the summer of 1893 there was also a strike of about
90,000 men in South Wales, which lasted about 5 weeks. 1894
saw a prolonged dispute in the Scottish coal-mining industry, the
men vainly attempting to resist the fall of wages which followed
the fall of coal prices from the abnormal level to which they had
risen during the English stoppage of the previous year; 70,000 men
were out from 15 to 16 weeks. In 1898 there was an unsuccessful
stoppage lasting 25 weeks in South Wales and Monmouth affecting
100,000 men, for the abolition or amendment of the sliding scale
agreement. In 1902 the dissatisfaction of the pit-lads with a
reduction of wages awarded by the conciliation board threw a large
body of miners idle for some time in various parts of the " federated
districts." In 1906 a series of local strikes occurred in South Wales
in order to compel non-unionists to join the Miners' Union, while
in 1910 strikes in the Tonypandy district led to much rioting.
The record of strikes and lock-outs in the Cotton Trade goes
back to a time before the repeal of the Combination Laws. Thus
the year 1810 was marked by lock-outs of spinners in Lancashire
and Glasgow, the former caused by a strike in the Stalybridge
district to enforce Manchester rates of wages, and the latter having
for its object the break-up of the men's union. In both cases the
employers were successful. In 1812 there was a stoppage of
40,000 looms in Scotland for some weeks, arising out of a wages
dispute, in which the men were beaten, their union broken up, and
their leaders imprisoned. Another unsuccessful strike attended with
imprisonment of the men's leaders took place among the Manchester
spinners in 1818, when 20,000 to 30,000 men were out for three or
foui months to obtain an advance of wages and reduction of hours.
The year 1853 was one of great disturbance in the Lancashire
cotton-spinning trade^ For seven months 20,000 to 30,000
spinners in the Preston district were engaged in an unsuccessful
strike for an advance of wages, and in the same year there was a
stoppage of 65,000 spinners in Lancashire generally. The period
of bad trade culminating in 1879 was marked by bitter disputes
in the cotton trade, the men vainly trying to resist the reductions
of wages which marked that period. Partial disputes at Bolton
in 1877, and Oldham in 1878 were followed in the latter year by a
general stoppage in north and north-east Lancashire affecting 70,000
persons for 9 weeks. The general dispute was attended with violent
riots, and 68 persons were tried and convicted. The next important
dispute was a strike of 18,000 weayers in north-east Lancashire in
1884 against a reduction of wages, which ended after 8 weeks in a
compromise. Next year there was a strike at Oldham against a
reduction of wages affecting 24,000 persons in the spinning and
weaving branches. The dispute ended in a compromise, half the
proposed reduction of 10% being agreed to. In 1892-1893 a great
dispute in the cotton-spinning trade took place, 50,000 persons in
the Oldham and surrounding districts being out for 20 weeks against
a proposed reduction of 5%. The dispute was ended by the so-
called " Brooklands Agreement," which provided for a reduction
of about 3%, and also contained rules for the settlement of future
disputes by conciliatory methods. These rules do not, however,
provide for a final appeal in cases of deadlock. A considerable
strike in 1910, brought about by a dispute as to the allocation of
duties of a single operative, was terminated by the intervention of
the board of trade.
The Building Trades have in most years been characterized by a
large number of local and sectional disputes sometimes affecting
comparatively small bodies of men. Often, however, all branches
of building trades in a given district have been stopped simul-
taneously, but few of the building trade stoppages have affected a
sufficiently large body of men to be noticed here as important dis-
putes except in London. The years 1810 and 1816 were marked by
strikes on the part of the London carpenters, the first being a success-
ful attempt to obtain a rise in wages, the second an unsuccessful
resistance to a fall. In 1833 an important dispute laid idle the
building trades of Liverpool and Manchester. The dispute arose
out of the objection of the men to the contract system, and led to a
general lock-out to compel the men to leave their unions, in which
the employers were generally successful. In 1859-1860 a partial
strike in London against the discharge of a delegate led to a lock-
out of 251000 building operatives for 7 months, and in 18611862
a renewed strike for a reduction of hours resulted in a compromise.
In 1872 there was a successful strike of 10,000 London building
operatives for a rise of wages, a shortening of hours being also
obtained. In 1891 there was an unsuccessful strike of carpenters in
London for a rise in wages, affecting 9000 men and lasting 24 weeks.
Engineering, Shipbuilding and Metal Trades. Among the most
noteworthy disputes in the engineering trade was that in 1852, soon
after the formation of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers by
the fusion of a number of local and sectional societies. The dispute
originated in Lancashire, and turned on demands from the men for
the abolition of piecework and overtime, the dispute being further
complicated by questions relating to the employment of labourers
in working machines. The men ceased working overtime, and were
locked out to the number of over 13,000 for periods ranging from
three to nine months. The men were completely beaten, and many
engineering shops required the men to leave the union before resum-
ing work. In 1871 a strike of 8000 to 9000 men in the north of
England for a reduction of hours from 59 to 54 was successful after
a stoppage of 20 weeks, and led to the general introduction of the
nine-hour-day throughout the country.
In 1897-1898 there was a widespread and prolonged dispute
turning on questions of hours and of freedom of management of
works, which lasted 29 weeks and affected 47,500 men. The imme-
diate occasion of the stoppage was a demand on the part of the men
for an eight-hour-day in London workshops, but this issue was soon
overshadowed in importance by other questions relating to the
freedom of employers from interference by the unions in the
management of their business, especially in such matters as piece-
work, overtime, selection and training of workmen to work machines,
employment of unionists and non-unionists, and other matters
affecting the relations of employer and employed generally through-
out the United Kingdom. For some time previous to the general
dispute there had been a growing dissatisfaction on the part of the
employers with the encroachments of the Amalgamated Society
of Engineers and other societies in kindred trades on matters affect-
ing the management of business, which the employers considered
to be outside the legitimate functions of trade unions. In the absence
of any general combination of employers, the unions were able to
bring their whole force to bear on employers in particular localities,
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
1031
with the result that the stringency of the conditions and restrictions
enforced varied very greatly in different districts, according to the
comparative strength of the unions in those districts. Employers
complained of being subject to vexatious restrictions not imposed
on their competitors, and they declared that they were severely
handicapped as compared with America and other countries, where
engineering employers had much more complete control over the
management of their business. In 1895 was formed the Federation
of Engineering Employers by the coalition of the local associations
on the Clyde and m Belfast, and this federation gradually spread
to other districts until it finally embraced the United Kingdom
generally. The policy of the federation was to defeat the attempts
of the unions to put pressure on particular individuals or localities
by the counter-threat of a general lock-out of trade unionists
over a wide area in support of the employers thus attacked.
The lock-out notices were framed in such a way that 25% of the
trade unionists employed were to be discharged at the end of each
week until the whole were locked out. Lock-out notices of this kind
were twice posted in August of 1896 and in the spring of 1897^
before the general dispute, but in each case the dispute was averted
before the notices took effect. But the conferences which took place
in April 1897 between the representatives of employers and unions
led to no agreement except on comparatively unimportant points.
When, therefore, in June 1897 the London employers, threatened
with a strike for an eight-hour-day, put their case in the hands of
the Employers' Federation, and the federation determined to sup-
port them by a general lock-out, it was understood that this lock-out
was enforced, not only in order to resist the reduction of hours in
London, but to obtain a settlement of all the important questions
at issue between the federation and the unions as a whole. The
engineers replied to the notices of a gradual lock-out by withdrawing
the whole of their members from work in federated workshops.
At first the lock-out affected some 25,000 men employed in 250
establishments, but by the close of the dispute the number of
employers involved had risen to 702, and of work-people to 47,500.
Until November no meeting between the parties took place, but
on the 24th of November and following days a conference was held
in pursuance of negotiations with the parties by the board of trade,
each side having its own chairman. The main point for which the
employers contended was freedom on the part of each employer to
introduce into his workshop any condition of labour under which
any members of the trade unions were working in any of the federated
workshops at the beginning of the dispute, except as regards rates
of wages and hours of labour. Arising out of this general principle
of freedom of management, a number of special points were discussed
and subsequently embodied in separate articles of the provisional
agreement, and a system of local and general conferences for the
settlement and avoidance of future disputes was also included there-
in. The employers absolutely declined to grant any reduction
of hours of labour. The negotiations dragged on for a considerable
time, and were at one time broken off owing to the refusal of the
men to ratify the provisional agreement. By the end of the year,
however, it was evident that the position of the men was very much
weakened owing to the depletion of their funds, while that of the
employers was stronger than ever. On the 1 3th of January the
London demand for an eight-hour-day was formally withdrawn,
and after some further negotiation, and the embodiment in the
agreement of the notes and explanations published by the employers,
a settlement was arrived at and ratified by more than a two-thirds
majority of the men, the final agreement being signed on the 28th
of January.
The victory of the employers was complete, but the use made of
it was moderate, and the relations between employers and workmen
in the engineering trades on the whole improved, all matters likely
to cause dispute being now amicably discussed between the repre-
sentatives of the respective associations.
In 1866 a strike of 3000 shipwrights on the Clyde led to a general
lock-out of shipbuilders in the district. In 1877, 25,000 iron ship-
builders on the Clyde struck for 23 weeks for an advance of wages,
the dispute being settled by arbitration.
In 1906 the shipbuilders in the Clyde district struck work for about
7 weeks to obtain an advance of wages of is. 6d. a week. The
dispute ended in their defeat, about 15,000 men being affected.
In 1891 a prolonged dispute took place between the plumbers
and engineers engaged in shipyards on the Tyne as to " demarca-
tion "; 2460 men were idle from 7 to 8 weeks, the result being the
drawing up of an elaborate list of apportionment applicable to the
Tyne and Wear. The shipbuilding trades have from early times
been marked by numerous " demarcation " disputes, mostly of a
local character, as to the limits of the work of the various bodies
of wqrk-peopley-e.g. between shipwrights and bqatbuilders;
shipwrights and joiners; shipwrights and boilermakers ; joiners and
cabinetmakers; boilermakers and engineers; engineers and plumbers;
engineers and brassfinishers. Some of these matters are now dealt
with by joint. trade boards (see ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION).
Among the more important disputes in the iron trade are to be
mentioned a strike and lock-out of 30,000 ironworkers in Stafford-
shire in 1865, in which the men were beaten after a costly stoppage
of 18 weeks; an unsuccessful strike of 12,000 ironworkers in Middles-
brough for 1 8 weeks in 1866; and an unsuccessful strike of 20,000
ironworkers in Staffordshire for 4 weeks in 1883 against a reduction
of wages, attended by rioting and destruction of plant.
The nailmakers in the Dudley district engaged in widespread dis-
putes in 1840, 1881 and 1887. The strike of 1840 against a re-
duction of wages was unsuccessful. Those of 1881 and 1887 were
for advance of wages ; the former was wholly, the latter partially
successful. The women chain-makers of Cradley Heath successfully
struck in 1910 for an increase of wages.
Other Trades. Among other noteworthy disputes are to be
mentioned :
1. A successful strike of 14,000 persons in the Leicester hosiery
trade in 1819 for an advance in wages.
2. An unsuccessful strike of 13,000 or more tailors in London in
1 834 for a rise of wages and reduction of hours, lasting several months.
3. A dispute among the pottery workmen in the Midlands in 1836
against the terms of yearly hiring, leading to a general lock-out
of over 15,000 men for 10 weeks, which ended in the defeat of the
men.
4. A series of disputes among agricultural labourers in 1872-1874
for increases of wages and other improvements in the conditions of
employment, in which the men were mostly successful. These
disputes, which are almost the only widespread disputes recorded
in agriculture, evoked much public interest.
5. In 1889 there was a prolonged strike of dock and waterside
labourers in London for a rise in wages and other alterations in
conditions of employment, which was successful, mainly through
the financial support received from the Australian trade unions
and from the general public. It began on the 1 3th of August with
a small local dispute at the West India Docks about the wages earned
for discharging a certain cargo, but spread rapidly among all classes
of dock labourers in the port, who took the opportunity of demanding
an increase in the rate of pay for time work from 5d. to 6d., the
abolition of contract and piece-work, and the remedy of other
grievances. They were joined by the stevedores and lightermen,
who came out " in sympathy," though the latter class of men soon
formulated a set of demands of their own. Employment was brisk,
the weather fine, and the public sympathetic, and in a few days'
time not less than 16,000 men were idle. For the most part they
were unconnected with trade unions which could give them strike
pay, but during the month that the strike lasted the public at home
and abroad subscribed nearly 50,000 in support of the strikers.
Of this total over 30,000 came from Australia, where from the 2gth
of August onwards a series of meetings were held for the purpose of
raising funds to assist the London labourers. The Australian sub-
scriptions practically decided the issue of the contest. On the very
day on which the first Australian meeting was held at Brisbane the
leaders of the strike attempted by means of a " no-work manifesto "
to widen the area of the dispute and cause a general stoppage of
industry. Though this attempt was soon abandoned it caused
considerable alarm and threatened to alienate public sympathy from
the men. Early in September many of the wharfingers made sepa-
rate settlements with the strikers, and the shipowners attempted to
put pressure on the dock companies to allow them to employ labour
direct within the docks. The apprehensions of the public led to the
formation of a conciliation committee at the Mansion House, includ-
ing the Lord Mayor, the bishop of London, Cardinal Manning, Sir
John Lubbock (Lord Avebury), and others, who mediated between
the strikers and the dock directors, with the result that after one
abortive attempt at a settlement, the terms of which were rejected
by the men, an agreement was arrived at on the 1 4th of September,
under which the dock labourers obtained the greater part of their
demands. From the 4th of November the rate of hourly wages
for time work was raised to 6d., with 8d. overtime; contract work
was converted into piece-work, with a minimum rate of 6d., and
other points in dispute were settled. Though during the strike cases
of intimidation and violence on the part of pickets were by no
means absent, the police-court charges arising out of the dispute
were remarkably few. By the end of the year the Dock Labourers'
Union (which had previously been known as the Tea Operatives
and General Labourers' Union, and at the beginning of the dispute
numbered about 800 members) had increased its membership in
London to over 2O,opo a number which was afterwards further
increased by the formation of provincial branches. In London,
however, the membership rapidly declined during the following
years of depression of trade. The stevedores, who, as abcve re-
marked, came out " in sympathy " with the dock labourers, returned
to work as soon as the latter were satisfied, but the lightermen's
demands were adjusted by an award of Lord Brassey before they
returned to work.
6. The organization of labour at the principal ports which
followed this dispute led to a series of struggles between the new
unions and the shipowners, who formed an organization called the
Shipping Federation Limited, and successfully established their
right to employ " free labour " in opposition to the unions of seamen
and other bodies of labourers. The last of these disputes on a large
scale occurred at Hull in 1893, and ended in the defeat of the dock
labourers after a stoppage affecting 1 1 ,000 men for 6 weeks.
7. In 1895 a general stoppage of 46,000 boot and shoe operatives
was terminated, after a stoppage of 6 weeks, by a settlement effected
through the board of trade. The issues of this dispute were of
1032
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
interest as involving the scope and limits of the functions of trade
union action and of arbitration in relation to the management of
business. The terms of settlement, which were of an elaborate
character, are still in operation.
8. Two prolonged disputes at Lord Penrhyn's slate quarries
in North Wales in 1896 and 1900 attracted public notice from the
obstinacy with which the contests were conducted on both sides.
About 2500 work-people were affected, and the questions at issue
were the recognition of the men's combination and the remedy of
a number of alleged grievances, including the abolition of the con-
tract system. After 48 weeks' stoppage, during which the board
of trade vainly tried to mediate, the first dispute was ended by a
compromise; but in 1900 another struggle began which was per-
sisted in by many of the men until November 1903, but without
success.
Foreign Countries.
Below is given a brief account of the most recent strike
statistics in the principal countries other than the United
Kingdom, except those of the United States, which are dealt
with in a separate section.
France. Detailed statistics of strikes and lock-outs in France
have been published annually since 1890 by the French office
du travail. The following are the figures for 1900-1906:
The figures from 1901 are summarized below:
Year.
Number of Disputes
terminating in the year. .
Number of Work-people
directly and indirectly
affected.
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1091
1106
1444
1990
2657
3626
2512
68,191
70,696
135,522
145,480
542,564
376,415
286,016
Year.
Number of
Disputes.
Number of Work-
people directly
affected.
Aggregate
Duration in
Working Days.
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
903
523
512
571
1,028
835
1,314
222,769
111,414
212,704
123,957
271,267
178,252
439,280
3,761,227
1,862,050
4,675,081
2,443,219
3-936,774
2,785,167
9,445,420
Mean of
7 yrs.
812
222,806
4,129,848
The principal groups of industries affected by disputes were
in 1900 and 1901 the transport, involving 47,125 and 36,636
work-people respectively; in 1902 the mining and quarrying, in-
volving 119,181 work-people; in 1903 the textile manufacturing
In 1905, 232,425 work-people employed in the mining and
smelting group were involved in disputes, and in 1906 and 1907
102,888 and 90,890 work-people employed in the building group
of trades were so involved.
In the German statistics disputes are counted more than
once if due to more than one separate cause. Of the total
number of disputes tabulated in this way during the period
1901-190^, 56% were on questions of wages, 15% on questions
of hours, 10% on questions of the employment of particular
classes of persons and the balance on questions of working
rules and other causes.
During the same period 20% of the disputes were settled
in favour of the work-people, 45% in favour of the employers,
ar >d 35% were compromised.
Belgium. The following figures are based on reports pub-
lished by the Belgian labour department.
The table given below shows the number of strikes and the
number of work-people directly affected by strikes in each
of the years 1901 to 1907.
The mining industry and the transport trades accounted for
20,813 and 15,063 of the work-people affected in 1901, and
the mining industry and the textile industry accounted for
59,168 and 7975 of the work-people in 1905. In 1906 the
mining industry accounted for 12,189 of the work-people affected,
and in 1907 the transport trades accounted for 10,660, the mining
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904. 1
1905-
1906.
1907.
Number of strikes
Number of work-people directly affected by strikes .
"7
43,8H
73
io,477
70
7. '-40
81
12,375
'33
75,672
220
26,858
227
46,908
industry, involving 76,376 work-people; in 1904 the textile
manufacturing industry, involving 76,293 work-people; the
transport, involving 69,293 work-people, and the agricultural,
forestry and fishing group, involving 52,333 work-people; in
1905 the building and metal trade groups of industries, involving
about 32,000 work-people in each; and in 1906 the building,
metal and mining quarrying groups of industries, involving
about 90,000 work-people in each.
In the French statistics of causes of disputes a dispute due
to several causes is entered as many times as there are causes,
not merely under its principal cause, as in the United Kingdom
statistics. It would be possible to summarize the relative
prevalence of different groups of causes of trade disputes by the
numbers involved, but it is sufficient to say that the results
during the period 1900 to 1906 were as follows: 12% in favour
of the work-people, 25% in favour of the employers, and 63%
compromised. A general strike of railway employees all over
France in 1910 threatened to spread to other industries and
caused an acute political crisis, but the energetic measures taken
by M. Briand's government, especially the issue of mobilization
orders to all the reservists on the affected lines, brought about
its collapse in little more than a week.
Germany. Before 1899 there were no official statistics of
strikes and lock-outs throughout the German Empire, but
certain figures were collected and published by the committee
of the " Gewerkschaften," or Social Democratic trade unions,
in their Correspondenzblatt. These figures, however, were
admittedly incomplete. From 1899, however, statistics have
been published by the German imperial statistical office for
strikes and lock-outs other than in agriculture.
industry for 9626 and the textile industry for 7961 of the work-
people affected. The causes of the strikes during the period
were mainly questions of wages, nearly 80% of the work-people
being involved on this account, and the results were mainly in
favour of the employers, viz. 71%. Of the total number of
work-people affected by strikes in the period 1901-1905 68%
returned to work on employers' terms without negotiation.
From 1906 particulars are given of lock-outs and of the number
of work-people indirectly affected by strikes.
In 1906 five lock-outs were recorded, all in the textile industry,
affecting 23,621 work-people, and in 1907 four lock-outs were
recorded affecting 16,274 work-people (one of these lock-outs
affecting 16,000 work-people employed in the transport trade).
The number of work-people indirectly affected by strikes was
11,468 in 1906 and 19,248 in 1907.
Sweden. The Swedish labour department has published
statistics of strikes since 1903. There were in 1903 142 dis-
putes directly affecting 22,568 work-people, in 1904 215
disputes directly affecting 11,485 work-people, in 1905
175 disputes directly affecting 32,368 work-people, in 1906
277 disputes directly affecting 18,612 work-people, and in
1907 298 disputes directly affecting 21,722 work-people. Of
the 1107 disputes recorded in the five years 691 were caused
by questions of wages. Of the 1107 disputes 362 ended in
favour of the work-people, 272 in favour of the employers, and
395 in a compromise. In 1909 there was a great national strike
involving almost every industry, and lasting some six months.
Denmark. The statistics of disputes in Denmark are pub-
lished by the Danish statistical bureau. During the period
1900 to 1906 the number of disputes varied from 57 in 1901
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
1033
to 89 in 1906, and the number of work-people directly affected,
from 7606 (involved in 68 disputes) in 1900 to 1148 (involved
in 43 disputes) in 1903. The number of work-people shown is
the maximum number affected at any one time, but the number
involved is not obtained for all disputes. Of the total number
of disputes which took place during the seven years' period
1900-1906, viz. 518, 53% were caused by questions of wages,
3 % by hours of labour, 7 % by working arrangements, rules, &c.,
6% by questions of trade unionism, and 31% by other causes
or causes unknown.
Holland. Statistics of disputes in Holland are published
by the central statistical bureau. During the three years
1904, 1905 and 1906 the number of disputes recorded were
102, 132 and 181 respectively, and the number of work-people
directly affected 11,186, 7364 and 18,858 respectively, but the
number of work-people affected was not ascertained in every
dispute. The causes of disputes are measured by the number
of days lost by the work-people directly affected (though these
particulars were not obtained for all disputes), and the days
lost by disputes which had more than one cause are included
under each cause OT object. In 1904 25%, in 1905 53% and
in 1906 51% of the time lost was caused by questions of wages.
The results of disputes in the three years are shown in the
following table:
Result.
Number of Disputes.
1904.
1905.
1906.
In favour of work-people .
In favour of employers
Compromised
Indeterminate or unknown
24
43
3i
4
25
49
55
3
35
63
68
7
Total
1 02
132
173
The figure for 1906 does not include 8 " sympathetic " disputes
which came to an end when the original dispute terminated in
connexion with which they occurred.
Austria. Particulars of strikes and lock-outs are published
by the Austrian labour department.
The following table shows the number of strikes, the number
of strikers and non-strikers affected, the number of working
days lost by strikers, and the number of lock-outs and work-
people involved in each of the seven years 1900 to 1906.
of working days lost during the same four years were 278,956,
284,140, 489,775 and 613,986 respectively. Of the total number
of disputes in the seven years (859), 208 occurred in the building
trades, 139 in the metal trades, 79 in the clothing trades, 62 in
the mining industry, 60 in the transport trades and 48 in the food
and tobacco preparation industry. Of the 740 disputes occur-
ring in the same period for which a cause could be tabulated,
248 were for an increase in wages, 94 against the employment
of particular persons, 64 were for both an increase in wages
and a decrease in hours of labour, and 45 against a reduction
in wages; and of the 841 disputes for which the result could
be tabulated, 293 were in favour of the employers, 250 were in
favour of the work-people, 200 were settled by compromise,
and the balance (98) were indefinite in their settlement. Four
of the Canadian provinces, Ontario, Nova Scotia, British
Columbia and Quebec, and the Dominion government have
enacted laws with a view to the peaceful settlement of industrial
disputes. Under the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act
of 1907 strikes and lock-outs are unlawful in industries termed
public utilities prior to or during a reference of such dispute
to a board of conciliation, a provision which is enforced by
heavy penalties. Thirty days' notice of intended changes in
wages or hours have to be given under the act.
Australia and New Zealand. Four of the Australian states
(Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia and Western
Australia) and the Commonwealth as a whole have enacted
laws with a view to the peaceable settlement of disputes between
employers and work-people, but the laws of Victoria and
South Australia are inoperative though unrepealed. These two
states and Queensland have, however, established wages boards
which tend to prevent disputes on the question most frequently
the cause of strikes or lock-outs. The original inspiration of the
conciliation and arbitration laws arose from the great strikes
of 1890 to 1892, which turned to a great extent on the
attempt of labour unions to secure a monopoly of employment.
They all ended in the defeat of the work-people and in a great
weakening of trade unionism in the colony.
In New Zealand a law has also been in force since 1894 for
the encouragement of the formation of industrial unions and
associations, and to facilitate the settlement of industrial
disputes. Strikes and lock-outs are now illegal in New
Zealand.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
Number of strikes
Number of work-people taking part in strikes .
Number of non-strikers affected
Number of working days lost by strikers
Number of lock-outs .
Number of work-people directly involved in lock-
outs
393
105,128
7,737
3,483.963
10
4,036
270
24,870
2,846
157,744
3
302
264
37,471
6,354
284,046
8
1,050
324
46,215
5,245
500,567
8
1,334
414
64,227
9,301
606,629
6
23,742
686
99,591
",340
1,151,310
17
11,197
1,083
153,688
13,098
2,191,815
50
67,872
In the tabulation of causes or objects of disputes the work-
people are entered as many times as there are causes. During
the period 1900 to 1906 questions of wages were the pre-
dominating cause of dispute.
Twenty-five % of the work-people were involved in disputes
during 1900 to 1906 which resulted in favour of the employers,
13% in disputes which resulted in favour of the work-people,
and 62% in disputes which were compromised.
The British Colonies.
Canada. Statistics of disputes are published by the depart-
ment of labour. During the seven years 1901 to 1907 the total
number of disputes recorded was 859, the number each year
being as follows:
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
104
123
160
103
87
138
144
In 1904 the number of work-people involved was 15,665; in
1905, 16,127; in 1906, 26,014 and in 1907, 34,972. The number
AUTHORITIES. The following are among the more important
official publications on strikes and lock-outs: Reports of the Chief
Labour Correspondent of the Board of Trade on Strikes and Lock-
outs (annually from 1888) ; Labour Gazette (Board of Trade, monthly
from May 1893); Reports of Royal Commission on Labour (1891-
1894); Report of the Royal Commission on Trade Disputes and
Trade Combinations (1906); Third Abstract of Foreign Labour
Statistics (Board of Trade, 1906 Section on Trade Disputes), and the
publication of the offices given as the authorities for the strike
statistics of the various foreign countries and colonies. (See also
list of authorities on TRADE UNIONS and ARBITRATION AND CON-
CILIATION.) (X.)
United States.
The first recourse to a strike in the United States occurred
in 1740 or 1741, when a combined strike of journeymen bakers
occurred in New York City. An information was filed in I74r
against the strikers for conspiracy not to bake until their wages
were raised. On this they were tried and convicted, but it
does not appear that any sentence was ever passed. In May
1796 an association of journeymen shoemakers in Philadelphia
ordered a " turn-out " or strike to secure an increase of wages,
and again in 1798, for the same purpose, both strikes being
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
successful. In 1799 the shoemakers of Philadelphia struck
against a reduction of wages, the strike lasting about ten weeks,
and being only partially successful. These four are the only
strikes to which any reference can be found that occurred in the
United States prior to the igth century. The conditions of
industry generally during the colonial days was not conducive
to strikes. The factory system had not taken deep root, masters
and men worked together, and so there was no opportunity
for concerted action.
The first notable American strike occurred in November
1803, in the city of New York, and is commonly known as the
Notable " sailors' strike." The sailors in New York had
Early been receiving $10 per month. They demanded
an increase to $14. In carrying out their purpose
they formed in a body, marched through the city, and
compelled other seamen who were employed at the old
rates to leave their ships and join the strike. The strikers
were pursued and dispersed by the constables, who arrested
their leader and lodged him in gaol, the strike thus terminating
unsuccessfully. In 1805 the Journeymen Shoemakers' Associa-
tion of Philadelphia again turned out for an increase of wages.
The demands ranged from 25 to 75 cents per pair increase.
This strike lasted six or seven weeks and was unsuccessful.
The strikers were tried for conspiracy, the result of the trial
being published in a pamphlet which appeared in 1806. An
account of this trial may be found in the United States Supreme
Court library. In November 1809 a strike among the cord-
wainers occurred in the city of New York. The proprietors
quietly took their work to other shops, and by this stratagem
defeated the strikers; but the action being discovered, a general
turn-out was ordered by the Journeymen Cordwainers' Asso-
ciation against all the master workmen of the city, nearly 200
men being engaged in the strike. At that time a stoppage of
work in one shop by the journeymen was called a "strike";
a general stoppage in all shops in a trade was known as a
" general turn-out." A member of a journeymen's associa-
tion who did not keep his obligations to the organization was
denominated a " scab."
In 1815 some of the journeymen cordwainers of Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, were tried for conspiracy on account of their con-
. nexion with a strike, and were convicted. In 1817 a peculiar
labour difficulty occurred at Medford, Massachusetts. Thacher
Magoun, a ship-builder of that town, determined to abolish
the grog privilege customary at that time. Mr Magoun gave
notice to his people that no liquor should be used in his ship-
yard, and the words "No rum!" " No rum!" were written on
the clapboards of the workshop and on the timbers in the yard.
Some of Mr Magoun's men refused to work; but they finally
surrendered, and a ship was built without the use of liquor in
any form.
The period from 1821 to 1834 witnessed several strikes,
but rarely more than one or two in each year. These strikes
occurred among the compositors, hatters, ship carpenters and
caulkers, journeymen tailors, labourers on the Chesapeake & Ohio
Canal, the building trades, factory workers, shoemakers and
others. One of the most notable of these, for its influence
upon succeeding labour movements, occurred in 1834, in the
city of Lynn, Massachusetts. During the latter part of the pre-
ceding year the female shoebinders of that town began to agitate
the question of an increase of wages. The women engaged in
this work usually took the materials to their homes. The
manufacturers were unwilling to increase the prices paid, so a
meeting for consultation was held by more than one thousand
binders. This was on the ist of January 1834. The binders
resolved to take out no more work unless the increase was granted.
The employers, however, steadily refused to accede to the
demands, as they found no difficulty in having their work done
in neighbouring towns at their own prices. The strike, after
three or four weeks, came to an unsuccessful termination. In
February of the same year a disturbance of short duration
occurred at Lowell, Mass., among the female factory operatives.
Their strike was to prevent a reduction of wages. During the
year 1835 there was a large number of strikes throughout the
country, instigated by both men and women. The number
of strikes by dissatisfied employees had at this time become so
numerous as to call forth protests from the public press, the
New York Daily Advertiser of the 6th of June 1835 declaring
that " strikes are all the fashion," and suggesting that it
was " an excellent time for the journeymen to come from the
country to the city."
The United States government, through the census office
and the department (now bureau) of labour, has investigated
the question of strikes, the result being a fairly
continuous record from 1880 to the 3ist of December
1905 inclusive. In 1880, according to the tenth
census, there were 610 strikes, but the number of establish-
ments involved in them was not reported; the record must
therefore commence with 1881, and since then the facts have
been continuously and uniformly reported by the department
(now bureau) of labour. This record, so far as numbers are
concerned, is shown in the following table:
Strikes.
Lock-outs.
Year.
Number of
Establish-
Employees
thrown out
Establish-
Employees
thrown out
strikes.
ments
involved.
of employ-
ment.
ments
involved.
of employ-
ment.
1881
471
2,928
129,521
9
655
1882
454
2,105
154,671
42
4,131
1883
478
2,759
149,763
117
20,512
1884
443
2,367
147,054
354
18,121
i ts.s.s
645
2,284
242,705
183
15,424
1886
1,432
10,053
508,044
3509
101,980
1887
1-436
6,589
379,676
1281
59,630
1888
906
3,506
147,704
1 80
15,176
1889
1,075
3,786
249,559
132
10,731
1890
1,833
9,424
351,944
324
21,555
1891
1,717
8,116
298,939
546
31-014
1892
1,298
5,540
206,671
716
32,014
1893
1,305
4.555
265,914
305
21,842
1894
1,349
8,196
660,425
875
29,619
1895
1,215
6,973
392,403
370
H,785
1896
1,026
5,462
241,170
51
7,668
1897
1,078
8,492
408,391
171
7,763
1898
1,056
3,809
249,002
164
14,217
1899
1,797
ii,3i7
417,072
323
14,817
1900
1,779
9,248
505,066
2281
62,653
1901
2,924
10,908
543,386
451
20,457
1902
3,162
14,248
659,792
1304
31-715
1903
3,494
20,248
656,055
3288
131,779
1904
2,307
10,202
517,211
2316
56,604
1905
2,077
8,292
221,686
1255
80,748
Total
36,757
l8l,4O7
8,703,824
18,547
825,610
Statistics of Strikes. Out of the total of 181,407 establish-
ments at which strikes took place during the period named,
69,899 were in building trades, 17,025 in coal and coke, 7381 in
tobacco, 20,914 in clothing, 4450 in stone-quarrying and cutting,
1555 in boots and shoes, 1551 in furniture, 1476 in brick-making,
2999 in printing and publishing, and 1086 in cooperage. These
ten industries supplied 128,336, or 70-74% of the whole number
of establishments in which strikes occurred during the twenty-
five years. In the lock-outs occurring during the same time
five industries bore a very large proportion of the burden,
involving 13,716, or 73-95% of the whole number of establish-
ments, which was 18,547. The industries affected were:
building trades, 10,142; clothing, 1943; stone-quarrying and
cutting, 901; boots and shoes, 337; tobacco 393. The whole
number of persons thrown out of employment by strikes was
8,703,824, of whom 90-57% were males and 9-43% were females;
and the total number thrown out of employment by lock-outs
during the same period was 825,610, of whom 84-18% were
males and 15-82% were females. About 70% of the whole
number of strikes were ordered by labour organizations; and of
the number so ordered (25,353) 49'48% succeeded, 15-87%
succeeded partly, and 34-65% failed. Of the whole number
of strikes, 47-94% succeeded, 15-28% succeeded partly and
36-78% failed. Of the lock-outs, 50-79% succeeded, 10-71%
succeeded partly and 32-09% failed. The average duration
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
1035
of the strikes for the whole period was 25-4 days, and of the
lock-outs 84-6 days.
More strikes were occasioned by demands for increase of
wages than for any other one cause, 32-24% of all strikes
being for this cause, but this in combination with other causes
attributable in whole or in part to demands for increase of
wages brings the demands up to 40- 7 2 %.
The next most fruitful cause of strikes is disagreement con-
cerning the recognition of the union and union rules. For
this 18-84% of strikes were declared, and both alone and
combined with other causes produced 32-35%. Objection to
reduction of wages caused 11-90% while demands for reduction
of hours alone and combined with other causes produced 9-78%
of strikes.
Of the total number of establishments involved in strikes
57-91% were involved for causes either in whole or in part due
to demands for increase of wages. The most important cause
of lock-outs during the twenty-five years was disputes concern-
ing the recognition of the union and union rules and employees'
organizations, which alone and combined with various causes,
produced nearly one-half of all lock-outs and more than one-
half of all establishments involved in lock-outs. The United
States government's account of losses from strikes is for the
period from January 1881 to the 3ist of December 1900, the five
years from 1901 to 1905 inclusive not being included in that
account. It is difficult to ascertain exactly the losses of em-
ployees and employers resulting from strikes and lock-outs.
Differences may counterbalance each other, so that the results
given below for the period named may be considered as fairly
accurate.
The total loss to employees and employers alike in the estab-
lishments in which strikes and lock-outs occurred, for the period of
twenty years, was thus $468,968,581. The number of establish-
ments involved in strikes during this period was 117,509, making
an average wage loss of $2194 to employees in each establishment
in which strikes occurred. The number of persons thrown out
of employment by reason of strikes was 6,105,694, making an
average loss of $42 to each person involved. The number of
establishments involved inlock-outs was 9933, making anaverage
loss of $4915 to employees in each establishment in which lock-
the number of establishments involved was 127,442, while
6,610,001 persons were thrown out of employment. These
figures show an average wage-loss of $2406 to the employees
in each establishment, and an average loss of $46 to each
person involved. The assistance given to strikers by labour
organizations during the period was $16,174,793; to those
involved in lock-outs, $3,451,461, or a total of $19,626,254.
This sum represents but 6-40% of the total wage-loss incurred
in strikes and lock-outs, and is probably too low. Much assist-
ance was also furnished by outside sympathizers, the amount
of which cannot be readily ascertained. The total loss to the
establishments or firms involved in strikes and lock-outs during
this period was $142,659,104.
The states of Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio and
Pennsylvania, being the leading manufacturing states, necessarily
experienced the largest number of strikes. Out of 117,509
establishments having strikes during the period named, 87,878,
or 74-78% of the whole, were in these five states; and out of
9933 establishments having lock-outs, 8424, or 84-81% were
in these states. In 1900 these states contained 45-02% of all
the manufacturing establishments in the United States, and
employed 55-15% of the entire capital invested in mechanical
industries.
A significant feature of the report for the twenty-five year
period relates to efforts to settle strikes, during the years 1901
to 1905 inclusive, a feature which had not been embodied
before. The results are shown in the following table:
Strikes.
Lock -outs.
Year.
Number.
Number
settled by
joint agree-
ment.
Number
settled by
arbitration.
Num-
ber.
Number
settled by
joint agree-
ment.
Number
settled by
a/bitration.
1901
2,924
149
49
88
IO
2
1902
3,162
204
58
7
II
I
1903
3,494
246
66
154
18
3
1904
2,307
130
23
112
17
2
1905
2,077
74
27
IO9
10
3
Total
13,964
803
223
541
66
ii
Strikes.
Lock-outs.
To date when Strikers were
re-employed or employed
To date when Employees locked
out were re-employed or
Year.
elsewhere.
Loss of
employed elsewhere.
Wage-loss of
Employees.
Assistance to
Employees by
Labour
Employers.
Wage-loss of
Employees.
Assistance to
Employees by
Labour
Loss of
Employers.
Organizations.
Organizations.
S
S
$
S
$
$
1881
3,372,578
287,999
1-919-483
18,519
3,150
6,960
1882
9,864,228
734,339
4,269,094
466,345
47,668
112,382
1883
6,274,480
461,233
4,696,027
1,069,212
102,253
297,097
1884
1885
7,666,717
10,663,248
407,871
465,827
3,393,073
4,388,893
1,421,410
901,173
314,027
89,488
640,847
455,477
1886
14,992,453
1,122,130
12,357,808
4,281,058
549,452
1,949,498
1887
1888
16,560,534
6,377,749
i,i2i,554
1,752,668
6,698,495
6,509,017
4,233,700
1,100,057
155,846
85,931
2,819,736
1,217,199
1889
1890
10,409,686
13,875,338
592,017
910,285
2,936,752
5,135,404
1,379,722
957,966
115,389
77,210
307,125
486,258
1891
14,801,505
1,132,557
6,176,688
883,709
So.^S
616,888
1892
1893
10,772,622
9,938,048
833,874
563,183
5,145,691
3,406,195
2,856,013
6,659,401
537,684
364,268
1,695,080
1,034,420
1894
37,145,532
931,052
18,982,129
2,022,769
160,244
982,584
1895
13,044,830
559,165
5,072,282
791-703
67,701
584,155
1896
11,098,207
462,165
5,304,235
690,945
61,355
357,535
1897
1898
17,468,904
10,037,284
721,164
585,228
4,868,687
4,596,462
583,606
880,461
47,326
47,098
298,044
239,403
1899
15,157,965
1,096,030
7,443,407
1,485,174
126,957
379-365
1900
'8,341,570
1,434,452
9,431,299
16,136,802
448,219
5,447,930
Total
257,863,478
16,174,793
122,731,121
48,819,745
3,451,461
19,927,983
Historic
Strikes.
outs occurred, while the number of employees thrown out was
504,307, making an average loss of $97 to each person involved.
Combining the figures for strikes and lock-outs, it is seen that
The figures given relate to all strikes, of whatever magnitude,
occurring in the United States from 1881 to the 3lst of December
1900 inclusive.
Among them
have occurred
what may be called historic
strikes, the first of which
was in 1877, though of
course many very severe
strikes had taken place
prior to that year. The
great railway strikes of
1877 began on the Balti-
more & Ohio Railroad at
Martinsburg, West Vir-
ginia, the immediate cause
of the first strike being a
10% reduction of wages
of all employees. This,
however, was but one of
many grievances. There
was irregular employment.
Men with families were
permitted to work only
three or four days per
week, the remainder of the
time being forced to spend
away from home at their
own expense, leaving them
but little money for do-
mestic use. Wages, pay-
able monthly, were often
retained several months.
The tonnage of trains was
increased, and the men
were paid only for the
number of miles run, irre-
spective of the time con-
sumed. So there were many' alleged causes for the great strikes of
1877. Riot, destruction of property and loss of life occurred at
Martinsburg, Baltimoreand various places in Pennsylvania. Thestate
militia at Martinsburg and Pittsburg sympathized with the strikers,
1036
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
affiliated with them and refused to fire upon them. United States
troops were ordered from Eastern garrisons, and they dispersed
the mobs. In Cincinnati, Toledo and St Louis mobs of roughs and
tramps collected, and succeeded in closing most of the shops,
factories and rolling-mills in those cities. There were also for-
midable demonstrations in Chicago, as well as in Syracuse,
Buffalo, West Albany and Hornell, New York, where mobs were
dispersed by the state militia without violence or destruction of
property.
The Pennsylvania Railroad also had a memorable strike, accom-
panied by riots and much violence and destruction of property,
during the same year, the strike being ordered on account of a
general reduction in wages and some other causes which came in to
create the difficulty. The complete story of this strike is too long
to relate here, but from the beginning the strikers had the active
sympathy of a large proportion of the people of Pittsburg, where
the chief movements occurred. The actual loss to the Pennsylvania
Company, not including freight, has been estimated at $2,000,000,
while the loss of property and loss of business at Pittsburg amounted
to $5,000,000. Claims were presented before the courts in Alle-
gheny county to the amount of over $3,500,000, while the actual
amount paid by compromise and judgments was over $2,750,000.
Both the foregoing strikes were unsuccessful.
The next great strike was that of the telegraphists, which occurred
in the year 1883. This strike was inaugurated to secure the abolition
of Sunday work without extra pay, the reduction of day-turns to
eight hours, and the equalization of pay between the sexes for the
same kind of work. Universal increase of wages was also demanded.
The strike commenced on the igth of July and ended on the 23rd
of August 1883, although it was declared off on the i?th of the latter
month. It was unsuccessful, the employees losing $250,000 and
expending $62,000 in assistance to destitute fellow operators. The
employers lost nearly $1,000,000.
Another historic strike, only partially successful, was that on the
South-Western or Gould system of railways in the years 18851886,
but the most prominent labour controversies in the igth century
were those at Homestead, Pa., in July 1892, and at Chicago in 1894,
concerning which a more detailed account is given below. Other
great labour convulsions have occurred which help to identify the
decade beginning 1890 with the great strike era of the century.
Among them may be named the Lehigh Valley railroad strike
in December 1893, the American Railway Union strike on the Great
Northern railway in April 1894; the great coal strike, which
occurred in the same month ; the difficulties at Lattimer, Pa. ; and
those in the Coeur d'Alene district of Idaho.
In July 1892 there occurred a most serious affair between the
Carnegie Steel Company and its employees at what is known as the
Homestead Works, near Pittsburg, growing out of a
Srtk' S r* disagreement in the previous month in regard to wages.
n iot ' The parties were unable to come to an agreement, and
the company closed its works on the 3Oth of June
and discharged its men. Only a small portion of the men were
affected by the proposed adjustment of wages. The larger portion
of them, who were members of the Amalgamated Association of
Iron and Steel Workers, were not affected at all, nor was the large
force of employees, some three thousand in number, who were not
members of that association. The company refused to recognize
the association as an organization, or to hold any conference with
its representatives. Upon the failure to arrive at an adjustment
of the wage difficulty the company proposed to operate its works
by the employment of non-union men. The men, who could not
secure recognition, refused to accept the reduced rates of wages,
and also came to the determination that they would resist the
company in every attempt to secure non-union workers.
The history of the events at Homestead shows that the lodges
composing the Amalgamated Association proceeded to organize
what was styled an " advisory committee " to take charge of affairs
for the strikers. All employees of the company were directed to
break their contracts and to refuse to work until the Amalgamated
Association was recognized and its terms agreed to. . The works
were shut down two days prior to the time provided by the contract
under which the men were working, and, as alleged, because the
workmen had seen fit to hang the president of the company in effigy.
On the 4th of July the officers of the company asked the sheriff of
the county to appoint deputies to protect the works while they carried
out their intention of making repairs. The employees, on their
part organized themselves to defend the works against what they
called encroachments or demands to enter; in fact, they took
possession of the Homestead Steel Works. When the sheriff's men
approached, the workmen, who were assembled in force, notified
them to leave the place, as they did not intend to create any disorder,
and would not allow any damage to be done to the property of the
company. They further offered to act as deputies, an offer which
was declined. The advisory committee, which had been able to
preserve the peace thus far, dissolved on the rejection of their offer
to serve as deputies and conservators of the peace, and all of their
records were destroyed. The immediate cause of the fighting which
subsequently took place at Homestead was the approach of a body
of Pinkerton's detectivee, who were gathered in two barges on the
Ohio river, some miles below the works. When the Pinkertons
arrived the workmen broke through the mill fence, entrenching them-
selves behind the steel billets, and made all preparations to resist
the approach of the Pinkerton barges; and they resisted all attempts
to land, the result being a fierce battle, brought on by a heavy
volley of shots from the strikers. The Pinkertons were armed
with Winchesters, but they were obliged to land and ascend the
embankment single file, and so were soon driven back to the boats,
suffering severely from the fire of the strikers. Many efforts were
made to land, but the position of the men they were attacking,
behind their breastworks of steel rails and billets, was very strong,
and from this place of safe refuge the detectives were subjected to
a galling fire. This opening battle took place on the 5th of July,
about four o'clock in the morning, and was continued in a desultory
way during the day. It was renewed the following day. A brass
ten-pound cannon had been secured by the strikers, and planted
so as to command the barges moored at the banks of the river.
Another force of one thousand men had taken up a position on the
opposite side of the river, where they protected themselves and a
cannon which they had obtained by a breastwork of railway ties.
A little before nine o'clock a bombardment commenced, the cannon
being turned on the boats, and the firing was kept up for several
hours. The boats were protected by heavy steel plates inside,
so efforts were made to fire them. Hose was procured and oil
sprayed on the decks and sides, and at the same time many barrels
of oil were emptied into the river above the mooring place, the
purpose being to ignite it and then allow it to float against the boats.
Under these combined movements the Pinkertons were obliged
to throw out a flag of truce, but it was not recognized by the strikers.
The officers of the Amalgamated Association, however, interfered,
and a surrender of the detectives was arranged. It was agreed that
they should be safely guarded, under condition that they left their
arms and ammunition; and, having no alternative, they accepted
the terms. Seven had been killed and twenty or thirty wounded.
On the loth of July, after several days' correspondence with the
state authorities, the governor sent the entire force of the militia
of the state to Homestead. On the I2th the troops arrived, the town
was placed under martial law, and order was restored. There had
been much looting, clubbing and stoning, and as the detectives,
after surrender, passed through the streets they were treated with
great abuse. Eleven workmen and spectators were killed in the fights.
Congress made an investigation of this strike, but no legislative
action was ever taken. Some indictments were made and lawsuits
ensued. The mills were gradually supplied with new people, but
the strike was not declared off until the 2Oth of November 1892.
The Homestead strike must be considered as the bitterest labour
war in the United States prior to the Chicago strike in 1894. It
was unsuccessful.
Probably the most expensive and far-reaching labour controversy
which can properly be classed among the historic controversies of
this generation was the Chicago strike of June and _
July 1894. Beginning with a private strike at the 'ue^ea
works of Pullman's Palace Car Company at Pullman, a %^
suburb of Chicago, it ended with a practical insurrection
of the labour employed on the principal railways radiating
from Chicago and some of their affiliated lines, paralysing internal
commerce, putting the public to great inconvenience, delaying
the mails, and in general demoralizing business. Its influences
were felt all over the country, to greater or less extent, according
to the lines of traffic and the courses of trade. The contest
was not limited to the parties with whom it originated, for soon
there were Drought into it two other factors or forces. The
original strike grew out of a demand of certain employees of the
Pullman Company in May 1894 for a restoration of the wages paid
during the previous year. The company claimed that the reduction
in the volume of business, owing to business depression, did not
warrant the payment of the old wages. On account of the increased
production of rolling-stock to meet the traffic incident to the World's
Fair in 1893, orders for building cars were not easily obtainable,
a large portion of the business of the Pullman Company being
contract business in the way of building cars for railway companies
generally. This state of affairs resulted in a partial cessation of
car-building everywhere in the country, the Pullman Company
suffering with all others. The demand of the employees therefore
was not acceded to, and on the nth of May 1894 a strike was
ordered. Several minor grievances were claimed to have existed
and to have led to the action of the strikers, who had joined the
American Railway Union, an association of railway employees
which had achieved a partial success in a contest with the Great
Northern Railway a few weeks previous to the Pullman strike.
The Railway Union espoused the cause of the Pullman employees
on the ground that they were members thereof. This union was
said to number about 150,000 members. It undertook to force
the Pullman Company to accede to the demands of its employees
by boycotting Pullman cars; that is to say, they declared that they
would not handle Pullman cars on the railways unless the Pullman
Company would accede to the demands made upon it. The
immediate antagonist of the Pullman Company in the extended
controversy was therefore the American Railway Union.
STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS
1037
Another force was soon involved in the strike, which was, very
naturally, an ally of the Pullman Company. This was the General
Managers' Association, a body of railway men representing all the
roads, twenty-four in number, radiating from Chicago, and it
was said to be the necessity of protecting the traffic of its lines
that brought about its struggle with the American Railway Union.
These roads represented a combined capital of more than
$2,000,000,000, and they employed more than one-fourth of all
the railway employees in the United States. These three great
forces, therefore, were engaged in a battle for supremacy, and that
rivalry alone, without reference to the conditions and circumstances
attending the strike or accompanying it, makes this one of the
historic strikes of the period.
According to the testimony of the officials of the railways
involved, they lost in property destroyed, hire of United States
deputy marshals and other incidental expenses, at least $685,308.
The loss of earnings of these roads on account of the strike is esti-
mated at nearly 5,000,000. About 3100 employees at Pullman
lost in wages, as estimated, probably $350,000. About 100,000
employees upon the 'twenty-four railways radiating from Chicago,
all of which were more or less involved in the strike, lost in wages,
as estimated, nearly $1,400,000. Beyond these amounts very great
losses, widely distributed, were suffered incidentally throughout the
country. The suspension of transportation at Chicago paralysed
a vast distributive centre, and imposed many hardships and much
loss upon the great number of people whose manufacturing and
business operations, employment, travel and necessary supplies
depend upon and demand regular transportation to, from and
through Chicago. The losses to the country at large are estimated
by Bradstreets to be in the vicinity of $80,000,000. Whatever
they are, whether more or less, they teach the necessity of preventing
such disasters, and the strike illustrates how a small local disturbance,
arising from the complaints of a few people, can affect a whole
country. When the American Railway Union took up the cudgels
for the Pullman strikers and declared their boycott against Pullman
cars, and the General Managers' Association took every means to
protect their interests and prevent the stoppage of transportation,
the sympathies and antagonisms of the whole country were aroused.
An unsuccessful attempt was made to induce all trades in Chicago
to join in a great sympathetic strike.
The inevitable accompaniments of a great strike were brought
into play at Chicago. Riots, intimidations, assaults, murder,
arson and burglary, with lesser crimes, attended the strike. In
this, as in some of the other historic strikes, troops were engaged.
The city police, the county sheriffs, the state militia, United States
deputy marshals and regulars from the United States army were
all brought into the controversy. The United States troops were
sent to Chicago to protect Federal property and to prevent obstruc-
tion in the carrying of the mails, to prevent interference with inter-
state commerce, and to enforce the decrees and mandates of the
Federal courts. They took no part in any attempt to suppress
the strike, nor could they, as such matters belong to the city and
state authorities. The police of the city were used to suppress
riots and protect the property of citizens, and the state militia was
called in for the same service. The total of these forces employed
during the strike was 14,186.
Many indictments and law-suits originated in the difficulties
occurring in Chicago. But all the attending circumstances of the
strike point to one conclusion that a share of the responsibility
for bringing it on belongs in some degree to each and every party
involved. The strike generated a vast deal of bitter feeling so
bitter that neither party was ready to consider the rights of the
other. The attacking parties claimed that their grievances war-
ranted them in adopting any means in their power to force con-
cessions. This is the attitude of all strikers. The other parties,
on the other hand, claimed that they were justified in adopting
any means in their power to resist the demands of the attacking
party. The probability is that neither recognized 'the rights of
the public to such an extent as to induce them to forbear bringing
inconvenience and disturbance to it. It was the most suggestive
strike that has ever occurred in the United States, and if it only
proves a lesson sufficiently severe to teach the public its rights in
such matters, and to teach it to adopt measures to preserve these
rights, it will be worth all it cost. It was unsuccessful, and resulted
ultimately in the downfall of the American Railway Union.
The so-called steel strike of the year 1901 was a contest between
the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers and
the United States Steel Corporation. It began on the
st it 1901 firstda y f J ulv ' ancl lasted until the I5th of September
' 1901, when work was resumed in accordance with an
adjustment agreed to on the I3th of the latter month. The
difficulty grew out of an attempt to adjust a sliding scale of
wages with some of the constituent companies of the United States
Steel Corporation, a new company having Si, 404,000, ooo capitaliza-
tion. This corporation was perfected after the difficulties really
began, so the Amalgamated Association ultimately had to confront
the new powerful corporation. The real nut of the difficulty was
not a question of wages, hours of labour, or rules or conditions of
work, but a contest for recognition of the right of the association
, ...
*
to demand the unionizing of mills, a demand, of course, which was
positively refused by the United States Steel Corporation. There
were no grievances, as intimated ; it was clearly and solely a conflict
on the demand for recognition in the trade-union sense, and it was
the first great struggle in the United States that was conducted
solely on this issue. This issue has been contested many times,
but usually in conjunction with some grievance or complicated
with some demand as to wages or other economic conditions. The
result was that the Amalgamated Association did not secure the
terms demanded; and it Tost further, because some of the mills
which were subject to the union's rules were taken out and made non-
union mills. The strike was conducted without any of the dramatic
and tragic circumstances which attended the Homestead affair
in 1892, in which the Amalgamated Association was one of the
parties. In the contest of 1901 the association did not have the
hearty endorsement of a large number of workmen, as it was not a
movement to redress any grievance. It was fought for a principle,
but the movers did not consider the power against which they were
obliged to contend. Officers of the Amalgamated Association
estimated that the number of men out of employment during the
strike averaged 30,000 per day. At a conservative estimate there
must have been a loss of more than $4,000,000 in wages. The steel
company through its officers claimed that it experienced no great
loss as the result of the strike.
A strike affecting more individual interests than any preceding
it was the anthracite coal strike of 1902, which formally began
on the I2th of May. It was ordered at a convention
held at Hazleton, Pa., on the isth of May, by a
vote of 461 to 349. The leaders of the miners, with one
or two exceptions, opposed the strike. It was therefore a strike
of the workers themselves. Grievances had existed in the anthra-
cite coal region for many years, but more especially since the
strike of 1900. An attempt was made in 1901 to secure some con-
cessions, but the operating railways declined even to enter into
a conference. This, of course, caused irritation, and constant
appeals were made to the officers of the union to make new demands,
and failing to secure concessions, to organize a strike. The demands
of the miners were as follows: (i) An increase of 20% to those miners
who are paid by the ton; (2) a reduction of 20% in the time of per
diem employees ; (3) that 2240 ft constitute the ton on which payment
is made for coal mined by weight. No grievances were presented.
The powder question was practically settled in 1900. The miners'
demands being rejected by the operators, the demands were subse-
auently reduced one-half; i.e. 10% increase per ton where mining
is paid by the ton, and 10% decrease in the working day. The
miners also voted to leave the whole matter to arbitration and
investigation, and to accept the results. They were willing to make
a three years' contract on the terms proposed. The fundamental
difficulty on the part of the operators related to efforts to secure
and preserve discipline. They claimed that every concession
already made had defeated this. The strike involved nearly 150,000
employees, and affected the consumers of anthracite coal throughout
the eastern states.
After the most strenuous efforts of both parties to this strike,
the president of the United States, at the request of the great coal
operators and the officers of the Miners' Union, appointed a com-
mission to adjust their differences, and after five months of hearings,
listening to nearly six hundred witnesses, the commission submitted
an award which was to be in effect three years from the 1st of April
1903. Both parties had agreed to abide by the award, whatever
it might be. After the three years had expired, that is, the 3 1st of
March 1906, the miners concluded to strike again, but after some
negotiations both parties again unanimously agreed to extend the
award made by the commission for three years more, i.e. until
the 3ist of March 1909.
After the coal strike of 1902 many very important disturbances
occurred. There was one among the silver miners at Cripple Creek,
Colorado, 1894, at Leadville, 1896-1897, at Lake City, 1899, and at
Telluride in 1901 ; also another at Colorado City in 1903. All these
strikes were attended with a great deal of violence, the militia was
ordered out, many murders took place, and in three counties of
Colorado there was a reign of terror, but on the whole the strikes
were unsuccessful. The Western Federation of Miners was seriously
crippled in these affairs.
It is gratifying to note the reduction in the number of strikes as
shown by recent statistics. In 1903 the number of establishments
was 20,248, but it had dropped to 8292 in 1905.
AUTHORITIES. U. S. Commissioner of Labor, Twenty-first
Annual Report (1906); reports of various State Bureaus of Labor
Statistics; Pennsylvania Bureau of Industrial Statistics, Twentieth
Annual Report (1892); U.S. House of Representatives, "Employ-
ment of Pinkerton Detectives at Homestead, Pa.," Report No. 2447,
52nd Congress, 2nd Session (1892) ; United States Strike Commission,
Report on Chicago Strike, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 7, 53rd Congress,
3rd Session (1894); "The Amalgamated Association of Iron and
Steel Workers," Quarterly Report of Economics for November 1901 ;
Industrial Evolution of United States, chs. xxv. and xxvi. ; Report of
the Anthracite Coal Strike Commission; U.S. Bulletin of Labor (May
io 3 8
STRINDBERG STRINGED INSTRUMENTS
1903) ; Report of Commissioner of Labor (1905) on labour disturbances
in Colorado. (C. D. W.)
STRINDBERG, AUGUST (1840- ), Swedish author, was
born at Stockholm on the 22nd of January 1849. He entered
the university of Upsala in 1867, but was compelled by poverty
to interrupt his studies, which were resumed in 1870. His
gloomy experiences of student life are reflected in a series of
sketches named after two districts of Upsala, Frdn Fjerdingen
och Svartbacken (1877), which aroused great indignation at the
time. After various experiments as schoolmaster, private
tutor and actor, he turned to journalism, and afterwards more
than avenged himself for the triviality and narrowness of his
new surroundings in his famous Roda rummet (" The Red
Room," 1879), described in the sub-title as sketches of literary
and artistic life. The " red room " was the meeting-place
in a small cafe in Stockholm of a society of needy journalists
and artists, whose failure and despair are shown off against
the prosperity of a typical bourgeois couple. In these stories
Strindberg's fanatic hatred of womankind already makes its
appearance, the disasters of the principal figures being precipi-
tated by the selfishness and immorality of the women. In 1874
some friends procured him a place in the Royal library at
Stockholm where he was employed until 1882. He was already
an ardent student of physical science; he now gave proof of his
versatility by learning Chinese in order to catalogue the Chinese
MSS. in the library; and his French monograph on the early
relations of Sweden with the Far East was read in 1879 before
the Academy of Inscriptions in Paris. He continued to write
for the newspapers and for the theatre. His first important
drama, Master Olof, which had been refused in 1872 by the
theatrical authorities, was produced after repeated revision in
1878. Although real historical personages Gustavus Vasa, Olaus
Petri the reformer and Gerdt the Anabaptist figure as leading
characters, they are made symbolic of the present-day forces
of progress and reaction. The production of Master OloJ
marked the beginning of the new movement in Swedish litera-
ture, and the Red Room and the collection of satirical sketches
entitled Del nya riket (" The New Kingdom," 1882) increased
the growing hostility to Strindberg. Two comedies drawn from
medieval subjects, Gillets hemlighet (" The Secret of the Guild,"
1880) and herr Bengt's Hustru (" Bengt's Wife," 1882), were
followed by the legendary drama of Lycko Pers resa (" The
Journal of Lucky Peter "), written in 1882 and produced with
great success on the stage a year later.
In 1883 Strindberg left Sweden with his family, to travel
in Germany, Italy, France and Denmark, writing for foreign
reviews and producing various volumes of stories and articles.
Meanwhile he had been developing his attack on the feminist
movement, which had received a great stimulus in Scandinavia
from the dramas of Ibsen. In Giftas (" Married," 1884) he
produced twelve stories of married life to support his view of
the sex question; this was followed in 1886 by a second collection
with the same title, which was written in a more violent tone
and lacked some of the art of the earlier attack. He was
prosecuted for assailing the dogma of the communion, but he
returned to Sweden to defend himself, and was acquitted.
Strindberg's mastery of the art of description is perhaps seen at
its best in the novels of life in the Swedish archipelago, in
Hemsoborna ("The Inhabitants of Hemso, 1887), one of the
best existing novels of popular Swedish life, and Skdrkarlslif
(" Life of an Island Lad," 1890). Tschaudda (1889) and /
hafsbandct (" In the Bond of the Sea," 1890) show the influence
of a study of Nietzsche. In 1887 he returned to drama with the
powerful tragedy Fadren, produced in Paris also as Le pere;
this was followed in 1888 by Froken Julie, described as a natural-
istic drama, to which he wrote a preface in the nature of a
manifesto, directed against critics who had resented the gloom
of Fadren. Kamraterna (" Comrades," 1888), which belongs to
the same group of six plays, was followed by Himmelrikets-
nycklar ("The Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven," 1892), a
legendary drama, and by the historical dramas of Erik XIV.
(1899), Gustav Adolf (1900), and Custav Vasa (1899); Till
Damascus (1898) indicated a return in the direction of religion;
Folkungasagan (1899) was represented in 1901; and the two
plays Avent (" Advent ") and Brott och brott (" Crime for
Crime "), printed together in 1899, were successfully represented
in 1900, both in Sweden and Germany.
Strindberg has provided a quantity of what is really auto-
biographical material, with an account of the origin of his various
books, in the form of a novel, Tjensteqvinnans son (" The Son
of a Servant," 1886-1887) . wit h the sub-title of "A Soul's Develop-
ment." The revelations of this book explain much of the
bitterness of his work, and it was followed in 1893 by a fourth
part in German, Die Beichte eines Thoren (" A Fool's Confession "),
the printing of which was forbidden in Sweden. With these
should be classed his Inferno (1897) and Somngdngarnatter
(" The Nights of a Somnambulist," 1900). Strindberg's first
marriage was an unfortunate one, and was dissolved in 1893.
He then married an Austrian lady, from whom he was separated
in 1896. In 1901 he married the Swedish actress Harriet
Bosse, from whom he was amicably separated soon afterwards.
He suffered at different times from mental attacks, of which
he gave analytic accounts on his recovery.
A number of criticisms on Strindberg from eminent hands are
collected in En bok om Strindberg (Karlstad,. 1894).
STRING, a general term for thin cord, or stout thread, a line
or cord on which objects are strung. The O. Eng. word is streng,
cf. Dan. streng, Ger. Strong, and meant that which is strongly
or tightly twisted; it is related to "strong," and is to be referred
to the root seen also in Lat. stringere, to draw tight, whence
"stringent" and "strict, "and inGr. orpa77aX77,a halter, whence
comes " strangle," to choke, throttle. The word is particularly
used of the cord of a bow, and of the stretched cords of gut
and wire upon a musical instrument, the vibration of which
produces the tones (see STRINGED INSTRUMENTS below). In
architecture the term " string-course " is applied to the pro-
jecting course or moulding running horizontally along the face
of a building.
STRINGED INSTRUMENTS (Fr. instruments <J cordes; Ger.
Saiteninstrumente; Ital. strumenti a corde), a large and important
section of musical instruments comprising subdivisions classed
(A) according to the method in which the strings are set in
vibration (B) according to certain structural characteristics of
the instruments themselves.
Section A. This includes instruments with strings (i) plucked
by fingers or plectrum; (2) struck by hammers or tangents;
set in vibration (3) by friction of the bow, (4) by friction of a
wheel or (5) by the wind. In all these classes we are also
concerned with the manner in which the strings are stretched
in order to ensure resonance, and with the measures taken to
obtain more than one sound from each string.
i. Strings plucked by Fingers or Plectrum. Twanging the strings
by the fingers is the most primitive method, probably suggested by
the feeble note given out by the tense string of the hunters' bow,
which was the prototype of the harp. In this ancient instrument,
popular in all ages and lands, the strings are stretched a vide between
two supports of a frame, the lower of which acts as a soundboard from
which the strings rise perpendicularly. The scale ot all harp-like
instruments is produced by means of one string for each note, differ-
ence in pitch being obtained by varying the length of the strings. In
the modern pedal harp with double action the strings can be short-
ened sufficiently to raise the pitch a semitone or a tone by means
of an ingenious system of levers set in motion by the pedals, which
cause disks, each furnished with two studs, to turn and grasp the
string, thus shortening the vibrating length. This device may be
regarded as an infringement of the principle of the harp, whereas
in the chromatic harp (Pleyel Wolff & Co.) the same object has been
obtained without violating the principle by ingeniously increasing
the number of strings. The nanga of the ancient Egyptians, of
which specimens are preserved in the British Museum, an instru-
ment having a boat-shaped body with a long curved neck from
which the strings stretch at right angles to the soundboard, is the
only link as yet discovered between the bow and the harp. The
next step observed is the device of stretching the strings partly
over a soundboard and partly a vide, as in the cithara, the lyre,
the rotta, the crwth, &c.
The strings lying parallel with the soundboard are slightly raised
over a bridge, by means of which the vibrations are communicated
to the belly of the instrument. D ~* * u ~ ~M*--*l ="H tho
Between the soundboard and the
STRIP STRODE, R.
1039
cross-bar, upheld by two arms springing from the body of the in-
strument, the strings at first bridged an open space for greater
convenience in twanging them with both hands. The gradual
closing up of this open space marks the various steps in the transition
from cithara to fiddle. .In the Egyptian cithara the harp-like
arrangement of the strings was maintained by making the cross-
bar oblique. In the Assyrian and later in the Greek and Roman
citharas and lyres all the strings were of the same length, difference
in pitch being secured by varying the thickness of the strings.
A later development consisted in discarding the open space
altogether, whereby the third method of stretching the strings
was evolved. In these new instruments the strings lay over the
sound-chest, raised on bridges which determined their vibrating
length according to the method of stringing the harp or the cithara.
As examples of this type may be cited the psalterion or psaltery
and in the middle ages the zither.
The addition of a keyboard to the psaltery, as a means of in-
creasing its scope, created a new class of instruments of which the
principal members were the clavicymbalum, the virginal, spinet
and the harpsichord. In these the principle of plucking the strings
by means of a plectrum or quill was preserved, but the quill was
fixed in the pivoted tongue of a piece of wood, known as a " jack,"
which rested on the end of a balanced key. The jack worked
easy through a rectangular hole in the soundboard, and when the
key was pressed down the jack was thrown up, the quill catching
the string and plucking it. The string thus plucked vibrated over
the whole length from hitch-pin to belly-bridge (cf. the effect of
the tangent in the clavichord).
When the principle of stopping strings by pressing them against
a fingerboard in order to obtain several sounds from each had been
discovered and applied by adding a neck to the body, a new sub-
division was created in this class of instruments. The exact division
of the strings necessary to produce the required intervals was
measured off and indicated by ligatures of hide or gut (called frets),
bound round the neck, against which the strings were pressed by the
fingers. This principle involved a very great advance in technique,
and produced the two great families of guitar and lute. During
the middle ages, the bass lute (theorbo or barbiton) and the double-
bass lutes (archlute and chitarrone) had, in addition to the strings
stretched over the finger-board, for which the pegs were placed
half-way up the neck, a complement of bass strings stretched & vide
from the bridge tail-piece to the end of the neck, where a second
peg-box was provided. In the chitarrone these bass strings, each
of which produced but one note, were about 5 ft. long; the archlute
of similar construction was in size between the former and the
theorbo.
The plectrum was used to pluck the strings in classic Greece and
Rome, in order to provide an additional effect of brilliancy for joyous
or martial themes. If the music gained in brilliancy, the instru-
ment lost the power of expressing the performer's emotions. During
the middle ages the use of wire and spun strings in some instruments,
such as the mandola, rendered the use of the plectrum a necessity.
2. Strings struck by Hammers or Tangents. The earliest known
instrument thus played was the Assyrian dulcimer, or pisantir,
represented on some of the stone slabs brought by Sir A. H.
Layard from the mound of Kuyunjik, and preserved at the British
Museum among scenes from the history of Sardanapalus; it is
the instrument erroneously rendered psaltery in Dan. iii. 5, while
the instrument rendered dulcimer in the Authorized Version of
the Bible should be bagpipe.
In the dulcimer the strings, as in the psaltery, were stretched
over a rectangular or trapezoid sound-chest, the vibrating length
being determined by means of two bridges. The strings were
struck by means of two curved sticks, or by hammers, with an
elastic wrist action, which produced clear, bell-like tones. The
dulcimer has survived in the cembalo or cimbalom of the Hungarian
gipsies. The application of the keyboard to the dulcimer produced
the clavichord and later the pianoforte. In the earliest clavi-
chords, known as fretted (Ger. gebunden), one string was made
to do duty for several notes. The tangent or upright blade of
brass tapering towards the bottom, where it was fastened into
the end of the key, replaced the hammer of the dulcimer, for which
it was hardly a substitute for the following reason. The function
of the tangent constitutes the main technical innovation; instead
of giving a sharp blow and rebounding instantly from the string,
like the hammer on the strings of the dulcimer, the tangent remained
on the string as long as the key was pressed down, and as it rose
cloth dampers stopped the vibration. It is usual to compare the
tangent of the clavichord to the hammer of the dulcimer, but the
action of the tangent more nearly resembles the pressure of the
finger on the string of the violin. Just as the finger determines
the vibrating length of the violin string from the bridge, so the
tangent sets the string vibrating from the point of impact to the
belly-bridge. By twisting the key levers, the tangents belonging
to three or four different keys were brought to bear on the same
string or group of unisons at different points, all the strings being
of the same length. It was not until the 1 8th century that fret-
free or bund-frei clavichords were invented; they had throughout
the compass a key and a tangent to each pair of unisons. The action
of the hammer of the dulcimer reappeared in the pianoforte. Owing
to the peculiar action of the tangent it was possible to produce
on the clavichord the vibrato effect (Bebung) as in the violin, an effect
which is impracticable on any other keyboard instrument.
3. Strings set in Vibration by Friction of the Bow. Although used
with various other instruments, such as the Oriental rebab and its
European successor the rebec, with the oval vielle, the guitar-
or troubadour-fiddle and the viols, it is with the effect of the bow
on the perfected type represented by the violin family that we are
mostly concerned. The strings in this case are all of the same
length, difference in pitch being secured by thickness and tension.
The fingers, by pressing the strings, produce a variety of notes
from each string at will by shortening the vibrating section as the
position of the fingers shift in the direction of the bridge. The friction
of the bow on the string induces a twofold vibration, the actual
longitudinal vibration of the string and the molecular, both of
which are transmitted by the bridge to the soundboard, whereby
they become intensified or reinforced. To this class belong also
the Welsh crwth and the tromba marina.
4. Strings set in Vibration by Friction of a Wheel. This class is
small, being represented mainly by the organistrum and the hurdy-
gurdy and a lew sostenente keyboard instruments. In these
instruments the rosined wheel performs mechanically the function
of the bow, setting the strings in vibration as it revolves. A row
of ten or twelve keys controlling wooden tangents performs the
function of the fingers in stopping the strings. Two or more strings
outside the range of the tangents always sound the same drone
bass, the fingers playing the melody on the treble strings.
5. Strings set in Vibration by the Wind. An example is the
aeolian harp. Here the eight strings of different thickness, but tuned
strictly in unison and left slack, are set in vibration by a current
of air passing obliquely across them, causing the strings to divide
into aliquot parts, thus producing various harmonics.
Section B. There are, besides, certain structural features
in the instruments independent of the strings, which influence
the quality of tone to a greater or lesser degree. First, the
construction of the sound-chest, the box form consisting of
back and belly or soundboard, joined by ribs of equal width,
giving the best results in classes i and 3. The sound-chest,
consisting of a vaulted back to which is glued a flat soundboard,
gives very poor results in class 3, but is eminently suitable for
class i. The position and shape of the sounds-holes on each
side of the strings for bowed instruments, and in the centre for
those of which the strings are plucked, are not without influence
on the tone. (K. S.)
STRIP, to remove or tear off the outer covering of anything,
hence to rob or plunder; also a narrow long piece of stuff or
material, or a mark or division narrow in proportion to its
length distinguished from its ground or surroundings by colour
or other variation of texture, character, &c.; a stripe; this last
word is a variant of " strip," a particular meaning, that of a
stroke or lash of a whip, is either due to the original meaning
of " strip," to flay, or to the long narrow mark or wheat left by
a blow. The O. Eng. strypan, to strip, is cognate with Du.
stroopen, Ger. streifen, and the root is possibly seen in " strike,"
Lat. stringere. " To strip " has many technical meanings, e.g. to
separate the tobacco leaf from the stems, to remove the over-
lying soil from a mineral deposit before opening and working
it, to turn a gun-barrel in a lathe, &c. In architecture, a " strip-
pilaster " is a narrow pilaster such as is found in Saxon work
and in the Italian Romanesque churches. " Stripling," a youth,
is apparently a diminutive of " strip," in the sense of a young
growing lad.
STRODE, RALPH (fl. 1350-1400), English schoolman, was
probably a native of the West Midlands. He was a fellow of
Merton College, Oxford, before 1360, and famous as a teacher
of logic and philosophy and a writer on educational subjects.
He belonged, like Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura, to that
" School of the Middle " which mediated between realists and
nominalists. Besides his Logica, which has not survived, he
wrote Consequentiae, a treatise on the syllogism, and Obliga-
tiones or Scholastica militia, a series of " formal exercises in
scholastic dialectics." He had some not unfriendly controversy
with his colleague John Wyclif, against whom he defended
the possession of wealth by the clergy, and held that in the
Church abuses were better than disturbance. He also attacked
Wyclif's doctrine of predestination. His positions are gathered
from Wyclif's Responsiones ad Rodolphum Strodum (MS. 3926,
1040
STRODE, W. STRONTIUM
Vienna Imperial Library). Strode is also associated with
John Gower in Chaucer's dedication of Troylus and Cryseyde,
and Strode himself, according to the 15th-century Vetus cata-
logus ot fellows of Merton, was a " poeta nobilis." Leland and
Bale confirm this testimony, and Professor I. Gollancz has
suggested the identification of the Phantasma Radulphi attri-
buted to Strode in the Vetus catalogus with the beautiful 14th-
century elegiac poem The Pearl. If this hold good, Strode wrote
also Cleanness, Patience, and Sir Gawayne and the Green
Knight. From 1375 to 1385 this Strode or another of the same
name was common sergeant of the city of London; he died
in 1387.
See Prantl, Geschichte det Logik; for an attempt to distinguish
between Strode the schoolman and Strode the poet, see J. T. T.
Brown, in The Scottish Antiquary (1897), vol. xii.
STRODE, WILLIAM (1598-1645), English parliamentarian,
second son of Sir William Strode, of Newnham, Devonshire
(a member of an ancient family long established in that county,
which became extinct in 1897), and of Mary, daughter of Thomas
Southcote of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire, was born in 1598.
He was admitted as a student or the Inner Temple in 1614,
matriculated at Exeter College, Oxford, in 1617, and took the
degree of B.A. in 1619. He was returned to parliament in 1624
for Beeralston, and represented the borough in all succeeding
parliaments till his death. He from the first threw himself into
opposition to Charles I. and took a leading part in the disorderly
scene of the 2nd of March 1629, when the speaker, Sir John
Finch, refusing to put the resolution of Sir J. Eliot against
arbitrary taxation and innovations in religion, was held down
in the chair (see HOLLES, DENZIL). Prosecuted before the star
chamber, he refused " to answer anything done in the House of
Parliament but in that House." On the 7th of May a fresh
warrant was issued, and a month later, to prevent his release
on bail, he was sent by Charles with two of his fellow members
to the Tower. Refusing to give a bond for his good behaviour,
he was sentenced to imprisonment during the king's pleasure,
and was kept in confinement in various prisons for eleven years.
In January 1640, in accordance with th% king's new policy of
moderation, he was liberated; and on the i3th of April took his
seat in the Short Parliament, with a mind embittered by the
sense of his wrongs. In the Long Parliament, which met on the
3rd of November 1640, he was the first to propose the control
by parliament over ministerial appointments, the militia, and
its own duration; supported the Grand Remonstrance of the 7th
of November 1641; and displayed a violent zeal in pursuing
the prosecution of Strafford, actually proposing that all who
appeared as the prisoner's counsel should be " charged as
conspirators in the same treason." As a result he was included
among the five members impeached by Charles of high treason
on the 3rd of January 1642. (See PYM, JOHN; ELIOT, SIR JOHN;
HAMPDEN, JOHN; HESIBRIGE, SIR ARTHUR; and CHARLES I.).
He opposed all suggestions of compromise with Charles, urged
on the preparations for war, and on the 23rd of October was
present at the battle of Edgehill. In the prosecution of Laud he
showed the same relentless zeal as he had in that of Strafford,
and it was he who, on the 28th of November 1644, carried up
the message from the Commons to the Lords, desiring them to
hasten on the ordinance for the archbishop's execution. Strode
did not long survive his victim. He is mentioned as having
been elected a member of the assembly of divines on the 3ist
of January 1645. He died on the gth of September of the same
year, and by order of parliament was accorded a public funeral
in Westminster Abbey. The body was exhumed after the
Restoration. Strode was a man of strong character, but of
narrow, though clear and decided judgment, both his good and
his bad qualities being exaggerated by the wrongs he had
suffered. Clarendon speaks of him as a man " of low account
and esteem," who only gained his reputation by his accidental
association with those greater than himself; but to his own party
his " insuperable constancie " gave him a title to rank with those
who had, at a time when the liberties of England hung in the
balance, deserved best of their country.
The identity of the W. Strode imprisoned in 1628 and of the W.
Strode impeached in 1642 has been questioned, but is now estab-
lished (J. Forster, Arrest of the Five Members, p 198, note; Life of Sir
J. Eliot, ed. 1872, ii. 237, note ; J. L. Sanford, Studies, p. 397 ; Gardiner,
Hist, of England, ix. 223). On the other hand he is to be distinguished
from Colonel Wm. Strode of Barrington, also parliamentarian and
M.P., who died in 1666; and from William Strode (1602 or 1600-
1645), the orator, poet and dramatist, whose poetical works were
edited, with a memoir, by Bertram Dobell in 1907.
STROMNESS, a police burgh and seaport, in the island of
Pomona, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2450. It
is situated on the side of a well-sheltered bay, 14 m. by steamer
west of Kirkwall. Many ot the houses are within tidal limits
and furnished with quays and jetties. The harbour admits
vessels of all sizes and is provided with a pier and slips. The
deep-sea fishery attracts hundreds of boats from the north of
Scotland, and most of the catch is cured for the English, German
and Dutch markets. Stromness is in daily communication with
Scrabster pier (Thurso), and at frequent intervals with Kirkwall
by coach and also by steamer. It is a port of call for ships
trading with the north of Europe as well as for vessels outward
bound to the Arctic regions, Hudson Bay and Canada. The
magnificent scenery of the west coast of Pomona is commonly
visited from Stromness. The tour includes Black Craig (400 ft.),
on which the schooner " Star of Dundee " was wrecked in 1834;
the grand stacks of North Gaulton Castle and Yesnaby Castle; the
Hole of Row, a natural aich carved out by the ocean; Birsay,
where are the ruins of the palace built by Robert Stewart, earl of
Orkney (d. 1592), natural son ot James V., the traces of a church
which is believed to have been built by Jarl Thorfmn on his
return from Rome, in which the remains of St Magnus reposed
until their burial in Kirkwall Cathedral, and, on the Broch of
Birsay (95 ft. high), the ruins of St Peter's church.
STRONGYLION, a Greek sculptor, the author of a bronze
figure of a horse set up on the Acropolis of Athens late in the
5th century B.C., which represented the wooden horse of Troy
with the Greek heroes inside it and looking forth. The inscribed
basis of this figure has been found. Other works of the sculptor
were a figure of Artemis at Megara, a group of the Muses, and an
Amazon which was greatly admired by the emperor Nero.
STRONTIANITE, a mineral consisting of strontium carbonate,
SrCOs. It takes its name from Strontian in Argyllshire, where
it appears to have been known as far back as 1764, but it
was not recognized as a distinct mineral until later, when the
examination of it led to the discovery of the element strontium.
It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is isomorphous
with aragonite and witherite. Distinctly developed crystals
are, however, of rare occurrence; they are usually acicular with
acute pyramid-planes and are repeatedly twinned on the prism.
Radiating, fibrous or granular aggregates are more common.
The colour is white, pale green or yellowish brown. The hard-
ness is 35 and the specific gravity 3-7. Strontium is sometimes
partly replaced by an equivalent amount of calcium. The
mineral occurs in metalliferous veins in the lead mines of Stron-
tian in Argyllshire, Pateley Bridge in Yorkshire, Braunsdorf
near Freiberg in Saxony; abundantly in veins in calcareous
marl near Munster and Hamm in Westphalia; and in limestone
at Schoharie in New York. It is used for producing red fire
in pyrotechny and for refining sugar. (L. J. S.)
STRONTIUM [Symbol Sr, atomic weight 87-62 (O=i6)], a
metallic chemical element belonging to the alkaline earth group.
It is found in small quantities very widely distributed in various
rocks and soils, and in mineral waters; its chief sources are
the minerals strontianite, celestine and barytocelestine. The
metal was detected in the mineral strontianite, found at Stron-
tian in Argyllshire, by Cruikshank in 1787, and by Crawford in
1790; and the discovery was confirmed by Hope in 1792 and by
Klaproth in 1793. The metal was isolated in 1807 by Sir H.
Davy by electrolysing the moist hydroxide or chloride, and has
been obtained by A. Guntz and Roederer (Comptes rendus, 1906,
142, p. 400) by heating the hydride in a vacuum to 1000. By
electrolysing an aqueous solution of the chloride with a mercury
cathode, a liquid and a solid amalgam, SrHg u , are obtained:
STROPHANTHUS
1041
the latter on heating gives a mixture of Sr 2 Hg s and SrHg 6 , and
on distillation an amalgam passes over, and not the metal.
It is a silver- white ductile metal (of specific gravity 2-54) which
melts at 800. It oxidizes rapidly when exposed to air, and
burns when heated in air, oxygen, chlorine, bromine or sulphur
vapour. With dry ammonia at 60 the metal forms strontium
ammonium, which slowly decomposes in a vacuum at 20
giving Sr(NHa)2 ; with carbon monoxide it gives Sr(CO)2j with
oxygen it forms the monoxide and peroxide, and with nitric
oxide it gives the hyponitrite (Roederer, Bull. soc. Mm., 1906
[iii.], 35, p. 715).
The hydride, SrH 2 , was obtained by Guntz on heating strontium
amalgam in a current of hydrogen. It is a white solid, which
readily decomposes water in the cold and behaves as a strong
reducing agent. It dissociates when heated to a high temperature
and is not affected by oxygen. The monoxide or strontia, SrO;
is formed by strongly heating the nitrate, or commercially by heat-
ing the sulphide or carbonate in superheated steam (at about
500-600 C.). It is a white amorphous powder which resembles
lime in its general character. By heating the amorphous form in
the electric furnace H. Moissan succeeded in obtaining a crystalline
variety. The amorphous form readily slakes with water, and the
aqueous solution yields a crystalline hydrated hydroxide approxi-
mating in composition to Sr(OH) 2 -8H 2 O or Sr(OH) 2 '9H 2 O, which
on standing in vacuo loses some of its water of crystallization,
leaving the monohydrated hydroxide, Sr(OH) 2 -H 2 O. The ordinary
hydrated variety forms quadratic crystals and behaves as a strong
base. It is used in the extraction of sugar from molasses, since
it combines with the sugar to form a soluble saccharate, which is
removed and then decomposed by carbon dioxide. A hydrated
dioxide, approximating in composition to SrO 2 -8H 2 O, is formed as
a crystalline precipitate when hydrogen peroxide is added to an
aqueous solution of strontium hydroxide.
Strontium fluoride, SrF 2 , is obtained by the action of hydro-
fluoric acid on the carbonate, or by the addition of potassium
fluoride to strontium chloride solution. It may be obtained
crystalline by fusing the anhydrous chloride with a large excess of
potassium hydrogen fluoride or by heating the amorphous variety
to redness with an excess of an alkaline chloride. Strontium
chloride, SrCl2-6H 2 O, is obtained by dissolving the carbonate in
hydrochloric acid, or by fusing the carbonate with calcium chloride
and extracting the melt with water. It crystallizes in small colour-
less needles and is easily soluble in water; the concentrated aqueous
solution dissolves bromine and iodine readily. By concentrating the
aqueous solution between 90-130 C., or by passing hydrochloric
acid gas into a saturated aqueous solution, a second hydrated form
of composition, SrCl 2 '2H 2 O, is obtained. The anhydrous chloride
;s formed by heating strontium or its monoxide in chlorine, or by
heating the hydrated chloride in a current of hydrochloric acid
gas. It is a white solid, which combines with gaseous ammonia
to form SrCU'SNHs, and when heated in superheated steam it
decomposes with evolution of hydrochloric acid.
Strontium sulphide, SrS, is formed when the carbonate is heated
to redness in a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen. It phosphoresces
very slightly when pure. Strontium sulphate, SrSOi, found in the
mineral kingdom as celestine, is formed when sulphuric acid or a
soluble sulphate is added to a solution of a strontium salt. It is
a colourless, amorphous solid, which is almost insoluble in water,
its solubility diminishing with increasing temperature; it is appre-
ciably soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid. When boiled with
alkaline carbonates it is converted into strontium carbonate.
Strontium nitride, SrsN 2 , is formed when strontium amalgam is
heated to redness in a stream of nitrogen or by igniting the oxide
with magnesium (H. R. Ellis, Chem. News, 1909, 99, p. 4). It is
readily decomposed by water, with liberation of ammonia. Strontium
nitrate, Sr(NOs) 2 , is obtained by dissolving the carbonate in dilute
nitric acid. It crystallizes from water (in -which it is very
soluble) in monoclinic prisms which approximate in composition
to Sr(NO 3 ) 2 -4H 2 O or Sr(NO 3 )2'5H 2 O. When heated it fuses in its
own water of crystallization and becomes anhydrous at 110 C.
It is used in pyrotechny for the manufacture of red-fire. A strontium
boride, SrBe, was obtained as a black crystalline powder by H.
Moissan and P. Williams (Comptes rendus, 1897, 123, p. 633) by
reducing the borate with aluminium in the electric furnace.
Strontium carbide, SrC 2 , is obtained by heating strontium car-
bonate with carbon in the electric furnace. It resembles calcium
carbide, decomposing rapidly with water, giving acetylene. Stron-
tium carbonate, SrCOs, found in the mineral kingdom as strontianite,
is formed when a solution of a carbonate is added to one of a stron-
tium salt. It is an amorphous solid, insoluble in water, but its
solubility is increased in the presence of ammonium nitrate.
It loses carbon dioxide when heated to high temperature.
Strontium salts may be recognized by the characteristic crimson
colour they impart to the flame of the Bunsen burner and by the
precipitation of the insoluble sulphate. On the preparation of
pure strontium salts, see Adrian and Bougarel, Journ. pharm.
chem., 1892 (5), p. 345; and S. P. L. Soerenoen, Zeit. anorg. chem.,
1895, II, p. 305. Recent determinations of the atomic weight of
strontium are due to T. W. Richards (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 47,
p. 145), who, by estimating the ratios of strontium bromide and
chloride to silver, obtained the values 87 -663 and 87 -661.
STROPHANTHUS, a genus of plants of the natural order
Apocynaceae, deriving its name from the long twisted thread-
like segments of the corolla, which in one species attain a length
of 12 or 14 inches. The genus comprises about 30 species,
mainly tropical African, extending into South Africa, with a few
species in Asia, from farther India to the Philippines and China.
Several of the African species furnish the natives with the
principal ingredient in their arrow poisons. The inee or onaye
poison of the Gaboon, the kombe of equatorial North Africa, the
arquah of the banks of the Niger and the wanika of Zanzibar
are all derived from members of this genus. The exact species
used in each case cannot be said to be accurately known. There
is no doubt, however, that S. hispidus and 5. kombe are those
most frequently employed.
Both S. hispidus and S. kombe have hairy seeds with a slender
thread-like appendage, terminating in a feathery tuft of long
silken hairs, the seeds of the former being coated with short
appressed brown hairs, and those of the latter with white hairs;
but in the species used at Delagoa Bay and called "umtsuli"
the thread-like appendage of the seed is absent. The natives
pound the seeds into an oily mass, which assumes a red colour,
portions of this mass being smeared on the arrow immediately
behind the barb.
Under the name of strophanti semina, the dried ripe seeds of
Strophanthus kombe, freed from awns, are official in the British
and many other pharmacopeias. The seeds must be mature.
They are about f in. long, \ in. broad, greenish fawn, covered with
flattened silky hairs, and oval-acuminate in shape. They are
almost odourless, but have an intensely bitter taste. The chief
constituent is a white microcrystalline glucoside, known as stro-
phanthin, freely soluble in water and alcohol, but not in chloroform
or ether, and melting at about 173 C. It constitutes about 50%
of the mature cotyledons of the seed, the proportion rising as matur-
ity is reached. It is very similar to, but not identical with, onabain.
It is split up by acids into strophanthidin and a methyl-ether of
a peculiar sugar. The seeds also contain an active principle,
inein, a body known as kombic acid, fat, resin and starch. The
resin is contained in the husk, and occurs in the alcoholic tincture
of Strophanthus, its presence tending to cause digestive disturbance
and diarrhoea. When the seeds are treated with sulphuric acid
and heat is applied, a violet-coloration is produced. A section of
the seed yields a green colour with cold sulphuric acid.
The British Pharmacopeia contains two preparations of this
important and valuable drug, a dry extract and a tincture. The
former is hardly ever prescribed. The official tincture is much
inferior to that originally recommended by Sir Thomas Fraser,
who introduced the drug into medical practice, in being much too
weak, and in being prepared with alcohol instead of ether, which
differs from alcohol in not dissolving the resin contained in the husks.
It is therefore advisableto order the tincture of the British Pharma-
copeia of 1885, or to prescribe the current tincture in double the
official dose and combined with cardamoms, ginger or capsicum,
in order to counteract the irritant properties of the resin which it
contains.
Strophanthin itself may be injected hypodermically in doses of
irjji to ^o grain. Unfortunately the injections usually cause some
temporary local irritation. This method of exhibiting Strophanthus
is the only one of any avail when a result is wanted at once or even
within several hours. Precisely the same observation applies to
digitalis, the other great cardiac tonic.
Pharmacology. The drug has no external actions. Taken in-
ternally it tends, after the repetition of large doses, to produce
some gastric irritation. This is unquestionably less, however,
than that produced by digitalis, and is probably due not at all to
the active principle but entirely to the resin contained in the seed-
husk. As ordinarily administered, the drug acts on the heart
before influencing any other organ or tissue. Often indeed no
other action can be observed. This is readily explained by the
fact that the drug is carried by the coronary arteries to the
cardiac muscle before it reaches any other part of the systemic
circulation.
It is almost certain that Strophanthus acts directly on no other
cardiac structure than the muscle-fibre. No action can certainly
be demonstrated either upon the terminals of the vagus nerves nor
upon the intra-cardiac nervous ganglia. The muscular force is
increased in a very marked degree. A secondary consequence of
1042
STROPHE STROUD
this is that the diastole is prolonged, and the pulse thus rendered
less frequent. If the heart is beating irregularly the drug tends to
make it more regular. The action is similar to that of digitalis
and fifty years ago both these drugs would thus have been regarded,
as indeed digitalis was, as cardiac sedatives. As the cardiac muscle
receives its blood supply only during diastole, it follows that stro-
phanthus, while increasing the force of each beat, yet lengthens
the period during which the muscle rests and is fed thus being,
in a paradoxical sense, a sedative as well as a stimulant. In fatal
cases of strophanthus poisoning death is brought about by the arrest
of the heart in systole, i.e. in a state of tetanic spasm from over-
stimulation. This of course is a striking exception to the natural
rule that death finds the heart in a state of relaxation and inability
to contract. Strophanthus markedly raises the blood-pressure,
but this action is proportional to and almost entirely due to the
increased force of the heart; not, as in the case of digitalis, to
constriction of the arterioles.
Its action on the heart causes strophanthus to exert a powerful
diuretic action, especially in cases of dropsy of cardiac origin. It
is a less powerful diuretic than digitalis as a rule. The drug has
no action on the nervous system, but in toxic doses it powerfully
affects the voluntary striped muscles. This action may be cor-
related with that exerted upon the cardiac muscle, which is striped,
though not voluntary, and contrasted with its want of action upon
the muscular fibre of the arteries, which is involuntary and non-
striped.
The drug, like onabai'n, has a slight anaesthetic action when
locally applied to the eyeball, and also causes contraction of the
pupil.
Strophanthin is one of the most active and lethal of all known
substances. One-hundredth of a grain will kill a mammal weighing
four pounds, and one-third of a grain will kill a man of average
weight. Serum containing one part of Strophanthin in ten millions
will arrest the frog's heart in systole.
Strophanthus is used therapeutically only as a cardiac stimulant.
When given by the mouth it acts somewhat more rapidly than
digitalis, being more soluble; but it is of course far less speedy in
action than ether, ammonia or such a pseudo-stimulant as ethyl
alcohol. In mitral disease of the heart especially strophanthus
is an invaluable drug. It frequently succeeds when digitalis has
failed ; occasionally it fails where digitalis succeeds. It has the great
advantage over digitalis of being non-cumulative, and can be ad-
ministered continually for many weeks or even months at a time.
It is never to be given in acute Bright's disease, but is frequently
of use in chronic Bright's disease, where digitalis, owing to its
influence on the already over-contracted arterioles, is absolutely
contra-indicated .
STROPHE (Gr. <TTpo4>ri, from arptfaiv, to turn), a term in
versification which properly means a turn, as from one foot to
another, or from one side of a chorus to the other. In its precise
choral significance a strophe was a definite section in the struc-
ture of an ode, when, as in Milton's famous phrase in the preface
to Samson Agonistes, " strophe, antistrophe and epode were a
kind of stanzas framed only for the music." In a more general
sense the strophe is a collection of various prosodical periods
combined into a structural unit. In modern poetry the strophe
usually becomes identical with the stanza, and it is the arrange-
ment and the recurrence of the rhymes which give it its character.
But the ancients called a combination of verse-periods a system,
and gave the name strophe to such a system only when it was
repeated once or more in unmodified form. It is said that
Archilochus first created the strophe by binding together
systems of two or three lines. But it was the Greek ode-writers
who introduced the practice of strophe-writing on a large scale,
and the art was attributed to Stesichorus, although it is probable
that earlier poets were acquainted with it. The arrangement
of an ode in a splendid and consistent artifice of strophe, anti-
strophe and epode was carried to its height by Pindar (see ODE).
With the development of Greek prosody, various peculiar
strophe-forms came into general acceptance, and were made
celebrated by the frequency with which leading poets employed
them. Among these were the Sapphic, the Elegiac, the Alcaic
and the Asclepiadean strophe, all of them prominent in Greek
and Latin verse. The briefest and the most ancient strophe
is the dactylic distich, which consists of two verses of the same
class of rhythm, the second producing a melodic counterpart to
the first. The forms in modern English verse which reproduce
most exactly the impression aimed at by the ancient ode-
strophe are the elaborate rhymed stanzas of such poems as the
" Nightingale " of Keats or the " Scholar-Gypsy " of Matthew
Arnold (see VERSE).
STROSSMAYER, JOSEPH GEORGE [Join- JURAJ STROS-
MAJER] (1815-1905), Croatian bishop and politician, was born at
Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia on the 4th of February 1815. Stross-
mayer was of German descent and his parents had emigrated
from Linz in Austria. He was educated at the Roman Catholic
seminary of Djakovo, in his native country, and at Budapest,
where he studied theology. In 1838 he took holy orders,
and during the next ten years became lecturer on theology at
Djakovo, chaplain to the Austrian emperor, and director of
the Augustinian body at Rome. In 1849 he was consecrated
bishop of Djakovo, with the official title " Bishop of Bosnia,
Slavonia and Sirmium." He fostered the growth of Slavonic
nationalism in Croatia-Slavonia, in Dalmatia, and among the
Slovenes of south Austria, aiding the Ban JellaCic in his campaigns
against Hungary (1848-49), and subsequently becoming a recog-
nized leader of the opposition to Hungarian predominance
(see CROATIA-SLAVONIA). Besides being foremost among the
founders of the South Slavonic Academy in 1867, and of Agram
University in 1874, he helped to reorganize the whole educa-
tional system of Dalmatia and Croatia-Slavonia. He built a
palace and cathedral at Djakovo, founded a seminary for the
Bosnian Croats, presented the South Slavonic Academy with a
gallery of valuable pictures, and published collections of national
songs and tales. He also aided Augustin Theiner, then librarian
at the Vatican, to compile his Vetera monumenta Slavorum
meridionalium historiam illustrantia (Rome, 1863). As a
theologian, Strossmayer became prominent by his energetic
opposition to the dogma of infallibility at the Vatican council
of 1870, and by his denunciation of the Jesuits, while they in
return charged him with allowing Roman Catholics to adopt
the orthodox Greek confession. For years he refused to accept
the doctrine of infallibility, but ultimately he yielded. Despite
this attitude, he enjoyed the confidence of Pope Leo XIII.
He headed the Slavonic deputations which visited Rome in
1881 and 1888, and won for them the retention of a Slavonic
liturgy by the Roman Catholics of Illyria. Strossmayer
withdrew from political life in 1888, in consequence of a rebuke
administered to him by the emperor for his public expiession
of sympathy with Russia and his consistent hostility to
Hungary. He died in his ninety-first year, on the loth of
April 1905. He was a count of the Holy Roman Empire, a
bishop of the pontifical throne, and a member of the theological
faculties of Budapest and Vienna. By Leo XIII. he was
decorated with the archiepiscopal pallium.
STROUD, a market town in the Stroud parliamentary division
of Gloucestershire, England, 102^ m. W. by N. of London. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 9153. It is served by the Great Western
railway and a branch of the west-and-north line of the Midland.
It lies on the steep flank of a narrow and picturesque valley
and traversed by the Thames and Severn and the Stroudwater
canals, which unite at Wallbridge close by. The church of St
Lawrence is modern excepting the tower and spire. The
Elizabethan town-hall and the school of science and art, com-
memorating Queen Victoria, are noteworthy. Stroud is the
principal seat of the west of England cloth manufacture, the
industry extending to Stonehouse and other places in the vicinity.
Stroud has also silk-mills, dyeworks, breweries, foundries, and
a manufacture of umbrellas and walking-sticks.
There is no evidence of the existence of Stroud before the
Conquest, and in 1087 it was still part of the manor of Bisley,
from which it was separated in the reign of Edward II. It
became a centre of the cloth trade in the Tudor period, and
in 1607 Henry, Lord Danvers, lord of the manor, obtained a
charter from James I., authorizing a weekly market. During the
1 8th century the commercial importance of the town increased,
though, owing to its distance from any of the great high-
roads and to the localization of the clothing trade in scattered
factories near water power, it was never a great centre of popula-
tion. By the Reform Act of 1832 Stroud became a borough
and returned two members to parliament until 1885, when it
was merged in the Stroud division of Gloucestershire. The
manufacture of very fine broadcloth and of scarlet-dyed cloth
STROZZI STRUENSEE
has been carried on in the Stroud valley for centuries, the town
being a distributing centre only, until the adoption of steam power
and the erection of cloth factories in the town about 1830 led
to considerable growth. Pin-making was introduced in 1835,
carpet- weaving and iron-founding before 1850. Markets on
Friday and Saturday are held under the grants of 1607 and
1832.
See Victoria County History: Gloucestershire; P. H. Fisher, Notes
and Recollections of Stroud (1871); T. D. Fosbrooke, Gloucestershire
Records (1807).
STROZZI, the name of an ancient and noble Florentine
family, which was already famous in the i4th century. Palla
Strozzi (1372-1462) played an important part in the public
life of Florence, and founded the first public library in Florence
in the monastery of Santa Trinita. Filippo Strozzi il Vecchio
(1426-1491), son of Matteoand of Alessandra Macinghi, a famous
literary woman, began to build the beautiful Strozzi palace in
Florence. More celebrated was another Filippo Strozzi (1488-
1538), who, although married to a Medici, opposed the hegemony
of that house and was one of the leaders of the rising of 1527.
On the final overthrow of the republic in 1530 Alessandro de'
Medici attempted to win over Filippo Strozzi, but Strozzi had
no faith in the tyrant and retired to Venice. After the murder
of Alessandro he undertook the leadership of a band of republican
exiles with the object of re-entering the city (1537); but having
been defeated and captured and put to the torture, he committed
suicide. His son Leone (1515-1554) was a distinguished admiral
in the service of France and fought against the Medici; he died
of a wound received while attacking Sarlino. Another Filippo
(1541-1582) served in the French army, and was captured and
killed by the Spaniards. Senator Carlo Strozzi (1587-1671)
formed an important library and collected a valuable miscellany
known as the Carte Strozziane, of which the most important
part is now in the state archives of Florence; he was the author
of a Storie.Ua della citta di Firenze dal 1279 al 1292 (unpublished)
and a Storia della casa Barberini (Rome, 1640). The Strozzi
acquired by marriage the titles of princes of Forano, dukes of
Bagnolo, &c. The Strozzi palace, which belonged to the family
until 1907, was bequeathed by will to the Italian nation.
See A. Bardi, Filippo Strozzi (Florence, 1894); B. Niccolini,
Filippo Strozzi (Florence) ; C. Guasti, Le Carte Strozziane (Florence,
1884-1891).
STRUENSEE, JOHAN FREDERICK (1731-1772), Danish
political philosopher, was born at Halle in 1731. His father,
subsequently superintendent-general of Schleswig-Holstein,
was a rigid pietist; but young Struensee, who settled down in
the 'sixties as a doctor at Altona, where his superior intelligence
and elegant manners soon made him fashionable, revolted
against the narrowness of his father's creed, became a fanatical
propagandist of the atheism associated with the Encydopadic,
and scandalized his contemporaries by his frank licentiousness.
But he was a clever doctor, and, having somewhat restored the
king's health, and gained his affection, was retained as court
physician, accompanied Christian VII. on a foreign tour and
returned with him to Copenhagen. It had always been Struen-
see's ambition to play a great part in the world and realize his
dream of reform. He had gathered from various Danish
friends, most of them involuntary exiles of doubtful character,
that the crazy, old-fashioned Dano-Norwegian state, misruled
by an idiot, was the fittest subject in the world for the experi-
ments of a man of superior ingenuity like himself; and he pro-
ceeded to worm his way to power with considerable astuteness.
First he reconciled the kmg and queen, for he calculated,
shrewdly enough, that if the king was to be his tool he must
needs make the queen his friend. At first Carolina Matilda
disliked Struensee, but the unfortunate girl (she was scarce
eighteen) could not fail to be deeply impressed by the highly
gifted young doctor, who speedily and completely won her
heart. By January 1770 he was notoriously her lover; a suc-
cessful vaccination of the baby crown prince in May still further
increased his influence; and when, in the course of the year,
the king sank into a condition of mental torpor, Struensee's
authority became paramount. Previously to this, the capable
minister of foreign affairs, J. H. E. Bernstorff (q.v.), was got
rid of by a royal letter of the I3th of September 1770, and
Struensee's disreputable friend, the exiled Count Rantzau-
Ascheburg, was recalled to court; and with him came another
Altona acquaintance of Struensee's, Enevold Brandt, who had
also been living abroad under a cloud.
For a time Struensee kept himself discreetly in the back-
ground, though from henceforth he was the wirepuller of the
whole political machine. But he soon grew impatient of his
puppets. In December the council of state was abolished;
and Struensee appointed himself mattre de requites. It was
now his official duty to present to the king all the reports from
the various departments of state; and, Christian VII. being
scarcely responsible for his actions, Struensee dictated whatever
answers he pleased. His next proceeding was to dismiss all
the heads of departments, and to abolish the Norwegian stad-
holderships. Henceforth the cabinet, with himself as its motive
power, was to be the one supreme authority in the state. Un-
fortunately, he had made up his mind to regenerate the benighted
Danish and Norwegian nations on purely abstract principles,
without the slightest regard for native customs and predilec-
tions, which in his eyes were prejudices. He was hampered,
moreover, by not knowing a word of Danish. Many of his
reforms, such, for instance, as the establishment of foundling
hospitals, the abolition of capital punishment for theft and
of the employment of torture in judicial process, the doing
away with such demoralizing abuses as perquisites, and of
" lackeyism," or the appointment of great men's domestics to
lucrative public posts, were distinctly beneficial if not original.
Unfortunately reform was not as much a principle as a
mania with Struensee. The mere fact that a venerable
institution still existed was a sufficient reason, in his eyes,
for doing away with it. Changes which a prudent minister
might have effected in a generation he rushed through in
less than a fortnight. Between the zgth of March 1771 and
the 1 6th of January 1772 the ten months during which he
held absolute sway he issued no fewer than 1069 cabinet
orders, or more than three a day In order to be sure of obedi-
ence he dismissed wholesale without pension or compensation
the staffs of all the public departments, substituting for old
and experienced officials nominees of his own, in many cases
untried men who knew little or nothing of the country they
were supposed to govern.
The dictator's manners were even worse than his morals.
He habitually adopted a tone of insulting superiority, all the
more irritating as coming from an ill-informed foreigner; and
sometimes he seemed deliberately to go out of his way to shock
the most sacred feelings of the respectable people. Nor was this
all. His system of retrenchment, on which he particularly
prided himself, was in the last degree immoral and hypocritical,
for while reducing the number of the public officials, or clipping
down their salaries to starvation points, he squandered thousands
upon balls, masquerades, and other amusements of the court,
and induced the imbecile king to present him and his friend
Brandt with 60,000 rix-dollars apiece.
Still, in spite of all his blunders and brutalities, it is clear
that, for a short time at least, middle-class opinion was, on the
whole, favourable to him; and, had he been wise, he might
perhaps have been able to defy any hostile combination. But
such was his contempt for the Danish people that he cared not
a jot whether they approved or disapproved of his reforms.
What incensed the people most against him was the way in
which he put the king completely on one side; and this feeling
was all the stronger as, outside a very narrow court circle,
nobody seems to have believed that Christian VII. was really
mad, but only that his will had been weakened by habitual
ill usage; and this opinion was confirmed by the publication
of the cabinet order of the i4th of July 1771, appointing
Struensee " gehejme kabinetsminister," with authority to
issue cabinet orders which were to have the force of royal
ordinances, even if unprovided with the royal sign-manual.
1044
STRUTT STRUVE
Nor were Struensee's relations with the queen less offensive
to a nation which had a traditional veneration for the royal
house of Oldenburg, while Caroline Matilda's shameless conduct
in public brought the Crown into contempt. The society which
daily gathered round the king and queen excited the derision
of the foreign ambassadors. The unhappy king was little
more than the butt of his environment, and once, when he
threatened his keeper, Brandt, with a flogging for some impertin-
ence, Brandt, encouraged by Struensee and the queen, actually
locked him in his room and beat him with his fists till he begged
for mercy. Things were at their worst during the winter of
1771. Struensee, who had, in the meantime, created himself a
count, now gave full rein to his licentiousness and brutality.
If, as we are assured, he publicly snubbed the queen, we may
readily imagine how he treated common folk. Before long
the people had an opportunity of expressing their disgust
openly. In the summer of 1771 Caroline Matilda was delivered
of a daughter, who was christened Louisa Augusta; and a
proclamation commanded that af " Te Deum " in honour of
the event should be sung in all the churches; but so universal
was the belief that the child was Struensee's that, at the end of
the ordinary services, the congregation rose and departed
en masse.
The general ill will against Struensee, which had been smoul-
dering all through the autumn of 1771, found expression at last
in a secret conspiracy against him, headed by Rantzau-Ascheburg
and others, in the name of the queen-dowager Juliana Maria.
Early in the morning of the i7th of January 1772 Struensee,
Brandt and the queen were arrested in their respective bed-
rooms, and " the liberation of the king," who was driven round
Copenhagen by his deliverers in a gold carriage, was received
with universal rejoicing. The chief charge against Struensee
was that he had usurped the royal authority in contravention
of the Kongelov. He defended himself with considerable
ability and, at first, confident that the prosecution would not
dare to lay hands on the queen, he denied that their liaison
had ever been criminal. But, on hearing that she was also a
prisoner of state, his courage evaporated, and he was base
enough to betray her, though she did all in her power to shield
him. On the 25th of April Struensee and Brandt were con-
demned first to lose their right hands and then to be beheaded;
their bodies were afterwards to be drawn and quartered. Sen-
tence of death was the least that Struensee had to expect. He had
undoubtedly been guilty of lese-majeste and gross usurpation
of the royal authority, both capital offences according to pars.
7 and 26 of the Kongelov. The sentences were carried out on
the 28th of April, Brandt suffering first.
See Elie Salomon Francois Reverdil, Struensee el la cour de Copen-
hague 1760-1772 (Paris, 1858); Karl Wittich, Slruensee (Leipzig,
1879); Peter Edward Holm, Danmark-Norges Historic, vol. iv.
(Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Gustave Bascle De Lagrfeze, La Reine
Caroline- Mathilde et le Comte Struensee (Paris, 1887); Robert Nisbet
Bain, Scandinavia, cap. xv. (Cambridge, 1905); William Henry
Wilkins, A Queen of Tears (London, 1904) ; Georg Friedrich von
Jenssen-Tusch, Die Verschworung gegen die Konigin Karoline
Mathilde und die Grafen Struensee und Brandt, nach Usher unge-
druckten Originaiakten (Leipzig, 1864). (R. N. B.)
STRUTT, JEDEDIAH (1726-1797), British inventor and
manufacturer, was born at South Normanton, Derbyshire,
where his father occupied a farm, on the 28th of July 1726.
He was educated at a good country school, with a view to
becoming a farmer, but, showing great aptitude for mechanical
arts, he was in 1740 articled for seven years to a wheelwright at
Findern, near Derby. Here he lodged with a hosier, Woollatt,
whose daughter he married in 1755. In the meantime he had
inherited, from his uncle, the stock on a farm at Blackwell,
near south Normanton, now, and probably then, the property of
the duke of Devonshire. While in occupation of this farm his
brother-in-law, William Woollatt, brought to his notice the
efforts that had been unsuccessfully made to produce ribbed
as well as plain goods on the stocking frame, and here he invented
Strutt's Derby ribbing machine. Patents were taken out by
Strutt and Woollatt in 1758 and 1759. Strutt went to live at
Derby, and with his brother-in-law started a factory, " Derby
Patent Ribs" at once becoming popular. In 1762 Strutt and
Woollatt joined Samuel Need, a hosier of Nottingham, and
carried on there and at Derby a very successful business. In
1768 they were approached by Richard Arkwright (q.v.), who had
been recommended by Messrs Wright, bankers of Nottingham,
to consult Need as to the possibilities of his cotton-spinning
frame. Strutt at once realized its value, and was able to solve
one or two minor difficulties which had interrupted the smooth
working of the new mechanism. The firm of Arkwright,
Strutt & Need started their first cotton mill at Nottingham,
with horse power. Later works were erected at Cromford and,
about 1780, after Strutt dissolved partnership with Arkwright,
he built himself the mills at Belper and Milford, the greater part
of which are still used. The partnership with Need had termin-
ated in 1773 with the expiration of the patents. Shortly before
this Strutt had made the discovery, which revolutionized the
manufacture of calico, that cotton could be used throughout
in its making. To house the machinery for this new invention
the first fire-proof mill in England was built at Derby. In
order to be near his work Strutt built, from his own designs,
Milford House, near Belper, where he lived until 1795, when
ill health compelled him to return to Derby. Here he died in
1797. He left three sons and two daughters.
His eldest son, William Strutt (1756-1830), was also of great
mechanical ability. It was he who designed the calico .factory
above mentioned; he applied himself to the house-heating
problem and, finally, invented the Belper stove. He also
devised a self-acting spinning mule, which had however no great
success. He was a fellow of the Royal Society. His son,
Edward Strutt (1801-1880), was for some time M.P. for Derby,
and in 1856 was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron
Belper of Belper.
STRUVE, FRIEDRICH GEORG WILHELM (1793-1864),
German astronomer, the son of Jacob Struve (1755-1841), was
born at Altona on the isth of April 1793. In 1808 he entered
the university of Dorpat ( Yuriev) , where he first studied philology ,
but soon turned his attention to astronomy. From 1813 to
1820 he was extraordinary professor of astronomy and mathe-
matics at the new university and observer at the observatory,
becoming in 1820 ordinary professor and director. He remained
at Dorpat, occupied with researches on double stars and geodesy
till 1839, when he removed to superintend the construction of
the new central observatory at Pulkowa near St Petersburg,
afterwards becoming director. Here he continued his activity
until he was obliged to retire in 1861, owing to failing health.
He died at St Petersburg on the 23rd of November 1864.
Struve's name is best known by his observations of double stars,
which he carried on for many years. These bodies had first been
regularly measured by W. Herschel, who discovered that many of
them formed systems of two stars revolving round their common
centre of gravity. After him J. Herschel (and for some time
Sir James South) had observed them, but theif labours were eclipsed
by Struve. With the 9?-in. refractor at Dorpat he discovered a
great number of double stars, and published in 1827 a list of all
the known objects of this kind (Catalogus novus stellarum dupli-
cium). His micrometric measurements of 2714 double stars were
made from 1824 to 1837, and are contained in his principal work,
Stellarum duplicium et multiplicium mensurae micrometricae
(St Petersburg, 1837 seq.; a convenient summary of the results is
given in vol. i. of the Dunecht Observatory Publications, 1876).
The places of the objects were at the same time determined with
the Dorpat meridian circle (Stellarum fixarum imprimis duplicium
et multiplicium positiones mediae, St Petersburg, 1852 seq.). At
Pulkowa he redetermined the " constant of aberration," but was
chiefly occupied in working out the results of former years' work
and in the completion of the geodetic operations in which he had
been engaged during the greater part of his life. He had com-
menced them with a survey of Livonia (1816^-1819), which was
followed by the measurement of an arc of meridian of more than
3i in the Baltic provinces of Russia (Beschreibung der Breilengrad-
messung in den Ostseeprwinzen Russlands, 2 vols. 410, Dorpat,
1831). This work was afterwards extended by Struve and General
Tenner into a measurement of a meridional arc from the north
coast of Norway to Ismail on the Danube (Arc du meridien de
25 20' entre le Danube et la Mer Glaciale, 2 vols. and I vol. plates,
4to, St Petersburg, 1857-1860). (See GEODESY; EARTH, FIGURE OF.)
STRYCHNINE STRYPE
1045
His son OTTO WILHELM STRUVE (b. 1819), having studied
at the academy at St Petersburg, became assistant at Pulkowa
in 1839, and director in 1862 on his father's resignation. From
1847 to 1862 he was advising astronomer to the headquarters
of the army and navy; chairman of the International Astro-
nomical Congress from 1867-1878; acting president of the
International Metric Commission in 1872; and president of the
International Congress for a Photographic Survey of the Stars
in 1887, in which year he was also made a privy councillor.
His contributions to astronomy cover a wide field: a list of
his publications is given in Poggendorff, Biographisch-
Litterarische, vols. 2/3, 4.
Another son, HEINRICH WILHELM STRUVE (b. 1822), studied
chemistry, and obtained a public appointment as chemical
expert to the administration of the Caucasus.
Two of Otto Wilhelm Struve's sons have also been prominent
in the world of science. KARL HERMANN STRUVE (b. 1854)
studied mathematics at Dorpat, and became in 1883 assistant,
and in 1890, on his father's retirement, astronomer at the
observatory at Pulkowa. In 1895 he became professor at the
Albertus University and director of the observatory at Konigs-
berg; and in 1904 he was called to Berlin as professor and director
of the observatory there. His investigation of the Saturnian
system was crowned by the Royal Astronomical Society of
London in 1903. GUSTAV WILHELM LUDWIG STRUVE (b. 1858)
studied at Dorpat, Bonn and Leipzig, and became observer
at the Dorpat observatory in 1886. This post he retained
until 1894, when he migrated to the university of Cracow as
extraordinary professor, becoming in 1897 ordinary professor
of astronomy and geodesy.
STRYCHNINE, C^H^NzO;., an alkaloid discovered in 1818
by Pelletier and Caventou in St Ignatius's beans (Strychnos
Ignatii) ; it also occurs in other species of Strychnos, e.g. S. Nux
vomica, S. colubrina, S. Tieute, and is generally accompanied by
another alkaloid brucine, CaiHje^O^ftO, which was isolated
by Pelletier and Caventou in 1819. Strychnine crystallizes from
alcohol in colourless prisms, which are practically insoluble in
water, and with difficulty soluble in the common organic
solvents. Its taste is exceptionally bitter. It has an alkaline
reaction, and is a tertiary monacid base. It is optically active,
the natural form being laevorotatory. Brucine closely resembles
strychnine, and is its dimethoxy derivative. The constitutions
are unknown (see J. Schmidt, Die Alkaloidchemie, 1904; 1909).
Medicine. The B.P. dose of strychnine is ^r to ^V 8 r - in
solution or in pill form. A preparation is syrupus ferri phos-
phatis cum quinina et strychnina, containing 3*5- gr. of strychnine
in each fluid drachm. Strychninae hydrochloridum is also
used; it is much more soluble than strychnine. From it is
prepared liquor strychninae hydrochloridi, containing i gr. of
hydrochloride in no minims. The United States pharma-
copoeia also contains strychninae nitras and strychninae sulphas.
Strychnine is incompatible with liquor arsenicalis and potassium
iodide.
Physiological Action. Applied externally strychnine is a powerful
antiseptic, but its poisonous nature prevents it from being used for
this purpose. Brucine is a local anaesthetic. Strychnine enters the
blood as such, being freely absorbed from mucous surfaces or when
given hypodermically. Internally strychnine acts as a bitter,
increasing the secretion of gastric juice and the intestinal peristalsis,
being a direct stimulant to the muscular coat; in this manner it
has a purgative action. The specific effects of the drug, however,
are upon the central nervous system. It excites the motor areas
of the spinal cord and increases their reflex irritability. Small
doses increase the sensibility of touch, sight and hearing; large doses
cause twitching of the muscles and difficulty in swallowing; while
in overdose violent convulsions are produced. The cerebral con-
volutions remain unaffected, but the important centres of the
medulla oblongata are stimulated. Not only is the respiratory
centre stimulated but the cardiac centre is acted upon both directly
by the drug and indirectly for a time by the enormous rise in blood
pressure due to the contraction of the arterioles all over the body.
Ordinary doses have no effect upon the temperature but in over-
dose the temperature rises during a convulsion. Strychnine is
eliminated by the kidneys as strychnine and strychnic acid. It
, is excreted very slowly and therefore accumulates in the system.
Therapeutics. Strychnine is chiefly used as a stimulant. It is
indicated in paralyses (chiefly functional), and is most valuable in
the treatment of post-diphtheritic paralysis. In progressive lead
palsy, beri-beri, and the paralysis following acute alcoholism, fairly
large doses are useful. In pneumonia and other acute disease,
where the patient is liable to sudden collapse, a hypodermic in-
jection of strychnine will often save the patient's life. In collapse
following severe haemorrhage and in sudden and accidental arrest
of the heart or respiration during chloroform narcosis an intra-
muscular injection of j* s gr. of the hydrochloride may stimulate
the cardiac action. In acute opium poisoning strychnine is very
valuable. It is a physiological antagonist of chloral hydrate,
morphine and physostigmine, and may be given in poisoning by
these drugs. In dyspnoea due to emphysema, phthisis and asthma,
strychnine is of service, given internally in doses of I to 3 minims
of the liquor. The syrup of iron, quinine and strychnine is used as
a tonic.
Toxicology. The symptoms of strychnine poisoning usually
appear within twenty minutes of the ingestion of a poisonous dose,
starting with an uneasy sensation, stiffness at the back of the neck,
twitching of the muscles and a feeling of impending suffocation.
The patient is then seized with violent convulsions of a tetanic char-
acter; the arms are stretched out, respiration impeded, the muscles
are rigid, the body is thrown into opisthotonos, i.e. it rests bow-
form on the head and the heels (occasionally the body is flexed
forward [cmprosthotonos], the eyes remain wide open and fixed,
and the mouth is drawn aside (risus sardonicus). After a minute
the muscles relax, and the patient sinks back exhausted, conscious-
ness being preserved throughout. Any noise, a draught of air or
a touch may cause a convulsion. If the case is about to terminate
fatally the spasms rapidly succeed each other and death usually
occurs within two hours, either from asphyxia produced by spasm
of the respiratory muscles or more rarely from exhaustion. After
death the position of the body may or may not be flexed ; usually
rigor mortis develops rapidly. In cases which recover the con-
vulsions diminish in severity , leaving the patient exhausted. Com-
plications are infrequent. The average fatal dose for an adult
is 1 3 grs., but death has resulted in twenty minutes from j grain.
On the other hand, recovery has taken place after 5 and 10 and even
20 grains have been swallowed, but in the latter case an emetic was
at once administered. Idiosyncrasy plays a considerable part in
determining the effects, some people being particularly susceptible;
death has occurred in five minutes from the appearance of the first
symptoms, but when a narcotic has been administered at the same
time as the poison the development is proportionately slow. Tetanus
resembles strychnine poisoning, but the development of the symp-
toms in tetanus is usually much slower, death rarely occurring
within 24 hours. In strychnine poisoning trismus or lockjaw is
generally secondary to spasm of the other muscles, while in tetanus
it is usually the first symptom, no relaxation taking place between
the spasms.
The treatment of strychnine poisoning is to immediately evacuate
the stomach with a stomach-pump or emetic, chloroform being
administered to allay the spasms. If the patient can swallow,
draughts of water containing tannic acid may be given. Nitrite of
amyl inhalations are useful in the early stages when the respiratory
muscles are freely movable. Chloral and potassium bromide
may be given as physiological antidotes. If death from asphyxia
appears imminent artificial respiration may be resorted to.
STRYETENSK, or SRYETENSK, a Cossack village of Asiatic
Russia, in the province of Transbaikalia, 231 m. by rail E.
of Chita, and a terminus of the Trans-Siberian railway. It
is situated on both banks of the river Shilka, and its population
of 8500 rises to over 10,000 during the season of navigation.
Stryetensk has steam flour-mills and soap works.
STRYPE, JOHN (1643-1737), English historian and biographer,
was born in Houndsditch, London, on the ist of November
1643. He was the son of John Strype, or van Stryp, a member
of a Brabant family who, to escape religious persecution, settled
in London, in a place afterwards known as Strype's Yard in
Petticoat Lane, as a merchant and silk throwster. The younger
John was educated at St Paul's School, and on the 5th of July
1662 entered Jesus College, Cambridge; thence he proceeded
to Catherine Hall, where he graduated B. A. in 1665 and M.A. in
1669. On the i4th of July of the latter year he became perpetual
curate of Theydon Bois, Essex, and a few months afterwards
curate and lecturer of Leyton in the same county. He was never
instituted or inducted to the living of Leyton, but in 1674 he
was licensed by the bishop of London to preach and expound
the word of God, and to perform the full office of priest and
curate while it was vacant, and until his death he received the
profits of it. In 1711 he obtained from Archbishop Tenison
the sinecure of West Tarring, Sussex, and he discharged the
duties of lecturer at Hackney from 1689 till 1724. At the latter
1046
STUART, A. STUART, G.
place he spent his last years with a married granddaughter,
the wife of a surgeon, Thomas Harris, dying there on the nth
of December 1737, at the age of ninety-four. He was buried
in the church at Leyton.
Through his friendship with Sir William Hicks Strype obtained
access to the papers of Sir Michael Hicks, secretary to Lord Burghley,
from which he made extensive transcripts ; he also carried on an ex-
tensive correspondence with Archbishop Wake and Bishops Burnet,
Atterbury and Nicholson. The materials thus obtained formed the
basis of his historical and biographical works, which relate chiefly
to the period of the Reformation. The greater portions of his
original materials have been preserved, and are included in the
Lansdowne manuscripts in the British Museum. His works can
scarcely be entitled original compositions, his labour having consisted
chiefly in the arrangement of his materials, but on this very account
they are of considerable value as convenient books of reference,
easier of access and almost as trustworthy as the original documents.
The most important of Strype's works are the Memorials of Thomas
Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1694 (ed. for the Eccl. Hist.
Soc., in 3 vols., Oxford, 1848-1854; and in 2 vols. with notes by
P. E. Barnes, London, 1853); Life of the learned Sir Thomas Smith
(1698) ; Life and Acts of John Aylmer, Lord Bishop of London (i 701 ) ;
Life of the learned Sir John Cheke, with his Treatise on Superstition
(1705); Annals of the Reformation in England (4 vols.; vol. i. 1709
[reprinted 1725], vol. ii. 1725, vol. iii. 1728, vol. iv. 1731; 2nd ed.,
1735. 4 vols. ; 3rded., 1736-1738, 4 vols.) ; Life and Acts of Edmund
Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury (1710), of Matthew Parker,
Archbishop of Canterbury (1711), and of John Whitgifl, Archbishop
of Canterbury (1718) ; A n Accurate Edition of Stow' s Survey of London
(1720), a valuable edition of Stow, although its interference with
the original text is a method of editing which can scarcely be
reckoned fair to the original author; and Ecclesiastical Memorials
(3 vols., 1721; 3 vols., 1733). His Historical and Biographical
Works were reprinted in 19 vols. at the Clarendon Press, Oxford,
between 1812 (Cranmer) and 1824 (Annals). A general index
by R. F. Laurence in 2 vol&. was added in 1828. Strype also
published, besides a number of single sermons, an edition of John
Lightfopt's Works (1684); and in 1700 Some genuine Remains of
John Lightfoot . . . with a large preface concerning the author.
STUART, ARABELLA (1575-1615), daughter of Charles
Stuart, earl of Lennox, younger brother of Lord Darnley
and of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Cavendish and
" Bess of Hardwick," is interesting historically as having been
(by strict pedigree) next in succession to James VI. of Scotland
to the thrones of England and Scotland, after Queen Elizabeth.
Her father's mother was Margaret Douglas, the daughter of
Henry VII. 's daughter, Queen Margaret of Scotland, and the
earl of Angus. She was born in 1575 and early became the
centre of the intrigues of those who in Elizabeth's reign refused
to accept James as her successor. Various suitors for her hand
were proposed, including Henry IV. of France, the earl of North-
umberland, and Esme Stuart, duke of Lennox. In 1590 a plot
was formed by the moderate section of the Roman Catholics
of marrying her to Ranuccio, eldest son of the duke of Parma,
who was descended from John of Gaunt, and of raising her
with Spanish support to the throne. She was in consequence
regarded with suspicion and disfavour by Elizabeth and closely
watched and guarded at Hardwick by the dowager countess of
Shrewsbury. In 1602 the queen's suspicions were increased
by the discovery of a plot to marry Arabella to Edward, eldest
son of Lord Beauchamp, who as grandson of Edward Seymour,
earl of Hertford, and of Lady Catherine Grey (younger sister
of Lady Jane Grey), was heir to the throne after Elizabeth
according to the will of Henry VIII. According to other
accounts the intended husband was Thomas Seymour, a younger
son of the earl of Hertford. Arabella entered with ardour into
the project, and planned an escape from Hardwick with the aid
of her chaplain Starkey, who after its failure committed suicide.
In December she wrote secretly to Lord Hertford proposing
her marriage with his grandson, but the latter immediately
informed the council. In February 1603 another attempt
at escape failed, and she was then transferred to the care of
the earl of Kent at Wrest House. The anxiety and anger
aroused by her conduct was reputed to be the cause of Elizabeth's
death the same year. When James I. had gained secure
possession of the throne, Arabella was received at court and
treated with favour, and she showed her fidelity to James by
revealing a communication made to her by the conspirators
in the Main and Bye Plots, in which her name had been used
without her sanction. Every effort, however, was made to
prevent her marriage. She is described at this time by Scaramelli,
Venetian secretary in London, as " of great beauty and remark-
able qualities, being gifted with many accomplishments, among
them being the knowledge of Latin, French, Spanish, Italian,
besides her native English"; as having "very exalted ideas,
having been brought up in firm belief that she would succeed
to the crown," as limited in means, of the Puritan persuasion,
and very proud, insisting on a precedence over the princesses,
though ordered back by the master of the ceremonies and
in consequence being expelled from the court. A little later
she is called " a regular termagant " and in 1607 " not very
beautiful." 1 In December 1609 she planned an escape with
Sir George Douglas to Scotland, apparently with a view of
arranging a marriage with Stephen Bogdan, pretender to
Moldavia, and on the scheme being discovered she was arrested.
She was, however, restored to favour, granted a pension of
1600 a year by James, and given 10,000 crowns to pay her
debts. But on the 2nd of February 1610 she became engaged
to William Seymour, younger brother of Edward, and grandson
of Lord Hertford, a suitor especially forbidden by James. A
promise was exacted from them by the privy council that they
would not marry without the king's consent, but nevertheless
they were secretly married on the 22nd of June at Greenwich.
Immediately it was known the culprits were imprisoned,
Arabella at Lambeth and her husband in the Tower. In 1611
she was placed in charge of the bishop of Durham. Her applica-
tion for a writ of habeas corpus was refused, and on the i6th
of March she left London, progressing however, on account of
illness and prostration, only as far as Barnet. She escaped on
the 3rd of June 1611 disguised in man's clothing, and succeeded
in getting on board a ship bound for Calais. Meanwhile her
husband had also effected his escape and was sailing towards
the French coast. Their two ships were drawing together
when " a great wind arose and prevented them from seeing
each other ever more." 2 Soon afterwards the unfortunate
Arabella was captured and brought back to the Tower, where
she spent the rest of her unhappy career. James was deaf to
all intercession in her favour, and is reported to have answered
the queen when pleading for her that " she had eaten of the
forbidden fruit." In November 1613 a new plot for her escape
failed. Abandoning at last all hope she sank into melancholy,
ill health, and, according to some accounts, insanity, and
died a victim to state policy on or about the 25th of September
1615. She was buried in the tomb of Mary Queen of Scots in
Henry VII. 's chapel in Westminster Abbey. There appears to
be no support for the statement that a child was born to her.
Her husband, after awaiting her in vain at Ostend, went on
to Paris. He returned to England in 1616 after his wife's
death and was restored to favour. He married in 1618 Frances,
daughter of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, became earl of
Hertford by the death of his grandfather in 1621, and marquess
in 1640. He took an active part in the civil war in Charles I.'s
reign, was governor of the prince of Wales, and at the Restoration
the dukedom of Somerset was revived in his favour. He died
in 1660, and, on the failure of his male descendants in the person
of his son John, 4th duke, the dukedom of Somserset passed to
the descendants of his brother, Francis, Baron Seymour of
Trowbridge, and, on the extinction of the latter's male line to
the elder branch of the Seymour family, descended from Sir
Edward Seymour of Berry Pomeroy, Devon.
See also The Life and Letters of Arabella Stuart, by E. T. Bradley
(1889), which supersedes the Life by E. Cooper (1866).
STUART, GILBERT (1755-1828), American artist, was born
at North Kingstown, Rhode Island, on the 3rd of December
1755. He studied at Newport, Rhode Island, with Cosmo
Alexander, and went with him to Scotland, but returned to
America after Alexander's death and obtained many portrait
1 Cat. of State Papers, Venetian, ix. 541, x. 42, 514.
2 Lotti, Venetian secretary, writing on the 23rd of June, -
Athenaeum, vol. 97, ii. 353.
STUART, J. E. B. STUART, SIR J.
1047
commissions. In 1775 he went to England, and became a
pupil of Benjamin West in 1778. His work, however, shows
none of the influence of West, and after four years Stuart set
up a studio for himself in London, meeting with much success.
Living beyond his means, he got into financial difficulties, and in
1788 escaped to Dublin. In London he had painted George III.
and the future George IV., and in Paris had painted Louis XVI.,
and his success was no less great in Ireland. After five
years he left Ireland for his native land in order to paint General
Washington, who was said to be the only person in whose
presence Stuart found himself embarrassed, and his first por-
trait Stuart felt was a failure; but Washington sat to him again,
the result being the " Athenaeum " head on an unfinished canvas,
showing the left side of the face. This remains the accepted
likeness of Washington, of whom he also painted a full-length
for Lord Lansdowne ; of each of these portraits he executed many
replicas. Among his portraits are those of Presidents Washington,
John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe
and John Quincy Adams, and John Jay, Governor Winthrop,
Generals Gates and Knox, Bishop White, Chief Justice Shippen,
John Singleton Copley, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West,
Lords Clinton, Lyndhurst, and Inchiquin, Sir Edward Thornton,
Mme Patterson-Bonaparte and Horace Binney. Stuart's
original colouring and technique, and his insight into character,
make him not only one of the few great American artists, but
one of the greatest portrait painters of his time. He settled at
Boston in 1805, and died there on the 27th of July 1828.
See George C. Mason, Life and Works of Gilbert Stuart (New York,
1879).
STUART, JAMES EWELL BROWN (1833-1864), American
soldier, was born in Virginia on the 6th of February 1833 and
entered West Point military academy in 1850. Commissioned
in 1854 second lieutenant of cavalry, he saw considerable service
in Indian warfare, and took part also in the repression of civil
disorder in Kansas. In 1855 he had married a daughter of
Colonel Philip St George Cooke, who was regarded as the most
capable cavalry officer in the United States service, and gave
his son-in-law the benefit of his experience and judgment. In
1859 Stuart, while staying in Washington on official business,
was sent to assist Colonel R. E. Lee in the suppression of the
John Brown raid on Harper's Ferry. Two years later the
Civil War presaged by the Kansas troubles and John Brown's
expedition broke out, and when Virginia seceded Stuart resigned
his commission in the United States army to share in the defence
of his state. He had resigned as a lieutenant a notification
of his promotion to captain had actually crossed his letter of
resignation in the post but trained officers, especially of cavalry,
were so scarce that he was at once made a colonel. With very
little delay, and with the scantiest of formal training, his
regiment was mustered into the Confederate army, and assigned
to Joseph Johnston's force in the Shenandoah Valley. His men
were mounted on their own horses, knew the country thoroughly,
and in his capable hands soon made themselves proficient in
outpost duty. In the opening campaign Stuart's command
acted as a screen to cover Johnston's movement on Manassas,
and at the first battle of Bull Run which followed, Stuart dis-
tinguished himself by his personal bravery. During the autumn
and winter of 1861 he continued his outpost service and was
somewhat severely handled by General Ord's force at the action
of Dranesville. He was now promoted brigadier-general and
placed in command of the cavalry brigade of the army of
Northern Virginia. Just before the Seven Days' Battle (q.ii.)
he was sent out by Lee to locate the right flank of McClellan's
army, and not only successfully achieved his mission, but rode
right round McClellan's rear to deliver his report to Lee at
Richmond. After the battle of Gaines's Mill on the 27th of June
Stuart's cavalry raided McClellan's abandoned line of communi-
cation with White House, and his dismounted riflemen, aided
by a light howitzer, successfully engaged a Federal gunboat
on the Pamunkey. But such romantic and far-ranging raids on
this occasion, as on several others, contributed little or nothing
to the success of the army as a whole. In the next campaign,
it is true, he had the good fortune, in his raid against General
Pope's communications, not only to burn a great quantity of
stores, but also, what was far more important, to bring off
the headquarters' staff document of the enemy, from which
Lee was able to discover the strength and positions of his oppo-
nents in detail. Stuart, now a major-general and commander
of the cavalry corps, was present at the second battle of Bull
Run, and during the Maryland campaign he brilliantly defended
one of the passes of South Mountain (Crampton's Gap), thus
enabling Lee to concentrate his disseminated army in time to
meet McClellan's attack. After this battle the indefatigable
troopers embarked upon a fresh raid, which, though without any
definite object, had its value as an assertion of unbroken courage
after the quasi-defeat of Antietam, and in addition wore out
the Federal cavalry in vain efforts to pursue them. On this
occasion the swift Virginians covered 80 miles in 27 hours and
escaped with the loss of but three men. At Fredericksburg
Stuart's cavalry were as usual in the flank of the army, and his
horse artillery under Major Pelham rendered valuable service
in checking Franklin's attack on " Stonewall " Jackson's corps by
diverting a whole infantry division that formed part of Franklin's
command. At Chancellorsville Stuart was specially appointed
by Lee to take over command of the II. army corps after
Jackson had been wounded, and though unused to commanding
so large a force of all arms he acquitted himself so well in the
second day's fighting that many considered that a grave injustice
was done to him by the promotion of Major-General Ewell,
Jackson's principal lieutenant, to fill the position left vacant
by Jackson's death. The next campaign, Gettysburg, was
preluded by the cavalry battle of Brandy Station, in which for
the first time the Federal cavalry showed themselves worthy
opponents for Stuart and his men. The march to the Potomac
was screened by the cavalry corps, which held the various ap-
proaches on the right flank of the army, but at the crisis of the
campaign Stuart was absent on a raid, and although he attempted
to rejoin Lee during the battle, he was met and checked some
miles from the field by General Gregg, so that the skill and
courage which might have turned the scale in favour of Lee on
the first and second days of the great battle were employed only
in covering his retreat. The cavalry took part in the war
of manoeuvre between Meade and Lee in the autumn of
1863, and then went into winter quarters. Very shortly after
the opening of the campaign of 1864 Stuart's corps was drawn
away from Lee's army by the Union cavalry under Sheridan,
and part of it, with which was Stuart himself, was defeated at
Yellow Tavern on the loth of May. Stuart himself was killed.
Stuart possessed the ardent and resolute character of the true
cavalry leader, and although he was fortunate enough to com-
mand brigades and regiments exclusively composed of men who
were both born horsemen and natives of Virginia, and to be
opposed, for the first two years, by docile but unenterprising
squadrons which were recruited in a more ordinary way, yet it
was undeniable that he possessed the gift, indeed the genius,
of a great leader. That his energy was sometimes squandered
on useless raids was but natural, considering the character of
his forces, but in regard to his performances in the more exhaust-
ing and far more vital service of security and reconnaissance,
General Johnston could ask " How can I sleep unless he is on the
outpost? " and General Lee could say " He never brought me a
false report." Stuart preserved under all circumstances the
gaiety of a cavalry subaltern and the personal character of an
earnest Christian, and the army regarded his loss as almost as
heavy a blow to the Confederate cause as that of Jackson.
See Life by H. B. McClellan (1885).
STUART, SIR JOHN, COUNT OF MAIDA (1750-1815), British
lieutenant-general, was born in Georgia. His father, Colonel
John Stuart, was superintendent of Indian affairs in the southern
district, and a prominent royalist in the War of Independence.
Educated at Westminster School, young Stuart entered the
3rd Foot Guards in 1778, and almost immediately went to
America with his regiment. He was present at the siege of
1048
STUART, J. M'DOUALL STUBBS, W.
Charleston, the battles of Camden and Guildford court-house,
and the surrender of Yorktown, returning a regimental lieu-
tenant and an army captain, as was then usual in the Guards.
Ten years later, as captain and lieutenant-colonel, he was
present with the duke of York's army in the Netherlands
and in northern France. He took part in the sieges and
battles of the 1793 campaign, Valenciennes, Lincelles, Dunkirk
and Lannoy. In the following year, now at the head of his
battalion, he was present at Landrecies and at Pont-a-Chin
or Tournay, and when the tide turned against the allies, he
shared with his guards in the discomforts of the retreat. As
a brigadier-general he served in Portugal in 1796, and in
Minorca in 1799. At Alexandria, in 1801, his handling of his
brigade called forth special commendation in general orders,
and a year later he became substantive major-general. After
two years in command of a brigade in Kent, Stuart went with
Sir James Craig to the Mediterranean. The English were
employed along with Lacy's Russians in the defence of the king-
dom of Naples, but Austerlitz led to the recall of the Russian
contingent, and the British soon afterwards evacuated Italy.
Thus exposed, Naples fell to the advancing troops of Massena,
but Gaeta still held out for King Ferdinand, and Massena's
main force soon became locked up in the siege of this fortress.
Stuart, who was in temporary command, realized the weakness
of the French position in Calabria, and on the ist of July 1806
swiftly disembarked all his available forces in the gulf of S.
Euphemia. On the 4th the British, 4800 strong, won the cele-
brated victory of Maida over Reynier's detachment. Nothing,
however, was done to follow up this success, as Stuart was
too weak to shake Massena's foothold in Naples. After besieging
and taking the castle of Scylla, the little force returned to
Messina. Besides the dignity of count of Maida from the court
of Palermo, Stuart received the thanks of parliament and an
annuity of 1000, as well as the K.C.B. Superseded by two
other generals, Fox and Moore, the latter of whom was his junior,
Stuart came home in 1806. A year later, however, as a lieu-
tenant-general, he received the Mediterranean command, which
he held until 1810. His operations were confined to south
Italy, where Murat, king of Naples, held the mainland, and the
British and Neapolitan troops held Sicily for the Bourbon king.
Of the events of this time may be mentioned the failure to
relieve Colonel Hudson Lowe at Capri, the expedition against
Murat's gunboats in the bay of Naples and the second siege of
Scylla. The various attempts made by Murat to cross the
straits uniformly failed, though on one occasion the French
actually obtained a footing in the island. In 1810 Stuart
returned to England. He died at Clifton in 1815. Two months
previously he had received the G.C.B.
STUART, JOHN M'DOUALL (1818-1866), South Australian
explorer, was born at Dysart in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1818, and
arrived in the colony about 1839. He accompanied Captain
Sturt's 1844-1845 expedition as draughtsman, and between 1858
and 1862 he made six expeditions into the interior, the last of
which brought him on the 2$th of July to the shores of the Indian
Ocean at Van Diemen's Gulf, at the mouth of the Adelaide
River. Stuart was not the first to cross the island continent
from south to north; that honour belongs to the Burke and Wills
expedition, which reached the Gulf of Carpentaria on the 6th of
February 1861. Stuart returned to Adelaide exhausted and
broken, and never recovered from the effects of the great priva-
tions which he suffered. He returned to England, where he
died on the 5th of June 1866. Stuart was rewarded with
3000 and a grant of 1000 sq. m. of grazing country in the
interior rent free for seven years. His name is perpetuated by
Central Mount Stuart.
STUART, MOSES (178(5-1852), American biblical scholar,
was born in Wilton, Connecticut, on the 26th of March 1780.
He was reared on a farm; graduated with highest honours at
Yale in 1799; in 1802 was admitted to the Connecticut bar,
and was appointed a tutor at Yale, where he remained for two
years; and in 1806 became pastor of the Centre (Congrega-
tional) Church of New Haven. In 1810 he was appointed
professor of sacred literature in the Andover Theological Semin-
ary, organized in 1808. Here he succeeded Eliphalet Pearson
(1752-1826), the first preceptor of the Phillips (Andover) Academy
and in 1786-1806 professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages
at Harvard. Stuart himself then knew hardly more than the
elements of Hebrew and not very much more Greek than Hebrew;
in 1810-1812 he prepared for the use of his students a Hebrew
grammar which they copied day by day from his manuscript;
in 1813 he printed his Grammar, which appeared in an enlarged
form, " with a copious syntax and praxis," in 1821, and was
republished in England by Dr Pusey in 1831. He gradually
made the acquaintance of German works in hermeneutics,
first Schleusner, Seiler and Gesenius, and taught himself Ger-
man, arousing much suspicion and distrust among his colleagues
by his unusual studies. But his recognition soon came, partly
as a result of his Letter to Dr Channing on the Subject of Religious
Liberty (1830), but more largely through the growing favour
shown to German philology and critical methods. In 1848 he
resigned his chair at Andover. He died in Andover on the
4th of January 1852. He has been called the " father of
exegetical studies in America." He contributed largely by his
teaching to the renewal of foreign missionary zeal of his 1 500
students more than 100 became foreign missionaries, among
them such skilled translators as Adoniram Judson, Elias Riggs
and William G. Schauffler.
Among his more important publications .were: Winer's Greek
Grammar of the New Testament (1825), with Edward Robinson;
Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews (18271828); Commentary
on the Epistle to the Romans (1832); Commentary on the Apocalypse
(1845); Miscellanies (1846); Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar^ (1846),
a version which involved Stuart in a long controversy with T. J.
Conant, the earlier, and possibly more scholarly, translator of
Gesenius; Commentary on Ecclesiastes (1851), and Commentary on
the Book of Proverbs (1852).
See the memorial sermons by Edwards A. Park (Boston, 1852)
and William Adams (New York, 1852).
STUBBS [STUBBE], JOHN (c. 1543-1591), English pamphleteer,
was born in Norfolk about 1543. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and after studying law at Lincoln's Inn,
took up his residence at Thelveton, Norfolk. His views were
Puritan, and he regarded with disgust the negotiations for a
marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the duke of Anjou.
In 1579 he put his opinions into a pamphlet entitled The Dis-
coverie of a Gaping Gulf whereinto England is like to be Swallowed
by another French Marriage. The circulation of this pamphlet
was prohibited, and Stubbs, his printer, and publisher were
tried at Westminster 1 , found guilty, and sentenced to have their
right hands cut off. The printer was subsequently pardoned,
but in the case of Stubbs and his publisher the sentence was duly
carried out. Stubbs protested his loyalty from the first. His
right hand having been cut off, he removed his hat with his left,
and cried " God Save the Queen!" before fainting away. He
was subsequently imprisoned for eighteen months. On being
released he continued to write, publishing, among other pam-
phlets, a reply to Cardinal Allen's Defence of the English Catholics.
He died in 1591 at Havre, France, where he seems to have gone
to volunteer for military service under Henry of Navarre.
STUBBS [STUBBES], PHILIP (c. 1555-0. 1610), English
pamphleteer, was born about 1555. He is reputed to have been
a brother or near relation of John Stubbs (q.v.). He was
educated at Cambridge and subsequently at Oxford, but did not
take a degree, spending the greater portion of his time travelling
about the country. He started writing about 1581, and in 1583
published The Anatomic of Abuses. This consisted of a virulent
attack on the manners, customs, amusements and fashions of
the period, and is still valuable for its copious information on
those matters. In 1591 Stubbs published A Christal Glass for
Christian Women, of which at least seven editions were called
for, and he followed this with other semi-devotional works.
He died, probably, about 1610.
STUBBS, WILLIAM (1825-1901), English historian and bishop
of Oxford, son of William Morley Stubbs, solicitor, of Knares-
borough, Yorkshire, was born on the 2ist of June 1825, and
was educated at the Ripon grammar school and Christ Church,
STUCCO STUCK
1049
Oxford, where he graduated in 1848, obtaining a first-class in
classics and a third in mathematics. He was elected a fellow of
Trinity College, and held the college living of Navestock, Essex,
from 1850 to 1866. He was librarian at Lambeth, and in 1862
was an unsuccessful candidate for the Chichele professorship
of modern history at Oxford. In 1866 he was appointed regius
professor of modern history at Oxford, and held the chair until
1884. His lectures were thinly attended, and he found them
grievous interruptions to his historical work. Some of his
statutory lectures are published in his Lectures on Mediaeval and
Modern History. He was rector of Cholderton, Wiltshire, from
1875 to 1879, when he was appointed a canon of St Paul's.
He served on the ecclesiastical courts commission of 1881-1883,
and wrote the weighty appendices to the report. On the 25th
of April 1884 he was consecrated bishop of Chester, and in
1889 was translated to the see of Oxford.
Until Bishop Stubbs found it necessary to devote all his time
to his episcopal duties, he pursued historical study with un-
remitting diligence. He rejected the theory of the unity and
continuity of history so far as it would obliterate distinctions
between ancient and modern history, holding that, though work
on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern
history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He urged
that history is not to be treated as an exact science, and that
the effects of individual character and the operations of the
human will necessarily render generalizations vague and conse-
quently useless. While pointing out that history has a utility
as a mental discipline and a part of a liberal education, he recom-
mended its study chiefly for its own sake, for the truth's sake
and for the pleasure which it brings. It was in this spirit that
he worked; and his intellectual character was peculiarly fitted
for his work, for he was largely endowed with the faculty of
judgment and with a genius for minute and critical investigation.
He was eminent alike in ecclesiastical history, as an editor of
texts and as the historian of the English constitution. His
right to be held as an authority on ecclesiastical history was
proved in 1858 by his Registrum sacrum anglicanum, which sets
forth episcopal succession in England, by many other later
works, and particularly by his share in Councils and Ecclesiastical
Documents, edited in co-operation with the Rev. A. W. Haddan,
for the third volume of which he was specially responsible. His
place as a master in critical scholarship and historical exposition
is decided beyond debate by the nineteen volumes which he edited
for the Rolls series of Chronicles and Memorials. It is, however,
by his Constitutional History of England that he is most widely
known as a historian. The appearance of this book, which
traces the development of the English constitution from the
Teutonic invasions of Britain till 1485, marks a distinct step in
the advance of English historical learning. Specialists may here
and there improve on a statement or a theory, but it will always
remain a great authority, a monument of patient and exhaustive
research of intellectual power, and of ripe and disciplined
judgment. Its companion volume of Select Charters and other
Illustrations of English Constitutional History, admirable in
itself, has a special importance in that its plan has been
imitated with good results both in England and the United
States.
Bishop Stubbs belongs to the front rank of historical scholars
both as an author and a critic. Among Englishmen at least he
excels all others as a master of every department of the historian's
work, from the discovery of materials to the elaboration of well-
founded theories and literary production. He was a good
palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination
of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition
and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation
and exposition. His carefulness was exemplary, and his refer-
ences are always exact. His merits as an author are often judged
solely by his Constitutional History. The learning and insight
which this book displays are unquestionable: it is well planned,
and its contents are well arranged; but constitutional history
is not a lively subject, and, in spite of the skill with which
Stubbs handled it and the genius displayed in his narrative
chapters, the book does not afford an adequate idea of his place
as a writer of history. What that is cannot be determined
without taking into account the prefaces to some of the volumes
which he edited for the Rolls series. Several of them contain
monographs on parts, or the whole, of the author's work, written
with remarkable literary skill. In these his language is vigorous
and dignified; he states the results of his labour and thought
with freshness and lucidity; tells numberless stories in a most
delightful manner, and exhibits a wonderful talent for the repre-
sentation of personal character; the many portraits of historic
persons of all orders which he draws in these prefaces are as
brilliant in execution as they are exact and convincing. Among
the most notable examples of his work for the Rolls series are
the prefaces to Roger of Hoveden, the Gesta regum of William
of Malmesbury, the Gesta Henrici II., and the Memorials of St.
Dunstan. Both in England and America Bishop Stubbs was
universally acknowledged as the head of all English historical
scholars, and no English historian of his time was held in equal
honour in European countries. Among his many distinctions
he was D.D. and hon. D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Cambridge
and Edinburgh, Doctor in utroque jure of Heidelberg; an
hon. member of the university of Kiev, and of the Prussian,
Bavarian and Danish academies; he received the Prussian
order Pour le merite, and was corresponding member of the
Academic des sciences morales et politiques of the French
Institute.
Stubbs was a High Churchman whose doctrines and practice
were grounded on learning and a veneration for antiquity. His
opinions were received with marked respect by his brother pre-
lates, and he acted as an assessor to the archbishop in the trial
of the bishop of Lincoln. His tastes were those of a student,
and he did not disguise his dislike of public functions and the
constant little journeys which take up so much of a bishop's
time. Nevertheless he fulfilled all his episcopal duties with
diligence, and threw all his heart into the performance of those
of a specially spiritual nature, such as his addresses at confirma-
tions and to those on whom he conferred orders. As a ruler of
the Church he showed wisdom and courage, and disregarded
any effort to influence his policy by clamour. In character he
was modest, kind and sympathetic, ever ready to help and
encourage serious students, generous in his judgment of the
works of others, a most cheery companion, full of wit and
humour. His wit was often used as a weapon of defence, for
he did not suffer fools gladly. An attack of illness in November
1900 seriously impaired his health. He was able, however, to
attend the funeral of Queen Victoria on the 2nd of February
1901, and preached a remarkable sermon before the king and
the German emperor on the following day. His illness became
critical on the 2oth of April, and he died on the ,22nd. In
1859 he had married Catherine, daughter of John Dollar, of
Navestock, and had a numerous family.
See Letters of William Stubbs, Bishop of Oxford, ed. W. H. Hutton.
(W. Hu.)
STUCCO (Ital. stucco, adapted from O.H.G. stucchi, crust, piece,
patch, Ger. Stuck, piece, allied to stock), a kind of plaster
used for the covering of walls, or for decorative or ornamental
features such as cornices, mouldings, &c., or for ceilings. The
stucco used as an exterior covering for brick or stone work
is coarse; a finer kind is used for decorative purposes. (See
PLASTER-WORK.)
STUCK, FRANZ (1863- ), German painter, was born at
Tettenweis, in Bavaria, and received his artistic training at the
Munich Academy. He first made a name with his illustrations
for Fliegende Blatter, and vignette designs for programmes and
book decoration. He did not devote himself to painting till after
1889, the year in which he achieved a marked success with his
first picture, " The Warder of Paradise." His style in painting
is based on a thorough mastery of design, and is sculptural
rather than pictorial. His favourite subjects are of mythological
and allegorical character, but in his treatment of time-worn
motifs he is altogether unconventional. A statuette of an
athlete, bronze casts of which arc at the Berlin and Budapest
IO 5
STUCLEY STUDER
national galleries and the Hamburg Museum, affords convincing
proof of his talent for plastic art. Among his paintings the best
known are " Sin " and " War," at the Munich Pinakothek,
" The Sphinx," " The Crucifixion," " The Rivals," " Paradise
Lost," " Oedipus," " Temptation," and " Lucifer." Though
Stuck was one of the leaders of the Munich Sezession, he enjoyed
an appointment of professor at the academy ./
STUCLEY (OR STUKELY), THOMAS (c. 1525-1578), English
adventurer, son of Sir Hugh Stucley, of Affleton, near Ilfracombe,
a knight of the body to King Henry VIII., was supposed by
some of his contemporaries to have been an illegitimate son of
the king. He was a standard-bearer at Boulogne from 1547 to
1550, entered the service of the duke of Somerset, and after his
master's arrest in 1551 a warrant was issued against him, but he
succeeded in escaping to France, where he served in the French
army. His military talents brought him under the notice of
Montmorency, and he was sent with a letter of recommendation
from Henry II. of France to Edward VI. On his arrival he
proceeded on the i6th of September 1552 to reveal the French
plans for the capture of Calais and for a descent upon England,
the furtherance of which had, according to his account, been the
object of his mission to England. Northumberland evaded the
payment of any reward to Stucley, a^nd sought to gain the friend-
ship of the French king by pretending to disbelieve Stucley's
statements. Stucley, who may well have been the originator
of the plans adopted by the French, was imprisoned in the Tower
for some months. A prosecution for debt on his release in
August 1553 compelled him to become a soldier of fortune once
more, but he returned to England in December 1554 in the
train of Philibert, duke of Savoy, after obtaining security against
his creditors. He temporarily improved his fortunes by marry-
ing an heiress, Anne Curtis, but in a few months had to return
to the duke of Savoy's service. As early as 1558 he was sum-
moned before the council on a charge of piracy, but was acquitted
on the ground of insufficient evidence. In 1562 he obtained a
warrant permitting him to bring French ships into English ports
although England and France were nominally at peace. With
six ships, one of which was supplied by Queen Elizabeth, he
started buccaneering against French, Spanish and Portuguese
ships, though his commission was concerned with an expedition
to Florida. Repeated remonstrances on the part of the offended
powers compelled Elizabeth to disavow Stucley, who surrendered
in 1565, but his prosecution was merely formal.
He had met Shane O'Neill at the English court in the winter
of 1 561-1 562, and was employed in 1 566 by Sir Henry Sidney in a
vain effort to induce the Irish chief to enter into negotiations
with the government. Sidney desired to allow Stucley to
purchase the estates and office of Sir Nicholas Bagnall, marshal
of Ireland, for 3000, but Elizabeth refused to permit the
transaction. Undeterred by this failure, Stucley bought lands
and the office of seneschal of Wexford from Sir Nicholas Heron,
but in June 1 568 he was dismissed, and in the next year im-
prisoned in Dublin Castle on a charge of high treason, but was
released in October. He now offered his services to Fenelon,
the French ambassador in London, and was thenceforward
continuously engaged in schemes against Elizabeth. Philip II.
invited him to Madrid and loaded him with honours. He was
known at the Spanish court by the curious title of " duke of
Ireland," and was established with a handsome allowance in
a villa near Madrid. He was knighted in 1571, and prepared
to become a member of a religious order of knighthood. His
credit with Spain was seriously injured by another Irish malcon-
tent, Maurice Gibbon, archbishop of Cassel; but Stucley, who
now desired to leave Spain, only obtained his passports after
Elizabeth had demanded his dismissal. He commanded three
galleys under Don John of Austria at the battle of Lepanto.
His exploits restored him to favour at Madrid, and on the 2nd of
March 1572 he was at Seville, offering to hold the narrow seas
against the English with a fleet of twenty ships. In four years
(1570-1574) he is said to have received over 27,000 ducats from
Philip II. Wearied by the Spanish king's delays he sought more
serious assistance frcim the new pope, Gregory XIII., who
aspired to make his illegitimate son, Giacomo Buoncompagno,
king of Ireland. He set sail from Civita Vecchia in March
1578, but put into Lisbon, where be was to meet his confederate,
James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, and to secure better ships before
sailing for Ireland. There he was turned from his purpose by
King Sebastian, with whom he sailed for Morocco. He com-
manded the centre in the battle of Alcazar on the 4th of August
1578, and was killed, in fair fight apparently, though tradition
asserted that he was murdered by his Italian soldiers after the
battle.
Stucley's adventurous career made considerable impression on
his contemporaries. A play generally assigned to George Peele,
The Battell of Alcazar . . . with the Death of Captain Stukely, printed
by E. Allde in 1594, was probably acted in 1592, and is perhaps
identical with a popular piece referred to by Henslowe as Muley
surnamed Abdelmilech. It deals with Stucley's arrival in Lisbon
and his Moorish expedition, .but in a long speech before his death he
recapitulates the events of his life. A later piece, The Famous His-
tory of the Life and Death of Captain Thomas Stukeley, printed for
Thomas Panyer (1605), which is possibly the Stewtley played, accord-
ing to Henslowe, on the nth of December 1596, is a biographical
piece dealing with successive episodes, and seems to be a patchwork
of older plays on Don Antonio and on Stucley. His adventures
also form the subject of various ballads.
There is a detailed biography of Stucley, based chiefly on the Eng-
lish, Venetian and Spanish state papers, in R. Simpson's edition
of the 1605 play (School of Shakespeare, 1878, vol. i.), where the
Stucley ballads are also printed. References in contemporary
poetry are quoted by Dyce in his introduction to the Battle of
Alcazar in Peele's Works.
STUD, (i) A number of horses kept for the purpose of breed-
ing, also the place or establishment where they are kept;
similarly, a " stud horse," a stallion, " stud groom," the head
groom of a stud, "stud-book," the register containing the pedi-
gree of thoroughbred horses. The word in Old English is slod , and
cognate forms are found in Icelandic and Danish, cf . also German
Gestiit; steed, now a literary word for horse, meant in Old
English (steda) a stud-horse, and is the same as stud in origin.
The root to which the word is referred is sta-, to stand. A
stud meant, therefore, an establishment. (2) A word which
is used of many different objects, the primary meaning being a
prop " or support. The Old English word is studu, and cognates
are found in Danish, Swedish and Icelandic. The ultimate
origin is also the root sta-, to stand. The chief applications of
the term are as follows: in architecture, to a post; quarter or
upright in wooden partitions; to the transverse pieces of iron
which strengthen the links of a chain; to a boss or knob inserted
on a belt, collar, or piece of armour, often decorated and forming
an ornamentation; and, particularly, to a species of button,
consisting of a rounded head, neck and flat base, used for
fastening a collar, shirt, &c.
STUDER, BERNHARD (1794-1887), Swiss geologist, was born
at Buren, near Berne, in August 1794. Although educated as
a clergyman, he became so interested in geology at the university
of Gottingen that he devoted his life to its pursuit. He subse-
quently studied at Freiburg, Berlin and Paris, and in 1816 was
appointed teacher of mathematics and physics in the Berne
Academy. In 1825 he published Beytrage zu einer Monographic
der Molasse. Later on he commenced his detailed investiga-
tions of the western Alps, and published in 1834 his Geologic der
westlichen Schweizer-Alpen. In the same year, largely through
his influence, the university of Berne was established and he
became the first professor of mineralogy. His Geologic der Schweiz
in two vols. (1851-1853), and his geological maps of Switzerland
prepared with the assistance of Arnold Escher von der Linth,
are monuments of his research. In 1859 he organized the geo-
logical survey of Switzerland, being appointed president of the
commission, and retaining this position until the close of his
life. It has been remarked by Marcou that Studer was present
at the first meeting of the Societe helvetique des sciences natur-
elles at Geneva on the 6th of October 1815, and remained a
member during 72 years. He was awarded the Wollaston
medal by the Geological Society of London, 1879. He died at
Berne on the 2nd of May 1887.
Obituary by Jules Marcou, Ann. rep. amer. acad. sci. for 1888.
STUKELEY STURE
1051
STUKELEY, WILLIAM (1687-1765), English antiquary, was
born at Holbeach, Lincolnshire, on the 7th of November 1687,
the son of a lawyer. After taking his M.B. degree at Cambridge,
he went to London and studied medicine at St Thomas's
Hospital. In 1710 he started in practice in Lincolnshire,
removing in 1717 to London. In the same year he became
a fellow of the Royal Society, and, in 1718, joined in the
establishment of the Society of Antiquaries, acting for nine years
as its secretary. In 1719 he took his M.D. degree and in 1720
became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, publishing
in the same year his first contribution to antiquarian literature.
His principal work, an elaborate account of Stonehenge, ap-
peared in 1 740, and he wrote copiously on other supposed Druid
remains, becoming familiarly known as the " Arch-Druid."
In 1729 he took holy orders, and, after holding two livings in
Lincolnshire, was appointed rector of a parish in Bloomsbury,
London. He died in London on the 3rd of March 1765.
STUMPF, JOHANN (1500-1576), one of the chief writers on
Swiss history and topography, was born at Bruchsal (near
Carlsruhe). He was educated there and at Strassburg and
Heidelberg. In 1520 he was received as a cleric or chaplain
into the order of the Knights Hospitallers or of St John of
Jerusalem, was sent in 1521 to the preceptory of that order at
Freiburg in Breisgau, ordained priest in Basel, and in 1522 placed
in charge cf the preceptory at Bubikon (north of Rapperswil,
in the canton of Zurich). But Stumpf soon went over to the
Protestants, was present at the great Disputation in Berne
(1528), and took part in the first Kappel War (1520). He had
carried over with him most of his parishioners whom he con-
tinued to care for, as the Protestant pastor at Bubikon, till 1543,
then becoming pastor at Stammheim (same canton) till 1561,
when he retired to Zurich (of which he had been made a burgher
in 1548), where he lived in retirement till his death in 1576. In
1 529 he married the first of his four wives, a daughter of Heinrich
Brennwald (1478-1551), who wrote a work (still in MS.) on Swiss
history, and stimulated his son-in-law to undertake historical
studies. Stumpf made wide researches, with this object, for
many years, and undertook also several journeys, of which that
in 1544 to Engelberg and through the Valais seems to be the
most important, perhaps because his original diary has been
preserved to us. The fruit of his labours (completed at the end
of 1546) was published in 1548 at Zurich in a huge folio of 934
pages (with many fine wood engravings, coats of arms, maps,
&c.), under the title of Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnossenschajt
Stellen, Landen, und Volckeren chronikwirdiger Thaaten Beschrey-
bung (an extract from it was published in 1554, under the name
of Schwytzer Chronika, while new and greatly enlarged editions
of the original work were issued in 1586 and 1606). The wood-
cuts are best in the first edition, and it remained till Scheuchzer's
day (early i8th century) the chief authority on its subject.
Stumpf also published a monograph (very remarkable for the
date) on the emperor Henry IV. (1556) and a set of laudatory
verses (Lobsprilche) as to each of the thirteen Swiss cantons
(i573)- (W.A. B.C.)
STURDZA, or STURZA, the name of an ancient Rumanian
family, of unknown origin, which probably came from Trebi-
zond and settled in Moldavia. The Sturdza family has been
long and intimately associated with the government first of
Moldavia and afterwards of Rumania. Its members belong
to two main divisions, which trace their descent respectively
from John (loan) or from Alexander (Sandu), the sons of Kirak
Sturdza, who lived in the I7th century, and may be regarded
as the founder of the family.
i. To the first division belongs MICHAEL [Michail] STURDZA
795-1884), who was prince of Moldavia from 1834 to 1849.
A man of liberal education, he established the first high school,
a kind of university, in Jassy. He brought scholars from
foreign countries to act as teachers, and gave a very powerful
stimulus to the educational development of the country. In
1844 he decreed the emancipation of the gipsies. Until then
the gipsies had been treated as slaves and owned by the Church
or by private landowners; they had been bought and sold in
the.open market. Michael Sturdza also attempted the seculari-
zation of monastic establishments, which was carried out by
Prince Cuza in 1864, and the utilization of their endowments
for national purposes. He quelled the attempted revolution
in 1848 without bloodshed by arresting all the conspirators
and expelling them from the country. Under his rule the in-
ternal development of Moldavia made immense progress; roads
were built, industry developed, and Michael is still gratefully
remembered by the people.
See Michel Stourdza et son administration (Brussels, 1834) ; Michel
Stourdza, ancien prince regnant de -Moldavie (Paris, 1874); A. A. C.
Sturdza, Regne de Michel Sturdza, prince de Moldavie 1834-1849
(Paris, 1907).
2. GREGORY [Grigorie] STURDZA (1821-1901), son of the
above, was educated in France and Germany, became a general
in the Ottoman army under the name of Muklis Pasha, and
afterwards attained the same rank in the Moldavian army.
He was a candidate for the Moldavian throne in 1859, and
subsequently a prominent member of the Russophil party in
the Rumanian parliament. He wrote Lois fondamentales de
I'univers (Paris 1891).
3. JOHN [loan] STURDZA, prince of Moldavia (1822-1828),
was the most famous descendant of Alexander Sturdza. Imme-
diately after the Greek revolution, Prince John Sturdza took an
active part in subduing the roving bands of Greek Hetairists in
Moldavia; he transformed the Greek elementary schools into
Rumanian schools and laid the foundation for that scientific
national development which Prince Michael Sturdza continued
after 1834. In 1828 the Russians entered the country and took
Prince John prisoner. He died in exile.
4. ALEXANDER [Alexandru] STURDZA (1791-1854), Russian
publicist and diplomatist, was a member of the same family,
born in Bessarabia and educated in Germany. After entering
the Russian diplomatic service, he wrote Betrachlungen tiber
die Lehre und den Geist der orthodoxen Kirche (Leipzig, 1817).
His Memoire sur I'etat acluel de I'Allemagne, written at the re-
quest of the tsar during the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, was an
attack on the German universities, repeated in Coup d'ceil sur les
universites de I'AUemagne (Aix, 1818). His other important
works are La Grece en 1821 (Leipzig, 1822) and (Enures post-
humes religieuses, historiques, philosophiques et Htteraires (5 vols.,
Paris, 1858-1861). '
5. DEMETRIUS [Dimitrie] STURDZA, Rumanian statesman,
was born in 1833 at Jassy, and educated there at the Academia
Michaileana. He continued his studies in Germany, took part
in the political movements of the time, and was private secretary
to Prince Cuza. Demetrius afterwards turned against Cuza,
joined John Bratianu, and became a member of the so-called
Liberal government. In 1899 he was elected leader of the party
in succession to Bratianu and was four times prime minister (see
RUMANIA: History). Though a man of great capacity for work,
he represented the narrowest nationalism, and through his
enmity to all that was " alien " did more than any other man
to retard the political and industrial development of the country.
He was appointed permanent secretary of the Rumanian
Academy, and became a recognized authority on Rumanian
numismatics. As secretary of the academy he was instrumental
in assisting the publication of the collections of historic docu-
ments made by Hurmuzaki (30 vols., Bucharest, 1876-1897),
and other acts and documents (Bucharest, 1900 sqq.), besides a
number of minor political pamphlets of transitory value. (M. G.)
STURE, an ancient patrician family of Sweden, the most
notable members of which were the following:
i. STEN GUSTAFSSON, commonly called Sten Sture the Elder
( 1 440 -i 503 ) . In 1 464 he came prominently forward in support of
Bishop Kettil Karlsson Vasa in his struggle against Christian I. of
Denmark, and showed great ability in winning over the peasants
and making soldiers of them. In 1470 we find him in the fore-
front of the Swedish national leaders and victorious over both
Erik Karlsson Vasa and King Christian himself. After the death
of Karl Knutsson, commonly called Charles VIII. , Sture was
elected regent of Sweden, and from 1470 to 1497 displayed some
I0 5 2
STURGE STURGEON
of the highest qualities of a statesman. In 1471 he again defeated
Christian I. at the great battle of Brunkebjarg which materially
strengthened his position in Sweden. In 1483 he was obliged
to acknowledge Hans of Denmark and Norway as king; but the
strife of factions enabled him to hold his own till the arrival
of Hans in Sweden in 1497. His position had in the meantime
been weakened by a ruinous war with Russia. He succeeded,
however, in annexing Oland to Sweden. After the terrible
defeat of Hans by the Dithmarschers in 1500 Sture was a second
time elected regent, holding that office till his death.
2. SVANTE STURE (d. 1512) is mentioned as a senator in 1482.
He was one of the magnates who facilitated King Hans's conquest
of Sweden by his opposition to Sten Sture the Elder. Subse-
quently, however, he was reconciled to the latter and succeeded
him as regent. He was by no means so imposing a figure as
his predecessor, though, like him, Svante in his later years
patriotically resisted the Danish claim of sovereignty. He died
suddenly at Vesteras Castle.
3. STEN STURE, commonly called Sten Sture the Younger
(1402-1520), the son of Svante. After his father's death he
was elected regent by the majority of the lesser gentry to the
exclusion of the candidate of the high aristocratic faction, Erik
Trolle, whence the inextinguishable hatred of the two families.
In 1513 the aged archbishop of Upsala, Jakob Ulfsson, resigned
in favour of Gustaf Trolle, son of Erik Trolle, who was elected
by the cathedral chapter and recommended to the pope by the
regent on condition that the new archbishop should do him
homage. Unfortunately these two masterful young men (Trolle
was twenty-seven, Sture barely twenty-three), who represented
respectively the highest ecclesiastical and the highest civil
authority in Sweden, were only too prone to carry on the family
feud. On the return of Trolle from Rome he refused to do homage
to the regent till all his enemies had been punished, and allied
himself with Christian II. of Denmark, who hastened to the
archbishop's assistance when Sture besieged Trolle in his strong-
hold at Stake (1516). Nevertheless Sture not only defeated
Christian II. at Vedla, but took and razed Stake to the ground,
and shut up the archbishop in a monastery at Vesteras. A
riksmote, or national assembly, held at Stockholm in 1517,
declared unanimously that Sweden would never recognize
Trolle as archbishop because he had defied the regent and brought
the enemy into the land. The war with Denmark was then
vigorously resumed. On Midsummer Day 1518 Christian II.
appeared before Stockholm with his fleet and landed an army,
but was again defeated by Sten Sture at Brankyrka. An attempt
of the papal legate Arcimboldus to mediate between the two
countries at Arboga (Dec. 1518) failed. In 1520 Christian,
with a regular army, and armed with a papal bull excommunicat-
ing Sture, again invaded Sweden. The armies clashed near
Borgerund on Lake Aarunden (Jan. 19). At the very beginning
Sture was hit by a bullet and his peasant levies fled to the wild
mountainous regions of Tiveden where they made a last desperate
but unsuccessful stand. The mortally-wounded regent took
to his sledge and posted towards Stockholm, but expired on
the ice of Lake Malar two days later, in his 27th year.
See Sveriges historia, vol. i. (Stockholm, 1877-1878) ; K. O. Arnold-
son, Nordens Enhet och Kristian II. (Stockholm, 1899). (R. N. B.)
STURGE, JOSEPH (1793-1859), English philanthropist and
politician, was the son of a farmer in Gloucestershire. He was
a member of the Society of Friends, and refused, in his business
as a corn factor, to deal in grain used in the manufacture of
spirits. He went to Birmingham in 1822, where he became an
alderman in 1835. He was an active member of the Anti-
Slavery Society, and made a tour in the West Indies, publishing
on his return an account of slavery as he there saw it in The
West Indies in 1837 (London, 1837). After the abolition of
slavery, to which, as Lord Brougham acknowledged in the House
of Lords, he had largely contributed, Sturge started and gener-
ously supported schemes for benefiting the liberated negroes.
In 1841 he travelled in the United States with the poet Whittier
to examine the slavery question there. On his return to England
he gave his support to the Chartist movement, and in 1842 was
candidate for Nottingham, but was defeated by John Walter,
the proprietor of The Times. He then took up the cause of
peace and arbitration, to support which he was influential in
the founding of the Morning Star in 1855. The extreme narrow-
ness of Sturge's views was shown in his opposition to the building
of the Birmingham town-hall on account of his conscientious
objection to the performance of sacred oratorio. He died at
Birmingham on the I4th of May 1859. He married, first, in
1834, Eliza, daughter of James Cropper; and, secondly, in 1846,
Hannah, daughter of Barnard Dickinson.
See Henry Richard, Memoirs of Joseph Slurge (London, 1864) ; John
(Viscount) Morley, Life of Richard Cobden (London, 1881).
STURGEON (Acipenser), the name given to a small group
of fishes, of which some twenty different species are known,
from European, Asiatic and North American rivers. The
distinguishing characters of this group, as well as its position
in the system, are dealt with in the article TELEOSTOMES. They
pass a great part of the year in the sea, but periodically ascend
large rivers, some in spring to deposit their spawn, others later
in the season for some purpose unknown; only a few of the
species are exclusively confined to fresh water. None occur in
the tropics or in the southern hemisphere.
Sturgeons are found in the greatest abundance in the rivers
of southern Russia, more than ten thousand fish being sometimes
caught at a single fishing-station in the fortnight during which
the up-stream migration lasts. They occur in less abundance
in the fresh waters of North America, where the majority are
caught in shallow portions of the shores of the great lakes. In
Russia the fisheries are of immense value. Early in summer
the fish migrate into the rivers or towards the shores of freshwater
lakes in large shoals for breeding purposes. The ova are very
small, and so numerous that one female has been calculated
to produce about three millions in one season. The ova of some
species have been observed to hatch within a very few days after
exclusion. Probably the growth of the young is very rapid,
but we do not know how long the fry remain in fresh water before
their first migration to the sea. After they have attained
maturity their growth appears to be much slower, although
continuing for many years. Frederick the Great placed a
number of them in the Gorland Lake in Pomerania about 1780;
some of these were found to be still alive in 1866. Professor
von Baer also states, as the result of direct observations made
in Russia, that the Hausen (Acipenser huso) attains to an age
of from 200 to 300 years. Sturgeons ranging from 8 to n ft.
in length are by no means scarce, and some species grow to a
much larger size.
Sturgeons are ground-feeders. With their projecting wedge-
shaped snout they stir up the soft bottom, and by means of their
sensitive barbels detect shells, crustaceans and small fishes, on
which they feed. Being destitute of teeth, they are unable to
seize larger prey.
In countries like England, where few sturgeons are caught,
the fish is consumed fresh, the flesh being firmer than that of
ordinary fishes, well flavoured, though somewhat oily. The
sturgeon is included as a royal fish in an act of King Edward II.,
although it probably but rarely graces the royal table of the
present period, or even that of the lord mayor of London, who
can claim all sturgeons caught in the Thames above London
Bridge. Where sturgeons are caught in large quantities, as
on the rivers of southern Russia and on the great lakes of North
America, their flesh is dried, smoked or salted. The ovaries,
which are of large size, are prepared for caviare; for this purpose
they are beaten with switches, and then pressed through sieves,
leaving the membranous and fibrous tissues in the sieve, whilst
the eggs are collected in a tub. The quantity of salt added to
them before they are finally packed varies with the season,
scarcely any being used at the beginning of winter. Finally,
one of the best sorts of isinglass is manufactured from the air-
bladder. After it has been carefully removed from the body,
it is washed in hot water, and cut open in its whole length, to
separate the inner membrane, which has a soft consistency,
and contains 70% of glutin.
STURGIS STURM, J.
The twenty species of sturgeons (Acipenser) are nearly equally
divided between the Old and New Worlds. The more important
are the following:
1. The common sturgeon of Europe (Acipenser sturio) occurs on
all the coasts of Europe, but is absent in the Black Sea. Almost
all the British specimens of sturgeon belong to this species ; it crosses
the Atlantic and is not rare on the coasts of North America. ' It
reaches a large size (a length of 12 ft.), but is always caught singly
or in pairs, so that it cannot be regarded as a fish of commercial
importance. The form of its snout varies with age (as in the other
species), being much more blunt and abbreviated in old than in
young examples. There are 11-13 bony shields along the back
and 29-31 along the side of the body.
2. Acipenser giildenstddtii is one of the most valuable species of
the rivers of Russia, where it is known under the name " Ossetr ";
it is said to inhabit the Siberian rivers also, and to range eastwards
as far as Lake Baikal. It attains to the same large size as the com-
mon sturgeon, and is so abundant in the rivers of the Black and
Caspian seas that more than one-fourth of the caviare and isinglass
manufactured in Russia is derived from this species.
3. Acipenser stellatus, the " Seuruga " of the Russians, occurs
likewise in great abundance in the rivers of the Black Sea and of
the Sea of Azoff. It has a remarkably long and pointed snout,
like the sterlet, but simple barbels without fringes. Though growing
only to about half the size of the preceding species, it is of no less
value, its flesh being more highly esteemed, and its caviare and
isinglass fetching a higher price. In 1850 it was reported that
more than a million of this sturgeon are caught annually.
4. The sturgeon of the great lakes of North America, Acipenser
rubicundus, with which, in the opinion of American ichthyologists,
the sea-going sturgeon of the rivers of eastern North America,
Acipenser maculosus, is identical, has of late years been made the
object of a large and profitable industry at various places on Lakes
Michigan and Erie; the flesh is smoked after being cut into strips
and after a slight pickling in brine; the thin portions and offal are
boiled down for oil; nearly all the caviare is shipped to Europe.
One firm alone uses from ten to eighteen thousand sturgeons a year,
averaging 50 ft each. The sturgeons of the lakes are unable
to migrate to the sea, whilst those below the Falls of Niagara are
great wanderers; and it is quite possible that a specimen of this
species said to have been obtained from the Firth of Tay was really
captured on the coast of Scotland.
5. Acipenser huso, the " Hausen " of Germany, is recognized
by the absence of osseous scutes on the snout and by its flattened,
tape-like barbels. It is one of the largest species, reaching the
enormous length of 24 ft. and a weight of 2000 Ib. It inhabits the
Caspian and Black seas, and the Sea of Azoff, whence in former
years large shoals of the fish entered the large rivers of Russia and
the Danube. But its numbers have been much thinned, and speci-
mens of 1200 Ib in weight have now become scarce. Its flesh,
caviare and air-bladder are of less value than those of the smaller
kinds.
6. The sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus) is one of the smaller species,
which likewise inhabits both the Black and Caspian seas, and
ascends rivers to a greater distance from the sea than any of the
other sturgeons; thus, for instance, it is not uncommon in the
Danube at Vienna, but specimens have been caught as high up
as Ratisbon and Ulm. It is more abundant in the rivers of Russia,
where it is held in high esteem on account of its excellent flesh,
contributing also to the best kinds of caviare and isinglass. As
early as the 1 8th century attempts were made to introduce this
valuable fish into Prussia and Sweden, but without success. The
sterlet is distinguished from the other European species by its long
and narrow snout and fringed barbels. It rarely exceeds a length
oi 3 ft.
The family Acipenseridae includes one other genus, Scaphirhynchus,
the shovel-head or shovel-nosed sturgeon, distinguished by the long,
broad and flat snout, the suppression of the spiracles, and the union
of the longitudinal rows of scales posteriorly. All the species are
confined ro fresh water. One of them is common in the Mississippi
and other rivers of North America, the other three occur in the larger
rivers of eastern Asia.
STURGIS, RUSSELL (1836-1909), American architect and
art critic, was born in Baltimore county, Maryland, on the i6th
of October 1836. He graduated from the Free Academy in
New York (now the College of the City of New York) in 1856,
and studied architecture under Leopold Eidlitz and then for
two years in Munich. In 1862 he returned to the United States.
He designed the Yale University chapel and the Farnham and
Durfee dormitories at Yale, the Flower Hospital, the Farmers'
and Mechanics' Bank of Albany, and many other buildings,
but did comparatively little professional work after 1880. He
was in Europe in 1880-1884; and for a short time after his return
was secretary of the New York Municipal Civil Service Board.
He was president of the Architectural League of New York
in 1889-1893, was first president of the Fine Arts Federation
in 1895-1897, and was a member of the National Society of
Mural Painters, the National Sculpture Society, the National
Academy of Design, and the New York chapter of the American
Institute of Architects. He lectured on art at Columbia
University, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the
Peabody Institute of Baltimore and the Art Institute of Chicago;
his lectures in Chicago being published under the title The
Interdependence of the Arts of Design (1905). He is best known
as a writer on art and architecture. He edited A Dictionary
of Architecture and Building (3 vols., 1901-1902) and the English
version of Wilhelm Luebke's Outlines of the History of Art (2 vols.,
1904), and he wrote European Architecture (1896), How to Judge
Architecture (1903), The Appreciation of Sculpture (1904), The
Appreciation of Pictures (1905), A Study of the Artist's Way
of Working in the Various Handicrafts and Arts of Design (2 vols.,
1905), and an unfinished History of Architecture (1906 sqq.).
During his last years he was nearly blind. He died in New York
on the nth of February 1909.
STURM, JACQUES CHARLES FRANCOIS (1803-1855),
French mathematician, of German extraction, was born at
Geneva on the 2gth of September 1803. Originally tutor to
the son of Mme de Stael, he resolved, with his schoolfellow
Colladon, to try his fortune in Paris, and obtained employment
on the Bulletin unviersel. In 1829 he discovered the theorem,
regarding the determination of the number of real roots of a
numerical equation included between given limits, which bears
his name (see EQUATION, V.), and in the following year he was
appointed professor of mathematics at the College Rollin. He
was chosen a member of the Academic des Sciences in 1836,
became " repetiteur " in 1838, and in 1840 professor in the Ecole
Polytechnique, and finally succeeded S. D. Poisson in the chair
of mechanics in the Faculte des Sciences at Paris. His works,
Cours d'analyse de I'ecole polylechnique (1857-1863) and Cours
de mecanique de I'ecole polytechnique (1861), were published after-
his death at Paris on the i8th of December 1855.
STURM, JULIUS (1816-1896), German poet, was born at
Kostritz in the principality of
Reuss on the 2ist of July 1816.
He studied theology at Jena
from 1837 to 1841, and was ap-
pointed preceptor to the here-
ditary prince Henry XIV. of
Reuss. In 1851 he became pas-
tor of Gb'schitz near Schleiz,
and in 1857 at his native village
of Kostritz. In 1885 he retired
with the title of Geheimkirchen-
rat. He died at Leipzig on the
2nd of May 1896. Sturm was a writer of lyrics and sonnets
and of church poetry, breathing a spirit of deep piety and
patriotism.
His religious poems were published in Fromme Lieder (pt. i.,
Leipzig, 1852; I2th ed., 1893; pt. ii., 1858; pt. iii., 1892), Zwei
Rosen, oder das hohe Lied der Liebe (Leipzig, 1854; 2nd ed., 1892),
Israelitische Lieder (3rd ed., Halle, 1881) and Palme und Krone
(Leipzig, 1888). His chief lyrics were issued in Gedichte (6th ed.,
Leipzig, 1892), Neue Gedichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1880), Lieder und
Bilder (2nd ed., 1892), Kampf- und Siegergedichle (Halle, 1870),
1054-
STURM VON STURMECK STUTTGART
Neue Lieder (1880, and ed., 1888), Neue lyrische Gedichte (Leipzig,
1894) and In Freud und Leid, letzte Lieder (1896).
See A. Hepding, Julius Sturm (Giessen, 1896); F. Hoffmann,
Julius Sturm (Hamburg, 1898).
STURM VON STURMECK, JACOB (1489-1553), German
statesman and reformer, was born at Strassburg, where his
father, Martin Sturm, was a person of some importance, on the
loth of August 1489. He was educated at the universities of
Heidelberg and Freiburg, and about 1517 he entered the service of
Henry, provost of Strassburg (d. 1552), a member of the Wittels-
bach family. He soon became an adherent of the reformed
doctrines, and leaving the service of the provost became a
member of the governing body of his native city in 1524. He
was responsible for the policy of Strassburg during the Peasants'
War; represented the city at the Diet of Spires in 1526; and at
subsequent Diets gained fame by his ardent championship of its
interests. As an advocate of union among the Protestants he
took part in the conference at Marburg in 1529; but when the
attempts to close the breach between Lutherans and Zwinglians
failed, he presented the Confessio tetrapolitana, a Zwinglian
document, to the Augsburg Diet of 1530. As the representative
of Strassburg Sturm signed the " protest " which was presented
to the Diet of Spires in 1529, being thus one of the original
" Protestants." He was on friendly terms with Philip, land-
grave of Hesse. Owing largely to his influence Strassburg
joined the league of Schmalkalden in 1531. The troops of
Strassburg took the field when the league attacked Charles V.
in 1546; but in February 1547 the citizens were compelled to
submit, when Sturm succeeded in securing very favourable
terms from the emperor. He was also able to obtain for his
native city some modification of the Interim issued from Augs-
burg in May 1548. Sturm is said to have been in the pay of
Francis I. of France, but this seems very unlikely. He founded
the Bibliothek and a gymnasium in Strassburg, where he died on
the 3oth of October 1553.
See H. Baumgarten, Jakob Sturm (Strassburg, 1876) ; A. Baum,
Magistral und Reformation in Strassburg bis 1529 (Strassburg,
!887) ; J. Rathgeber, Strassburg im 16 Jahrhundert (Stuttgart,
1871); O. Winckelmann, "Jakob Sturm," in the Allgemeine deutsche
Biographic, Bd. xxxvii. (Leipzig, 1894); and Johannes Sturm,
Consolatio ad senatum argentinensem de morte . . . Jacobi Sturmii
(Strassburg, 1553).
STURT, CHARLES (d. 1869), English explorer in New South
Wales and in South Australia, was born in England, and entered
the army, reaching the rank of captain. Having landed in
Australia with his regiment (the 39th), he became interested
in the geographical problems which were exciting attention. A
first expedition (1828) led to the discovery of the Darling river;
and a second, from which the explorer returned almost blind,
made known the existence of Lake Alexandrina. From his
third journey (1844-1845), in which terrible hardships had to
be endured, he returned quite blind, and he never altogether
recovered his sight. He was appointed surveyor-general of
South Australia in 1833, and subsequently chief secretary, which
position he held until 1856 when responsible government was
introduced, and Captain Sturt retired on a pension and went
to live at Cheltenham, England, where he died on the i6th of
June 1869, before he could be invested with the dignity of
K.C.M.G. to which he had been designated.
STUTTGART, a city of Germany, capital of the kingdom of
Wurttemberg. It lies in a basin watered by the Nesenbach
just above its confluence with the Neckar, 115 m. N.W. from
Munich, and at the centre of a network of railways placing it
in direct communication with all the principal towns of south
Germany. Pop. (1905), 249,443, of whom about one-half reside
in the suburbs of Cannstatt, Berg, Gaisburg, Gablenburg and
others. Charmingly situated among vine-clad and wooded
hills, Stuttgart stands at a height of nearly 900 ft. above the
sea and enjoys a healthy climate. It is intersected from south-
west to north-east by the long and handsome Konigsstrasse,
dividing it into an upper and a lower town. In all its main
features it is essentially a modern town, and few of its principal
buildings are older than the igth century. Many of them,
however, are of considerable architectural importance and the
revival of the Renaissance style is perhaps illustrated nowhere
better than in Stuttgart. The lower, or south-eastern, part
contains both the small group of streets belonging to old Stutt-
gart, and also the most important part of the new town. Of
the numerous churches in the city the most interesting are the
Stiftskirche, with two towers, a fine specimen of 15th-century
Gothic; the Leonhardskirche, also a Gothic building of the isth
century; the Hospitalkirche, restored in 1841, the cloisters of
which contain the tomb of Johann Reuchlin; the fine modern
Gothic church of St John; the new Roman Catholic church of-
St Nicholas; the Friedenskirche; and the English church. A
large proportion of the most prominent buildings are clustered
round the spacious Schlossplatz, with its fine promenades.
Among these are the new palace, an imposing structure of the
i8th century, finished in 1807; the old palace, a 16th-century
building, with a picturesque arcaded court; the Konigsbau, a
huge modern building with a fine colonnade, containing ball
and concert rooms; the so-called Akademie, formerly the seat
of the Karlschule, where Schiller received part of his education,
and now containing the royal library; and the court theatre,
destroyed by fire in 1902, and subsequently rebuilt. In the
centre of the Schlossplatz is the lofty jubilee column, erected
in 1841 in memory of the king of Wurttemberg, William I.,
and in the courtyard of the old palace is a bronze equestrian
statue of Duke Eberhard the Bearded. On or near the Schloss-
platz also are the new courts of justice; the Wilhelmspalast
and the palace of the crown prince; the large royal stables;
the new post office; and the central railway station, one of the
handsomest structures of the kind in Germany. The city
contains a fine statue of Schiller, designed by Thorvaldsen; a
bronze statue of Christopher, duke of Wurttemberg; a monu-
ment to the emperor William I.; an equestrian statue of King
William I. in the court of the museum of the plastic arts; and
a large monumental fountain in the Eugensplatte. Other
prominent buildings are: the Queen Olga buildings, erected in
1893-1895 in the Renaissance style; the national industrial
museum (1890-1896) in the late Renaissance style, flanked by
two cupola-crowned towers and decorated with medallions of
famous Swabians; the magnificent new town-hall; and the
railway viaduct across the valley of the Neckar, 740 yds. long.
The art collections of Stuttgart are numerous and valuable.
The museum of art comprises a picture gallery, a collection of
casts of Thorvaldsen's works and a cabinet of engravings. The
royal library contains about 400,000 printed volumes, including
one of the largest collections of Bibles in the world, and also
about 20,000 MSS., many of great rarity. To these may be
added the industrial museum, the cabinet of coins, the museum
of natural history, the collection of majolica vases in the new
palace, and the Wurttemberg museum of antiquities. The
city also contains numerous excellent educational establish-
ments, although the state university is not here but at Tubingen,
and its conservatorium of music has long been renowned. The
technical high school, which since 1899 has possessed the right
to confer the degree of doctor of engineering, practically enjoys
academic status and so do the veterinary high school and the
school of art.
Stuttgart is the centre of the publishing trade of south
Germany, and it has busy industries in everything connected
with the production of books. Its other manufactures include
machinery, pianos and other musical instruments, cotton goods,
cigars, furniture, leather, paper, colours and chemicals. Its
trade also in books, hops, horses, and cloth is considerable, and a
large banking and exchange business is done here. The beauty
of its situation and its educational advantages attract numerous
foreign residents, especially English and American. Stuttgart
is the headquarters of the XIII. corps of the German army,
and contains a fairly large garrison for which accommodation
is provided in the extensive barracks in and around the city.
To the north-east of the new palace lies the beautiful palace
park, embellished with statuary and artificial sheets of water,
and extending nearly all the way to Cannstatt, a distance of
STUYVESANT STYLE
over two miles. Cannstatt, which was incorporated with Stutt-
gart in 1903, attracts numerous visitors owing to its beautiful
situation on the Neckar and its saline and chalybeate springs.
In the environs of Stuttgart and Cannstatt lie Rosenstein,
Wilhelma and other residences of the royal family of Wiirt-
temberg.
Stuttgart seems to have originated in a stud (Stuten Garten)
of the early counts of Wiirttemberg, and is first mentioned in a
document of 1229. Its importance, however, is of comparatively
modern growth and in the early history of Wiirttemberg it was
overshadowed by Cannstatt, the central situation of which on
the Neckar seemed to mark it out as the natural capital of the
country. After the destruction of the castle of Wiirttemberg
early in the i4th century, Count Eberhard transferred his
residence to Stuttgart, which about 1500 became the recognized
capital of Wiirttemberg. But even as capital its growth was
slow. At the beginning of the igih century it did not contain
20,000 inhabitants, and its real advance began with the reigns
of Kings Frederick and William I., who exerted themselves in
every way to improve and beautify it. In 1849 Stuttgart was
the place of meeting of the assembly called the Rumpfparlament.
See Pfaff, Geschichte der Stadt Stuttgart (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1845-
1847); Wochner, Stuttgart seit 25 Jahren (Stuttgart, 1871); Seytter,
Unser Stuttgart, Geschichle, Sage und Kultur (Stuttgart, 1903);
J. Hartmann, Chronik der Stadt Stuttgart (Stuttgart, 1886); Earth,
Sluttgarter Handel in alter Zeit (Stuttgart, 1896) ; Widmann, Wander-
ung durch Stuttgart und Umgebung (Stuttgart, 1896); M. Bach,
Sluttgarter Kunst 1794-1860 (Stuttgart, 1900); Weinberg, Fuhrer
durch die Haupt- iind Residenzstadt Stuttgart (Stuttgart, 1906):
M. Bach and C. Letter, Bilder aus Alt-Stuttgart (Stuttgart, 1896);
and the official Chronik der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Stuttgart
(1898, seq.).
STUYVESANT, PETER (1592-1672), Dutch colonial governor,
was born in Scherpenzeel, in southern Friesland, in 1592, the
son of a minister. He studied at Franeker, entered the military
service in the West Indies about 1625, and was director of the
West India Company's colony of Curacao from 1634 to 1644.
In April 1644 he attacked the Portuguese island of Saint Martin
and was wounded; he had to return to Holland, and there one
of his legs was amputated. Thereafter he wore a wooden leg
ornamented with silver bands. In May 1645 he was selected
by the West India Company to supersede William Kieft as
director of New Netherland. He arrived in New Amsterdam
(later New York) on the nth of May 1647, and was received with
great enthusiasm. In response to the demand for self-govern-
ment, in September 1647 he and the council appointed after
the manner then followed in Holland from eighteen repre-
sentatives chosen by the people a board of nine to confer with
him and the council whenever he thought it expedient to ask
their advice; three of the nine, selected in rotation, were per-
mitted to sit with the council during the trial of civil cases; and
six were to retire each year, their successors to be chosen by
the director and council from twelve candidates nominated
by the board. The leading burghers were, however, soon
alienated by his violent and despotic methods, by his defence
of Kieft, and by his devotion to the interests of the company;
the nine men became (as early as 1649, when they sent the famous
Vertoogh, or Remonstrance, to the states-general asking for
burgher government and other reforms) the centre of municipal
discontent; and a bitter quarrel ensued. In 1650 the states-
general suggested a representative government to go into effect
in 1653, but the company opposed it; in 1653, however, there
was established the first municipal government for the city of
New Amsterdam modelled after that of the cities of Holland.
Stuyvesant also aroused opposition through his efforts to increase
the revenues of the company, to improve the system of defence,
and to prevent the sale of liquor and firearms to the Indians,
and through his persecution of Lutherans and Quakers, to which
the company finally put an end. He had a bitter controversy
with the patroon of Rensselaerwyck, who claimed to be inde-
pendent of the West India Company. In 1647 he seized a
Dutch ship illegally trading at New Haven and claimed juris-
diction as far as Cape Cod; the New Haven authorities refused
to deliver to him fugitives from justice in Manhattan; he retali-
ated by offering refuge to runaways from New Haven; but finally
he offered pardon to the Dutch fugitives and revoked his pro-
clamation. In September 1650 he came to an agreement with
the commissioners of the United Colonies of New England at
Hartford upon the boundary between New Netherland and
Connecticut, involving the sacrifice of a large amount of territory,
the new boundary crossing Long Island from the west side of
Oyster Bay to the Atlantic Ocean, and on the mainland north
from a point west of Greenwich Bay, 4 m. from Stamford. On
Long Island, during Stuyvesant's rule, Dutch influence was
gradually undermined by John Underbill. Stuyvesant's deal-
ings with the Swedes were more successful. With a force of seven
hundred men he sailed into the Delaware in 1655, captured Fort
Casimir (Newcastle) which Stuyvesant had built in 1651 and
which the Swedes had taken in 1654 and overthrew the Swedish
authority in that region. He also vigorously suppressed Indian
uprisings in 1655, 1658 and 1663. In March 1664 Charles II.
granted to his brother, the duke of York, the territory between
the Connecticut river and Delaware Bay, and Colonel Richard
Nicolls with a fleet of four ships and about three or four hundred
men was sent out to take possession. Misled by instructions
from Holland that the expedition was directed wholly against
New England, Stuyvesant made no preparation for defence until
just before the fleet arrived. As the burghers refused to support
him, Stuyvesant was compelled to surrender the town and fort
on the 8th of September. He returned to Holland in 1665 and
was made a scapegoat by the West India Company for all its
failings in New Amsterdam; he went back to New York again
after the treaty of Breda in 1667, having secured the right of
free trade between Holland and New York. He spent the
remainder of his life on his farm called the Bouwerie, from which
the present '' Bowery " in New York City takes its name. He
died in February 1672, and was buried in a chapel, on the site
of which in 1799 was erected St Mark's Church.
See Bayard Tuckerman, Peter Stuyvesant (New York, 1893), in
the " Makers of America " Series; and Mrs Schuyler Van Rensselaer,
History of the City of New York in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols.,
New York, 1909).
STY, an enclosed place or pen to keep pigs in. The word
means properly a pen or enclosure for any domestic animal,
as is seen from its occurrence in Scandinavian languages and
in German, e.g. Swed. and Icel. slia, pen, gasstia, goose-pen,
swinstia, pig-sty, Ger. Steige, hen-coop, Schweinsteige, pig-sty.
It is usual to refer the word to stigan, to climb, which would
connect it with stair and stile and with the Gr. arelxfiv. Some
take the original meaning to be an enclosure raised on steps,
others, in view of the Gr. VTOIXOS, row, would take the basic
sense to be a row of pales or stakes forming a pen or enclosure;
cf . the use of oroTxos for poles supporting nets to catch game in
(Xen. Cyn. 6. ib). If the derivation from stigan is correct, the
word is the same as that meaning a small inflamed swelling,
tumour or abscess on the eyelid, the Old English word for which
was stigend, i.e. short for stigend edge, a rising or swelling eye,
hence in M. Eng. styang, taken as equivalent to "sty on eye."
STYLE (from Gr. orOXos, a column; a different word from that
used in literature, see below), in architecture, the term used to
differentiate between its characteristics in various countries and
at different periods (see ARCHITECTURE). The derivation of
the word suggests that it was at first employed to distinguish
the classic styles, in which the column played the chief part,
and it would be more appropriate to speak of the Doric and
Ionic styles than orders (q.v.). In the Assyrian, Sassanian and
perhaps the Byzantine styles, the column was a secondary
feature of small importance, whereas the Greek, Doric and
Ionic styles are based completely on the column and the
weight of the superstructure it was required to carry. In
France the term is sometimes employed of the individuality of
character which is found in an artist's work. For the use
of the term " style " in botany see FLOWER.
STYLE, in literature a term which may be defined as language
regarded from the point of view of the characteristics which it
1056
STYLE
reveals; similarly, by analogy, in other arts, a mode or method
of working characterized by distinctive features. The word
(which is different from that used in architecture, see above)
is derived from the instrument stilus (wrongly spelled stylus],
of metal, wood or ivory, by means of which, in classic times,
letters and words were imprinted upon waxen tablets. By the
transition of thought known as metonymy the word has been
transferred from the object which makes the impression to the
sentences which are impressed by it, and a mechanical observa-
tion has become an intellectual conception. To " turn the
stylus " was to correct what had been written by the sharp
end of the tool, by a judicious application of the blunt end, and
this responds to that discipline and self-criticism upon which
literary excellence depends. The energy of a deliberate writer
would make a firm and full impression when he wielded the
stylus. A scribe of rapid and fugitive habit would press more
irregularly and produce a less consistent text. The varieties
of writing induced by these differences of temperament would
reveal the nature of the writer, yet they would be attributed,
and with justice, to the implement which immediately produced
them. Thus it would be natural for any one who examined
several tablets of wax to say, " The writers of these inscrip-
tions are revealed by their stylus"; in other words, the style
or impression of the implement is the medium by which the
temperament is transferred to the written speech.
If we follow this analogy, the famous phrase of Buffon becomes
at once not merely intelligible but luminous " le style est
1'homme meme." This axiom is constantly misquoted ("le
style c'est 1'homme "), and not infrequently miscomprehended.
It is usual to interpret it as meaning that the style of a writer
is that writer's self, that it reveals the essence of his individuality.
That is true, and the statement of it is useful. But it is probably
not the meaning, or at least not the original meaning, that Buffon
had in mind. It should be recollected that Buffon was a zoolo-
gist, and that the phrase occurs in the course of his great Natural
History. He was considering man in the abstract, and differ-
entiating him from other genera of the animal kingdom. Hence,
no doubt, he remarked that " style was man himself," not
as every reviewer repeats the sentence to-day, " the man."
He meant that style, in the variety and elaboration of it,
distinguished the language of man (Homo sapiens} from the
monotonous roar of the lion or the limited gamut of the bird.
Buffon was engaged with biological, not with aesthetic ideas.
Nevertheless, the usual interpretation given to the phrase
" le style est 1'homme meme " may be accepted as true and
valuable. According to an Arab legend King Solomon inquired
of a djinn, " What is language? " and received the answer,
" a wind that passes." " But how," continued the wisest of
men, " can it be held?" " By one art only," replied the djinn,
" by the art of writing." It may be well to follow a little closely
the processes of this art of writing. A human being in the artless
condition, in whom, that is to say, the conception of personal
expression has not been formed, uses written language to state
primitive and general matters of fact. He writes, " The sea
is rough to-day; the wind is cold." In these statements there
is some observation, but as yet no personal note. We read them
without being able to form the very smallest conjecture as to
the character or condition of the writer. From these bald and
plain words we may rise in degree until we reach Victor Hugo's
celebrated parallel of the ocean with the genius of Shakespeare,
where every phrase is singular and elaborate, and every element
of expression redolent of Victor Hugo, but of no other person
who ever lived. Another example, in its own way still more
striking, is found in comparison of the famous paragraph which
occurs in the Cyrus-Garden (1658) of Sir Thomas Browne. A
primitive person would say, " But it is time to go to bed ";
this statement is drawn out by Browne into the wonderful
page beginning, " But the quincunx of Heaven runs low," and
collects around it as it proceeds on its voluptuous course the
five ports of knowledge, cables of cobwebs, the bed of Cleopatra,
the ghost of a rose, the huntsmen of Persia, and a dozen other
examples of prolific and ornamented style. In its final form
it is so fully characteristic of its author that it may be justly
said that the passage is Browne himself.
It follows from what has just been said that style appeals
exclusively to those who read with attention and for the pleasure
of reading. It is not even perceived by those who read primarily
for information, and these form the great majority of readers.
Even these have a glimmering impression that we must not live
by bread alone; that the human heart, with its imagination,
its curiosity and sensitiveness, cannot be satisfied by bald state-
ments of fact delivered on the printed page as messages are
shouted along the telephone. This instinct it is which renders
the untaught liable to fall into those errors of false style to which
we shall presently call attention. In the untrained there yet
exists a craving for beauty, and the misfortune is that this
craving is too easily met by gaudy rhetoric and vain repetitions.
The effect on the nature of a human being which is produced by
reading or listening to a book, or a passage from a book, which
that being greatly admires, is often so violent as to resemble
a physical shock to the nerves. It causes a spasm of emotion,
which is betrayed by tears or laughter or a heightened pulse.
This effect could not be produced by a statement of the fact
conveyed in language, but is the result of the manner in which
that fact is presented. In other words, it is the style which
appeals so vividly to the physical and moral system of the reader
not the fact, but the ornament of the fact. That this emotion
may be, and often is, caused by bad style, by the mere tinsel
of rhetoric and jangle of alliteration, is not to the point The
important matter is that it is caused by style, whether good or
bad. Those juvenile ardours and audacities of expression which
so often amuse the wise man and exasperate the pedant are
but the effects of style acting on a fervid and unripe imagination.
The deep delight with which a grown man of experience reads
Milton or Dante is but the same phenomenon produced in
different conditions.
It is, however, desirable at the outset of an inquiry into the
elements of style to insist on the dangers of a heresy which found
audacious expression towards the close of the ipth century,
namely, that style is superior to thought and independent of it.
Against this may be set at once another of the splendid apo-
thegms of Buffon, " Les idees seules forment le fond du style."
Before there can be style, therefore, there must be thought,
clearness of knowledge, precise experience, sanity of reasoning
power. It is difficult to allow that there can be style where
there is no thought, the beauty even of some poems, the sequence
of words in which is intentionally devoid of meaning, being
preserved by the characteristics of the metre, the rhymes, the
assonances, all which are, in their degree, intellectual in character.
A confusion between form and matter has often confused this
branch of our theme. Even Flaubert, than whom no man ever
gave closer attention to the question of style, seems to dislocate
them. For him the form was the work itself: " As in living
creatures, the blood, nourishing the body, determines its very
contour and external aspect, just so, to his mind, the matter,
the basis, is a work of art, imposed, necessarily, the unique, the
just expression, the measure, the rhythm, the form in all its
characteristics." This ingenious definition seems to strain
language beyond its natural limits. If the adventures of an
ordinary young man in Paris be the matter of L'Education senti-
mentale it is not easy to admit that they " imposed, necessarily,"
such a " unique " treatment of them as Flaubert so superlatively
gave. They might have been recounted with feebler rhythm
by an inferior novelist, with bad rhythm by a bad novelist and
with no rhythm at all by a police-news reporter. What makes
that book a masterpiece is not the basis of adventure, but the
superstructure of expression. The expression, however, could
not have been built up on no basis at all, and would have fallen
short of Flaubert's aim if it had risen on an inadequate basis.
The perfect union is that between adequate matter and an
adequate form. We will borrow from the history of English
literature an example which may serve to illuminate this point.
Locke has no appreciable style; he has only thoughts. Berkeley
has thoughts which are as valuable as those of Locke, and he
STYLE
1057
has an exquisite style as well. From the artist's point of view,
therefore, we are justified in giving the higher place to Berkeley,
but in doing this we must not deny the importance of Locke.
If we compare him with some pseudo-philosopher, whose style
is highly ornamental but whose thoughts are valueless, we see
that Locke greatJy prevails. Yet we need not pretend that he
rises to an equal height with Berkeley, in whom the basis is
no less solid, and where the superstructure of style adds an
emotional and aesthetic importance to which Locke's plain
speech is a stranger. At the same time, an abstract style, such
as that of Pascal, may often give extreme pleasure, in spite of
its absence of ornament, by its precise and pure definition of
ideas and by the just mental impression it supplies of its writer's
distinguished vivacity of mind. The abstract or concrete style,
moreover, what Rossetti called " fundamental brain-work,"
must always have a leading place.
When full justice has been done to the necessity of thought
as the basis of style, it remains true that what is visible, so to
speak, to the naked eye, what can be analysed and described,
is an artistic arrangement of words. Language is so used as to
awaken impressions of touch, taste, odour and hearing, and
these are roused in a way peculiar to the genius of the individual
who brings them forth. The personal aspect of style is therefore
indispensable, and is not to be ignored even by those who are
most rigid in their objection to mere ornament. Ornament in
itself is no more style than facts, as such, constitute thought.
In an excellent style there is an effect upon our senses of the
mental force of the man who employs it. We discover himself
in what he writes, as it was excellently said of Chateaubriand
that it was into his phrases that he put his heart; again, D'Alem-
bert said of Fontenelle that he had the style of his thought, like
all good authors. In the words of Schopenhauer, style is the
physiognomy of the soul. All these attempts at epigrammatic
definition tend to show the sense that language ought to be,
and even unconsciously is, the mental picture of the man who
writes.
To attain this, however, the writer must be sincere, original
and highly trained. He must be highly trained, because, without
the exercise of clearness of knowledge, precise experience and
the habit of expression, he will not be able to produce his soul
in language. It will, at best, be perceived as through a glass,
darkly. Nor can anyone who desires to write consistently
and well, afford to neglect the laborious discipline which excel-
lence entails. He must not be satisfied with his first sprightly
periods; he must polish them, and then polish them again. He
must never rest until he has attained a consummate adaptation
of his language to his subject, of his words to his emotion. This
is the most difficult aim which the writer can put before him,
and it is a light that flits ever onward as he approaches. Perfec-
tion is impossible, and yet he must never desist from pursuing
perfection. In this connexion the famous tirade of Tamburlaine
in Marlowe's tragedy cannot be meditated upon too carefully,
for it contains the finest definition which has been given in any
language of style as the unapproachable fen-fire of the mind:
" If all the pens that poets ever held
Had fed the feeling of their master's thoughts,
And every sweetness that inspired their hearts,
Their minds, and muses, on admired themes
If all the heavenly quintessence they 'still
From their immortal flowers of poesy,
Wherein, as in a mirror, we perceive
The highest reaches of a human wit
If those had made one poem's period,
And all combined in beauty's worthiness,
Yet should there hover in our restless heads
One thought, one grace, one wonder, at the least.
Which into words no virtue can digest."
Flaubert believed that every thougnt or grace or wonder had
one word or phrase exactly adapted to express it, and could
be " digested " by no other without loss of clearness and beauty.
It was the passion of his life, and the despair of it, to search for
this unique phrase in each individual case. Perhaps in this
research after style he went too far, losing something of that
simplicity and inevitability which is the charm of natural writing.
xxv. 34
It is boasted by the admirers of Flaubert that his style is an
enamel, and those who say this perhaps forget that the beauty
of an enamel resides wholly in its surface and not at all in the
substance below it. This is the danger which lies in wait for
those who consider too exquisitely the value and arrangement
of their words. Their style becomes too glossy, too highly
varnished, and attracts too much attention to itself. The
greatest writing is that which in its magnificent spontaneity
carries the reader with it in its flight; that which detains him to
admire itself can never rise above the second place. Forgetfulness
of self, absence of conceit and affectation, simplicity in the sense
not of thinness or poorness but of genuineness these are
elements essential to the cultivation of a noble style. Here again,
thought must be the basis, not vanity or the desire to astonish.
We do not escape by our ingenuities from the firm principle of
Horace, " scribendi recli sapere est et principium et fons."
In speaking of originality in style it must not be forgotten
that memory exercises a strong and often an insidious effect
upon writing. That which has been greatly admired will have
a tendency to impregnate the mind, and its echo, or, what is
worse, its cadence, will be unconsciously repeated. The cliche
is the greatest danger which lies in wait for the vapid modern
author, who is tempted to adopt, instead of the one fresh form
which suits his special thought, a word or even a chain of words,
which conventionally represents it. Thus " the devouring
element " was once a striking variant for the short word " fire,"
and a dangerous hidden place was once well described as " a
veritable death-trap," but these have long been clicMs which
can only be used by writers who are insincere or languid. Worse
than these are continuous phrases, and even sentences, such
as are met with in the leaders of daily newspapers, which might
be lifted bodily from their places and inserted elsewhere, so
completely have they lost all vitality and reality.
With regard to the training which those who wish to write
well should resign themselves to undergo, there is some
difference of opinion, based upon difference of temperament.
There are those who believe that the gift of style is inborn, and
will reveal itself at the moment of mental maturity without any
external help. There are others who hold that no amount of
labour is excessive, if it be directed to a study and an emulation
of what are called " the best models." No doubt these theories
are both admissible. If a man is not born to write well, no
toil in the imitation of Addison or Ruskin will make his style
a brilliant one; and a born writer will express himself with
exactitude and fire even though he be but an idle student of
the classics. Yet, on the other hand, the very large number of
persons who have a certain aptitude for writing, yet no strong
native gift, will undoubtedly cure themselves of faults and achieve
skill and smoothness by the study of those writers who have
most kinship with themselves. To be of any service, however,
it seems that those writers must have used the same language
as their pupils. Of the imitation of the ancients much has been
written, even to the extent of the publication of manuals. But
what is that imitation of the verse of Homer which leads to-
day to Chapman and to-morrow to Pope? What the effect of
the study of the prose of Theophrastus which results in the prose
of Addison? The good poet or prose-man, however closely
he studies an admirable foreign model, is really anxious to say
something which has never before been said in his own language.
The stimulus which he receives from any foreign predecessor
must be in the direction of analogous or parallel effort, not in
that of imitation.
The importance of words, indeed, is exemplified, if we regard
it closely, in this very question, so constantly mooted, of the
imitation of the ancients, by the loss of beauty fatally felt in a
bad translation. The vocabulary of a great writer has been, as
Pater says, " winnowed "; it is impossible to think of Sophocles
or of Horace as using a word which is not the best possible for
introduction at that particular point. But the translator has
to interpret the ideas of these ancient writers into a vocabulary
which is entirely different from theirs, and unless he has a genius
of almost equal impeccability he will undo the winnowing work.
1058
STYLOBATE STYRIA
He will scatter chaff and refuse over the pure grain which the
classic poet's genius had so completely fanned and freed. The
employment of vague and loose terms where the original author
has been eclectic, and of a flood of verbiage where he has been
frugal, destroys all semblance of style, although the meaning
may be correctly preserved.
The errors principally to be avoided in the cultivation of a
pure style are confusion, obscurity, incorrectness and affectation.
To take the earliest of these first, no fault is so likely to be made
by an impetuous beginner as a mingling together of ideas, images,
propositions which are not on the same plane or have no proper
relation. This is that mass of " stunning sounds and voices
all confused " which Milton deprecates. One of the first lessons
to be learned in the art of good writing is to avoid perplexity
and fatigue in the mind of the reader by retaining clearness and
order in all the segments of a paragraph, as well as propriety
of grammar and metaphor in every phrase. Those who have
overcome this initial difficulty, and have learned to avoid a
jumble of misrelated thoughts and sentences, may nevertheless
sin by falling into obscurity, which, indeed, is sometimes a wilful
error and arises from a desire to cover poverty of thought by
a semblance of profundity. The meaning of " obscurity " is,
of course, in the first instance " darkness," but in speaking of
literature it is used of a darkness which arises from unintelligi-
bility, not from depth of expression, but from cloudiness and
fogginess of idea.
Of the errors of style which are the consequences of bad taste,
it is difficult to speak except in an entirely empirical spirit,
because of the absence of any absolute standard of beauty by
which artistic products can be judged. That kind of writing
which in its own age is extravagantly cultivated and admired
may, in the next age, be as violently repudiated; this does not
preclude the possibility of its recovering critical if not popular
favour. Perhaps the most remarkable instance of this is the
revolution made against the cold and stately Ciceronian prose
of the middle of the i6th century by the so-called Euphuists.
This occurred almost simultaneously in several nations, but has
been traced to its sources in the Spanish of Guevara and in his
English imitators, North and Pettie, whom Lyly in his turn
followed with his celebrated Euphues. Along with these may
not unfairly be mentioned Montaigne in France and Castiglione
in Italy, for, although these men were not proficients in Guevara's
artificial manner, his estilo alto, still, by their easiness and bright-
ness, their use of vivid imagery and their graceful illumination,
they marked the universal revulsion against the Ciceronian stiff-
ness. Each of these new manners of writing fell almost immedi-
ately into desuetude, and the precise and classic mode of writing
in another form came into vogue (Addison, Bossuet, Vico,
Johnson). But what was best in the ornamental writers of the
1 6th century is now once more fully appreciated, if not indeed
admired to excess. A facility in bringing up before the memory
incessant analogous metaphors is the property, not merely of
certain men, but of certain ages; it flourished in the age of
Marino and is welcomed again in that of Meredith. A vivid, con-
crete style, full of colour and images, is not to be condemned
because it is not an abstract style, scholastic and systematic.
It is to be judged on its own merits and by its own laws. It
may be good or bad; it is not bad merely because it is meta-
phorical and ornate. The amazing errors which lie strewn along
the shore of criticism bear evidence to the lack of sympathy which
has not perceived this axiom and has wrecked the credit of
dogmatists. To De Quincey, a convinced Ciceronian, the style
of Keats " belonged essentially to the vilest collections of wax-
work filagree or gilt gingerbread " ; but to read such a judgment
is to encourage a question whether all discussion of style is not
futile. Yet that particular species of affectation which en-
courages untruth, affectation, parade for the mere purpose of
producing an effect, must be wrong, even though Cicero be
guilty of it.
The use of the word " style," in the sense of the present
remarks, is not entirely modern. For example, the early English
critic Puttenham says that " style is a constant and continual
phrase or tenour of speaking and writing " (1589). But it was
in France and in the great age of Louis XIV. that the art of
writing began to be carefully studied and ingeniously described.
Mme de Sevigne, herself mistress of a manner exquisitely dis-
posed to reflect her vivacious, tender and eloquent character,
is particularly fond of using the word " style " in its modern
sense, as the expression of a complete and rich personality.
She says, in a phrase which might stand alone as a text on the
subject, " Ne quittez jamais le naturel, votre tour s'y est forme,
et cela compose un style parfait." Her contemporary, Boileau,
contributed much to the study, and spoke with just pride of
" mon style, ami de la lumiere." The expression to form one's
style, & se faire un style, appears, perhaps for the first time, in
the works of the abbe d'Olivet (1682-1768), who was addicted
to rhetorical speculation. Two great supporters of the pure art
of writing, Swift and Voltaire, contributed much to the study
of style in the i8th century. The former declared that " proper
words in proper places make the true definition of a style " ;
the latter, more particularly, that " le style rend singulieres les
choses les plus communs, fortifie les plus faibles, donne de la
grandeur aux plus simples." Voltaire speaks of " le melange
des styles " as a great fault of the age in which he lived; it has
come to be looked upon as a principal merit of that in which
we live.
The problem of how to obtain a style has frequently been
treated in works of more or less ephemeral character. In France
the treatises of M. Albalat have received a certain amount of
official recognition, and may be mentioned here as containing
a good deal of sound advice mixed with much that is jejune and
pedagogic. If M. Albalat distributes a poison, the antidote is
supplied by the wit of M. Remy de Gourmont; the one should
not be imbibed without the other.
See Walter Pater, An Essay on Style (London, 1889); Walter
Raleigh, Style (London, 1897); Antoine Albalat, L'Art d'ecrire
enseigne en vingt lemons (Paris, 1898), and De la Formation du style
par I' assimilation des auteurs (Paris, 1901); Remy de Gourmont,
Le Probleme du style (Paris, 1902). Also Goyer-Linguet, Le Genie
de la langue fran^aise (Paris, 1846), and " Loyson-Bridet " (i.e.
Marcel Schwob), Moeurs des diurnales (Paris, 1902), a satire on
the principal errors to which modern writers in all languages are
liable. (E. G.)
STYLOBATE (Gr. ffrOXos, a column, and /Sims, a base), the
architectural term given to the upper step of the Greek temple
on which the columns rest, and generally applied to the three
steps.
STYRIA (German, Steiermark or Steyermark), a duchy and
crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Hungary and Croatia, S. by
Carniola, W. by Carinthia and Salzburg, and N. by Upper and
Lower Austria. It has an area of 8670 sq. m. Almost all the
district is mountainous, and is distinguished by the beauty of its
scenery and by its mineral wealth. Geographically it is divided
into northern or Upper Styria, and southern or Lower Styria,
and is traversed by various ramifications of the eastern Alps.
To the north of the Enns are ramifications of the Salzkam-
mergut and Enns Alps, which include the Dachstein (9830 ft.),
and the Grimming (7713 ft.), and the groups of the Todtes
Gebirge (6890 ft.) and of the Pyrgas with the Grosser Pyrgas
(7360 ft.). The last two groups are separated by the Pyhrn Pass
(3100 ft.), traversed by a road constructed in the Roman period.
Then comes the Buchstein group with the Grosser Buchstein
(7 294 ft.). This group forms the northern flank of the celebrated
Gesause, a defile 12 m. long, between Admont and Hieflau,
through which the Enns forces its course, forming a series of
rapids. The southern flank is formed by the massif of the
Reichensteiner Gebirge, which culminates in the Hochthor
(7780 ft.) and belongs to the north Styrian Alps, also called
Eisenerzer Alps. This group extends east of the Enns, and con-
tains the Erzberg (5000 ft.) celebrated for its iron ores. Other
groups of the north Styrian Alps are the Hochschwab, with the
highest peak the Hochschwab (7482 ft.) and the Hochveitsch with
the Hohe Veitsch (6501 ft.). Then come the Lower Austrian
Alps with the groups of the Voralpe (5800 ft.), of the Schneealpe
(6245 ft.), and the Raxalpe, with the Heukuppe (6950 ft.). All
STYROLENE
1059
these mountains belong to the northern zone of the eastern
Alps. South of the Enns, Styria is traversed by groups of the cen-
tral zone of the eastern Alps: the Niedere Tauern, the primitive
Alps of Carinthia and Styria and the Styrian Nieder Alps. The
principal divisions of the Niedere Tauern are: the Radstadter
Tauern with the Hochgolling (9390 ft.), the Wolzer Alps with the
Predigtstuhl (8349 ft.), the Rottenmanner Tauern with the
Grosser Bosenstein (8032 ft.), and the Seckauer Alps or Zinken
group, which culminates in the Zinkenkogel (7865 ft.). The
principal ramifications of the primitive Alps of Carinthia and
Styria are: the Stang Alps with the Konigsstuhl (7646 ft.) and
Eisenhut (8007 ft.), the Judenburger or Seethaler Alps with the
Zirbitzkogel (7862 ft.), and the Koralpen which culminates in the
Grosser Speikkogel (7023 ft.). The Styrian Nieder Alps cover
the country north and east of the Mur, and contain the Fisch-
bacher Alps with the Hochlantsch (5646 ft.), the Wechsel group
(5700 ft.), and the small Semmering group with the Stuhleck or
Spitaler Alpe (5847 ft.), and the Sonnenwendstein (4994 ft.).
In this group is the famous Semmering Pass, which leads
from Lower Austria into Styria and is crossed by the Semmering
railway. This railway, which was completed in 1854, is the oldest
of the great continental mountain railways, and is remarkable
for its numerous and long tunnels, its viaducts and galleries.
It has a length of 35 m., beginning at Gloggnitz in Lower Austria
and ending at Murzzuschlag in Styria, and passes through some
exceedingly beautiful scenery. The whole region is now a
favourite summer resort. South of the Drave Styria is traversed
by the following ramifications of the southern zone of the eastern
Alps: the Bacher Gebirge with the Cerni Vrch or Schwarzer Berg
(5078 ft.), and the Sannthaler or Steiner Alps with the Oistriza
(7709 ft.) and the highest peak of the group, the Grintovc or
Grintouz (8429 ft.), which is situated on the threefold boundary
of Carinthia, Carniola and Styria. Here is also the mountain
country of Cilli, with the highest peak, the Wachberg (3364 ft.).
The mountains decrease in height from west to east, and the
south-east of Styria may be described as hilly rather than
mountainous. This part is occupied by the eastern outh'ers of
the Alps, known as the Styrian hill country, and by the Windisch
Biiheln, which is one of the most renowned vine districts in the
whole of Austria. Styria belongs to the watershed of the Danube
and its principal rivers are: the Enns with its affluent the Salza,
the Raab with the Feistritz, the Mur with the Miirz, the Drau
or Drave, and the Sau or Save, which receives the Sann and
the Sotla. Styria has numerous small Alpine lakes of which the
most important are the Grundel-see, the Toplitz-see, and the
Leopoldsteiner-see. There is a mean annual difference of about
9 F. between the north-west and the south-east. The best
known mineral springs are the alkaline springs of Rohitsch
and Gleichenberg, the brine springs of Aussee, and the thermal
springs of Tiiffer, Neuhaus and Tobelbad.
In spite of the irregular nature of the surface, but little of the
soil can be called unproductive. Of its total area 47-49% is
covered with fine forests. About 19% is arable land, 12%
pastures, 5-60% meadows, while 1-06% is occupied by gardens
and 1-4% by vineyards which produce wine of a good quality.
Cattle-rearing has taken a great development and also dairy-
farming in the Alpine fashion. A good race of horses is bred in
the valley of the Enns, while poultry-rearing and bee-keeping
are carried on in the south. Fish and game are also plentiful.
The great wealth of Styria, however, lies underground. Its
extensive iron mines, mostly at Erzberg, which were worked
during the Roman period, yield nearly half of the total produc-
tion of iron in Austria. The principal foundries are at Eisenerz,
Vordernberg, Trofaiach, Hieflau, Zeltweg and Neuberg. Next
in importance comes the mining of brown coal, which has also
been carried on for a long time. The richest coalfields are
situated near Leoben, near Voitsberg and Koflach, near Eibis-
wald and Wies, and round Trifail, Tiiffer and Hrastnig. Its
other mineral resources include graphite, copper, zinc, lead, salt,
alum, potter's dry marble and good mill and building stones.
Iron-foundries, machine-shops and manufactures of various
kinds of iron and steel goods are very numerous. A special
branch is the making of scythes and sickles which are exported
in large quantities. Among its other industrial products are
glass, paper, cement, cotton goods, chemicals and gunpowder.
Linen-weaving is a household industry.
The population of Styria in 1900 was 1,356,058, which is
equivalent to 156 inhabitants per square mile. This proportion
is considerably above the rate in the other mountainous regions
of Austria. Nearly all (98-74%), profess the Roman Catholic
faith and are under the bishops of Seckau and of Lavant. The
Protestants number only a little over 13,000, while there are
about 2500 Jews. Two-thirds of the inhabitants are Germans;
the remainder, chiefly found in the valleys of the Drave and Save,
are Slavs (Slovenes) . At the head of the educational institutions
of the province stands the university of Graz. The local Diet,
of which the two Roman Catholic bishops and the rector of the
university of Graz are members ex qfficio, is composed of 63
members, while Styria sends 27 deputies to the Reichsrat at
Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province is divided
into 21 districts and 4 towns with autonomous municipalities,
namely Graz (pop. 138,370), the capital, Cilli (6743), Marburg
(24,501) and Pettau (4227). Other important places are Leoben
(10,204), Bruck on the Mur (7527), Mariazell (1263), Murzzu-
schlag (4856), Eisenerz (6494), Vordernberg (3111), Judenburg
(4901), Trifail (10,851), Eggenberg (9570), Donawitz (13,093),
Koflach (3345) and Voitsberg (3321).
In the Roman period Styria, which even thus early was famed
for its iron and steel, was inhabited by the Celtic Taurisci, and
divided geographically between Noricum and Pannonia. Subse-
quently it was successively occupied or traversed by Visigoths,
Huns, Ostrogoths, Langobardi, Franks and Avars. Towards
the end of the 6th century the last-named began to give way to
the Slavs, who ultimately made themselves masters of the entire
district. Styria was included in the conquests of Charlemagne,
and was henceforth comprised in the German marks erected
against the Avar and the Slav. At first the identity of Styria
is lost in the great duchy of Carinthia, corresponding more or less
closely to the Upper Carinthian mark. This duchy, however,
afterwards fell to pieces, and a distinct mark of Styria was recog-
nized, taking its name from the margrave Ottacar of Steier (1056).
A century or so later it was created a duchy. In 1192 the duchy
of Styria came by inheritance to the house of Austria, and from
that time it shared the fortunes of Upper and Lower Austria,
passing like them to the Habsburgs in 1282. The Protestant
Reformation met an early and general welcome in Styria, but
the dukes took the most stringent measures to stamp it out,
offering their subjects recantation or expatriation as the only
alternatives. At least 30,000 Protestants preferred exile, and
it was not till the edict of tolerance of 1781 granted by Joseph II.
that religious liberty was recognized.
See Die Osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort und Bild,
vol. vii. (24 vols., Wien, 1885-1902); A. von Muchar, Geschichte
des Herzogtums Steiermark (8 vols., Graz, 1844-1867). It treats the
history till 1558. F. M. Mayer, Geschichte der Steiermark mil beson-
derer Rucksicht auf das Kulturleben (Graz, 1898) ; J. von Zahn,
Styriaca (Graz, 1894-1896).
STYROLENE, C 6 H 6 -CH:CH 2 , also known as phenylethylene
or vinylbenzene, an aromatic hydrocarbon found to the extent of
i to 4% in storax; it also occurs with crude xylene in coal tar
fractions. It may be obtained from storax by distillation with
water, and synthetically by heating cinnamic acid with lime, by
the action of aluminium chloride on a mixture of vinyl bromide
and benzene, by removing the elements of hydrobromic acid from
bromethylbenzene by means of alcoholic potash, or, best, by
treating /3-bromhydrocinnamic acid with soda, when it yields
styrolene, carbon dioxide and hydrobromic acid. It also results
on condensing acetylene, and on reducing phenylacetylene by
zinc dust and acetic acid. It is a clear, strongly refractive liquid,
which has a pleasant odour; it boils at 144 and has a specific
gravity of 0-925 at o. Styrolene is oxidized by nitric or chromic
acids to benzoic acid; reduction gives ethylbenzene; hydrochloric
and hydrobromic acids yield a-haloid ethylbenzenes, e.g.
C 6 H 5 -CHC1-CH 3 ; whilst chlorine and bromine give o/3-dihaloid
ethylbenzenes, e.g. C 6 H 5 -CHC1-CH 2 C1.
io6o
STYX SUARDI
Styrolene gives origin to three series of derivatives, two of which
contain the substituents in the side chain, e.g. CjHs-CChCHj or
a-compounds, and CeHe-CHrCHCl, or u-compounds, whilst in the
third the benzene nucleus is substituted. The a-halogen compounds
are obtained by heating styrolene chloride (or bromide) with
lime or alcoholic potash; they are liquids which have a penetrat-
ing odour, and yield acetophenone when heated with water to 180 .
The u-chlor compound results when /3-phenyl-a-chlorlactic acid
(from hypochlorous acid and cinnamic acid) is heated with water;
it has a hyacinthine odour and yields phenylacetaldehyde when
heated with water. Nitrostyrolene results when styrolene is treated
with fuming nitric acid.
Related to styrolene is phenylacetylene, CeHs-CjCH, which results;
when a-bromstyrolene or acetophenone chloride are heated to i3O o
with alcoholic potash, or phenylpropiolic acid with water to 120 .
It is a liquid, boiling at 139 and having a pleasant odour. It re-
sembles acetylene in yielding metallic derivatives with ammoniacal
copper and silver solutions. On solution in sulphuric acid, followed
by dilution with water, it yields acetophenone.
Stilbene or toluylene, C 6 H 6 -CH : CH-CiHi, is symmetrical diphenyl-
ethylene. It may be obtained by distilling benzyl sulphide |or
disulphide, by the action of sodium on benzaldehyde or benzal
chloride, by distilling fumaric and cinnamic phenyl esters:
+C 6 H 6 -CH :CH-C 6 H 6 (Ber., i8,p. 1945), and fromchlor asymmetrical
diphenylethane derivatives which undergo a rearrangement when
heated (Ber., 7. p. 1409). Stilbene (from Gr. <rrtX/3eu> > to glisten)
crystallizes in large, colourless, glistening monoclinic plates, which
melt at 124 and boil at 306. On passing the vapour through red-hot
tubes it yields anthracene and toluene. Reduction with hydriodic
acid gives dibenzyl, and heating with sulphur gives tetraphenyl-
thiophene or thionessal. Many derivatives are known, some of which
exist in two structural forms, exhibiting geometrical isomerism
after the mode of fumaric and maleic acids. Those substituted in
the benzene nucleus are obtained by condensing two molecules of a
substituted benzyl and benzal chlorides. The diortho and dipara
dinitro compounds result from the action of alcoholic potash on
ortho- and para-nitrobenzyl chlorides. The latter on reduction
yields a diamino compound, the disulphonic acid of which on diazo-
tization and coupling with a phenol, &c., gives valuable substantive
cotton dyes after the type yielded by Benzidine. Stilbene bromide
when treated with alcoholic potash gives diphenyl acetylene or
tolane, CeHs-CiC-CeHj.
STYX, in Greek mythology, a river which flowed seven times
round the world of the dead. In the Iliad it is the only river
of the underworld; in the Odyssey it is coupled with Cocytus
and Pyriphlegethon, which flow into the chief river Acheron.
Hesiod says that Styx was a daughter of Ocean, and that, when
Zeus summoned the gods to Olympus to help him to fight the
Titans, Styx was the first to come and her children with her;
hence as a reward Zeus ordained that the most solemn oath of
the gods should be by her and that her children (Emulation,
Victory, Power and Force) should always live with him. Again,
Hesiod tells us that if any god, after pouring a libation of the
water of Styx, forswore himself, he had to lie in a trance for a
year without speaking or breathing, and that for nine years after-
wards he was excluded from the society of the gods. In historical
times the Styx was identified with a lofty waterfall near Nonacris
in Arcadia. Pausanias (viii. 17, 6) describes the cliff over which
the water falls as the highest he had ever seen, and indeed the
fall is the highest in Greece. The ancients regarded the water as
poisonous, and thought that it possessed the power of breaking
or dissolving vessels of every material, with the exception of the
hoof of a horse or a mule. Considering the undoubted importance
attached by the ancients to an oath by the water of the Styx
(cf. Herodotus vi. 74), and the supposed fatal result of breaking
it, it is probable that drinking the water originally formed a
necessary part of the oath, and that we have to do with the
tradition of an ancient poison ordeal, common amongst barbarous
peoples (for the geography and similar ceremonies see Frazer's
Pausanias, iv., pp. 250-255). The people in the neighbourhood,
who call it Mavro Nero (the Black Water), still think that it is
unwholesome, and that no vessel will hold it.
SUAKIN, or SAWAKIN, a seaport of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
on the west side of the Red Sea in 19 7' N., 37 20' E. Pop.
(1905), 10,500. Suakin stands on a coralline islet connected with
the suburb of El-Kef on the mainland by a causeway and a
viaduct. Access is gained to the harbour through a winding and
dangerous passage over 2 m. long, terminating in a deep oval-
shaped basin several acres in extent, and completely sheltered
from all winds. For centuries the chief port of the eastern
Sudan, Suakin has been since 1906 to some extent superseded by
Port Sudan (q.v.), a harbour 36 m. to the north. The custom-
house and government offices present an imposing frontage to the
sea, and the principal houses are of white coral stone three storeys
high. The mosques are not remarkable. The mainland part
of the town is surrounded by a high coral wall, built in 1884 to
resist dervish attacks. About a mile beyond is a line of outer
forts. The climate is very hot, damp and unhealthy, and in the
summer months the government headquarters are removed to
Erkowit 35 m. west of Suakin, on a plateau 3000 ft. above the sea.
Suakin is less conveniently situated than some neighbouring
points (e.g. Port Sudan) for the trade with the Nile Valley. The
island is without water and the harbour indifferent ; yet the settle-
ment is ancient. Here, as at Massawa, traders were presumably
attracted by the advantages of an island site which protected
them from the raids of the nomad Arabs of the mainland. The
country inland belonged in the middle ages to the Beja (q.v.),
but the trading places seem to have been always in the hands of
foreigners since Ptolemais Theron was established by Ptolemy
Philadelphus for intercourse with the elephant hunters. After
the rise of Mahommedanism many Arabs settled on the coast
and mixed with the heathen Beja, whose rule of kinship and
succession in the female line helped to give the children of
mixed marriages a leading position (Makrizi, Khitat, i. 194 seq.,
translated in Burckhardt's Travels in Nubia, app. iii.). Thus
in 1330 Ibn Batuta found a son of the amir of Mecca reigning in
Suakin over the Beja, who were his mother's kin. Makrizi
says that the chief inhabitants were nominal Moslems and
were called Hadarib. The amir of the Hadarib was still sove-
reign of the mainland at the time of J. L. Burckhardt's visit
(1814), though the island had an aga appointed by the Turkish
pasha of Jidda. The place was seized in 1 5 1 7 by the Turks under
Selim the Great, but Turkish control did not extend inland.
Mehemet Ali after the conquest of the Sudan leased Suakin from
Turkey. This lease lapsed with the pasha's death, but in 1865
Ismail Pasha reacquired the port for Egypt. Till the suppression
of the slave trade Suakin was an important slave poit and it
has always been the place of embarcation for Sudan pilgrims to
Mecca. Legitimate commerce, rapidly growing before the revolt
of the mahdi (i88i),was greatly crippled during the continuance
of the dervish power, though the town itself never fell into their
hands. After the fall of the khalifa trade revived, the imports
in 1899 being valued at 180,000, as against 170,000 in 1880.
In 1906 the figures were: imports, 324,000; exports, 113,000.
Pearl fishing is an important industry and cotton is cultivated in
the neighbourhood.
Suakin was the headquarters of the Egyptian and British
troops operating in the eastern Sudan against the dervishes under
Osman Digna (see EGYPT, Military Operations, 1884, seq.).
When these operations were begun a project for linking Suakin
to Berber by railway, first proposed during Ismail's viceroyalty,
was revived and a few miles of rails were laid in 1884. Then
the Sudan was abandoned and the railway remained in abeyance
until 1905-1906, when the line was at length built. The railway
has a terminus at Suakin, but Port Sudan was chosen as the
principal entrepot of the commerce carried by the railway. Not-
withstanding the rivalry of its newly created neighbour, the trade
of Suakin continued to develop. The port is connected by
submarine cables with Suez and Aden and with Jidda, which
lies 200 m. north-east on the opposite coast of the Red Sea
(see SUDAN, Anglo-Egyptian).
SUARDI, BARTOLOMMEO (c. 145 5~c. 1536), Italian painter
and architect, frequently called Bramantino, was born in Milan,
the son of Alberto Suardi. He executed a number of paintings
containing portraits of celebrated personages for the Vatican.
In 1508 he was engaged in Rome. Bramante d'Urbino taught
Bramantino architecture, and the pupil assisted the master in
the execution of the interior of the church of San Satiro, Milan.
In 1525 Bramantino was appointed architect to the court by
Duke Francis (II.) Sforza, and his aid as aii engineer in the
defence of Milan brought him a multitude of rewards.
SUAREZ SUBIACO
1061
Bartolommeo Suardi has been much confused with a certain
Bramantino da Milano, of whom Vasari makes frequent and
specific mention in his life of Piero della Francesca, his obser-
vations on Benvenuto Garofalo and Girolamo da Carpi, and his
life of Jacopo Sansovino. The Bramantino of Vasari, if he
existed at all, worked for Pope Nicolas V. between 1450 and
I45S-
SUAREZ, FRANCISCO (1548-1617), Spanish theologian and
philosopher, was born at Granada on the 5th of January 1548,
and educated at Salamanca. Influenced by the Jesuit John
Ramirez he entered the Society of Jesus in 1564, and after
teaching philosophy at Segovia, taught theology at Valladolid,
at Alcala, at Salamanca, and at Rome successively. After
taking his doctorate at Evora, he was named by Philip II.
principal professor of theology at Coimbra. Suarez may be con-
sidered almost the last eminent representative of scholasticism.
In philosophical doctrine he adhered to a moderate Thomism.
On the question of universals he endeavoured to steer a
middle course between the pantheistically inclined realism of
Duns Scotus and the extreme nominalism of William of Occam.
The only veritable and real unity in the world of existences is
the individual; to assert that the universal exists separately
ex parle rei would be to reduce individuals to mere accidents
of one indivisible form. Suarez maintains that, though the
humanity of Socrates does not differ from that of Plato, yet
they do not constitute realiter one and the same humanity; there
are as many " formal unities " (in this case, humanities) as there
are individuals, and these individuals do not constitute a factual,
but only an essential or ideal unity (" ita ut plura individua,
quae dicuntur esse ejusdem naturae, non sint unum quid vera
entitate quae sit in rebus, sed solum fundamentaliter vel per
intellectum "). The formal unity, however, is not an arbitrary
creation of the mind, but exists " in natura rei ante omnem
operationem intellectus." In theology, Suarez attached himself
to the doctrine of Luis Molina, the celebrated Jesuit professor of
Evora. Molina tried to reconcile the doctrine of predestination
with the freedom of the human will by saying that the pre-
destination is consequent upon God's foreknowledge of the free
determination of man's will, which is therefore in no way affected
by the fact of such predestination. Suarez endeavoured to
reconcile this view with the more orthodox doctrines of the
efficacy of grace and special election, maintaining that, though all
share in an absolutely sufficient grace, there is granted to the
elect a grace which is so adapted to their peculiar dispositions
and circumstances that they infallibly, though at the same time
quite freely, yield themselves to its influence. This mediatizing
system was known by the name of " congruism." Suarez is
probably more important, however, as a philosophical jurist than
as a theologian or metaphysician. In his extensive work
Tractatus de legibus ac deo legislatore (reprinted, London, 1679)
he is to some extent the precursor of Grotius and Samuel Pufen-
dorf. Though his method is throughout scholastic, he covers
the same ground, and Grotius speaks of him in terms of high
respect. The fundamental position of the work is that all
legislative as well as all paternal power is derived from God,
and that the authority of every law resolves itself into His.
Suarez refutes the patriarchal theory of government and the
divine right of kings founded upon it doctrines popular at that
time in England and to some extent on the Continent. Power
by its very nature belongs to no one man but to a multitude
of men; and the reason is obvious, since all men are born equal.
It has been pointed out that this accords well with the Jesuit
policy of depreciating the royal while exalting the papal preroga-
tive. But Suarez is much more moderate on this point than a
writer like Mariana, approximating to the modern view of the
rights of ruler and ruled. In 1613, at the instigation of Pope
Paul V., Suarez wrote a treatise dedicated to the Christian princes
of Europe, entitled Defensio catholicae fidei contra anglicanae
sectae errores. This was directed against the oath of allegiance
which James I. exacted from his subjects. James caused it to
be burned by the common hangman, and forbade its perusal
under the severest penalties, complaining bitterly at the same
time to Philip III. that he should harbour in his dominions a
declared enemy of the throne and majesty of kings. Suarez lived
a very humble and simple life. He died after a few days' illness
on the 25th of September 1617 at Lisbon.
The collected works of Suarez have been printed at Mainz and
Lyons (1630), at Venice (1740-1751), at Besancpn (1856-1862) and
in the collection of the Abb6 Migne. His life has been written by
Deschamps (Vita Fr. Suaresii, Perpignan, 1671). The chief modern
authorities are K. Werner's Franz Suarez u. die Scholastik der
letzten Jahrhunderte (Regensburg, 1861), and Stockl's Geschichte
der Philosophic des Mittelalters, iii. 643 seq.
SUBIACO (anc. Sublaqueum), a town of Italy, in the province
of Rome, from which it is 47 m. E. by rail, picturesquely situated
on the right bank of the Anio, 1339 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901), 7076 (town), 8003 (commune). It has ironworks and
paper-mills. Sublaqueum was so called from its position under
the three artificial lakes constructed in the gorge of the Anio
in connexion with the aqueduct of the Anio Novus, which had
its intake at the lower end of the lowest of them (the Simbruina
stagna of Tacitus). On the banks of this lake Nero constructed
a villa, in the remains of which was found the beautiful head-
less statue of a youth kneeling, now in the Museo delle Terme
at Rome. There is no mention of the villa after Nero's time.
The lakes gradually ceased to exist owing to the action of the
Anio, the last dam being washed away in 1305. In 494 St
Benedict retired to this spot, then already deserted, and took up
his abode as a hermit in a cave (Sacro Speco) above the lakes of
the Anio. In ,505, probably, he founded the first of his twelve
monasteries, completing their number between 510 and 529,
when he went to Cassino. The chronicles state that the principal
monastery was devastated by the Lombards in 601, and rebuilt
in 705 ; but there is little foundation for these statements. The
first authentic document that we have is the mention in the
Liber pontificalis of the gift of vestments by Leo IV. (847-855)
to the monastery of S. Silvester, S. Benedict and S. Scholastica,
and to the church of SS. Cosmas and Damian. The former is
probably that at the Sacro Speco. The monastery was confirmed
in its possessions by Pope Gregory I. 1 and his successors, and
had by the loth century very considerable landed properties
with feudal jurisdiction enumerated in several documents, the
first dating from 926, and an inscription of 1052 (cf. Regesto
sublacense, Rome, 1891). The church dedicated to S. Scholastica,
S. Benedict's sister, was erected in 981, according to an inscrip-
tion belonging to a later date, but carved upon a slab decorated
with reliefs of the end of the 8th, or the beginning of the gib,
century.
In 1053 the church was restored and a campanile built, which
still exists; and in the middle of the I3th century the church was
rebuilt in the Gothic style. Other buildings grew up round it;
the cloister on the right is a fine Romanesque arcaded court with
twisted columns and mosaics, the south side of which was con-
structed by Lorenzo, the first of the family of the Cosmati, early
in the I3th century, while the other three sides are due to his
son Jacopo and to Jacopo's sons Luca and Jacopo, who worked
here in the time of the abbot Lando (1227-1243). The irregular
atrium in front of the church is probably contemporary with its
reconstruction in the Gothic style about 1274, while the outer
court dates from the end of the i6th century. The church, with
the exception of the campanile, was modernized in 1771-1777.
The right of the monks to elect their own abbot, who had by that
time obtained a position of great importance, was cancelled in
1388, and in 1455 the abbot was suspended, and the administra-
tion handed over to the Spanish cardinal, Giovanni Torquemada.
For the whole of the i6th century it was in the hands of the
Colonna family, who were commendatories of it. During the
1 7th century, the Barberini held it, but in 1753 Benedict XIV.
separated the spiritual and temporal dominions, placing the
latter under officials directly dependent on the papacy. The
commendatories were as a rule cardinals. As regards monastic
discipline, the abbey had since 1514 been subject to the rule of
Monte Cassino, and it was only in 1872 that it regained from
1 The bull of 596 attributed to him is, however, now recognized
as apocryphal.
1062
SUBINFEUDATION SUBLIMINAL SELF
Pius IX. its independence and became an autonomous congre-
gation. Arnold Pannartz and Conrad Schweinheim, two German
ecclesiastics, set up here the first printing press in Italy, issuing
an edition of Donatus (1465), followed by one of Cicero (1465)
and of Lactantius (1465). Copies of the Lactantius, of the Augus-
tine of 1467, which was probably printed not here but in Rome,
whither the printers migrated in that year, and of other rare
incunabula are still preserved here. Still more interesting
is the monastery of the Sacro Speco, higher up the hill, dating,
it would seem, from the gth century, though little earlier
than the i3th remains. The Grotta dei Pastori contains some
frescoes of the 9th century, while the Sacro Speco, or cave of
St Benedict, contains frescoes of the isth, and so does the lower
church, the latter having been decorated in the first twenty years
of the I3th century, and in part repainted in the latter half of
the same century by an otherwise unknown master Conxolus.
The upper church contains scenes from the life of Christ by an
unknown Sienese master of the end of the i4th century, to whom
is also attributable a remarkable fresco of the triumph of death,
on the stairs from the tower church to the Cappella dei Pastori,
and some 15th-century work, and in the chapel of S. Gregory a
remarkable portrait of St Francis of Assisi (who was perhaps
here in 1218), probably painted before 1228, as it lacks the halo
and the stigmata. The whole group of buildings is constructed
against the rocky sides of the gorge, part of it on massive sub-
structions. The town contains various buildings constructed by
Pius VI., who as cardinal was commendatory abbot of Subiaco.
It is crowned by a medieval castle constructed originally by
Gregory VII.
See P. Egidi, G. Giovannoni, F. Hermanin, V. Federici, / Monas-
teri di Subiaco (Rome, 1904); A. Colasanti, L'Aniene (Bergamo,
1906). (T. As.)
SUBINFEUDATION, in English law, the practice by which
tenants, holding land under the king or other superior lord,
carved out in their turn by subletting or alienating a part of
their lands new and distinct tenures. The tenants were termed
" mesne-lords," with regard to those holding from them, the
immediate tenant being tenant in capite. The lowest tenant of
all was the freeholder, or, as he was sometimes termed tenant
paravail. The Crown, who in theory owned all lands, was lord
paramount. 1 The great lords looked with dissatisfaction on the
increase of such subtenures. Accordingly in 1290 a statute was
passed, Quia emptores, which allowed the tenant to alienate
whenever he pleased, but the alienee or person to whom he
granted was to hold the land not of the alienor but of the same
immediate lord, and by the same services as the alienor held it
before. (See further, MANOR.)
SUBJECTIVISM, a philosophical term, applied in general
to all theories which lay stress on the purely mental sides of
experience opposed to objectivism. In the narrowest sense
subjectivism goes to the logical extreme of denying that mind
can know objects at all (cf. SOLIPSISM). The doctrine originates
in the fact that the most elementary psychic phenomena pre-
suppose in addition to the data of the senses (which as such are
momentary) a combining action of the mind. (See IDEALISM.)
SUBLEYRAS, PIERRE (1690-1749), French painter, was born
at Uze"s (Card) in 1699. He left France for Italy in 1728, having
carried off the grand prix. He there painted for the Canons of
Asti " Christ's Visit to the House of Simon the Pharisee "
(Louvre, engraved by Subleyras himself), a large work, which
made his reputation and procured his admission into the Academy
of St Luke. Cardinal Valenti Gonzaga next obtained for him
the order for " Saint Basil and the Emperor Valens " (small
study in Louvre), which was executed in mosaic for St Peter's.
Benedict XIV. and all the princes of Rome sat to him, and the
pope himself commanded two great paintings the " Marriage
of St Catherine " and the " Ecstasy of St Camilla "which he
placed in his private apartments. Subleyras shows greater
individuality in his curious genre pictures, which he produced
in considerable number (Louvre). In his illustrations of La
* Paramount and paravail are derived from the Latin ad montem
and ad vallem, signifying the highest and lowest, respectively.
Fontaine and Boccaccio his true relation to the modern era
comes out; and his drawings from nature are often admirable
(see one of a man draped in a heavy cloak in the British Museum).
Exhausted by overwork, Subleyras tried a change to Naples,
but returned to Rome at the end of a few months to die
(May 28, 1749). His wife, the celebrated miniature painter,
Maria Felice Tibaldi, was sister to the wife of Tremolliere.
SUBLIME (Lat. sublimis, exalted), in aesthetics, a term applied
to the quality of transcendant greatness, whether physical, moral,
intellectual or artistic. It is specially used for a greatness with
which nothing else can be compared and which is beyond all
possibility of calculation or measurement. Psychologically
the effect of the perception of the sublime is a feeling of awe or
helplessness. The first study of the value of the subh'me is the
treatise ascribed to Longinus (q.v.), On the Sublime (strictly
Ilepi ityous). Burke and Kant both investigated the subject
(cf. Burke's Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful, 1756) and both
distinguished the sublime from the beautiful. Later writers
tend to include the sublime in the beautiful (see AESTHETICS).
SUBLIMINAL SELF. The phrase " subliminal self," which
is one that has figured largely of recent years in discussions of
the problems of " Psychical Research," owes its wide currency
to the writings of F. W. H. Myers, especially to his posthumous
work Human Personality and its survival of Bodily Death. It
is used in a wider, looser sense and a narrower, stricter sense,
which two senses are often confused in a way very detri-
mental to clear thinking. In the stricter usage the phrase
implies the peculiar conception of human personality expounded
at great length and with a wealth of learning and eloquence by
Myers; it stands for an hypothesis which seemed to its author to
bring almost all the strange facts he and his associates observed,
as well as many alleged facts whose reality still remains in dis-
pute, under one scheme of explanation and to bring them also
into intelligible relation with the body of generally accepted
scientific principles. But the phrase " Subliminal Self " is now
often used by those who do not fully accept Myers's hypothesis,
as a convenient heading to which to refer all the facts of many
different kinds that seem to imply subconscious or unconscious
mental operations. This article is only concerned to expound
the meaning of the phrase as it was employed by Myers, and
it is much to be wished that it should only be used in this
stricter sense.
In the speculations of Schopenhauer- and of Eduard von
Hartmann, the " Unconscious " played a great part as a meta-
physical principle explanatory of the phenomena of the life and
mind of both men and animals. But with these exceptions, the
philosophers and psychologists of the igth century showed them-
selves in the main reluctant to admit the propriety of any con-
ception of unconscious or subconscious mental states or opera-
tions. The predominant tendency was to regard' as the issue of
" automatic " nervous action or of " unconscious cerebration "
whatever bodily movements seemed to take place independently
of the consciousness and volition of the subject, even if those
movements seemed to be of an intelligent and purposeful
character. This attitude towards the subconscious is still
maintained by some of the more strictly orthodox scientists;
but it is now very widely accepted that we must recognize in
some sense the reality of subconsciousness or of subliminal
psychical process. The conception of a limen (threshold) of
consciousness, separating subconscious or subliminal psychical
process from supraliminal or conscious psychical process,
figured prominently in the works of G. T. Fechner, the father
of psycho-physics, and by him was made widely familiar.
Fechner sought to prove that a sensory stimulus too feeble to
affect consciousness produces nevertheless a psychical effect
which remains below the threshold of consciousness, and he tried
to show ground for believing in the existence of a vast realm of
such subliminal psychical processes. But his arguments, founded
though they were on epoch-making experiments, have failed
to carry conviction ; and it is in the main on other grounds
than those adduced by Fechner that the reality of modes of
mental operation which may properly be called subconscious or
SUBLIMINAL SELF
1063
subliminal is now generally admitted. During the last quarter
of the i gth and the opening years of the 2oth century, there has
been accumulated a mass of observations which suffices, in the
opinion of many of those best qualified to judge, to establish the
reality of processes which express themselves in purposeful
actions and which bear all the marks from which we are accus-
tomed to infer conscious cognition and volition, but of which
nevertheless the subject or normal personality has no knowledge
or awareness other than such as may be shared by any second
person observing his actions.
Among the commonest and most striking of such manifesta-
tions is the " automatic writing " which a considerable proportion
of normal persons are capable of producing. A person who has
this power may sit absorbed in reading or in conversation, while
his hand produces written words or sentences, of which he knows
nothing until he afterwards reads them. The matter so written
varies in different cases from illegibly scrawled fragments of
words and sentences to long, connected, sometimes eloquent,
frequently more or less dramatic, disquisitions. In some
cases the " automatically " writing hand can be induced to
make intelligible replies to questions whispered or otherwise put
to the subject in such a way as not to draw his attention from
some other object or topic with which it seems to be fully
occupied. In some cases the matter so written states facts
previously known to the subject but which he is unable to
recollect by any voluntary effort. And in rare cases the
matter written seems to imply knowledge or capacities which
the subject was not believed to possess either by himself
or by his friends. Other actions, including connected speech,
may be produced in a similar fashion, and in the last case
the subject hears and understands the words uttered from his
own mouth in the same way only as those from the mouth
of another person. " Table-tilting," " planchette-writing," and
the various similar modes of spelling out by the aid of a
code intelligible replies to questions, which have long been
current in spiritistic circles and which, by those who practise
them, are often regarded as the operations of disembodied
intelligences, seem to belong to the same class of process.
In extreme cases the manifestations of such subconscious or
(better) co-conscious operations are so frequent, exhibit so
much continuity and express so clearly a train of thought, pur-
pose and memory, that they compel us to infer an organized
personality of which they are the expression; such are the cases
of double or multiple consciousness or personality. Very similar
manifestations of a " co-consciousness " may be produced in a
considerable proportion of apparently normal persons by means
of post-hypnotic suggestion; as when suggestions are made during
hypnosis, which afterwards the subject carries out without being
aware of the actions, or of the signals in response to which he acts,
and without any awareness or remembrance of the nature of the
suggestions made to him. The more sober-minded of the investi-
gators of these phenomena have sought to display all such cases
as instances of division of the normal personality, and as expli-
cable by the principle of cerebral dissociation (see HYPNOTISM) ;
the more adventurous, concentrating their attention on the
more extreme instances, regard all such manifestations as in-
stances of the possession and control (partial or complete) of the
organism of one person by the spirit or soul of another, generally
a deceased person. Myers's hypothesis of the subliminal self
was a brilliant attempt to follow a middle way in the explanation
of these strange cases, to reconcile the two kinds of explanation
with one another, and at the same time to bring into line with
these other alleged facts of perplexing character, especially
veridical hallucinations (q.v.), various types of communication
at a distance (see TELEPATHY) , and all the more striking instances
of the operation of suggestion and of hypnosis, including the
exaltation of the powers of the senses, of the memory and of
control over the organic processes.
Myers conceived the soul of man as capable of existing
independently of the body in some super-terrestrial or extra-
terrene realm. He regarded our normal mental life as only
a very partial expression of the capacities of the soul, so much
only as can manifest itself through the human brain. He
regarded the brain as still at a comparatively early stage of its
evolution as an instrument through which the soul operates in
the material world. So much of the life of the soul as fails to
find expression in our conscious and organic life through its
interactions with this very inadequate material mechanism re-
mains beneath the threshold of consciousness and is said to
constitute the subliminal self. The subliminal self as thus con-
ceived would be better described as the subliminal part of the
self, a part which surpasses the supraliminal or normal conscious
self to an indefinitely great degree as regards its range of psychical
faculties. It was further conceived as being in touch with a
realm of psychical forces from which it is able to draw supplies
of energy which it infuses into the organism, normally in limited
quantities, but, in exceptionally favourable circumstances, in
great floods, which for the time being raise the mental operations
and the powers of the mind over the body to an abnormally
high level.
It is a leading feature of this protean conception, that many of
the abnormal mental manifestations that have commonly been
regarded as symptoms of mental or nervous disease or degenera-
tion are by its aid brought into line with mental processes that
are by common consent of an unusually high type, the intuitions
of genius, the outbursts of inspired poesy, the emotional fervour
or the ecstasy that carries the martyr triumphantly through
the severest trials, the enthusiasm that enables the human
organism to carry through incredible labours. Myers's hypothesis
thus boldly inverts the dominant view, which sees in all depar-
tures from the normal symptoms of weakness and degeneracy
and which seeks to bring genius and ecstasy down to the level of
madness and hysteria; the hypothesis of the subliminal self seeks
to level up, rather than to level down, and to display many of
these departures from normal mental life as being of the same
nature as the operations of genius, as being, in common with
these, uprushes of the subliminal self, which temporarily acquires
a more complete control of the organism and therefore achieves
at such times a more complete expression of its powers. And
these rare displays of subliminal capacities are held to foreshadow
the further course of mental evolution, to afford us a glimpse of
the higher plane on which the mind of man may habitually and
normally live, if further evolution of the nervous system shall
render it a less inadequate medium for the exercise of the
spiritual faculties and for the influx of the psychical energies
which at present, owing to its imperfections, are for the most
part latent or confined to the subliminal self.
This bold and far-reaching hypothesis has not up to the
present time been accepted by any considerable number of pro-
fessional psychologists, though its author's great literary power
has secured for him a respectful hearing. The comparative
indifference shown to it by the scientific and philosophical world
must be ascribed to considerations of two kinds. In the first
place, it is rightly felt that a very large proportion of the alleged
facts which it is designed to explain are not yet supported by
evidence of such a nature as warrants an unreserved acceptance
of them. Secondly, even if further investigations of the type
of those carried on by the Society for Psychical Research should
prove Myers's belief in the reality of all or most of these facts to
have been well-founded, there will remain difficulties and weak-
nesses intrinsic to the hypothesis, which at present seem very
serious. In addition to all the great difficulties that must attach
to any conception of human personality as a spiritual entity
capable of existing independently of the body, Myers's conception
raises many difficulties peculiar to itself, the chief of which may
be briefly indicated. First, the conception of the relation of
the subliminal to the normal or supraliminal self is in Myers's
presentation extremely vacillating and uncertain, and it is
probably radically incapable of definition and consistency.
Secondly, two alleged supernormal phenomena, to the establish-
ment of which " psychical research " has been devoted most
energetically and (in the view of many of the workers) with the
greatest success, and which from every point of view are the
most important and interesting, are supernormal communications
1064
SUBLIMINAL SELF
between the living (telepathy) and communication between the
dead and the living. Now, if either or both of these modes of
communication should eventually prove to be facts of nature,
neither will need the hypothesis of the subliminal self for its
explanation. Such evidence as we have of the latter kind of
communication is almost wholly of the form of messages written
or spoken by entranced persons (see TRANCE) which claim to be
sent by the souls of the dead to friends still living, and these
messages (if they are what they claim to be) imply, and were held
by Myers himself to imply, possession or control of the brain
of the living medium by the soul of the dead who transmits the
message. Both phenomena need, then, for their explanation
only the two great assumptions first, that the soul is an entity
capable of disembodied existence; second, that in its psycho-
physical interactions any soul is not strictly confined to inter-
action with one particular brain.
The third great difficulty is of an emotional order. All the
laborious research whose results Myers has sought to harmonize
by means of his conception of the " subliminal self " has been
initiated and sustained by the desire of proving the continued
existence of the human personality after the death of the body.
But, if Myers's doctrine is true, that which survives the death of
the body is not the normal self-conscious personality of a man
such as is known and valued by his friends, but a personality of
which this normal personality is but a stunted distorted frag-
ment; and it would therefore seem that according to this doctrine
death must involve so great a transformation that such slight
continuity as obtains must be insufficient to yield the emotional
satisfaction demanded. The hypothesis would thus seem to
destroy in great measure the value of the belief which it seeks to
justify and establish.
See F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily
Death (ist ed., London, 1903; 2nd ed., abridged and edited by L. H.
Myers, London, 1907) ; Morton Prince, The Dissociation of a Person-
ality (London, 1906); J. Jastrow, The Subconscious (London, 1906).
See also many papers by various hands in Proceedings of the Society
for Psychical Research, especially in part xlvi., vol. xviii., and the
literature referred to under TRANCE. (W. McD.)
END OF TWENTY-FIFTH VOLUME
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